ill ■i ii'i gass\ ^\04^ Book \^ A \ Visual Education TEACHERS' GUIDE TO KEYSTONE "600 SET" Keystone View Company (INCORPORATED) EDUCATIONAL DEPT. MEADVILLE, PA. Copyright 1906 Copyright 1908 Copyright 1911 Copyright 1917 Copyright 1920 Copyright 1922 KEYSTONE VIEW COMPANY ALL STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES COPYRIGHTED ALL RIGHTS SPECIFICALLY RESERVED By ""ran of or Dept of Oommerot JUN 3-1982 STATEMENT The copyright notice on the opposite page tells an interesting story. It records the date of the introduction into school work of a set of stereographs and lantern slides specifically selected to meet school needs and with cross reference classifi- cations to make quickly available the teaching content of the set. The other copyright notices indicate the dates when the first set and plan, originated by Keystone, were revised and improved. When the schools first turned to the stereograph and slide as the most effective forms of visual instruction materials, it was soon determined that the standard sets of Travel Tours then in common use for public and private libraries did not meet class-room requirements. There was need of a carefully selected set of scenes closely fitted to the regular course of study. The Keystone View Company noted this need and, with the help of progressive school people, pioneered this field by bringing forth the first school set supplied with the cross reference classification plan — the Keystone " 600 Set " with the Teachers' Guide. The success of the first set equalled the best expectations. The schools found in this set of stereographs and slides just the material needed to make their class-room instruction most effective. It was widely used and with the later revisions has found a place in thousands of schools. From this extended use under actual teaching conditions there have come the sug- gestions and improvements that have made the present devel- opment and efficiency possible. Out of the accumulated experience based on the use of the Keystone " 600 Set " in thousands of class rooms, there has come the present " 600 Set." It is a thorough revision both as to photographic content and editorial work. Thousands of dollars were expended to get the subjects our educational advisors deemed essential to the set. The whole world was iv STATEMENT laid tribute that the children in the schools might have at hand the best material obtainable. Every continent yielded its con- tribution. Three Arctic and Antarctic expeditions were levied upon to supply scenes to complete this set. While the actual teaching value of the stereograph or slide has been the determining factor in its selection, there is noted an equitable distribution of the material over the entire geo- graphic range. Every state in the United States is repre- sented. Every important country of the world is cared for in a satisfactory manner. The distribution has been made in harmony with the plan of the leading textbooks on Geography. Whatever text is used will be effectually visualized. In the former Teachers' Guide the scenes were listed and edited from twenty-one special view points. Class-room use has demonstrated that a set of illustrations of such rich teach- ing content as the Keystone " 600 Set " has many more points of specific application to the course of study than our previous editorial work had indicated. The new edition contains 50 cross reference classifications on 50 school subjects and edited by 62 leading educators. This Editorial Board — listed elsewhere — has made a distinct con- tribution to visual education. The revised " 600 Set " is quite the latest and greatest achievement in modern visual instruc- tion material. The Publishers. CONTENTS CLASSIFICATIONS PAGE Statement :ii General Introduction Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. vii Concreteness in Education William C. Bagley, Ph.D. ix 1 How to Study Stereographs Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. xi The Stereoscope and Stereograph. . .Oliver Wendell Holmes xiv How to Use the Stereographs and the Lantern Slides xv Editorial Board xxix GEOGRAPHY Introduction Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. i i Geographical Classification Douglas C. Ridgley, A.B. 3 2 People of All Lands Mark Jefferson, A.M. 31 3 Production and Manufacturing Charles Dryer, M.A. 45 4 Transportation Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D. 73 5 Markets and Marketing J. Paul Goode, Ph.D. 87 6 Natural Forms and Forces. .. .Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. 97 7 Zones and Their Effects Robert De C. Ward, A.M. 109 8 Geography by Nations E. M. Lehnerts, M.A. 121 9 Earth Neighbors James F. Chamberlain, S.B. 140 HISTORY AND CIVICS Introduction Albert Bushnell Hart, LLD. 148 10 Foreign Beginnings American History. .H. Webster, Ph.D. 150 n Foundation of the American Nation. . . .A. B. Hart, LL.D. 158 12 Development of Our Nation H. M. Stephens, Litt.D. 164 13 America of To-day Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S. 177 14 Government Arthur Norman Holcombe, Ph.D. 188 15 Community Civics Arthur William Dunn, A.M. 200 16 Cities of the World John Nolen, Sc.D. 215 ENGLISH Introduction Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D. 238 17 Literary Subjects and Settings F. T. Baker, Ph.D. 240 18 English Composition James Fleming Hosic, Ph.D. 250 AGRICULTURE Introduction Charles F. Curtiss, D.S. 267 19 Soils Alfred Vivian, Ph.G. 269 20 Farm Crops W. M. Jardine, LL.D. 276 21 Garden, Orchard and Woodlot R. L. Watts, M.S. 284 22 Animal Husbandry W. A. Cochel, B.S. 291 23 Farm Management — Machinery M. L. Fisher, M.S. Assisted by Wm. Aitkenhead, M.E. 297 24 Farm Home and Farm Life A. E. Winship, LL.D. 311 CONTENTS NATURE STUDY PAGE Introduction Ernest Thompson Seton 318 25 Plants and Plant Associations John M. Coulter, Ph.D. Assisted by George D. Fuller, Ph.D. 320 26 Animals Ernest Thompson Seton 331 27 Outdoor Life Daniel Carter Beard ("Dan Beard") 341 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 28 Vocational Guidance Meyer Bloomfield, B.A. 347 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS Introduction Martha Van Rensselaer, A.B. 356 29 Industries Supplying the Home L. D. Harvey, Ph.D. 358 30 Foods and Cookery Edna N. White, B.S. Assisted by Lelia McGuire, M.S. 362 31 Textiles and Clothing Anna M. Cooley, B.S. Assisted by Edith P. Chace, A.M. 374 32 Household Administration Grace Schermerhorn, B.S. 383 INDUSTRIAL ARTS Introduction Charles A. Prosser, Ph.D. 386 33 Industrial Design Including Architecture . . . . R. P. Ensign 388 34 Wood — Sources and Uses George M. Brace, M.A. 420 35 Metals — Sources and Uses Harry S. Bitting 425 36 Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile. .Charles M. Spofford, S.B. 432 37 Local Industries Clifford B. Connelley, Sc.D. 439 HEALTH 38 Hygiene— Health Habits M. V. O'Shea, B.L. 448 FINE ARTS Introduction C. Valentine Kirby 453 39 Drawing Harry W. Jacobs 455 40 House Design and Costume Design Mary J. Quinn 462 41 Photography C. E. K. Mees, D.Sc. 487 FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS Introduction William C. Bagley, Ph.D. 501 42 Children of the World G. A. Mirick, A.M. 503 43 Plants and Animals Anna Botsford Comstock 517 44 Reading Charles Madison Curry, A.M. 527 45 Things We Eat and Wear William M. Gregory 551 46 Home Geography R. H. Whitbeck, A.B. 562 TRAVELOGUES 47 Lecture Suggestions Russell H. Conwell, LL.D. 574 Index 58i EDITORIAL BOARD FOR THE KEYSTONE "600 SET" Charles W. Eliot. Ph.D. \V. C. Basley, Ph.D. P. M. McMurry, Ph.D. C. T. McFarlane. Pd.D. D. C. Ridgley. A.B. C. R. Dryer, M.A. E. R. Johnson. Ph.D. J. P. Goode, Ph.D. W. W. Atwood, Ph.D. R. DeC. Ward, A.M. E. M. Lehnerts, A.M. J. F. Chamberlain. Ed B. A. B Hart. PhD H. Webster. Ph.D. H. M. Stephens. Litt.D. J. W. Redway, F.R.G.S. A. N Eolcombe, Ph.M. A. W. Dunn, A.M. J. Nolen. Sc.D. F. T. Baker. Ph.D. J. P. Hosic. Ph.M. C. P. Curtiss. D.S. Alfred Vivian. Ph.G. W. M. Jardine. LL..D. R. W. Watts. M.S. W. A. Cochel. B.S. M. L. Fisher. M.S. W. Aitkenhead. M.E A. E. Winship. LL.D. E. T. Seton J. M. Coulter. Ph.D. G. D. Fuller. Ph.D D. C. Beard M. Bloomfield. B.A. M. VanRensselaer, A.B. L. D. Harvey. Ph.D. E. N. White, B.S. Lelia McGuire, B.S. A. M. Cooley, B.S. E. P. Chace, B.S. G. Shermerhorn, B.S. C. A. Prosser, Ph.D. R. P. Ensign G. M. Brace. MA. H. S. Bitting C. M. Spofford, S.B. C. B. Connelley. Sc.D. m. V. O'Shea. B.L, C. V. Kirby H. W. Jacobs Mary J. Quinn C. E. K. Mees. D.Sc. G. A. Miriek, A.M. A. B. Comstock C. M. Curry, A.M. W. M. Gregory R. H. Whitbeck, A.B Russell H. Conwell. LL.D. GENERAL INTRODUCTION By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. President-Emeritus of Harvard University TRAINING THE POWERS OF OBSERVATION, MEMORY, AND CORRECT DESCRIPTION ALL TOGETHER I have been urging for some years past that American edu- cation is seriously defective in that it provides an inadequate amount of training of the senses, particularly of the eye. It relies far too much on book-work. There ought to be incor- porated into elementary and secondary school work a much larger proportion of accurate eye-work and hand-work com- bined with simultaneous training of the memory and of the capacity for describing correctly, either orally or in writing, things observed and done. The Keystone View Company of Meadville, Pa., manufac- tures admirable material for just this training of children and adolescents. This Company provides schools with stereo- graphic views, stereoscopes, and lantern slides to illustrate phys- ical, political, and commercial geography, United States his- tory, nature study, arts and crafts, domestic science, national industries, and architecture. The stereographs and stereo- scope are used in class-work at regular study and recitation pe- riods, the lantern slides for reviews and lectures. On the back of each of the stereographs is a printed description of the scene or object represented, which may be read by the pupil after he has himself studied the stereograph in the stereoscope. Each pupil is expected to remember what he has seen long enough to describe it orally in the class, or to write a short com- position on it after an interval. The teacher may or may not help the pupils to discern and take in all there is to be seen in the stereograph. Once a week or once a fortnight the topic which has been thus dealt with in the recitation room may be reviewed by the teacher before the class by means of the corre- sponding lantern slides ; and another composition may then be viii INTRODUCTION required of each pupil. The stereograph may be used advan- tageously either with or without a textbook. If a textbook be used, the pupils should themselves come to see much more in the stereographs than they find in the book. It is important that each pupil should be trained to describe with all the full- ness and accuracy possible for him what he has seen in the stereographs ; for in this way the pupil receives a discipline which is directly applicable all through life in daily work and play, in increasing his knowledge, and developing his capacities. The process differs entirely from looking passively at moving pictures for an hour or two. That looking yields little more than a transitory entertainment ; for it cultivates neither the memory nor the power of correct description. Impressions suc- f ceed each other so rapidly that few are fixed in the memory, and the spectator is not called on for any mental effort of his own. Sometimes, of course, strong emotion may fix an impres- sion which would otherwise be fleeting. At the review with lantern slides, every pupil should be given opportunity to lecture for a few minutes on a slide familiar to him. Reciting on the stereographs and lecturing on the slides will do more for the pupil's enunciation and clearness of state- ment than much reading aloud from a book. English composi- tions written from memory about the stereographs or the slides will always be on subjects which have interested the pupils and about which they really know something. The material manufactured by the Keystone View Company, and sold by them, provides the means of teaching children and adolescents to see accurately, to make mental note of what they have seen, and then to put into language whatever has impressed them. All active-minded and ambitious teachers ought to be interested in this method of teaching; for it is applicable to a great variety of subjects and in all the grades. It is the combination of visual instruction with training of the memory, and practice in accurate reproduction in language of what has been pictured to the eye which so strongly com- mends to progressive teachers and superintendents the method which the Keystone View Company's apparatus makes avail- able in all schools. CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: "The Educative Process"; "Class Ru >rn Management"; "Craftsmanship in Teaching"; "Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: "Hu- man Behavior." Editor: School and Home; Joint Editor: Journal of Educational Psychology. It is an old saying that experience is the best teacher. One may, indeed, go beyond this and say that experience is the only real teacher. If we wish to learn about regions that we have never visited, we study maps and pictures and verbal descriptions of these regions, but our study is quite futile un- less we are able to translate these maps and pictures and words into our own experiences. We cannot understand an event in history unless we are able to imagine ourselves in the same situation that conditioned the event, and in order to do this we must have had experiences which we can recall and recon- struct into a likeness of the situation. We cannot compre- hend an industrial process unless we can call upon our ex- perience to interpret the various phases of the process and their relations to one another and to the process as a whole. Theoretically, the most effective kind of education is that in which the learner is brought face to face with actual concrete situations. Theoretically, geography is best, taught by travel, inspection, and surveys ; civics by actual participation in social enterprises ; industry by actually turning raw materials into useful commodities. But there are many difficulties in the way of realizing these theoretical advantages of direct learn- ing through actual experiences. Not only is the expense in time and money often prohibitive, but the very complexity of the actual experiences themselves may easily confuse the learner ; he is quite likely to be distracted by the multitude of details, and the important lessons are then certain to be over- shadowed and obscured. Effective teaching depends very largely upon the ability to choose just the right details that will force home the impor- tant lessons; to provide an abundance of concreteness at just the right point. The teacher who is really an artist in the x CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION work of teaching must know both hozv and where to make the important details stand out sharp and clear — how and where to place the emphasis. Maps, diagrams, models, and pictures may be made most serviceable means to this end. But they are most useful only when they accurately portray typical situations in a way that will insure a maximum of reality. The illustrations in the best modern textbooks are usually well selected from the point of view of their accuracy, and as a rule they represent typical situations. The approach to reality, however, is much more closely realized by pictures projected through the stereopticon, by moving pictures, and by stereo- graphs. The advantage of the stereograph in insuring the illusion of reality lies in the fact that the objects pictured are seen in three dimensions. In this respect it is superior to the ordinary projected picture in which the approach to reality is secured by magnifying the size of the objects represented, and for elementary education it is even superior to the moving picture in which the illusion of reality is due to movement. The stereograph also has the advantage of being more readily adaptable to classroom conditions than any form of projected picture. The first need, of course, is for accurate and typical pic- tures taken by skillful stereoscopists under the guidance of experts in the various fields. This need is happily met by the Keystone " 600 Set." This set includes a rich variety of views, representing a wide range of regions and activities. The views have been carefully selected and are systematically arranged. The second need is for supplementary and interpretive ma- terials, and these are supplied by the explanatory text on the reverse of each slide and by the Teachers' Manual. With these aids, the teacher should find no difficulty in training the child to put himself into the pictured situation — actually to feel that he is there in close contact with the objects or taking an active part in the processes that are portrayed. This real- istic translation of one's self into the picture is the first condi- tion to be fulfilled in picture-study, and the relative ease with which this may be accomplished by creating a three-dimen- sional or stereoscopic illusion constitutes the unique advan- tage of the stereograph as an educational agency. HOW TO STUDY STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: " How to Study and Teaching How to Study "; " Elementary School Standards." Joint Author: McMurry and Parkins Geographies; " Method of the Recitation." Pictures furnish material for thought as does the printed page, and they even rival print in that task. How extensively, and often exclusively, do advertisers rely upon pictures for attracting customers ! Cartoonists compete with the most gifted writers in newspapers and magazines ; and the great picture galleries of the world quite possibly exert as much influence as the great libraries. One danger oi the printed page is that it may lead to no imaging. A lithe girl who was studying a description in geography of a river valley was asked what she saw, as she reproduced the facts. She replied that she saw the page con- taining the words. There is always this danger in the use of books. But pictures — particularly those providing for the third dimension, as do the stereographs — tend to bring one into the presence of the thing itself. A certain pupil who was look- ing at a stereograph of a deep gorge unconsciously stepped back a few feet to avoid falling in — so actual seemed the danger. Such pictures guarantee reality. Since excellence in method of presenting ideas is largely measured by the vivid- ness with which situations are thus visualized, these pictures possess a decided superiority over textbooks. This very superiority leads to a serious fault. Since pic- tures can do so much for us, they are often relied upon to do all ; to convey their facts directly on sight, without any effort on our part in the way of studying or thinking. With this idea in mind many persons give only a few seconds at most to the observation of any picture ; and in consequence they xii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES regard pictures more as a means of entertainment than suo- jects for study. Teachers, also, assuming that pictures will reveal their content at a glance, frequently put no questions on them, while printed matter is studied with care. This attitude gives pictures a low rank as a means of instruction; for edu- cational aids that call forth no effort necessarily bring little benefit. Even in the actual presence of mountain scenery, or the Yellowstone Canyon, or a large factory, one's mind has to work actively, if one sees much. One must analyze ex- tensively, must raise questions and seek their answers with care, in other words, must really study, if one gets much profit. Books and pictures, being farther removed from teality, require still more effort. The best thoughts in books are not in print ; they are suggested by the print, provided the reader's mind is awake. So the principal thoughts derived from a picture do not come immediately into mind ; they have to be sought. Intelligent visitors to picture galleries often stand a half hour before a painting, not merely staring at it, but studying it ; and they repeat the process day after day. Most, if not all, of these six hundred stereographs and slides are gems. Many of the ideas that they reveal lie below the surface, and in their study some of the spirit of the real student is necessary. 1. In the first place, these pictures should not be examined in a hurry. Each pupil should follow his own rate, without thought of others, for thoughtful observation is otherwise impossible. 2. One should not look for " just anything " in the picture. That is sure to result in very scattered and superficial observa- tion. In order to avoid careless observation the theme of the picture, as suggested in the title should be noted. Also, the statements on the back of the card should be read. Mean- while the picture should be examined at first, not so much to discover its detailed facts, as the principal questions that it answers. These questions should bear on the main theme for their answers. The conception of such questions is not easy work ; it is real study, calling for some initiative ; but their nature largely determines the value of the study; they are the source of motive for observation, and the basis for or- STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xiii ganization of details ; and as much time may well be spent in finding the questions as in finding their answers. 3. The questions having been fixed upon, the more things one can discover that bear upon them the better ; for this num- ber determines the thoroughness of the knowledge, and the force with which impressions are driven home. On the other hand, facts unrelated to such questions should be disregarded, because any mention of them would be only an interruption. Proper study of these pictures will be distinguished almost as much by what is omitted, as by what is included. 4. One should study a picture — or read a book — not merely to know what is there, but rather to communicate the results to others, either orally or in writing, or otherwise to use them. By this provision a sense of what is valuable is kept alive and exercised, and one is much more discriminat- ing, in consequence. Unless one is willing to be a passive collector of facts, their utilization must be held in mind from the beginning. Note : — It is not generally known that Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes perfected the stereoscope and designed the present form of this popular and effective instrument. It has seemed, there- fore, appropriate that we should give on the following page a quotation from the writings of Dr. Holmes. The statements appeared in a series of magazine articles on the stereoscope and stereograph published in the Atlantic Monthly. They are copy- righted and reproduced through the courtesy of Houghton. Mifflin & Co. The Publishers. THE STEREOSCOPE AND THE STEREOGRAPH " A stereoscope is an instrument which makes surfaces look solid. All pictures in which perspective and light and shade are properly managed, have more or less of the effect of solidity; but by this instrument that effect is so heightened as to produce an appearance of reality which cheats the sense with its seeming truth. ... " We see something with the second eye which we did not see with the first; in other words, the two eyes see different pictures of the same thing, for the obvious reason that they look from points two or three inches apart. By means of these two different views of an object, the mind, as it were, feels round it and gets an idea of its solidity. . . . " The stereograph, as we have called the double picture designed for the stereoscope, is to be the card of introduction to make all mankind acquaintances. " The first effect of looking at a good photograph through the stereoscope is a surprise such as no painting ever produced. The mind feels its way into the very depths of the picture. " The scraggy branches of a tree in the foreground run out at us as if they would scratch our eyes out. The elbow of a figure stands forth so as to make us almost uncomfortable. " Then there is such a frightful amount of detail, that we have the same sense of infinite complexity which Nature gives us. " A painter shows us masses ; the stereoscopic figures spare us nothing — all must be there, every stick, straw, scratch, as faithfully as the dome of St. Peter's, or the summit of Mont Blanc, or the ever-moving stillness of Niagara. The sun is no respecter of persons or of things. " This is one infinite charm of the photographic delineation. Theoretically, a perfect photograph is absolutely inexhaustible. In a picture you can find nothing which the artist has not seen before you; but in a perfect photograph there will be as many beauties lurking, unobserved, as there are flowers that blush un- seen in forests and meadows. " It is a mistake to suppose one knows a stereoscopic picture when he has studied it a hundred times by the aid of the best of our common instruments. " Do we know all there is in a landscape by looking out at it from our parlor-windows?" — Oliver Wendell Holmes. XIV HOW TO USE THE STEREOGRAPHS AND THE LANTERN SLIDES Credit for this chapter on methods cannot properly be given to any single educator. It represents the best judgment of several thousand superintendents, principals and 'teachers who for many years have used the Keystone " 600 Set " of stereo- graphs and lantern slides in daily class-room instruction. To these and other educational leaders is due the credit for the development of these effective methods. XV In the planning of school work, provision must be made for four steps. Regardless of the pedagogical methods used, or the names by which they are called, these four steps must re- main because they are fundamental to the art of learning. They are: (1) the approach; (2) the preparation; (3) the ex- pression; (4) the review or organization. NATURAL WAY OF LEARNING This is the natural procedure. A boy desires a boat. That is the approach. He looks at every one he can find, he asks questions, he looks at pictures. That is preparation. Finally, he makes his boat. That is expression. Then he reviews it all, comparing, judging or even planning a better boat. Grown larger, the manufacturer is' led by ambition or by some urgent desire, to enter into a business. He studies ores, chemical and mechanical processes, transportation, markets and a thousand other things. He expresses himself in his speech, in his pro- ducts, in his purchases, in his sales,. He continually reviews all he has learned in order to unify or better organize his work in realizing his ideals. THE CORRECT PROCESS OF TEACHING In school, learning is accomplished in exactly the same way. XV xvi STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES Therefore, a correct process of teaching must provide for these four steps. First the learner must he surrounded with such en- vironment that interest, desire will be awakened. Then he must be enabled to acquire knowledge which will result in ex- pression, and to arrive at true judgments which will help him to realize his aim. Finally, he must go back over it all, correct- ing and clarifying his ideas, getting wider views, putting to- gether the things he has learned separately, building his bits of knowledge into the satisfying whole. Such teaching enables the learner to develop every faculty. EXPERIENCE Till'. FIRST REQUISITE The first recphsite is experience. We learn through experi- ence. Individual experience gives the raw material out of which the child creates his world. The best help that can be given to a learner is real experience of the thing to be learned. Since that is possible in but a limited number of cases, we send him to books. Books cannot supply experience. They can only supplement it and give to it a meaning that the individual per- haps would not get without them. If compelled to rely wholly upon reading or descriptive matter, the child's ideas are too often indefinite, inaccurate or wholly wrong. The amount of time spent in correcting such concepts is serious. STEREOGRAPHS GIVE EXPERIENCE Because the stereographs give a third dimension or depth to a scene, they give such a semblance of reality as to produce in the child's mind the same reaction that would follow the actual sight of the thing photographed. To all intents and purposes he is looking at the real scene. If stereographs could do no more than correct and make definite the ideas gained from read- ing, their position would be secure ; but they serve a far greater purpose. The stereographs seen through the stereoscope give real visual experience and, therefore, constantly add new ideas of a definitely related character. Nothing is isolated. They show views of objects related in time and space and their permanency permits the child to see the same things over and over in the same relations. They also show the details. The stereoscope shuts out the immediate surroundings and provides STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xvii a complete new environment. For these reasons the stereograph is a powerful stimulant to thought. MATERIAL FOR EVERY GRADE Properly selected stereographs may be used with much satis- faction and success in every grade including the kindergarten. They furnish the basic ideas which will help the children to visualize the stories told to them. They are especially help- ful in giving the first geographical ideas when the child needs concrete concepts of mountains, rivers, lakes, hills and so on. They may assist greatly in interpreting the conditions empha- sized in home geography, they awaken interest in food and clothing, people and industries of home and foreign lands. The intense realism of the stereographs arouses so deep an in- terest on the part of the pupil that expression is stimulated. Language development has been a marked result of the intro- duction of stereographs in class room instruction. Every teacher of history appreciates the value of visualization. Stereographs and slides of the topics studied prove a wonder- ful help in giving a vivid setting to the events described. DRAMATIZATION Stereographs lend themselves exceedingly well to furnishing ideas for dramatization which is in itself but another form of visualizaton. It is one of the first methods of expression in the lives of children, very much of the earliest play being in the form of dramatization. As self consciousness grows, the power is too often lost. Dramatizing helps us to see visions. It makes a whole set of experiences into a unity which has great value to the learning mind. No child can dramatize what he, himself, has not visualized. Let the children study the stereo- graphs for ideas of costume and actions which they may use. DESCRIPTIONS The children should know, of course, that the description on the back of the picture is extremely valuable in interpreting the scene. It shows what the picture meant to some one else who has seen it. These descriptions are written clearly. The vocab- ulary is simple and the sentences are short. As an additional xviii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES help, the difficult proper names are marked diacritically. They are prepared with great care so that pupils as low as the fourth grade can handle them readily. , COORDINATION Not only is it of first importance that all subject matter be carefully visualized but it is extremely vital that the illus- trations be supplied at the right time. The correct time to em- ploy the stereograph is at the point when the pupils are grop- ing for concrete conceptions of the topic studied. Then the in- terest is keenest and results most pronounced. The Teacher's Guide will aid in selecting the scenes that will fit in with the daily program. It will be found that this "600 Set" is so rich in illustrative material that it can be readily fitted to any text or school program. There have been prepared pamphlets paralleling the Brigham and McFarlane, McMurray and Park- ins, and the Frye-Atwood geographies. These are supplied with your stereograph or slide set. METHODS OF USE The fundamental idea in presenting the stereograph to a class was expressed by a superintendent thus — "I like this material. All you have to do with the pupils is just expose them to it. It takes." The problem with each teacher is how she may must effectively "expose" her pupils to these stereographs, producing the maximum benefit with the minimum effort. Various ways of successfully operating the stereographs immediately sug- gest themselves. The one best 'suited will be determined by school conditions. REFERENCE TABLE PLAN Usually, a teacher will anticipate the needs of her pupils and will select the stereograph which she thinks will contribute to the work. She may place this in a stereoscope upon a table convenient to the pupils. This is frequently done a day or two in advance. The children may study it at their leisure, or may be sent to it individually when the psychological moment ar- rives. This usually is considered the best plan for the study of stereographs. Make it very clear to the pupils that the de- STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xix scription on the back will help them to understand the view. This plan gives each child the greatest possible time with the stereograph and the most independent action. He learns largely by his own initiative. SEAT STUDY PLAN Sometimes the selected view is placed in a stereoscope and passed in a regular order during the time for preparation. One or two stereographs bearing directly upon the work may be studied very thoroughly and systematically in very brief time. Each pupil gives to each view only the short time needed to fix the images and read the descriptions. Some teachers save time by having the description read before the stereograph is passed. DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING PLANS Where the school is organized departmentally and the teacher has the pupils for a brief study and a discussion period, time will be gained by devoting a few minutes to the study of the stereograph by the plan mentioned above. Where the teacher is not able to supervise the preparation, two or three minutes of the recitation time may well be used for an in- tensive study of the stereograph. A pupil places a stereo- graph in a stereoscope and passes it, permitting each child to look at it for a very brief time. Before or while it is being passed this pupil gives so that all the others may hear, a brief statement which he has prepared from a previous study of the scene and its description. The pupils are told exactly what to look for and one child, each day, gets practice in public speak- ing. Both the scene and the explanation may be given to a class of forty pupils in from two to three minutes. If five minutes can be spared, it can be used advantageously for it per- mits a longer observation time for each pupil. Some may doubt that a scene rich in teaching content can be presented effectively in the time stated. These do not fully realize the efficiency of Visual Instruction by the Keystone method. Wherever possible the stereographs should be placed upon the reference table for further observation and study as opportun- ity affords. NUMBER OF VIEWS TO BE USED There is a temptation to the teacher to give out too many xx STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES stereographs at one time. I 'est results are usually obtained by using only a few most carefully chosen to show certain definite ideas as clearly as possible. The number of pictures used depends upon the subject, the pictures, and the age of the pupils. Sharp distinction must be drawn between real study and a "picture show." So long as pictures will enlarge experience and throw light upon the subject studied, so long as they clearly illustrate, they are a vital part of the studying; but as soon as they become an object of attention in themselves and for themselves— or when a greater number are offered than can be seriously studied in the time limit — they are part of a "picture show," dissipating the pupils' time and energy. The use of just one scene every day in the lower tirades and 9 not more than two a day in upper grades, if followed faithfully will give large returns for time and effort expended — in fact will prove a real time saver. Never attempt the use of a greater number in one day until after you have thoroughly tested this system. Let the use of an increased number come only after careful measurement of results secured. Experience in thou- sands of schools lias clearly shown that the careful study of but one or two scenes every day means much more to the pupil than the careless or hurried examination of a larger number. SOME EXAMPLES When studying the first battle of the Revolution the stereo- graph No. 10 of Lexington Common placed on the reference table in advance will bring to the discussion a lively presenta- tion of the scene. No. 98 dealing with the Story of Captain John Smith. No. 6 ( )ld North Church, No. 80 < )ld Liberty Bell, and many others tell their story in an effective way day by day as the topics occur in the regular course. No. 530 is a good illustratic n of how a racial type and a tea plantation may be pre- sented nicely in a single stereograph. The day that brings this scene only to a class room will be a day well worth while. No. 294 Harvesting Bananas tells an interesting story of the manner of growth and handling of this important fruit. No. 108 Harvesting Pineapples not only shows how this popular fruit is prepared for market but corrects a widespread mis- conception as to the habit of growth of the pineapple. Before STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxi placing this view on the tahle, or passing it during a study period, check up the present knowledge of the pupils. You may be surprised at how much they know about it that isn't true. Xo. 276 tells the whole life history of a glacier from the snow cloud in the mountain top to the stream in the valley be- low, all in a single scene. The material in this scene is ample for a day's presentation in lower grades but in an upper grade a detailed view such as No. 274 or No. 275 may well be added. Even when studying a definite unit such as an industry, a par- ticular region, or an historical grouping, it will usually be found that the subject naturally divides itself into topics which may be covered by two or three stereographs and these pre- sented on a given day to be followed by another topic. For instance in the study of cotton No. 207 shows the cultivation of the plant and No. 117 shows the picking of the cotton. These naturally go together. Next we have the ginning and trans- portation, then the manufacturing processes. A class may be studying woolen textiles. The children may have had some experience with wool and its uses. Through the three dimension picture they can see sheep and watch men cutting the wool. Perhaps, some one has been able to get some wool for them to wash and twist into thread, the primitive way of spinning. Then they weave the threads together making cloth. Through the stereograph again, they can see these same processes on a larger scale, done by machinery more quickly and better than is possible by hand. In their own clothes or those of the people about them they see the products of the operations and are brought into a natural, wholesome relation to the industrial world. Such a use of the stereo- graphs creates a genuine enthusiasm for they act as a vital stimulant to thought development. VISUALIZING HISTORY PROBLEMS Suppose that an advanced history class has reached the subject of the development of the far West and the building of transcontinental railroad. The United States had taken possession of the west coast, California had been admitted as a state. The great problem of the day was transportation. It was primarily an economic problem. Instead of giving xxii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES children the formal statements of a text written about the sub- ject, give them the stereographs of the great plains, of the high ranges and peaks of the Rocky Mountain regions, of deserts, of canyons, of the Sierra Nevadas, and of the rich mines and fer- tile valleys of the Pacific Coast. Show them teams of horses or oxen with the old Conestoga wagons. They will visualize the conditions which made up the problem of that earlier day. Show them stereographs of those great railroads in mountain passes and canyons. They will understand why land grants were made, and how the complete dependence of the people upon the railroads made them the dominant factor in that life. The story of the abuse of that power, of the struggle for control, will be real to them. Through visualization students will study life, for they will have actual facts upon which to reflect and form judgments. From the clear, distinct ideas gained in such study it is possible for their minds to reach farther, to realize that this problem of communication was a problem of government also; that upon it depended the coast- to-coast nation and the mental unity that could make these widely separated communities into one people. There is no doubt that such training, giving experiences that are clear and forceful, will make better citizens facing the difficulties of their own time with keener perceptions of underlying problems, with broader sympathies, and with greater hopefulness. COMBINATION STEREOGRAPHS AND SLIDES The stereograph is eminently fitted for individual work. It is supreme among visual aids and will more nearly stand alone than any other. Each child gets his own reaction from his study of the view, no two children get exactly the same results because no two children are exactly alike in their experiences. If the same view is thrown on a screen during the conference period, memory brings to each child the record of his experi- ence. There will be differences and each child will make his own personal contribution to the group. There will be com- parison, quick judgment, each will give and take, and from the variants will be built a well rounded whole. The combination of stereograph and lantern slide is an ideal grouping of material for learning. STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxiii LANTERN SLIDES FOR REVIEW When a subject has been worked over by the children there should come a review for the purpose of getting a better grasp of materials so that they can be put to use; not necessarily any use, but a specific use in line with their projects either now or in the future. A review gives a rounded survey of the material previously studied in detail and it corrects erroneous impres- sions and misunderstandings. Here is where the lantern slides work effectively. Select the slides duplicating the stereographs which have been used day by day. Memory will recall the ex- perience obtained through the stereographs; but now relations will be emphasized. The detached parts will come together into a unity. The review with the lantern slides enables the child to visualize a series of related ideas and get a mental grasp of the whole. EXPRESSION A RESULT OF VISUAL EXPERIENCE As a result of the new freedom born of visual experience, the child seeks and finds some mode of expression. In a natural way he approaches his project and gathers the knowl- edge which will enable him to carry it to completion. At every step he sees something which helps to clarify his ideas and to organize them into a form which will give his motive forces greater and greater freedom in moving toward the reali- zation of his project. Merely doing or making something is not necessarily a true project, does not necessarily involve learning. The essential elements of a proper school project are that the coercive force shall come from within, be subject- ive not objective ; that the pupil shall think new thoughts, and that the result shall be an expression of that thought. This power of self expression does not come to the child by follow- ing in detail the teacher's orders ; neither does it necessarily follow reading. It comes when the mind contains such a wealth of concrete ideas that the child has both the desire and the conscious power to produce. "We may be able to repeat a lot of things about something but we really know it when we visualize it and can use it." EXPRESSION THROUGH SPEECH "When you wish to develop English, and particularly oral xxiv STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES English in an elementary school pupil, what you want more than anything else is that he shall have a live experience that he is anxious to relate — a story that he is eager to tell. Then get him on his feet to tell it and out of this struggle to express himself will come the power of expression. The average pupil in our elementary schools is usually lacking in the experiences that he is eager to relate. You give him these stereoscopic ex- periences that are so vivid and so real that, to him, they are real experiences and he will talk just as freely concerning them as the experiences he has personally undergone," says Dr. J. F. Hosic. Visualization helps the child to find expression in speech. When his ideas are clarified by visual experience, he has something to say and usually likes to say it. The sense of # security which comes from the consciousness of a store of definite ideas gives him freedom and helps him to organize his material according to relations or sequence. Grammatical errors may be corrected more easily and more effectively be- cause of his mental attitude. He is quick to realize that corrections are made in order that he may express, instead of feeling that he is made to express for the purpose of being corrected. WRITTEN' EXPRESSION After a given scene has been studied carefully it may well be taken as a theme for written work. Each pupil will have the subject matter well in hand — he will know what to say and can center his thought on how best to say it. This type of written work gives pleasing results. From hundreds of schools have come comments upon how rapidly the pupils have gone forward in English when using the stereographs and slides in the daily program. VISUALIZATION DEVELOPES INITIATIVE The stereographs first arouse in the child a desire for doing and knowing, they awaken initiative. Next they enable him to learn from his own experience, and give him independence in his own thought and action. Then he must be trained to review, to judge his projects and his problems. He must get a grasp of the thing in its entirety, its place, its use. There has been too much instruction of the child, too little natural STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxv mental growth. Today the teacher is assuming his proper function, that of leader and director whose work is to bring to the child in the proper form and at the proper time the ma- terials by which he may grow. Books, speech, pictures, charts, maps all make a valuable contribution. The stereograph en- ables the child to visualize and make clear and correct his work of today. By so doing, it makes him a part of real life and helps him to get visions of what shall be tomorrow. OUTLINES OF TEACHING CONTENT Keystone Stereographs and Lantern slides are rich in teaching content. It is a pleasant surprise to note how many specific illustra- tions of important teaching points each scene, contains. That this fea- ture may be presented more clearly, outlines for serial numbers 564, 117, 276, 80, 6 and 530 are here presented. The other scenes in the entire series may be treated in the same way. One, then, comes to realize more fully the teaching value of the complete " 600 Set " and the advantage of the various classifications as given in the Teachers' Guide. SCENE 564 1. Buildings. (a) Pyramid — Historical significance. (b) Adobe hut — peasant homes — crude construction. (c) Note small pyramid. 2. People. (a) Race. (b) Oriental customs. (c) Tropical dress. (d) Method of carrying burdens. (e) Native children. 3. Vegetation. (a) Palm trees. (b) Rushes and reeds. 4. Water. (a) Overflow of river (enriching arid lands). (b) Other related ideas. 1. Source — from higher altitude and interior rain belt 2. Empties — where — why by delta ? 5. Animals. (a) Camel. 1. Desert method of transportation. 2. Oriental custom of travel. 3. Find second camel. (b) Water fowl. 6. Topograph}'. (n) River flood plain. xxvi STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES SCENE 117 1. Vegetation. (a) Cotton. 1. Height (two to four feet). 2. Plant, annual, woody bush, cotton fibers and seeds are utilized. 2. Topography. (a) Lowlands. 3. People. (a) Black race. 1. Characteristic kinky hair, thick lips, flat nose. 2. Children. 4. Other observations. (a) Shape of cotton boll. (b) Method of gathering the cotton. Note basket and bags. (c) Absence of leaves on cotton plant and trees in background indicate fall of year. (d) Cotton plant is obtained from seed planted in rows about three feet apart. 5. Number of people in addition to those observed in foreground at first glance. 6. Clothing of people. SCENE 276 1. Mountain peaks — sharp, angular, young mountains. 2. Mountain range — series of peaks with depressions between. 3. Valleys — small, young mountain valleys. 4. Clouds — striking against mountain top. 5. Snow fields accumulated in depressions. 6. Glaciers formed from snow above and melting below. 7. Rivulets, streams, source of river. 8. Fir trees — varying in size. 9. Altitude (effect on vegetation and climate — timber line, snow line). 10. Weathering — erosion, talus cones at foot of mountain. 11. Moraines — material deposited by glacial action. 12. Rock formation — strata. SCENE 80 Liberty Bell. I. Historical Significance. (a) Rung at the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. (b) Tapped with silver hammer, Liberty Loan, 1917. II. Story of Bell. (a) Imported from England, 1752. (b) Broken on trial ringing. (c) Recast in Philadelphia, 1753. STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxvii (d) Removed to Lancaster, 1777. (e) Returned to State House where it served until 1828. (f) Received its present crack while tolling at funeral of Chief Justice Marshall, 1835. (g) Shown at International Exhibitions. (h) Its present location, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. Note, (a) Crack. (b) Motto — Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabit- ants thereof. (c) Simple design of bell. (d) Weathered wooden cross beam. (e) Artistic iron frame. III. Related facts pertaining to Independence Hall. (a) Erected 1729 to 1734. (b) Seat of first Continental Congress. (c) Intimately connected with birth of nation. (d) Here Washington was made Commander-in-Chief of army, 1775. (e) Now Museum of Revolutionary and Historical relics. (f) Here Declaration of Independence was signed, July 4, 1776. SCENE 6 1. Historical Old North Church. 2. Tenement life in crowded city district. (a) Tenants — evidently of foreign birth. (b) Children. (c) Home — unattractive buildings at right. (d) Playground. 1. Granite paved street and gutter. 2. Sidewalk lined with ash and garbage cans. 3. Other observations. (a) Modern overhanging arc street light. (b) Abandoned gas light post. (c) Telephone conduit and wires. (d) Provision for outdoor life on roofs of buildings and iron balconies. (e) Brick and concrete paving on side walk. (f) Water hydrant (fire protection). (g) Vegetation. 1. Trees maintaining life under difficult city conditions. 2. Flower boxes in some windows, (h) Old frame buildings still remain. (i) Transportation. 1. Human carriers. 2. Horse and wagon. xxviii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES SCENE 530 1. People. (a) Racial characteristics. 1. Facial features, high cheek bones, slant eyes. 2. Small stature. 3. Optimism. 4. Thrift, suggested by intensive cultivation of land. (b) Dress. 1. Simplicity. 2. Design and pattern of costume. 3. Foot wear. 4. Rice straw hat. 2. Vegetation. (a) Tea on uplands, (utilizing hills and providing good drainage). (b) Rice on lowlands, (irrigation supplying moisture). 3. Topography. (a) Hills and valleys. 4. Related ideas. (a) Only the tea leaf is utilized. (b) The plant is a perennial. (c) Terracing of hillside to utilize all the land surface. 5. Other detailed features. (a) Other tea pickers. (b) Tea sheds and village. (c) Method of carrying basket for freedom of hands in pick- ing tea. EDITORIAL BOARD General Introduction By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. President-Emeritus of Harvard University CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: "The Educative Process"; "Class Room Management"; "Craftsmanship in Teaching"; "Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: " Human Behavior." Editor: School and Home. Joint Editor: Journal of Educational Psychology. How to Study Stereographs and Lantern Slides By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: "How to Study and Teaching How to Study"; "Elementary School Standards." Joint Author: McMurray and Parkins Geographies; "Method of the Recitation." GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION By Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. Controller and Professor of Geography, Teachers College, Columbia University. Joint Author: Brigham & McFarlane, " Essentials of Geography." 1. Geographical Classification and Title List By D. C. Ridgley, A.B. Professor of Geography, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. Author: "Important Topics in Geography"; "Home Geography." In this chapter is presented the title list of the 600 stereo- graphs and lantern slides which actual class-room use has dem- onstrated as the most effective for purposes of instruction. They are classified geographically by continents and political divisions and give 600 references to the important countries of the world. (See page 3.) xxix xxx EDITORIAL BOARD 2. People of All Lands (Racial Geography) By Mark Jefferson, A.M. Professor of Geography, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Author of "Teachers' Geography"; "Materials for the Geography of Michigan"; " Exercises on the Topographic Map." Associate Editor: Journal of Geography. 142 stereographs and slides to which 143 references are made, illustrating the distinguishing features of the great races of mankind and their branches and to show the racial characteristics and development of the great nations. At the same time this classification, by showing homes, clothing, use of implements and industrial processes, necessarily differenti- ates peoples according to their civilization. (See page 31.) 3. Production and Manufacturing (Industrial Geography) By Charles Redway Dryer, M.A., M.D. Geographer, Fort Wayne, Ind. Formerly Professor of Geography and Geology, Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Author: " Studies in Indiana Geography"; "Lessons in Physical Geography"; "Geography, Physical, Eco- nomic and Regional"; "Natural Economic Geography." 400 stereographs and slides with 894 references showing . our industrial resources and equipment. The classification is divided into two main parts, the first of which deals with indus- tries as units under the subheads, Foods, Clothing, Mining and Mineral Industries, Lumbering and Forest Products, and Irrigation. In the second part the process is the fundamental idea presented under the headings, Collective, Productive, Con- structive and Distributive Industries. (See page 45.) 4. Transportation By Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D., Sc.D. Dean and Professor of Transportation and Commerce, University of Pennsyl- vania. Author " Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation," 1893; "American Railway Transportation," 1903; "Ocean and Inland Water Transporta- tion," 1906; " Elements of Transportation," 1909; " Railroad Traffic and Rates," I9II; "Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls," 1912; "Measurement of Vessels for the Panama Canal," 1913; "History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States," 2 vols., 1915; " Principles of Railroad Transportation"; " Prin- ciples of Ocean Transportation." The classification of Transportation presents 322 stereo- graphs and slides with 372 references thereto, It makes plain the universal dependence of modern life upon means of trans- EDITORIAL BOARD xxxi portation. Every method of carrying, both primitive and modern, is illustrated. Human carriers, beasts of burden, carts, wagons, railroad trains, water craft from the Chinese junk to the great ocean liner or submarine and airplanes are 9hown so classified that the part each one takes in the world's work is easily seen. (See page 73.) 5. Markets and Marketing By J. Paul Goode, Ph.D. Professor of Geography, University of Chicago. Specialist in Economic Geog- raphy and Cartography. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. Lecturer and writer on " Commercial and Economic Geography." Author of important series of wall maps for schools and colleges. 156 stereographs and slides showing the ever increasing idea which the word " market " may be made to convey. In this classification are shown, first, the Primitive Markets where trade is direct. Then the Great Market Centers where the buying and selling is done for a large territory are seen. Next come the Production Centers where commodities are handled in such quantities as to establish a World Market, and last Regions with a Large Demand for a certain commodity are shown to be Markets for that commodity. (See page 87.) 6. Natural Forms and Forces (Physical Geography) By Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. .President of Clark University. Formerly Professor of Physiography, Harvard University; Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. Author of "Interpretation of Topographic Maps" ; " Geological and Mineral Resources of the Alaskan Penin- sula "; " Physical Geography of the Devil's Lake Region," etc. During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed by natural forces including the atmosphere, ground and sur- face water, snow, and ice and internal forces such as heat and pressure, and by organic agencies including man. These forces have produced the mountains, hills and volcanoes, the lakes and rivers, the capes, peninsulas and islands — all these actions and results are illustrated in this classification of 200 stereographs and slides with 350 references. (See page 97.) xxxii EDITORIAL BOARD 7. Zones and Their Effect on Life. Elevation of Land (Altitude) and Its Effect on Life By Robert De C. Ward, A.M. Professor of Climatology, Harvard University. Author of " Practical Exer- cises in Elementary Meteorology"; "Climate, Considered Especially in Relation to Man." Translator of Julius Hann's " Handbuch der KJimatologie," Vol 1, 2nd ed. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. 174 stereographs and slides with 186 references presenting the effect of climate (whether resulting from position or alti- tude) upon the general appearance of a country, upon vegeta- tion, crops, occupations and dwellings — are the basis of this classification. Climatic controls over the earth's surface and its flora, and man's mode of life under the limitations imposed by climate, are well illustrated in the views selected. (See page 109.) 8. Geography by Nations (Political Geography) By E. M. Lehnerts, A.M. Head of the Department and Professor of Geology and Geography, Hunter College, New York City; Lecturer in Geography, Teachers College Columbia Uni- versity. Associate" Editor Journal of Geography. A classification of 245 stereographs and slides with 370 ref- erences, showing the extent and distribution of each great nation's possessions,, something of the geographic factors in each nation's development and the extent of governmental freedom existing throughout the world. (See page 121.) 9. Earth Neighbors By James F. Chamberlain, Ed.B., S.B. President State Normal School, Silver City, N. M. ; Associate Editor Journal of Geography. Author: " Field and Laboratory Exercises in Physical Geography' ; " How" We "Are Fed"; "How We Are Clothed"; ''How We Are Sheltered '; " How We Travel "; " North America "; " Europe "; " Asia "; " South America ' ; "Africa"; ''Geography: Physical, Economic, Regional." 76 stereographs and slides, with 99 references, dealing not only with telescopic photographs of the sun, moon, planets, comets, etc., but with those scenes upon the earth which show the influences of these earth neighbors upon human affairs. (See page 140.) EDITORIAL BOARD xxxiii HISTORY AND CIVICS INTRODUCTION By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. Eaton Professor of Government in Harvard University. 10. Foreign Beginnings of American History By Hutton Webster, Ph.D. Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Nebraska. Author of "Ancient History"; "Early European History "; ''Readings in Ancient History "; and " Readings in Medieval and Modern History "; Medieval and Modern History "; " World History." This classification of 69 stereographs and slides has been made with the purpose of setting forth the foreign background of American history ; to trace its people with their habits and customs to their sources in order that American History may not be isolated but may be seen in its relation to the rest of the world's story. (See page 150.) 11. Foundations of the American Nation By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. Eaton Professor of Government in Harvard University. Author of ." Essentials of American Hisory "; "Formation of the Union"; " Guide to the Study and Heading of American History"; "The Monroe Doctrine"; "National Ideas His- torically Traced"; "New American History"; "Salmon P. Chase"; "School History of the United States"; "Slavery and Abolition"; "Southern South," etc. Editor of the American Nation, " Cyclopedia of American Government "; "American Citizen Series"; "Epochs of American History"; "American His- tory Told by Contemporaries"; "American Patriots and Statesmen," etc. 91 stereographs and slides with 122 references. " The pur- pose of this classification is to introduce the pupil to the for- mative period of American history, extending from the earliest discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the govern- ment under the constitution of 1787. This naturally includes the physical background, the face of the country, then the orig- inal inhabitants and finally some of the scenes of their colonial and revolutionary history." (See page 158.) xxxiv EDITORIAL BOARD 12. The Development of Our Nation By H. Morse Stephens, M.A., Litt.D. Formerly Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Author: •History of the French Revolution"; "The Story of Portugal"; "Revolutionary Europe"; ''Colonial Civil Service." 203 stereographs and slides with 309 references " to make young people realize that their country has in time past been carried on by people like themselves ; to make them familiar with social and economic life of the past as well as with polit- ical events and let them feel that constitutions, presidents, wars, battles, treaties are only the external parts. They are of value only so far as they illustrate the great theme of the nation's growth, the nation's mind and the nation's standards." (See page 164.) 13. America of Today — Our Resources — Preparedness By Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S. Geographer and Meteorologist, United States Government. Author: " Manual of Geography." Joint Author: "Natural Geographies"; "Commercial Geography"; "Elementary Physical Geography"; Redway School History "; " Book of the United States." This classification presents 169 stereographs and slides, with 202 references which " will lead children to find causes and results of political life in economic conditions, and to under- stand that history is not the action of leaders but of the mass of people." This classification compares our resources with that of other countries. (See page 177.) 14. Government By Arthur Norman Holcombe, Ph.D. Professor of Government in Harvard University. Author of " Public Ownership of Telephones on the Continent of Europe "; " State Government in the United States." This classification of 287 stereographs and slides with 518 references aims to present the topic of government from the constitutional and institutional view point. The operations of government in many situations and under many conditions are noted. One will not fail to note the helpful way in which this chapter and the following one on Community Civics supple- ment each other. (See page 188.) EDITORIAL BOARD xxxv 15. Community Civics By Arthur William Dunn, A.M. Associate National Director Junior Red Cross; Formerly Specialist in Civic Education, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Author of " Community Civics." 299 stereographs and slides with 806 references. " The aim of community civics is to help the child to know his commun- ity, not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his community life, what it does for him and how it does it; what the community has a right to expect from him and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." (See page 200.) 16. The Cities of the World By John Nolen, A.M., Sc.D. City Planner, Landscape Architect, Boston, Mass. 275 stereographs and slides with 800 references, showing the wonderful urban development of the modern world. And because this is new, and the city is one of the main problems of modern democratic society, this classification analyzes cities in their growth and plans, their size and dominant functions. Its purpose is to create intelligent control of civic conditions instead of passive acceptance. (See page 215.) ENGLISH INTRODUCTION By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor of English Language and Literature, Teachers College, Columbia University. 17. Literary Subjects and Settings By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor of English Language and Literature, Teachers College, Columbia University. 200 stereographs and slides with 338 references. The ed- itor, following the idea that the trend of modern education has been steadilv away from interest in mere words to interest in xxxvi EDITORIAL BOARD the ideas and things which words denote, has selected those views which illustrate the literature most commonly presented to pupils. The classification emphasizes the fact that knowl- edge obtained by the senses, especially sight, is the basis for both the creation and real appreciation of literary merit. (See page 240.) 18. English Composition By James Fleming Hosic, Ph.M., Ph.D. Associate Professor of Education in charge of Extramural Courses, Teachers College, Columbia University; Editor of E.nglish Journal and Journal of Educational Methods. Secretary, The National council of Teachers of English. Joint Author: " Practical English for High Schools"; "A Composition Grammar." This classification of 350 stereographs with 900 references is made to assist growth in power of English expression. " Children in elementary grades cannot speak nor write ef- fectively when burdened with the consciousness of form." What they need is a real audience and something definite to say. The Keystone plan fills these needs. The editor has grouped together a series of possibilities for interesting com- position work, oral and written. The classification includes a variety of business letters concerning real business. (See page 250.) AGRICULTURE INTRODUCTION By Charles F. Curtiss, M.S.A., D.S. Dean Division of Agriculture and Director of the Experiment Station, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 19. Soils By Alfred Vivian, Ph.G. Dean College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Author: "First Principles of Soil Fertility"; "Everyday Chemistry"; "A Farmer's Tour around the World." 68 stereographs and slides with 76 references, which illus- trate the formation of soils, the kinds and something of their management. (See page 269.) EDITORIAL BOARD xxxvii 20. Farm crops By W. M. Jardine, B.S.A., LL.D. President Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kan. 78 stereographs and slides with 99 references to show what crops come from the farm and how they are raised. (See page 276.) 21. Garden, Orchard and Woodlot By R. L. Watts, M.S. Professor of Horticulture, Dean Department of Agriculture and Director of the Experiment Station, State Agricultural College, State College, Pa. This selection of 48 stereographs and slides with 49 refer- ences enables the editor to present many helpful items of in- struction dealing with the garden products, orcharding and the timber supply of the woodlot. There is included an interest- ing classification on Landscape Gardening. (See page 284.) 22. Animal Husbandry By W. A. Cochel, A.B., B.S. Field Representative of American Short Horn Breeders' Association. Formerly Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kan. 36 selected stereographs and slides with 37 references illus- trate the value of livestock as a dominant factor in agricul- ture. From primitive herding to the highly complex business of the modern feed lot the important items in animal hus- bandry are shown. (See page 291.) 23. Farm Management — Farm Machinery By Martin Luther Fisher, M.S. Professor of Crop Production and Farm Management and in charge Department «f Agronomy, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. Assisted by Wm. Aitkenhead, A.M., M.E. Associate Professor of Farm Mechanics, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. This classification of 96 stereographs and slides with 238 references analyzes and illustrates " the handling of the farm and its equipment so as to produce farm products with the greatest profit and still maintain or even increase the produc- tiveness of the soil." (See page 297.) xxxviii EDITORIAL BOARD 24. Farm Home and Farm Life By A. E. Winship, Litt.D., LL.D. Lecturer, Editor Journal of Education, Boston. Author: "The Shop"; "Life of Horace Mann"; "Great American Educators"; "Jukes-Edwards"; " Our Boys." 114 stereographs and slides with 200 references presenting the farm as a home rather than as a business. They show the farm home, the farmer's independence, the scientific knowl- edge needed in his work, the methods of working and the social side of country life. (See page 311.) NATURE STUDY INTRODUCTION By Ernest Thompson Seton Naturalist and Author. Greenwich. Conn. Founder and Chief Woodcraft League 25. Plants and Plant Associations By John M. Coulter, Ph.D. Professor and Head Dept. of Botany, University of Chicago. Assisted by George D. Fuller, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Botany, L T niversity of Chicago. This classification of 184 stereographs and slides with 358 references deals with plants, their kinds, their relation to each other, and the factors which determine what plants can live on a given area. (See page 320.) 26. Animals By Ernest Thompson Seton Naturalist and Author, Greenwich, Conn. Founder and Chief Woodcraft League. 143 stereographs and slides with 156 references selected to show a great range of animals both domestic and wild with something of their natures, habits and their uses to man. (See page 331.) 27. Out Door Life Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, Woodcraft League By Daniel Carter Beard ("Dan Beard") Honorary Vice-President, and National Scout Commissioner, Boy Scouts of America, Flushing, N. Y. EDITORIAL BOARD xxxix 356 stereographs and slides, with 369 references which carry us on hikes anywhere on the face of the globe. This series encourages outdoor life and at the same time shows how the imagination and Keystone Views together enable us to travel over the world, " to hit the trail back through history." The classification suggests many themes and lends itself especially as an aid to English Composition. (See page 341.) 28. Vocational Guidance By Meyer Bloomfield, B.A. Editor and Publisher of Industrial Relations, Boston, Mass. Author: "Vocational Guidance of Youth"; "The School and the Start in Life"; "Youth, School and Vocation." These 130 stereographs and slides with 170 references bring the most helpful thought that everything we use and enjoy is the result of our own or some one else's labor, and that to do one's work well means skill, thought, effort and sacrifice. The classification presents the best possible introduction for chil- dren to the vital subject of choosing a life career. (See page 347.) DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ART INTRODUCTION By Martha Van Rensselaer, A.B. Professor of Home Economics, and Director of Extension Dept. of Home Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Editor and Author of " Reading Course for Farm Home." 29. Industries Supplying the Home By Lorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D. President of Stout Institute, Menominee. Wis. Author: "Practical Arithmetic"; " Essentials of Arithmetic." This selection of 90 stereographs with 101 references is de- signed to give the student of Domestic Science and Domestic Art a broad view of the close relationship existing between the home and the great world of industry. (See page 358.) 30. Food and Cookery By Edna N. White, B.S. Head of Dept. of Home Economics and Supervisor of Home Economics Extension Dept. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Assisted by Lelia McGuire, B.S., M.S. Assistant Professor of Home Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. xl EDITORIAL BOARD 108 stereographs and slides with 111 references, relating to foods, their values and preparation for use. This classifica- tion ably presents the necessity for intelligent use and conser- vation of foodstuffs. (See page 362.) 31. Textiles and Clothing By Anna M. Cooley, B.S. Associate Professor of Household Arts Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: "Domestic Art in Woman's Education." Joint Author: "Food and Health"; "Clothing and Health"; "The Home and the Family"; "Shelter and Clothing"; "Foods and Household Management"; "Occupations for Little Fingers." Assisted by Edith P. Chace, B.S., M.A. Head of Department of Home Economics, State College, Pennsylvania. 191 stereographs with 239 references showing the origin and manufacture of materials, the uses of the various textiles, in- dustrial occupations connected with their production and the costumes of various countries both ancient and modern. (See page 374.) 32. Household Administration By Grace Schermerhorn, B.S. Director of Cooking in the New York City Public Schools. Formerly Assistant Professor of Home Economics, University of Idaho; Director of Practice Teaching in Home Economics, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. This classification of 53 stereographs and slides with 60 ref- erences aims to tie together the work done in Foods, Clothing and Shelter, dealing with the subject from the point of view of the home maker. (See page 383.) INDUSTRIAL ARTS INTRODUCTION By Charles A. Prosser, Ph.D. Director Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minn. Author: " New Harmony Movement"; "The Organization and Administration of Vocational Edu- cation"; "The Meaning of Vocational Education," etc. General Editor "Voca- tional Educational Series." National Director of Federal Commission on Voca- tional Education. 33. Industrial Design — Including Architecture By Raymond P. Ensign Instructor in Design, Supervisor of Design Classes, Cleveland School of Art, Cleveland, Ohio. EDITORIAL BOARD xli These 473 stereographs and slides with 1167 references thereto make a classification which brings a wealth of illus- trative material for Manual Training classes in Design. It shows the advantage taken of Natural Forces, Mechanical Powers and Construction, while the second part gives the His- tory of Architecture and Architectural Design and Construc- tion adapted to uses of every kind. (See page 388.) 34. Wood By George M. Brace, M.A. Director Manual Training High School, St. Paul, Minn. 147 stereographs and slides with 190 references which illus- trate the place which wood occupies in our life. Its growth, cutting, manufacture and uses form the subject matter of the classification. (See page 420.) 35. Metals — Sources and Uses By Harry S. Bitting President Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School, Pa. Ill stereographs and slides with 120 references selected to show the sources, preparation, manufacture and uses of our more important metals. (See page 425.) 36. Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile By Charles M. Spofford, S.B. Hayward Professor of Civil Engineering in Charge of the Department of Civil and Sanitary Engineering of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. Author: "The Theory of Structures." Member, Fay, Spofford and Thorndike, Consulting Engineers, Boston, Mass. 117 stereographs and slides with 137 references make a classification of interest to the pupil, showing the sources and processes of obtaining and preparing these four great build- ing materials and their uses in modern constructive works. (See page 432.) 37. LocaiL Industries By Clifford B. Connelley, Sc.D. Commissioner of Labor and Industry for the State of Pennsylvania. Formerly Dean School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. Labor Commissioner, Pennsylvania. xlii EDITORIAL BOARD 122 stereographs with 145 references selected to show the children the industrial life that goes on about them. The views brought together in this classification will give accurate ideas of the industrial activities of the communities in which they live and make personal adjustment to industry easier and better. (See page 439.) 38. Hygiene — Health Habits By Michael Vincent O'Shea, B.L. Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin. Author: " Education as Adjustment"; "Dynamic Factors in Education"; "Linguistic Development and Education"; "Social Development and Education"; "Every Day Problems in Teaching." Editor-in-chief, " The World Book." The 72 stereographs and slides with 188 references in this classification are made the basis for stimulating suggestions as to health habits with regard to outdoor life, work, food and drink, hearing, breathing, air and light, fatigue and cleanliness (See page 448.) FINE ARTS INTRODUCTION By C. Valentine Kirby Director of Art Education, Department of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania. 39. Drawing — Study of Stereographs and Slides to Show Elements of Art By Harry W. Jacobs Director Art Instruction, Public Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. 216 stereographs and slides with 283 references are em- bodied in this classification to give a practical view point on the subject of perspective and drawing in general. Such sub- heads as Parallel Perspective, Angular Perspective, Poster Drawing, Pencil, Pen or Charcoal Sketches from Photographs to Develop Technique, and Nature show the range of subjects illustrated. (See page 455.) 40. House Design and Decoration ; Costume Design By Mary J. Quinn Formerly Supervisor of Design, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. Author: " Planning and Furnishing the Home." Art in the home brings art instruction to a practical applica- EDITORIAL BOARD xliii tion. Houses and furnishings should be studied and children should be taught to judge what is best in a given circumstance. Then, too, the clothes of the people reveal their civilization. They express the manners, the habits of living, the workman- ship, the art of the people. The classification presents 258 stereographs with 387 references. (See page 462.) 41. Photography By C. E. K. Mees, D.Sc. Director Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y. 223 stereographs and slides with 271 references which fur- nish instruction as to composition, perspective, lighting, choice of subject and of view and illustrates thoroughly each point ex- plained. This classification is a splendid introduction to the photographer's art. (See page 487.) FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS INTRODUCTION By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. 42. Children of the World, Including Home Life By G. A. Mirick, A.M. Lecturer on Elementary Education, Harvard. Formerly Assistant Commissioner of Education, Supervising Elementary Schools, State of New Jersey. Author: " Home Life Around the World "; "A Grammar for Elementary Schools." Joint Author Kendall and Mirick Series "How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects"; " How to Teach Special Subjects." A classification of 199 stereographs and slides with 397 ref- erences selected from the point of view of the interests and mental capacities of the children who are to use them. Three distinct groupings are indicated so that, regardless of the method of approaching the child favored by the particular school, the material will lend itself readily to the plan used. (See page 503.) 43. Plants and Animals By Anna Botsford Comstock Professor of Nature Study, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Editor Nature xliv EDITORIAL BOARD Study Keview. Author: " Handbook of Nature Study"; "The Pet Book"; " Ways of the Six-footed." Joint Author: " ITow to Know the Butterflies." This classification of 47 stereographs and slides brings to the little people a wealth of material to encourage observation, reflection, appreciation and expression. The views are se- lected to appeal constantly to the little child's small fund of ex- perience for the purpose of comparison or relating what is known. (See page 517.) 44. Reading By Charles Madison Curry, A.M. Chairman of the Educational Survey Commission, Professor of Literature in the Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Author: " Literary p Readings." Joint Author: Holton-Curry Readers. Most of the poems and stories used in the readers of the lower grades as .well as the best supplementary readers are illustrated in this classification of 484 stereographs with 721 references. (See page 527.) 45. Some Things We Eat: Some Things We Wear By William M. Gregory Curator of Education Museum, Cleveland, Ohio. It is 'the aim of this classification of 129 stereographs and slides with 132 references to make real and vivid the elemen- tary ideas of life; to help children to realize the actual condi- tions under which we live and how dependent we are upon those people who supply our many needs. (See page 551.) 46. Home Geography By R. H. Whitbeck, A.B. 1'rofessor of Geography, University of Wisconsin. Editor Journal of Geography. This classification of 297 stereographs and slides with 592 references has for its purpose the building up of fundamental concepts by directing observation to the home region. It shows the purpose of the home, the need for home industries for supplying our wants, how materials for clothing are ob- EDITORIAL BOARD xlv tained and an understanding of simple industries, of trade, of travel and of transportation. (See page 562.) 47. Travelogue and Lecture Suggestions By Russell H. Conwell, D.D., LL.D. Lecturer. President of Temple University, Philadelphia. Oftentimes there is need of a definite listing of lantern slides for a review of regional geography, or other school subject, or when it is desired to use the slides as program material for community meetings to link up the home and the school. This classification of 587 slides with 1489 references will prove very helpful for such use. (See page 574.) GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION By Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. Controller and Professor of Geography, Teacher's College, Columbia University. Geography is " the study of the earth and its products, of man and his industries and of their influence upon each other." For most school children the study of geography is confined to the early years of school life. It comes at a time when children have had but little first hand contact with the world, its people and their industries and before travel has made them familiar with distant places and people or with the products of the earth and the industries growing out of their preparation for use. With the mind of the child open and receptive the intense real- ity of the stereoscopic presentation insures that the first ideas and concepts formed will be accurate, vivid and permanent. Failing direct contact with the world that lies beyond a familiar horizon children for the most part learn of it through the medium of the spoken word, the printed page, or its pictured representation. For this reason works on geography and travel are usually well illustrated and many of the most modern textbooks in geography prepared for the use of chil- dren devote a third or more of their space to maps, pictures and other illustrations. No other subject in the elementary school lends itself so readily to the use of illustrative material or requires more of it, and the textbook in geography, with its numerous maps and its hundreds of pictures is always the most attractive of school books. Not only do teachers make constant use of the pictures in the textbook itself, but they frequently find too few to meet their requirements. The result is that most teachers of geography are constantly collecting from every possible source pictures valuable for study or for class-room use during a lesson period. Collections of this sort are valuable in proportion as they show x 2 GEOGRAPHY — INTRODUCTION clearly and accurately the features or process to be taught, and to the degree that some system of classification and cross refer- ence makes each picture available for instant use in connection with any topic where its use might be helpful. The pictures in the Keystone collection have been carefully chosen because of their teaching quality and because they are susceptible of clear and simple explanation. They are photo- graphs and possess the incomparable advantage of the stereo- scopic quality. Upon this latter advantage it is. not necessary to dwell beyond emphasizing the fact that in no other kind of picture is there the clearness of perspective — the third dimen- sion — that is found in views of this sort. The moving picture fails exactly as does the flat photograph to show this perspective quality and is for that very reason often quite misleading in the impression that it gives. Farther the moving picture can not be studied. Even the least inflammable of films can be " held " for only a brief time without being damaged or destroyed. It flickers on and off the screen with no explanation at all or with the briefest of running comment. The opportunity for a quiet and careful study of the picture un- til its full meaning is understood is altogether lacking. To other disadvantages connected with the use of moving pictures must be added the cost of equipment and the difficulties and dangers connected with showing them. To a remarkable degree the collection of Keystone views meets the needs of teacher and children. They have been care- fully selected for this particular use. They have been grouped and indexed by experts. They may be studied at any time, as often and for as long a time as necessary. The nine classifications immediately following treat the sub- ject of Geography from various view points and with consider- able fullness. The teacher of the lower grades should note especially the classifications " Some Things We Eat ; Some Things We Wear" page 551 and "Home Geography" page 562, also the classifications covering the geographic supplemen- tary reading pages 533 and 535. 1. GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION AND TITLE LIST By DOUGLAS C. RIDGLEY, A.B. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL. This list of 600 views is a complete catalog of the " 600 Set " with titles given in full. In classifications following this Geo- graphical Classification, titles are somewhat abbreviated, or en- tirely changed so that the thought of the Editor of any chapter may be more clearly presented. In every case, however, the stereograph or lantern slide may be quickly identified by the serial number which is always given. If the full title and geo- graphical location is desired, turn to the corresponding number in this list in which the views are numbered consecutively from 1 to 600. The numbers first given are the serial numbers of the " 600 Set," and run from 1 to 600 inclusive. These numbers are fol- lowed by negative numbers. Such a number serves as an ab- solute means of identification. The negative number is fol- lowed by the title of the scene. In all lists following this one the negative number is omitted. Teachers and pupils will be well repaid by making frequent and careful examination of this Geographical Classification in all its main divisions and sub-divisions. A careful study of the exact title and geographical location of the individual scenes will yield excellent results. The serial numbers may be en- tered on outline maps of the United States and of each con- tinent, in their appropriate places. Maps in the textbook in geography, in atlases, and wall maps, can be used to advantage in locating the scenes accurately. The order of the countries is that usually followed by modern textbooks in geography. An accurate and comprehensive knowledge of the scenes in this Geographical Classification is indispensable to the teacher who expects to make the best use of the numerous lists follow- 3 4 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION ing this one. Such knowledge is to be obtained by using spare moments occasionally in the examination of the stereographs in regular order, learning the details of the scene, its exact title, and by reading the descriptive matter on the backs of the stereographs. Such examination and study will prove a real delight to the instructor. By knowing well the scenes of the list, and the geographical setting of each, the teacher can de- termine instantly the value of any division of the Classification in relation to the class work which pupils may be pursuing He is prepared also to select quickly any scene or group ol scenes that may bear on any topic that may come incidentally in school work. The topical index at the back of the Teachers' Manual will be found convenient and helpful in linking up these excellent illustrations with the teaching program. Note especially the careful distribution of these superb stereographs and lantern slides over the entire geographic range. Regardless of the region studied, you will usually find some scene in this " 600 Set " that bears directly on the work in hand. This is a distinct achievement which only the remarkable collection of negatives possessed by the Keystone View Company makes possible. Every state in the United States is represented. Surely, this is an important considera- tion to the instructor who would present our great nation in a comprehensive way. The other countries of the world are visualized with a completeness that is as pleasing as it is vital to the best instruction. NORTH AMERICA 303 stereographs or slides UNITED STATES AND POSSESSIONS (Except Asiatic Possessions) 261 stereographs or slides New England States 24 stereographs or slides MAINE — 2 stereographs or slides 1 (12260) Logs from the forest delivered at the stream, Aroostook Co., Me. 2 (14227) Flashlight of wild moose in a Maine forest. NEW ENGLAND STATES NEW HAMPSHIRE — i stereograph or slide 3 (13709) Quarrying granite — drilling, preparatory to splitting, Concord, N. H. VERMONT — 2 stereographs or slides 4 (13701) Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt— largest quarry opening in the world. 5 (13706) Chiseling marble — architectural department, Vermont Marble Company, Proctor, Vt. MASSACHUSETTS — 15 stereographs or slides 6 (6172) Old North Church, Boston, Mass. 7 (6180) Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. 8 (11687) Old State House from Court Street, Boston, Mass. 9 (VI 1686) Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. 10 (11680) Lexington Common, Lexington, Mass. 11 (22188) Skilled workmen cutting leather for high quality shoes, Mass. 12 (22189) Lasting machine shaping shoes in a Massachusetts shoe factory. 13 (20221) Drying codfish in the sun — Gloucester and harbor in the distance, Mass. 14 (22080) Spinning cotton yarn in the great textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 15 (22082) Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, Mass. 16 (22083) General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Law- rence, Mass. 17 (22125) Sorting wool after cleaning and washing, Lawrence, Mass. 18 (22127) Doubling frame in a large woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 19 (22068) Cut rags after removing from washing drum — paper mills, Holyoke, Mass. 20 (22070) Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. RHODE ISLAND — 1 stereograph or slide 21 (16773) Skilled workers manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. CONNECTICUT — 3 stereographs or slides 22 (20301) Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins — silk industry, So. Manchester, Conn. 23 (20312) First drawing or straightening of fibers — silk industry, So. Manchester, Conn. 24 (20316) Spinning — silk industry, So. Manchester, Conn. Middle Atlantic States 60 stereographs or slides NEW YORK — 26 stereographs or slides 25 (16774) Looking down on New York's Skyscrapers from Wool- worth Tower (S. W.) over Battery to Statue of Liberty and Harbor. GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 26 (14244) 27 28 (10558) (16760) 29 (1009) 30 (23155) 31 (16751) 32 (16752) 33 34 (18203) (22165) 35 (22164) 36 37 (6299) (13511) 38 39 40 41 (12456) (13508) (22260) (22190) 42 (22019) 43 (16753) 44 45 (16754) (16756) 46 47 48 49 50 (16750) (6708) (6835) (149) (171) NEW J 51 (16730) 52 (16762) 53 (22110) Ferry slips and water front of New York City, from the Brooklyn side. The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York. Old and New City Halls and World Building from City Hall Park, New York City. Wall Street, the financial center, New York. Looking north on Broadway, past Trinity Church, New York City. Many forms of transportation required in large centers of population, New York City. The Gateway of America — immigrants landing from barge at Ellis Island, N. Y. Domestic Art — dining room and living room. Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from drying kiln, N. Y. Filling and sewing bags of .granulated sugar, New York City. The cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. Washington's Headquarters at Newburgh on the Hudson, N. Y. A charming landscape, Hudson River Valley, N. Y. Looking up the Hudson River from West Point, N. Y. Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, N. Y. General view, sewing room — large shoe factory, Syra- cuse, N. Y. Solar method of evaporating salt brine — collecting, draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. A busy path of commerce in central New York — four track railway, electric road at right, Erie canal at ex- treme left. Summer spraying in apple orchard, Hilton, N. Y. Washing 1,000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, Cohocton, N. Y. Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. Picking and loading cantaloupes near Buffalo, N. Y. Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. American Falls, summer view, Niagara Falls, N. Y. The " Beauteous Queen of Cataracts " — American Falls, winter view, Niagara Falls, N. Y. ERSEY — io stereographs or slides Picturesque Palisades of the Hudson River, looking north, New Jersey. The Vaterland and other German ships seized by the U. S. when war was declared, Hoboken, N. J. Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth in extensive silk mills at Paterson, N. J. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 7 54 (22111) Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 55 (22112) Machine weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Pat- erson, N. J. 56 (16717) 1500 hens (White Leghorn) in laying house — Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, New Jersey. 57 (16749) Milking scene in modern dairy, Plainsboro, New Jersey. 58 (22096) Firing tableware in the noted pottery center, Trenton, N.J. 59 (22097) Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 60 (1007) In the surf, Atlantic City, N. J. PENNSYLVANIA — ^ stereographs or slides 61 (6342) Confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers forming the Ohio River, Pittsburgh, Pa. 62 (6322) Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh, Pa. 63 (6523) Modern pig iron machine at rest, Pittsburgh, Pa. 64 (6531) Emptying cooled pig iron from molds into car, pig iron machine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 65 (6414) Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 66 (6420) Steel ingot on the "table" of the "blooming" mill, Steel Works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 67 (6421) Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths by buzz saw, Steel Works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 68 (6365) General view of ovens — loading coke into the cars, Connellsville, Pa. 69 (20058) Filling shell with nitro-glycerine, preparatory to shooting the well — oil field in Pennsylvania. 70 (20352) Shooting well with eighty cjuarts of nitro-glycerine — oil field, Pennsylvania. 71 (16729) Wagon used to haul ammunition to Admiral Perry on Lake Erie (1813) — "prairie schooner" type — Craw- ford County, Pa. 72 (7965) A woodcock on nest. 73 (195) Culp's Hill, Gettysburg, Pa. 74 (20048) Stripping coal at Hazleton, Pa. 75 (20049) Miners going into the slope, Hazleton, Pa. 76 (7052) Miner drilling and laborer loading "black diamonds" in the rough, anthracite mining, Scranton, Pa. 77 (7057) Loading cage with car of coal at bottom of shaft, Scran- ton, Pa. 78 (7064) Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 79 (13204) Shipping coal — coal breaker in background, Ashley, Pa. 80 (9648) The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 81 (22128) Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, Philadelphia, Pa. 82 (7090) General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. 8 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 83 (16761) School gardens as a practical educational method — showing Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls, Philadelphia, Pa. 84 (22291) Coining presses, Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. South Atlantic States 27 stereographs or slides DELAWARE — I stereograph or slide 85 (6952) Gathering peaches, Delaware. MARYLAND — / stereograph or slide 86 (6881) "Shucking" oysters, oyster house, Baltimore, Md. DIST. OF COLUMBIA — p stereographs or slides 87 (224) The Capitol, Washington, D. C. 88 (16770) Pres. Woodrow Wilson, reading message to joint session t of House and Senate, Congressional Chamber, Wash- ington, D. C. 89 (V16763) Supreme Court Room, in the Capitol, Washington, D. C. 90 (895) From War, State and Navy Building — White House, Treasury, Pennsylvania Ave. and the Capitol, Washing- ton, D. C. 91 (8025) The White House, Washington, D. C. 92 (V16768) The Cabinet Room, Executive Annex to the White House, Washington, D. C. 93 (16769) From Washington Monument east to Capitol over Agri- cultural Dept. grounds, Washington, D. C. 94 (22303) Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, Bureau of Printing and Engraving, Washington, D. C. 95 (8046) Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. VIRGINIA — 5 stereographs or slides 96 (8038) Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. 97 (20197) A mountain of oyster shells to be placed as bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 98 (14196) Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith — en- acted by the survivors of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe at the Jamestown Exposition — Opening Day, April 26, 1907. 99 (14219) Some operations of the Life Saving Corps — Jamestown Exposition. 100 (14158) Great warships in Hampton Roads, Va. WEST VIRGINIA — J stereograph or slide 101 (184) Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. NORTH CAROLINA — 2 stereographs or slides 102 (6309) Overlooking the Blue Ridge Mountains from Mt. Tox- away, N. C. 103 (6208) Burning charcoal, mountains in western North Carolina. SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 9 SOUTH CAROLINA — 2 stereographs or slides 104 (20010) Flooding the rice fields, South Carolina. 105 (13751) Hoeing rice, South Carolina. GEORGIA — 2 stereographs or slides 106 (13722) Rosin on the docks, Savannah, Ga. 107 (13747) A turpentine farm — dippers and chippers at work, Sa- vannah, Ga. FLORIDA — 4 stereographs or slides 108 (13740) Harvesting Indian River pineapples, Florida. 109 (314) Old Slave Market, St. Augustine, Fla. 110 (13749) Alligator Joe's battle with a wounded 'gator, Palm Beach, Fla. 111 (9175) Sponge market, Key West Harbor, Fla. South Central States 16 stereographs or slides KENTUCKY — 2 stereographs or slides 112 (20092) Tobacco field in Kentucky. 113 (V16741) Cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born, Hodgens- ville, Ky. TENNESSEE — 2 stereographs or slides 114 (23082) Chattanooga and Tennessee River Valley seen from Lookout Mountain, Tenn. 115 (16738) Mining phosphate and loading cars near Columbia, Tenn. ALABAMA — / stereograph or slide 116 (16737) Steel furnace in Alabama's great iron center, Birming- ham, Ala. MISSISSIPPI — / stereograph or slide 117 (9506) Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. ARKANSAS — 1 stereograph or slide 118 (16771) Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Arkansas. LOUISIANA — 2 stereographs or slides 119(12479) Cotton! Cotton! Cotton! Levee, New Orleans, La. 120 (16757) In the Mississippi Delta at head of passes, north from Pilot's Tower to Cubit's Gap, La. OKLAHOMA — / stereograph or slide 121 (16727) A metropolitan view — looking north from the Colcord Bldg., over the City of Oklahoma, Okla. TEXAS- — 6 stereographs or slides 122 (20054) Spindle Top — an important oil region near Beaumont, Texas. 10 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 123 (20354) Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. 124 (9508) Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 125 (20109) Cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 126 (16579) General view of the Alamo Plaza, San Antonio, Texas. 127 (13756) "Making a drive" — on the Paloduro Ranch, Paloduro, Texas. North Central States 59 stereographs or slides OHIO — 8 stereographs or slides 128 (6697) A comprehensive view of unloaders at work on the ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 129 (6705) A trainload of coal for Lake Superior consumption, Con- neaut, Ohio. 130 (13665) Tapping a sugar-maple tree, Portage County, Ohio. 131 (22054) Many forms of crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. 132 (22058) Building up an automobile tire in rubber plant, Akron, Ohio. 133 (22060) An interesting scene in the manufacture of rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio. 134 (22001) Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Rossford, Ohio. 135 (22009) Inspecting plate glass after polishing, Rossford, Ohio. INDIANA — 3 stereographs or slides 136 (16712) Modern methods of corn harvesting — cutter and binder at work on an Indiana farm. 137 (16755) "When the frost is on the pun'kin and the fodder's in the shock "• — ■ Indiana. 138 (21576) A champion team of Percheron draft horses at work on an Indiana stock farm. ILLINOIS — io stereographs or slides 139 (2337) In the heart of the great shopping center, State Street, Chicago. 140 (20250) The world's greatest live stock market, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. 141 (20252) The last process in dressing beef — washing with boiling water, Chicago, 111. 142 (20256) Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before placing them in the refrigerator rooms, Chicago, 111. 143 (20257) Trimming and skinning hams before pickling, in prepara- tion for the market, Chicago, 111. 144 (20259) Making link sausages with the aid of machines which stuff ten feet per second, Chicago, 111. 145 (18341) Shearing sheep with power driven shears, Kirkland, 111. 146 (18335) Marshall Joffre, Viviani, Chocheprat and Fabry — French War Commission (1917) — with Gov. Lowden and State officials at Tomb of Lincoln, Springfield, 111 NORTH CENTRAL STATES 11 147 (6399) Loading oats in the field, Illinois. 148 (20118) Building dikes to protect the city from the flood, East St. Louis, 111. MICHIGAN — io stereographs or slides 149 (16716) Harvesting celery blanched by boards in Michigan's famous celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. 150 (22141) Assembling Room — chassis ready for engines — Cadillac Automobile Plant, Detroit, Mich. 151 (22142) Experts testing engines in the Cadillac Automobile Plant, Detroit, Mich. 152 (22143) Employees leaving the Ford Motor Company Factory, Detroit, Mich. 153 (22014) Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair, Mich. 154 (V16731) Greatest canal traffic in the world — busy scene in the ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 155 (22037) A mile underground — loading and handling cars with copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 156 (22044) Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mills, Lake Linden, Mich. 157 (22049) Loading MOO tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. 158 (11941) "Nursed the little Hiawatha, rocked him in his linden cradle." WISCONSIN — 3 stereographs or slides 159 (16709) Group of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein cattle, Lake Mills, Wis. 160 (16711) Harvesting and loading silage corn in Wisconsin's famous dairy region. 161 (16732) Reclaiming swamp land — digging ditch with tractor and laying drain tile, Wis. MINNESOTA — 8 stereographs or slides 162 (20033) A load of logs at the Kettle River Landing, Minnesota Pineries. 163 (6965) Steam shovel at work, showing how track is laid, Burt Mine, Mesabi Range. Minn. 164 (6978) Looking between ore docks No. 2 and No. 3, Two Har- bors, Minn. 165 (16708) Holstein cattle and attractive dairy barns and silos, near Moorhead, Minn. 166 (16725) Potato digging machines at work in the famous potato region of the Red River Valley, Moorhead, Minn. 167 (16703) Scene in the busy northern metropolis, Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. 168 (11942) "Brought forth food and set before them, brought them water from the brooklet." 169 (11943) "From the wigwam he departed, leading with him Laughing Water." 12 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION IOWA — 4 stereographs or slides 170 (16700) General view of the great power dam and locks in the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. 171 (16701) Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied with power from the Great Dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 172 (16715) Hogs in rape pasture, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 173 (16719) Choice Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep in pas- ture at Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. MISSOURI — 3 stereographs or slides 174 (9518) The magnificent Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 175 (16714) Busy scene in the Ozark apple region of Missouri — picking, sorting and packing in barrels. 176 (16704) Shaft house, smelter and tailing pile, zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. NORTH DAKOTA — i stereograph or slide 177 (16740) Threshing wheat in the Red River Valley, North Dakota. SOUTH DAKOTA — 2 stereographs or slides 178 (16733) Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, South Dakota. 179 (16734) Making a good seed bed. Tractor drawing double disc and 3 section tooth harrows, South Dakota. NEBRASKA — 3 stereographs or slides 180 (16735) Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near Omaha, Neb. 181 (16748) Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader on the farm of Wil- liam Jennings Bryan, near Lincoln, Neb. 182 (16718) Mounted Sioux Indians in "full feather" leaving camp. Nebraska. KANSAS -4 stereographs or slides 183 (16736) Thrifty and contented hogs (Poland China) in rich al- falfa pasture, Effingham, Kansas. 184 (20201) Cornfield, Kansas. 185 (16710) Splendid Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens, show- ing open air feeding shed, Manhattan, Kansas. 186 (20075) Thrown ! Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. Plateau States 28 stereographs or slides MONTANA — 3 stereographs or slides 187 (13638) Copper smelters and mine, Butte, Mont. — the richest mining district in the world. 188 (13641) Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, banks of the Yellow stone, Montana. PLATEAU STATES 13 189 (12269) Lordly monarch of western wilds — actual snapshot of wild elk, Montana. IDAHO — / stereograph or slide 190 (6157) Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. WYOMING — 7 stereographs or slides 191 (13579) After winter's first visit — gap of the Golden Gate, Yel- lowstone National Park, Wyoming. 192 (13588) Angel Terrace, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 193 (13589) Commotion in the Devil's Ink Pot. A moment of erup- tion, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 194 (13584) "Old Faithful," queen of geysers, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 195 (13581) Rocky Mountain Divide, Yellowstone National Park. 196 (13594) A beaver dam, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 197 (13577) Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone National Park. COLORADO — 8 stereographs or slides 198 (20213) Cultivating a field of beets, near Greeley, Colorado. Harvesting barley with combined harvester and thresh- ing machine, drawn by tractor near Ft. Collins, Col- orado. Phoebe's Arch, Palmer Lake, Colorado. Pike's Peak from the Garden of the Gods, Colorado. In the heart of the Box Canyon, Colorado. Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. Ute Indian and family, Colorado. "Dismantled towers and turrets broken!" — cliff dwell- ers' palace in the Mesa Verde, Colorada. ARIZONA — 5 stereographs or slides 206 (13516) The famous log bridge spanning a chasm 50 ft. wide, Petrified Forest, Arizona. 207 (13718) Cultivating field of Egyptian long staple cotton with rid- ing disc cultivator in Salt River Valley, near Phcenix. 208 (13660) On the Bright Angel Trail, Grand Canyon of the Col- orado, Arizona. 209 (13724) The effects of irrigation on Arizona desert, giant cactus in foreground, Salt River Valley, Arizona. 210 (16742) Reclaiming vast areas by irrigation — the great Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Ariz. NEW MEXICO — I stereograph or slide 211 (13720) As in ancient days, pueblo of the Taos Indians, Taos, New Mexico. UTAH — 2 stereographs or slides 212 (2454) Salt Lake City, Utah. 213 (2459) Ogden and Wasatch Mountains, Utah. 199 (13719) 200 (2403) 201 (13717) 202 (8008) 203 (8080) 204 (8082) 205 (V8014) 14 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION NEVADA — i stereograph or slide 214 (16759) A silver mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. Pacific States 28 stereographs or slides WASHINGTON — 6 stereographs or slides 215 (20031) Great chained log rafts, containing millions of feet of lumber, on the Columbia River, Wash. 216 (13618) Port Blakely Mills — largest in the world, near Seattle, Puget Sound, Wash. 217 (20027) Shipping lumber, Washington. 218 (V11623) Harvesting in the great West — combined reaper and thresher, Washington. 219 (14135) Looking down a deep crevasse of Paradise Glacier, sum- mit of Mt. Rainier in the distance — Rainier National Park, Wash. 220 (13721) Second Avenue from Yester Way, Seattle, Wash. OREGON — 7 stereographs or slides 221 (13635) 222 (14103) 223 (6228) 224 (13567) 225 (13796) 226 (13624) 227 (13625) A splendid view of Mt. Hood, Ore. Crater Lake, Oregon. When a volcano has been quiet for centuries the inside slopes become weathered enough to support life and the crater may be filled with water and become a lake. Line of sand dunes, Columbia River, Oregon. One of the great trees that grow in the rainy north- west — showing method of felling, Oregon. Hydraulic mining, Oregon. P'irst haul of the season — salmon industry, Columbia River, Ore. Butchering salmon — interior of a canning establishment, Astoria, Oregon. CALIFORNIA — 15 stereographs or slides 228 (5022) The Sierras, from Glacier Rock, Yosemite Valley, Cal. 229 (5006) The Wawona Tree, Mariposa Grove, Yosemite Valley, Cal. 230 (16743) Market St., Twin Peaks in the distance, San Francisco, Cal. 231 (13299) Remarkable earthquake fissure in the Sobrante Hills, near Berkeley, Cal. 232 (16676) The great American bison that once roamed in countless thousands over our vast prairies, Cal. 233 (20215) A combined steam harvester which reaps, threshes and sacks the wheat, Cal. 234 (16744) Harvesting almonds, San Joaquin County, Cal. 235 (16746) Luther Burbank's spineless cactus, Santa Rosa. Cal. OUTLYING POSSESSIONS 15 236 (16747) Tokay Grapes — in a California vineyards, Acompo, Cal. 237 (13723) Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Redlands, Cal. 238 (4300) Orange blossoms and fruit, Los Angeles, Cal. 239 (13528) Just out — baby ostriches on the Cawston ostrich farm, California. 240 (16745) Picking olives, Tulare Co., Cal. 241 (13555) San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 242 (16667) Submarines in the foreground and battle-ships and tor- pedo brats in the background, San Diego Bay, Cal. Outlying Possessions of the United States (Except the Philippines and Guam) 19 stereographs or slides ALASKA — 4 stereographs or slides 243 (9195) Preparing to climb " The Golden Stair " and Peterson's Trail, Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 244 (11518) Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 245 (9374) Placer mining near the Yukon River, Alaska. 246 (11530) Gold miners and dog team north of the Arctic Circle, Alaska. PANAMA, C. Z. — ■ 10 stereographs or slides 247 (20857) Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting — palm tree with palm nuts. Panama. 248 (20877) Looking down on the City and Bay of Panama, from Ancon Hill, Panama Canal Zone. 249 (13320) Dwellings erected for employees of old French Canal Company, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. 250 (20889) Site of the Gatun Lock, looking south from the lowest lock towards Lake Gatun — Panama Canal Route. 251 (21740) Excavations measuring 500 ft. deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. 252 (21783) North over Gatun Locks and sea level entrance to Panama Canal, Atlantic Ocean in the distance. 253 (21784) South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, Emergency Dam in position — a busy scene on the Panama Canal. 254 (21781) U. S. S. Missouri — the first battleship to pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Panama Canal. 255 (21786) Hospital grounds and Ancon Hill from Hotel Tivoli, Panama. 256 (21787) At the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal — showing fortified islands, wireless tower and breakwater. PORTO RICO — - 2 stereographs or slides 257 (10252) Overlooking the harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 258 (10264) Cutting the sugar cane, Rio Pedro, Porto Rico. 16 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION HAWAII — 3 stereographs or slides 259 (10154) Luxuriant vegetation in the Mauna Loa Valley, Hawaii. 260 (10161) With the flag goes the public school — Royal School, Honolulu, Hawaii. 261 (10156) Pretty hula girls, Honolulu, Hawaii. PHILIPPINES — See Asia. GUAM — See Asia. NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 18 stereographs or slides CANADA — 16 stereographs or slides 262 (13895) "In the Acadian Land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas." Nova Scotia, Canada. 263 (13882) Indian basket weaving, Prince Edward Island, Canada. 264 (13987) View from Dufferin Terrace, Quebec, Canada. 265 (16061) Iroquois Indians who participated in tercentenary pag- eant (1908), Quebec, Can. 266 (16037) Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal in a military parade at Quebec. 267 (10625) The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 268 (20927) Winding bobbins in linen mill — linen industry, Canada. 269 (20932) Weaving the linen fabric — linen industry, Canada. 270 (20941) Beets stored in sheds with V-shaped bins having canals underneath to carry them to washing drum. 271 (20944) Beet pulp and juice flowing into large iron tanks, where it is subjected to diffusion by water. 272 (20916) Scraping the hair from the hides roughly by machinery — tanning industry, Canada. 273 (16316) In the thriving metropolis of Western Canada — Main St., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. 274 (13830) A treacherous crevasse in Victoria Glacier — Mt. Lefroy and Mt. Victoria in distance, Canadian Rockies, Canada. 275 (13802) Among the wonderful ice peaks of the Illecillewaet Glacier. 276 (13806) Mt. Sir Donald, the Matterhorn of the North American Alps. 277 (13837) Western terminus of Canadian Pacific Transcontinental R. R., and Burrard Inlet, Vancouver, B. C, Can. NEWFOUNDLAND — 2 stereographs or slides 278 (16320) Harbor of St. John's from the Dry Docks, Newfoundland. 279 (16318) Eskimo dog team on trail, Hopedale, Labrador. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF N. A. 17 SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 24 stereographs or slides MEXICO — // stereographs or slides 280 (10800) Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 281 (10809) Home of the peon — the adobe hut, Mexico. 282 (10803) City of Mexico, the ancient Tenochtitlan of the Aztecs. 283 (10910) Soldiers' Monument and Castle of Chapultepec, City of Mexico. 284 (10925) Pyramid of Sun, from Pyramid of the Moon, San Juan Teotihuacan. 285 (10926) Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant used in making pulque, the native drink, Tacuba, Mexico. 286 (10888) Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 287 (16106) Rich Gold and Silver Mining Center, El Oro, State of Mexico, Mexico. 288 (10865) The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid, and "Old Popo- catapetl," Cholula, Mexico. 289 (16100) Henequen, the wealth of Yucatan, from which sisal hemp fibre is produced, Mexico. 290 (17787) Mexican musicians and dancing girls in national costume. Central America 4 stereographs or slides GUATEMALA — / stereograph or slide 291 (12872) Escuintla and the twin volcanoes Fuego and Acatenango, Guatemala, C. A. SALVADOR — 1 stereograph or slide 292 (12860) Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A. NICARAGUA — 1 stereograph or slide 293 (12911) Lake Nicaragua, on Nicaragua canal route, controlled by the U. S., Nicaragua, C. A. COSTA RICA — 1 stereograph or slide 294 (12804) Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C A. West Indies 9 stereographs or slides CUBA — 5 stereographs or slides 295 (20518) Havana Wharf, Cuba — unloading coffee from Porta Rico. • 296 (9078) General view of the wrecked battleshio Maine. 297 (10236) Cutting tobacco grown in the shade of banana trees, Province of Havana, Cuba. 298 (9072) Farming scene, Province of Havana, Cuba. 18 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 299 (10237) Santiago and the harbor, Cuba. 300 See Guadeloupe, below No. 302. JAMAICA — / stereograph or slide 301 (9991) A cattle ranch in Jamaica, B. W. I. GUADELOUPE — 2 stereographs or slides 302 (14439) Coffee pickers at work, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 300 (14437) Mighty earthquake fissure, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. DOMINICA — i stereograph or slide 303 (14455) The eccentric growth of cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. SOUTH AMERICA 38 stereographs or slides BRAZIL — 8 stereographs or slides 304 (20838) Lower city and harbor, Sao Salvador (Bahia), Brazil. 305 (21822) Avenida Rio Branco from Hotel Avenida on a holiday, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 306 (21821) Children of illustrious Brazilian families in an American private school, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 307 (21851) Tropical view down the slope of Santa Theresa toward the harbor, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 308 (21847) Scene in Rua 15th of November, the principal street, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 309 (21848) Municipal Theatre, one of the handsomest play houses in the world, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 310 (20817) Method of drying coffee, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 311 (20816) Carts loaded with coffee leaving the plantation, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. URUGUAY — 2 stereographs or slides 312 (20829) Plaza Independencia showing " Portales," Montevideo, Uruguay. 313 (20827) Great dredge by which the harbor is made navigable, Montevideo, Uruguay. ARGENTINA — 8 stereographs or slides 314 (20824) Entrance to the harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 315 (20840) The Government buildings from the balcony of (he Bourse. 316 (21809) Four o'clock parade of society in Palermo, a suburb of Buenos Aires, Argentina. 317 (20844) Argentina's famous cattle on range, La Plata, Argentina, So. Am. 318 (21875) Majestic Iguazu Falls, Argentina. SOUTH AMERICA 19 319 (21818) Italian settler and family, vineyards in background, Men- doza, Argentina. 320 (20850) Two typical means of transportation — the high cart and the gig — Alta Gracia, Argentina. 321 (21817) Along the Mendoza River in the Andean Foothills, Ar- gentina. CHILE — 7 stereographs or slides 322 (21861) Charming Inca Lake (Laguna del Inca) nestling in the Chilean Andes. 323 (21860) Station from which the train climbs 5000 feet in a few miles to the summit, Juncal, Chile. 324 (21843) Cathedral and Plaza, Chilean woman in native dress, Santiago, Chile. 325 (22369) Nitrate for agriculture and for war being sacked by natives for shipment, Chile. « 326 (21865) The harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 327 (21836) Goods arriving at docks for shipment, Valparaiso, Chile. 328 (21874) Indians on the Strait of Magellan near Punta Arenas, Chile. PERU — 6 stereographs or slides 329 (21867) Across the Plaza in Arequipa to the famous volcano, Monte Misti, Peru. 330 (21811) In the heart of the rugged Cordilleras, the Cofa Bridge on the Oroya Railway, Peru. 331 (21871) Natives near wall of Incan Palace — most remarkable monument of ancient Peru, Cuzco. 332 (21869) Tractor with cable drawing harrow and pulverizer to pre- pare soil for planting sugar cane, Lima, Peru. 333 (21868) Replanting the sugar cane in a large hacienda near Lima, Peru. 334 (21870) Refining silver in smelter at the famous mining center of Cerro de Pasco, Peru. BOLIVIA — I stereograph or slide 335 (21866) Famous Copacabana Church near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, llama in foreground. ECUADOR — i stereograph or slide 336 (21872) Charming Spanish maiden on balcony, Guayaquil, Ecuador. COLOMBIA — i stereograph or slide 337 (21873) Quaint scene in streets of Barranquilla, Colombia. VENEZUELA — 4 stereographs or slides 338 (13314) La Guaira, Venezuela, showing fort bombarded by the British in 1902. 20 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 339 (13315) In the narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela — native method of distributing milk unadulterated. 340 (13307) National University and Halls of Congress, Caracas, Venezuela. 341 (13309) The city baker making his daily rounds, Caracas, Vene- zuela. • POLAR REGIONS (Except Alaska and Norway) 5 stereographs or slides ARCTIC — 2 stereographs or slides 342 (13325) The twin ships, Windward and Eric — Peary expedition in 1901 — at Nuerke, 800 miles from North Pole, Greenland. 343 (V13331) Eskimo girls in clothing made from skins, in the frigid Arctic, Cape York, Greenland. (See also 246 Alaska and 413, 414 and 415 Norway) ANTARCTIC — J stereographs or slides 344 (13326) Hauling snow for water supply — Belgica Antarctic ex- 345 (13328) 346 (13327) pedition. (1897-99.) Commander Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgica Antarctic expedition (1897-99), on skis hunting seals on south polar pack. Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, inspect- ing ice field near glacier, Antarctic Ocean. EUROPE 142 stereographs or slides British Isles 36 stereographs or slides ENGLAND — 16 stereographs or slides 347 (3028) Landing Stage, Liverpool, England. 348 (2101) London Bridge over the Thames River, England. 349 (V2111) Tower of London, London, England. 350 (3002) Westminster Abbey, London, England. 351 (3004) The Bank of England, London, England. 352 (11301) The House of Lords, London, England. 353 (6146) The regulator of the world's clocks, Greenwich, England. 354 (3009) Birthplace of William Shakespeare, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 355 (3012) Anne Hathaway's Cottage, Shottery, England. 356 (3010) Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 357 (13149) Harvesting wheat in Old England. GREAT BRITAIN — GERMANY 21 358 (21561) Whitefaced Herefords — an English breed of beef cattle of worldwide fame. 359 (21200) A nightingale on its sheltered nest. 360 (3015) York and its Cathedral, England. 361 (13120) Lake Grasmere and Village from Red Bank, Lake Dis- trict, England. 362 (13123) Rydal Mount, home of Poet Wordsworth, Lake District, England. WALES — J stereograph or slide 363 (2702) Fairy Glen, Bettws-y-Coed, Wales. CHANNEL ISLANDS— J stereograph or slide 364 (21522) Jersey cattle, the most famous product of the Island of Jersey, Channel Islands. SCOTLAND — p stereographs or slides 365 (2610) Princess Street and Waverly Gardens, Edinburgh, Scot- land. 366 (12711) Highlanders in native costume at the great Forth Bridge, one and one-half miles long, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queensferry, Scotland. 367 (12703) Historic Stirling Castle, Scotland. 368 (12704) Wallace Monument, the national memorial to Scotland's daring chieftain, Stirling, Scotland. 369 (2607) Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland. 370 (21501) Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle developed in Scotland. 371 (21502) A beautiful and productive type of dairy cattle (Ayr- shire) originating in County Ayr, Scotland. 372 (12700) Burns' cottage, room where the poet was born, Ayr, Scotland. 373 (12702) A highland home, Scotland. IRELAND — 9 stereographs or slides 374 (2517) Queenstown Harbor, Ireland. 375 (12619) Street market in Cork, Ireland. 376 (2503) Blarney Castle, Ireland. 377 (2500) Lakes of Killarney, Ireland. 378 (6110) Peat from Irish bogs, High Street, Killarney, Ireland. 379 (12600) Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 380 (2504) Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland. 381 (2508) Royal Avenue, Belfast, Ireland. 382 (6854) Giant's Causeway, side view of basaltic columns, Ireland. GERMANY — n stereographs or slides 383 (6131) The Reichstags-Gebaude, Berlin, Germany. 384 (10303) Royal Palace, Berlin, Germany. 22 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 385 (10378) An open air china market, Coblenz, Germany. 386 (2011) Hamburg from across the Elbe, Germany. 387 (10336) Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany. 388 (10376) Making hay in the highlands of Bavaria, Germany. 389 See France after No. 426. 390 (10352) Toiling in the vineyards — picking the luscious grapes, Rudesheim, Germany. 391 (10377) The Rhine Valley at Bingen, Germany. 392 (10339) The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 393 (2002) Market, Cologne, Germany. 394 (18000) Zeppelin flying over a German town — lower valley of the Rhine. BELGIUM — 4 stereographs or slides 395 (6121) In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. 396 (2084) Milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 397 (10115) River Meuse and Pare de la Citadel, Namur, Belgium. 398 (21577) Belgian draft horses — a world champion in foreground. THE NETHERLANDS — 5 stereographs or slides 399 (12202) The New Market and canal, Amsterdam, Holland. 400 (12203) On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland. 401 (6436) A Dutch fishing village, Island of Marken, Zuider Zee, Holland. 402 (6435) Quaint street in Marken near Amsterdam, Holland. 403 (12201) Dutch farm hands milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near Rotterdam, Holland. DENMARK — 3 stereographs or slides 404 (13080) Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. 405 (13082) A busy market square, Copenhagen, Denmark. 406 (13077) The Krystal-Gade and the Round Tower, Copenhagen, Denmark. NORWAY — o stereographs or slide's 407 (13414) The Lotefos, Norway's most famous waterfall. 408 (13408) In the fair and fertile Jordal Valley — Buerbrae Glacier in distance, Norway. 409 (13496) Carding and spinning wool — snow capped Mt. Boerte- nose in the background, Telemarken, Norway. 410 (13420) Making the " flat bread" of the Norwegian peasant, Nor- way. 411 (13422) Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 412 (13467) Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp. Paper Mills. Skotifos, Norway. 413 (15770) Laplanders milking the reindeer. Norway. 414 (15774) Midnight sun, North Cape, Lapland. 415 (15768) Floating whale station, Spitsbergen, Lapland. SWEDEN — FRANCE — SPAIN 23 SWEDEN — 5 stereographs or slides 416 (13000) General view of Stockholm, Sweden. 417 (13003) The Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, Sweden. 418 (13015) Dalecarlian girls at home, Skansen, Stockholm, Sweden. 419 (13017) Women weeding a field of sugar beets, Sweden. 420 (13029) Custom-house scene and harbor of the enterprising city of Goteborg, Sweden. FRANCE — 12 stereographs or slides 421 (11741) Bird's-eye view of Paris from the Arch of Triumph, France. 422 (1641) Avenue Champs Elysees, Paris, France. 423 (11787) Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge at 6 o'clock a. m., Paris, France. 424 (1603) The Grand Opera, Paris, France. 425 (3104) Notre Dame, Paris, France. 426 (18716) Where American troops helped turn the tide of the World's War, Chateau-Thierry, France. 3S9 (10371) Kleber Place, in the heart of Strassburg, France. 427 (10732) Glacier des Bossons, Chamonix, France. 428 (10734) Mer de Glace (sea of ice), from the Montanvert, Chamonix, France. 429 (6102) The Cathedral, near busy docks, Marseilles, France. 430 (11760) A seaside paradise — Cannes, France. 431 (11766) Women washing clothes, Nice, France. MONACO — i stereograph or slide 432 (11754) Monaco — The Prince's Castle in view. SPAIN 433 (15808) 434 (15814) 435 (15800) 436 (967) 437 (15834) 438 (15828) 439 (966) the -7 stereographs or slides Commodious harbor of Barcelona, looking towards the Columbus Monument and custom-house, Spain. General view of Burgos, Spain. Panorama of Madrid, showing fete celebration in foreground, Spain. Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. Picking Valencia oranges, near Valencia, Spain. Andalusian carts coming into town, Almeria, Spain. Rock of Gibraltar, England's only possession on mainland of Europe. SWITZERLAND — io stereographs or slides 440 (10770) To the clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 441 (10798) Braving Alpine perils — on the top of Mt. Pilatus over- looking a sea of clouds, Switzerland. 442 (10781) The Kapellbrucke crossing the River Reuss, Lucerne, Switzerland. 443 (6130) The Wood Carver, Meiringen, Switzerland. 444 (10750) Lauterbrunnen Valley and the lovely fall of the Staubbach, Switzerland. 24 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 445 (10702) A mountain chalet, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 446 (10703) Blowing the alpine horn, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 447 (10705) Grindelwald on market day, Switzerland. 448 (10765) Looking at the Matterhorn from Riffelburg Hotel, Switzerland. 449 (10793) Goods for the High Alps, near Zermatt, Switzerland. ITALY — io stereographs or slides 450 (1901) Rome, the Eternal City, from the balcony of St. Peter's, Italy. 451 (11200) The Tiber, Castle of San Angelo, and St. Peter's Cathe- dral, Rome, Italy. 452 (11234) Colosseum, the "King of Ruins," Rome, Italy. 453 (14614) The forum of Pompeii and Vesuvius, Italy. 454 (1972) A Neapolitan team, Naples, Italy. 455 (16830) Street scene in tenement district, Palermo, Sicily. 456 (1952) Vecchio bridge across the River Arno, Florence, Italy. 457 (6482) Grand Canal, Venice, Italv. 458 (1941) The Cathedral, Milan, Italy. 459 (7282) Lake Como and village, Como, Italy. AUSTRIA — 3 stereographs or slides 460 (15614) Marie Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria. 461 (15610) Public Square, looking toward Schlossberg, Gratz, Aus- tria. 462 (15607) Along the Danube Canal in the very heart of Vienna, Austria. CZECHOSLOVAKIA — / stereograph or slide 463 (15668) Historic Carlstein Castle near Prague, Bohemia. HUNGARY — i stereograph or slide 464 (15656) One of Europe's famous avenues, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest, Hungary. 465 See Poland. JUGO-SLAVIA — 2 stereographs or slides 466 (15611) Natives in market place. Serajevo, Bosnia. 467 (17300) View of junction of Save River with the Danube — Hun- garian city of Semlin in distance at the right — from heights of Belgrade, Serbia. BULGARIA — 2 stereographs or slides 468 (17207) Street scene showing peasant woman and sidewalk coffee house, Sofia, Bulgaria. 469 (17218) Native market scene, Rustchuk, Bulgaria. ROUMANIA — 2 stereographs or slides 470 (17200) The great railway bridge over the Danube River at Cerna-Voda, Roumania. TURKEY — TURKEY IN ASIA 25 471 (15658) Roumanian mother and children, on the bank of the Danube, Roumania. TURKEY — 3 stereographs or slides 472 (10953) The famous Galata Bridge and the Golden Horn, Con- stantinople, Turkey. 473 (10977) Mosque of St. Sophia, Constantinople, Turkey. 474 (7178) Street scene in Constantinople, Turkey. GREECE — 6 stereographs or slides 475 (964) Athens and Acropolis, Greece. 476 (7127) The Royal Palace, soldiers in national dress, Athens, Greece. 477 (7134) Excavators at work, Old Corinth, Greece. 478 (7155) Ruins of Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece. 479 (7170) Treading out the grain, threshing as in olden days, Greece. 480 (7171) Shepherds and their flocks on the Argive Plain, Greece. FINLAND — / stereograph or slide 481 (6652) Fishwives of Finland — a busy scene on the quay. RUSSIA AND THE UKRAINE — 6 stereographs or slides 482 (6656) Senate and the Academy on the Vasili Island, Petrograd, Russia. 483 (6549) The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 484 (6644) The great bell market at the Fair, Nizhni Novgorod, 485 See Poland. 486 (18104) The Krestchatik, the principal street of Kief, one of the famous old cities of Ukraine. 487 (18103) Quaint dairy maids delivering milk in earthenware jars suspended on poles, Kief. Ukraine. 488 (18101) Plowing with a primitive native plow — how the Rus- sian peasant tills his leased fields. POLAND — 2 stereographs or slides 465 (15609) Polish school children, Zakopane, Galicia. 485 (20462) Hat and clothes market, Jewish quarter, Warsaw. ASIA 66 stereographs or slides ASIA MINOR — 3 stereographs or slides 489 (10969) Looking up the Bosporus toward the Black Sea from the heights above Scutari, Asia Minor. 490 (10975) Circassian native types of Asia Minor. 491 (11156) City blacksmith shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus, Asia Minor. 26 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION SYRIA — 3 stereographs or slides 492 (11151) Bird's-eye view of Beirut, Syria. 493 (7323) Over the roofs, "the street called Straight," Damascus, Syria. 494 (20703) A Sheik and his bodyguard, Syria. PALESTINE — 4 stereographs or slides 495 (7304) View of Jerusalem, from Mount of Olives, Palestine. 496 (7306) Russian pilgrims returning from the Jordan, on the Jericho road, Palestine. 497 (11071) The threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 498 (11058) Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. Indian Empire 13 stereographs or slides INDIA PROPER — jo stereographs or slides 499 (12501) Madras and harbor, India. 500 (12564) The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River in Delta oi the Ganges, Calcutta, India. 501 (12556) Pilgrims bathing in the sacred Ganges before the temple in Benares, the religious center of India. 502 (12568) The Taj Mahal, Agra, India. 503 (12558) Moslem multitudes leaving the Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India. 504 (12560) Abundant and marvelous life of India thronging the spacious thoroughfare, Jaipur, India. 505 (12554) Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 506 (12565) Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. 507 (12563) Inflated bullock skins for ferry boats on Sutlej River in the Punjab, India. 508 (12561) "The Roof of the World"— the majestic Himalayas rising in matchless splendor above the sea of clouds, Darjeeling, Northern India. BURMA — i stereograph or slide 509 (12553) Giant beasts of burden, patient elephants hauling logs from the Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. CEYLON — 2 stereographs or slides 511 (12101) Colombo Harbor from the landing jetty, Ceylon. 512 (12566) Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, sapphires and moonstones, Ratnapora, Ceylon. SIAM — i stereograph or slide 510 (23500) Royal elephant hunt, Siam. CHINA AND MANCHURIA — 12 stereographs or slides 513 (12052) "Queen's Road," the business thoroughfare in Hong- kong, China. JAPANESE EMPIRE 27 514 (14559) On the river, Canton, China. 515 (12079) The Yangtze River Valley at Chinkiang, China. 516 (12076) The Chinese substitute for horse power — manipulating a huge stone roller on the streets of Nanking, China. 517 (14554) China's great river Yangtze, showing Hankow from Wuchang, China. 518 (V14558) Train of Bactrian camels, Peking, China. 519 (14557) An open air restaurant, Peking, China. 520 (12007) Chinese school children and teacher at the American Board of Missions, Peking, China. 521 (14517) Store of rich Chinese tea merchant, Chifu, North China. 522 (6631) Chinese farmer boys tilling the soil, near Port Arthur. 523 (6571) Chinamen sawing timbers for the Japanese Army, Man- churia. 524 (14555) Caravan passing through an ancient gateway in the Great Wall at the head of the Nankow Pass, North China. Japanese Empire jo stereographs or slides JAPAN PROPER — 17 stereographs or slides 525 (14812) The Sacred Mountain of Fuji-Yama, Japan. 526 (14032) Tokyo, the Japanese Capital. 527 (14791) Threshing rice by pulling the grains from the stem, Japan. 528 (14730) Rice planters at work, Japan. 529 (14789) Rice harvest — cutting the straw close to the ground with a sickle, Japan. 530 (14739) A country girl of Old Japan — among the famous tea fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 531 (14845) Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 532 (14058) All sorts and sizes — a Japanese shoe shop. 533 (14727) Interior of a Japanese home — showing method of sleep- ing. 534 (14045) In the "Land of Flowers," a tea house in Japan. 535 (14047) An idyllic spot where little Japanese maids delight to stroll. 536 (14746) Silk worm incubator, Japan. 537 (14744) Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms, Japan. 538 (14748) Feeding mulberry leaves to the voracious young silk worms, Japan. 539 (14750) Silkworm cocoons in their nests, Kiryu, Japan. 540 (14753) Reeling silk from cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 541 (14757) One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants — American machinery and American methods, Kiryu, Japan. 28 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION CHOSEN (KOREA) — 2 stereographs or slides 542 (14076) White-robed pottery peddlers on the streets of Seoul, Chosen (Korea). 543 (20601) Charcoal carriers, Chosen (Korea). SIBERIA — / stereograph or slide 544 (14519) Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. East Indies 9 stereographs or slides JAVA — J stereograph or slide 545 (16400) One of the great active volcanoes of Java. PHILIPPINES — 8 stereographs or slides 546 (10085) " Cascos," the floating homes of many thousands — house boats on the Pasig River, Manila, Island of Luzon, P. I. 547 (10058) Calle Real, principal street of Walled City, Manila from top of Parian Gate, Island of Luzon, P. I. 548 (10056) Cattle used as pack animals and for riding — Mayon in the background, Island of Luzon, P. I. 549 (10064) Filipino farmers harrowing rice fields near Manila, P. I. 550 (10070) Hulling rice for breakfast — Island of Luzon, P. I. 551 (10074) Husking coconuts — a familiar scene in the great coconut country near Pagsanjan, Island of Luzon, P. I. 552 (10035) Manila hemp industry — stripping the tree, Philippines. 553 (10047) Manila hemp industry — interior of a native rope factory, Philippines. GUAM — 1 stereograph or slide 554 (16401) Mission Home Grounds, Island of Guam. AFRICA 30 stereographs or slides MOROCCO — / stereograph or slide 555 (17130) Teeming Arab life in the market place, Tangier, Morocco. ALGIERS — 1 stereograph or slide 556 (17000) Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. TUNIS — / stereograph or slide 557 (17131) Outside the fine old gate, Bab-el-Hathera, in the walls of Tunis, Tunis. EGYPT — 12 stereographs or slides 558 (9820) Bird's-eye view of Alexandria from British fort, Komed Dimas, Egypt. BRITISH E. AFRICA — UNION OF S. AFRICA 29 559 (17020) The Suez Canal from a German liner, looking north, Africa. 560 (9749) The great Nile Bridge, Cairo, Egypt. 561 (9774) Tilling the soil as in ancient days, Egypt. 562 (9759) Threshing beans in the field, Egypt. 563 (6233) Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 564 (9812) Inundation of the Nile, Egypt. 565 (9781) The Sphinx and Second Pyramid, Egypt. 566 (9771) Ancient and modern Egypt, Sakkara. 567 (9843) Caravan leaving oasis in the desert of Egypt. 568 (9737) Ruins of Karnak, Egypt. 569 (6242) The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. BRITISH EAST AFRICA — 5 stereographs or slides 570 (17033) Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 571 (17034) Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 572 (17011) The native market at Port Florence, Lake Victoria Nyanza, Africa. 573 (17005) Shipping ivory at Mombasa, Africa. 574 (17018) Dar-es-Salaam, the chief city and port of German East Africa. RHODESIA — 4 stereographs or slides 575 (17023) Scene above bridge on the Cape to Cairo Railway, over Zambezi River, near Victoria Falls, Africa. 576 (17004) Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, Rhodesia, Africa. 577 (17012) Result of a morning's hippopotamus hunt on Mlembo River, Rhodesia, Africa. 578 (17015) Returning with trophies from a big game hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA — 6 stereographs or slides 579 (11979) Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet underground, Robinson Mine, Johannesburg, South Africa. 580 (11881) Imperial Army transports crossing the Vaal River at Viljoen's Drift, South Africa. 581 (17026) Taking out the " diamantif erous blue earth" at Wessel- ton Diamond Mines, Kimberley, South Africa. 582 (17008) City Hall from parade ground, showing Table Moun- tain, .Cape Town, South Africa. 583 (11994) Millions of South African gannets, near Cape Town, South Africa. 584 (17014) Penguins on Dassen Island near Cape Town, South Africa. 30 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION AUSTRALIA AND ISLANDS 8 stereographs or slides NEW SOUTH WALES — / stereograph or slide 585 (15962) Review of the troops, Centennial Park, Sydney, N. S. W. VICTORIA — 2 stereographs or slides 586 (15987) Giant Eucalyptus or Gum Trees, 400 feet high, Victoria. 587 (15908) Federal Parliament Building, Melbourne, Victoria. SOUTH AUSTRALIA — / stereograph or slide 588 (15902) Kangaroo in the zoological garden, Adelaide, South Australia. QUEENSLAND — i stereograph or slide 589 (15986) Sheep on the range, Australia. TASMANIA — / stereograph or slide 590 (15903) Elizabeth Street and the Union Bank of Australia, Ho- bart, Tasmania. NEW ZEALAND — / stereograph or slide 591 (15978) Looking across Auckland Harbor towards Auckland from Northcote, New Zealand. NEW GUINEA — / stereograph or slide 592 (15985) In a Papuan village, New Guinea. EARTH NEIGHBORS 8 stereographs or slides 593 (16764) The Sun photographed through forty-inch telescope. Yerkes Observatory. 594 (16648) The full Moon. Yerkes Observatory. 595 (16646) Moon at age of seventeen days. Yerkes Observatory. 596 (16766) The planet Mars. Yerkes Observatory. 597 (16767) The planet Saturn. Solar Observatory, at Mt. Wilson, Cal. 598 (16765) The planet Uranus and two of its moons. Yerkes Ob- servatory. 599 (16647) Meteor in constellation of Orion. . Yerkes Observatory. 600 (16645) Morehouse's Comet. Yerkes Observatory. 2. PEOPLE OF ALL LANDS RACIAL GEOGRAPHY By MARK JEFFERSON, A.M. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. The most common way to distinguish the races of men is by the color of their skins. For us the great race must always be the white one. The others are the yellow (red) and the black. These names are not accurately applied. Black is the best, yet black people never are really black. There is greater differ- ence of color between a fair Norwegian and a swarthy Italian than between the Italian and a black, but the names white, yel- low, black stand because of long usage. Races are more ac- curately distinguished by the shape of the skull, by the fea- tures, and still better by the form of the hair. The Caucasian people are marked by the slender prominent nose and by soft, wavy hair. Each hair has an oval cross section, and the oval form enables it to bend easily. Compare this with the kinky hair which, with the broad flat nose and thick lips, is character- istic of the negro. The hair is kinky because each hair is flat like a ribbon. The yellow and red men have round, rod-like hair which is always straight, and high cheek bones. The yel- low men also are marked by slanting eyes. Each race is di- vided into great families of related people having similarities of color, size, shape and disposition. Such are the Teutonic, the Celtic, the Slavonic families of the Caucasian race. Of the 1700 millions of men today (1917), more than half — 900 million — are white. They live in Europe or colonies from Europe, and parts of India and Malaysia. They are the dominant race in every continent, the only race of men that have learned to use the forces of nature widely. The only race to increase their powers greatly by the use of machinery and scientific knowledge. 3i 32 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY The 600 millions of the yellow race are next in importance. They live mostly in Asia and have attained in China and Japan a degree of culture only second to that of the whites. Indeed, now that they have begun to study western science, it is not certain that they are still behind. Japan is today one of the six Great Powers of the World. Twenty-five million red men in America are closely like the yellow men in physical charac- ters, the hair rod-like and high cheek bones as in Asia. There is no historic knowledge of their coming to America, but they are of the yellow race and doubtless came to the New World by Bering Sea. In Mexico and Peru a few of them attained a moderate amount of civilization, but doubtless the farming Indians of Oklahoma are today the most cultivated individuals this race has ever known. Two hundred million blacks, in Africa and Australasia, are the least progressive race of men. Only in America the de- scendants of African slaves have had some aspect of civiliza- tion thrust upon them. These brief notes on the cultures of the different races find considerable illustration in the stereo- graphs. 1. WHITE (CAUCASIAN) RACE The white or Caucasian race includes a large number of re- lated peoples with many characteristics in common but differ- ing in many ways. The skins of the people of the white race are really of a great variety of colors — very light in Norway and almost black in India or Arabia. A strong racial char- acteristic is the wavy or curly hair — the individual hairs be- ing slightly flattened threads. The white race is the dominant race. It has attained a high degree of civilization through its ability to meet suc- cessfully its environment and to utilize the forces and re- sources of nature to carry on its work. Our material civiliza- tion is founded on labor — the labor of the individual or its man-power equivalent in mechanical energy. " The power of Greece, whereby she achieved such great things in all direc- tions of human progress, was largely based in the first instance on the work done by the slaves. On the average, each Greek freeman, each Greek family, had five slaves, whom we think of VARIOUS TYPES IN AMERICA 33 not at all when we speak of the Greeks, and yet these were the men who supplied a great part of the Greek energy." These slaves not only did the work of the nation, but they made it possible for the free Greek people to devote their time to the cultivation of their minds, thus making further progress possi- ble. Through present day control of water, steam, gas and electric energy and the invention and construction of many mechanical appliances in a modern civilized nation such as the United States, England or Germany, each family has work- ing for it the man-power equivalent of more than twenty slaves. " We have become a nation of engineers pressing buttons and pulling levers, oiling and packing, so that the great social machine will work smoothly and as easily as possible." VARIOUS TYPES IN AMERICA In America, " the melting pot of the nations," there have been brought together large groups of the more advanced peoples of the Cau- casian race, who are building a high type of civilization. What peoples colonized America? What other peoples arrived later? What nations furnish most of our immigrants today? Give racial char- acteristics of each large group that has contributed to our population. In what section is the influence of each group best shown? What is each contributing toward our greater America? 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerine. Occupation calling for knowl- edge and coolness. 148 Building dikes, St. Louis, Mo. White laborers resourceful in emergencies. 166 Potato digging machines, Moorhead, Minn. High priced white labor in America made effectively cheap by multiplying its power with the use of machines. 30, 139 Trade centers of a complex civilization. 31, 43 Handling transportation problems. 161,180,178,179,181,233,177 Show the white man's application of mechanical power and skill to agricultural problems. 152, 144, 14, 16, 40, 41, 54 Show something of our great factory systems made possible by the mechanical skill and organizing genius of the white race. 128 How the inventive genius of the white race multiplies man-power a hundred fold. 250 to 256 Building the Panama Canal. One of the greatest achieve- ments of the race, 34 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 226 First haul of the season, Columbia River Salmon Fisheries, Ore- gon. Unskilled labor on the frontiers. 243, 246 Men enduring hardships in search of gold. 5 Skilled Italian workmen with a heritage of artistic talent. 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders at Quebec with traditional costume of the Scotch Highlands. LATIN PEOPLES IN AMERICA By far the greater part of the western continent is occupied by Latin peoples, that is by peoples whose language and customs are derived from those of ancient Rome. Latin America includes Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and all of South America. Portuguese 306 Well-to-do Brazilian children, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Properly Creoles, European by blood, American by birth. Brazil was colonized by the Portuguese who are considered typical repre- sentatives of the Mediterranean branch of the Caucasian race. Thej' are usually short and very dark. Spanish 336 Charming Spanish girl on balcony, Guayaquil, Ecuador. The rul- ing minority in Ecuador is of fairly pure Spanish blood. 337 Streets of Barranquilla, Colombia. Good street scene. 339 In LaGuaira Streets, Venezuela. A typical Spanish-American street scene. Italian 319 Italian settlers, Mendoza, Argentina Republic. These Italians are becoming enormously numerous in the Argentina Republic. They alone cultivate the wheat for which that country is best known and most of the grapes. TEUTONIC PEOPLES The Teutons are tall, with very fair skins, light hair, blue eyes, red cheeks and slender, prominent noses. Most of the people of northern and western Europe are of Teutonic blood. The Scandinavians, inhabi- tants of Norway and Sweden, are considered the purest types of Teu- tonic people. Teutons are very progressive in scientific practical ways. Germany The Germans are a mixed people. In the North and West, they are of the Teutonic type. In the South they are partly Celtic, while east Germany is partly Slav. They are a scientific, practical, well or- ganized people. ENGLAND — BELGIUM — HOLLAND — NORWAY 35 385 An open air china market in the streets of Coblenz. 388 Making hay in the highlands of Bavaria. Shows hand labor, typi- cal costume, and probably people of the short broad-headed Al- pine race. 390 Picking grapes in the vineyards of Rudesheim, Germany. Women at work in the fields characteristic of all Europe. 393 Market at Cologne. Very characteristic. Note the number of women. England The English are a mixture of Anglo-Saxon, Celtic and Mediterranean people, in which the Anglo-Saxon element predominates. The name Anglo-Saxon comes from Angles and Saxons, two Teutonic tribes which conquered England before the seventh century. As a rule, the English are tall and are about half blond and half brunet. They are among the most advanced people in the world in government, literature and industrial arts. 347 Landing Stage, Liverpool, England. The grouping of the people and their very carriage are characteristic of the English. 351 Bank of England, London, street life. 355 Anne Hathaway's Cottage, Shottery, England. The faces are small but English, and attitudes and costume are typical. 357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. Belgium Only the northern Belgians are Teutonic; those in the south are Celtic. 395 In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. Street scenes and life. 396 Milk cart at Antwerp. A most industrious country. Belgium is Dutch in the north and French (Celtic) in the south. Holland The people of Holland are characteristically Teutonic. 402 Quaint village street in Holland. Costumes are very striking. These people thrive by much industry and cling to old ways. 403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein Friesian cattle near Rotter- dam, Holland. Norway Almost all Norwegians are very light skinned, with yellow hair, blue eyes, pink cheeks. There are fewer dark ones. Norwegians are al- most purely Teutonic. 409 Carding and spinning wool, Telemarken, Norway. This is the home of the fair and tall northern long-headed race. 36 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 410 Making the " flat bread " of the Norwegian peasant. 411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord. Sweden The Swedes are very blond, pure types of Teutonic people. 418 Dalecarlian girls at home "Skansen," Stockholm. These Swedes are examples of the fair, tall, northern long-headed race. The costumes are characteristic of a somewhat isolated people, very slow to change. 419 Women weeding a field of sugar beets. Much heavy manual work and especially for women. CELTIC PEOPLES The Celts were a short round-headed people with brown or black hair and gray or brown eyes. They are very progressive. Scotland Only the highland Scotch are Celtic. The lowlanders are Teutonic. 366 Highlanders in costume, by the Forth Bridge, Queensferry. The highland costume, preserved in the uniform of some famous regiments of the British army, arose in the isolation of the high- land glens. 373 Tea table by a highland cottage, Scotland. (See also 266 Scot- tish peoples in Canada.) Ireland 378 Irish coal for sale, Killarney, High Street. There are now more Irish in the United States than in Ireland. Wales 77 Welsh types in American coal mines. Switzerland The Swiss belong to the Celtic family almost entirely and remains of their ancient dwellings indicate that this has always been so. The Swiss speak German, French and Italian in the various cantons. 443 Wood carver, Meiringen. Example of the Alpine, broad-headed race. 447 Grindelwald on market«day. Small, but good Swiss types. 449 Goods for the high Alps near Zermatt. Well illustrates the hard, heavy labor which, when combined with spare diet, stunts the mountain races. France A considerable part of the French people and especially the north- western provinces are of Celtic origin. LATIN PEOPLES — HELLENIC PEOPLES 37 LATIN PEOPLES IN EUROPE (See also Latin Peoples in America) Latin peoples are those whose languages and customs are derived di- rectly from those of ancient Rome. France The French people are a mixture being partly of the Celtic, partly of the Teutonic and partly of the Mediterranean type. They are very progressive, artistic and thrifty. 423 Flower market at Michael's bridge, Paris. The French are won- derfully pleasant and capable at buying and selling. They are largely Celtic. 146 French war commission — Joffre, blue-eyed Celtic or Teutonic type; Fabry, Celtic; Viviani and Chocheprat, Latin. 431 Women washing clothes, Nice. All the Latin peoples do in the open much work that northerners do in houses, which tends to sociability and 'good manners. Spain The Spanish are almost universally dark skinned with black hair and eyes. 435 Panorama of Madrid. The figures in the near foreground are typical. These are of the dark southern long-headed race, of medium stature. 438 Andalusian carts coming into Almeria. Note the bad road and the unprosperous people. Italian Sicily 455 Tenement district, Palermo. Life is spent as much as possible in the open air, but it is plain that they enjoy life. Roumanians The Roumanians claim a direct descent from the old Romans. 471 Roumanian mother and children. HELLENIC PEOPLES Modern Hellenes differ from the other Mediterranean people only in their language which is derived from the Ancient Greek. Greece The present day Greeks can hardly claim descent from the ancient Greeks for their country has been overrun by all sorts of people from Goths to Turks. They resemble the Latin people in appearance. 476 The Royal Palace, Athens. The soldier's costume is perpetuated by use in the army, as in the case of the Scotch Highlanders. 38 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY Peculiar dress is apt to arise in communities isolated in moun- tain valleys. 479 Treading out the grain, threshing as of old. Old ways/ of dress, old ways of speech and old ways of work are characteristic. SLAVONIC PEOPLES The Slavs occupy the eastern part of Europe and on the whole are not so far advanced as the Teutons, Celts or the Latin people. They are commonly of medium height with dark hair and grey or hazel eyes. Polish Galicia 465 Polish school children, Zakopane. Bosnia 466 Natives in market place, Serajevo. Russia and the Ukraine European Russia has a population which is almost entirely Slavonic. They are making rapid advances in late years. 487 Quaint dairy maids, Kief. 488 Primitive plow. Old costume, old ways, and little progress. 496 Russian Pilgrims return from the Jordan, Palestine. Character- istic of the simple faith of the Russian people is the great im- portance they attach to a visit to the Holy Land and baptism in Jordan. 544 Boarding train at Kansk, Siberia. Russian emigrants. PEOPLE OF THE CAUCASUS People of the Caucasus are mountaineers, largely isolated from the rest of the world. The most prominent tribe is the Circassian noted for physical beauty. 490 Circassian native types, Asia Minor. SEMITIC PEOPLES Jews, Arabs, Syrians, Armenians and north Africans are Semites. They are dark skinned, some of them as black as negroes, but their features and hair show they are members of the Caucasian race. Syria Syrians are not a progressive people. 491 City blacksmith shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus. 494 A sheik and his bodyguard. A good type of the desert Semites, in clothing, arms and mount. Palestine Palestine or the Holy Land is the southern part of Syria. POLAND — EGYPT — CAUCASIAN PEOPLES 39 498 Native women grinding wheat. Such labor as this with the sim- plest possible mechanical appliances, is not merely curious but characteristic of the Semitic peoples. Poland In Poland the Jews are crowded into one quarter and so are not progressive as in the western countries where they are scattered among the rest of the population. 485 Jewish quarters, Warsaw, Poland. Costumes and faces are typi- cally Jewish. Eygpt 566 Tigran Bey and his servant. Sakkara. Both are very black, yet their features indicate that they belong to the white race. CAUCASIAN PEOPLES OF INDIA The Caucasians of India are very dark, with dark eyes and hair. There seems to have been a mixture with yellow or black people. 503 Some interesting types of Caucasian peoples of India. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. By language many Indian peoples are cousins of the great peoples of Europe, and racially they have much in common. But in habits they have grown far apart. The people of northern India are the lightest in color. 507 Inflated bullock skins for ferry boats, Sutlej River, Punjab. The most curious thing about such a contrivance is that people could be willing to put up with a contrivance which served its purpose so badly. Ceylon 512 Grinding gems at Ratnapora. The product, we are sure, will be of a high degree of artistic skill and finish, but how profitable to put a little more thought on the machine ! CAUCASIAN PEOPLES OF THE PACIFIC Some of the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific are undoubtedly of the Caucasian race as is shown by the head and the hair. There is probably a mixture with either the black or yellow race. Hawaiian Islands The features of the native Hawaiians are often very distinctly of the Caucasian type. 261 Hula Girls, Honolulu. AUSTRALIA The Australians are really Europeans who have migrated or their descendants. They are very much like the people of the United States. 40 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY For the most part they came from the British Isles and are Teutonic or Celtic. 590 Street life similar to ours. 2. YELLOW RACE The skin tint is really very varied even among the " yellow " Mon- golians and the " red " Indians. A very strong characteristic of the whole race is its straight, rather coarse hair. Each individual hair is round and rod-like. That is why it is straight. A. MONGOLIAN PEOPLES Norway (Lapland) 413 Laplanders milking reindeer. Practically all the dwellers by the Arctic in Europe as well as Asia and America are Mongols. North Greenland 343 Eskimo girls at Upernavik. The Mongolian character of the Eskimo and Indian face together with other physical characters and habits make it practically certain that they came from Asia. The Eskimos of Greenland have a considerable percentage of Scandinavian (Danish) blood. Bulgaria Bulgarians now are of Mongol stock with a large admixture of Sla- vonic blood. 469 Market scene in Rustchuk. The Bulgarians are known to be Mongols who came into Europe from Asia and adopted a Sla- vonic language there, illustrating how poor a guide to race is language. China The people of China are typical of the real Mongolians. They have the yellow skin, slanting eyes and straight hair. Many of the Chinese are very tall. 520 Chinese school children and teacher, Peking, China. 519 An open air restaurant, Peking, China. 518 Train of Bactrian camels, Peking. 521 Store of Chinese tea merchant, Chifu, China. Chinese costume and street life. JAPAN — CHOSEN — AMERICAN INDIANS 41 523 Chinamen sawing timber for Japanese Army, Manchuria. Illus- trating methods of work that seem very inferior to ours, but it must be remembered human labor is very cheap in China. A steam engine is not always economical there. 227 Chinamen working in salmon canning factories, Astoria, Ore. Illustrating the modern migration of cheap unskilled labor from Asia to America. Were it not restricted by law it would take very large proportions. Japan The Japanese are the most advanced of all the Mongolian people. 530 Country girl of old Japan in the tea fields, Shizuoka. 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu. In Japan as in Continental Europe women do much field work. 532 A Japanese shoe shop. These people have worked out a life that differs from ours in almost every detail. 533 Japanese bed. The native way. 534 Japanese babies. It is reported that Japanese babies never cry ! 535 Japanese maids in a garden. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. Illustrating the great amount of hand labor done in the east, and properly so because it is so cheap. 529 Rice harvest with sickle. 536 Silk worm incubator. 538 Feeding silk worms on mulberry leaves. The partly closed eyes of the girl well show the " slant eyes " of the Mongolian people. 541 Modern silk mill with American machinery. This is the Japan that has put on European clothes and European ways — the new Japan. Chosen (Korea) The people of Chosen resemble the Chinese more than the Japanese. 542 White robed pottery peddlers, Seoul, Korea. Native life. 543 Charcoal carriers. Luzon Philippinos The Philippinos are brown in color and are probably a variation of the yellow race. 550 Hulling rice for breakfast. B. AMERICAN INDIANS (RED RACE) The American Indian is copper colored, he has high cheek bones, black eyes, and straight, rod-like, black hair. The eyes do not slant. 42 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY United States These Indians are tall and straight. They are rapidly disappearing because they are adopting the ways of the whites and are gradually becoming mixed with the white people. 158, 168, 169 American Indians re-enacting the story of Hiawatha. 182 Mounted Sioux Indians leaving camp. 204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. The Indian today is at his best when he lives apart from the whites. 211 Taos Indians and pueblo, New Mexico. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. Canada 263 Indians weaving baskets, Prince Edward Island. The Indian who lives among white men today dresses in discarded white men's clothes and is degraded at once. 265 Iroquois Indians re-enacting their past at Quebec. Mexico The peoples of Mexico, and they are very numerous distinct tribes, are of the same race as the other American Indians, the Peruvians and the Eskimos. The old Mexicans and Peruvians were the only ones of these peoples that lived in regions where the soil was good but too little rain fell to support forests. Where there were forests the In- dian could only live as a savage in the natural clearings. Without the iron axe he could not clear the forest away. On the treeless plateaus of Mexico and Peru he was able to live entirely by agriculture as soon as he learned to bring water from occasional streams. So in these two situations he became somewhat civilized. 280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. More than half the people of Mexico are Indians and a great many of the rest are half breeds. They preserve their native Indian languages and cus- toms in many cases. 281 Adobe hut of the peon, City of Mexico. 285 Drawing pulque. Native life. Salvador 292 Tortilla making. These are especially good types of the Indians prevalent through Central and South America. Chile 324 Chilean woman, Santiago. She has a good deal of Spanish blood. 328 Indians in the Straits of Magellan, near Punta Arenas, about the lowest type in America. They live miserably in constant want. 325 Natives sacking nitrate for shipment, Chile. THE BLACK RACE 43 Peru 331 Natives in Cuzco. These are descendants of the partly civilized ancient Peruvians but they are today very backward people. Venezuela 340 National University, Caracas. There is a good deal of Spanish blood admixed with the Indian here. 338 LaGuaira. Almost no women accompanied the early Spanish " conquistadores " of America. The descendants of the early Spaniards and native women are now accounted of " pure " Spanish descent. 341 The city baker, Caracas. Woolly hair often indicates admixture of negro blood, for slaves were brought to South America in the old days as well as to the United States, though they were set free long before our Civil War. 3. THE BLACK RACE There is much more appropriateness in calling this great race black than the Caucasians white yet there are considerable variations in tint bere. The blacks in the tropics have an admirable mahogany tint, a warm glow in their skins that is difficult to imagine if you have seen them only in the temperate zone. A strong racial characteristic is their kinky or strongly curly hair, resulting from the fact that each in- dividual hair is flat like a ribbon rather than round like a thread. New Guinea, Pacific Ocean 592 Papuans. Note the black, curly hair. South Africa 581 Kaffirs working in the diamond mines at Kimberley. These blacks are overwhelmingly more numerous than the white people of South Africa and are natives of the country. They are dis- tinctly the working class and have no part in government. 579 Negro laborers mining gold. Johannesburg, So. Africa. 570 Negro in Africa making primitive clothing from bark. 572, 577, 578 Negro life under tropical African conditions. Africans in America These are descendants of blacks brought here from Africa as slaves. 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. The blacks are the laboring class of the southern states. They receive small pay and give little work for it. 115 Loading phosphate (fertilizer) from the beds, Columbia, Tenn. Blacks as manual laborers. 1.17 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. When machines are introduced for this, cotton will be much cheaper. 44 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Ark. About a third of the people of the South are blacks but most of the manual labor there is done by this class. 249 Black workers of Old Panama Canal Co., Panama. When the ac- tual Canal was dug by the United States, negroes from Jamaica as well as whites from Spain were employed but the latter were more economical even at higher wages. 258 Cutting sugar cane. In Porto Rico the intermingling of whites and blacks has gone very far and negro blood does not lower a man in the eyes of society. 302 Coffee pickers, Island of Guadeloupe, F. W. Indies. These are probably French mulattoes mostly, the turban is the sign and the French blood gives them a touch of French taste that is at once visible in their dress. The French island blacks are easily recognized. • 3. PRODUCTION AND MANU- FACTURING INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY By CHARLES REDWAY DRYER, M.A., M.D. GEOGRAPHER, FORT WAYNE, IND. This is an industrial age. In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in our industrial resources and equipment. There has been a marked movement of our population to the larger centers where manufacturing on a large scale has be- come the rule. Our inventive skill and our genius for or- ganization have produced great factories equipped with labor saving machinery, handled by skilled workers. Under such conditions, production has gone forward at a rapid rate. The Great World War has put this vast productive system to the strongest test. It also has served to emphasize most clearly agriculture, which is not only our greatest industry, but also supplies the material for many other industries. This set of stereographs and lantern slides contains a very considerable range of material dealing with industries. In this classification, we are treating Industrial* Geography as dealing with Production and Manufacturing, leaving for the classifications on Commercial Geography to present the Transportation and Marketing of products. The instructor may wish to present the question of produc- tion and manufacturing by the consideration of a given in- dustry as a whole. This plan is followed in Part I. Again he may wish to deal with industrial material upon the basis of the processes concerned. For such a classification see Part II. 45 46 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Part I A. 'FOOD PRODUCTS 1. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE (a) GRAINS Corn 180 Fertilizing and plowing corn field. 184 Field of corn, the king of cereals. 136 Modern method corn harvesting. 137 Corn cut by hand. 160 Harvesting and loading silage corn. 165 Silo which enables the dairyman to feed milk-producing green fodder throughout the winter. 292 Primitive way of preparing corn for the table. 341 Primitive way of selling bread, Caracas, Venezuela. Wheat Modem Methods 178 Plowing for wheat with tractor. 179 Making a good seed bed for wheat with tractor. 357 Usual way of cutting wheat with binder. 177 Threshing wheat with modern equipment. 233 Steam reaper and thresher. 218 Combined reaper and thresher using horse power. 48 Grain ships unloading at elevators, Buffalo. • Primitive Methods 488 Russian peasant plowing with primitive plow. 561 Plowing as in ancient days, Egypt. 522 Plowing in China. 527 Ancient mode of threshing in Japan. 479 Threshing as in olden days, Greece. 497 Threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. Barley 199 Harvesting barley by modern methods. 410 Making the barley " flat bread," Norway. 566 Barley field, Egypt. Oats 147 Loading oats in the field. 408 Small field of oats, Norway. GRAINS — VEGETABLES — SUGAR 47 Rice 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. 104 Irrigating rice field, South Carolina 549 Filipino harrowing rice field. 550 Filipino women hulling rice for breakfast. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 527 Threshing rice, Japan. 530 Rice on the lowlands, tea on the uplands, Japan. See Paper in this classification for use of rice straw. (b) VEGETABLES Potatoes 47 Potatoes growing on a truck farm. 166 Modern potato digging machines, Minn. Beans 562 Threshing beans in the field, Egypt. Onions, Cabbage 375 Vegetables and eggs for sale, Cork, Ireland. 469 Onions and cabbage for sale in a Bulgarian market. Pumpkins 137 Pumpkins on an Indiana farm. (c) SUGAR Beet 419 Women weeding field of beets in Sweden. 198 Cultivating a field of sugar beets. 270 Beets stored to make into sugar. 271 Beet pulp and juice in sugar factory. 35 Granulated sugar is made from either beet or cane. Cane 332 Tractor preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 333 Replanting sugar cane near Lima, Peru. 258 Cutting the sugar cane, Rio Pedro, Porto Rico. 35 Granulated sugar is made from either beet or cane. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from drying kiln, New York. Maple 130 Tapping a sugar maple tree; showing gathering tank for the sap and house where sap is evaporated and maple syrup and sugar are made. » 48 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (d) FRUITS Bananas 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica. 259 Banana tree used for ornamentation, Hawaii. 297 The banana planted for shade in a tobacco plantation, Cuba. 302 The banana planted for shade in a coffee plantation, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 570, 575 The banana in Africa. Oranges 237 Orange groves near Redlands, California. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, California. 437 Picking Valencia oranges near Valencia, Spain. Pineapples 108 Harvesting pineapples, Fla. Grapes 236 Tokay grapes in a California vineyard. 319 Grape vineyards in Mendoza, Argentina, S. A. 390 Picking the luscious grapes, Rudesheim, Germany. 438 Hauling barrels of Malaga grapes to Almeria, Spain, for shipping abroad. Papaya 259 Fruit of the papaw tree, Hawaii. Dates 556, 566 Date palm, furnishing fruit and wood in many semi-desert parts of Asia and Africa. Olive 240 The olive tree, an evergreen tree from the Mediterranean region. Peach 85 Gathering peaches in Delaware. Apples 44 Summer spraying in apple orchard in New York. 175 Picking, sorting and packing apples in barrels, Missouri. Figs 489 Three fig trees in foreground, Scutari, Turkey. NUTS — BEVERAGES 49 (e) NUTS Almonds 234 Harvesting almonds, San Joaquin County, Calif. Coconuts 249 The coconut palm in the Panama Canal Zone. 259 The coconut palm in the Hawaiian Island. 551 Husking the coconuts and splitting them to dry in the sun, P. I. Chestnuts 70 Group of tall chestnut trees growing from an old stump. Penn- sylvania has more chestnut timber than has any other state. Peanuts 118 Harvesting peanuts in Arkansas, commonly classed as a nut but in reality a vegetable. (f) BEVERAGES Cocoa 303 Cacao pods, containing beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. Coffee 302 Picking coffee in Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 310 Method of drying coffee, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, S. A. 311 Carts loaded with coffee leaving plantation, Brazil, S. A 468 Sidewalk coffee house, Sofia, Bulgaria. Tea 530 Among the famous tea fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 521 Store of Chinese tea merchant, Chifu. 534 Tea house in Japan. 373 Serving tea in Scotland. Pulque 234 Field of maguey plants, Mexico. ?85 Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant, Mexico. 287 Single maguey or century plant, with field of them beyond. 50 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 2. ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE (a) Dairying, Milk and Butter Cows 159 Group of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein cattle, Wis. 165 Holstein cattle and attractive dairy barns and silo, Minn. 57 Milking scene in modern dairy, N. J. 46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. 45 Washing 1,000 pounds of freshly churned butter. 487 Quaint dairy maids delivering milk, Kiev, Russia. 339 Native method of distributing milk, La Guayra, Venezuela. 403 Milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near Rotterdam, Holland. 364 Jersey cattle, the most famous product of the Island of Jersey. 356 Dairy shorthorn cattle in England. 371 Dairy cattle developed in County Ayrshire, Scotland. 591 Dairy cattle in New Zealand. Goats 411 Milking goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. Reindeer 413 Laplanders milking reindeer, Norway. (b) Beef 370 Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle. 317 Shorthorns, Argentine's famous cattle. 358 White faced Herefords — beef cattle of world wide fame. 127 Making a drive of Hereford cattle in Texas. 185 Hereford cattle, being fattened for market. 140 Cattle at Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 141 The last process in dressing beef — washing with boiling water. 186 Round-up of range cattle on Sherman Ranch, Geneseo, Kans. 301 A cattle ranch in Jamaica. • 580 Cattle (Devon in foreground) as draft animals, later as beef. 549 The water buffalo, an important meat supply. For hides and their manufacture see topic of Leather in this classification. (c) Pork 183 Poland China hogs in alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 172 Hogs in rape pasture, Iowa. 180 Group of colony hog houses in distance, Nebraska. 122 The hog is a good forager, oil district, Texas. 142 Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before placing them in refrigerator rooms, Chicago. MUTTON — DEER — SEA FOODS 51 143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling in preparation for the market, Chicago. 144 Making link sausages with the aid of machines which stuff ten feet per second, Chicago. See also Leather in this classification. (d) Mutton 190, 589 Fine wool Merino sheep grazing on range. (Typical range sheep the world over.) 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep in pasture, Ames, Iowa. (Choice mutton types.) 480 Shepherds and flocks on Argive plain, Greece. For wool see section on Clothing in this classification also classi- fication Textiles and Clothing. (e) American Bison (Commonly called Buffalo) 232 Formerly an important source of meat supply. (f) Deer 413 Reindeer. A meat supply of growing importance, now shipped from Alaska. 189 Elk, 2 Moose — fast disappearing species of deer family. (g) Chickens, Ducks, Geese, and Pigeons 56 Chickens form an important meat supply. 401 Ducks along the canal in Holland, valuable for meat, eggs, and feathers. 216 Geese, for feather products, meat and eggs. (h) Hippopotamus 577 Hippopotamus — flesh much prized by natives. 578 Natives returning from hippopotamus hunt. (i) Sea Foods Codfish 13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. Salmon 226 Netting salmon in the Columbia River, Oregon. 227 Butchering salmon, canning factory, Astoria, Oregon. 244 Indians drying salmon on the Yukon River, Alaska. 52 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Sardines 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. Oysters 97 Bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 86 Shucking Oysters, Baltimore, Md. Fishing in Finland 481 Fisher women selling fish* in Finland market. Seal 345 Seal blubber is an important article of diet in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The oil is used for fuel and the skin for clothing and leather articles. Whale 415 Whale blubber is used for food while the oil and bone form im- portant articles of commerce. 3. INORGANIC PRODUCTS Salt 42 Collecting, draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 153 Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair, Mich. B. CLOTHING 1. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND FACTORY PROCESSES (a) Cotton Growing 207 Cultivating field of cotton, Arizona. 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 124 Hauling cotton to the cotton gin. 125 Cottin gin, Greenville, Texas. 119 Cotton in the bale ready for shipment, New Orleans, La. 420 Bales of cotton on wharf, Goteborg, Sweden. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 14 Spinning cotton yarn in textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth. 16 Printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. 563 Primitive method of spinning cotton in Egypt. Uses For scenes showing uses of cotton see classification on Textiles and Clothing also Paper in this classification. FLAX — HEMP — RUBBER 53 (b) Flax 268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. 40 Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, N. Y. See also Paper in this classification. (c) Hemp Manila (Abaca — native name) 552 Manila hemp — stripping the tree. 553 Primitive way of making hemp rope, Philippines. Sisal 289 Henequen, from which sisal fiber is produced. 571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 357, 136 Show use of binder twine, made of sisal fiber in handling grain. (d) Maguey 285, 287 Show the maguey plant whose fiber is often used for the manufacture of clothing as well as twine rope, mats, sacks, carpets, etc. The tender heart of the plant can be cooked and eaten. (e) Pina 108 Pineapple leaves from which pina cloth is made. 550 Philippines wearing pina cloth. (f) Bark Cloth 570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. (g) Coconut Fiber 551 Coconut husk fiber for making cloth, mats, etc. (h) Rubber Sources 247 A rubber tree showing scars from cutting. 131 Many forms of crude rubber as it comes from the jungles. Manufacture 133 Manufacture of rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio. Uses 46,42,227,130,161,75 Rubber in boots. See also Automobiles in this classification. 54 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 2. ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORY PROCESSES (a) Wool Sheep Raising 480 Merino sheep on the Argive plains in Greece. 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep are better mutton type, being larger than the Merino, but the wool is coarser. 190 Fine wool Merino sheep, Idaho. (Typical range sheep the world over.) 589 Sheep on the range, Australia. Handling of Wool 145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 17 Sorting wool after cleaning and washing. Modern Manufacturing Processes 18 Doubling frame in large woolen mill. 81 Spinning room — winding the bobbins, Phila. Primitive Processes 409 Carding and spinning wool, Telemarken, Norway. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. Uses For use of wool in clothing see classification Textiles and Clothing. (b) Silk Silk Culture (Japan) 536 Silk worm incubator. 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the voracious young silk worms. 539 Silk worm cocoons in their nests. Silk Manufacture (Japan) 540 Reeling silks from cocoons by hand. 541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants. Silk Manufacture (America) 22 Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins, South Manchester, Conn. The United States buys approximately one-half the raw silk pro- duced by Japan each year. We also buy heavily from China and Italy. Most of this silk comes to us as reeled silk. 23 First drawing or straightening of fibers — spun silk industry. South Manchester, Conn. This silk comes from damaged co- coons and is carded and spun in practically the same way as cotton and wool. 24 Roving frame — silk industry (spun silk), South Manchester, Conn. SILK — LEATHER 55 53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth, Paterson, N. J. (Reeled silk). 54 Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N. J. For uses of silk in clothing see classification Textiles and Clothing. (c) Leather Sources 127 " Making a drive " on Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 186 Round up on Sherman Ranch, Kansas. 301 Cattle ranch in Jamaica. 317 Some of South America's famous cattle. 185 Splendid Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 140 World's greatest live stock market, Chicago. 549,491,474 Buffalo, a source of leather. 562, 548 Humped cattle of Asia. 71, 138, 218, 229, 195, 188, 182, 147, 136 Horses. 183, 172, 122 Pig skin a good leather. 560, 566, 567, 574, 557, 340, 524 Donkeys. 124,249,175,311,294 Mule skin an excellent leather. 190, 173, 480 Sheep skin much used for gloves, etc. 246, 279, 118, 190, 204, 396, 480 Dog skin used in many ways. 411,447 Goats; 413 Reindeer; 2 Moose; 189 Elk; 335 Llama; 232 American Bison; 110 Alligator; 588 Kangaroo; 345 Seal; 505, 509 Elephants ; 577, 578 Hippopotamus. Manufacture. 272 Scraping hair from hides — tanning industry. 11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 41 Sewing room, large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 12 Lasting machine, shaping shoes in Massachusetts shoe factory. Uses 71, 138 Harness, a very important use of leather. 45, 14 Leather is also extensively used for belting. 98, 158, 182, 168, 169 Indians wearing " Buckskin " garments. 279, 413, 188, 224, 83, 77 Leather boots and shoes. 352, 89, 92 Leather upholstering. 188, 186, 182 Hog skin the usual leather for saddles. 507 Primitive use of inflated bullock skins for ferry boats. 285 Primitive use of hog skin to carry liquids. 56 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (d) Furs 345 The seal, an important source of fur clothing. 343 The use of fur garments by the Eskimo. 328, 158 Indians using furs for clothing. 246, 243, 279 Use of fur caps and clothing, Arctic regions. (e) Feathers 239 The ostriches supply beautiful ostrich plumes. 216 These geese furnish valuable feathers. C. MINING AND MINERAL INDUSTRIES 1. ORGANIC DEPOSITS (a) Anthracite Coal 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 76 Miner drilling and laborer loading " black diamonds." 77 Loading cage with car at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 79 Shipping coal, coal breaker in background, Ashley, Pa. (b) Bituminous Coal 129 A trainload of bituminous coal from the Pittsburgh fields for Lake Superior consumption. 61 Coal on barges ready for river shipment. Pittsburgh, Pa., is sometimes called the Smoky City on account of the large amount of coal smoke from the various iron and steel mills and other great factories located there. 177 Bituminous coal used in threshing engine. 43, 26, 347 Bituminous coal used in passenger and freight engines and ships. (c) Coke (Made from Bituminous Coal) 68 Coke ovens, loading coke into cars. 62 Two cars of coke at blast furnace. (d) Peat (Irish Coal) 378 Peat from Irish bog3, High St., Killarney, Ireland. (e) Petroleum 122 Spindle Top, an important oil region near Beaumont, Texas. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin for shooting the well. 70 Shooting an oil well. 123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. 256 A reserve supply of the finished product in tank at the Panama Canal. METALS 57 (f) Phosphate 115 Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tenn. — an important fer- tilizer. 2. INORGANIC DEPOSITS AND INDUSTRIES (a) METALS (i) Iron 163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 164 Iron ore being loaded on ships, Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Ore ships passing through " Soo " Canal. 128 Unloading iron ore from ships to train for Pittsburgh District. (129 shows train load of coal which the ore ships will haul back to Minnesota.) 62 Iron blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 63 Modern pig iron machine at rest, Pittsburgh. 64 Emptying cooled pig iron from molds into car. Uses 271 Iron pipe; 350, 354, 534, 306, 365 Iron fencing; 484 Iron roof; 63, 64 Cast iron molds; 215, 471 Iron chains. (2) Steel 116 Steel fuinace, Birmingham, Ala. 61 Across tie Monongahela River may be seen a steel plant in Pittsburgh. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. 66 Steel ingots on the " table " of the " blooming " mill, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 67 Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths by buzz saw, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. Uses 82 Erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive works. 43 Two locomotives and a modern four track steel railway. 242 Steel in submarine; 254 battleship; 27, 174, 575 bridges; 139. 25, 26, 28, 30 skyscrapers; 1 axe; 224 saw; 69 drill; 256 wireless tower; 123 tanks; 170 power plant; 187 factory; 150, 151. 316, 305, 152 automobiles; 250, 252, 253 Panama Canal; 52 steam ships; 161, 166, 178, 179, 180 farm machinery and gas engines; 129, 128, 163 steel cars; 154, 164 freight boats; 177, 218 233 threshing engines ; 84, 94 money making machines. For other uses of steel see classification on Metals. 58 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (3) Copper 187 Copper smelters and mines, Butte, Mont. 155 A mile underground — loading and handling cars with copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet, Mich. 157 Loading 1,400 tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. Uses. 15 Copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, Mass. 151 Insulated copper wires used in auto engines. 324, 486, 273, 590 show trolley wires of copper. 308, 309 Show S3 r stem of telephone wires, often of copper, especially the long-distance wires. 43 Showing copper telegraph wires. 171 Commutator plates in generators are copper. • (4) Brass (Product of Copper) 92,84,89,21,352 Brass lighting fixtures; 88, 92, 94 Brass fans; 494 Brass in rifle shells; 39, 37, 73 Cannon were formerly made of brass. (5) Bronze (Product of Copper) 80 The old Liberty Bell. Most famous in world. 484 The great bell market, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. 241 San Gabriel mission showing bells. (6) Gold 243 Some of the 40,000 men who entered Klondyke gold field in 1898. 246 Gold miners and dog team north of Arctic Circle, Alaska. 245 Placer mining, near the Yukon River, Alaska. 225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 287 Rich gold and silver mining center, El Oro, Mexico. 579 Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet under ground, Robin- son Mine, Johannesburg, S. Africa. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. Uses 21 Skilled workers manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. (7) Silver 214 A silver mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. 287 Rich gold and silver mining center of El Oro, Mexico. 334 Refining silver in smelter, Peru, S. Amer. Uses 33 Silverware in a well furnished dining room. 84 Silver half-dollars, quarters and dimes being coined at govern- ment mint PRECIOUS STONES — QUARRYING 59 (8) Zinc and Lead 176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. (bj PRECIOUS STONES (i) Diamonds 581 Mining " diamantif erous blue earth," Kimberley, S. Africa. (2) Garnets, Rubies, Sapphires and Moonstones 512 Grinding gems — garnets, rubies, sapphires, and moonstones — Ratnapora, Ceylon. (c) GLASS Manufacture 134 Placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Rossford, Ohio. 135 Polishing plate glass alter grinding, Kosstord, Ohio. Use 33 Cut glass on dining table, plate glass in mirror and mantel. y2 Glass in transom, lighting hxtures, ink wells, mirror, clock face and covering picture. 88 Glass in skylight. 587 Plate glass in Pederal building, Melbourne, Australia. 159 Glass windows in modern dairy barn. 152 A well lighted modern factory building, Ford Motor Factory Detroit. (d) POTTERY 58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N. J. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 33 Finely decorated china on dining table. 372 Porcelain in Robert Burns' Cottage, Scotland. 542, 487, 572, 5t>4, 292 Primitive pottery in other countries. 519 Chinese dishes. (e) QUARRYING (1) Granite 3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. — drilling preparatory to splitting. 95 Congressional Library — white New Hampshire granite. 7 Quincy market building, Boston, built of granite. 6 Granite blocks used in paving. 569 The great dam, Egypt. Built of Assuan granite. 146 Lincoln Tomb ^granite), Springheld, 111. (2) Marble 4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt, largest quarry opening in the world. 5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. 60 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 87 The extensions of the Capitol building are of Massachusetts marble. 36 Many marble monuments may be seen here. (f) NITRATE 325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. 3. LUMBERING AND FOREST PRODUCTS (a) Lumbering America 224 Felling great trees that grow in the rainy northwest. 162 Load of logs at Kettle River landing, Minn. 1 Landing and scaling logs, Aroostook Woods, Me. 215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Washington. 216 Large lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 217 Loading ships with lumber. Orient 509 Elephants hauling logs from Salwin River, Burma. 523 Chinamen sawing timbers in primitive way. For uses of lumber see classification on Wood. (b) Turpentine 107 Turpentine dippers and chippers at work, Savannah, Ga. 106 Savannah, Ga. Greatest rosin and turpentine market in world. (c) Manufacture of Paper For manufacture of paper from wood pulp, cloth and rice straw see Paper under Miscellaneous Industries, this classification. (d) Charcoal 103 Burning charcoal, N. C. 543 Selling charcoal in Korea. For further material on forest products and their uses see classifi- cation on Wood. 4. MISCELLANEOUS (a) Haying 183 Alfalfa, principal hay and forage crop of West. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. 232 American bison eating hay in park. 388 Making hay, Highlands of Bavaria. 408 Hay put up in racks to cure. 454 A unique team eating hay, Naples, Italy. MAKING PAPER — TOBACCO — IRRIGATION 61 (b) Ivory 505, 509, 510 Elephants showing ivory tusks. 573 Shipping ivory at Mombaso, Africa. 577, 578 Ivory of hippopotamus inferior to that of elephant. (c) Making Paper Wood 1 Printing and wrapping paper are mainly made from wood pulp. Timber suitable for paper pulp is fast disappearing in the United States. Much paper pulp is imported from Canada. 412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp for the manufacture of paper, Norway. Cloth (Cotton and Linen') 19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums, paper mills, Holyoke, Mass. 20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 94 Paper money from linen rags — the toughest and most durable paper made in America. Rice Straw 533, 534, 535, 536 Show rice paper used extensively by Japanese in the walls and windows of their homes. (d) Making Money 84 Coining presses, Government, Philadelphia, Pa. 94 Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, Washing- ton, D. C. (e) Tobacco 112 Kentucky tobacco field showing ventilated tobacco barns. 297 Cutting tobacco in Cuba. (f) Irrigation Irrigation is not a distinct industry. But because of popular inter- est in this method of production this grouping is supplied. 210 Great Roosevelt irrigation dam, Phoenix, Ariz. 209 Results of irrigation, Salt River Valley, Arizona. 104 Flooding the rice fields, S. C. 237 Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Cal. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, irrigated, Cal. 236 What irrigation does for Tokay grapes, Cal. 284 Irrigation makes good farm land in Mexico. 332 Preparing soil for planting, irrigated district, Peru. 333 Replanting sugar cane preparatory to irrigation, Peru. 549 Filipino harrowing rice field after irrigation. 528,529,530 Irrigated rice fields, Japan. 515 Irrigated land in China. 62 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 569 The great Nile Dam for irrigation purposes. 564 Land irrigated by overflow of Nile River, Egypt. 563 Cotton raised on irrigated land, Egypt. (g) Rubber 247 Rubber tree showing scars from cutting, Panama. 131 Crude rubber from the jungles, Akron, O. 132 Building up an automobile tire, Akron, O. 155,44 Rubber hose. See also Rubber under Clothing in this classification. (h) Automobiles 150 Assembling room, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 151 Experts testing motors, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 152 Employees leaving Ford plant, Detroit, Mich. 109, 167, 305, 229, 308, 315, 316 Automobiles in use. For manufacture of Automobile tires see Rubber above. (i) Construction For a considerable range of industries dealing with the construc- tion of highways, streets, bridges, canals, etc., see Part II of this classification, also Cities and the various classifications under Industrial Arts. See classification on Transportation. See classification on Markets and Marketing. Part II In the following scheme, the character of the work itself is made the basis for an economic classification of industries and products. A. COLLECTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries do not create anything which did not exist be- fore, but collect raw materials, making only such changes in their form or qualities as are necessary to fit them for transportation and market. They may be carried on by primitive peoples and by the use of simple means or they may demand complex machinery and the exercise of the highest scientific skill. 1. PRIMITIVE (a) Plucking 551 Husking coconuts, Island of Luzon, P. I. 259 Luxuriant vegetation in the Mauna Loa Valley, Hawaii. 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. FISHING — HUNTING — MINING 63 (b) Fishing 226 Salmon industry, Columbia River, Ore. 227 Interior of a salmon canning establishment, Ore. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 481 Fishwives of Finland — a busy scene on the quay. 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 13 Drying codfish in the sun — Gloucester, Mass. 97 Oyster shells as bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 86 " Shucking " oysters, Oyster House, Baltimore, Md. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbcrgen, Lapland. (Whales usually but incorrectly called fish.) Ill Sponge market, Key West, Harbor, Fla. (c) Hunting 2 Flashlight of wild moose in Maine forest. 72 Woodcock on nest. 577 Hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 578 Returning from a big game hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 345 Commander Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgica expedi- tion (1897-99) on skis hunting seals on South Polar pack. 110 Battle with a wounded 'gator, Palm Beach, Fla. 2. SCIENTIFIC (a) Lumbering 224 Method of felling trees, Oregon. 162 A load of logs, Minnesota Pineries. 1 Logs delivered at the stream, Me. 215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Wash. 216 Largest lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington. (b) Quarrying 4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt. — largest quarry opening in the world. 3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. 5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. (c) Mining Coal 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 76 Drilling and loading anthracite, Scranton, Pa. 77 Loaded cage at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 79 Shipping coal — coal breaker in background. 64 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Petroleum 69 Filling shell with nitroglycerin. 70 Shooting oil well with eighty quarts of nitro-glycerin, Pa. 122 Spindle Top oil region, Texas. 123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Texas. Iron 163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. Copper, Zinc and Lead 155 A mile underground — cars with copper ore,Mich. 176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. Gold and Silver 245 Placer mining near the Yukon River, Alaska. 225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 579 Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet under ground, Jo- hannesburg, South Africa. 334 Refining silver in smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. 214 A mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. Diamonds 581 Taking out the " diamantiferous blue earth " at Wesselton dia- mond mines, Kimberley, South Africa. Phosphate 115 Mining phosphate near Columbia, Tenn. Nitrate 325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. (d) Collecting 130 Tapping a sugar-maple tree, Ohio. 107 A turpentine farm — dippers and chippers at work, Savannah, Ga. 247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 131 Many forms of crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. 285 Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant used in making pulque, the native drink, Tacuba, Mexico. B. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries assist nature to multiply or create materials which would not otherwise exist and are capable of a high degree of scien- tific development. 1. AGRICULTURE (a) Garden Culture 149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo, Mich. 47 Harvesting cantaloupes near Buffalo, N. Y. GARDEN CULTURE — FIELD CULTURE 65 83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. 235 Luther Burbank's spineless cactus, Santa Rosa, Cal. (b) Field Culture Grains 561 Tilling the soil as in ancient days, Egypt. 522 Chinese farmer boys plowing, near Port Arthur. 488 How the Russian peasant tills his fields. 178 Plowing with tractor, South Dakota. 179 Harrowing with tractor, South Dakota. 180 Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near Omaha. Neb. 357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 199 Barley raised by the " dry farming method." 147 Loading oats in the field, 111. 218 Combined reaper and thresher, Wash. 233 Steam harvester, reaping, threshing and sacking wheat. 497 The threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 479 Treading out the grain, Greece. 284 Rich farm lands in Mexico. 177 Threshing wheat. North Dakota. 184 Corn field, Kansas. 160 Harvesting and loading silage corn, Wis. 136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 137 Corn in the shock, Ind. 549 Filipino farmers harrowing rice fields. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 527 Threshing out rice, Japan. 529 Rice harvest, cutting with a sickle, Japan. 105 Hoei g rice, South Carolina. 104 Floo ing the rice fields, S. C. Sugar Beets 198 Cultivating a field of beets, Colorado. 419 Women working in a field of sugar beets, Sweden. Tobacco 112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. 297 Cutting tobacco grown in the shade of banana trees, province of Havana, Cuba. Peanuts 118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Arkansas. Potatoes 166 Potato digging machines, Moorhead, Minn. 66 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Hay 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. (c) Plantation Culture Sugar Cane 332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 333 Replanting the sugar cane, Peru. 258 Cutting the sugar cane, Porto Rico. Fruits 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 108 Harvesting pineapples, Florida. Fibers 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 289 Henequen producing sisal hemp fiber, Mex. 571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 552 Manila hemp, stripping the tree, P. I. (d) Horiculture 44 Summer spraying in apple orchard, N. Y. 175 Sorting and packing apples in barrels, Mo. 85 Gathering peaches, Delaware. 237 10,000 acres of orange groves, Cal. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, Los Angeles, Cal. 437 Picking Valencia oranges, Spain. 240 Picking olives, Cal. 236 Tokay grapes, Acampo, Cal. 390 Toiling in the vineyards, Rudesheim, Germany. 319 Italian settler and family, vineyards in background, Mendoza, Argentina. 234 Harvesting almonds, Cal. 302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 530 A country girl of old Japan — among the famous tea fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. (e) Herding — depends on native grasses, mosses, etc. Cattle 127 On the Paloduro Ranch, Paloduro, Tex. 186 Thrown ! Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. 188 Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, Mont. 301 A cattle ranch in Jamaica, B. W. I. 317 Argentina's famous cattle, La Plata, Argentina, S. A. Sheep 190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 480 Shepherds and their flocks, Greece. 589 Sheep on range, Australia. STOCK RAISING 67 Reindeer 413 Laplanders milking the reindeer, Norway. (f) Stock Raising Stock raising is combined with agriculture and depends on home-grown grain and fodder. Cattle 364 Jersey cattle. 371 Ayrshire dairy cattle, Scotland. 403 Milking Holstein-Friesian cattle, Holland. 159 Modern dairy barns and Holstein cattle, Wisconsin. 57 Milking scene in modern dairy, New Jersey. 358 Whitefaced Herefords. 370 Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle. 183 Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 140 The world's greatest live stock market, Chicago. Swine 172 Hogs in rape pasture, Iowa. 183 Hogs in rich alfalfa pasture, Kansas. Sheep and Goats 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. 411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 447 Grindelwald on market day, Switzerland. Horses 138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 398 Belgian draft horses. Elephants 509 Elephants hauling logs from river, Burma. 505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 510 An elephant hunt, Siam. Birds 56 1,500 Hens (White Leghorns) in laying house, New Jersey. 239 Cawston ostrich farm, California. Silkworms 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for silk worms, Japan. 536 Silk worm incubator, Japan. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to silk worms. Japan. 539 Silk worm cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. C. CONSTRUCTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries use all sorts of materials supplied by the collec- tive and productive industries in the construction of things which are largely artificial. 68 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 1. MANUFACTURING The United States Census publishes statistics of 259 distinct lines of manufacture and the number of different kinds of articles pro- duced runs into the tens of thousands. (a) Foodstuffs 292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A. 498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. 410 " Flat Bread " of the Norwegian Peasant. 45 1,000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, N. Y. 270 Beets stored in sheds at sugar factory. 271 Beet pulp and juice for manufacturing sugar. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 141 Dressing beef — washing with boiling water. 143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling. 142 Splitting backbones and inspection of hogs. 144 Making link sausages. (b) Fibers and Textiles For more complete list see Clothing in this chapter, also classification on Textiles and Clothing. Cotton 563 Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Mexico. 14 Spinning cotton yarn, Lawrence, Mass. 15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Law- rence, Mass. 16 Printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. Linen 268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. Wool 17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Mass. 409 Carding and spinning wool, Norway. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. 81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, Philadelphia, Pa. 18 Doubling frame in a large woolen mill. Silk 540 Reeling silk from cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 22 Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins, Conn. 23 First drawing of fibers, Conn. 24 Spinning — silk industry, Conn. BARK — COPPER AND GOLD — JEWELRY 69 53 Drawing warp, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 54 Weaving room, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 55 Machine weaving taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N. J. 541 One of Japan's largest silk mills. Bark 570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. Cordage 553 Manila hemp rope factory, Philippines. (c) Leather Boots and Shoes 272 Scraping the hair from the hides, Canada. 11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, Mass. 41 Sewing room — large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. (d) Fuel 103 Burning charcoal, North Carolina. 68 Making coke from bituminous coal, Connellsville, Pa. (e) Iron and Steel 62 Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh, Pa. 116 Steel furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 63 Modern pig iron machine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 64 Emptying pig iron from molds into car, Pittsburgh, Pa. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 66 Steel ingot on the "table" of the "blooming" mill, Pittsburgh, Pa. 67 Red-hot steel beam being cut into lengths by buzz saw, Pitts- burgh, Pa. (f) Copper and Gold 187 Copper smelters and mine, Butte, Mont. 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Mich. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Colorado. 84 Coining presses, Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. (g) Jewelry 21 Manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. 512 Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, sapphires and moonstones, Ratna- pora, Ceylon. (h) Salt 42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine — collecting, draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 153 Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair. Mich. 70 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (i) Glass and Pottery 134 Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Ross- ford, O. 135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. 58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N. J. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 385 Pottery market, Coblenz, Germany. (j) Machinery 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 151 Experts testing engines in the Cadillac automobile plant, Detroit, Mich. 82 General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. (k) Wood Pulp and Paper 412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp, paper mills, Skotifos, Norway. 19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums — paper mills, Holyoke, Mass. 20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 94 Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, Bureau of Printing and Engraving, Washington, D. C. 2. BUILDING Consists in the erection of large, permanent structures such as houses, ships, bridges, etc. A great variety of materials is used and work- men of many trades are employed, as masons, carpenters, painters, plumbers, etc. 3. ENGINEERING The most complex and technical of all industries, has many branches, closely related to manufacture and building. It plans and constructs engines, machinery, power plants, mills, water works, dams, bridges, tunnels, irrigation, drainage and sewer system, roads, docks, canals and the very largest works of human design. By means of engineering, the great powers of nature, heat, water, wind and electricity are brought into the service of man. (a) Architecture (See classification on Architecture) (b) Shipbuilding 52 Great ocean liners at the docks, Hoboken, N. J. 100 Warships in Hampton Roads, Va. DAMS — BRIDGES — ROADS — CANALS 7 1 242 Submarines, battleships and torpedo boats, San Diego Bay, Cal. 280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 314 Entrance to the harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 511 Colombo Harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. (c) Dams and Power Plants 148 Building dikes, East St. Louis, 111. 170 Power dam and locks in Mississippi River, Keokuk, Iowa. 171 Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied with power from the great dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 210 Roosevelt irrigation dam near Phoenix, Ariz. 569 Irrigation dam, Assuan, Egypt. (d) Bridges 27 The great Brooklyn bridge, New York. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 348 London Bridge over the Thames, England. 366 Great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 379 Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. 392 Bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 442 The Kapellbrucke, Lucerne, Switzerland. 456 The Vecchio Bridge across River Arno, Florence, Italy. 470 Railway bridge over the Danube, Czernavoda, Roumania. 500 The Howrah bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta. 575 Bridge near Victoria Falls, Africa. (e) Roads 31 Many forms of transportation required in large centers of popula tion, New York City. 43 Four track railway, electric road, and Erie Canal. 71 Conestoga wagon on good dirt road. 330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 440 To the Clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. (f) Canals 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 154 Greatest canal traffic in the world, the " Soo " Canal. 250 Excavating at site of Gatun Locks, Panama. 251 Excavations measuring 500 feet deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama. 252 North over Gatun Locks, Panama. 253 South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, Panama. 254 U. S. S. Missouri in the Panama Canal. 256 At the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 72 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING ■ 293 Part of the proposed Nicaragua Canal route. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 462 Danube Canal in the very heart of Vienna. 559 The Suez Canal from a German liner. (g) Docks 106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Ga. 128 Unloaders at work on ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 164 Looking between ore docks # 2 and # 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 174 Docks on the Mississippi River at St. Louis. 267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland. 420 Custom House scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 429 The Cathedral, near busy docks, Marseilles, France. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, looking towards the Colum- bus monument and Custom House, Spain. 556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. For more complete list see Harbors in Transportation classification, also Markets and Marketing classification. D. DISTRIBUTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries are concerned with the circulation or movement of people, goods, and ideas. They are dealt with in the chapters on Transportation and Markets and Marketing. 4. TRANSPORTATION COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY By EMERY R. JOHNSON, Ph.D., Sc.D. DEAN AND PROFESSOR OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA By means of transportation men secure the necessities of life from the farmers, manufacturers and other producers. Goods become useful to those who need them after they have been carried from the producer or makers to those who use the articles. In different countries and different parts of the world various methods of moving goods from place to place are employed. There is still a surprising amount of carrying done by men and women and beasts of burden without the use of any kind of a vehicle. In those countries where the people have enough wealth to enable them to use vehicles, many varieties of mechanical instruments of transportation have been devised. Less advanced people use simple two-wheeled carts drawn by one or more horses or mules, or sometimes by cattle, water buffalo, camels, dogs or reindeer. Each country uses draft animals that can live and flourish in the particular country in question. I. HUMAN CARRIERS We who live in the United States have become so accustomed to passenger and freight trains, auto trucks, automobiles, dray wagons and comfortable carriages that we have some difficulty in realizing that there are people in Asia, Africa, and the Philippine Islands who depend upon their own muscular strength for transportation and travel; but if we were to visit Korea we would see men carrying heavy burdens on their back, as is shown by the view (543) of the charcoal carriers, or if we were to visit Porto Rico (view 257) we would see women car- rying on their heads packages weighing as much as possibly 50 lbs. It is only when we go on camping trips to fish or to climb mountains that we resort to " packing," but in some countries this is the regular method of transporting articles. 73 74 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION A. Burdens Borne on Head 257 Porto Rico woman carrying burden on the head. 437 Carrying basket of oranges near Valencia, Spain. 542 Korean carrying earthen vessel on head. 564 Egyptian carrying water jar on head. 572 South African natives carrying baskets on head. 578 African natives carrying burdens on head. 504 Natives carrying water jars on head, Jaipur, India. B. Burdens Borne on Back 243 Miners carrying supplies on back over Chilcoot Pass. 328 Indians carrying children on back, Chile. 449 Carrying goods up mountain trails, Switzerland. 532 534 Japanese mother carrying child on back. 542 White robed pottery peddler, Seoul, Chosen. 543 Koreans carrying charcoal on back. 530 Japanese carrying basket of tea leaves. C. Burdens Borne on Shoulders 108 Carrying baskets of pineapples on shoulders, Florida. 175 Carrying basket of apples on shoulder, Missouri. 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders carrying rifles on shoulder. 487 Dairy maids carrying milk on shoulder, Kief, Russia. 494 Arab carrying gun on shoulder. 502 Skins filled with water swung from shoulder, Agra, India. 513 521 Chinese carrying burdens on shoulder. D. Burdens Borne by Hand 46 Carrying box of milk bottles. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin. 182 Mounted Sioux Indians carrying spears and guns. 258 Cutting and carrying sugar cane, Porto Rico. 516 Chinese pulling huge stone roller, Nanking. 531 Japanese carrying tray of sardines. 544 Russian traveler carrying baggage in hand. 555 Arab carrying water, Tangier, Morocco. II. TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS In countries where there are only trails instead of roads, articles have to be transported by human carriers or by pack animals. As is shown by the views, different countries use different kinds of animals for beasts of burden. Not only horses and mules, but also cattle, elephants and camels have their " packing " to do. In large cities, automobiles and electric cars now do most of the TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS — HORSES 75 work that was formerly performed by horses, and to an increasing extent farmers as well as miners and lumbermen are using the automobile en- gine instead of the mule or horse to haul and carry commodities ; but, for the most part, the farmer still uses the horse or mule to haul his wagon and to do the hard work of farming. The different kinds of carts and wagons used in different countries and the various kinds of sad- dle and draft animals are well illustrated by the views listed in the following classification. A. Horses Horseback 182 Mounted Sioux Indians leaving camp, Nebraska. 193 Mounted guard, Yellowstone National Park. 186 Cowboys rounding up cattle, Kansas. 188 Cowboys roping their mounts, Montana. 204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 333 Inspecting sugar cane plantation near Lima, Peru. 464 Mounted officer, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest. 496 Horseman on Jericho road, Palestine. 494 A sheik and his body guard, Syria. Horses zvith Wagons 7 Market and delivery wagons about Boston Market, Mass. 42 Hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 47 Loading cantaloupes near Buffalo. 71 Wagon that carried ammunition to Perry, 1813. 138 Champion team of Percheron draft horses. 147 Hauling oats, Illinois. 149 Hauling celery, Kalamazoo, Mich. 177 Hauling grain to thresher, North Dakota. 181 Hauling hay near Lincoln, Nebraska. 484 Great bell market, Nizhni, Novgorod, Russia. Horses with Farm Machinery. 44 Summer spraying in apple orchard. 136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 160 Harvesting and loading silage corn, Wis. 166 Potato digging machines at work, Minn. 180 Manure spreader followed by tractor, Nebr. 198 Cultivating field of sugar beets, Colo. 218 Twenty horses pulling combined reaper and thresher 357 Harvesting wheat in old England. 488 Plowing with primitive native plow, Russia. Horses zvith Carriages 312 Carriage team, Montevideo, S. A. 320 High wheeled cart and gig, Argentina. 349 Hansom cabs, London, England. 76 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 383 Cab drivers, Berlin. 424 Carriages, Paris, France. 547 Calle Real, principal street of walled city, Manila. 560 Carriages on great Nile bridge, Egypt. Horses with Sleigh 162 Hauling logs in Minnesota. Horses Draiving Fish Nets 226 Pulling salmon nets with horses, Columbia River. Horse as Pack Animal 537 Gathering mulberry leaves in Japan. B. Donkeys 340 Donkey used as saddle animal, Venezuela. 341 City baker making his daily rounds, Caracas. 378 Donkeys hauling peat, Killarney, Ireland. 496 Russian pilgrims riding donkeys, Jericho road, Palestine. '522 Chinese plowing with donkeys. 524 A donkey pack train, North China. 557 Outside the fine old gate, Bab-el-Hathera, Tunis. 560 Donkey pack animals on great Nile bridge. 566. Tigran Bey on his mount, Sakkara, Egypt. 567 The donkey as saddle animal, Thebes, Egypt. C. Mules 124 Mule team hauling cotton. 175 Hauling apples with Missouri mule team. 249 The mule a good draft animal in warm countries. 294 Mule used as pack animal, Costa Rica, C. A. 311 Mules hauling coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 438 Spanish mules hitched in tandem fashion. 479 Primitive use of mule in Greece. D. Cattle Common Ox 580 Oxen used to transport army supplies. South Africa. 298 Cattle used for farming in Province of Havana, Cuba. 561 Cattle plowing primitive way in Egypt. 497 Oxen working on threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. 454 Ox and horse hitched together, Naples, Italy. MULES — CATTLE — DOGS — CAMELS 77 Buffalo 549 Buffalo much used by the Filipino farmer. 491 Shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus, Syria. Humped Cattle of Asia 562 Humped cattle threshing beans, Egypt. 548 Humped cattle as pack animals and for riding. Dairy. 339 Native method of distributing milk unadulterated. E. Dogs 246 Gold miners and dog team, Alaska. 279 Eskimo dog team, Hopedale, Labrador. 396 Dog drawing milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. F. Camels 565 A camel at the Sphinx, Egypt. 564 Camel at the river Nile. 567 Caravan leaving oasis, Egypt. 504 Caravan entering Jaipur, India. 518 Camel train in Peking, China. G. Llamas 335 Llama used as beast of burden in South America. H. Elephants 505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 509 Elephants hauling teak logs, Burma. 510 Elephant hunt, Siam. I. Reindeer 413 Reindeer, much used as a draft animal. III. CANAL AND RIVER TRANSPORTATION A. Rafts Long before the railroad was invented, the rivers and canals were used for transporting freight and passengers. The lumberman floats his rafts of logs down the river in the spring when the streams are in 78 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION flood ; but in the eastern part of the United States and even on the Mississippi River there is little rafting at present as compared with the past; but one may still see (view 215) enormous rafts of logs on the Columbia River and on some other western waters. 1 Logs delivered at the stream ready for'rafting, Me. 215 Great chained log rafts on the Columbia River. 507 Inflated bullock skins for rafts, Sutlej River, India. B. Row Boats, Canoes, and Yachts Row boats and canoes are, for most of us, at the present time, used only for pleasure or amusement. Our ancestors used them in their everyday business life, and the people of Giina and Japan still make large use of hand propelled boats for business purposes. 169 Indian canoe. " From the wigwam he departed." 326 Sailing boats and yachts, Valparaiso, Chile. 430 Sailing boats and yachts, Cannes, France. 457 Row boats and motor boats on Grand Canal, Venice. C. House Boats 399 House boat on canal, Amsterdam, Holland. 546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. 457 House boat on Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 514 Some of China's floating population, Canton, China. D. Canal Boats The slow-moving canal boat drawn by mules or horses may still be seen in many parts of the United States, but the mule and the tow- path and the small canal have about served their day. 39 Canal barges on Hudson River. 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. E. Canals For the present and the future the large inland canal, like the Erie Canal connecting Albany with Buffalo, or an interoceanic canal like the one at Panama or the one at Suez, is the kind required for the work to be done. 154 Greatest canal traffic in world, Mich. 252 Atlantic entrance to Panama Canal. 253 South over Gatun locks and Gatun Lake. 254 U. S. S. Missouri passing through Panama Canal. 256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 399 A canal in Amsterdam. CANALS — RIVER STEAMERS — SAIL BOATS 79 400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland, cargo of bricks. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. ' 462 Along the Danube Canal, Vienna, Austria. 559 The Suez Canal from a German liner, looking north. F. River Steamers and Barges The principal rivers of every country will always be great arteries of commerce. Fifty years ago the river steamboat was more largely used than it is today, because the railroad has taken over much of the work that the steamboat used to do. With the growth of population and with the increase in the amount of transportation work to be done, river steamboats and barges are again needed and we are seeing a re- vival of the use of the rivers as highways of commerce. 61 River craft, Pittsburgh, Pa. 119 Large river steamboats, New Orleans. 267 River barges and ocean steamers at Montreal. 429 Loaded barges, Marseilles, France. 462 Along Danube Canal in Vienna. 472 The famous Galata bridge, Constantinople. 546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. G. Sail Boats on Rivers 27 Sail boats under the great Brooklyn bridge, N. Y. 39 Sail boats on Hudson River above West Point. 106 Sail boats along the wharf of Savannah River. 396 Antwerp, Belgium, sail boats it river wharves. H. Ferry Boats 26 Ferry boat and water front of New York City. 32 Ferry boat landing passengers, Ellis Island, N. Y. 386 Ferry boats, Hamburg, Germany. I. River Highways of Commerce The views here listed of river steamboats and river highways give an excellent idea of the use and possibilities of river transportation. 51 Palisades of the Hudson River, looking north. 61 Confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 120 In the Mississippi Delta at Head of Passes. 170 Great Keokuk Power Dam and Locks in the Mississippi. 264 St. Lawrence River from Dufferin Terrace, Quebec. 174 Steamer and docks on Mississippi River at St. Louis. 114 Tennessee River at Chattanooga. 392 Great bridge over Rhine, Bonn, Germany. 397 River Meuse, Namur, Belgium. 467 Junction of Save River with the Danube. 80 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 471 On the bank of the Danube, Roumania. 501 Pilgrims bathing in the sacred Ganges. 517 China's great river Yangtze. 564 Inundation of the Nile, Egypt. 507 A primitive raft on Sutlej River, India. IV. LAKE TRANSPORTATION A. Steamers The United States and Canada have, in the five great lakes — Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior — the longest and best lake high- way of the world. The traffic passing through Sault Ste. Marie Canal connecting Lake Huron with Lake Superior exceeds the traffic of any other canal in the world. 48 Lake steamers at mouth of Erie Canal. 164 Ore boats loading, Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Passenger, freight and ore boats, " Soo " Canal. 128 Lake steamers unloading at ore docks, Conneaut, O. 459 Small passenger steamer on Lake Como, Italy. 293 Steamer on Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua, C. A. B. Docks The freight steamers on the Great Lakes and the docks and other terminal facilities of the lake ports exceed in size and efficiency those of any other lakes in the world. 48 Lake Erie docks at mouth of Erie Canal. 128, 129 At work on the ore docks, Conneaut, O. 157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 164 Ore docks No. 2 and No. 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Locks and docks of " Soo " Canal. 253 South over Gatun Lake, Panama Canal. 459 Beautiful Lake Como and docks, Italy. V. OCEAN TRANSPORTATION A. Ports Most of us are more interested in the great ocean vessels and in the busy scenes about the wharves and docks at New York and other great ocean ports than we are even in railroads or in lake steamers. Ocean transportation is very well illustrated by the many views listed in the classification that follows. By studying these views, boys and girls who have never visited an ocean port may get a very good idea of ships and harbors and of the business of ocean transportation. PORTS — WHARVES AND DOCKS 81 25 Statue of Liberty and New York Harbor. 26 Ferry slips and water front of New York City. 32 Immigrants landing from barge, Ellis Island, N. Y. 52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 106 Along wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 248 City and Bay of Panama, from Ancon Hill. 257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 277 Canadian Pacific station and dock, Vancouver, B. C. 278 Harbor of St. John's, New Foundland. 280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 299 Santiago and harbor, Cuba. 304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil. 314 Entrance to harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 326 The harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 492 Bird's-eye view of Beirut, Syria. 499 Madras and harbor, India. 511 Colombo harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. 514 Harbor scene, Canton, China. 556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. » B. Wharves and Docks 52 Great ocean liners at Docks, Hoboken, N. J. 267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Canadian Pacific terminal, Vancouver, B. C. 280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 295 Havana wharf, Cuba. Unloading coffee from Porto Rico. 327 Goods arriving at docks for shipment, Valparaiso, Chile. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 416 Wharves and warehouses, Stockholm, Sweden. 420 Custom house scene and harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. C. Sailing Ships The sailing vessel which fifty years ago carried most of the freight that moved on the ocean is now used to a small extent as compared with steamers, but fishermen, lumbermen, and some others who "go down to the sea in ships " still find the sailing vessel very useful and well adapted to their needs. Ill Sail boats at Key West harbor. Florida. 216 Sailing ships at mill for load of lumber. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington. 257 Sail boats at San Juan harbor, Porto Rico. 278 Harbor of St. John's, N. F. 295 Sail boats at Havana wharf, Cuba. 342 Peary's ships, Windward and Eric, equipped with sails. 82 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 344 Belgica, Antarctic ship, equipped with sails. 347 Sailing ship in Liverpool harbor, England. 400 Sailboat with load of brick, Holland. 473 Sailing ships at Constantinople. 481 Fishwives of Finland — A busy scene on the quay. 525 Small coastwise sailing vessels, Japan. D. Steamers 26 Water front of New York City. 52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 252 North over Gatun locks and canal. 253 A busy scene on the Panama Canal. 257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 267 Ocean liners, Montreal, Canada. 277 Burrard inlet, Vancouver, B. C. 280 Ocean freight steamer, Vera Cruz. 314 Freight and passenger steamers, Buenos Aires. 342 The twin ships, Windivard and Eric — Peary expedition. 344 Hauling snow for water, Belgica Antarctic expedition. 347 Landing stage Liverpool, England. 374 Queenstown harbor, Ireland. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbergen, Lapland. 420 Harbor of enterprising city, Gothenburg, Sweden. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 492 Harbor of Beirut, Syria. 499 Madras and harbor, India. 511 Steam ships at anchor, Colombo harbor, Ceylon. 514 Harbor of Canton, China. 556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. Ocean steamers. 559 German liner in Suez Canal. E. Battle ships, Submarines and Torpedo Boats 100 U. S. Battleship fleet in Hampton Roads. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, first battle ship through Panama Canal. 242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battle ships. VI. RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION Every boy and girl is acquainted with the railroad, but not every one has seen how roads are built up high mountains or how railroad trains are carried on great bridges across broad rivers. Railroads are of many kinds and so are cars and trains. There is a different kind of car for each of the important kinds of traffic ; the refrigerator car to carry meat and fruit, the box car for ordinary freight, the tank car for oil, the hopper car for coal and ore. It would interest any boy or girl to make a study of the different kinds of vehicles used by the railroad BATTLE SHIPS — SUBMARINES — TRACKS 83 and to point out how the growth of industries of different kinds has been made possible by the invention and use of special kinds of railway cars. The views here presented will help in making such a study. A. Tracks 43 A busy path of commerce in central New York — four track rail- way, electric road at right, Erie Canal at extreme left. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa., a busy railroad center. 62 Railroad tracks by blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 79 Shipping anthracite coal, Ashley, Pa. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Train of coal cars. 116 Railway tracks, Birmingham, Alabama. 128, 129 Busy track scene, ore docks, Conneaut, O. 163 Steam shovel at work, showing how track is laid. 170 The great Keokuk power dam and locks. 252, 253 Railroad tracks at Gatun locks, Panama Canal. 251 Tracks used in removing dirt from Culebra Cut. 256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 267 Tracks on wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific R. R., Vancouver. 323 Railway station, Juncal, Chile. 325 At the nitrate mines, Chile. 327 Busy dock scene, Valparaiso, Chile. 420 Custom house scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 440 To the clouds by rail, Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 459 Inclined railway up the mountain, Como, Italy. 499 Railway scene, Madras, India. 544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 575 Cape to Cairo railway over Zambezi River, Africa. B. Locomotives 82 Erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works. 43 Four track railway in central New York. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Freight engine. 163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 330 Locomotive on the Oroya railway, Peru. 575 Cape to Cairo railway, Africa. C. Bridges 50 Steel arch bridge across Niagara River. 61 Bridges across Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 154 " Soo " Canal, Michigan, showing bridge in distance. 174 The magnificent Eads bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 366 The great Forth Bridge, Queensferry. Scotland. 84 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 470 The longest railway bridge in Europe. 575 Bridge on the Cape to Cairo railway. D. Cars and Trains 43 A busy path of commerce in central New York. 62 Coke and iron ore cars at blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 68 Loading coke into cars, Connellsville, Pa. 79 Shipping coal, Ashley, Pa. 101 Coal train, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 115 Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tennessee. 116 Birmingham, Ala. 50-ton hopper cars. 128 50-ton hopper steel cars. 129 Trainload of coal for Lake Superior consumption. 157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 163 Loading cars with iron ore, Minnesota. . 250, 252, 253 Show dirt cars, Panama Canal. 251 Excavations in Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. 256 Freight cars at Pacific entrance, Panama Canal. 267 Cars on the wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Canadian Pacific station, Vancouver, B. C. 323 Juncal station, Chile, S. A. 327 Freight car at dock, Valparaiso, Chile. 420 Cars at harbor to be loaded, Goteborg, Sweden. 440 To the clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 499 Madras railway terminal and harbor, India. 544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 575 Train crossing bridge over Zambezi River, Africa. VII. URBAN TRANSPORTATION A. Elevated, Subway and Surface Lines In New York, London and a few other cities people travel on three l eve l s — on elevated trains, on the surface of the street, and in subways; and at one point in New York, the railroads have a tunnel under the subway, and thus people travel on four different levels. 27 Street cars crossing the great Brooklyn Bridge. 31 Many forms of transportation required in large cities. 43 Interurban line at right of four track steam road. 139 Street cars on State Street, Chicago. 220 Second Avenue from Yester Way, Seattle, Wash. 230 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal. 273 Metropolis of western Canada — Main Street, Winnipeg. 315 Street traffic, Buenos Aires, Argentina, S. A. 380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland. 416 Street car in Stockholm, Sweden. 587 Federal Parliament building, Melbourne, Australia. BRIDGES — AUTOMOBILES 85 B. Bridges The tunnels and the bridges required for the use of people who live in cities illustrate in a striking way how the genius of man made possi- ble the growth of great cities. 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 50 Bridge across Niagara River. 61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 101 Wagon and railway bridges, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 348 London Bridge over the Thames River, England. 391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. 392 The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 397 River Meuse and Pare de la Citadel, Namur, Belgium. 400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam. 404 Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. 423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. 442 The Kapellbrucke crossing the River Reuss, Switzerland. 451 Roman bridge over the Tiber River, Rome, Italy. 456 The Vecchio Bridge across River Arno, Florence, Italy. 472 The famous Galata Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey. 500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta. 546 Bridge across the Pasig River, Manila, P. I. 560 The great Nile bridge, Cairo, Egypt. VIII. AUTOMOBILES The automobile is rapidly changing the conditions of life in the United States and many other countries. In hardly any large city of the world are the streets without automobiles. Even in Japan where the man-drawn carriage, the jinriksha, is still in use, one may find the automobile and the electric railway. When one realizes that the auto- mobile has been in use only a short time, one must conclude that it will not be many decades before the engine will displace muscular power as the motor force of the world. 132 Building up automobile tire, Akron rubber plant. 150 Assembling room, chassis ready for engines, Detroit. 151 Experts testing engines, automobile plant, Detroit. 152 Employees leaving Ford automobile factory, Detroit. 229 Automobile trips are enjoyable. 316 Four o'clock parade of society, Palermo Park, Buenos Aires. 121 Automobile trucks necessary for quick delivery. 31 Automobiles in New York City; 8 Boston; 90 Washington; 109 St. Augustine; 122 Beaumont, Texas; 126 San Antonio; 139 Chicago; 167 Minneapolis; 220 Seattle; 230 San Francisco; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 308 Sao Paulo, Brazil; 315 Buenos Aires; 424 Paris. 86 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION IX. AIR CRAFT The gasoline engine has taken transportation into the air and we are seeing the organization and development of air craft of various kinds. There can be no more interesting study than to trace the growth of the methods of transportation. Our ancestors carried their burdens on their backs or heads ; their children used pack and draft animals ; we employ waterways, railroads, electric railways, automobiles, and aero- planes. Nor is the end yet. Our descendants will doubtless greatly improve upon our means of transportation. 394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 5. MARKETS AND MARKETING COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY By J. PAUL GOODE, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO A market is primarily a place where merchandise is ex- posed for sale. To this place comes the merchant with his wares, and the buyers with their wants. The most primitive example is the peddler with his pack, offering his goods for sale. Usually the market is located at a fixed place, like the town square or the temple grounds, and often is limited to a fixed day. Such primitive markets, where the producer sells direct to the consumer, are in evidence all the world round, even in the largest cities, where fruit or garden truck, or fish or flowers are on sale. With the development of modern transportation, such mar- kets tend to disappear, but some very old markets, like that at Nizhni Novgorod, are flourishing at the present day. An extension of the market idea has come into common use, where a locality or country is spoken of as a market for given supplies, for example when we say the corn belt is a market for labor-saving farm machinery, or China is a market for American cottons. The following stereographs will serve to illustrate various phases of markets and marketing. I. THE PRIMITIVE MARKET In the primitive market the producer meets the buyer, as on the city square. The wares are laid out on the ground, to be inspected and haggled for by the purchaser. 572 The native market at Port Florence, Victoria Nyanza, Africa. 555 The market place at Tangier, Morocco. 387 Market place in the Cathedral square, Nuremberg, Germany. All Over the world the market place has most frequently been in the 87 88 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING church or temple grounds, and when only occasional market times have been the rule, church days have been chosen. 429 The cathedral and market, Marseilles, France. 393 The market square, Cologne, Germany. 7 Quincy Market, for fruit and truck, Boston, Massachusetts. 447 Grindelwald on market-day, Switzerland. 109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Florida, reminding us of the days, not so long ago, when men and women were the com- modities to be bought and sold. 484 The great bell market at the Fair, Nizhni Novgorod. This is an annual market, where the caravan trade of all Asia brings its wares to Western buyers. It is something like a world fair, with grounds set aside for the purpose, and now with many permanent buildings. 339 Distributing milk, in the streets of La Guayra, Venezuela. A primitive method of bringing the commodity to the buyer. 487 Milk maids delivering milk, Kief, Ukraine. 396 Dogs and women bringing milk to market, Antwerp, Belgium. 341 The city baker, selling his wares, Caracas, Venezuela. 543 Charcoal peddlers, Korea. The charcoal may be carried from the mountain side many miles to the town, to be peddled to the consumer. 378 Irish boys peddling peat on the streets of Killarney, Ireland. 485 Market day, in the Jewish quarter of Warsaw, Poland. 466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. 469 Market place in Rustchuk, Bulgaria. 375 Street market, Cork, Ireland. Eggs and vegetables. 438 Cart loads of Malaga grapes going to market at Almeria, Spain. 395 In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. An example of a specialized market. 423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. A market in one special commodity. 405 A busy market square, Copenhagen, Denmark. 481 A fish market on the quay in a Finland town. Fish is usually handled in a market devoted to sea food only. II. GREAT MARKET CENTERS Here extensive buying and selling are carried on, and goods ac- cumulated for the supply of wide tributary regions. The heart of every large city is developed as a market center, with extensive store buildings devoted to the accumulation and sale of a great variety of products. As a rule, transportation advantages play an important part in the growth of such cities, and usually a harbor and a navigable water- way into the hinterland, are of prime importance. In considerable meas- ure the population of such cities is made up of people who make their living in the manufacture, or purchase and sale, or transportation and warehousing of the goods handled in the market. GREAT MARKET CENTERS 89 351 The Bank of England. For over a century the buildings seen here have been the financial market center of the world. The money market is the most specialized and most highly developed of all markets. 29 Wall Street, New York City. The central money market of the New World, and since the Great War began, the market center of the world's finance. 26 Waterfront of New York City. Most of the world's great cities are on navigable water, and good harbors have had much to do in making them great. The harbor of New York is crowded with ships from all the world. Congestion of business at this spot calls for the many great buildings. 30 Up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York. A canyon be- tween lofty buildings, one of the greatest market streets in the world. 267 The wharves at Montreal, the leading market town of Canada. 48 Mouth of the Erie Canal at Buffalo, New York. The Great Lakes and Erie Canal make Buffalo a market center of large and growing importance. 61 Pittsburgh, where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio River. Good transportation and the presence of rich deposits of coal have made this place the steel market of the world. 139 State Street, Chicago. The largest retail shopping district in America. One store on this street occupies an entire block, is sixteen stories above the street and three stories below, and does a larger business than all the merchants in the largest city on earth could do a century ago. 167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. The business street in the mar- ket section of the city. 230 Market Street, San Francisco, the shopping center of the western metropolis. 327 Busy scene on the wharf of Valparaiso, the leading market town of Chile. 315 Government buildings as seen from the Bourse, Buenos Aires, the financial market center of the Argentine. 305 Rio Branco Avenue, in the business center of Rio de Janeiro, the chief market town of Brazil. 347 Landing stage at Liverpool. With a range of 31 feet of tide, a great floating dock is provided as a landing stage. Liver- pool is the world's market center for cotton and for wheat. 381 Royal Avenue, the chief market street of Belfast, Ireland. 365 Princes Street, Edinburgh, Scotland. The principal market street of the Scotch capital. 348 London Bridge. The upstream end of the Thames harbor, the heart of the market section of the city. 420 The wharves of Goteborg, a lively market town of Sweden. 416 In the heart of busy Stockholm, Sweden. 90 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 386 Hamburg. The leading market city of Germany, head of ocean navigation on the Elbe. 400 Load of bricks on sailboat at Rotterdam, one of the world's great markets. 421 View of Paris from the Arch of Triumph. Paris is one of the world's great central markets, headquarters for fashion in the finest wearing apparel. 433 Harbor of Barcelona, the most active market center of Spain. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, one of Italy's most important market towns. For a thousand years Venice was the leading market of the en- tire Mediterranean. 462 Barge landing on Danube Canal, in the heart of Vienna, the great central market of Austria. 464 Andrassy Street in the market center of Budapest, Hungary. 486 The Krestchatik, the principal market street of Kief, Russia. 526 View in Tokyo, Japan, the largest city, and a great merchandising center of Japan. 513 Queen's Road, the leading business street of Hong Kong, the market center of South China. 514 Scene in the harbor of Canton, China. 546 View in Pasig River, Manila. These boats, called " cascos." are the homes of boatmen who make their living handling the freight in the great market port of Manila. 511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon. A port of call for the south Asian trade, and a great trans-shipment market. 501 The temple grounds at Benares, India. Visited by many thou- sands of pilgrims, and an important local, native market. 492 View of Beirut, Syria, the most important market town of Asia Minor. 558 View over Alexandria, in the delta of the Nile, the leading market city of Egypt. III. PRODUCTION CENTERS For various reasons, certain localities have become centers where raw materials or manufactured commodities are handled in such large quantities as to establish a claim to importance as a world mar- ket. Some cities come to buy and sell certain commodities so exten- sively as to become the price making centers for the whole world. Thus London for many years has been the world market for wool, tea, ivory, diamonds, and money; Liverpool for wheat and cotton; New York for coffee and of late for money; Chicago for meats, and so on. The following stereographs will help to an understanding of the tremendous concentration of interests represented in great city markets. 140 Union Stod< Yards, Chicago. The concentration of railways at Chicago has focused the "Corn Belt" and the Great Plains into PRODUCTION CENTERS 91 the largest live stock market on earth. The value of the pack- ing house product is over a million dollars a day for every day in the year. 143 Trimming hams in preparation for the market. Chicago packing houses. 144 Making sausages. Meat thus prepared is sold at the ends of the earth. Chicago is the world market for provisions. 317 Cattle on range near La Plata, Argentina. So many cattle are raised on the farms and ranges of Argentina that Buenos Aires is becoming a very great market center for packing house products. 159 Dairy cattle and barns, Lake Mills, Wisconsin. The region west and north of Chicago has come to be the dairy center of the country. 45 Working 1000 pounds of freshly churned butter. Elgin, Illinois, is the butter market of America. 57 Milking scene, New Jersey. The milk industry is extensively developed near all large cities in temperate lands. In our country the greatest development is near New York, and Chi- cago. 240 Pigeon farm at Los Angeles, the primary squab market of the whole country. 56 White Leghorn hens. Corning Egg Farm, New Jersey. There is so large a demand for eggs in our great cities, that special poultry farms are established to furnish the supply. 13 Drying codfish in the sun ; Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the lead- ing fish market of America. 226 Salmon : The finest haul of the season on the Columbia River. The salmon run up the glacier fed rivers to spawn. This makes the Puget Sound region the primary market for the world's salmon. 227 Butchering salmon. Astoria. 97 A mountain of oyster shells. 86 " Shucking " oysters. Chesapeake Bay is the largest oyster pro- ducing water on earth, and Baltimore is the primary oyster market. 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. Fully one-half the food of the people of Japan comes from the waters, and the shallow waters are the largest producers. So great fish mar- kets are established in Yokahama, Beppu, Kobe and other such ports. Ill Sponge market, Key West Harbor. The shallow waters on the west shore of Florida are the largest sponge producers in our country, and Key West is the primary market. 521 Store of rich tea merchant, Chifu. For centuries China has been the leading tea producer in the world, and Chifu, Shantung, Amoy and Canton have developed as large tea markets. )02 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, W. I. Many tropical lands produce coffee, but the price is set in the largest buying market, which 92 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING has been in turn, London, Le Havre, Hamburg, and is now New York. 310 Drying coffee in the sun, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. This region produces about three-fourths of the world's coffee, and Santos and Rio de Janeiro are the leading markets. 319 Vineyards near Mendoza. Soil and climate here favor the grape, and Spanish and Italian immigrants have brought their vines and skill with them, making Mendoza, in the Argentine Repub- lic, a large grape and wine market. 236 Tokay grapes, at Acampo, California. The grape thrives so well all over California that the State furnishes the lion's share of fresh fruit, raisins and wine for the whole country. 390 Vineyards at Rudesheim, Germany. The river valleys of Europe from south Germany to the Mediterranean furnish soil and climate adapted to the grape, and local primary wine markets have developed over the grape region. Such markets are Bordeaux, France, Oporto, Portugal, and Xerez, Spain. 149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo, Michigan. A cool climate and peat soils, such as a drained marsh or old lake bottom, invite the growth of celery. Kalamazoo is so favored as to become the leading celery market in America. 237 Navel orange groves, San Gabriel Valley, California. This most favored state leads the country in production of citrus fruits as well as grapes. 112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. Soil and climate conspire to make Kentucky the leading tobacco state, and Louisville the leading tobacco market. 42 Solar evaporation of brine at Syracuse, New York — the leading salt market of the country. 153 Packing salt into barrels, St. Clair, Michigan.. The salt deposits around Bay City, Michigan, have made that place the market second in importance for salt in America. 258 Cutting sugar cane, Porto Rico. Sugar of tropical origin has furnished the most of the American supply. For this reason the chief importing city, New York, has become our chief sugar market. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. Because of being great ship- ping centers, Philadelphia and Brooklyn have become the largest refiners of sugar, and New York the chief sugar market of the New World. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, Central America. The various lowlands adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Western Caribbean Sea are so well adapted to banana culture that the American demand for this fruit has made New Orleans the leading banana market of the world. 289 Henequen, a century plant, whose leaves produce the hard fiber known as Sisal. This is the twine most used for binding grain, the world over. The world market for it is in Chicago, the PRODUCTION CENTERS 93 headquarters for the manufacture of reapers and other farm machinery. 552 Stripping the leaf stalks of Manila hemp (abaca, native name) from which the best rope making fiber is made. It is grown only in the Philippines, and Cebu is the chief world market. 553 Making rope from Manila hemp fiber at Manila. Manila hemp fiber is the best known material for cordage. The world's largest buying market has been London, but is likely to shift to U. S. A. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, at Srinagar, Kashmir, India. The pastoral people from northern India to the Hellespont have marvelous skill in the making of shawls and rugs. Important local markets have developed at many points. 40 Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, New York. Troy is the chief linen collar market of America. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the silk worms, Japan. Nearly one- half of all the farmers in Japan rear silk worms, and Japan fur- nishes over one-third of all the world's export silk. Yokohama is the leading silk market. 541 Interior of a silk weaving mill, Japan. The cities of Kyoto and Osaka are important markets for manufactured silk. 22 Weighing and sorting skeins of raw silk. The U. S. A. is the largest buyer of raw silk in the world, and New York is the buying market. 54 Weaving room, Paterson, New Jersey. Most of the silk of America is manufactured in Paterson or other towns near the central market of New York. 239 Ostriches on the Cawston farm near Los Angeles, California. Southern California and Arizona have the hot and arid condi- tions to which the ostrich is adapted, and local markets for os- trich plumes are developing there. 21 Manufacturing jewelry, Providence, Rhode Island. Providence has become the great center for jewelry manufacture and sale in America. 117 Picking -cotton. Nearly two-thirds of the world's cotton is pro- duced in the humid lowlands of our southeastern states. 119 Cotton bales on the levee, New Orleans. Great primary cotton markets have developed in Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, Mem- phis, Galveston and New Orleans. 14 Cotton spinning mill at Lawrence, Massachusetts. One-half of all the American manufacture of cotton is in New England, and a number of market cities for cottons have grown up there, as at Lawrence, Fall River, and Boston. 272 Scraping the hair from hides, Canada. The leather industry has developed in places where hides are easily obtained, and where tanning material is plenty. So the oak and hemlock forests in Canada and the U. S. A. have developed the leather industry and centers like Boston and Philadelphia have become great leather markets. 94 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 11 Cutting leather for high quality shoes. Lynn and Brockton, Massachusetts, are shoe markets for a world trade. 41 Sewing room in a shoe factory, Syracuse, New York. 532 A Japanese shoe shop. Shoes or clogs in Japan are made of wood, and made hy hand. So each town has its own market for shoes. 131 Crude rubber as it comes from the jungles, or plantations. Para is the chief primary market for wild rubber. Singapore and Colombo are rivals for the primary market for plantation rub- ber. London has been for many years the world's central mar- ket, but New York now takes first rank. 133 Making rubber boots and shoes at Akron, the manufacturing mar- ket of America. 17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Massachusetts. The manufacture of wool has been so well developed in southeastern New England that Boston is the chief wool market in America. 81 The bobbin room in a Philadelphia mill. Philadelphia is next to Boston the greatest wool market, and is the leading carpet mar- ket of the country. 224 The Puget Sound and western Oregon regions have the best cli- matic conditions for forest growth, as shown by this great fir tree. 216 Port Blakeley Mills, near Seattle. Because of the rich forests great mills are developed, and the Puget Sound region comes to be the greatest lumber market in the world. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington, U. S. A. Much of the lumber for foreign trade goes from this market by sailing vessels. 215 Log rafts. Much of the lumber for the coast trade is towed in great rafts. 509 " Elephants a haulin' teak, in the slushy squdgy creek." Burma is the world's chief market supplying teak, and the elephant is the best lumber jack. 412 Grinding billets of wood into pulp for paper. The most of the world's paper now is made from wood pulp, hence the primary paper markets are in the forest lands, Norway, Canada, and the northern states of America. 19 Cut rags, for paper. The best paper is made from linen rags, and Holyoke, Massachusetts, is the chief manufacturing market. 20 Inspecting paper, Holyoke, Massachusetts. 297 Cutting tobacco. The best tobacco in the world is produced in western Cuba, and Havana is the market for it. 325 Sacking nitrate, Chile. The world's primary nitrate market. 573 Shipping ivory, Mombasa, Africa. The world's supply of ivory comes largely from central East Africa, and Mombasa is the primary market. The world market is at London. 58 Firing table ware, Trenton, New Jersey, and East Liverpool, Ohio. are the leading pottery markets of the new world. 59 Decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, New Jersey. 79 Coal breaker in the anthracite region, eastern Pennsylvania. The REGIONS WITH LARGE DEMAND 95 anthracite fields cover but 480 square miles, but furnish almost one-quarter of all American coal. 129 Shipping coal, at Conneaut, Ohio. The region of eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania and West Virginia furnishes about one-half of all the American coal. Pittsburgh is the chief bituminous coal center. Much coal is shipped westward from the Great Lakes ports. 128 Unloading iron ore from a Lake Superior boat at Conneaut, Ohio. Most of the iron ore in America comes from the Lake Superior basis, and travels by boat to meet the coal and coke of the northern Appalachian fields. This provides for an important series of markets in iron and steel from Detroit round the south shore of Lake Erie to Buffalo. 62 A blast furnace at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Because of the rich deposits of coking coal in the vicinity, and the supply of iron ore from Lake Superior, Pittsburgh has become the greatest iron market in the world. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. For reasons above given Pittsburgh is the greatest steel market on earth. 82 General view of the erecting shop of the Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia. Because of the splendid development of the Baldwin Company, Philadelphia sells more locomotives than any other city in the New World. ISO Assembling Room in a Detroit automobile factory. Detroit is the world's leading automobile market. 114 Chattanooga, because of its position on the river, is one of the great manufacturing centers of the South. IV. REGIONS WITH A LARGE DEMAND Certain regions are spoken of as markets for a given article. Thus America is spoken of as a good market for diamonds ; the great prairie plains as a market for farming machinery ; the populous orient as a great market for cotton cloths, and so on. There is endless op- portunity for illustration here, and only a few of the many possible illustrations are suggested below. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. We think of the mining regions as great markets for rock drilling, crush- ing and milling machinery. 334 Silver smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. The countries along the Andes Mountains are all good markets for mining machinery. 252 Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. While the great locks were build- ing, the Panama Canal was a good market for Portland cement, and for excavating machinery. 407 The Lotefos, famous Norwegian waterfall. Because of her many waterfalls, Norway is a fine market for hydraulic and elec- trical machinery. 178 Plowing with a tractor, South Dakota. The great plains, smooth and fertile, invite the use of labor-saving farming machinery. 96 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 561 Tilling the soil in Egypt, as it was done in the days of Moses. Egypt is looked upon as a promising market for labor-saving farming machinery. 179 Tractor drawing double disc-harrow, and three-section tooth- harrows. South Dakota. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader, Nebraska. All our great lowland farming area is a boundless market for farming ma- chinery. 136 Harvesting corn with a cutter and binder, Indiana. 177 Threshing wheat, Red River Valley. All our wheat lands are good markets for harvesting and threshing machinery, Fargo, North Dakota, is a great market for farm machinery. 284 Farm lands in Mexico, a promising market for American ma- chinery. 479 Treading out the grain, Greece — A market opportunity for American machinery. 497 The threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. Another market op- portunity for American machinery. 562 Threshing beans, Egypt — a potential market for American ma- chinery. 498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine — a market for better devices. 431 Washing clothes, Nice, France. A possible market for electric washing machines. 519 A Chinese crowd looking at the camera. It suggests an endless market for American cotton cloths. 503 Mohammedan crowd before the Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India. A great market for cotton clothing. 523 Chinese sawing lumber with pit saws. A market opening for modern saw mill machinery. 330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroyo Railway, Peru. The need of railways in South America makes a great market for American steel rails, locomotives and rolling stock. 518 Train of Bactrian camels, China. There is a great awakening in China and a demand for railways — a great market for American manufactures. 516 A stone road roller pulled by human muscle, Nankin, China — a market for modern steam rollers. 28 Great buildings seen from City Hall Park, New York City. Large cities are great markets for structural steel, building stones and cement. 87 The Capitol at Washington, D. C. The making of such beautiful monuments creates a market for marble and other fine build- ing stones. 0. NATURAL FORMS AND FORCES PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY By WALLACE W. ATWOOD PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY The use of the stereograph is nearly as good as direct per- sonal observation in the field. In many cases the views se- cured by the photographer are better than one might happen upon while in the same region. The views here listed have been taken with great care, and selected as the best of many thousands. The teacher of geography always aims to give the general physical features of the region that is being studied, and a sys- tematic use of these views will help greatly in giving definite and accurate images. The classification following is in ac- cordance with the best text-books, and should prove convenient to the teacher. In studying an individual view the student should have in mind several questions, namely : (1) What does this view best illustrate? (2) Are the land forms of solid rock or loose material? (3) What may be the origin of the loose material? (4) What special land forms are shown here? (5) How may these be best described? (6) What places have I myself ever seen that are like this one? (7) How have the physical features affected the settlement and the activities of the people in this region? (8) Is there anything in the view that I do not understand and must ask the teacher? A full course for children in the study of geography might easily be framed about this series of 600 views. The lesson growing out of a single picture may often lead to a real and vital interest in a foreign land and a foreign people. When once accustomed to using these views the teacher will find that they facilitate the giving of a strong and effective lesson. 97 9S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY They raise problems in the child's mind, and call for original thought, thus vitalizing the work. I. FORCES WHICH CHANGE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH — WEATHERING — EROSION During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed by va- rious natural forces, including the atmosphere, ground water, surface water, freezing and thawing, snow and ice in the form of glaciers, and internal forces such as heat and pressure, and organic agencies in- cluding man. These forces have produced the various natural fea- tures of the earth's surface which include mountains, hills, volcanoes, lakes, rivers with their shores and banks, oceans and islands, capes and peninsulas. A. ATMOSPHERE i. Wind The action of wind is brought about because of the dust and sand which it carries. 68 Coke ovens produce dust. 545 Dust coming out in clouds. 563, 565, 209 When the wind blows the sand flies. 223 The wind will pile up sand as it does snow. 477 Old Grecian city buried by action of wind. 565 These faces have been worn by wind driven sand. 2. Chemical Elements These include oxygen, carbon dioxide and water. 27, 379 The cables which suspend the bridge are painted to prevent rust. 43 The steel rails will rust away. 253 These steel boats are always painted to prevent rust. 9, 10 Houses and fences painted to prevent weathering. 37 The shingles treated with creosote to prevent decay. 113 The weather has cracked the old logs. 10 Weathering will gradually dim these words. 36 The lettering on these tombstones is nearly worn away by wind and rain. 3. Temperature The freezing of water in the crevices of rocks breaks them in pieces. 330 The mountain is being broken to pieces. 51 Frost and rain are breaking off the rocks. 200 The pillars become roughened by wind and rain. 201 The soft materials have been loosened and washed away, UNDERGROUND WATER 99 4. Fantastic Features Due to Weathering 197 The huge piles of rocks stand like sentinels. 200 A gateway to the fields beyond. 201 Chiseled rocks make a magnificent entrance. 205 Nature has furnished a roof for a whole village. 5. Talus 208, 276, 323 Show talus piles or cones as result of weathering. 6. Sand Dunes 223 Sand dunes, the work of winds. B. UNDERGROUND WATER This is the water which has run down into the soil and is not seen on the surface. 1. Sources These are rain and snow. 1, 162, 542 The melting snow will sink into the ground. 2. Conditions for Producing Underground Water 104, 105 Water flows slowly here and sinks in quickly. 83, 178, 179,419 Water will readily enter these soils. 38, 70, 224 Forests aid in forming ground water by holding rain until it can soak into the ground. 173 Sod holds rain until it soaks into the soil. 3. Disposal of Ground Water 1, 169, 173, 195 Small streams get considerable of their flow from springs. 192,193 Hot springs — this water is too hot for animals or plants to live in. 194 Geysers — every hour a million and a half gallons shoot up. 161 Getting rid of too much ground water. 4. The Work of Ground Water 193 The heated water brings minerals from the depths. 192 Deposits left in form of basins. 206 A petrified tree which lived ages ago. Underground water grad- ually took away the wood and left in its place particles of quartz. 38 Underground water dampens the roots of plants and makes them grow. 567 Oases are watered by springs. C. RUNNING OR SURFACE WATER 1. Source Running water comes from rain, snow, ground water, ponds, lakes and glaciers. 191 The stream in the valley is being fed bv the snow. 100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 542 Melting snow often forms streams. 195 Snow melting to form the ponds and streams — the beginnings of rivers. 154 Water from Lake Superior. 264, 265 Water from the Great Lakes. 322 The beginning of a river in this glacial lake. 276 The stream begins where the glacier ends. 408 The source of the stream is the distant glacier. 448 Streams begin in these valleys. 2. The Work of Running Water Erosion 576 Some rocks are broken sooner than others. 341 A recent rain has hollowed the street. 49, 50 The rushing water wears off the edge of the hard rock. 318 Continual pounding of the water breaks the rocks. 407 Plunging down a mountain, water deepens its path. 197 Nearly one-third of a mile deep has the water worn this gorge. 363 The tiny brook wears a deep path. 206 Formerly covered with soil. 208 Broad and deep the channel has been made. 463 Valleys are deepened and widened. Depositing 509 The slow stream deposits its load. 467 A winding river will fill in its curves. 408 Fertile soil washed down from the mountains. 120 At their mouths rivers may deposit their soil in the form of deltas. D. SNOW AND ICE i. Valley Glaciers 276, 279 A bank of snow begins a glacier. 448, 427 Snow the year around is needed for glacial formation. 275 Layers of snow changing to ice. 446 Natural home of the valley glacier. 428 The great sea of ice — crevasses by the hundred. 408 The distant valley filled with a glacier. 219, 274 These crevasses are often 100 ft. or more deep and are due to an unequal surface over which a glacier moves or to different rates of movements. 361 The valley has smooth curves as the result of glacial action. 274, 428 These stones and soil were torn from the mountains. 276^ 408 Glaciers in melting produce streams. 361, 369, 377, 459 Glacial lakes surrounded by hills. ICE FIELDS — HEAT AND PRESSURE 101 2. Ice Fields and Continental Glaciers A. Conditions of Formation 345, 346 Fields of ice about the poles. 344 A real field of snow and ice. 342, 343 Near where the ice fields begin. B. The Work of Ice Fields 38, 379 No sharp ridges in this glaciated area. 361 A hollow where a glacial lake was formed. 47 Soils for gardens have been left by glaciers. 137, 147 The fertile fields of Indiana and Illinois were made largely of glacial drift. 159 Wisconsin's famous herds feed where the glacier once existed. 161 Some glacial lands need to be drained. 361, 369, 377 Glacial lakes often have sloping shores. 262 The rolling landscape formerly covered with a continental glacier. C. The Effects of Glaciation on Human Affairs 137, 147 Fields of grain on soil of glacial origin. 159 Dairying on glacial lands. 47 Glacial soils are productive. 357 Ivolling fields of grain in glaciated region. 48 154 The Great Lakes, of glacial origin, are important waterways. E. HEAT AND PRESSURE i. Sinking of the Earth's Crust Internal heat and pressure help to change the earth's surface. 256 The distant islands were once hills. 39 The sinking of the land drowned this valley. 2. Raising of the Earth's Crust A. Mountains 102,201,322,323,408,460,508 Mountains are usually formed by eleva- tion of the land. 330 Irregularity in strata is due to internal forces. B. Volcanic Action 222, 291, 545, 525, 548 Volcanic action sometimes forms mountains. 3. Earthquakes 231,300 An earthquake has opened wide cracks. 526 Houses are low so as to withstand the earthquakes. F. ORGANIC AGENCIES 284 Vegetation is tearing down the mound of stone. 102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 111 The land here is built of skeletons of corals. 3, 4 Man is changing the face of nature. 74, 250, 251 Man digs great valleys. 163 The big steam shovels make big holes. II. NATURAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE A. RIVERS AND VALLEYS i. Young Rivers Young rivers flow rapidly, have steep banks, and cut deep channels. 195 The very beginnings of two rivers. 228 The river has hardly found its path. 363 The small stream wears a deep path. 49, 50 The water flows rapidly by. 407 Young rivers and young mountains are often companions. 208 Digging for ages but still young. 2. Mature Rivers These are rivers with a moderate current, sloping banks, and usually a straight course. 39 The stream flows slowly. 580 Such rivers are often shallow. 392 Here the Rhine is broad and calm. 264 Mature rivers are often great waterways for commerce. 170, 174 Across the smooth Mississippi. 101 Where two rivers peacefully meet. 3. Old Rivers Old rivers flow slowly, often in winding courses. 114 Notice the meandering course of the river. 509 Low banks are characteristic of old rivers. 106 Boats are usually common on such streams. 517 The broad slow-moving stream of China. 470 A famous bridge over the wide Danube. 467 The river in its winding course. 4. Drowned Rivers These are rivers in which the bed has sunken so that the water is deep, often forming estuaries at the mouth. 39. 51 Deep enough for the largest ships. 00 Battleships find plenty of room here. 264 The largest ocean liners travel in this river. B. LAKES A lake is an inland body of water. LAKES — COAST FORMS 103 i. Some Lakes of Glacial Origin 361 England; 369 Scotland; 377 Ireland; 459 Italy; 48, 154 the Great Lakes of America. 2. Lakes of Non-glacial Origin 222 The top of the mountain sunken, the peak an island. 293 Lake Nicaragua, C. A. 3. Effects of Lakes on Human Affairs 48 Grain from the west in these boats. 128, 129' Coal and iron are shipped by boat on the lakes. 154 Ship loads of produce from the west. 157 Copper is carried on the Great Lakes. C. COAST FORMS 1. Beaches A beach may sometimes be defined as the sand or gravel along the sea-shore between high and low tide. 60 Bathing along the beach is very popular. 430, 439 Sandy beaches are good landing places for small boats. 13, 531 The beach is a good place to dry fish. 2. Coastal Lowlands 401 Nearly as level as the sea and not much higher. 248 A low plain below the hill. 531 A flat country with mountains in the distance. 3. Drowned Coasts The land along the coast sometimes sinks. 382 The small islands growing smaller yearly. 374 The sinking of the land often makes harbors. 307 The distant harbor was once a valley. 299, 277 Deep water is characteristic of such harbors. 4. Sea Cliffs Some seashores are very rocky. 439 A steep sided rock standing in the water. 432 A sudden drop from the castle to the sea. 5. Capes A cape is a portion of land projecting into the sea. 414 The mountain projects to form the cape. Such a high mountain- ous cape is called a promontory. 248 Reaching out toward the ocean. 104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 6. Peninsulas A peninsula is a body of land almost surrounded by water. 432 The Castle of Monaco is built on a small peninsula. 256 The wireless tower is on the peninsula. 248 The lower part of the city is built on a peninsula. 7. Isthmus An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger portions of land. 432 Only room for a narrow road on the isthmus to the castle on the peninsula. 8. Harbors Harbors are indentations in the coast, often at the mouth of rivers, in which boats may anchor. 591 The city is built near the harbor. 556 Railroads and steamships meet at the harbors. 511, 52 Ocean liners and harbor boats. 514 Harbor at Canton. Houseboats. 25, 26, 27 One of the busiest harbors in the world. 374 A big harbor well protected from gales. 313 Harbors are made deeper by dredging. 499, 574 Poor harbors. 492 An old commercial city on the Mediterranean. 278 A fisherman's harbor near the greatest of fishing places. 307 One of the best harbors in the world. 430, 217, 257, 277, 280, 299, 304, 314 Other harbors. g. Bays A bay is a body of water partly surrounded by land. 248 This breakwater is built out into the bay to form a harbor, 492 The bay at Beyrout. 10. Straits A strait is a narrow portion of water connecting two bodies of water. 489 The waterway connecting the Black and Mediterranean Seas. 439 Entrance to the Mediterranean. D. ISLANDS An island is a portion of land, smaller than a continent, entirely sur- rounded by water. ROCKY ISLANDS — PLAINS 105 i. Flat Islands 25 The islands in New York harbor are not much higher than the water. 99 Barely out of the sea. 114 Island in Tennessee River. 401 An island of Holland. 2. Rocky Islands 369 Ellen's Island in Loch Katrine. 256 At the entrance to the Panama Canal. 382 Small rocky islands near Ireland. E. PLAINS i. Coastal Plains These are plains near the sea coast made by uplifting the ocean bed. 108 This was formerly the bed of the ocean. 122 Oil is frequently found near the sea. 105 Along the coast are miles of plains. 104 Level fields with water are needed for rice culture. 399 Land so low that the sea is held by a wall. 2. River Flood Plains Some of the most fertile fields are found in the broad valleys of rivers. 114, 136,233 River floods plains of the U. S. 317, 321, 332, 333 River flood plains of South America. 408, 419, 467 River flood plains of Europe. 509,515,529,549 River flood plains of Asia. 561, 564, 580 River flood plains of Africa. 3. Compound Alluvial Plains Several rivers help to make this type of plain. 237 Fertile lands are in the valleys. 467 Two rivers uniting form large plains. 4. Delta Plains These have been formed by continued deposit of alluvial soil at the mouth of rivers. 120 This land has been gradually deposited by the Mississippi. 500 The Ganges carries and deposits acres of soil. 558 A city built on a delta plain. 5. Lake Plains Bottoms of former lakes form alluvial plains. 47 Fertile soil of a lake plain. 166 An old lake bottom growing potatoes. 149 A very fertile soil is required for celery. 106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 6. Great Western Plains of U. S. Formerly covered by a great inland sea. 181, 183 The Nebraska and Kansas plains are noted for alfalfa. 186 Cattle grazing on the semi-arid plains of the west. 198 Sugar beet growing requires fertile level land. 199 These great plains are often very dry in summer. Good culture makes them productive. 126 A level part of Texas. 7. Glacial Plains These are plains formed by ice fields or glaciers. 136, 137 The great corn fields of Indiana are glacial plains. 161 So level that water does not run off readily. 488 Agriculture on the glacial plains of Russia. 147 Illinois field of oats on the glacial plains. 8. Plateaus A plateau is a tract of high level land. 218 Some elevated plains produce good crops. 190 Some elevated plains are good for grazing only. 209 Some elevated plains are deserts. 9. Effects of Plains upon Human Affairs 85 Picking peaches on a coastal plain. 105 Rice is grown where the land is flat and wet. 127 Grazing on the semi-arid plains. 136, 137, 147 Productive fields on fertile plains. 140 From the rich plains of the west. 166 Potatoes require fertile soil. F. MOUNTAINS 1. Young Mountains These are characterized by having rough pointed peaks and are be- lieved to be of recent origin, geologically considered. 201 Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 213 These mountains are being rapidly leveled. 447, 448 A young mountain with a sharp peak. 445 Snow will not stay on the steep slopes. 441 These mountain paths are difficult to climb. 440 A dangerous road to travel. 276 Sharp ridges characterize the young mountains. 427 Time will smooth the roughened peaks. 323 The slopes are becoming less sleep. 322 The valley is filling with the broken peaks. 508 Mountains above the clouds. OLD MOUNTAINS— HILLS — DIVIDES 107 2. Old Mountains These are characterized by having rounded peaks worn off through ages of time. 102 Mountains rounded like the waves of the sea. 361 The mountains have been rounded by glaciers and washed into the valleys. 38 At one time mountains, now a rolling landscape. 39 The round top hills sloping to the river. 3. Mountain Ranges 102 This view of the tops of the Blue Ridge shows very clearly the idea of a mountain range. 213 The Wasatch Range rises behind Ogden. 243 The Coast Range in Alaska was a great barrier to gold seekers. 4. Mountain System All the ranges and highlands that belong to one highland form a sys- tem. It is impossible to show a whole system in one picture. 508 This picture of a little part of the Himalayas may help you to imagine ranges behind ranges, peaks behind peaks extending for hundreds of miles. That would give you some idea of a mountain system. 5. Mountain Peaks 114 View from Lookout Mt., Tenn. 201 Pike's Peak, Colorado. 221 Mount Hood, Oregon, in the Cascade Range. 276 Mount Sir Donald, the Matterhorn of the Selkirk Mountains in Canada. 445, 447 Peaks in the Alps Mountains. 448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland. 508 Peaks of the Himalaya Mountains. 6. Volcanic Mountains A volcano is an opening in the earth through which lava and gases are expelled. 545 Volcano in Java. When the heated matter forces its way out there are tremendous explosions. Rocks are blown to dust and thrown miles into the air. Great quantities of steam and of broken rock are thrown out. The lava or melted rock flows down the side. 453 Vesuvius. A volcano builds up a cone about the opening. 221 Mount Hood has been quiet for so long that the cone has become weathered. It is cut by many valleys. 288 Popocatapetl, an active volcano in Mexico. 291 The twin volcanoes of Guatemala. 548 Mayon has had many destructive eruptions. 525 Fuji-Yama, the sacred mountain of Japan. 7. Divides and Passes 195 Water from one pond flows into the Atlantic, from the other into the Pacific. 108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 322, 323 The dividing ridge of S. America. 243 Between the peaks to the gold fields beyond. 251 Cutting the mountains in two. 8. Effects of Mountains on Human Affairs 287 Mines in Mexico. 187, 214, 243 Mining in mountains. 408 Small farms in the mountains. 411 Dairying in the mountains. 413 Reindeers are found in the mountainous north lands. 287, 187, 214, 243 Mountains are very often rich in minerals. 408 Small farms in mountains. 411 Mountaineers often follow dairying. 440, 441, 48 Travelers delight to climb mountains. 243 Mountains act as barriers, making communication difficult. 325 The Andes make the west coast of South America dry and so the nitrate remains. Rain would carry it away. 440 to 459 The Alps shut out the cold winds and make Italy warm. 499 to 508 The Himalayas cause the rains to fall in India, making that land wonderfully warm and fertile. 440 to 449 Mountain people, such as the Swiss, are usually liberty loving people. 506 They are often backward in their civilization. See also classification on Zones. 9. Mountains of the World 102, 219, 221, 243, 274, 276 Mountains of N. America. 322, 323, 326, 330 Mountains of S. America. 388, 408, 409, 427, 428, 436, 440,441, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 460 Mountains of Europe. 508, 525, 531, 548 Mountains of Asia. For Zones and Deserts, see classification on Zones. 10. Hills 479, 480 Mountains worn down to hills. 496 Old Palestine with its rolling hills. 497 Soil from the hill has filled the valley. 530 Hillside covered with tea plants in Japan. 262 Forests of Canada in a hilly country. 127 Low hills may be used for grazing. 11. Mesas These are small plains on the tops of mountains or hills. 475 The distant Acropolis with a flat top. 7. ZONES AND THEIR EFFECTS ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFE By ROBERT De C. WARD, A.M. PROFESSOR OF CLIMATOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Climate itself cannot be illustrated by means of photographs. The effects of climate, however, upon the general appearance of a country ; upon vegetation, crops, occupations, dwellings, etc., may perfectly well be shown in this way. A picture of the general climatic conditions is thus obtainable. In the following list, those photographs have been selected which fur- nish the more obvious illustrations of such climatic controls over the earth's surface and its flora, and over man's mode of life under the limitations which climate imposes. This broad view of climate in relation to man needs emphasis in any study of geography. The basis of the classification is that generally adopted by climatologists in their description of the climatic zones, and of their subdivisions. The classification is therefore based on climate, and the views are not subdivided on the basis of political divisions. Views of cities are not included unless they have some more or less distinct climatic interest. For such general views, reference should be made to the Geographical Classification. It must be borne in mind that there is usually a gradual transition from one climate into another, and for this reason many views might equally well be listed under two headings. Furthermore, the zones of climate are not separated by any rigid boundaries. 109 1 10 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE I. THE CLIMATIC ZONES: THEIR CHARACTER- ISTICS AND THEIR PRODUCTS ' A. "THE TROPICS" i. The Equatorial Belt The dominant characteristic of the equatorial belt, (i.e., the inner portion of the tropical zone within about 10° or 12° of the equator) is the prevailingly high and uniform temperature throughout the year, with no seasons in our sense, and a generally heavy rainfall, coming normally in two rainy and two so-called dry seasons. In some districts, however, rain falls throughout the year, and the " dry " seasons are only slightly less rainy than the " wet " seasons. These double rainy and dry sea- sons are easily modified by other conditions, as by the topography, alti- tude, and, as in the Indo-Australian area, by the monsoons. There is thus no rigid belt of equatorial rains extending around the world. The high temperatures and heavy rainfall produce a superabundance of vegetation, unfavorable to human occupation. The population is gen- erally sparse, and at a relatively low stage of civilization. The life of man as a whole is controlled by the rains. The difficulty of travel and transportation, and of clearing the forests, operate to retard the advance of civilized man. The hot damp climate is generally unfavorable for settlement by people from cooler altitudes. The foreign whites are few in number, but are the driving power in the development of these equatorial lands. 572 Natives of equatorial Africa, in typical costume. 247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 131 Crude rubber, one of the most valuable products of the rainy equatorial forests, especially in Brazil. 570 Peeling bark for bark cloth, equatorial Africa. 573 Ivory from the African forests, Mombasa. 294 Bananas, one of the most widespread and valuable food plants of the tropics, Costa Rica. 571 Sisal hemp, valuable fibre plant from equatorial Africa. 255 Maintaining health in the tropics, Panama hospitals. 249 Village scene, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. 337 Narrow streets in a tropical city, providing shade during much of the day, Baranquilla, Colombia. 338 Where heating plants are not necessary, La Guaira, Venezuela. 251 What the intelligence and energy of the northerner have accom- plished, Gaillard cut, Panama Canal. 252 Completed Panama Canal, cut through tropical jungles. 254 What the Panama Canal h;is made possible. THE TRADE WIND BELTS 111 2. The Trade Wind Belts About one-half of the earth's surface is within the trade wind zone for part or all of the year. These belts, therefore, include a considerable variety of climates. The seasonal range of temperature is relatively small, but is greater than in the equatorial belt. The control over man's life and activities is to be found in the rainfall. The windward (east- ern) sides of continents or islands in the trade winds are well watered, especially if the land is high, while the interiors and leeward (western) slopes are dry. Where the trades blow directly on shore the year around the rainfall is usually fairly well distributed through all months but is heaviest in winter. During the summer, over much of the trade wind zone, the migration of the belt of equatorial rains into higher latitudes brings a tropical rainy season, whose duration and intensity vary with the distance from the equator, and with other controls. Where the trade winds blow over continental interiors, far from the ocean and also beyond the reach of the migrating belt of equatorial rains, pure deserts are found. These deserts may even reach the sea on the lee- ward side of a continent, as in western Australia and northwestern and southwestern Africa. When high mountains border the western coast, as in Peru, the trades are rainy on the eastern side of the ranges, and a desert prevails on the leeside. Vegetation in the trade wind zone varies closely with the rainfall. The transition from wet tropical forests, through savannas, to the desert marks the transition from abundant, through moderate, to deficient rainfall. By reason of their altitude, tropical plateaus in the trade wind zone have a more temperate climate than the lowlands. Their vegetation and their crops clearly indicate this. Man finds in the trade wind belt more favorable conditions for work and development than in the perennially hot muggy belt of equatorial rains. (a) Windzvard continental lands and tropical islands with generally abundant rainfall 307 The picturesque environs of a city in the southern tropic, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 304 A tropical port, Bahia, Brazil. 258 Sugar cane, an important crop in moist, warm tropical and semi- tropical lowlands, Porto Rico. 298 A Cuban farm. 302 Picking coffee in the West Indies, a trade wind zone product. 297 Cuban tobacco, growing under the shade of banana trees for pro- tection against the sun. 303 Cocoa, a characteristic product of the damp lowlands of tropical America, West Africa and the East Indies. 301 Cattle on the rich grass lands of Jamaica. 1 12 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 259 Papaya trees growing in the mild tropical climate of the Hawaiian Islands. 592 Natives of New Guinea, in the southeast trade belt. 291 Scene in Guatemala, Central America. (b) Leezvard continental lands, with climate often tempered by alti- tude, and summer rainfall ranging from deficient or light to abundant 287 Characteristic vegetation of the semi-arid Mexican plateau. 282 The bare hills around the city of Mexico. 288 Irrigated and cultivated fields on the Mexican plateau. 285 Drawing sap from a Mexican agave, " century plant," to be made into the national drink, pulque. 284 Farming on the Mexican plateau, where many temperate zone cereals can be raised. 281 Adobe hut a cheap and serviceable building in a land of relatively little rainfall. 289 Henequen, a species of agave, yielding sisal fibre from which bag ging and cordage are made, Yucatan. 575 The open country of southeastern Africa. Cape to Cairo Rail way, near Victoria Falls. 580 Fording the shallow Vaal River, in a district of light rainfalls, South Africa. 576 The rushing waters of the Zambezi River, fed by the heavy equa- torial rains, Rhodesia, Africa. 310 Sun-drying coffee during the winter dry season on the Brazilian plateau, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 311 Carrying Brazilian coffee to the railroad. 589 Sheep on the grass lands of southern Australia. (c) Leeward deserts, shut off from rain-bearing winds by mountains to zvindzvard 330 The bare mountain slopes of Peru. 333 Planting sugar cane on the irrigated coast desert of Peru. 332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 329 Snow-capped mountain rising above desert plateau, Peru. 335 On the dry Bolivian plateau. 325 Nitrate mines in desert region, Chile. 3. Monsoon Regions The continental lands and islands in the monsoon belt are character- ized by marked seasonal changes in wind direction. The rainy season comes when the winds blow onshore ; the dry season when they blow offshore. The rainfall is generally abundant, often excessive, and as a rule follows the vertical sun ; i.e., the summers are rainy while the winters are dry. Over most of the greatest and most typical mon- soon area, that of India, eastern Asia and the adjacent Islands, the summer (rainy) monsoon is prevailingly southwesterly or southerly. THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS 113 The northeast trades blow in winter, and are known as the dry mon- soon. Some places on eastern coasts or slopes have their rainy season in winter, with the northeast monsoon. There is often no sharp division between trade controls and monsoon controls. 547 The shady side of the street preferred, Manila, P. I. 546 House boats, well protected against the hot tropical sun and the heavy tropical rains, Manila, P. I. 549 Rice fields on an island in the monsoon belt, Manila, P. I. 550 Hulling rice, the most important cereal grain of hot and rainy trop- ical districts, Island of Luzon, P. I. 551 Coconuts, a characteristic tropical lowland product. 552 The raw material for hemp, one of the leading Philippine exports. 554 Mission Home Grounds, Island of Guam. 574 East African seaport, in hot, damp coast climate. 508 Where the mountains reach above the snow line, Himalayas. B. THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS These are marginal belts, between trades and westerlies, and share in some of the characteristics of both types of climate. They are far enough from the equator to be free from continued high temperatures, and near enough to be spared extreme cold. Their rainfall is controlled by the stormy westerlies and, in some districts, by the inflowing damp continental winds of summer. The former control gives winter rains ; the latter brings a summer maximum. Where both controls are at work, there is rainfall throughout the year. Except in the latter case, the rainfall is usually rather light. In districts beyond the reach of effective winter rains, as in Egypt, for example, there are deserts. The sub- tropical belt may be subdivided according to the controls and seasons of rainfall. i. Districts with "Mediterranean" Climates These districts have mild winters, warm and dry summers, and win- ter rains from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies, which give generally sufficient but not abundant rainfall. Because of their small ranges of temperature, their abundant sunshine, and their general freedom from severe storms, these districts have long been well-known and popular health and pleasure resorts. This type of climate is mainly limited to the western coasts of the continents, and to the islands off these coasts, in latitudes 28°-40°. The area over which these conditions prevail is exceptionally wide in the Eastern Hemisphere, and reaches far inland there. The fact that the Mediterranean countries are so generally included in this belt has led to the use of the name " Medi- terranean climates." Irrigation is generally necessary in summer. Olives, grapes, oranges are characteristic plants. 430 A favorite resort on the Mediterranean Riviera, Cannes, France. 432 Monaco, on the Mediterranean Riviera. 114 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 459 Lake Como, a well-known health and pleasure resort. 495 Jerusalem, and its olive trees, typical of Mediterranean climates. 497 Threshing in the dry season, Palestine. 496 The bare hills and bright sunshine of Palestine. 493 Streets of Damascus, roofed over as a protection against sun and rain. 489 General view of the Bosporus, showing characteristic vegetation. 475 Athens, Greece, with cactus and scrubby vegetation in foreground. 479 Threshing during the dry summer in Greece. 480 Sheep grazing on the lowlands of Greece. 436 The irrigated slopes of Granada, Spain. 437 Oranges from irrigated lands, Valencia, Spain. 434 The open tableland of Spain, semi-arid and treeless. 438 Bringing the famous Malaga grapes to market. 236 Vineyard in the " Mediterranean " climate of California. 237 Southern California orange groves, on irrigated lowlands. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, southern California. 234 An almond orchard, California. 233 Harvesting in the dry summer of California. 239 California ostrich farm, a reminder that the climates of south Africa and of California are similar. 326 Valparaiso, Chile, whose climate is much like that of the central California coast. 319 Italian grape-growers, Mendoza, Argentina. 321 Scene on the Mendoza River, Argentina, a district of semi-aridity. 2. Semi-arid and Arid Districts These are subtropical lands which are too far from the westerlies to receive more than scanty precipitation from the cyclonic storms of winter. Egypt is essentially a part of the desert of Sahara. Its north- ern portion is overlapped by the southern edge of the stormy prevailing westerlies. 564 Overflow of the Nile, Egypt, resulting from the heavy spring rains in the Abyssinian mountains. 566 Palms — producing fruit and wood in semi-arid and arid regions. 561 Agriculture in the irrigated Nile valley, Egypt. 562 Threshing beans in the Nile valley, Egypt. 563 Spinning Egyptian cotton. 569 How the Nile water is conserved for use in irrigation, Assuan, Egypt. 567 An oasis in the desert, Egypt. 3. Sub-tropical Lands with No Dry Season These districts are in sub-tropical latitudes in the southeastern por- tions of Asia and of North America. They receive more or less rain in winter, from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies, but usually have their heaviest rainfall in summer, with onshore winds of the monsoon type. The rainfall is abundant, and the winters are not TEMPERATE ZONES — WINDWARD COASTS 115 severe. Among the economic products are cotton, rice, sugar cane and tropical fruits. 117 Cotton, a typical crop on the warm lowlands of Gulf States. 104 Flooding rice fields, South Carolina. 105 Lowland rice, South Carolina. 107 Gathering turpentine in the long-leaf pine belt of the southern states. 118 Peanut harvest, Arkansas. 108 Gathering pineapples in semi-tropical Florida. C. THE " TEMPERATE," OR INTERMEDIATE ZONES The so-called " temperate " zones occupy about one-half of the earth's surface. They are belts of prevailing westerly winds; of frequent cyclonic storms, especially in winter, and of changeable weather. Sea- sonal contrasts in temperature are marked, and over the northern con- tinental interiors reach extremes greater than those found anywhere else in the world. Rainfall, which comes chiefly in connection with cyclonic storms, or in thundershowers, varies greatly with distance from the ocean and with topography. Bold windward coasts in middle and higher latitudes have generally heavy, even excessive amounts ; leeward coasts are less rainy; continental interiors are still drier, and may even become deserts, as in Asia and southwestern North America. Over much of these zones, rains are distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, but on the western (windward) coasts the win- ter is the rainiest season, while over the interior lands most of the rain falls in the warmer months. The seasonal changes of the temperate zones stimulate man to activity. They develop him physically and mentally. They encourage higher civilization. The " temperate " zones include a great variety of climates and of crops. In the southern hemisphere this zone is far more " temperate " than in the northern, and really merits the name. i. Windward (West) Coasts These have mild winters, cool summers, and abundant rainfall, fairly well distributed through the year but coming mostly in winter. 224 Great trees in the rainy forest of Oregon. 215 Lumber from the rainy forests of the northern Pacific Coast. 379 A scene in the* Emerald Isle, Kenmare, Ireland. 378 Peat fuel, a product of the cool, damp climate of Ireland. 369 The trees and lakes of rainy Scotland. 373 A highland cottage, Scotland, well protected against cold and rain. 361 A picturesque bit of western England; the Lake District. 357 Wheat on the lowlands of eastern England. 358 English beef cattle, raised chiefly on the rainy western lowlands. 407 A Norwegian waterfall, characteristic of the rainy western moun- tains. 328 Indians in cool damp climate of Straits of Magellan. 1 16 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 2. Continental Interior and East Coast Lowlands These have large seasonal ranges of temperature and sufficient to abundant rainfall, fairly well distributed through the year but com- ing mostly in summer. The winters are colder and the rainfall is less abundant than on the western coasts. 50 Effects of severe winter cold, Niagara Falls. 542 Snow on the roofs, Seoul, Chosen. 60 Sea bathing during the hot summer. 38 Characteristic summer landscape in the eastern U. S. 262 Nova Scotia, a favorite resort for American travelers on account of its cool summers. 148 Dikes for protection against a spring flood. 178 Plowing the soil, South Dakota. 179 Making a good seed bed, South Dakota. 184 Corn ripening in the long and warm summer of Kansas. 136 Harvesting the corn, Indiana. 147 Oats from the fertile fields of Illinois. 181 Gathering the alfalfa crop, Nebraska. 166 A potato field, Minnesota. 85 Delaware peaches. 175 Apples from the great American apple belt, which reaches from Missouri to New York. 47 Cantaloupes from New York state. 137 Indiana pumpkins. 112 A Kentucky tobacco field. 13 A climatic element in the cod fish industry. Sun-drying the fish. 162 Logging in winter when the hauling is easy, Minnesota. 1 Products of our eastern forests, Maine. 130 Tapping the sunny side of a sugar maple tree when the sap begins to flow in the spring, Ohio. 390 Vineyards of the Rhine Valley (Germany), a sheltered climatic oasis favorable for grape culture. 419 Sugar beets, a profitable crop in the relatively dry and severe cli- mate of Sweden. 530 Japanese tea, growing on protected mountain slopes in a district with warm rainy summers. 527 Rice, an important crop on the lowlands of Japan, where the sum- mers are rainy. 529 Japanese laborers in the rice fields ; the hats furnish protection against rain and sun. 537 Mulberry leaves, used for feeding silk worms, Japan. 317 Cattle on the alfalfa lands of eastern Argentina. 522 Tilling the soil on a Manchurian farm. 488 Plowing on a Russian farm. HIGHLANDS — POLAR ZONES 1 17 3. Continental Interior Highlands Semi-arid or arid, and with marked seasonal ranges of temperature. The moister portions are used for agriculture; the drier, for grazing; the driest are deserts, except where irrigation is possible. * 186 Cattle on the grassy plains of Kansas. 127 Cattle drive on the Texas plains. 188 Bronchos on the western plains, Montana. 190 Where little rain falls, but sheep find enough pasturage. 218 The immense wheat fields of eastern Washington. 199 Barley raised by "dry farming" methods in Colorado, where there is insufficient rainfall for crops handled by ordinary methods. 198 Sugar beets on the irrigated fields of Colorado. 209 Where irrigation is necessary, Arizona. 210 Where the heavier rainfall over the mountains supplies water for irrigating the desert lowlands, Roosevelt Dam. 212 City on an irrigated desert ; Salt Lake City, Utah. 213 An irrigated desert, supporting a city, with bare mountains in the background, Ogden, Utah. 4. Temperate Zone Mountains These have successive vertical climatic zones, marked by lower tem- peratures and generally heavier rainfall than the lowlands, grading into " polar climates " above, with snow and ice, if the altitude is sufficiently great. Vertical zones of vegetation correspond with the vertical cli- matic zones. For more complete statement see classification, Elevation of Land (Altitude) in this chapter. D. THE POLAR ZONES The " temperate zones " merge into the " polar zones " where the mean temperature of the warmest month is 50°. In general, on the polar side of this limit, forest trees and cereals do not grow. The tempera- tures are always low ; the winters are long and severe ; the summers are short : precipitation is light and mostly in the form of snow. Life is hard. The food supply is scanty and is obtained mostly by hunting and fishing. Population is sparse. 279 Winter in Labrador. 342 Ships of Peary expedition, 1901, Nuerke, Greenland. 343 Eskimos. 344 Hauling snow for water supply, Belgian Antarctic expedition. 345 Traveling on skis on the Antarctic ice. 346 Amundsen, discoverer of South Pole, on Antarctic ice. 246 Alaskan dog team, and drivers. 245 Placer miners protected against mosquitoes in the Alaskan summer. 118 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE II. ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFE: THE VERTICAL CLIMATIC ZONES From the life standpoint, the most critical change that takes place with increasing elevation above sea-level, as in going up a mountain, is the decrease in temperature. If this decrease continues long enough ; i.e., if the mountain is sufficiently high, " polar climates," with snow and ice, are found in the upper slopes and at the summit. Vertical zones of vegetation, and of animal life, correspond with the vertical zones of climate. In the tropics, there may thus be a gradual transi- tion from the dense forests or the cultivated products of the warm tropical lowlands, up to higher levels where " temperate zone " fruits and cereals are raised, and then, farther up, through forests and be- yond the tree line until polar conditions of life and of climate are reached. In highest mountains of "temperate" latitudes the vertical succession of climatic and of vegetation zones is similar, but the lowest zone has a temperate flora and fauna, and the vertical range of climates is therefore from " temperate " to polar, instead of from tropical to polar. A few thousand feet of ascent on a high mountain will there- fore give, in a very short vertical distance, the same series of zones, of climate, and of vegetation, as are met with in going a distance of many hundreds of miles, from lower to higher latitudes, near sea level. For high latitude and its influence on human affairs see classification, Earth Neighbors. 508 The mighty Himalayas, at whose base tropical products are raised on the warm lowlands of India, and whose cold summits are covered with eternal snow. 329 Monte Misti, 19,200 feet high, in southern Peru. Its summit is snow covered during the rainy season, while flowers bloom and snow never falls on the plateau, 10,000 feet lower, above which the mountain rises. 548 A tropical mountain : Mayon, Island of Luzon, Philippines. Rice and tobacco are raised at its base. Farther up, on its slopes thrives the plantain tree, from which Manila hemp is ob- tained. (See also 549, rice fields on the lowlands of Luzon.) 284 Threshing on the Mexican plateau. Temperate cereals are raised here, while at the lower levels, where the temperatures are higher, tropical products alone can be cultivated. 311 Taking coffee to market on the Brazilian plateau. This plateau, 2000-3000 feet above sea level, has ideal climatic conditions for coffee, and, because of its elevation, is a far healthier place of residence for white men than the hot lowlands of the Amazon Valley. 243 The rush to the Klondike (1897-1898) across the snow-covered Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. The heavy snowfall on many mountains makes them difficult to cross in winter. THE VERTICAL CLIMATIC ZONES 119 221 Rising above the snow line, Mt. Hood. The vegetation in the foreground illustrates very clearly the contrast in the vertical zones of climate. 228 The snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains. These mountains rise above the irrigated and fertile fields of California, to snow- covered heights which have given the range its name. See 236, 237, 238 showing the fruit industry of California. 276 The snow-fields and glaciers of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. 195 Owing to the considerable altitude, temperatures below freezing, and snowfalls, occur in the Yellowstone National Park even during the tourist season. 191 Freshly-fallen snow in Yellowstone National Park. 102 The Blue Ridge, a " temperate zone " mountain range of moderate elevation. Many lowland crops will grow here. The upper slopes of such mountains (103) are still largely forested. 388 Haying on the lower slopes of the Bavarian Mountains. Play is often an excellent crop on mountain slopes, where climatic and soil conditions are less favorable for cereals than they are on the lowlands. 427 Glacier des Bossons fed by the snows of the high Alps, Chamonix, France. Glaciers not infrequently come down from the cold upper slopes and summits of lofty mountains into the inhabited and cultivated valleys below. 444 The trees and flowers of the valley, and the eternal snows of the upper mountain slopes, Switzerland. A striking illustration ol the close proximity of very different vertical climatic zones. 445 Swiss mountain homes: The roofs often weighted down with stones to prevent damage by high winds. Wood, for fuel during the long and cold Alpine winter, is piled against the house. 448 The impressive scenery of the Swiss Alps : The Matterhorn. This mountain rises far above the fertile and inhabited valleys and lower slopes. 446 A glacier among trees and fields, Switzerland. From the eternal snow and ice of the high Alps, glaciers often descend so far down the slopes that they are surrounded by trees and grass, forming: a striking picture of contrasted climatic conditions. 428 Famous Mer de Glace (River of Ice), Chamonix, France. 460 The thickly settled lowland, with favorable climate, and the de- serted mountains, in the Austrian Tyrol. Innsbruck. 408 A fertile cultivated valley among bare and rugged mountains, Nor- way. Oats are raised in this valley, while the mountain sum- mits are seen to be snow-covered, and trees grow on the lower slopes. In a rainy climate, like that of this region, it is difficult to dry the grass for hay. The grass is put in thin, narrow piles, held up by poles, so that the wind can blow through it. 409 Snow-covered mountains rising above a pine forest, Norway. 322 A lake, high in the Andes, near the snow-line, fed by melting snows, Laguna del Inca. 323 A station on the Transandean Railroad, between Chile and Ar- 120 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE gentina far above the cultivated lowlands and valleys. See 324 taken at a lower level, and showing a considerable contrast in climatic conditions. 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan. This mountain, 12,400 feet high, is snow- capped in winter. At its base and on its slopes there are culti- vated fields. 213 Bare mountain slopes in a region of deficient rainfall, Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Compare 102 and 388 where, with heavier rainfall, there are trees. 413 The rugged slopes of northern Norway. Here, although the ele- vations are small, the climate is too severe for farming. The people (Laplanders) occupy themselves with hunting and fish- ing, and keep herds of reindeer. 430 Moderate elevations used as building sites, Cannes, France. The slopes of the hills along the famous Riviera district of France and northern Italy are much used for health and pleasure re- sorts, and are often dotted with beautiful residences. 8. GEOGRAPHY BY NATIONS POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY By E. M. LEHNERTS, A.M. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT AND PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY, HUNTER COLLEGE, NEW YORK CITY LECTURER IN GEOGRAPHY, TEACHERS COL- LEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Political geography is one of the difficult subjects to teach because of its variableness. Mathematical geography is as fixed as the sun and the earth ; physical geography is, in its laws, unchanging, but political geography changes continually. Boundaries change, colonies are gained and lost, governments are overturned and reorganized. Political geography is as changeful as man. Governments today are world-wide. They rule great ranges of classes and people and must be adapted to innum- erable conditions. It is interesting to note the extent and dis- tribution of each great nation's possessions and the funda- mental principles of the government which must fit them all. Perhaps the greatest tendency in modern life is toward democracy. It seems to float in the very air. Great nations are giving even to their far-off colonies some participation in the ruling power. Notice, for instance, the Dutch in Java, the Australian Commonwealth, the Americans in the Philip- pines. All the world is learning that government is for the benefit of the people " deriving its just powers from the con- sent of the governed." With textbooks, paging and distribution of material are necessarily fixed, and the world-wide application of one gov- ernmental system is difficult to be shown. But stereographs and slides can be combined and recomfcined. For instance, when a child can see 130 stereographs picked out of 600 he will have visual teaching that the British Empire includes one- quarter of the globe, and when he studies the different parts of this Empire, he will know better than words can tell what is the result of British rule. 122 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY *Best of all, these Keystone Views give us people in their daily life, and children will surely get from the pictures that government helps to make life what it is, and that, in turn, every man helps to make government, not for himself alone, hut for countless men, perhaps half way round the globe. The stereoscopic views and slides can be used to help children to realize the importance of the individual in the welfare of the nation. THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS The United States has made such rapid progress in area, population and wealth, that it is frequently spoken of as synonymous with Amer- ica. The reasons for this remarkable growth and development are many and complex and include geographic, historic, economic, indus- trial, racial, military and other causes. The geographic location of the United States constitutes a great and far-reaching advantage, and one which will become more and more im- portant as the nations of the world develop and their needs increase. Not only does the United States occupy the best part of the continent, but it is so placed on the globe as to lie between the populous regions of Europe and Asia and within favorable commercial distance of most of the countries of the rest of the world — an advantage made all the more effective by the possession of excellent harbors on three coasts, the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific. Nature was generous when she endowed the United States. Fertile soils and favorable climates produce unequaled agricultural wealth ; great forests furnish building material and fuel; abundant water powers offer unmeasured energy which will work for mankind long after coal is gone; unrivalled deposits of minerals and ores pour out vast and varied treasures. These and many other bounties of nature stimulate man to greater effort and reward him better here than in any other country on the globe. Tt remained for man to multiply nature's gifts: and this he accom- plished by means of inventions. Improved farm machinery and meth- ods of agriculture greatly increased the yield per acre and the output of the country : the roller mill, cotton gin, and better machines for the manufacture of flour, cloth, etc., increased the demand for the raw products and their value and usefulness in the finished state; railways furnishing quick transportation brought producer and manufacturer to- gether, opened otherwise inaccessible regions, and, together with the waterways, made for national union and prosperity. Add to this the influence of the school, the newspaper, the telegraph, and the telephone, and consider that this is a land of peace and good will to all, that it is a land of liberty and the home of a happy and prosperous people, and its remarkable growth is seen to be but the logical result of many and powerful causes, which, continuing to function in the future, are des- tined to bring even greater prosperity and happiness to the nation. UNITED STATES 123 The government of the United States is a logical development of English law and custom along democratic lines. Its fundamental ideal is self-government and individual responsibility. Wherever the stars and stripes float, there the people must rule themselves. In the Philip- pines the people are being trained for self-government either for inde- pendence or real union. This ideal of the United States has been an inspiration to the world. Other countries have followed more or less closely where America leads. 87 The United States is governed by laws made by Congress. 88 Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 91 The laws are enforced by a President. 92 A Cabinet of ten members chosen by the President advise and assist him. 89 A Supreme Court which passes on the constitutionality of a law is a distinctive feature of the United States Government. The federal government makes the laws which apply to the entire United States. 8 Each of the forty-eight states has a legislature which makes state laws, and a Governor who executes them. Also, each state has a system of state courts. 28 The people of the United States believe in self-government; so each county, city and township has its own local government which has almost entire control of local matters. 243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii are organized territories. Each one has a governor and judges appointed by the President and a legislature chosen by the people. Hawaii asked to be admit- ted to the United States. Citizens of territories are citizens of the United States with all the rights and privileges. 87 Each territory has one representative in Congress who may take part in debate but has no vote. The laws passed by the terri- torial legislature may be revoked by Congress. 257, 258 Porto Ricans are United States citizens since 1917. They elect their own legislature. They have a representative in Congress who may speak from the floor but not vote. Their Governor is appointed by the President. 546, 547 The Philippines also are governed largely by themselves. They are represented on the council and have their own legis- lature. They also have a representative in Congress without the vote. The Governor is appointed by the President. 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553 The Philippine common people are back- ward. It is the intention of the United States to educate them so that they may develop into a self-governing people. 554 Guam is governed by a naval officer stationed there. 295, 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. It is a republic with its own president and congress. It may not make any treaty without the consent of the United States, who in turn guarantees protection and a stable government. 124 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY MEXICO 280 to 290 Mexico is in form a republic with a government modeled after that of the United States. 281, 284, 285 The common people of Mexico are very ignorant, so that popular government is not so easily carried on. Also, the Mexican people are a mixed race of Spanish and Indian blood. Lacking the centuries of evolution they do not handle the demo- cratic ideals of government so readily as do the people of the United States. This is true of all Latin American countries. 281, 282, 283 The city of Mexico is the capital of Mexico. Here Congress meets and here the President resides. CENTRAL AMERICA 292, 294 The common people of the Central American states are so ignorant that the governments (republic in form) are very unstable. Revolutions are very common and very destructive. The common people have little share in the government. 247, 248, 256 The State of Panama is progressing rapidly, owing to the United States' occupation of the Canal Zone. BRAZIL Brazil is almost as large as the United States and has a population of about 24,000,000. The language of the country is Portuguese. It is a federal republic with a constitution based upon that of the United States. 306, 308, 311 The people of Brazil are mostly of Spanish, Portuguese or Italian descent. There are great numbers of Germans in the southern part. The people of the interior are mostly Indians. 304 Bahia; 308 Sao Paulo. Only the coast cities have any real sys- tem of education. 305, 307 At Rio de Janeiro, the capital, the President resides and here the national Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, meets. The government is almost entirely de- centralized. ARGENTINA Argentina is one of the most progressive countries of South America. Lying in the temperate zone with good grain and grazing land, it has attracted European immigration. The Republic has very liberal immi- gration laws. The constitution is modeled closely upon that of the United States and the entire system of government is almost identical with our own. 314, 316 Buenos Aires is the federal district. 315 The government buildings are where Congress meets to make the laws of the nation. A President, Senate, House of Representa- tives have almost the same power as in the United States. CHILE — BRITISH EMPIRE 125 CHILE The Chilians are sometimes called the " Yankees of South America." They are a progressive people, rapidly advancing in commerce and in- dustry and in government. 324 Santiago is the capital of the Republic of Chile whose constitu- tion is patterned after that of the United States. 326, 327 An active trade furnishes communication with the rest of the world and is the main reason for Chile's progressiveness. 328 There are numbers of Indians not yet touched by civilization. PERU 332, 333 These pictures show that Peru is using the newest farm machinery, a sure sign of progressiveness. 334 Her rich mines have attracted men from all over the world and here again we see modern machinery. 329 to 334 Peru is a republic, formed on the United States as a model. It has a President, a Congress with two houses and a Supreme Court of Justice just as we have. Local affairs are under the control of the federal government. VENEZUELA 339, 341 There are very few pure whites in Venezuela and very few pure negroes. Most of the people are a mixed race of Spanish and Indian or negro. They are mostly very ignorant and so the government laws are poorly executed. In general the courts are dilatory and ineffective. 340 Halls of Congress. The government is a republic, modeled after the United States, but not so successful in its administration. A President and Congress are the head of the government. 338, 339, 340, 341 Only the large cities have any educational advan- tages. THE BRITISH EMPIRE Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland comprises an area of 121,390 square miles, or about the size of the state of New Mexico, and contains a population of 45,400,000 or nearly equal to one- half of the total population of the United States. The British Empire contains 12,800,000 square miles of land and 439,700,000 inhabitants, or about one-fourth of both the total land area and the total population of the world. Approximately half of these possessions are situated in the northern hemisphere and half in the southern ; and so widely distributed are the various portions that almost every variety of climate and soil occurs, and almost every kind of oroduct and natural resource can be furnished. 126 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY The geographic foundations for the growth and development of this vast empire were laid in the geologic past when, in the fashioning of the earth's surface, two islands, now known as Great Britain and Ire- land, were set apart from the mainland and so placed in the seas as to he in the center of the land hemisphere of the glohe and opposite and nearer to North America than was any other portion of Europe. Na- ture, which had previously stored great coal and iron deposits in the larger of the two islands, then indented their shores with good har- bors, stocked the surrounding seas with abundant fish for food, and planted great forests in the part now called England. Each of these provisions of nature had an important bearing on the history of the British Empire, but their influences developed very slowly. At first, owing to the weakness of the Britons and the strength of their enemies, the water barrier was not sufficient to protect them against invaders. Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes and Normans came, conquered, and left their impress. But the island position in time de- veloped a sturdy seafaring people, fishermen, traders, explorers, brave navigators, and daring sailors destined to become the masters of the seas, a distinction which they attained by the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and again renewed by their victory over the French fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 was an event of far- reaching importance for the British Isles. Heretofore they had occu- pied an unimportant position at the very end of the known world. Thereafter instead of being on the outskirts of Europe, remote from the commercial activities of the Mediterranean and the continent, they became the geographic center of the land hemisphere of the world, a point of vantage whose importance increased as the nations and coun- tries of the earth developed. Britain's nearness to North America, her love for adventure and ex- ploration, her remunerative attacks on the gold-carrying galleons of Spain, and the lure of the imagined wealth of the New World, stimu- lated her seamen, shipbuilders, explorers, navigators, sea fighters, and colonizers, and raised England in less than a century from a second- rate maritime power in 1492 to the supremacy of the seas in 1588. We may, therefore, date the first steps in the building of the British Empire from the time of Queen Elizabeth and the founding of the American colonies. Another factor of immense consequence and one that must be con- sidered in connection with the island position and world central location of the Britisli Isles, is the fact that the oceans are not land-enclosed but are all connected with each other by water. Because of this continuity of the oceans, the sea routes led to all lands in all parts of the world and were safer, quicker, and cheaper than land transpor- tation, and, indeed, for centuries the only transportation that could reach many of the distant countries. Gradually the tide of trade turned from the Mediterranean to Eng- land's ports; her ships of war held the seas and her vessels of trade carried most of the world's merchandise. Growing colonies sent raw GREAT BRITAIN 127 products and demanded manufactured goods. Manufacturing estab- lishments grew up and flourished, and, thanks to British skill and in- vention and to the possession and low cost of coal and iron, Britain's factories soon surpassed those of any other country. The growth of so large an empire was necessarily slow and not in- frequently disputed by rival nations. But over all her continental com- petitors Great Britain had one immense advantage — her geographical position as an island with no land boundary to guard. The effect of this was seen in three ways: The British were often able to hold aloof from continental wars and to increase their foreign possessions and trade by sea, while their rivals were busy on land fighting one another ; secondly, the British have for several centuries been able to safeguard their islands by means of naval power and so have saved their country from the wasteful destruction to which the other nations of Europe have been so often exposed; and, thirdly, naval supremacy having guaranteed the safety' of her shores, Britain found it unnecessary to maintain a large standing army, and was thus enabled to turn a larger proportion of time, energy, and wealth, and almost all of her entire man power toward the development of industries and trade. A greater danger than either the Spanish Armada or Napoleon's fleet at Trafalgar threatened Britain's maritime supremacy at the beginning of the 19th century. All ships were built of wood and England's forests were exhausted. It had become necessary to buy and bring timber from the Black Forest, via the Rhine, and from the Scandinavian countries. Tt is doubtful whether Britain could have competed suc- cessfully with the shipbuilding of other countries had it not been for the discovery that steel and iron made better ships than wood. Great Britain fortunately possessed vast coal and iron deposits near each other and near the sea, and found herself able to build more and better ships and at smaller cost than any other nation. Her supremacy of the seas remained assured. While geographic factors and historic events formed a favorable foundation for the growth and development of the British Empire, the credit for its accomplishment is primarily due to the British people. Indeed, it is doubtful whether any other nation similarly placed could have accomplished as much. The vast empire was not only built, but it was built so well as to hold together in stress and storm, although composed of diverse peoples and scattered over the whole earth. In this remarkable union is reflected the British genius for colonization and government. The English language is spoken by more people than any other Euro- pean tongue. The sun never sets on the British Empire ; for her possessions encircle the globe. Britain is mistress of the seas, for her ships of war have ruled the waves since the days of the Spanish Armada, and her vessels of trade have carried the bulk of the world's merchandise since the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In times of war and of peace England's power has extended to the remotest parts of the earth. 12S POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 347 Liverpool; 348 London. The many harbors of England made her a seafaring nation. She developed a great merchant marine and a great navy. She became a great maritime power, " Mis- tress of the Seas." 262 to 279 Canada and Newfoundland; 301 Jamaica; 499 to 508 India; 513 Hongkong; 558 to 569 Egypt; 570 to 574 British East Africa; 575 to 578 Rhodesia; 579 to 584 South Africa; 585 to 591 Australia and New Zealand. These possessions are so scat- tered that every variety of climate and soil occur and almost every kind of product and natural resource. The English lan- guage is spoken by more people than any other European tongue. Many of these colonial possessions are completely self-govern- ing, organized with a constitution modeled on that of the United States. This was the lesson England learned from the American Revolution. England has gained and held many of the strategic positions of the world. This in part accounts for her expansion. 439 Rock of Gibraltar; 558 Alexandria; 559 Suez Canal. These strategic positions give England control of the Mediterranean and most of the trade with Asia. 561,569 The Nile. The occupation of Egypt gives an entrance from the north to the heart of Africa. 582 The possession of Cape Colony allowed the British to spread out over and absorb South Africa. This was the key which enabled them also to control the trade of this part of the earth. 513 Hongkong is a British possession and a strategic point for influ- encing affairs in the East. 301 Jamaica furnishes a naval base and a strategic position from which England finds entrance into Western affairs. 347 Liverpool, Eng. ; 351 London, Eng. ; 365 Edinburgh, Scot.; 375 Cork, Ire.; 381 Belfast, Ire.; 266 Quebec, Canada; 585 Sydney, Australia. British people as a whole are noted for independence of character, for sagacity, courage, enterprise and perseverance, and for respect for law and love of justice. These sterling quali- ties have enabled British manufacturers, merchants and ship- builders to gain preeminence over all other nations in trade and material prosperity. 348 to 352 London is the capital or governmental center of the British Empire. 352 The King and Llouse of Lords remain a part of the British gov- ernmental form but the real power is held by the House of Commons elected by the voters. The British Empire is really a democratic government retaining a monarchic form inherited from past ages. The king holds his place by the good will of the people. 365, 366. 367 Scotland united with England under the crown when James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown and became James I of England. 352 The Scotch have members both in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords. CANADA — INDIA — AUSTRALIA 129 374, 375, 377, 378 South Ireland has wanted home rule. 381 North Ireland has objected to home rule. 363 Welch people have all the rights and privileges of English sub- jects. Canada 262, 264, 267, 273, 277 Canada has a Governor-General appointed by the King of England, five years, also a Parliament of two houses. Senators are appointed for life by the Governor-General. The members of the House of Commons are chosen by the people. The lower house has the real power. 262 Nova Scotia; 264, 267 Quebec; 273 Manitoba; 277 British Colum- bia. Each province has almost complete local government. India 499 to 508 In India fewer than 6500 British officials rule over three hundred millions of men. 503 Delhi is the capital. All the states of India are under the rule of a Governor-General in Council. The Governor-General, oftener called the Viceroy, represents the British sovereign and has supreme civil and military power all over India. 501 Buddhists ; 503 Moslems. The Council has had both Buddhist and Moslem members. An attempt is being made to give the natives some representation in their own government. 504 Minor officials are largely natives. 506 Kashmir. Native states, as a rule, are governed by native princes with the help of British political officers appointed by the British government and residing at their courts. These rulers possess armies and revenues of their own but are not allowed to form any alliances. 509 Burma since 1886 is a part of British India with a Lieutenant- Governor and Council. Formerly, it was an absolute monarchy whose king was called " The Lord of the White Elephant." Australia 585 The people of Australia are mostly of British origin. 585 New S. Wales; 586 Victoria; 588 South Australia; 589 Queens- land ; 590 Tasmania. These states with West Australia make the Commonwealth of Australia proclaimed Jan. 1, 1901. 587 Melbourne was made the capital of the Confederation until a new capital in a federal district could be built. Here the Australian Parliament meets. Parliament consists of a Governor-General representing the King, a Senate and House of Representatives elected by the people. The government is modeled largely after that of the United States. 586 Victoria ; 590 Tasmania. Each state has a complete local gov- ernment of its own. 585 The Commonwealth of Australia maintains an army and a fleet. 130 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY New Zealand 591 New Zealand also has a Governor-General representing the Crown ; a Legislative Council chosen by the Governor in Council and a Legislature chosen by the people. New Zealand has made many experiments in government ownership and other socialistic ex- periments which have been very interesting to students of gov- ernment all over the world. Egypt 558 On Dec. 17, 1914, Egypt became a British protectorate. The Khedive who sympathized actively with the Germans in the World War was deposed and Hussian Kemal was made ruler with the title Sultan of Egypt. 559, 567, 569 For many years the British had practical control over Egypt and have done much to advance the welfare of the peo- ple. The Great Dam at Assuan is an example of what England has tried to do. In the change Turkey really lost nothing but prestige. 560 Cairo is the seat of government. Here the Sultan resides. Eng- land sends a High Commissioner of Egypt who is in reality a Viceroy with governmental power. He works through the Sultan and his Council. 561, 562, 563, 564 Egypt, under Turkish rule, has made very little or no progress. It remains to be seen what England can do. British East Africa 570, 572 The British have a nominal control also of Uganda and other lands lying between Egypt and South Africa. In this market will be seen the marks of British rule. The change from sav- agery to civilization is necessarily slow. 571, 573 The country is a source of present wealth and will develop as civilization progresses. Union of South Africa 580 The treaty of peace which ended the Boer War was signed, May 31, 1902. This gave the Transvaal (the Boer Country) to the English. In Dec. 12, 1906, the Transvaal was granted a self- government. The experiment succeeded. 579 to 584 The Union of South Africa was proclaimed, May 31, 1910. This Union was planned and made by the people of the Trans- vaal, Natal, Orange Free State and Cape Colony. It was granted without change in the proposed constitution. Such things show the democratic tendencies of the British government. 582 Capetown is the meeting place for the parliament but Pretoria is the seat of government. A parliament chosen by the people and a Governor-General representing the King of England form the government. Each state has a local government of its own. RHODESIA — FRENCH REPUBLIC 131 Rhodesia 575, 576, 577, 578 Rhodesia is under the control of the British South African Company. They have a Council with six members chosen by the Company and seven elected by the people. Provi- sion is made for the entrance of Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa but it is not yet considered ripe for self-govern- ment. THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND ITS DEPENDENCIES France comprises 207,127 square miles and 39,602,000 inhabitants. Her foreign possessions aggregate 4,100,000 square miles and 45,000,000 inhabitants. The geographic position of France is more favorable than that of any other European country except Great Britain. France is located in the heart of west-central Europe and is, therefore, connected by land with the nations and industrial centers of the continent. She possesses an adequate number of good harbors, and her shores face both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. This gives her direct access to the world's most favored ocean routes to both the Far West and the Far East. France lacks the insular security of Great Britain, but is fortunately almost encircled by natural boundaries. These promote national unity and provide a first line of defense for the country. This is particularly true of the Pyrenees, Alps, Jura, Vosges, Rhine Highlands, and Ardennes. But important breaks and passes occur, such as the Valley of the Rhone, the gap at Belfort, the opening between the Vosges and the Rhine Highlands, the gorges of the Moselle and the Meuse, and the plain of Belgium. These openings facilitate railway and road connec- tions with the rest of Europe and furnish excellent commercial routes and military highways. The mineral wealth of France is considerable and has materially aided her industrial development ; but the latter would be far greater if her coal and iron deposits were larger. Much of the coal now used in her factories must be imported. For this reason the iron and textile indus- tries of France cannot equal those of either Great Britain or Germany, which supply all of their own fuel. Fortunately, the coal fields of France are scattered, and, though small, are most productive in the in- terior where importation of coal would be more difficult and expensive. The internal development of France has been favored by the compact shape of the Republic and by the character of the surface which is seldom seriously interrupted by mountains or impassable districts. The soil, too, on the whole is more fertile and the climate more favorable than that of her neighbors. The roadways are among the best in the world and are regarded with just pride by the people. The rivers and canals furnish a network of waterways, and, together with the railways, furnish ample means for transportation. 423, 424 Paris ; 431 Nice, France. The people of France are thrifty, generous and brave. They are noted for their bright intelligence 132 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY and for their sociability and hospitality. They are typically polite, cheerful, lively and frank, yet earnest of purpose and energetic. They are a refined and patriotic people whose long history is replete with accomplishments of the very highest order. 421 to 425 Paris is the capital of the French republic. Here the Presi- dent lives and the meetings of National Assembly are held. The National Assembly is composed of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The officials of France are chosen by the people or their representatives and are responsible to the people. 429 to 431 The local governments of France are under the central power. The government is highly centralized. 427, 428 The Alps form an important barrier or natural boundary in the southeast and the Pyrenees separate France and Spain. 426 Many cities of France have been destroyed by the war. 391 Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. 429 Marseilles ; 430 Cannes. France has harbors on the Mediter- ranean Sea and on the Atlantic Ocean. This gives her access to the world's most favored ocean routes both to the Far East and to the Far West and leads to her desire for colonies in Africa. 556 Algieria is a French colony ruled by a Governor-General assisted by a Council. Laws for Algieria are made by the National Assembly at Paris. The country has advanced and prospered under French rule. 557 Tunis was declared a French protectorate in 1881. The native Bey is the nominal head, assisted by a Council of nine ministers. Seven of these are French and two are natives. The real ruler is a resident Commissioner-General sent by the French gov- ernment. 555 Morocco is an African sultanate under French protection. A resi- dent Commissioner-General sent by France represents the rule of that country. French rule means progress, civilization and greater personal security. SPAIN At one time Spain was the greatest colonial power in the world. Her foreign possessions included practically all of America from Oregon to Cape Horn, and Cuba and the Philippines were hers. An autocratic government alienated her colonists and the example of the United States incited them to seek independence and self-government. Spain fell back into the position of a minor power. 434, 437, 438 The Spanish people are brave, proud and indolent. The spirit of adventure and conquest which incited them in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is no longer seen. Spain's gov- ernment is now a limited monarchy in which ideas of democracy are steadily growing. 435 Madrid is the capital of Spain. The government is in the hands SWITZERLAND — BELGIUM — HOLLAND 133 of an hereditary king. The legislative body or Cortez consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Voters are all males over twenty-five who are in full enjoyment of their civil rights and who have been citizens of a municipality. SWITZERLAND 443, 44S, 446. 447 Switzerland has the most democratic government in the world. The Federal Council is the chief executive of the federation. It is elected triennially by the Federal Assembly, which is chosen by the people. The president of the Federal Council is the President of Switzerland. BELGIUM Belgium is what we call neutralized territory. That is, it was recog- nized as a nation whose independence all the great powers had pledged themselves to respect and to preserve. It, in turn, was pledged to strict neutrality and could make no alliances. When Germany asked permis- sion to go through - Belgium to France, neutral Belgium refused and later resisted their forcible passage. The other great powers were then bound to assist her. The violation of neutralized Belgium was one of the main factors in drawing other nations into the war. 395 Brussels is the capital of Belgium. The government is a limited monarchy under a king and Parliament. 397 River Meuse and Namur. In this region occurred some of the severe fighting of the World War, resulting in the conquest of Belgium. The restoration of that country is one of the main issues in the making of peace. THE NETHERLANDS Holland is a little country with a wonderful history. Hemmed in the lowlands at the mouth of the Rhine, its greatest prestige has come from the sea. Hollanders, or the Dutch, are great sailors and traders, their ships being found in every port in the world. As a people they are frugal, industrious and clean. They are very independent and very brave, maintaining their national life with great courage. 399,400,401,402,403 Holland is a limited monarchy with a king and Parliament. The people are intensely loyal and interested in their government. 545 Java is a Dutch possession. It is governed by a Governor-Gen- eral and a Council. The government as the Javanese see it, is carried on through a network of native officials to whom the foreign rulers are " elder brothers." There is a daily conference between the Dutch and the native chiefs and the Javanese lan- guage is always used, the Dutch not being allowed. In the ad- ministration of justice the Dutch are subject to laws of the Netherlands while the natives are under their own laws. Nearly 134 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY everywhere in the modern world, we see the principles of self- government being applied. DENMARK Denmark occupies a strategic position at the entrance to the Baltic Sea and has in Copenhagen a very fine harbor. Both Germany and Russia have wished for the possession of this little country, yet neither one has been willing to allow any one else to have it. The importance of its position has safeguarded its independence. 404, 405, 406 Copenhagen is the seat of the Danish government. Den- mark is a constitutional monarchy with a king and Rigsdag, or national legislature. The Rigsdag consists of a Landsthing, or upper house, part of whose members are chosen by the king, part by the largest taxpayers and part by the people ; and a Folkething, or lower house, chosen by the people. Voters are all male citizens over thirty years old not engaged in menial household service. NORWAY For many years Norway and Sweden were united under the same king, each with a parliament of its own. In 1905 they separated, Nor- way choosing a. prince of Denmark for its king, with the title Haakon VII. 407 to 415 The people of Norway are wonderfully industrious and thrifty and very democratic. Women have complete suffrage and may hold office. The Storthing or parliament meets annu- ally in Christiania. SWEDEN 416, 417 Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government, which is a constitutional monarchy. Here the king lives and here the Diet, or parliament, meets. The Diet is divided into two houses. Only males with property qualifications have full suffrage in Sweden. Women have municipal suffrage. ITALY AND THE ITALIAN COLONIES Italy has an area of 110,623 square miles, almost exactly the size of our State of Nevada, and a population of 35,240,000, or about equal to one-third of the total population of continental United States. Her colonies, Eritrea, Somaliland, and Libia tntal 595,000 square miles and 1,379,000 inhabitants. Italy's favorable position in the Mediterranean has played an im- portant part in the remarkably interesting history of the kingdom and its distinguished cities. Even today they find themselves well placed both for sea trade via the Mediterranean and its outlets, and for con- tinental trade over the railway routes through the Alpine passes. Italy's mineral resources are too meager to favor any considerable development of the heavier manufactures such as iron and steel; but GREECE — GERMANY 135 coal can be brought in ships from England for less money than it costs to send it from Pennsylvania to Duluth, water power is available, and raw materials such as silk and cotton are near at hand. For these reasons, the textile industries are rapidly growing. Moreover, certain events are pending which will tend to bring back to Italy a part of her former commercial prosperity and political prestige. These events are the rejuvenation of Russia and the probable opening of the Dardanelles; the awakening and development of the countries bordering the Medi- terranean. Italy is resolved to conquer the lands bordering the Adri- atic, and has larger plans for naval control of the Mediterranean; she feels a renewed self-confidence, intensified patriotic spirit, and increased national aspirations. 450 to 459 Italy is a constitutional monarchy. Today she is showing a renewed self-confidence, an intensified national spirit and in- creased national aspirations. 450 Rome is the capital. Here the king lives and here the Senate and Chamber of Deputies hold their sessions. Males over twenty- one who can read and write are voters. 454 Naples; 455 Palermo; 458 Milan; 457 Venice. Italy has a splendid location for trade. GREECE 475 to 480 Greece too is a limited monarchy, but the people are in con- trol. Greece is still a monarchy but the democratic tendencies in Greece are very strong. GERMANY The German Empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the Franco-Prussian War, by the union of the North German Confedera- tion and the South German States and the addition of Alsace-Lorraine. Afterward, the Empire acquired very extensive colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and in 1890 obtained by cession from Great Britain the island of Heligoland. The total area of the German Empire in Europe, before the war, was 208,830 square miles, and its population in 1905 was 60,641,000. Its colonial possessions before the beginning of the World War comprised approximately 1,000,000 square miles of terri- tory and numbered about 12,000,000 inhabitants. The German Empire occupied a less favorable position, geographically, than either Great Britain or France. It had only one coast line and that faced northward, away from the commercial regions of the world. This coast is flat and sandy, often bordered by dunes or marshes, and there are no natural harbors except the estuaries of the rivers flowing into the North Sea and the lagoons at the mouths of the rivers flowing into the Baltic. Moreover, only a few of the harbors are of sufficient depth for ships of largest size, and most of the Baltic ports are closed by ice in the winter months. There is no doubt that Germany, ham- 136 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY pered by these disadvantages, desired to extend her coast line along more favorable shores. On the landward side, geographical factors were more favorable. Germany was the most central of the larger countries of Europe and was, therefore, a natural distributing point for the continent. Her cli- mate is good, and her soils are on the whole productive and capable of sustaining a dense population. Her varied and extensive mineral de- posits, especially her rich coal and iron mines, furnished the basis for great and thriving industries and manufactures. Her numerous rivers and canals, aggregating over 9,000 miles of interior waterways, carried not only merchandise but men and ideas throughout the land, and, like the railways, formed a geographical and commercial bond of union for the Empire. The German people were industrious, frugal, and thrifty and are characterized by love for country, loyalty to the King, and obedience to authority. Intellectually less quick and versatile than the French and Anglo-Saxons, they are very persevering and thorough and had made rapid progress especially in the applied sciences. In education, industrial, commercial, political and military affairs, the German people evolved and developed a centralized system and organization of great efficiency but out of harmony with the democratic spirit of other countries. This Prussian system combined with over- reaching national aspirations and ambitions, and the clashing of eco- nomic and racial interests resulted in the great World War. Convinced that their government and culture were the best on earth, they deliberately planned to conquer the world and develop it accord- ing to their ideas. Their failure to win the war resulted in the over- throw of their government. Since their surrender, the country has been in a chaotic state with no settled, secure government. 383 Reichstag-Gebaude. The German Empire was nominally a lim- ited monarchy. The legislative body consisted of the Reichstag elected by the people and the Bundesrath or Federal Council. 384 The German Emperor had the executive power and increased it continually. He was responsible to nobody. The chief ex- ecutive officer was an Imperial Chancellor appointed by the Emperor and responsible to him instead of to the people's rep- resentatives. The governmental secretaries were responsible to the Imperial Chancellor. This made the Emperor practically independent and gave him autocratic power. 385,386,387,388,389,393 The local government was almost entirely under the Central Power. Education, police and sanitation were national, not local matters. * 394 Hamburg, Germany, had only one coast, a northern one facing away from commercial regions of the world. This coast is flat and sandy with harbors only on the mouths of rivers. Germany wanted more coasts. 440,441,442,446,448 Alps form a natural boundary on the south. 397 Belgium ; 399 to 403 Holland. Germany opened through the west to Holland, Belgium and France. AUSTRIA — HUNGARY — POLAND 137 468, 469 Bulgaria ; 472, 473, 474 Turkey. She had steadily extended her influence southeastwardly and these countries joined her in the war. 426 American troops repulsed the Germans at Chateau-Thierry. 385 Coblenz and other German cities were held by the American Army of Occupation. 391 Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. 574 German East Africa and other colonial possessions were captured by the Allies. England gained most of them. AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY Before the war, these two countries were united under the same king. They were very jealous of each other and kept themselves as separate as possible. When the central powers were defeated, their government collapsed and Austria and Hungary separated completely. Since then both nations have been in an unsettled condition, with monarchists, democrats, and bolshevists struggling to gain control. 462 Vienna. Here the Austrian Reichsrat meets and makes laws for Austria. 464 Budapest. Here the Hungarian Reichsrat meets to make laws for Hungary. 466 Bosnia ; 467 Serbia ; 470, 471 Roumania. Austria-Hungary con- stantly encroached upon her weaker neighbors, trying to make them parts of the Empire. POLAND 465, 485 Poland became an independent republic at the end of the World War. Czechoslovakia 463 Czechoslovakia is a new republic which resulted from the World War. Jugoslavia 466, Sarajevo, Bosnia; 467 Serbia. Jugo-Slavia is a union of small countries in the Balkans. TURKEY In the fifteenth century the Turks captured Constantinople and over- ran southeastern Europe. Gradually they lost their lands in Europe, and now the World War has caused them to lose all their Asiatic possessions. The Turkish government was an autocracy of the nar- rowest type, under it no progress was possible. During the World War their armies behaved with unspeakable cruelty, and some of their subject lands were nearly depopulated. Under the mandatory of civ- ilized nations, such as England and the United States, these nations are looking forward toward happier times. 138 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 472, 473, 474 Constantinople has been the capital of Turkey. It is a place of such strategic importance that no strong nation has been willing to allow any other to have it; so the weak Turk- ish government has been maintained. It is now planned to internationalize it. 492, 493, 494 Syria is no longer under Turkish rule. 495,496,497,498 Palestine was taken from the Turks by the English. The Jews and Christians of Palestine have suffered from the cruelty of the Turks in the World War. There is a strong movement toward giving Palestine to the Jews. RUSSIA — THE UKRAINE Russia comprises 8,754,680 square miles, an area a little larger than the main land of North America, and a population of 176,000,000 or nearly as many people as live in North America and South America combined. Of this great total, 2,950,680 square miles, 140,841,000 inhabitants belong to Europe and the rest to Asia. Many geographical and political factors combined to retard the in- ternal development of Russia, such as her great size and inadequate transportation facilities; ber unfavorable northern and southern bound- aries ; her severe climate ; her rivers, ice-bound in winter and of little value in summer because flowing into non-commercial seas ; her vast marshes, deserts, and tundras ; her lack of commercial seacoasts and of all-year open ports ; her large number of poorly assimilated races and tribes; her former bureaucratic and repressive government; her difficult language ; and her deficient educational system. Russia has had a stormy career since the war began. The auto- cratic government of the Czar was abolished and a republic was at- tempted. Before this could be firmly established the country came under the control of the bolsheviki and the soviet form of govern- ment. Finland and the Ukraine declared themselves independent, and Russian Poland has gone to make up Poland. Everywhere the gov- ernment is unsettled and conditions are chaotic. Russia is young, not so much in years as in emergence into liberty. She is peace-loving and may yet become a deciding factor in the ac- complisment of a permanent peace — the hope of the world. 481 Fins; 486, 487, 488 Slavs; 485 Jews. Russia was peopled by many races speaking many languages wh^»*were never assim- ilated into one nation. The Fins were of Mongolian origin. The Jews were persecuted in every possible way. 482 Petrograd was the capital of the absolute government. The Czar was head of both church and state. In response to a popu- lar demand a duma or popular assembly was given the people and many reforms were made. These were never carried out. In 1917 the Czar was forced to abdicate. 481 Finland has become an independent monarchy. 486, 487, 488 The Ukrainians have set up a government with Kief as their capital. CHINA — JAPAN 139 CHINA China is another nation in a state of change. For centuries it re- mained stationary and only lately has awakened to move forward into modern life. Dense ignorance and the bondage of custom made change very difficult. 513 to 524 The Chinese Republic dates from Feb. 12, 1912, when by edict of the Empress Dowager, the infant king Pu Yi abdicated the throne. Yuan Shih-kai was made President and in 1915 dissolved parliament and announced his intention of becoming emperor. 519 The Chinese rebelled, some provinces seceded and a revolution took place. Yuan Shih-kai died shortly after. 516,518,519,521,523,524 These pictures will give some idea of the tremendous change which must take place before China becomes a self-governing nation in the American way. The American government is the ideal toward which the eyes of Chinese states- men are turned. JAPAN Japan is a limited monarchy whose royal family has held place for more than two thousand years. In the last sixty years, Japan has made wonderful progress in arts and industries as well as in government. 526 Tokyo is the Japanese capital. The Mikado or king is the chief executive. A legislature of two houses makes the laws. There are strong democratic tendencies which strive to make the ministers responsible to the representatives of the people instead of to the Mikado. Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto have local gov- ernments. 527, 528, 529, 530 The Japanese people are patient and persistent. They combine cheerfulness with quick-wittedness; are versatile; they have enterprise and originality as well as unexcelled powers of imitation. They are industrious, clean, kind, calm and brave and their women have always been free. 521, 522, 524, 542, 543 Manchuria, Chosen and the Shantung peninsula have come under the control of Japan. 9. EARTH NEIGHBORS By JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Ed. B., S.B. PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SILVER CITY, NEW MEXICO Morning after morning for unknown ages, the sun has ap- peared in a blaze of glory in the eastern sky, and in the eve- ning has disappeared with equal grandeur in the west. Night after night throughout the centuries people have marveled as the worlds have wheeled majestically across the sky. The Psalmist gave expression to the influence of these wonderful sights upon his life when he said : " The heavens declare the glory of God." But even to primitive man these phenomena were something more than wonderful spectacles. Some of the relationships between certain of the heavenly bodies and human affairs, were very early recognized. For many centuries people have realized their dependence upon the sun. Their daily lives have been in large measure ordered by it. The moon has illuminated man's pathway at night, and the stars have guided his wanderings upon the water as well as upon the land. The great telescopes of today, the spectroscope, and pho- tography have done much to enlighten man regarding the earth's neighbors. Many facts as to distances, dimensions, rotation, revolution, density and other conditions have been learned. Astronomical geography is one of the most important as well as one of the most interesting phases of geography. The range of the subject is great, including such topics as the form of the earth, rotation and revolution and their results, latitude, longitude, the zones, the tides and the solar system. The educational value of pictures as applied to human geography is generally recognized. As applied to astronomical geography it would seem at first thought as though only pic- tures representing the heavenly bodies could be used. This is far from being the case. There are many scenes in the 140 * THE SUN 141 Keystone " 600 Set " showing the influences of the earth's neighbors upon human affairs, a study of which will prove very valuable. I. THE SUN The sun is about 93,000,000 miles from the earth and it is more than a million times as large. It is in a gaseous condition and highly heated. It furnishes us with both light and heat. Without the sun it would be impossible for animals and plants to live on our earth. 593 The sun, our most important earth neighbor. 414 Midnight sun, North Cape, Norway. A. SOLAR EVAPORATION (l) Solar Evaporation as Related to Industry Solar evaporation is a very important process, as it is related to human life in many ways. The farmer makes use of solar evaporation in curing his hay and grain. Through this process the California rancher dries peaches, prunes and apricots, and converts grapes into raisins. In many parts of the world fish are spread out in the sun- shine to dry, and much of the salt that we use is obtained through solar evaporation. 13 Drying codfish in the sunshine. The evaporation removes the water from the fish and the salt penetrates them. 42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine. 147 Bundles of oats that have dried in an Illinois field by evaporation. 527 Rice drying in the shock. Rice, like other plants, contains a very high percentage of water. If the rice were stacked with this water in the stalks and in the kernels, the grain would spoil. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 310 Drying coffee in the sunshine, Brazil. 531 Drying sardines, Beppu, Japan. 325 Drying nitrate and sacking for shipment, Chile. (2) Solar Evaporation as Related to Cloud Formation High temperature, low humidity and a rapid movement of the at- mosphere favor evaporation. Thus, indirectly, solar evaporation is re- sponsible for precipitation. 213, 276, 377, 452, 476 Cloud forms result from evaporation followed by condensation. 441 Overlooking a sea of clouds, Switzerland. 508 Looking down on clouds, Himalaya Mountains. 102 Double layer of clouds. Fog differs from clouds only in being close to the ground. 142 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS 257, 408, 444 Clouds are both a result and an indication of weather conditions. Sailors, farmers, mountaineers and others who live out of doors much of the time are close observers of cloud forms. 181,357,38 A cloudy day checks evaporation, and the farmer's hay or grain which has been cut and left in the field to " cure " does not dry rapidly. At such a time the wet clothes hung on the line dry slowly. (3) Overcoming Effects of Solar Evaporation Where solar evaporation is excessive, plant life is restricted, and the forms that grow under these conditions are adapted to store water and to reduce its loss. In many desert and semi-arid regions man has constructed reservoirs in which water is stored for the irrigation of these lands, which thus become highly productive. For Conditions Unfavorable for Plant Life, Water Relation to Leaf Forms, Light and Heat Relation to Leaf Forms and Food Storage see classification Plants and Plant Associations. 209 Cactus plants so developed as to store water. 210, 569 Storing water for irrigation. 198 Cultivating field of sugar beets. Frequent cultivation checks the movement of the water from the soil to the surface. This re- duces the loss from evaporation. B. SOLAR ENERGY Although so very distant from us, the sun influences our daily lives in many ways. In fact if it were not for the sun, neither plants, ani- mals nor human beings could exist upon the earth, for the sun furnishes the heat upon which all life depends. Light is another blessing which we receive from the sun. But one- half of the earth can receive light at a given instant, and as the earth rotates upon its axis, there is a constant succession of day and night. (1) Influence of Solar Energy Upon Color of Skin The color of the skin is dependent upon certain pigment cells de- posited under the skin to protect the tissues from the rays of the sun. Everyone is familiar with the way in which the skin is tanned by even a brief vacation in the open. Long ages of exposure to the hot tropical or sub-tropical sun and especially under conditions of primi- tive life with the practical absence of clothing, naturally produced a deeply pigmented skin as found in the Black Race and to a lesser de- gree in other races. See classification on Races. 261 Hula girls, Honolulu, Hawaii. 562 The dark skinned natives of Egypt. 572 Black people of tropical Africa. 578 Natives of Rhodesia, Africa. 592 Typical natives of New Guinea. SOLAR ENERGY 143 (2) Effect of Solar Energy upon Dress 280, 284, 285 Workmen dressed in white because of high temperature. 503, 505, 506 Effect of solar energy upon color of garments and nature of headdress, India. 529, 528, 530 Effect of solar energy reduced by use of wide hats, Japan. 551,552 Filipino workman. Little clothing is needed where solar energy is great. 572, 592 Effect of solar energy upon dress of African and New Guinea Island natives. (3) Protecting Plants from Excessive Solar Energy So intense is the heat and the light of the sun in the tropical zone, that some of the plants require shade for their most successful growth. 297 Growing tobacco in shade of banana trees, Cuba. 302 Picking coffee grown in the shade of banana trees. (4) Releasing Solar Energy of Past Ages Heat and light from the sun, and a supply of moisture, are essential for plant growth. Plants, therefore, represent stored-up solar energy. Much vegetation that thrived in past ages has been converted into coal and petroleum, thus storing vast amounts of solar energy. 378 Peat, the first stage in the formation of coal. 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 76 Miner drilling and laborer loading anthracite coal, Pa. 79 Anthracite, soon to release its solar energy by burning. 129 Coal from Pennsylvania to be shipped westward. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin — oil field in Pennsylvania. 70 Shooting oil well. 122 Oil derricks near Beaumont, Texas. 123 Crude oil stills, Port Arthur, Texas. C. INFLUENCES OF HIGH LATITUDE UPON HUMAN AFFAIRS Temperature decreases as distance from the equator increases. The climate in high latitudes is therefore very different from that in tem- perate and tropical regions. Because of this difference, the indirect effects of high latitude upon human life are very great. 246 Relation between latitude and life in northern Alaska. 343 Costumes of native Greenland girls. It has a cold climate. Very heavy clothing is needed, and this is in large part made from the skins of animals. 279 Eskimo dog team on trail, Hopedale, Labrador. 328 Indians on Straits of Magellan near Punta Arenas. The latitude is so high that the sun's rays always fall very slantingly. The weather is therefore chilly even in the summer. 344 Hauling snow for water supply. Belgica Antarctic expedition. 1897-99. 144 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS 346 Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, Dec. 16, 1911, in- specting ice field near glacier, Antarctic Ocean. Occasionally ex- plorers spend a winter or two in the icebound polar regions. Their vessels freeze in solidly as you see in view 344. The men secure some food by hunting, but they must be very careful not to get severely frost bitten. 345 Showing a method of travel in polar regions and also a seal. D. FORM OF THE EARTH Until after Columbus discovered America, few people believed the surface of the earth to be curved. Now we know the earth is round and that night and day are caused by the earth rotating on its axis once every twenty-four hours. 100 Curvature of the earth's surface shown by appearance of distant ships. By observing this picture you will see that all of the nearest war ship is visible. The one at the left of this one and farther away, appears to be much lower. The more distant the ' ship, the smaller the part that can be seen. Since approaching and receding ships on all of the oceans present this appearance, this is taken as a proof that the sur- face of the earth is curved. Objects upon a very level plain ap- pear and disappear in the same fashion. E. LONGITUDE AND TIME 353 Chronometer by which the world's time is measured, Greenwich, England. F. CHANGE OF SEASONS You have observed that during the winter the sun appears lower in the sky than it does during the summer. In winter the sun's rays fall upon the northern hemisphere more slantingly than they do in sum- mer. Because of this we receive less heat from the sun during the win- ter (although closer to it) than we receive during the summer. The change of seasons which occurs year after year with never fail- ing regularity, is due to the changing relations between the earth and the sun. As the earth rotates upon its axis, it is also revolving about the sun. When the sun's rays fall most directly in the northern hem- isphere summer occurs in that hemisphere, and winter in the southern hemisphere. 49 American Falls in summer. During the summer the trees at Niagara Falls are in full leaf as you see in the picture. The grass is green upon the island, and flowers are in bloom. 50 American Falls in winter. Winter works a wonderful transforma- tion at Niagara, as it does in most other places. The trees lose their leaves, the grass dies and is buried beneath the snow, and ice forms where the water does not flow too swiftly. When the THE MOON — PLANETS 145 snow is quite wet it clings to the branches of the trees as you see in the picture, and sometimes breaks them. 72 Woodcock on nest. The woods in early spring. II. THE MOON The moon is much nearer to us than is the sun, and yet its distance from the earth is nearly ten times as great as the circumference of the earth at the equator. Besides furnishing light to the earth at night, the moon is the chief tide producing power. Tides are related to the shipping interests in all parts of the world. You see, therefore, that the moon is related to our daily lives in more than one way. A. PHASES OF THE MOON For explanation of the Moon's Phases see descriptions for stereo- graphs and slides. 594 The full moon. 595 Moon at age of seventeen days. Taken three days after the time of full moon. B. INFLUENCE OF THE TIDES Twice each day the water in this, and other harbors on the sea coast rises and falls. This regular rise and fall of the water is called the tides. The tides are caused by the attractive power of the moon and the sun, the moon being the more important of the two. The difference between the height of the water at high and low tide is called the tidal range. The tidal range at Liverpool is 31 feet. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. It is a floating pier, and it therefore rises and falls with the tide just as the ships do. Be- cause of this, goods and people can be easily loaded or unloaded at any time. III. PLANETS Eight large bodies and many smaller bodies revolve about the sun. These are called planets. The eight large planets named in relation to their distance from the sun are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 146 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS A. MARS Mars is one of the most interesting of our neighbors. It is not so near the sun as are Mercury, Venus and the Earth, but it is much nearer the sun than are the other planets. A day on Mars is almost exactly the same in length as a day on the earth, but the year is nearly twice as long as ours. 596 The planet Mars. See descriptive text on view. B. SATURN Saturn is immense in size. It is more than nine times as far from the sun as is our planet. It is interesting to know that the day on Saturn is less than half as long as our day, but the year is equal to about twenty-nine of ours. The rings shown are composed of countless meteors which are in reality very small moons. These extend outward to a distance of about 50,000 miles from the surface of Saturn. In addition, the planet has 10 larger moons. 597 The planet Saturn, one of our distant neighbors. See descrip- tive text on view. C. URANUS This planet is at a tremendous distance from the sun, about 19 times as far as are we. It is faintly visible to the naked eye, however, which tells us that it is of great size. Uranus has 4 moons or satellites, two of which are shown. Comparatively little is known about this very dis- tant neighbor of ours. 598 The planet Uranus and two of its moons. See descriptive text on view. IV. COMET Comets have been observed for many centuries. The people of olden times regarded them as fore-runners of evil, and as late as 1860 great numbers of people in Europe were terrified because of the appearance of a very bright comet. In one country a statement was issued to calm the fears of the people. It read as follows: "The star threatens; trust only God. He will make all right." Are you not glad that you can enjoy the beauty of the heavens, and that you do not believe that evil will follow the appearance of a comet? 600 Morehouse's Comet. See descriptive text on view. V. METEOR It is believed that a meteor is a fragment of a disintegrated comet moving at a very great speed. When it approaches our planet near METEOR 147 enough, it is pulled by the force of gravity to the earth. When it coit^ in contact with the earth's atmosphere, a great heat is developed by friction and the meteor burns up in whole or in part before striking tht earth's surface. 599 Meteor in constellation of Orion. See descriptive text on view. HISTORY AND CIVICS INTRODUCTION By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY The old fashioned view of history is that it is made up of the heaping together of a multitude of units ; it is supposed to be like a wall built of bricks and stones of varying size, every one of which must appear in the face; history should be something that can be memorized and recited like a multiplica- tion table. Wide-awake and modern teachers and writers nowadays look on history rather as a grouping of materials of many kinds, which are so laid together that all are used in the wall, while only the most striking are selected out of the immense mass and placed in view. This idea of what might be called " composite history " carries both pupil and teacher away from the notion that his- tory is simply a succession of personalities and events. His- tory of the modern type takes account not only of the leaders but of the mass of the people, notes not simply episodes buf tendencies. To the true historian of the United States, Com gresses, Presidents, Constitutions, statutes, legal decisions, wars, battles, sieges and treaties are only the external part, they are of value only so far as they illustrate the great theme of the nation's growth, the nation's mind and standards. The proper aim of all teaching of history is to make young people realize that their country in times past has been carried on by people like themselves. That involves making them familiar with the social and economic life of the past, as well as with political events. Modern historians recognize that the first necessity for a civilized community is that people should be able to make a living in the midst of a varied and confused life. Often the characteristic things are the everyday pur- suits. Raising corn is a more important part of the nation's activities than making rifles. The district school, as an insti- tution, has had more influence on the United States than the Supreme Court. The modern teaching must therefore touch many sides of the national experience. 148 HISTORY AND CIVICS — INTRODUCTION 149 Word descriptions do not carry young minds very far. Hence nearly all school textbooks of history contain maps and illustrations. Flat pictures always require an allowance for perspective and proportions. The stereoscope, especially in the stereographic form of the Keystone Views, which brings out the detail in amazing clearness of perspective, is especially adapted to school use. The units of the slides or views can be combined and recombined so as to illustrate a great variety of interests, scenes and processes. For history, the Keystone system is especially convenient and helpful because it helps to weld together in children's minds the scene and the event. The Declaration of Inde- pendence means twice as much when the Liberty Bell stands out in relief. The economic side of slavery is emphasized by a picture of negroes working in the cotton fields. Our great dependency, the Philippines, is brought home to us by a few stereographs of the life of the Filipino peasants. Civics is a subject notoriously hard to make clear by pic- tures. It is worked out more in men's minds than in such episodes as the attack at Gettysburg or the capture of the Alamo. Nevertheless the application of government can be freely illustrated, in a great variety of subjects, such as the control of territory, the encouragement of agriculture, the limitation of fisheries, mining trades, and transportation. The method within which the Keystone Views can be worked has been developed in detail by the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association, 1909. As the report puts it: " In order to secure satisfactory results, even a scholarly and sympathetic teacher needs suitable tools. * * * Books, maps, charts, objects, and pictures are absolutely neces- sary — the child craves more life. He likes movement. He is especially fond of the dramatic, the picturesque, the personal, of deeds of daring, of tales of heroism, of thrilling adventure. He cannot grasp the meaning of events, nor can he appreciate causal relations ; but he can understand certain simple facts, elementary ideas, the universal truths symbolized in stories, incidents, and episodes ; and these facts, ideas, and truths appeal in a moving way to his emotions, his imagination, and his will. To this end free use should be made of pictures, photographs, scrap-books, and blackboard illustrations, and something should be done with games and dramatization." 10. FOREIGN BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY By HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEB. The views in this section have been selected with the pur- pose of setting forth what may be called the foreign back- ground of American History. It is difficult to realize that all history is related, and that in order to understand the story of any nation we must trace its people with their habits and customs to their sources. For example, America was settled by people from Spain, England, France, Holland and other European countries. Every one of these nations derived its civilization largely from Rome and Roman influence can still be seen especially in gov- ernment. Now Rome, in turn, took her ideas from Greece. But civilization did not originate in Greece, for the Greeks learned very many things from the Phoenicians who had been influenced by the people of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley and by Egyptians who occupied the Valley of the Nile. Pupils in American History who follow only the course of events in the New World in the last four hundred years some- times fail to see that American history is really a continuation of a growth which had its beginning many centuries ago in the Old World. Each nation modifies what it receives to suit its own ideas and needs, and yet, in one sense we may say that the history of the United States and of every other mod- ern nation began with the beginnings of civilization. I. THE ORIENT Civilization first rose in the valleys of the Nile and of the Tigris- Euphrates rivers. The Egyptians and Chaldeans were therefore the teachers of the ancient East. Their arts and sciences spread by con- quest, trade and travel, entered Syria and Asia Minor and in time be- came the common possession of the Oriental people. 150 EGYPT — SYRIA 151 a. Egypt 561, 566, 564, 565, 568 Here we see the beginning of art and archi- tecture. The first pyramids were made of sun-dried bricks. About 3000 b. c. the Egyptians learned to cut blocks of lime- stone with their copper tools and thus they put together the first stone masonry. 558 Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 b. c, it became the chief commercial city of the Orient where sea routes and caravan routes converged. Alexandria in ancient times was also a re- nowned seat of learning with a library and museum which at- tracted scholars from all parts of the civilized world. It was a central point from which learning of all kinds was spread over the world. b. Syria Lying between Egypt and the Tigris-Euphrates valley, Syria was overrun and conquered at various times by both people, so united both civilizations. The northern part was the home of the ancient Phoeni- cians, the first sailors, the first commercial people of the world, and the makers of the first alphabet from which all other alphabets have been derived. The southern part of Syria was occupied by the Jews from whom came our ethics and our religion. The Bible, both Old and New Testa- ments, was written by Jews and today the Bible is a direct influence in modern life. Today many Jews and Syrians have found homes in America. 492 Beirut was one of the most ancient and important of the Phoenician settlements. It formed a center from which Oriental commerce and culture spread westward over the Mediterranean. The mod- ern city is connected with Damascus by a railroad across the Lebanon Mountains. 493 Damascus, the " Pearl of the Orient " is one of the oldest cities in the world. It is frequently referred to in the Bible. It was situated on the old caravan route by which trade was carried on between India and China and the countries of Europe. When Southwest Asia was taken by the Mohammedan Turks, this cara- van route was closed to Christian Europe. Then came the search for a different route to India and China which resulted in the discovery of America. 495 David, king of the Hebrews, chose for a capital the ancient for- tress of Jerusalem, which occupied a strong position on Mount Zion in the hill country of Palestine. Here he fixed the Ark, the sanctuary of Jehovah, and here his son Solomon raised the famous Temple, and here occurred many events in the life of Jesus, his trial and crucifixion. From David's time to the pres- ent Jerusalem has been a Holy City, first to the Jews, then to the Christians, and, finally, to the Mohammedans. 496 The Christian religion with its high moral standards has had a wonderful influence on the life of the nations of the world. 152 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS 497 In the background the village of Nazareth, looking much the same, no doubt, as it did at the time of Christ. c. Asia Minor The culture of the Greeks and later the Christian religion spread through the countries of Asia Minor and later over Europe. 489 The Greeks were the first to plant colonies on both sides of this narrow strait which separates Asia from Europe. 491 Tarsus at the time of Christ was an important center of Greek learning and culture. Here lived " Saul of Tarsus," afterwards the Apostle Paul, who carried Christianity to the pagans, or Gen- tiles, of Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy. II. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD Oriental civilization passed at length from the East to the West and centered in the basin of the Mediterranean. The situation of Greece at the threshold of Asia, with its best harbors and most numerous is- lands on the eastern coast, enabled the country early to receive and profit by all the culture of the Orient. Italy, on the other hand, looked away from Greece and the Orient toward Gaul, Spain, and northwest- ern Africa. Hence civilization, moving slowly toward the setting sun, reached Italy from Greece only at a late period of ancient history. Eventually, however, the extension of the Roman Empire over the bar- barian peoples of western Europe widened the area of the civilized world to the shores of the Atlantic. a. Greece Some writers go so far as to claim that every good thing in our west- ern civilization came to us through the Greeks. Literature, art, govern- ment, science, architecture, philosophy, all were highly developed in Greece and have come directly to the modern nations. Very many au- thorities claim that the Greek civilization was the best the world has known. 475 In art, in literature, in science and in philosophy, the Athenians were teachers of the world. In Athens were the most perfect examples of architecture and sculpture ; drama, oratory, phi- losophy and poetry reached a degree of excellence that has never been surpassed. In Athens democracy was born. 477 Next to Athens, Corinth was the most important commercial city in Greece. The Romans destroyed it in the second century B. c, but it was rebuilt by Caesar in 59 b. c. and became one of the great cities of the Roman Empire. At Corinth was established one of the early Christian churches. To the members of this church St. Paul wrote two letters which, under the title " Epistles to the Corinthians," form an important part of the New Testa- ment. 478 At Olympia in southern Greece, the Olympian games in honor of THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 153 Zeus were held every fourth year. Many splendid buildings in- cluding the Stadium for athletic contests, the Hippodrome for chariot races and the temple of Zeus, covered the site. Only Greeks were allowed to compete, but people from all over the world came to the games. Here treaties between nations were read, poems were recited, artists came to exhibit and to study the athletes as models and goods from all over the world were displayed for sale. When these visitors returned home they car- ried with them bigger and broader ideas, better knowledge of people of other countries and so civilization spread. b. Italy and Sicily Sicily was settled by Greeks and for a long period was the center of trade and learning in the west. It was finally conquered by Rome and became the first Roman province. During the Roman empire, the other cities of Italy were overshadowed by the dominant power of Rome, but during the middle ages such cities as Florence, Milan, Genoa kept alive and fostered learning and indus- trial arts and transmitted them to the modern nations. During the middle ages, Venice, Naples, Genoa and others were the great commer- cial centers of the world trading with the Orient. Very many great navigators, as Columbus, the Cabots, Verrazano and Amerigo Vespucci were Italians. When the trade of these cities was interrupted by the capture of the eastern routes by the Turks, they began to think of other routes and this resulted in the discovery of America. 455 Palermo is the largest city and the commercial center of Sicily. From this port start most of the Sicilian immigrants to the United States. In medieval times Palermo was even more im- portant than now, for both the Moslems and the Normans made it the capital of their possessions in Sicily. 454 Naples, the ancient Neapolis, was one of the first Hellenic colonies in Italy. From the eighth century b.c. onwards it formed a cen- ter of Greek culture and even today it possesses a large Greek population. Many Italians sail from Naples to make their homes in the United States. 456 The Florentines in the Middle Ages were renowned for their bank- ing houses and manufactures. Florence was one of the cities which perfected banking systems and book-keeping. In Florence lived the Italian scholar Paolo Toscanelli to whom Columbus wrote for advice as to sailing across the Atlantic to Asia. Toscanelli replied with a letter and a map. Amerigo Vespucci for whom America is named also was a native of Florence. He lived in Cadiz, Spain, when Columbus started out. In 1501, in the service of the king of Portugal he made a voyage in which he touched South America. Verrazano, a Florentine navigator in the employ of France, sailed for America in 1524. 457 During the Middle Ages, Venice became the greatest city of the Mediterranean region. She had many possessions and ships of every nation crowded her quays. Her merchants went every- 154 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS where and her sailors were among the best in the world. Marco Polo whose writings had so great an influence on Columbus, was a Venetian. Also John Cabot the discoverer of the continent of America was a Venetian citizen in the English service. c. Rome The countries of modern Europe, with the exception of Russia, are parts of the old Roman empire and a very large part of law as we know it is derived from the old Roman law. The French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian languages are almost purely Latin while English is, roughly speaking, about half Latin. Rome became also the center of the western branch of the Christian Church and from Rome came the influences which christianized the peo- ple of Europe. Every day, in untold ways we feel in our daily lives the influences of Rome. 450 No other city fills so large a place in the world's history. 451 St. Peter's is the largest Christian church in the world. It was partly to extend the Christian religion that Columbus made his voyages. d. Constantinople 472, 473, 474 For many years Constantinople was the head of the Roman Empire and the Christian Church. The Emperor Justinian at Constantinople finally had the codification of the Roman law com- pleted. When the Turks captured Constantinople and the east, merchants of Venice and Genoa were compelled to look for other routes to China and the Indies. III. WESTERN EUROPE Within what had once been the Roman Empire new European nations grew up and rose to importance during the Middle Ages. At the close of medieval times came the discovery and settlement of America, a con- tinent whose aboriginal inhabitants could offer little resistance to the explorers, missionaries, traders, and colonists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portuguese in the sixteenth century followed by the French, English, and Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled America and brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a Greater Europe beyond the ocean. a. British Isles Many of the early explorers, like Drake, Raleigh, John Smith, were Englishmen. The original thirteen colonies of the United States were settled mostly by people from the British Isles. They brought with them their English ways of living, their English learning and religion, and especially their English theories and practices of law and government. These ideas had a new growth in America, new ideals developed and iow American democracy is spreading all over the earth. THE BRITISH ISLES 155 347 Liverpool is the world's principal seaport and the terminus of many steamship lines, including those to the United States. The com- mencement of the prosperity of Liverpool dates from the latter part of the seventeenth century. 348 London Bridge, London, England. 350 In Westminster Abbey were crowned the kings who ruled the English Colonies until 1776. 351 London during the nineteenth century was the money center of the world. 352 Here and in the House of Commons were passed the Navigation Acts, the Stamp Act, the Townsend Acts and all the other bills which led up to the Revolutionary war which separated the United States from England. 354 Shows the house, restored in 1857, in which was born the poet whose genius transcended national boundaries and made him a citizen of all the world. The three-hundredth anniversary of Shakespeare's death was appropriately observed in 1916 in the United States. Many of our early colonists came from homes of this kind to live in the wilderness in America. No doubt many early settlers in their log houses were homesick for the homes they had left. 355 The cottage stands in substantially the same condition as when Shakespeare courted here his future wife. It is still occupied by a descendant of the Hathaway family. 360 York, the ancient Eboracum, formed the capital of the Roman province of Britannia. In York Constantine the Great, whose conversion to Christianity paved the way for the triumph of that faith over paganism, was proclaimed emperor. Most of the very early colonists came from York. 361 It must have been hard to leave a developed country with its homes and cultivated fields and come to a perfectly new, wild land. 365, 366, 368, 372, 373 Among the early settlers in America were many Scotch people. With their thrifty ways they made very de- sirable citizens. 374 Queenstown is a port of call fui American mail steamers and an emigration station of the British government. The terrible famine in Ireland in 1846 started a great emigration movement, and between that date and 1905 nearly five million people left the country. Most of them came to the United States. In recent years, however, the number of Irish emigrants has greatly de- clined. 375, 378 There are said to be more Irish in America now than there are in Ireland. 380 The Northmen, or Vikings, as they are often called, conquered a considerable part of Ireland during the ninth century The first cities on Irish soil, including Dublin and Limerick, were founded by the Northmen. b. The Netherlands New York was first settled by the Dutch w' ir >se influence is still felt. 156 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS From among the descendants of these Dutch settlers have come very many of our prominent men, as for instance, Theodore Roosevelt. The Pilgrims before coming to America had taken refuge in Holland. 399 Amsterdam is the capital. New York was first known as New Amsterdam. 402 Thrifty, industrious and clean, the Hollanders have helped in the development of our country. 400 Among Dutch seaports Rotterdam is second in importance only to Amsterdam. It was a Dutch vessel that brought the first slaves to America in 1619. c. Norway and Sweden The first people who came to America were Norsemen, led by Eric the Red, in 1000 a. d. They made no use of their discovery however. The cold climate and poor soil of the Scandinavian peninsula caused the people to become men of the sea. A greater influence came to America from the Northmen indirectly through England and France. Great numbers of Norwegian and Swedish immigrants have settled in western New York, Minnesota and the northwest. They are very prosperous. 408, 409 Typical scenes in the country which sent out the Northmen. 418, 419 Between 1638 and 1647, Swedish people established five or six trading posts along the Delaware ; but as the home government made no provison for their defense they were easily captured by the Dutch in 1655. d. France Cartier and Champlain were the first French explorers. People from France first settled Canada and the Mississippi Valley. Indeed the laws of Louisiana are based upon the French code instead of the English. France sent money and men to help in the American Revolution and later, inspired by the example of the United States, set up a republican form of government. 421 Paris in Roman times was only a little settlement on an island in the Seine. The Romans called it Lutetia Parisiorum, the capital of the Celtic tribe of the Parisii. The city became the capital of the French kingdom in 987, when Hugh Capet, founder of the long-lived Capetian dynasty, became king of France. 422, 424, 425 French people coming to America brought with them French ideas of architecture, art and science. Paris was the capital, the residence of the French kings who ruled so auto- cratically. French colonies in America had almost no self gov- ernment. e. Spain No European country has had greater influence upon the western con- tinent than Spain. The early discoverers and explorers were nearly all Spaniards or in the Spanish service and that nation obtained control of the lands from California to the Straits of Magellan. Later Spain lost all this territory yet it is still called Spanish America because the SPAIN — GERMANY — AFRICA 157 Spanish language and customs prevail and the ruling people are either wholly or in part of Spanish blood. 433 Shows the monument in honor of Columbus. Barcelona was an important city in the Middle Ages. Its merchant ships traded in the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. The dis- covery of America struck a blow at its prosperity, by trans- ferring commercial supremacy to the seaports of Western Spain. In the nineteenth century the city became again a leading center of Spanish trade and industry. 436 The Alhambra is a wonderful building in Moorish architecture, the palace of the ruler when Granada was the capital of the Moorish kingdom in Spain. Columbus followed the court of Ferdinand and Isabella to the camp before Granada. He was in time to witness the surrender of the city. He beheld Boabdil, the last of the Moorish kings, sally forth from the Alhambra and yield up the keys to a Christian king and queen. Ferdinand and Isabella then listened to the plans of Columbus. f. Germany 387, 388, 389, 390, 393 While Germans were not among the discoverers and explorers of America, German settlers began to come at a very early date, especially to Pennsylvania. Today a vast num- ber of American citizens are of German descent. 383, 384, 385 The German autocracy and militarism have compelled the United States to enter the World War. g. Africa 570, 572, 577, 578 The ten million negroes of the United States did not come from a civilized country as the white people did. At the time of their emancipation and enfranchisement many of them had not advanced very far in civilization. Here is a background for the " negro problem " which will take the best thought and work of the best people of both races if it is properly solved. 11. FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN NATION By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY GENERAL PURPOSE The purpose of this section is to introduce the pupil to the formative period of American history, extending from the earliest discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the federal government under the constitution of 1787. This naturally includes the physical background of American his- tory — the face of the country, then the original inhabitants, and finally some of the scenes of the Colonial and Revolu- tionary history. A. LAND A necessary foundation for the study of Colonial and later American history is some knowledge of the land in which we live, its scenery, its products and its capacities. The Keystone Views are rich in this kind of illustration. (i) Surface 279, 117 Every kind of climate is found in the American Continent giv- ing a wonderful variety of productions. 262, 38, 73 In the east, most of the land is undulating with broken country and numerous low mountains. 102, 101 The eastern mountains are usually rather low, parallel ranges with flat tops. 1,2,70,103,107,130 The whole area was originally heavily wooded except comparatively small " intervales " or flats. 113 Trees had to be cut away. The early settler's home was the log cabin. 2, 72, 189, 196, 232 All over the country wild game was very abundant. The beaver was especially sought. The settlement of Canada, the Great Lake region and the exploration of the Upper Mis- souri country were largely influenced by the trade in beaver furs. Wild animals were valuable for food both to the Indians and the early settlers. 38,39,51,101 A plentiful rainfall causes full streams, but very few of the eastern rivers cut through the Appalachian ^'Vhland. 158 TREES — AGRICULTURE 1 59 43, 48 The Mohawk River flowing east from the Lake region to the Hudson, made a valley through which a canal and railroads have been easily built. 264, 265, 267, 157, 48, 154 The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes with the canals which have been built form one of the greatest inland waterways in the world. 49, 50 The most wonderful of all waterfalls, lying between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario breaks the navigation of the St. Lawrence system. Many interesting events of Colonial history are con- nected with these two lakes and falls between them, such as Champlain's and later La Salle's expeditions, Hennepin's visit and the French and Indian War. 61, 170, 174, 120 The Mississippi River valley contains nearly a million square miles of land. The soil is fertile, climate suited to the growth of vegetation and communication was easy. No other land of its size is so well suited to the uses of mankind. 3, 4, 69, 70, 76, 155, etc. A vast mineral wealth underlies a large part of the country. 27,13,25,26,52,100,106,264,267 Splendid harbors encouraged com- merce. (2) Trees 1 Timber was one of the important products of the New World. Masts and materials for ships and houses were exported from early times. New England built ships which traded in every port of the world. 106, 107 The pine trees of the southern states yielded rich supplies of timber, turpentine, tar, rosin, etc. 103 In Colonial times all the iron was smelted from charcoal made in such pits. 130 Also the Indians taught them to make maple sugar. 175 Apple trees brought from Europe were planted by the colonists. You can hardly imagine how they waited for the first fruit from these early trees. (3) Agriculture 147 The earily colonists brought grains, such as wheat and oats, with them and they soon became staple crops. 137, 184 The Indians showed them how to plant and raise corn, the native American grain. It became a principal food. 112 Tobacco was the principal money crop of the South in Colonial times. In order to get a monopoly of the American tobacco trade. King Charles I called a General Assembly to meet at Jamestown. The holdinar of this assembly established the prece- dent for summoning legislative bodies in all the colonies. 104, 105 Rice was a staple cror> in South Carolina in the Colonial ne- riod. The planters greatly desired slaves for work in the rice fields. 117 Cotton also was raised but it did not become very profitable until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. 160 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION 173 This picture may remind us that in Colonial times every household raised its own wool which the women spun, colored, wove, and made into garments by hand. Wealthy people imported fine cloth. 185, 183, 173 These can not be called Colonial pictures but they will make us remember that the colonists raised their own animals for meat and milk. They made their own butter. Corn meal mush and milk was a highly valued article of food. Every fam- ily salted its meat for winter use. 258 Throughout the Colonial period, sugar cane was an important product of the West Indies. Great quantities of molasses were brought to New England as the raw material for rum. When the English parliament laid a tax on molasses, the Americans smuggled. B. ORIGINAL AMERICANS (i) Eskimos 343 The Eskimo race is probably not Indian in origin. With some ad- ditions of modern woven goods the dress of the Eskimo nowa- days is about the same as when the Northmen first came into contact with them. (2) Indians (a) American Indians American history has been much affected by the native American tribes. There were probably never more than a few hundred thousand Indians in the area covered by the United States. The Indians seem at first to have been friendly and usually it was the white man's treachery and cruelty which changed the Indians into bitter enemies. Most of the tribes have died out ; others have been exterminated or assimilated. 98 A modern staging of the celebrated story. The saving of John Smith saved the Jamestown colony. 265 The Iroquois lived in what is now New York. When Henry Hud- son was on the Hudson River he made friends with these fndians. At the same time Champlain was exploring Lake Champlain and he killed a few Iroquois thereby making them enemies of the French. These Indians always sided with the Dutch and English against the French and helped to prevent the French from gaining control of America. 263 These people do not look much like the " savages " of Colonial history. The tent of bark or skin was the home known to most of the Indians in the northern part of America. 204 This picture shows the outfit of brave, squaw, papoose and dog. Horses were brought to America by the European settlers and were adopted by the plains Indians. 182 The powerful Sioux tribes ranged from Minnesota to Montana; down to 1876 from time to time they waged war against the whites. ORIGINAL AMERICANS 161 (b) The Indian of Poetry Modern impressions of Indian life have been much affected by the novels of Cooper and the poems of Longfellow, both of which were carefully studied from the life of modern Indians. The Indians in their formal speeches are really poetic and love the similes and comparisons which the novelist and poet put in their mouths. 158 " Nursed the Hiawatha." A pleasant picture of outdoor infancy. 169 " From the wigwam he departed." The conical Indian wigwam made of skins or cloth, sometimes of bark, is a comfortable little house. The canoe is one of the important American inven- tions. 168 " Brought forth food and set before them." Some Indians still wear the magnificent feather headdresses enjoyed by some of the tribes. (c) Indians Farther South In the southwestern United States and thence farther south, can be traced a more elaborate and advanced state of life. 211 (13720) Coronado in 1540 found the ancestors of the present In- dians in pueblos such as are still occupied. 205 Cliff palace in the Mesa Verda. Among the most interesting memorials of the Indians are the cliff dwellings, evidently built when the inhabitants were hard pressed by enemies in the open country. The more important groups of such dwellings are pre- served as national monuments. 290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls. Probably most of these people are of Spanish descent, many of them mixed with native Indians. The customs of Spain and of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico are mingled in these people. 292 Tortilla making, Salvador. These people are probably wholly or nearly pure Indian. They are of the same stock as the native Nicaraguans and Panamanians. 331 Natives near wall of Incan palace, Cuzco. These Indians are di- rect descendants of the Peruvians who were conquered by Pizarro in 1528. They are standing under one of the most mag- nificent walls ever constructed by human hands. 328 Indians on the Straits of Magellan. These people, though a long way from the United States, are connected with the early his- tory of America because their ancestors were found by Magel- lan in his famous first voyage around the world in 1525. C. EARLY HISTORY 299, 298, 301 On his second voyage Columbus sailed along the south coast of Cuba. Also he discovered Jamaica in this same voy- age. 278 In 1497. John Cabot anchored off Labrador or in some harbor of Newfoundland and claimed the land for England. 162 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION 256 In 1543, Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama somewhere a little south of where the canal now is, and saw the Pacific Ocean for the first time. In reporting this discovery, he recommended that a canal be dug connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 280 Cortez landed in Mexico and named the place where he landed, Vera Cruz. 282, 283 Cortez with his small army captured the city of Mexico. 228, 209, 207, 241 Cabeza de Vaca, Narvaez, Coronado and other Span- iards wandered through the southwest and claimed it for Spain. Coronado described the "crooked back oxen" (232) which he found. 108, 109, 110 Through Florida, Ponce de Leon sought the fountain of perpetual youth. 263 Jacques Cartier, the first great French explorer, found his way through the Strait of Belle Isle and landed on Prince Ed- ward Island. He then returned to France. 264, 265, 267 The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence till stopped by the Lachine Rapids. He passed the bluff where Quebec stands and gave the name Mount Royal to the high hill at whose base Montreal stands. He stopped to barter for furs at the Indian villages which occupied both these magnificent sites. 262 As early as 1604 French people settled in Acadia, now Nova Scotia. 264 Quebec was founded by Champlain. It was attacked by the Eng- lish several times and was finally captured by Wolf in the French and Indian War. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. This position was a strategic one in Colonial his- tory and fierce battles were waged between the French and Eng- lish for its possession. 100 The first English settlers passed through Hampton Roads. 98 If it had not been for the resourceful leadership of Captain John Smith, the colony at Jamestown could not have survived. 113 The first homes were log cabins of the rudest sort. 96 This is the type of home occupied by rich planters of a later day. 112 Tobacco became the chief source of wealth, and was largely used instead of money. 117 (see 572) Negro slaves were first brought to Jamestown in 1619. 25, 39, 51 When Henry Hudson first entered this great bay and river, it presented a vastly different appearance, for it was all wild country. 13 New England was rich in harbors and lumber so the New Eng- enders became fishermen and sailors. 8 The Old State House has been the historic center of many stirrin? scenes. From its balcony the repeal of the Stamp Act was proclaimed and at the end of the Revolution peace with Eneland was proclaimed from the same place. Directly in front of it oc- curred the Boston massacre. 7 Faneuil Hall was called the "cradle of Liberty" for in it before and during the Revolution were held important political meet- EARLY HISTORY 163 ings. After the massacre at Boston citizens under Samuel Adams met in Faneuil Hall and demanded the removal of British troops. 6 From the tower of Old North Church was hung the signal lantern which sent Paul Revere to rouse the minute men. 10 Here the minute men first opposed the English soldiers. " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood And fired the shot heard round the world." — Emerson. 9 When Washington was sent by Congress to take command of the Americans who were around Boston, he established headquarters in this house. 80 Old Liberty Bell in Independence Hall, one of the most prized possessions of the nation. Independence Hall was erected 1729- 34. In it the Continental Congress met, Washington was made commander-in-chief of the American Army in 1775 and the Dec- laration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. 59 West Point was the American stronghold on the Hudson. Bene- dict Arnold made an attempt to give it into the hands of the English. 37 In this house built by Jonathan Hasbrouck, General Wash- ington wrote this famous letter of rebuke to Colonel Lewis Nicola who on behalf of several army officers suggested that he assume the title and office of king. 12. DEVELOPMENT OF OUR NATION By H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Litt.D. FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. More and more we are coming to realize that the political life of a country is very largely controlled by its economic de- velopment and so wars are not considered the chief subject matter of history. Children are not now expected to learn long lists of battles and dates, nor to remember isolated politi- cal facts. Instead, they are led to find the causes and results of political life in economic conditions. These views are espe- cially rich in suggestive material which will help children to understand the causes and results of historical facts I. EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD A. POLITICAL EVENTS 1784-1846 96 After the Revolutionary War, Washington retired to his beloved home, Mt. Vernon, where he lived the life of a contented planter. 29 On the 30th of April. 1789, Washington took the oath of office. He stood on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, whose site is now occupied by the New York Sub-Treasury building. New York was the temporary capital. 90,93 In 1790 the place for the capital of the United States was chosen. The plan for the city was drawn by L'Enfant, a French architect. In 1790, instead of the streets and buildings shown in these views, there was nothing but virgin forest. 91 John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. At that time the city of Washington contained the White House and Capitol, both unfinished, and two or three big bare boarding houses. 87 When Congress met for the first time in the capitol. the roof was larking and a huge canvas tent was spread to protect the law- makers. The first capitol was burned in 1814 when the British captured Washington. 88 Nearly all the great lawmakers of our country have sat in this room. Here Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, 164 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 165 John Quincy Adams have worked. Here were discussed the Alien and Sedition Laws, the Missouri Compromise, and here has been read every President's message except Washington's. 89 The Supreme Court is the unique feature of the United States government. No other nation allows a court to declare a law null and void. The great Chief Justice John Marshall, by his decisions greatly built up the feeling of nationality in the United States. 92 Cabinet meetings have had wonderful influence upon United States history. Differences of opinion concerning a United States Bank were held by Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, and Jefferson, the first Secretary of State. The peo- ple of the country also divided on this matter. In this way the great political parties of the United States originated. 38 From 1784 to 1846, the United States was mostly an agricultural country with few large cities. 71 This was the usual method of conveyance. B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 1789-1846 During this period the United States was an agricultural country. Fields were small for they must be planted, cultivated and the harvest gathered by hand. There were in the beginning almost no factories. Practically all work was handwork. 104,105,112 Tilling fields like these fostered slavery. 117 At the beginning of this period little cotton was raised because the work of removing the seeds by hand was difficult. 125 The invention of the cotton gin made the raising of cotton im- mensely profitable as a gin could clean a thousand pounds a day while a man could not clean more than one or two. Negro la- bor became very valuable to the planters, so the gin fastened slavery on the United States. 124 After the invention of the gin, cotton became the chief product of the South. 119 In 1791, America exported 189,000 lbs. of cotton. Nine years later in 1800, we exported nearly 20,000,000 lbs. The gin made the difference. 109 Slaves were bought and sold. 409 This is not an American picture, but during the early period Amer- ican women spun their yarn on just such wheels. They also wove their yarn into homespun cloth. There were no spinning or weaving mills in America. 14 Parliament made laws forbidding the exportation of machinery or of patterns for machinery. In 1790 Samuel Slater, an English- man, reproduced Arkwright's spinning machinery from mem- ory. In 1813, Francis Lowell and Patrick Jackson made a weaving machine in the same way. From these beginnings arose the great textile industries of the United States such as 166 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION are shown in this view. Mills work best with free labor. These manufactories in 1816 led to the first protective tariff. Later the North and South differed over tariff as in 1828. In 1832 South Carolina nullified a tariff law as the South did no manufacturing. 71,106,27,217 One of the great difficulties of the age was transpor- tation. Wagons and sailboats were the only methods of carry- ing. Flatboats were found on the rivers, especially the Missis- sippi, but they could not make a return trip. 61, 52, 26, 27, 39, 48 The invention of the steamboat in 1807 stimulated production by furnishing means of transportation to market. Steamboats on the Great Lakes, the Ohio and the Mississippi encouraged settlements along those waterways. The first steam- boats were very primitive affairs. 48, 43 The Erie Canal enabled western farmers to send their produce to eastern markets at cheap rates. It made New York the largest city in the United States. Many other canals were built. 25, 26 New York, Philadelphia and others began their wonderful growth. In 1800 New York had 60,000 inhabitants and Phila- delphia 70,000. In 1830 New York had 200,000 while Philadel- phia's population was 167,000. 43, 129, 128 In 1828, began the building of railroads which brought every part of the country within reach of markets. The rail- roads were important factors in settling the west. 198, 181 The invention of improved plows, harrows, planters, culti- vators, reapers and all sorts of farm machinery that could be drawn by horses enabled men to plant large fields with less labor. It vastly multiplied the working power of men on farms. 357 Though found in England, this is the type of reaper and birder first invented in America. Such machinery made slave labor unnecessary, so you see the North and South developing along different lines. The North with its factories and machinery favored free workers, nationalism and protective tariff. The South with its agricultural products raised by slaves opposed the tariff and favored states rights. 103 In the early days wood and charcoal were the only fuels used even in locomotives and steamboats. Steel was melted in charcoal furnaces. 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 The substitution of coal for charcoal was a real eco- nomic revolution which affected all the industrial life of the country. It made the modern blast furnace and the quick mov- ing steamboat and locomotive possible. 61, 139, 152 Cities began to grow in this new western land. MEXICAN WAR — CIVIL WAR 167 II. WESTERN PERIOD A. POLITICAL EVENTS 1846-1898 The invention of farming machinery together with the steamboat and railroad led to the settlement of the West. Northerners and Southerners flocked to these fertile fields each trying to claim the land for freedom or slavery. That brought about the Missouri Compromise, 1820, the doctrine of popular sovereignty, the Omnibus Bill of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854, the Dred Scott Case 1857, and finally the Civil War. 182, 204 This western country was the scene of many Indian wars before it became settled. In 1876 Gen. Custer and his entire force were massacred by Sioux Indians at the Little Bighorn River. 232, 189 Game abounded everywhere. 196 Trapping was profitable. 214 The discovery of gold and silver immediately brought seekers for wealth. Little mining camps were established in mountain val- leys and the history of the Far West was begun. 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 200, 201, 202, etc. Men explored and penetrated to all parts of the country. For the first time its diversity and its extent were realized. 221', 222, 223, 224, 225, 226 The United States gained possession of Oregon and her northern boundary was settled. 212, 213 Utah was settled by Mormons. 139, 167, 230, 121 Cities sprang up everywhere because there must be trading centers in mining, grazing or farming regions. i. Mexican War 281, 284, 285 The Mexican peon or peasant has not changed much. 126 The Alamo was used as a fort by Texans and Americans to de- fend themselves against the Mexicans in the war for the inde- pendence of Texas, in 1837. Every one of the defenders was killed. " Remember the Alamo " became the battle cry of the Mexican War. 280 Vera Cruz, Mexico's one seaport was captured by General Scott. 283 The victorious army pushed on toward the capital and stormed the Castle of Chapultepec. 282 The Americans then captured the City of Mexico and dictated a peace. 198 to 214, 228 to 242 All these views show lands that were ceded to the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican War. 2. Civil War We have seen how economic conditions caused the North and South to draw apart. Slavery caused the South to lag behind the North in its industrial development. 168 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 104, 105, 112, 117, 124, 125, 119 Such labor could be done very cheaply by slaves. 96 Washington's home is a type of the homes of the rich, slave hold- ing Southern planter. 113 Lincoln's home was a type of the homes of the poor whites. The poor whites could not compete with slave labor. 47, 38, 137 Types of small farms in the North with free labor. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67 Manufacturing in the North, the South had no manufacturing. This led to differ- ent ideas as to tariff, sovereignty, slavery, etc. 101 John Brown's raid persuaded the South that they could not ex- pect justice from the North. 119 The capture of New Orleans by the North decided the English not to recognize the Southern Confederacy. 100 In Hampton Roads was fought the great naval battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor. These were the first ironclad war ships. 114 On Lookout Mountain the battle was fought above the clouds. 73 The Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the war. 106 Gen. Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, then turned north and fought his way into North Carolina. 94 Great issues of paper money were put out during the Civil War. 105, 108, 115, 117, 118, 119 These views show free negroes, made free by the 13th Amendment, made citizens by the 14th and given the vote by the 15th. B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1846-1898 i. Eastern The Eastern part of the country is the manufacturing center. During this period manufacturing developed as never before. Corporations were formed, these grew into trusts and the wealth of the nation began to collect in the hands of the few. On the other hand, laborers com- bined into unions, demands were made for shorter hours, higher pay, better working conditions. There was labor agitation everywhere and the strife between capital and labor was very bitter. The antitrust laws were passed, trusts were prosecuted, an income tax was im- posed, child labor forbidden. In 1886 there were 1,572 strikes. These conditions dominated the political life of the period. 32 One of the great problems of these years was immigration. 5 Skilled Italians. 75, 77 Very much of our unskilled labor is done by foreigners. 227 Chinese and Japanese laborers have come to our shores in con- siderable number but are now excluded. 3, 4, 5 Stones of all kinds are being quarried. 14, to 18, 22 to 24, 53 to 55 Thousands of workers find employment in textile mills. Here always rises the subject of protective tar- SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 169 iff. The Walker, War, McKinley, Wilson and Dingley tariffs were passed to regulate tariffs. 58, 59 In New Jersey and Ohio pottery works have become an im- portant industry asking protection. 40 Garments made in factories are taking the place of homemade articles. Laws had to be made against sweatshops. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 82 Work in steel mills is hard and dangerous. The mills are owned by vast trusts and the men are highly or- ganized. Steel mills grew up within reach of ore and coal. They employ vast numbers of foreigners. 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 129 The substitution of coal for water power makes most of the industries of the United States dependent upon the coal supply. A strike of coal miners is a national calamity. 69, 70 Oil was discovered in western Pennsylvania in 1859 and has become one of the greatest sources of wealth in America. The first great trust was the Standard Oil Co. 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 85 Farming is also an important work, for farm- ers produce the food upon which all the people must subsist. 25,26,27,28,29,30,52,61,139,167,230 In places like these is carried on the business of the United States. 26, 27, 31, 43, 48, 52, 61 Perhaps the development in transportation, and exchange is the most wonderful of all. Such marvelous im- provements have been made. Air brakes, couplers, electric mo- tors and countless other things have revolutionized life and law. The electric street car makes the great city possible. Through interstate commerce laws the national government has found a way to regulate trusts. 2. Southern Since the War the South has become marvelously prosperous. These views show the results of free labor. 112, 105, 117, 124, 125 Cotton and tobacco still furnish the chief wealth. 118 Peanuts are a profitable crop. 122, 123 Vast oil fields have been found in Texas and Oklahoma. 127 Texas also has great districts devoted to cattle raising. Ill Sponges are a source of great wealth. 104, 105 Rice is a very valuable crop. 86,97 Almost the whole oyster supply of the United States comes from the Chesapeake Bay region. 106, 107 The pine forests furnish vast quantities of lumber, tar, tur- pentine and rosin. 110 Alligator leather is valued. 114, 116 Manufacturing is beginning as there are large deposits of both iron and coal. Some cotton mills are prospering. 106, 119 Because the South carries on a great trade, selling raw ma- terial and buying its manufactured goods, it is still a low tariff country. 85, 108 Fruit raising has become a source of vast wealth. 170 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 3. Middle Western This part of the country has every kind of industry. Here are found the great fields where food, both animal and vegetable is produced, and there are many great cities, centers of manufacture and commerce. As grain fields, ranches, mines and cities grew, transportation became of increasing importance, Granger Laws and the Interstate Commerce Act resulted. Corporations and trusts were established and there were great contests between capital and labor. 147, 177 Millions of bushels of grain of many kinds are produced. As grain or flour it is shipped to all parts of the world. Specula- tors were able to buy up food and make prices high. 173, 172, 183, 185, 186 Immense numbers of animals are raised in the great Middle West. 140 These cattle are shipped to Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, and other cities where are located the greatest meat packing estab- lishments in the world. 141, 142, 143, 144 All this preparing and packing is done under govern- ment inspection for these packing houses furnish a large part of the meat of the nation and of Europe. Laws regulating the preparation and purity of foods came as a result of such indus- tries. Meat trusts were formed. 175 Apples and other fruits are produced. 134, 135 Wonderful plate glass is made at Rossford, Ohio. 133 Akron, Ohio, became the center of the manufacturing of rubber goods in the United States. 155, 156, 157, 163, 164 Immense mines of copper and iron ore were dis- covered in Michigan and Minnesota. These were controlled by trusts. 128, 154, 157, 164 These ores greatly increased lake traffic. 63, 64, 65, 66,67, 78, 128 Wonderful labor saving machinery of all kinds was invented during this period. 174, 154, 148 Bridges, canals, dikes made transportation safer and easier. 139 Cities like Chicago with their millions of people engaged in all sorts of industries are centers of labor disputes. The strike of 1894 in the Pullman Car Co. is an example. 4. Western In 1846 the Rocky Mountains formed the western boundary of the United States. In 1898, the country extended to the Pacific Ocean. 225 The discovery of gold caused the first rush to the Far West. 214 Little mining camps were located in the mountain valleys. 187 Soon other metals were found in great abundance. 216, 233 Gold is not the only wealth of the region. The yearly wheat crop of California is greater in value than the annual output of gold. 188, 190, 207 Mining is not the only source of wealth. Great herds of horses, cattle and sheep are raised and agriculture is developing. EXPANSION BY SEA 171 121, 220, 230 Mining, cattle raising, fanning necessitate the growth of cities. Oklahoma, Seattle and San Francisco are fine examples of the western cities that grew up suddenly. C. EXPANSION BY SEA i. Alaska Alaska was purchased in 1867. 243, 245 Gold discoveries. 246 Methods of travel. 244 Fisheries and forests are valuable. 2. Cuba Cuba is a United States protectorate, not a possession. 297, 298 Typical scenes in Cuba. 296 " Remember the Maine " became the battle cry of the Spanish American War. 3. Porto Rico 257, 258 Porto Rico was taken by the United States in 1898 but not till 1917 were Porto Ricans made United States citizens. 4. Philippine Islands 546, 547 The Battle of Manila came May 1, 1898. After the Spanish were defeated the natives revolted and had to be subdued. 548,549,550,551 The islands are very rich in natural resources, but the common people are backward. The question of the inde- pendence of the islands presented a serious problem. 552, 553 Hemp rope is a valuable product. 5. Ha'vaii The Hawaiian Islands were admitted in 1898. Previously admission had been refused. 260 Public school, Honolulu. This is what the United States does for all her people. 259 Beside being an important coaling station, Hawaii is very rich in vegetable products. Hawaiian pineapples and bananas are the best in the world. 261 The native Hawaiians are superior to the natives of other Pacific islands. They are believed to be of Caucasian origin. 6. Guam 554 The island of Guam also came to us from the Spanish American war. 172 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION III. MODERN PERIOD 1898-1917 The last twenty-five years of the history of the United States are described as years of marvelous social and economic development. People lived securely, they were prosperous and progressive. Men's minds turned naturally toward the problems of the improvement of internal conditions. Trusts were controlled in part ; labor was en- couraged ; new inventions have revolutionized industry. There has been a great growth in democracy marked by such issues as the initia- tive and referendum. Suddenly a change came. In the period from 1910 to 1917 the great- est political changes yet known have come to the United States. By the Spanish War, the nation was forced out of her isolation into inter- national diplomacy. Her acquisition of the Philippines brought her into relations with Japan. Still her development was largely economic and industrial. When the World War began, the United States tried to remain neutral. Gradually she was forced into the war and a new era in history has resulted. She will never be able to withdraw from world affairs into which she has entered. 280 to 341 An organized attempt is being made to cultivate friendly relations with Spanish America so that the Monroe Doctrine may develop into a Pan-American Doctrine. 247 to 256 On Nov. 18, 1901, a treaty was made with Great Britain abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and providing that the Isthmian canal should be under the sole jurisdiction of the United States. 337, 249 Tn 1903. a canal treaty with Colombia was signed but the Congress of Colombia refused to ratify it. The rights of the old French Company were purchased by the United States. 248 On Nov. 3, 1903, the state of Panama revolted and seceded from Colombia. And on the 18th of November the United States and Panama made a treaty by which the United States is to have sovereignty over the Canal Zone ten miles wide and to safeguard the independence of Panama. 250, 251 Tn 1904, the United States began work on canal. 250, 252 In 1906. Congress decided upon a lock canal. In 1907 it was in charge of army engineers. 247,251,253 The main obstacles to the completion of the canal were the Chagres River and the landslides and the pestilential climate. MODERN PERIOD 173 250 to 253 These views give an idea of the great engineering works done under the leadership of Col. Goethals of the United States regular army. Gatun Lake is an artificial lake which takes care of the sudden floods of the Chagres River and provides a part of the waterway. 255 Major Gorgas of the medical department of the United States army has practically eradicated malaria and yellow fever from the Canal Zone. This proves that the tropics can be made healthful places where white men can live and do good work. It opens the whole tropical belt to development. 254 On August 15, 1913, the Panama Canal was formally opened. It makes it much easier for the United States to protect both her coasts. Also it shortens trade routes by thousands of miles, saving time and coal. It will especially stimulate trading be- tween the eastern and western coasts of both North and South America and will help to promote Pan-American friendliness. 243 to 246 In 1901 a dispute between England and the United States concerning the Alaska boundary line was settled by arbitration. 520 In 1900, American troops allied with troops from Japan, Russia, Great Britain and France 18.000 strong, marched to Peking to rescue the legations besieged by Boxers. 280, 289 Since 1910. Mexico has been in an unsettled state. Rebellion has followed rebellion. Presidents Diaz, De la Barra, Madero, Huerta, Carbajal and Carranza followed each other with bewil- dering rapidity. American lives and property were destroyed and many Americans demanded intervention. 280 On April 21, 1913, the United States seized, and for some time held, Vera Cruz. 282,283 In February, 1915, Villa captured Guadalajara. In March, his forces captured Mexico City. 88,315,305,324.335.291 Ambassadors and ministers from United States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Guatemala and Uruguay met and recognized the Carranza Government. 126 After promiscuous shooting across the border and an attack on Columbia by Villa's men, American troops under General Pershing were sent to the border. The American headquarters were at San Antonio. 209 Through deserts of this kind Pershing's men followed Villa. 466 On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were assas- sinated at Serai evo, Bosnia, by a Servian student. 460 to 467 On July 28, Austria declared war on Servia ; then Russia began to mobilize her troops and soon the whole of Europe was involved in war. 25, 52 The United States as a neutral was engaged in carrying on trade and suffered from both sides. 242 American submarines. Because her north coast was blockaded, Germany took to submarine warfare and persisted in sinking vessels without warning, a clear violation of international law. 52 This view shows an ocean liner. On May 7, 1915, the ocean liner 174 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION Lusitania was attacked without warning and many Americans, women and children, lost their lives. 384, 526, 282 The German Imperial Government plotted to involve the United States in war with Japan and Mexico. 88,87 On April 6, 1917, the United States Congress, acting upon in- formation furnished by the President, declared war upon Ger- many. 52 In this scene, we have the Vaterland, the largest ship in the world, and several companion ships owned by Germany and her allies, interned at the beginning of the war (1914) and taken over by our Government, April 6, 1917. 394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 83, 137, 147, 166, 184, 177,178,179,198, 199, etc. The United States felt the necessity of feeding the allies and the nation turned toward agriculture. No plot of land was too small for a war garden. 94 Liberty Bonds, prepared in the Bureau of Printing and Engrav- ing, were issued. $2,000,000,000 was asked for, $3,035,226,850 was subscribed. Immediately afterwards the Red Cross asked for $100,000,000 and received $114,000,000. 64 to 67 Steel workers. A selective draft bill was passed, by which men who would least cripple preparatory work at home could be selected for the army ; for instance, steel workers are needed at home to make munitions. All men between 21 and 31 registered on June 5, 1917, and the draft took place July 20 following. 146 Missions from France, other allied countries visited America to plan the largest cooperation. 421,422 Paris ; 426 Chateau-Thierry. On June 13, 1917, Gen. Pershing and the first contingent of American troops reached France and joined the allied armies. At Chateau-Thierry the Americans won a great victory over the Germans. 385 American troops of the Army of Occupation were sent to Coblenz. 482 to 488 In the spring and summer of 1917, the Russian people over- threw the Romanoff Government. The entire country was dis- organized and chaotic, and later the Bolsheviki came into power. 26 New York City; 52 Ocean liners; 106 Savannah; 119 New Or- leans. An embargo on food stuffs and war materials was de- clared in order to prevent such materials reaching the enemy. No ship could leave an American port without a special license. 166 Potatoes ; 199, 219, 233 Wheat. A food control bill was passed August 11, 1917, and Hoover was made head of a commission with power to control prices and supplies. The price of wheat was regulated. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1898-1917 Eastern 75, 76, 79 The anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1902 was the first time a President had intervened in a dispute between capital EASTERN 175 and labor. Today such a strike is no longer a private matter between men and employers but it is a matter belonging to all of us since it affects us all. 229 Congress authorized the President to withdraw timber and mineral lands from sale. If this wise policy had been begun a generation before, the timber, water power and leases of mineral lands would today furnish enough revenue to run the government. 69,70, Oil; 112 Tobacco; 14, 15 Cotton; 65, 66 Steel; 129 Coal; 140 to 144 Meat. The Government is actively engaged controlling trusts and companies of all kinds that there may be more equal distribution of wealth. 43,61,129 Acts were passed (1901, 1906, 1910) extending the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission and further controlling railroads. It is now generally conceded that regulation and con- trol of railroads are necessary and fully within the power of the Government. 55, 54, 17, 18, 14, 15, 16 Modern inventions make finer and more beau- tiful cloths. 57, 46, 45 Butter and milk are important articles of food. Local gov- ernments are interested in cost and cleanliness. 34, 35 Modern methods facilitate all work. 47 Market gardens are necessities and very profitable. 83 Children are taught the value of the home garden. All sorts of vocational training are being taught. 56 Even the price of eggs is of national importance. 7, 25, 61, 139, 220, 230 Nowhere is the modern life so complex as in the city with its problems of reform. Municipal commissions and city managers are new devices for better city government. Men are devoting their whole lives to the solution of civic problems. 43, 129, 88, 89 In Sept., 1916, Congress passed the Adamson Bill regu- lating time and wages of railroad men. This was done to pre- vent a railroad strike that would have brought ruin to the coun- try. Transportation is not a private matter since in our com- plicated system the lives of millions depend upon the transporta- tion of food. 32 The immigrants are now carefully sifted by laws shutting out all but the most desirable. In 1917, a law was passed requiring a literary test. Middle West The same growth has taken place in the Middle West. To facilitate the movement of materials of trade, Reserve Banks were established, a Farmers' Credit Bill was passed. 170, 171 The conservation of fuel is being accomplished by using natural means for generating power. 151, 150, 152, 199 The automobile has revolutionized local transporta- tion and farm work. 131, 132 Rubber manufactures are necessary to modern life. 176 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 156, 155 Minerals are produced on a scale never before known and they are reduced by modern methods. 165, 185 Modern life demands cattle raised and cared for in the clean- est, most healthful way. 136 Corn is now largely cut by machines. 177 Threshing is carried on by steam engines. 179, 178, 180 Even the horse has given way to a great extent to the tractor that never tires. All these increase the acreage that may be cultivated. 191 to 197, 228, 229, 219, 222 In the Far West mineral and forest wealth are so great and private ownership so wasteful that the United States has turned its attention earnestly to conservation. Rec- lamation also has been carried on by the government. National parks have been set aside to preserve forests, scenery, fish, game, etc. 215,216,217 The forests are melting away, so conservation came as a national policy. In May, 1908, was held at the White House a conference of State governors, congressmen and others. This resulted in a widespread interest in conservation. 199 Dry farming methods for grain. New methods of farming are tried. 199, 218, 233, 235, 236, 237 New machinery has made the cultivation of a vast acreage possible and scientific culture has produced bounti- ful results. 210 In June, 1902, Congress passed an act by which the proceeds from the sale of public lands in sixteen States goes into a special irrigation fund. Local enterprise would find it difficult to con- struct such stupendous works as these dams by which thousands of acres of dry land have been made productive by irrigation. 187, 203 Modern economical methods of ore reduction are in use in- creasing our metal production and at the same time conserving the supply. 117 In 1916 and 1917 there was a noticeable movement of negro laborers from South to North. This presents an economic problem of importance. 148 In East St. Louis, 111., 1917, there was a terrible fight between blacks and whites and many on both sides were killed. The race question is a difficult one in the United States. 88 Congress. On Sept. 8, 1917, at 11 p.m., whiskey ceased to be manufactured and its importation was prohibited, as a war measure. In 1919 an amendment to the United States consti- tution which forbids the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor was ratified by the states. Also Congress proposed an amendment giving women the suffrage. 13. AMERICA OF TODAY — OUR RE~ SOURCES — PREPAREDNESS By JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S. GEOGRAPHER, METEOROLOGIST, UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT, MT. VERNON, N. Y. America today is one of the most interesting countries in the world. It is well worth while to consider our resources, our development in many lines and how we compare with other nations of the world. America is the richest country in the world. Other nations have called us money mad; but all this wealth is strength. Today we are not looking at our re- sources so much with pride in our wealth as with patriotic joy in our strength. The first years of the twentieth century have witnessed a great centralization of power in our national government. On the other hand people were never before so widely interested in the government or so watchful of it. These two opposing tendencies will probably check each other. OUR WARS 10, 80 The Revolution gave us political freedom and established us as an independent nation. Our Declaration of Independence has paved the way for civil liberty in all nations. 71 The War of 1812 gave us commercial independence on the sea and throughout the world. 206 to 214, 228 to 242 The Mexican War brought an important addition to our nation, giving us several additional states in the South- west. 73, 114 The Civil War established economic independence and elim- inated human slavery. 296, 546 to 554 The war with Spain made us a great world power. 88, 92 On April 6, 1917, after vainly endeavoring to avoid the step, our congress declared that a state of war existed between us and Germany. 87, 242, 426, 146, 394 The World War was undertaken to make neutrals safe forever and to make democracy possible through- out the world. It was a war for world freedom. 177 178 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA OF TODAY 421-425 Treaty of peace was signed in Paris, June, 1919. It was made by representatives of all the nations of the world and provides for a league of nations. 100, 254 A greatly enlarged navy has been provided for and is being built. In this connection it is well to remember that the iron- clad battleship — the foundation of modern navies — was in- vented in America and the first battle between ironclad battle- ships occurred in American waters. At the close of the Civil War we had the only armored navy in the world. 242 The submarine was also an American invention, the first practical submarine boat being built by John Holland of Paterson, N. J. 394 Aircraft — the "eyes of the army" — were invented and largely developed in America. RESOURCES The United States is the greatest agricultural country in the world. Extending over so wide a range of country with such varied climate and surface, its products are diversified. The Mississippi Valley alone contains nearly a million square miles almost all of which is suited to the uses of man. There is no other land of its size on the sur- face of the earth so admirably suited to the purpose of mankind. President Wilson's appeal to the farmers and gardeners of America resulted in an increase of one million bushels of foods being grown in 1917. " War is no longer a collision between two armed forces ; war is a contest of economic resources. The man at the forge or the man with the hoe is as much a soldier as the man with the sword." 83, 115, 161, 178, 180, 179 All living things require food, plants as well as animals. Plants take their food out of the ground, and the first principle of farming is learning to put back into the soil what the plant takes out of it. This is called " fertilizing the soil." Plant crops take from the soil nitrogen, lime, potash, and phosphoric acid and all these must be returned. In the large farms of the United States all this is done by machinery. Draining, ditching, plowing, fertilizing, harrowing and planting are done on a scale that was not dreamed of a century ago and which few countries attempt to duplicate even now. The foundation of this country's strength is its food supply. Presi- dent Wilson has said " upon the farmers of this country rests the fate of the war." Wheat 177, 218, 233, 357, 488 In 1915 the wheat crop of the United States ex- ceeded 1,000,000,000 bushels while the whole world produced 3,750,000,000 bushels. Very nearly 600,000,000 bushels are needed for home consumption. For the five years from 1910 to 1915, of the total world's crop, the United States produced an average of 19% ; European Russia 17% ; India 9% ; France 8% ; Austria-Hungary 6% ; Canada 5%. RICE — OATS — MUTTON 179 Oats 147 There is not much commerce in oats, the crop is consumed as fod- der where it grows. In 1900 the United States raised 809,000,- 000 bushels of oats ; in 1920, 1,444,362,000. Indian Corn 184, 136, 137, 184. The American maize or Indian corn crop of the United States has reached 3,000,000,000 bushels. Not much is exported but the demand abroad is steadily increasing. In nor- mal times the value of corn in the grain rarely exceeds half a cent a pound. Converted into meal it is worth five or six times as much. Corn products include spiritous liquor, glucose, confectioner's sugar, oil and smokeless powder. The United States produces 71% of the world's crop; Austria-Hungary 6%; Mexico 5%; Argentina 4 1 / 2 %; Roumania 2 l / 2 %; Italy 2 x / 2 %. Rice 104, 105 The rice crop of the United States is small and does not meet the demand therefor; indeed, if the world's crop were doubled, it would find consumers. Ordinarily, rice commands about the same price as wheat — pound for pound it is more nutritious. India raises 45% of the world's rice; China 22%; Japan 12%; and the United States less than 1%. Cattle 127, 186, 185, 188, 140, 141 The cattle product of the United States formerly allowed a very large export to western Europe ; now, the export is comparatively light — about 50,000,000 pounds in 1916. The production is likewise decreasing. This is due in part to the decreased acreage of grazing land, but quite as much to speculative methods of handling the meat business. Twenty-five per cent, of the world's cattle are raised in India; 13% in the United States; 8% in European Russia; 7% in Ar- gentina; 6% in Brazil; 5% in Germany; 3% in France; 3% in Great Britain. The Hog Industry 172, 183, 143, 144 There are two reasons for the great commerce in pork ; it contains a greater amount of fat, one of the essentials of food, than any other merchantable meat ; it is more easily preserved than any other. As a result, the preserved meat finds as great a demand in tropical countries, where fresh meat spoils in a few hours, as in cold regions. The United States produces the most hogs. Mutton 173, 145 Because of its tenderness and rich, meaty flavor, mutton is a favorite with the gourmet and epicure. In thickly peopled regions of the cold temperate zone, the sheep is grown for meat ; elsewhere, for its fleece. English mutton and Canada mut- 180 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY ton are largely a product of climate. In the same way, the merino sheep is a product of arid climate. Dairy Industry 45, 46, 159. 165, 57 The milk supply of a large city must he de- livered daily, and, in most large cities, the production is super- vised under rigorous measures, in order to insure purity and cleanliness. Milk is consumed near by; but little is transported more than one hundred miles. That which is to be kept more than sixty hours is " condensed." Butter may be kept in cold storage for several months. American cheese is now a matter of export. About 300,000,000 pounds are produced of which as many as 100,000,000 pounds have been exported in a single year. Poultry Industry 56 The yearly value of the poultry industry is about as great as that of the wheat product. Most of the commerce of the industry centers about the large cities. The demand for " squab " or young chickens is so great that the prices of eggs have ad- vanced materially. Eggs from China recently have become a steady import. Fisheries 13, 86, 97, 226, 227 Cod off the Atlantic coast and salmon during the spring run in the rivers and estuaries of the Pacific coast form the most important catch. The cod is salted and suncured ; the salmon is cooked and canned. Both are articles of export. Any sort of small fry, especially herring, in a can with a French label is " sardine " and Russian caviar is the roe of American sturgeon. Much of the cod export has gone to the West Indies since the early days of the Massachusetts settlements. The oyster may be classed among the luxuries, but the demand there- for is growing with leaps and bounds. The oyster beds of the northeast coast of the United States, where the bivalve is culti- vated, are the largest in the world. The fishery products of the United States exceed those of any other country. In 1915 they were valued at almost $70,000,000; Japan was next with $63,- 000,000; England and Russia each had $50,000,000; France and Canada each $33,000,000; Scotland $19,000,000; Ireland 1,000,- 000 and Germany $10,000,000. The Sugar Industry 34, 35, 258 Of the cane sugar, India produces 26%, Cuba, 23%, Java 15% and the United States with her dependencies 12%. Of the beet sugar Germany makes 30%, Russia 21%, Austria 20%, France 9% and Belgium 3%. Iron and Steel The United States leads the world in the manufacture of iron and steel. Her annual production of iron ore is about 62,000,000 long tons. IRON AND STEEL — COPPER 181 Just before the World War, the United States produced about 41% of the world's pig iron, Germany 24%, Great Britain 12%, France 7%, Russia 6%, Austria-Hungary 3%, Belgium 3%. 61 Half a century ago Pittsburgh was an ideal location for iron mills for the ore and coal were almost within a stone's throw of each other and the three rivers offered transportation at a very low cost. Even though most of the iron ore now comes from the region of the Great Lakes, Pittsburgh's nearness to the coal and coke supply makes its location important — it is the greatest iron and steel center in the world. 163, 164, 154, 128 With facilities for transportation such as are shown in these stereographs, a ton of iron ore can be mined and loaded at the Lake Superior mines and transported to the smeltery nearly a thousand miles away for less than four dollars. 116 The Southern Appalachian ore fields are scarcely touched. This ore is especially adapted to the making of steel rails. Those made by the open-hearth process usually command a higher price than those made by the Bessemer process. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Pulling a lever starts the ponderous machinery that operates the various processes. The huge machines seem to have almost human intelligence. Brains take the place of brawn, and one man exerts a power that is rated by the thou- sands of horse power. 103, 68 No fuel, or reducing agent, equals charcoal in the smelting of iron ore. The charcoal burns the oxygen out of the ore, leav- ing free, molten iron. Charcoal, however, is limited in quantity and is expensive; so the wits of man were called upon to make an artificial charcoal — the substance commonly called coke. Fat coal is dumped into " ovens " and heated to whiteness. Thereby, the liquid and gaseous chemical constituents are driven off. One of the by-products of the coke oven is coal tar from which nearly one thousand substances of commercial value — dyes, drugs and explosives — are made. Coke ovens are con- structed on the side of a hill, if possible, so that the coal may be dumped into the oven from a railway at the top and the coke shovelled into cars running on a track below the ovens. In 1913 more than 46,000,000 tons of coke were used in the United States. Copper 155, 156, 157, 187 In its importance to humanity, copper ranks next to iron. In 1913 the world's production of copper was 2,198,732, 130 lbs. of which the United States produced 56%, Japan 7%, Chile, Peru and Bolivia together 7%, Spain and Portugal 6%, Mexico 5%, Canada 3}4% and Germany 2^%. The demand for copper is far greater than the supply. Most of the output is used as a conductor of electricity; a great deal is used in car- tridges. It is the chief ingredient in brass and bronze. 182 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY Zinc 176 Zinc is not so abundant as copper but its ores are found in nearly every country. In 1913, the United States produced 346,676 tons; Germany 312,075; Belgium 217,928; France and Spain 78,289; Great Britain 65,197. Alloyed with copper it makes brass or bronze a metal combination indispensable in the con- struction of machinery. Gold and Silver 245, 225, 203, 246, 287, 214 Gold and silver have been standards of ex- change ever since history began. Gold is generally found pure, silver, in combination. In 1912, the world's output of gold was valued at more than $466,000,000. Of this Africa supplied about 45%, the United States 20%, Australia 5%, Mexico 5%, Russia 5%, Canada 3% and India 3%. Of the world's production of $147,900,000 of silver, Mexico provided about 32%, the United States 20%, Canada 13%, Germany 6% and Peru 4%. Coal 61, 74, 75, 76, 77, 129, 79 The coal fields of the United States are most extensive and also the most productive in the world and this results in the tremendous output of iron and steel and the vast manufactures, the most productive in the world. Of the world's annual production of 1,443,000,000 short tons, the United States produces 39^%, Great Britain 22%, Germany 20%, Austria- Hungary 4%, France 3% and Russia 2%. Pennsylvania pro- duces nearly all the anthracite of the world. Petroleum 122, 69, 70 The ordinary substance known as petroleum or coal oil has a world-wide commerce. Tbe United States produces 65% of the world's supply ; Russia 16%, Mexico, 7%, Roumania 4%, Dutch East Indies 3%, Austria-Hungary 2%, India 2%. 123 Gasoline and petrol are the most important factors in the distillation of crude oil. These are used for running engines. The best steam engine rarely utilizes more than one-fifth of the heat or power which the steam-making fuel contains. The internal com- bustion engine does twice as much work with less than half the fuel. Water Power 49, 50, 197, 170, 171, 228 In the future the greatest available power in the world will come from falling water. In the early industrial his tory of our country water power was used for manufacture but the mill had to be built at the fall. Now the power of the falling water is changed into electricity which is carried to the factory. The power of Niagara Falls operates the street cars of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, and Utica as well as of Hamilton, Toronto and other Canadian cities. The cheap and abundant power LUMBER — MARBLE — GRANITE 183 of Niagara Falls makes possible certain products essential to modern industries. Chief among these is carborundum. It is the basis of most of our grinding machinery in our great automobile factories, munition plants and machine shops. Ni- agara Falls gives us our aluminum supply. It gives us also products which added to steel give it a hardness that makes it wonderfully resistant — so hard that when used on the point of a modern shell, it will pierce the armor plate without being deformed itself. The water that runs over the spillways at Keokuk, Iowa, and at Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona, is not wasted ; its power is turned into electricity. Lumber The proportion of lumber used for building as compared with stone cement and brick is decreasing. Nevertheless the present rate of cut- ting is three times the annual growth. The timber covered area in the United States is estimated at 500,000,000 acres or about one-fourth of the country. The Southern Pacific and Northern Pacific railroad com- panies together with several lumber companies own about four-fifths of this; the rest belongs to the nation or to states. The United States, Canada, Sweden, Norway, Russia and Austria export lumber. All the others import it. 1,162,215 These pictures demonstrate each the solution of a prob- lem: namely, how to get the logs to the mill in the most inex- pensive way. In each case, it is solved for the particular lo- cality. 216, 217 The lumber mills of Puget Sound and vicinity supply not only the lumber requirements of the Pacific coast but also a large demand in China and Japan. Both of these countries have been greatly denuded of forest trees, much to their detriment. Transcontinental railways depend largely upon the Puget Sound mills for their heavy timber, especially long pieces, such as are shown in stereograph 217. See also stereographs 224 and* 229. 130 The maple furnishes not only sugar ; the lumber ranks among the most valuable cabinet woods in the country. Marble 4, 5 Marble for architectural ornamental work is world-wide in use, and for carved work is probably more extensively used than any other stone. Fine-grained white marble free from blemishes commands very high prices. Granite 3 Probably most of the granite now quarried is used in the con- struction of government and other large office buildings, being cut into ornamental blocks at the quarries. Thus prepared it is often shipped long distances. In the rough, it is no longer an article of commerce to any great extent, concrete being a cheaper and equally durable substitute. The quarries of the White 184 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY Mountain region furnish most of the granite in the eastern states. Red and dark gray granites are abundant in the west- ern Highlands. Structural Steel 25, 26, 31, 174, 253 A building of brick or of stone reaches the limit of height with the sixth or seventh story. With a frame work of structural steel girders and beams, the height may be readily carried fifty stories, or 500 feet. The buildings in 25 and 26, the railway viaduct in 31, the bridge in 174, and about every- thing but water and shore line in 253 show the engineering possi- bilities with steel as a building material and the impossibilities of modern commerce without it. America excels all other nations in its manufacture and use of structural steel. Lime 97 Shells of oysters and other mollusks are used also in surfacing roads and in making lime of a very superior quality. Most of the lime is made by burning limestone in a kiln. Concrete 210, 252 " Portland " cement is now made artificially by burning lime- stone and clay in much the same manner as in lime-making. Mixed to a still mortar with water it hardens — becoming so hard indeed that it turns the edge of a steel drill. The cement, mixed with sand and broken rock is the " concrete " of engineer- ing science. Concrete has almost wholly superseded rock in the construction of viaducts, dams, and bridge approaches. The Panama Canal locks and the masonry of the various irrigation projects are built of concrete. In 1900, the United States made 8,500,000 barrels of Portland cement; England between 7,000,- 000 and 8,000,000 ; France 3,000,000 ; and Germany 30,000,000. « Glass 134 A fine white sand is the first requisite in the manufacture of glass; other ingredients are lime and sulphate of soda. These are melted into a transparent fluid mass by means of gas blasts. In the United States most of the glass-making establishments are located in places where natural gas is abundant. The Cotton Industry 1 17, 119, 124, 125, 207 The United States produces more than five billion pounds of cotton yearly. About one-third of the crop is made into cloth in the mills of the United States. Raw cotton is ex- ported to nearly every country in Europe and American cotton cloth is used by practically every people on the face of the earth. The United States raises about 62% of the cotton, India 18% Egypt 7%, and China 6%. England is the greatest manufacturer of cotton cloth. In 1914, England had in operation 56,900,000 WOOL — TRANSPORTATION 185 spindles, the countries on the continent had 43,200,000, while the United States had 31,840,000. The Wool Industry The scoured wool produced in the United States averages 136,500,000 lbs. a year and yet there is practically none for export. In addition to this the United States imports 8% of the world's supply. France im- ports 25%, Great Britain 22% and Germany 20%. Australia is the greatest wool growing country, producing 30% of the wool, and Argen- tina is next, with 15%. Naval Stores 107 The southern pine yields turpentine, pitch, and wood tar. Formerly in the days of sailing vessels, the two last named were used in calking the seams and joints of sailing vessels, and in preserving the fixed parts of the rigging. Therefore, they were called " naval stores." Nine-tenths of the world's supply came from the United States. Turpentine is the solvent for the oils used in mixing paint. The Tobacco Industry 112 The United States is probably the foremost country in the value of its tobacco crop. One item of the industry is the manufac- ture of snuff. The world's supply of this material is made in the United States. The redeeming feature of the tobacco in- dustry is the revenue to the United States Treasury that comes from the various taxes imposed on it. Educating a Nation 83, 260 Education is the foundation of a nation. Since each citizen of a democracy has a share in the government, every citizen should be educated. United States in 1915 had 7.7% of illiterate people, England had 1% and the German Empire only 1/50%. The Material Foundation 19, 20 Print paper is an essential of public education. The circula- tion of some of the daily papers reaches about half a million a day ; and the strip of paper on which the daily issue of the New York Times is printed would reach from New York to Denver. One great magazine, founded by Benjamin Franklin, issues more than 2,000,000 copies weekly. The yearly edition of a popular textbook in geography would make a stack twice as high as Mount Everest. Transportation 71, 186, 298, 138 Our forefathers employed the ox team, the saddle horse and the prairie " schooner " to transport themselves and their belongings to the west. 186 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 246 In Alaska the dog team still is the best means of transportation to be had. 43, 129, 82, 61, 31 Today the continent is only five days wide instead of three months wide. The legitimate business of the railroad is to carry goods of all kinds from the producer to the con- sumer. In late years the problem of transportation is of na- tional importance and so more and more the United States is legislating for railroads in such ways as the Adamson Law of 1916, the Interstate Commerce laws and so on. The United States in 1912 had 241,199 miles of railway all under private ownership while Germany had 37,995 miles, 34,623 owned by the state. Austria-Hungary owned 22,046 of its 27,570 miles ; Rus- sia in Europe owned 21,659 of its 37,008 miles; France owned 5,510 miles in 30,685 and England's 23,350 miles were under pri- vate ownership. 26,100,48,154 Because of Bessemer steel, twin screws and oil-driven triple expansion engines the Atlantic Ocean is now five days wide instead of five weeks. At the beginning of the world war the United States found her foreign commerce almost stopped because the English ships, the carriers of the world, were with- drawn from the trade. The United States realized that she must own her own merchant marine. It was through attacks upon her shipping that the United States was finally drawn into the war. 52 On April 6, 1917, these and other interned German warships to the number of 91 with a total capacity about 629,000 tons were taken over by the United States. Three days later 14 Austrian in- terned ships were seized. This gave a total of 105 additional ships for carrying supplies and troops to our allies. To meet the drain of the German submarines on the world's shipping we have undertaken a tremendous building program for both steel and wooden ships. Some Trade Routes of the United States Easy routes over which the commodities of commerce can be carried to markets are quite as necessary as the market centers and posts them- selves. Some of the great trade routes, like the Panama Canal and the Suez Canal are world factors rather than national factors in commerce. Many of the trade routes and railway lines of the United States lie along old Indian trails — trails originally made by the bison. 25,32,39,51,38,43,48 The route from the mouth of the Hudson to Albany, thence through central New York to Lake Erie at Buffalo is one of the world's great trade routes. From Buffalo to New York City the aggregate lift of freight is but little more than 400 feet. Because of this almost dead-level grade, the Erie Canal and the New York Central Railway practically fix the freight rates between the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic seaboard. 154 The Great Lakes are situated at different levels. The surface of TRADE ROUTES 187 Lake Superior is 601 feet above mean sea level ; that of Lakes Huron and Michigan 581 feet. The rapids in St. Mary's River were an obstacle to inter-lake traffic. The completion of the canal locks in the river opened a route over which more freight is carried than on any other canal in the world. Two canals, one on the Canadian, the other on the American Side, connect the lakes, the American Canal has two locks. Navigation of canals and locks is free. Ore from the Lake Superior iron and copper mines constitutes a large proportion of the freight. 61, 119, 120 At the close of the last French and Indian War the ac- quisition of Fort Duquesne where Pittsburgh now stands, gave to the American colonies an open trade route to the mouth of the Mississippi River. Owing to the system of jetties which, by constricting the width causes the river to scour its channel to a greater depth, the river below New Orleans is now deep enough to be safe for ocean steamships. 119,120,148,170,171,174 The Mississippi River drains wholly or in part twenty-eight states. The trunk and tributaries afford about fifteen thousand miles of navigation. Up to the time of the Civil War the Mississippi was the chief means of communica- tion in the Central United States, the traffic between Buffalo and Chicago excepted. After the Civil War, the tremendous growth of the railways took away the greater part of its traffic. Within the first decade of the 20th century there has been a con- siderable increase of river navigation. 148 The amount of sediment brought down by the Missouri and its tributaries is more than the Mississippi can carry away. It is gradually building its bed higher each year. In order to off- set this, it has been the custom to make artificial banks or " levees " to keep the river between banks during high water. All this has tended to make the navigable channel narrower, thereby impairing the value of the river as a traffic route. The problems of the control of the river are in the hands of the Mississippi River Commission. 248 to 256 The first proposition for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama was presented to the Spanish Government shortly after Balboa crossed the isthmus. In 1903 the state of Panama en- tered into a treaty with the United States, permitting the con- struction of the canal and granting sovereignty over a strip of land five miles on each side, officially named Canal Zone. The construction of the canal was regarded as a military rather than a commercial project. Its construction shortens the route from New York to San Francisco by 9,500 miles and to China and Japan by nearly 8,000 miles. The ports of Chile and Peru be- come near neighbors of New Orleans. 114 The Tennessee River furnished a means of access to these rich lands. Great cities grew up along its course. 14. GOVERNMENT By ARTHUR NORMAN HOLCOMBE, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY Every one of the views in the " 600 Set " illustrates some aspect of government. Every person shown in these views is the citizen or subject of some state. Every place is subject to the jurisdiction of some state. Everything is subject in some way to the operations of government. The student can profit- ably exercise his ingenuity in discovering in those views which seem most remote from government the evidences of govern- mental activity. Agriculture is often greatly aided by govern- mental assistance. This may be accomplished either directly by governmental irrigation works or agricultural experiment stations and colleges, or indirectly by bounties or protective tariffs. Similar relations o*ften obtain between government and industry. Moreover, factories and mills and the machin- ery of industry in general are subject to governmental regula- tions designed to protect the health of 'employees and may be inspected by governmental officials to make sure that they are safe and wholesome. Highways are built and kept in order by governments of some sort and all the instruments of com- merce are regulated or operated by some public authority. Certain of the views, however, suggest the existence and activ- ity of government much more directly than the others, and are selected for special consideration under this head. Compare the following views of different kinds. 38, 118, 147, 180, 181, 184, 186, 198, 199 Country views. 6, 7, 30, 31, 93, 139, 152, 167 Villages and cities. Notice the number of people and their activities in each picture. In villages there is greater need for community enterprise than in the country. In cities such needs are still greater. 188 LOCAL GOVERNMENT 189 I. LOCAL GOVERNMENT a. Towns or Townships, and Counties 10 Lexington, Mass. The common expresses the original character of town life. The New England town is the simplest form of self-governing community. 7 Faneuil Hall and Quincy Market, Boston, Mass. Boston town meetings were formerly held in Faneuil Hall. A New England town meeting is purely democratic. In most other parts of the country, local government is representative. The market is comparatively unimportant as a communal enterprise. Compare with Quincy Market these markets in foreign cities ; 387, 393, 395, 423, 555, 572. 96 Washington's Home, Virginia; 104, 105, Rice fields, South Caro- lina; 112 Kentucky. In Virginia and other southern states people settled on large plantations and lived far apart, so county government with the courthouse as the center naturally developed. 177 North Dakota; 178, 179 South Dakota; 181 Nebraska; 184 to 186 Kansas; 198, 199 Colorado; 210 Arizona; 218 Washington; 233 California. The Far West where people have large farms and live far from each other finds county government best suited to its needs. b. Incorporated Villages and Cities 28 New York City; 167 Minneapolis; 121 Oklahoma; 139 Chicago. A city receives its charter from the state. As a city grows, its needs grow. Therefore the government in the cities is far more complex than in the towns and in the country. The nature of the community needs in the cities is more fully illustrated by the views listed under the head of Community Civics to which reference should be made at this point. 27 Brooklyn Bridge. Most conspicuous among municipal under- takings are the public works and among these are bridges. 348, 366, 392, 472, 560 With the Brooklyn Bridge should be compared some of the p^.ncipal bridges in foreign cities. 309, 397, 423 These views show noteworthy public works in foreign cities. 260 Hawaii ; 309 Brazil. Schools, theaters, etc., are often owned or aided by municipal, state or national governments. 7, 8 Boston; 31 New York; 139 Chicago. Boston. Chicago and all cities and towns find that the continual use of streets necessi- tates their paving. 6 Boston. City streets must be lighted and good water provided. 7, Boston ; 30 New York. There must be traffic laws in cities to prevent blockading the streets and building regulations to insure safety and to prevent fires. 190 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT 31 Transportation, New York. City governments grant franchises to street car and other transportation companies. 95 The Congressional Library is especially for members of Con gress. Each city needs a library. 28 New York. The old City Hall was too small and a larger one had to be built. Most cities own their own city halls in which are the offices of the city officers and the city business is trans- acted. II. STATE GOVERNMENTS 8 Tlie State House or Capitol as it is called, in most states, is the seat of the state government. There is scarcely a view of agri- culture, industry or commerce in the United States in which there is no suggestion of action by state government. The teacher might well encourage the pupils to study the views listed under the heads of Agriculture, Production and Manu- facturing, Transportation, and Commerce for the suggestions they contain of state governmental activity. The views which most directly illustrate state government are the following: — 172, 173 Agricultural Experiment Station and State Agricultural Col- lege, Ames, Iowa. 18 Woolen mill; 41 Shoe factory; 67 Steel mill, etc. Industrial views showing machinery equipped with safety devices. 14, 16 Cotton factory; 40 Collar factory; 133 Rubber works. Work- rooms built in accordance with factory laws and subject to inspection by state officials. 43, 48 New York. Means of transportation, owned or regulated by the state government. The steam railroads are subject to regulation by the national as well as by the state governments. Agriculture and industry of course are also subject to the action of national as well as state governments. Indeed the joint operation of state and national agencies is one of the striking features of our government. 152 The Ford Motor Company factory and other great corporations receive their charters from the state. Also eacli automobile must carry a tag to show that it has a state license or permis- sion. 44 Spraying of trees to destroy parasites and diseases has become so important that very many states send out men whose duty it is to show exactly how spraying or other agricultural work should be done. 29 Wall Street, New York. Banks are examined by the state in order that ihe people's money may be secure. 224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy Northwest. Very many states are now devoting a great deal of attention to for- estry. 0. 8 Boston; 29 New York; 167 Minneapolis. A city receives its NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 191 charter from the state. A state government controls local gov- ernment within it. III. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT a. The American Federal System 93 Washington. The study of the national government is introduced by the general view of the national capital. It is located in the District of Columbia or " federal district " which is in a special sense the property of the nation. 282 City of Mexico ; 421 Paris ; 435 Madrid ; 450 Rome ; 475 Athens ; 526 Tokyo. The appearance of Washington should be com- pared with that of other national capitals. This comparison should be made the occasion for a general explanation of the different types of government, monarchic, aristocratic, repub- lican, democratic, centralized and federal. 96, 113 These early homes of our greatest two Presidents strikingly illustrate the democracy of American government. b. The Division of Powers 90 The principal government buildings : The White House, Treas- ury Building, and Capitol, viewed from State, War and Navy Building. A closer view of the principal government buildings leads logically to a consideration of the three main branches of government, the legis- lative, executive and judicial. 1. Legislative $7 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. The legislative or law making power of the United States belongs to Congress. The powers of Congress are enumerated in the Constitution and therefore they are limited to those mentioned. 88 The Senate and House of Representatives in joint session in the Representative Chamber listening to an address by the Presi- dent. Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Repre- sentatives. A bill must be passed by both houses before it can become a law. The distribution of power between the Senate and House of Representatives is different from that between the upper and lower houses of foreign legislative bodies. 340 Caracas; 352 London; 383 Berlin; 482 Petrograd ; 587 Mel- bourne. A comparison of the buildings occupied by the national legislative bodies of different countries may be made the oc- casion for a comparison of the powers and importance of the people's representatives in different countries. 84, 94 Coining presses and the Bureau of Printing and Engraving 192 GOVERNMENT were established by the authority of Congress, for Congress may coin money and emit bills of credit. Also it may punish counterfeiters. 26, 52, 106 Congress regulates the foreign commerce. 25 New York; 106 Savannah; 119 New Orleans. It is forbidden to make any law favoring the ports of one state more than the ports of another. 48, 129, 154 It also regulates the interstate commerce. 426 American armies fought here. Congress may organize and main- tain an army ; but no appropriation for army purposes shall be for longer than two years. 100, 242, 254 American warships and submarines. Congress may build and maintain a navy. 243 to 261, 546 to 554 Congress has complete control over the terri- tories and dependencies of the United States. 90 Congress lias entire control of the city of Washington. 283 Mexico ; 296 Wreck of the Maine. Congress has the sole right to declare war. It was Congress who declared war upon Mex- ico in 1845, on Spain in 1898, and in 1917 Congress declared war upon Germany. 247 to 256 Panama. A treaty with a foreign country must be ratified by the Senate by a two-thirds vote. Thus the Senate ratified the treaties with Panama which gave control of the Canal Zone. 89 Supreme Court; 92 Cabinet room; 25 Port of New York; 32 Ellis Island. All appointments made by the President must be ratified by the Senate. Such appointments include judges of the Supreme Court, Cabinet members, collectors for ports, im- migration commissioner and many others. 2. Judicial 89 The Supreme Court room, The Capitol. The judicial branch of the national government is crowned by the Supreme Court, which meets in the room at the Capitol, once occupied by the Senate. The teacher should explain the special political powers of our Supreme Court and its peculiar importance in our system of government. 3. Executive 91 The Executive Mansion or White House. The executive branch of the national government is under the direction of a single supreme magistrate, the President, whose chief duty is to see that the laws are executed. 283 Mexico; 315 Argentina; 367 Scotland; 384 Berlin; 432 Monaco; 436 Spain; 476 Greece; 483 Russia. The White House should be compared with the executive mansions or palaces of other countries. This comparison may be utilized for the purpose of showing the difference in the powers and authority of the chief executives of different countries. 146 French War commission; 100 American fleet; 247 to 256 Panama WORK OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 193 Canal. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy. Panama Canal is an example of one kind of army work as it was planned and its building was supervised by army engineers. It is also guarded by army men. 88 President Wilson reading message. From time to time the Presi- dent must present to Congress a message in which he tells the condition of the country and what legislation he thinks is needed. 92 Cabinet room, executive annex to White House. The President's principal advisers are the heads of the ten great administrative departments, known collectively as the Cabinet. They meet with the President once or twice a week in the Cabinet room. The distribution of power between the President and his ad- visers is different from that between the chief executive and his constitutional advisers in many foreign countries. 417 The Council room in the royal palace at Stockholm, Sweden, sug- gests an interesting contrast. c. The Work of the National Government Most of the work of the national government is apportioned among the ten departments and is carried on under the supervision of the members of the President's Cabinet. The departments are: (1) The Department of State, (2) The Treasury Department, (3) The War Department, (4) The Department of Justice, (5) The Postofhce De- partment, (6) The Navy Department, (7) The Department of the Interior, (8) The Department of Agriculture, (9) The Department of Commerce, and (10) The Department of Labor. 1. The State Department 296 When the battleship Maine was sunk in Havana Harbor, the American and Spanish governments dealt with each other through the State Department. The State Department is really our department of foreign affairs. 13,278 Fishing — suggesting the work of the State Department in Newfoundland fisheries dispute. How does the U. S. claim fishing rights around Newfoundland? 32 Ellis Island. Questions of immigration bring questions for the State Department. 227 Especially the immigration of Chinese and Japanese has been difficult to handle. What was the difficulty? 345 Sealing in Alaska has given difficulty to our State Department. 50 Niagara. International bridges, such as the one at Niagara, are arranged for through the State Department. At Niagara Falls the amount of water that each nation may use for power is determined by international agreement. 247 to 256 The State Department handles negotiations when new ter- ritory is acquired. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. When a European nation gets into diffi- culty with an American nation, our State Department guards 194 GOVERNMENT American interests as determined by the Monroe Doctrine. What was the Venezuela affair? 577, 578 American hunter in Africa. When American citizens go abroad, the State Department issues passports stating such citizenship. There has been much trouble with Russia over her refusing to recognize passports of American Hebrews. 146 French War commissioners at Lincoln's tomb. The State De- partment attends to arrangements for entertaining representa- tives from other countries. 352 London; 384 Berlin; 421 Paris; 450 Rome; 482 Petrograd. The State Department maintains ambassadors at the leading capitals and consular representatives in all important cities throughout the world. 383 to 394 Germany. When a war is declared by Congress, the State Department makes the announcement and states the reason. 52 Interned German steamships — presenting serious problems for State Department. 2. The Treasury Department 29 United States Sub-Treasury, Wall Street. The Treasury De- partment receives and pays out all the money of the United States. In order to do this, there is a treasury in Washington and sub-treasuries in various large cities. 84 The Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. The Treasury Depart- ment has charge of coining money, according to rules made by Congress. 94 The Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The Treasury Depart- ment has charge of the engraving of paper money, bonds, post age and revenue stamps and all such things issued by the government. 90 The Secretary of the Treasury controls the construction and maintenance of public buildings. 99 The Life Saving Service is under the Treasury Department. 347 Customs House, Liverpool; 420 Goteborg, Sweden; 433 Custom House, Barcelona, Spain. These suggest operations of the Treasury Department of other governments. All the customs houses of the United States are under the care of the Treasury Department. 3. The War Department 266 Highlanders of Canada. In the United States the Secretary of War has control under the President of the military establish- ment. He buys uniforms, food, munitions and all sorts of sup- plies and keeps the army in readiness to meet that of any other nation. 25 New York Harbor; 256 Entrance to Panama Canal; 100 Hampton Roads. The War Department fortifies and guards the ports of DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 195 the United States, the Panama Canal and all places of strategic importance. 39 West Point. The War Department has charge of West Point where officers are trained for the United States army. 250 to 256 Panama Canal. Fighting is not the only work of the United States Army. The Panama Canal was planned and its building was supervised by the army engineers under Major- General Goethals. 255 Hospital at Ancon, Panama. Army surgeons and medical men under Major-General Gorgas exterminated yellow fever and bubonic plague in the Canal Zone and reduced malaria and typhoid by fifty per cent. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The engineering work of the reclama- tion service of the United States is done by the army engineers. 257, 258, 546 to 553 Porto Rico and the Philippines. The Secretary of War directs the Bureau of Insular Affairs which supervises the civil government of Porto Rico and the Philippines. 394 Zeppelin. The War Department must keep up to date in every- thing that pertains to war. These machines used in the war for the first time, have proved very destructive in the European War. The United States has built many airplanes. 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal; 426 French troops; 585 Australian troops and American marines. The American army joined the entente allies in fighting the Germans. 4. The Department of Justice 89 The Supreme Court room. Here the Attorney-General and other representatives of the Department of Justice argue their most important cases. 5. The Post-office Department 43 The mail cars on this train are under the supervision of the Post- master-general, who has charge of everything connected with the postal system of the United States. The " postal savings banks " are under his care. 6. The Navy Department 100 Battleships in Hampton Roads, Va. The Navy Department con- structs, mans, equips and operates all vessels of war. 254 U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal. The Panama Canal doubles the defensive power of the United States navy as ships can now move quickly from one coast to the other. 242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battleships. Like the army, the navy must have the newest, most effective ships and appliances known. Germany's " ruthless submarine warfare " was the cause of the entrance of the United States into the World War. 585 Grand Review at Sydney, N. S. W., in honor of the visit of the American fleet. In 1908 the United States fleet made a trip around the world, stopping along the way for friendly visits. 196 GOVERNMENT 554 Guam and other small islands are governed by the naval officer who is sent there by the Secretary of the Navy. 7. The Department of the Interior 245 Public lands of Alaska. The Department of the Interior through the General Land Office, controls the nation's public land. 182, 204 Indians who live in tribal relations are under the protection of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. By act of Congress, reserva- tions have been divided among the Indians living upon them, who then become taxpayers and citizens of the United States. No naturalization is necessary. 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 201, 208 Grand Canyon, Col.; 219 Ranier National Park; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley. National parks and monuments are under the control of the National Park service. 12, 14, 16, 18, 63 to 67, etc. Machinery protected by patents issued by the Patent Office of the Department of the Interior. 172, 173 State Agricultural College assisted by funds administered through the Department of Education. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has the direction of the reclamation service of the United States. This dam should be compared with the great dam at Assuan, Egypt, 569. 76 Coal mine; 208, 207 Canyon; 231 Earthquake fissure. The Geo- logical Survey is an important part of the work of the Depart- ment of the Interior. 74 to 79 Coal mine, Pennsylvania. ; 155 Copper mine, Michigan. The Bureau of Mining under the Department of the Interior works for the improvement of methods of mining and for the safety of miners. The only important activity of the Department of the In- terior not represented by any view is that of the Pension Office. 8. The Department of Agriculture 93 Here we see the grounds of this Department. It supervises ex- periments in agriculture and issues bulletins giving helpful in- formation along these lines to the nation. The work is divided into many bureaus. 138 Percheron horses; 159 Cattle; 172 Hogs; 173 Sheep, etc. The Bureau of Animal Industry encourages the raising of the best animals. 140 to 144 Stockyards and packing houses are under the Bureau of Chemistry which enforces the Pure Food and Drugs Act. 175, 198, 199, 108, 83 The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plants, their cultivation, diseases, parasites and introduces new and valuable plants. 9. The Department of Commerce The work of this department is divided among the Bureaus of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Bureau of Lighthouses, the DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 197 Steamboat Inspection Service, the Census Office, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bureau of Fisheries, of Navigation and of Standards. 25, 26, 27, 31, 39, 43, 48, 61, 79, 119, 139, 154, 157, 164, 174, 215. These will give some idea of the scope of work of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 13 Codfish, Massachusetts; 226, 227 Salmon fisheries. This is the material upon which the Bureau of Fisheries works. 26, 164, 154 Every view of dock or harbor or ship will illustrate some phase of the Bureaus of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection. 353 Greenwich is in England; still this regulator of the world's clocks suggests the work of the Bureau of Standards. 10. The Department of Labor The Department of Labor was established in 1913. 11 to 20, etc. These and innumerable other views will illustrate the work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which collects and pub- lishes information on all subjects connected with labor. 62 to 67 Steel workers. It especially studies the relation of capital, (29) Wall Street, to labor. 152 Automobile employees. It investigates hours and wages. 82 Locomotive workers; 128 Dock laborers; 132, 133 Rubber indus- try. It tries to discover means of advancing the interests of laboring men. 74 to 79 Miners. The Department of Labor tries to adjust labor dis- putes such as the one which caused the coal miners' strike in 1903. 32 Ellis Island. It has charge of the Bureau of Immigration. 83, 204, 187, 236, 249 Also it includes a Children's Bureau which is to work for the welfare of children, especially trying to abolish child labor. 11. Other Activities 95 The Congressional Library, for the benefit of Congress and the nation, is not under the direction of any cabinet officer. 43,48,129,154,157 The Interstate Commerce Commission regulates commerce between the states. It may even fix rates. 29 Wall Street, New York, is the seat of some of our greatest bank- ing houses. The Federal Reserve Board was created to unite banks and make money mce more easily from the great finan- cial centers to places where it is needed. 282.283 Mexico City; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 315 Buenos Aires; 340 Caracas. The Pan American Union has for its purpose the cultivation of friendliness and cooperation among all the coun- tries of both North and South America. Since the entrance of the United States into the World War, the Congress has passed several acts giving the national Executive powers unheard of before. The selective draft was used to obtain soldiers for the army. This 198 GOVERNMENT takes men of a specified age, who arc able to be taken without crippling industries upon which the war will depend. The President declared an embargo upon a list of goods, in order to control their trade and prevent their reaching the enemy. • A Food Commission was provided Aug. 11, 1917, which shall con- trol the entire food supply of the nation. The use of grain for the manufacture of distilled liquors is forbidden and the making of beer and wine can be controlled. All these are innovations in American government. Whether they lead to permanent changes, is a matter of great public interest. d. Government of Territories 243 to 246 Alaska is a territory under the control of Congress. It has wealth in minerals, forests, fish and fur. Territorial gov- ernment should be explained. 260 Hawaii is a territory and its people are United States citizens. e. Government of Dependencies 257,258 Porto Ricans are now citizens of the United States. They are largely self-governing. 546 to 553 The Philippines are looking forward to independence. Now they have a share in their government. Their people are not United States citizens. They are rapidly advancing in civilization. 554 Guam is governed by a naval officer. f. International Relations 295 to 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. She is com- pletely self-governing but may not enter into any treaty or agreement without the consent of the United States. 280 to 341 Spanish America. The Monroe Doctrine declares that any attempt made by any trans-oceanic power to extend its influence in America will be considered an act unfriendly to the United States. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. This does not mean that the United States will prevent a nation's demanding and getting justice. 352, 384, 421, 450, 463, 482 Communications with foreign countries are made by the State Department through ambassadors or minis- ters maintained in every capital and consuls in every important city of the world. 13 Fish; 345 Seals. The United States has urged arbitration as the best method of settling difficulties. Disagreements concern- ing fisheries, sealing, boundaries, etc., arising between the United States and Great Britain have been settled by arbitration. AMERICAN IDEALS 199 IV. AMERICAN IDEALS 80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 25 The Statue of Liberty, The Gateway to America, New York Harbor. The idea of liberty has a double meaning to Ameri- cans, — national independence and freedom for the people under fixed laws which they have had a hand in making. 15. COMMUNITY CIVICS By ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN, A.M. . ASSOCIATE NATIONAL DIRECTOR OF THE JUNIOR RED CROSS. FORMERLY SPECIALIST IN CIVIC EDUCATION, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. " A characteristic feature of community civics is that it fo- cuses attention upon the ' elements of community welfare ' rather than upon the machinery of government. The latter is discussed only in the light of a prior study of the ' elements of welfare ' and in relation to them." " The aim of community civics is to help the child to know his community — not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his community life, what it does for him, and how it does it, what the community has a right to expect from him, and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." " Community civics applies this point of view to the study of the national community as well as to the study of the local community." (" The Social Studies in Secondary Education," Bulletin, 1916, No. 28, p. 23, U. S. Bureau of Education.) (The following classification is based upon, and follows the organization of, Dunn's " The Community and the Citizen," copyrighted and published by D. C. Heath & Company.) i. The Beginning of a Community 2. What is a Community? 38 Hudson Valley. A group of neighboring farmers may be a com- munity. 7 Boston ; 28 New York. Or the community may be a city. 8 Old State House, Boston. Each state in our Union is a com- munity. 87 to 95 National capital. Our nation is a community with its cen- ter at Washington. 7 Quincy Market, Boston; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 395 Vegetable market. Brussels, Belgium. The country and city communities have certain interests in common. 3. The Site of the Community 25 to 31 New York City. Nature seems to have planned the Hudson River as the site of the greatest city on the Auntie coast. 200 WHAT PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 201 217 Seattle, Washington; 386 Hamburg, Germany; 230 San Francisco, California. Cities spring up where there is a good harbor. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. The junction of two navigable rivers is a good situation. 167 Minneapolis, Minn. Manufacturing towns often grow near the falls of a river. 264 Quebec, Can.; 267 Montreal, Can. The head of an estuary is a fine location for a commercial city. 139 Chicago. A rich region must have a center for trade. 174 St. Louis, Mo. Where natural routes cross, will be found a city. 119 New Orleans, La. The fertility of the soil attracts people. 214 Mining camp, Nevada; 187 Butte, Mont. The presence of min- eral ores will cause towns and cities to develop. 216, 217 Seattle, Wash. An abundance of forest products will cause the growth of a community. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. A river and its branches may divide a city into parts more or less distinct with different characteristics. 31 New York City; 43 Busy path of commerce; 48 Mouth of Erie Canal. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. If it were not for the wonderful devel- opment of transportation and communication it might have been very difficult for our great country to hold together. 4. What People in Communities Are Seeking 60 Atlantic City, N. J. Men desire life and health. 29 Wall St., New York City; 139 Chicago shops; 351 London Bank. The desire for wealth is very strong. 342 Peary expedition ; 575, 576 Victoria Fall, South Africa. Men want knowledge. It is this desire that ted Peary to the Arctic regions and Livingstone to the heart of Africa. 90 Washington ; 95 Congressional Library ; 360 York and its cathe- dral ; 422 Champs Elysees, Paris, France. Men take pleasure in beautiful buildings and streets. 6 Old North Church, Boston; 425 Notre Dame, Paris; 451 St. Peter's, Rome; 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy; 503 Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India; 501 Pilgrims bathing in Ganges, India; 568 Temple of Karnak, Egypt. The religious desire is characteristic of man. In every community there are certain things men do to gratify it. 60 Atlantic City, N. J.; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. Men desire companion- ship. 260 Hawaii. The school trains children for citizenship. 6 Old North Church. Boston; 29 Trinity Church, New York City; 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy. The church helps men to live har- moniously. 8 Old State House, Boston; 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. Govern- ment establishes and enforces laws for our common good which all should willingly observe. 202 COMMUNITY CIVICS 5. The Family 214 Mining camp, Nevada. In the far west there are mining towns and in the north, lumber camps composed almost entirely of men without families — the community is liable to be lawless. 139 Chicago. There are thousands of unfortunate homeless children adrift in our great cities. 519 A study of Chinese faces. It is largely in the drifting homeless population that the disorderly and criminal classes are found. 113 Lincoln's birthplace. The early settler cut down trees from the forest and built a log house. 488 Plowing with primitive plow, Russia. 497 Threshing floor; 498 Grinding wheat, Palestine. "The grain was threshed by hand and ground into meal in a homemade stone mill." These primitive ways of working are no longer used in the United States. 2 Moose, Maine; 189 Elk, Montana. For fresh meat they had to depend chiefly upon game from the forest. 409 Spinning wheel, Norway ; 506 Weaving shawls on hand loom, Kashmir. A spinning wheel and hand loom were set up in the house. 281 Home of peon, Mexico; 298 Farm home, Cuba; 362 Wordsworth's home, England; 373 A highland home, Scotland; 410, 411 Homes of peasants, Norway. The family remains one of the most important means to provide for the wants of its citizens. 6. The Home and the Community 96 Washington's home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Bryan's farm, Ne- braska. There is no kind of property that gives such satisfac- tion to the ownej - as does a home. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. In large cities where people are crowded to- gether, they may resort to low lands where it is unhealthful and in danger of floods. 455 Tenement in Palermo, Italy. These tenement dwellings involve all sorts of evils. 339 La Guaira, Venezuela ; 514 Canton, China. The insanitary con- ditions invite epidemics of disease. 10 Common, Lexington, Mass.; 51 Palisades, N. J. Parks and play- grounds are being established. 7. The Making of Americans 32 Ellis Island, N. Y. Thousands are coming every year. 162, 166 Minnesota. There arc sections of the Northwest where al- most the entire population is Scandinavian. 135 Rossford, Ohio. Glass makers are often Belgians. 227 Interior of canning factory, Astoria, Oregon ; 519 A study in Chinese faces. In 1882 Congress passed a law known as a Chinese Exclusion Act. ll7 Negroes, Louisiana; 175 Apple pickers, Missouri; 187 Butte, Mont. PEOPLE AND LAND 203 All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens. Children under twenty-one become citizens by the naturalization of their parents. A foreign woman becomes a citizen if she marries a United States citizen or if her husband becomes naturalized. 8. How the Relations Between the People and the Land Are Made Permanent and Definite 204 Ute Indian, Colorado. The hunting life of the Indian made a fixed dwelling place undesirable. 178, 179, 180 Prairie lands. South Dakota and Nebraska. Our nation has come into possession of vast territories that would be useless if they were not occupied. 180, 181, 184, 185 Farms in Nebraska and Kansas. Most of this land was sold and settled under the Homestead Act. 136 Modern methods of corn harvesting, Indiana. After the Revolu- tionary War, settlers began to enter the Ohio Valley and claim land for farms. 209, 210 Desert and irrigation dam, Arizona. It has constructed reser- voirs and a network of canals. 229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. Another part of the public land consists of the national forests. 213 Ogden, Utah ; 220 Seattle, Wash. Governments may compel prem- ises to be kept clean. 6, 7, 8 Boston; 28, 29, 30 New York. Within certain limits cities do not allow wooden buildings. 230 San Francisco: 31 New York City; 139 Chicago; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Communities may grant the use of their highways to private corporations that render important public service, such as street railways, telephone, and telegraph companies and water and gas companies. 9. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire for Health 292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A.: 411 Milking the goats, Hard- anger Fjord, Norway. Life and health were almost wholly de- pendent upon the efforts and the arrangement of the family itself. 10 Lexington Common, Mass. ; 33 Dining room and living room ; 37 Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 57 Modern dairy, Plainsboro, N. J., 373 Highland home, Scotland. The most im- portant precaution against disease is cleanliness. 10 Lexington, Mass.; 28 New York City; 51 Palisades, New Jersey; 93, 95 Washington, D. C. ; 126 San Antonio, Texas. Of great importance in large cities is the system of parks. 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. : 514 Canton, China. Any ship that en- ters our harbor may bring with it disease from the slums of Europe or Asia. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 187 Butte, Mont. When a factory pollutes the Stream that runs by it. it threatens the health, not only of the 204 COMMUNITY CIVICS immediate community, but also of other communities farther down the stream. 141 to 144 Meat packing houses, Chicago, 111. Laws were passed pro- viding for the inspection of meats put up. 295 to 299 Cuba ; 247 to 256 Panama ; 546 to 553 the Philippines. They have caused such dread diseases as smallpox and yellow fever to disappear almost completely from regions occupied by our army in Cuba, Panama, and the Philippines. io. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Protect His Life and Property 6 Boston; 29 New York City. Now every large city is supplied with water from a reliable source. 526 Tokyo, Japan. Seven-eighths of the fires that occur are the result of a lack of proper precautions in building. 214 Mining camp, Nevada ; 89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. One of the most sacred rights of a citizen is the right to a fair trial. 8 Boston. The police of a city patrol its streets at all times. 6 Boston ; 461 Gratz, Austria ; 405 Copenhagen, Denmark ; 486 Kief, Russia. Well lighted streets protect life and property. 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Another important arrangement for the safety of property and life is a system of street lighting. 43 Busy path of commerce in central New York ; 31 New York City. The thousands of people who travel on the cars each day are at the mercy of those who run the trains. 74 to 79 Coal mines, Pennsylvania. In the year 1911, there were 2,719 men killed and 31,334 injured in the coal mines of the Uniteu States. 100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battleships, San Diego Bay, Cal. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, Panama Canal ; 585 American fleet visiting Sydney, Australia. The navy is another means of national protection. 25, 26 New York Harbor ; 128 Conneaut, Ohio ; 164 Ore docks, Two Harbors, Minn ; 242 San Diego Bay, Cal. The national gov- ernment has done a great deal for the protection of life and property by improving harbors. 99 Life savers, Va. Every year the life savers perform deeds of heroism. 119 New Orleans, La.; 148 East St. Louis, 111. The national govern- ment has constructed levees. ii. The Relation Between the Community and the Citizen in Busi- ness Life 11, 12, 15 Factories in Mass.; 142, 143 Packing houses, Chicago; 151 Detroit, Mich. With the introduction of machinery the division of tasks has been more complete. 14, 15 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass.; 22, 23, 24 Silk mill, Manchester, Conn.; 132, 133 Rubber factory, Akron, Ohio; 134, 135 Glass factory, Rossford, Ohio. In well organized factories, each work- CITIZEN IN BUSINESS LIFE 205 man devotes his entire time to producing one small part of an article. 136 Indiana; 184 Kansas. In some parts of our country, corn is the chief product. 117 Mississippi; 119 Louisiana; 124 Texas. In other places, cotton is the leading crop. 85 Delaware; 108 Florida; 236, 237, 238 California. Some parts of the country are given over to fruit raising. 127 Texas; 165 Minnesota; 185 Kansas; 188 Montana; 190 Idaho. In some parts of the West cattle or sheep raising takes the place of farming. 74 to 79 Coal mining in Pennsylvania; 155 to 157 Copper mining in Michigan ; 176 Joplin, Mo. ; 187 Butte, Mont. ; 225 Oregon ; 214 Nevada. In some parts of the country mining is the principal occupation. 1 Maine; 162 The pineries, Minnesota; 215 to 217 Washington. In some places lumbering is the chief occupation. 13 Cod, Gloucester, Mass. ; 226, 227 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. In other places the people are occupied with fishing. 14, 15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. One region becomes famous for its cot- ton manufactures. 22 to 24 So. Manchester, Conn.; 53 to 55 Paterson, N. J. Other regions become famous for their silk manufactures. 47 Buffalo, N. Y.; 149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich.; 177 North Dakota. The gardener who gives his whole time to raising vegetables receives in return bread from wheat raised in the Dakotas. 1 Maine woods; 224 Oregon. The history of our country has been very largely a story of the clearing of forests. 161 Draining land, Wisconsin ; 210 Phoenix, Ariz. Some of the land had to be reclaimed for agriculture. 155 Copper mines, Calumet, Mich.; 163 Iron mine, Michigan; 116 Iron mines, Alabama. There were mines to be opened. 26 New York Harbor; 52 Docks at Hoboken, N. J.; 129 Conneaut Harbor, Ohio. 119 New Orleans, La.; 106 Savannah, Ga. The history of the country has been greatly influenced by the growth of commerce. 19, 20 Paper mill, Holyoke, Mass.; 62 to 68 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, Pa. 82 Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. The growth of manufacture has determined the growth of the nation. 6, 7 Boston; 25 to 30 New York City; 139 Chicago; 167 Minne- apolis. 174 St. Louis, Mo. ; 220 Seattle, Wash. The growth of cities was remarkable. 230 San Francisco, Cal.; # 212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 213 Ogden, Utah. United States history is the story of the building of railroads and steamboats and telegraphs and telephones. 206 COMMUNITY CIVICS 178, 179 South Dakota; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 30 New York City. 139 Chicago; 29 Wall St., New York City; 87, 94 Washington, D. C. The men and women who are today work- ing on the farms or in the mines, in factories and shops, in stores and offices, or in any other lines of business, are as truly doing their country a service as those who hold the offices of government. 20 Paper factory, Holyoke, Mass. ; 40 Collar factory, Troy, N. Y. ; 152 Ford factory, Detroit, Mich. The employer is responsible for the welfare of those who work for him. 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 82 Locomotive works, Philadel- phia, Pa.; 62 to 67 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, Pa. No man's busi- ness belongs to himself alone; it belongs to the community. 132, 133 Rubber works, Akron, Ohio; 11 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. The community has a right to expect honest goods. It has the right to expect good workmanship. 29 Wall St., New York City; 351 Bank of England, London, Eng- land. By far the greater part of the business dealings between individuals, between communities and between nations is car- ried on by a system of credit. 12. How the Government Aids the Citizen by Controlling Business Relations 8 Old State House, Boston; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. When men wish to or- ganize as a corporation it is almost always the state that gives them authority. 26 New York City; 52 Ocean liners, Hoboken, N. J.; 48 Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 106 Savannah, Ga. ; 43 Busy path of commerce, Central New York; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 164 Two Har- bors, Minn.; 170 Keokuk, Iowa; 217 Shipping lumber, Washing- ton. Congress was given power to regulate commerce with for- eign nations and among the several states and with the Indian tribes. 84 Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. Congress was given power to coin money. 386 Hamburg Germany; 422 Paris, France; 433 Barcelona, Spain, etc. Congress has established a consular system. 527 to 529 Rice, Japan ; 530 Tea, Japan ; 310 Coffee, Brazil ; 317 Cattle, Argentina; 412 Paper, Norway; 419 Sugar, Sweden; 488 Wheat, Russia. The consuls investigate the products and manufactures of the countries to which they are sent. 357 Harvesting wheat, England. Consuls try to create a market for United States products, in those countries whose resources are limited. 52 Hoboken, N. J.; 347 Liverpool, England; 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 314 Buenos Aires, Argentina; 386 Hamburg, Germany. The consuls try to stimulate friendly business relations between our country and all the world. COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN 207 43 Central New York; 48 Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. An Interstate Commerce Commission with authority to inquire into the management of common car- riers. 122, 123 Oil region, Beaumont, Tex. In 1890, passed an anti-trust law. 141 to 144 Meat packing, Chicago, 111. In 1906, a Food and Drugs Act. 93 Washington, D. C. The Department of Agriculture, the Depart- ment of Commerce, the Department of Labor are means of na- tional cooperation. 13. How the Community Aids the Citizen in Transportation and Communication 71 Wagon, Crawford Co., Pa.. It cost $125 to haul a ton of goods from Philadelphia, Pa. to Pittsburgh, Pa. by wagon. 112 Tobacco field; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 147 Loading oats, Illinois. 149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. ; 162 Minnesota pineries. Ninety- five per cent of every load by train, steamship or express must be carted over a highway. 195 Rocky Mountain Divide, Wyoming; 221 Mt. Hood, Oregon. Where there are hills the cost of hauling is twice as much as in level country for only half as much can be hauled in each load. 48 Mouth Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 119 Levee, New Orleans, La.; 157 Houghton, Mich. The invention of the steamboat gave a great impetus to water transportation. 43 Railroad train, Central New York; 129 Train load of coal, Con- neaut, Ohio. The rapid use of railways checked the use of rivers. 128 Conneaut, Ohio; 157 Loading ore on a boat, Houghton, Mich.; 164 Two Harbors, Minn. The commerce of the Great Lakes has steadily increased, and is today of enormous proportions. 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. The Erie Canal is still an important highway. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. One of the largest of these is the canal at Sault Ste. Marie. 248 to 256 Panama Canal. The greatest canal ever undertaken is the Panama canal. 277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific, Vancouver, B. C. Steam railways revolutionized transportation. 43 Electric railroad, Central New York. Another important step is the recent growth of electric interurban railways. 7 Boston; 31 New York. The question of transportation in cities is an important one. 6, 7 Boston ; 29 New York City ; 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris, France. 208 COMMUNITY CIVICS 90 Washington, D. C. ; 152 Detroit, Mich. First in importance is the street itself. Streets are for the use of the people. 339 Narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela. There are ordinances to prevent storekeepers and others from blocking the sidewalks with boxes or otherwise. 31 Many forms of transportation, New York City. Life in cities has been revolutionized by the development of rapid transportation by electric trolley cars, elevated railways and systems of sub- ways. 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba; 28 World Building, New York City. There must be exchange of ideas. We have a postal system, the tele- graph and telephone and the newspaper. 14. Waste and Saving 216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. In a well managed saw- mill the waste is made into tool handles, chair rounds and other small articles. 122, 123 Oil region, Texas. From what was formerly wasted in rfe- fining petroleum are now produced paraffin, vaseline, dyestuffs, etc. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Ariz. The reclamation by irrigation of vast areas of waste land. 93 Washington, D. C. In the Department of Agriculture there is a bureau of soils. 172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. The national government cooperates with state governments many of whom have agri- cultural schools. 224 Great tree, Oregon. Our forest resources have been sadly wasted. 222 Crater Lake, Ore.; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. The national government has set aside a large number of national forests. 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls and other sources of water power have been harnessed to generate electrical power. 15. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire for Knowledge 260 Public school, Hawaii. Education is not only a privilege; it is a duty. 95 Congressional library, Washington, D. C. There are thousands of libraries all over the country. 172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. A number of states provide state universities. 16. Civic Beauty 64 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 163 Burt Mine, Minnesota. Hills are cut away for the resources they contain. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. Streams are lined with ugly and noisy factories and clogged with refuse. 63 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 68 Coke ovens, Connellsville, Pa. The sky is ob- scured with smoke. CIVIC BEAUTY 209 191 to 197 Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, California. Much natural scenery may be preserved by the crea- tion of national and state parks as in the case of the Yellow- stone and the Yosemite. 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls is in danger of being transformed from one of the greatest wonders of nature into a mere sluice for the turning of mill wheels. 37 Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 91 the White House, Washington, D. C. The place to begin beautifying a community is at home. 9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. ; 10 Lexington, Mass. The first essential to beauty is neatness and orderliness. 373 Highland home, Scotland. There is almost always a spot for vines and flowers to grow if only in window boxes. 354 Shakespeare's home, England ; 355 Anne Hathaway's home, Eng- land ; 360 York, England ; 422 Paris, France. Whole squares and whole streets present an unbroken view of beauty. 83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. School children transformed vacant lots, barren, disorderly places into beautiful flower and vegetable gardens. 305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The street is public property. 28, 29, 31 New York City; 337 Street in Barranquilla, Colombia; 351 Bank of England, London, England. In cities good pavements are perhaps the first essential to beautiful streets. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 339 La Guaira, Venezuela ; 341 Caracas, Venezuela. In the matter of clean streets, prevention is better than cure. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 222 Crater Lake, Ore. Among the most beautiful objects in nature are trees. 71 Crawford Co., Pa. What is more beautiful than a country road lined with trees? 220 Seattle, Wash. A great deal of monotony is produced in our streets. 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Telegraph and telephone poles are un- sightly. 93, 95 Washington, D. C; 126 San Antonio, Tex.; 312 Montevideo, Uruguay. 316 Buenos Aires, Argentina; 324 Santiago, Chile; 329 Monte Misti, Peru. 340 Caracas, Venezuela. All cities have their systems of parks and boulevards. 28 New York City. Small parks with grass and trees, flowers and fountains which may bring a little pleasure into the lives of those who seldom enjoy the fresh air of the country. 63 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Smoke, like th< network of wires, has been assumed to be a necessity. 210 COMMUNITY CIVICS 7, 8 Boston, Mass.; 31 New York City. As wires are disappearing, so is smoke. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. Cities themselves are more thoughtfully planned. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 220 Seattle, Wash. One of the first steps toward making good citizens is to give them pleasant sur- roundings. 17. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Religious Desire 295 Havana, Cuba ; 324 Santiago, Chile ; 335 Bolivia ; 109 St. Au- gustine, Fla. The Spaniards made their conquests in the name of religion. 6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. The Pilgrims came to find free- dom of worship. 87 Capitol, Washington, D. C. Congress can not make any law re- specting the establishment of religion. 6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. ; 29 Trinity, New York City ; 36 Church at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. ; 109 Old Spanish Church, St. Augustine, Fla. ; 212 Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah. Our government allows the greatest personal liberty in religion. 18. How the Cities of a Community Govern Themselves 87, 95 Washington, D. C. Government is the servant of the people, not their master. 96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Farm home, Lin- coln, Neb. The state prescribes the rules for family relations. 11 Factory, Massachusetts; 159 Barns and cattle, Wisconsin; 160 Corn crop, Wisconsin. 188 Ranch, Montana. The state pro- tects our property, etc. 28 City buildings, New York City. Local governments are merely branches of state governments. Their duties are chiefly ad- ministrative. 7 Town Hall, Boston; 28 City building, New York City. Matters of local interest are in the hands of local government. 43 Transportation, Central New York. Matters of more general interest are regulated by the state. 87, 88 Washington, D. C. Laws are made by the legislative branch. 91 White House, Washington, D. C. The enforcement of these laws is intrusted to the executive branch. 89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. If any question arises as to the meaning of the laws, it is finally settled by the judiciary. 28 City Building, New York City ; 88 Congress, Washington, D. C. The right to vote for representatives in the government is a privilege prescribed by state constitutions. 243 to 246 Alaska. Women in Alaska have the right to vote. 8 Boston; 29 New York City; 109 St. Augustine, Fla. Difference of SELF-GOVERNMENT 211 opinion makes political parties. The party may be a local party, concerned with such a question as paving a street. 117 Negroes, Mississippi. Parties may be national, arising out of some great question, as the extension of slavery. 88 Congress, Washington, D. C. At first the representatives of each party in Congress used to nominate candidates for President and Vice-President. 110 Negro, Florida; 117 Negroes, Mississippi; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 204 Ute Indian, Colorado ; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be abridged on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 9, 10 Colonial houses, Massachusetts. In colonial times, the right to vote was denied to those who did not own a certain amount of property. 6 Old North Church, Boston ; 29 Trinity Church, New York City. In colonial times, it was common to deny the vote to all who were not members of the church. 25-50 New York; 190 Idaho; 198 Colorado; 218 Washington; 233 California; 184 Kansas; 210 Arizona. These and other states have woman's suffrage. They all are progressive and pros- perous. A suffrage amendment is before the nation and with- out doubt will be ratified. 19. Changing Methods of Self-Government 87 to 90 Washington, D. C. Few of the people actually take direct part in the government — not many citizens can hold office. 96 Mt. Vernon, Va. The men who will best look after community business are often men who have large interests of their own. 88 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. The choice of a good President depends on the choice of a good man. 25, 26, 30 New York City. In large communities, it is difficult to know the various candidates and their merits. 88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. ; 146 Lincoln's tomb, Spring- field, 111. To secure united action, there must be organization under leaders. 87, 88 Washington, D. C. The defeated parties should have rep- resentation and their views should be considered. 220 Seattle, Wash. The " recall " is used especially in the west to remove officials who are not properly fulfilling the obligations of office. 75, 76 Miners, Pennsylvania; 107 Savannah, Ga. ; 115 Columbia, Tenn. ; 147 Farmers, Illinois; 152 Factory men, Detroit, Mich.; 161 Farmers, Wisconsin; 167 Minneapolis, Minn.; 175 Farmers, Missouri. " The initiative " and " referendum " are methods by which people themselves take direct action in law making. These are types of people. 117 Negroes, Miss.; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. The chief argument against the " initiative " and " referendum " is that the 212 COMMUNITY CIVICS people as a whole are not sufficiently informed to vote upon im- portant laws. 89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. Party feeling should not be allowed to enter into some appointments, such as judges. 253 London; 383 Berlin; 421 Paris; 462 Vienna, Austria. In some foreign countries, young women go into training for public service. 11 Factory hands, Massachusetts and 152 Detroit, Mich.; 103 Farm- ers, South Carolina ; 124 Farmers, Texas ; 144 Packers, Chi- cago. In our country, the feeling seems to prevail that every citizen is competent to hold an office if he can get it and that all, men and women, should have the right to vote. 20. The Government of Rural Communities 6 Old North Church, Boston. In early New England, a town was a little village with its surrounding farms governed by all the free- men who belonged to the church. 7 Town House, Boston. The town meeting, held in the town house, chose the officers and levied the tax. 96 Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 104, 105 Rice fields, South Carolina; 117 Cot- ton plantation, Mississippi. The South was rich farming land, so the colonists scattered to large plantations and county gov- ernment developed. 38 Hudson Valley, N. Y. ; 47 Farm, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 71 Crawford Co., Pa.; 69 Oil fields, Pennsylvania. New York and Pennsylvania, lying between New England and Vir- ginia, developed both township and county governments. 165, 166 Country, Minnesota; 178, 179 Country, South Dakota; 190 Sheep range, Idaho; 188 Ranch, Montana; 180. 181 Country, Nebraska. The country system is more practicable in the West, for the population is widely scattered. 25 to 31 New York City; 139 Chicago. Some counties are occupied wholly by large cities. 237 to 240 Los Angeles County, Cal. The present law in Los Angeles County provides for the election of not more than three officers in one year. 228 to 242 California. By state law in California each county has the right to adopt its own charter. 21. The Government of Cities 6 to 8 Boston; 25 to 31 New York City; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 121 Oklahoma City, Okla. ; 139 Chicago : 167 Minneapolis, Minn.: 212 Salt Lake City. Utah. 213 Ogden, Utah; 220 Seattle. Wash.: 230 San Francisco. Cal. The growth of cities in the United States has been very rapid and they have brought many serious problems. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.: 139 Chicago. American cities are constantly be- ing made over. 128, 131 to 135 Ohio ; 228 to 242 California. Some states as Ohio and California allow their cities to draft their own charters. GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 213 28 City Building, New York City. City government is most com- monly vested in a council and mayor. 22. The Government of the Nation 87, 88 Washington, D. C. Congress shall consist of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. 88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. The President is the chief executive officer. He may convene either or both houses ; he must give to them his message. 92 Cabinet room, Washington, D. C. The President with the con- sent of the Senate appoints the Cabinet. 384 Berlin ; 435 Madrid, Spain ; 526 Tokyo, Japan. The Secretary of State maintains relations between the United States and other countries. Through him government notes are sent and treaties such as the Panama treaty are made. 448 Switzerland; 452 Rome; 578 Hunter, South Africa. Through him the rights of Americans in foreign countries are looked after. 282 City of Mexico ; 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. If any of the inde- pendent countries of North or South America get into trouble with any other nation, our State Department, acting under the Monroe Doctrine, is an interested party. 29 Sub Treasury, New York City; 84 Mint, Philadelphia; 94 Public Buildings, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of the Treasury is the financial manager of the national government. 29 Sub-Treasury, New York City; 87 Capitol, Washington; 90 Pub- lic Buildings, Washington, D. C. ; 95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. He controls the construction and mainte- nance of public buildings. 99 Life saving service, Va. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the life-saving service. 39 West Point, N. Y.; 90 Navy Building, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of War has control, under the President, of the mili- tary establishment of the nation. 25 New York Harbor; 120 Mississippi mouth; 148 Dikes, East St. Louis, 111. He administers river and harbor improvements. 257, 258 Porto Rico ; 546 to 553 Philippines. He directs the Bureau of Insular Affairs, which supervises the civil government of Porto Rico and the Philippines. 100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battle ships, San Diego, Cal.; 296 Wrecked battleship Maine, Havana Harbor; 254 U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal ; 585 U. S. fleet, visiting Australia. The Secretary of the Navy superintends all mat- ters pertaining to the construction, manning, equipment and em- ployment of vessels of war. 554 Guam. Guam is governed by the United States naval officer sta- tioned there. 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 222 Crater Lake Park; 228, 229 Yo- semite Valley, Cal. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of public lands and care of national parks. 214 COMMUNITY CIVICS 12, 14, 16 Machinery patented, Massachusetts; 62 to 67 Machinery patented, Pittsburgh, Pa. He has charge of the giving of pat- ents. 182 Sioux Indians, Nebraska; 204 Ute Indians, Colorado. He takes care of Indian affairs. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of the reclamation service. 75, 76 Coal miners, Pennsylvania. He promotes improvement in methods of mining and safety of miners. 38 Farms, Hudson Valley, N. Y. ; 85 Delaware; 104, 105 Rice fields, South Carolina; 118 Peanuts, Arkansas; 147 Oats, Illinois; 166 Potatoes, Minnesota; 175 Apples, Missouri; 199 Dry farming, Colorado. The Secretary of Agriculture promotes the general agricultural interest of the country. 224 Great trees, Oregon. He administers the forest service. 71 Crawford Co., Pa. He assists in the development of good roads. 43 Central New York ; 48 Erie Canal, New York ; 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 106 Savannah, Ga. ; 119 New Or- leans, La.; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 217 Washington; 13 Cod, Gloucester, Mass. ; 226 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. The Sec- retary of Commerce is to promote the commercial interests of the nation at home and abroad. He has charge of the Bureau of Fisheries. 4, 5 Marble workers, Proctor, Vt. ; 11, 20 Factory hands, Massa- chusetts ; 53 to 55 Silk workers, New Jersey ; 63, 65, 66, 68 Men in steel mills, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 74 to 79 Coal miners, Pennsyl- vania; 82 Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia, Pa.; 131 to 133, etc. Rubber factory workers, Akron, Ohio. The Secretary of Labor is charged with the duty of fostering, promoting and developing the welfare of the wage-earners of the United States. 32 Ellis Island, N. Y. He has care of the Bureau of Immigration. 89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as shall from time to time be established by Congress. 243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii. Alaska and Hawaii are terri- tories. 257, 258 Porto Rico ; 546 to 553 Philippines. Porto Rico and the Phil- ippines are dependencies. 16. CITIES OF THE WORLD By JOHN NOLEN, A.M., Sc.D. CITY PLANNER, LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. The city looms big in the modern world. Not only in the United States, but in every progressive country, population is increasing very much more rapidly in cities than in rural dis- tricts, especially in England, America, and Germany. Man has entered on an urban age. Already 80 per cent, of the population of the United Kingdom dwells in cities. In the United States the growth of cities is one of the most striking facts, as the following percentages of the cities' popu- lation here given illustrate: — In 1880, 29.5 per cent, of the people of this country dwelt in cities; in 1890, 36.1 per cent.; in 1900, 40.5 per cent; in 1910, 46.3 per cent. Today we may safely say that virtually one-half of the population of the United States is a city population. In contrast it may be noted that a hundred years ago only about 5 per cent of the popula- tion of this country was living in places of 8,000 inhabitants or more. The growth of population in cities is directly reflected in their greatly increased wealth and influence. The city has become one of the main problems of modern democratic so- ciety, and is already the most accurate measure of our civiliza- tion and culture. Cities, like people, have temperament and personalities of their own. It has been said that American cities are all alike. To some extent this is unfortunately true, when we compare our cities with those of the Old World. Yet what different types are represented by a comparison, for example, of New York with New Orleans, of Philadelphia with San Francisco, of Boston with Washington, of Chicago with San Antonio. The natural distinctiveness of cities due to origin, history, tradition, topography, climate, dominant function, or what not, should be looked upon as a characteristic to be preserved 215 216 CITIES OF THE WORLD and not destroyed. Indeed, a main part of the problem of planning and improving cities should be to protect, develop and enhance this peculiar quality which each city may, or should, have. Thus its buildings, its streets, its parks, its monuments and its water fronts may become at once an ex- pression of its higher life of service, and of its individuality. The building of cities is now one of the great constructive en- terprises upon which mankind has seriously launched, and one full of possibilities for good. The ancient city was mainly military, while the modern city is primarily industrial and commercial. The study of cities from early days to the present, especially in this industrial age, is full of interest and profit. In fact, it is essential as a background to the understanding of man's development, and as a basis for an efficient participation in modern life. Part I THE GROWTH AND PLANNING OF CITIES A. CITY MAKING The modern movement for city planning in the United States may be said to have begun about 1890, with a special stimulus along certain lines in 1893 through the influence of the World's Fair at Chicago. A large amount of city planning, much of it of a high order, was done earlier. In no sense, however, did it represent a movement — it was not widespread, and it was not continuous nor persistent. Notable examples of earlier city planning are : William Penn's plan for Philadelphia in 1682, and the plans for other Pennsylvania cities like Reading, for instance, which were connected with it; the plan foi Williamsburg, Va., in 1699; Oglethorpe's plan for Savannah, in 1733 the great plan of L'Enfant for Washington, D. C, in 1790. The ideas of most significance in the modern city planning move ment are : The increasing dependence of the individual upon the pros perity of the city as a whole ; the importance of planning, not merel} for the routine requirements, but also for those of the future ; and th* necessity, for reasons of economy as well as success, to co-ordinate th< planning of the various features so that the improvement to be carried out will be well related, one to another, far-seeing and permanent. i. General Views of Cities Showing Character of City Planr 25 View looking down on New York's skyscrapers. 26 General view of water front, New York City. 27 View of river and Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 28 General view of old and new city halJs, New York City. CIVIC LIFE CENTERS 217 30 Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. 90 Pennsylvania Avenue from White House to Capitol. 93 Panorama of Washington from monument east to Capitol. 126 General view of San Antonio, Texas. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah. 230 General view of Market Street, San Francisco. 248 Looking down on the city and bay of Panama. 264 View of Quebec from Dufferin Terrace. 282 City of Mexico. 304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil, So. Am. 326 The bay and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. 360 A glimpse of the old city of York, England. 365 View of the heart of Edinburgh, Scotland. 386 Hamburg, Germany. 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany. General view. 389 Kleber place, in the heart of Strassburg, Germany. 401 View of a Dutcb fishing village. 421 Bird's-eye view of Paris from Arch of Triumph. 422 Avenue Champ Elysees, Paris. 434 General view of Burgos, Spain. 435 Panorama of Madrid, Spain. 450 Rome from the balcony of St. Peter's. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 472 General view, Constantinople. 475 Athens and the Acropolis, Greece. 483 The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 492 Bird's-eye view of Beyrout, Syria. 495 View of Jerusalem from Mount of Olives, Palestine. 526 Tokyo, the Japanese capital. 558 Bird's-eye view of Alexandria, Egypt. 586 Melbourne, Australia. 2. Places in which Civic Life Centers Including Monuments 28 New York City — old and new city halls. 87,90,91,95 Washington, D. C— The Capitol, White House, etc. 126 San Antonio, Texas • — Alamo Plaza. 283 City of Mexico, Mexico — soldiers' monument. 309 Sao Paulo, Brazil — Municipal Theatre. 312 Montevideo, Uruguay — Plaza. 315 Buenos Aires, Argentina — government buildings. 324 Santiago, Chile — Plaza — also capital city. 340 Caracas, Venezuela — Halls of Congress. 351 London, England — Bank of England. 352 London, England — House of Lords. 375 Cork, Ireland — street market. 218 CITIES OF THE WORLD 356 Stratf ord-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's Memorial Theater. 360 York, England — cathedral. 365 Edinburgh, Scotland — Princess St. and Waverley Gardens. 368 Stirling, Scotland — Wallace monument. 380 Dublin, Ireland — O'Connell statue. 383 Berlin, Germany — Konigs Platz. 384 Berlin, Germany — bronze statue of Frederick the Great. 385 Coblenz, Germany — market and monument. 387 Nuremburg, Germany- — market place. 389 Strassburg, Germany — Kleber Place. 393 Cologne, Germany — market. 395 Brussels, Belgium — market 397 Namur, Belgium — Citadel Park. 404 Copenhagen, Denmark — Queen Louise Bridge and park. 416 Stockholm, Sweden — monument. 421 Paris, France — Eiffel Tower. 423 Paris, France — flower market. 424 Paris, France — Grand Opera House and Opera Place. 433 Barcelona, Spain — Columbus monument. 435 Madrid, Spain — Fete grounds. 450 Rome, Italy— Plaza of St. Peter's. 460 Innsbruck, Austria — monument — Maria Theresa Platz. 461 Gratz, Austria — public square. 466 Serajevo, Bosnia, Austria — market place. 473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mosque of St. Sophia. 476 Athens, Greece — Constitution Square. 482 Petrograd, Russia — park by winter palace. 485 Warsaw, Poland — market. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 503 Delhi, India — space before Mosque. 535 Japanese garden. 555 Tangier, Morocco — market place. 560 Cairo, Egypt — great Nile bridge. 582 Cape Town, South Africa — parade grounds. 587 Melbourne, Australia — Parliament Building. 3. Historic Buildings and Other Places of Unusual Interest 6 Boston, Mass.— Old North Church. 7 Boston, Mass.— Faneuil Hall. 8 Boston, Mass.— Old State House. 9 Cambridge, Mass. — Longfellow's home. 10 Lexington, Mass. — common. 25 New York City — skyscrapers — Statue of Liberty. 28 New York City — Old City Hall. 36 Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. — cemetery. 37 Newburgh, N. Y. — Washington's headquarters. 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. 73 Gettysburg, Pa.— Culp's Hill. 80 Philadelphia, Pa.— Liberty Bell. HISTORIC PLACES 219 87 Washington, D. C. — Capitol. 91 Washington, D. C. — White House. 95 Washington, D. C. — Library of Congress. 109 St. Augustine, Fla. — old slave market. 113 Hodgensville, Ky. — cabin, Lincoln's birthplace. 146 Marshall Joffre and French Commission at Lincoln's tomb. 241 San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 264 Quebec, Canada — view from Dufferin Terrace. 349 London, England — Tower of London. 350 London England — Westminster Abbey. 353 Greenwich, England — Royal Observatory. 354 Stratford-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's birthplace. 355 Shottery, England — Anne Hathaway's cottage. 360 York, England — cathedral. 361 Grasmere, England — lake and village. 362 Rydal Mount, England — Wordsworth's home. 367 Stirling, Scotland — castle. 369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland. 372 Ayr, Scotland — Burns' cottage room. 376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 377 Lakes of Killarney, Ireland. 391 Bingen on the Rhine, Germany. 425 Paris, France — Notre Dame. 436 Granada, Spain — Alhambra. 445 to 448 Alpine towns and villages. 452 Rome, Italy — Coliseum. 453 Ruins at Herculaneum, Italy — Vesuvius. 458 Milan, Italy — cathedral. 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia — village below. 473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mosque of St. Sophia. 475 Athens, Greece — Acropolis. 478 Olympia, Greece — Temple of Zeus. 483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 525 Tokyo, Japan — Fuji-Yama. 4. Transportation Cities are vitally dependent on transportation. It to a large extent determines their location and affects their growth. Local transporta- tion for people and merchandise is an important problem of city life. See classification on Transportation. 5. Factories and Mills 11, 12 Massachusetts — shoes. 14,15,16 Lawrence, Mass. — cotton. 17,18 Lawrence, Mass. — woolen. 19, 20 Holyoke, Mass. — paper. 21 Providence, R. I. — jewelry. 220 CITIES OF THE WORLD 22, 23, 24 South Manchester, Conn. — silk. 34, 35 New York City — sugar. 40 Troy, N. Y. — linen collars. 41 Syracuse, N. Y. — shoes. 42 Syracuse, N. Y. — salt. 53, 54, 55 Paterson, N. J.— silk. 58, 59 Trenton, N. J.— pottery. 81 Philadelphia, Pa. — woolen. 82 Philadelphia, Pa. — locomotives. 124,125 Greenville, Tex. — cotton gin. 131,132,133 Akron, Ohio — rubber. 150, 151, 152 Detroit, Mich.— .automobiles. 227 Astoria, Ore. — salmon canning. 268,269 Canada — linen manufacture. 270, 271 Canada ■ — beet sugar. 272 Canada — leather. 286 Orizaba, Mexico • — cotton. 484 Nizhni Novgorod, Russia — bells. 506 Srinagar, Kashmir — shawls. 512 Ratnapora, Ceylon — grinding gems. 532 Japan — shoe shop. 541 Kiryu, Japan — silk. 553 Philippines — manila hemp. B. THE ELEMENTS OF CITY PLANS i. Streets and Roads In building a city the first act usually is to lay out some kind of a street system. The importance of a street in the city plan rests in the fact that it is the channel of all the ordinary means of circulation and public service, that it is essential to the profitable development and use of property, that only through the opportunities it offers can there be any broad or attractive expression of municipal life, and that only through a comprehensive, well ordered system of main streets can the functions of the city be performed with economy and efficiency. City planning means first of all, adequate facilities for circulation. The greatest problems are those of main thoroughfares and street railways considered in connection with the framework of steam railroads. Such a system should be planned for every town and city that hopes for a well ordered and satisfactory growth. 6 Typical street of old Boston affording interesting view of historic North Church. 29 Wall Street, the financial center of the United States. Picturing view of old Trinity Church on Broadway, at end of street. 30 Looking up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. Note narrow street, high buildings and resulting congestion of traffic. STREETS AND ROADS 221 31 One of the chief problems of the street in large cities is that of transportation. A good example of the use of surface cars, ele- vated railroads and subways (note entrance). 90 Comprehensive view of Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C, from the White House to the Capitol. Notice Treasury Build- ing and Post Office. 121 Clean, wide, well paved street in Oklahoma City. High building (in foreground) is unnecessary in city of this character. 139 State Street, Chicago. Wide street with ample sidewalks for shoppers. High buildings and inadequate transportation system have brought unnecessary congestion to the " loop district." 167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. A worthy center for retail trade. Like Fifth Avenue, New York, it is free from street rail- ways. 220 Busy street in Seattle, Wash. 230 Market Street, the main traffic way of San Francisco. A notable street in location, width and terminal views. 273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Canada, has the generous width of the prairies and the unfinished character typical of new cities of rapid growth in Canada and the United States. Compare with Avenida Rio Branco (305), a South American example of bet- ter city planning methods. 305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A new street laid out through the heart of a large city. Notice details of street works and character of buildings. High standards of street planning and suitable laws make this kind of improvement prac- ticable in South America and Europe. Contrast American streets. 308 Rua 15th of November (Independence Day), Sao Paulo, Brazil. Narrow business street in the old Portuguese section of the city. In the newer parts the streets are wide and beautiful. 337 Quaint scene in one of the streets of Barranquilla, Colombia, South America. An example of street and buildings well adapted to local needs. 351 Threadneedle Street, London, England, with view of the Bank of England. A typical example of an important street intersection in the old city of London. Note irregular street lines and building locations and character of street traffic. 365 Princess Street and Waverley Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland. The finest street in Scotland and one of the most beautiful in the world. A unique street composition, representing skill and planning worthy of the highest praise. The monument of Sir Walter Scott is notable as the dominant artistic feature. 380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland, a street widened a century ago when Ireland had its own Parliament. The great statue there is that of Daniel O'Connell, the Irish leader and beyond is the memorial monument to Admiral Nelson. 381 Royal Avenue, Belfast, Ireland, a broad modern street, typical in development of this northern Irish metropolis. Compare with 222 CITIES OF THE WORLD street views in the United States and South America. 399 A street of water, Amsterdam, Netherlands. This is a public highway. Note houses facing on the canal. 416 A street scene in Stockholm, Sweden. This street leads down to the docks where the boats are anchored. 422 Avenue Champs Elysees, Paris. One of the great streets of the world. It symbolizes the magnificence and nobility of France. No description is adequate. It must be seen. 455 Street scene in Palermo, Sicily. In Southern Italy and Sicily the people work and play in the streets. They are sociable and love to gather, talk and carry on their occupations (sewing and lace making) outdoors. The street scenes are always picturesque. 457 The Grand Canal is a main street or thoroughfare for Venice, just as the damps Elysees is for Paris, Unter den Linden for Berlin or Fifth Avenue for New York. 463 The village street is wide and well paved. All Europe is traversed by a network of such roads. 464 Andrassy Street, Budapest, Hungary. Regular, almost monoto- nous development of a long straight business street. Everything orderly, clean and neat. 468 A good example of street life in Sofia, Bulgaria. The people en- joy being outdoors. The sidewalk coffee house, the picturesque costumes and the easy going character of the men and women shown in the picture are indications of habits of life different from our own. 474 Street scene in Constantinople, Turkey. Compare with Sofia, Bul- garia, and Vienna, Austria. 486 Krestchatik, principal street of Kief, Russia, a city of 500,000 people. Compare with European and American city streets, no- ticing differences in construction and use. 493 View over the roofs of Damascus, Syria. The large semi-circular pipe-like construction is the steel covering over a narrow street. It furnishes protection from the sun. 504 A spacious thoroughfare in Jaipur, India. Jaipur was built in 1728 by a native ruler of the same name, who had ideas on the planning and building of cities. He laid out his capital care- fully after a set plan, the main streets being all 111 feet wide and straight. The cross streets are also straight and at right angles to the main streets just as many streets in American cities are. The streets are all paved and curbed and have broad side- walks. All this makes Jaipur look like a western city. The merit of such a development is questionable. Streets should be laid out and developed to meet the needs of the people and not in imitation of other places. 513 Queen's Road, the busiest street in Hongkong, China. It of- fers many interesting contrasts to streets of Europe and Amer- ica. BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS 223 516 Street construction in Nanking, China. Men take the place of animals or motor engines in such work because they are cheaper. 542 A street scene in Seoul, Korea. Everyone wears white, even when the house-tops are covered with snow. Note that there are no wheeled vehicles and consequently no roads fit for them. The strength of the nation is in the coolie's back. 547 The Calle Real, or King Street, Manila, P. I. Narrow, uninter- esting street. 557 Gates at one of main streets of Tunis, Africa. On the streets within, one sees camels, donkeys, medicine-men, snake-charmers, water-carriers, Mohammedan women with veils over their faces, fierce Arabs, French soldiers, Jewesses in white trousers, and Turks in bright pantaloons. 590 A street in Hobart (pop. 28,000), the leading city and capital of Tasmania. Much like an ordinary small modern American city with its telegraph and trolley poles. 2. Bridges and Viaducts Bridges and viaducts span bodies of water or valleys or roads, thus affording passage and conveyance for people and goods. There are many types, the principal being arch bridges, suspension bridges, girder bridges, and sometimes mixed types. The choice of type for any par- ticular location or purpose depends largely upon the cost, the strength or permanence desired, and the appearance. Masonry bridges of the arch type, where suitable, are ordinarily preferred for appearance. 27 Suspension Bridge, New York. Built at cost of fifteen million dollars. It required thirteen years, 1870-1883, to construct. 61 General view of bridges at Pittsburgh. The Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio River where Pitts- burgh is now located. It has more bridges than any other city in the United States. 101 View of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Bridge at Harpers Ferry, W. Va., situated at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Po- tomac rivers. 170 Great power dam and locks in the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. This dam, with the power house, lock, dry lock, sea wall, and ice fender, all made of concrete, have a total length of two and one-half miles. The lock is 400 feet long and 110 feet wide. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo., costing over ten million dollars, with sections for railways to pass over it. It has also driveways for vehicles, and walks for foot passengers. The high arches pro- vide the necessary clearance for large river steamboats. 210 The Roosevelt Dam, near Phoenix, Ariz., was built by the United States Reclamation Service. 330 A railway bridge in Peru. An engineer from the United States 224 CITIES OF THE WORLD laid out this railway, solving the problems of tunnels, bridges, curves and cuts. 348 London Bridge. Every day more than a hundred thousand peo- ple walk over this bridge, and more than twenty thousand ve- hicles cross it. There has been a London Bridge since 1209. The present bridge, completed in 1831, is 928 feet long and 63 feet wide. It consists of five granite arches. 366 The great Forth Bridge, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queens- ferry, near Edinburgh, Scotland. 379 Suspension Bridge at Kenmare, County Kerry, in the west of Ireland, not far from Killarney, and in the same scenic district. 391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany, in old Roman style. 392 Stone and steel bridge over the historic Rhine at Bonn. 397 Bridge at Namur, Belgium, over the River Meuse, the natural fron- tier between Belgium and Germany. 404 The Queen Louise Bridge leads to Copenhagen proper to the north part of a section called Frederiksborg. Along either side of the stream are parks and beautiful, broad streets. Note fine ap- proaches to bridge. 423 St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, is one of the chief passageways from the Latin Quarter to the larger part of the city that lies on the right bank of the Seine. The flower market is shown as it looks at six o'clock in the morning, and the universal love of flowers by French people of all classes is here illustrated. 442 Chapel Bridge, familiar to all travelers, crossing the River Reuss, Lucerne. A roofed bridge which winds across the river, fur- nishing a most convenient connection. The tower near the cen- ter of the bridge is the old Wasserthurn. 450 River Tiber, and its bridges. Also see 451. 451 Note character of arched bridge over the Tiber, with retaining walls and embankments. Also the Castle of St. Angelo and St. Peter's Cathedral. 456 A succession of bridges across the Arno at Florence. The most interesting of all is the one in the foreground, the Ponte Vecchio, providing communication between Uffizi and Pitti Palaces. Broad and handsome quays called Lungarno skirt the river. 470 The big railroad bridge over the Danube at Czernavoda, Roumania, one of the centers of heavy fighting in the European War. 560 Great bridge across the Nile at Cairo, an iron structure on stone foundations. 472 A busy bridge connecting Stamboul, the seat of the Turkish gov- ernment, with Galata, the business center of the town, toward which we are looking. The high tower in Galata is used as a lookout for fires. WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 225 500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta, India. 560 Drawbridge over the Nile, Egypt. Traffic across the bridge is mixed, and there appears to be no regulation or order. 3. Waterways, Water Fronts, and Harbors The proper development of water frontages, harbors and docks is es- sential to practical city building. The most obvious division of the waterways is into wide and narrow. The former comprise the large lakes, the ocean with its wide straits, bays, and other frontages, broad rivers, and in general, all those waters on the borders of which vessels can be moored at right angles to the shore. Narrow waterways con- sist of canals, canalized rivers, and some narrow frontages of the ocean. It may be said in general that the width of waterway is not so im- portant as its continuation as far as possible into the upland. Many narrow waterways, like those at Cleveland and Chicago, for example, carry great tonnages, thus serving the industrial districts which they tap. The development upon the upland determines to a large extent the type of the adjacent water front structures. Three types are of great- est importance: (1) The commercial, providing for large manufac- turing and shipping interests; (2) the residential, adapted to the lo- cation of beautiful homes and private estates; and (3) the recreational use of water frontages for park, boulevard and other recreational pur- poses. Cities that are fortunate in also being ports should base their city plans upon the peculiar opportunity that the port affords. Mistakes in planning and development which exist at most of the older port cities of the United States should gradually be corrected, and new improve- ments undertaken with reference to a preconceived design. The water front constitutes one of the chief features of any city lo- cated on navigable water. Therefore the proper correlation of water carriers with other forms of transportation is of the utmost importance. Both beauty and utility call for development in accordance with a plan that recognizes the need for unity. Experience teaches that develop- ment on the basis of unity is possible usually only where the policy of complete public ownership prevails. 25 View of part of New York water front and Statue of Liberty from the Woolworth Tower. 26 The water front of New York City from the Brooklyn side, showing the shipping and buildings of lower Manhattan. 27 View of the East River and the Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 32 The gateway for immigrants to America at Ellis Island, New York. 39 The Hudson River has great variety of scenery, some of the finest being in the neighborhood of West Point, as shown in illustration. 48 The Erie Canal has been a source of commercial wealth to Buffalo and other cities located on its banks. 226 CITIES OF THE WORLD 50 The water front of Niagara Falls and the Niagara River have made important contributions to both the wealth of the country and the pleasure of its people. 51 The Palisades of the Hudson are a form of natural scenery whose preservation depends upon public ownership and control. 52 Many of the docks of the great Trans-Atlantic liners are located in Hoboken, across the river from New York. 60 Atlantic City, N. J., is the most popular all-the-year-round seaside resort in the United States, with more than a million visitors yearly. The chief attractions are the beach, the Board Walk, the fine hotels, and the equable climate. 61 Pittsburgh owes its importance as an industrial city partly to its water front, and the means of communication which it furnishes. 99 Operations of the life-saving corps at the Jamestown Exposi- tion. 100 Warships of the United States in Hampton Roads at the time of the Jamestown Exposition. 101 The water front at Harpers Ferry, West Va. 106 The Savannah River is given over to commercial development. It is one of the first ports on the Atlantic seaboard in the amount of cotton which it ships. Ill The harbor of Key West, Florida, is an important sponge mar- ket. 119 New Orleans is a fair example of the many levees on the Mis- sissippi River where cotton is one of the staple shipments. 120 The Delta of the Mississippi River, Louisiana, where pilots are taken on the large river steamers. 148 One of the great national problems is the prevention of floods, by far the most damaging being those caused by rivers. The view shows the common way of keeping the waters from spreading, the banks or dikes being made of bags of sand. A city plan should include preservation and protection of all flood channels. 154 Ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, providing for the greatest canal traffic in the worJd. 164 Part of the transportation system of the Great Lakes. Two Har- bors, Minnesota, owes its importance to its heavy shipment of iron ore. 174 View of the Mississippi River at St. Louis, showing the great span of the Eads Bridge. 210 Lake formed by the construction of the Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona, which backs up the Salt River for sixteen miles, and holds enough water to flood over a million acres to a depth of one foot. 217 A view of Puget Sound, Washington, showing shipping of lumber. 242 View of the great bay and harbor of San Diego, with submarines in the foreground and battleships and torpedo boats beyond. 248 The bay of Panama with the city in the foreground, near the Pacific end of the Canal. One of the oldest cities in the Wes- tern world. WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 227 257 An interesting view of the harbor of San Juan, Porto Rico. 278 The harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, the most important fac- tor in the development of the city. 280 The harbor of Vera Cruz, the principal port of Mexico. 299 The bay of Santiago, Cuba. The harbor is a first class one, with very deep water and entirely landlocked. 304 Harbor of Bahia, Brazil, So. America, with a portion of the lower city in the foreground. 313 Harbor of Montevideo, Uruguay, So. America. Illustration shows dredging operation to deepen channel and make harbor navi- gable. 314 Entrance to harbor of Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. America. The Plata River is shallow, and dredges are kept constantly at work to keep the channels open. 326 The bay and city of Valparaiso, Chile. 347 The harbor of Liverpool, like many other great harbors of the world, has been made good mainly by the work of man. It is built on the broad mouth of the Mersey River, which is con- stantly dredged to keep a channel deep enough for the big liners. 374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland, is the port of call for the city of Cork, fourteen miles away. The harbor is large and safe. 383 View of the River Spree in Berlin, Germany, with the Reichstag buildings located on its banks. 391 The Rhine Valley at Bingen, Germany. 399 A view of the canal in Amsterdam, Holland. 400 Rotterdam, Holland, one of the world's great ports. Ship canals connect the city with the ocean. Notice the load of bricks. 416 Docks and warehouses, Stockholm. This city is the commercial center of Sweden. 420 Harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. The business character of this port is indicated by conditions on the docks. 429 The new harbor and docks of Marseilles, France, large and well protected by a breakwater two miles long. 430 The Gulf of Napoule in the Riviera, showing Cannes, " a seaside paradise," on its warm banks. 432 A view of the Mediterranean and Monaco. The most widely known city of this principality is Monte Carlo, the famous gam- bling resort. 433 The harbor of Barcelona, which makes it the busiest city in Spain. 457 A view of the Grand Canal, Venice, which discharges its waters into the Adriatic Sea. 489 Interesting view of the Bosphorus toward the Black Sea from the heights above Scutari, Turkey in Asia. 501 The Ganges River before the Temple in Benares, India. 509 The Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon, which has been largely made, a 228 CITIES OF THE WORLD long breakwater being constructed to afford the necessary pro- tection. 514 A busy seaport, Canton, China, with a view of fishermen's houses. 515 The Yangtse River at Chinkiang, China, the third longest river system in the world. See 517. 517 Another view of the Yangtse River, and of the picturesque towns and villages which cluster densely on its banks. 525 View of Fuji-Yama, Japan, from the water. 556 The harbor of Algiers, which is a natural bay protected by break- waters. The port is equipped with modern machinery, railway switches, derricks, etc. as in Europe. 559 The Suez Canal, Egypt. It runs through level, sandy country, as shown in the view. Compare with the Panama Canal, 248 to 256. 569 The Great Dam of the Nile at the head of the first cataract of the Nile, six hundred miles above Cairo. 574 The port of Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of Africa, five hundred miles south of the Equator. Dar-es-Salaam is the capital of German East Africa. Note beauty of palm trees. 591 Hauroki Bay, showing the harbor of Auckland, New Zealand. The stereographs or slides presenting more definitely views of docks and harbors are as follows: 25, 26, 32, 52, 106, 111, 119, 154, 217, 242, 267, 278, 280, 299, 304, 313, 314, 347, 374, 400, 420, 429, 433, 511, 556, 574, 591. 4. Parks and Playgrounds Every city worthy of the name has public parks and playgrounds of some sort, and they are now recognized as a necessity of city life, a part of the city plan, just as streets and schools are. They contribute to the pleasure and health of urban populations more than any other recreative feature, and furnish the most necessary and valuable antidote to the artificiality, confusion, and feverishness of life in the cities. At the present time the value of parks and open spaces in towns and cities is very generally appreciated. It is recognized that such facilities as parks afford are not only desirable, but increasingly necessary ; in fact, indispensable. In a vague way there is approval, too, of a large increase in both parks and playgrounds. But few even of the more progressive communities appear yet to understand with any clearness that these open spaces in cities are of great variety ; that they are, or should be selected and developed by experts to serve essentially different purposes, and that the failure to appreciate this fact and to keep it con- stantly in mind leads to great waste and inefficiency in our public grounds. 10 Common, Lexington, Mass. A good example of New England open space, usually reserved in the center of old towns. PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 229 28 City Hall Park, New York. A valuable breathing space in the great metropolis. It affords an excellent foreground to public and semi-public buildings. 31 Small park spaces, even room simply for a few trees at street intersections in a large city, are decidedly worth while, as here illustrated. 39 The scenery of the Hudson is among the finest river scenery in the world. 49 The Falls of Niagara, and part of the State Park Reservation, are more frequented, probably, than any other small park in the United States. 50 The American Falls, Niagara, showing the beauty of their winter scenery. 51 Palisades of the Hudson River provide the most striking topo- graphical feature of the Inter-State Parks of New York and New Jersey. 73 Culp's Hill, Gettysburg, an illustration of a military memorial park. 83 School gardens are one of the most practical forms of educational outdoor work combined with the zest of recreation. 90 All of the public buildings of Washington are surrounded with well planted open spaces and parks. 95 The Congressional Library, Washington, has a well designed en- vironment. 114 Lookout Mountain is a national park. 126 The Alamo Plaza, San Antonio. Such plazas, with buildings round about them, are to be preferred to the more usual Amer- ican method of putting public buildings in the center of open blocks. 191 The National Parks of the United States are the largest and most beautiful parks of any nation in the world. They are being made more and more accessible to visitors. 191 to 197 Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. One of the most frequented National Parks. 201 Pike's Peak from the Garden of the Gods, near Manitou, Col. A place famed for its beauty and mineral springs. 208 Grand Canyon. A place of indescribable beauty. 219 Crevasse of Paradise Glacier, Mount Rainier, National Park, Wash. 228, 229 Yosemite National Park, California. 290 Dancing in national costume is one of the favorite pastimes of Mexican people. 305 Park-like street in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 306 Children of illustrious Brazilian families. 312 Open space or plaza in Uruguay, typical of South American cities. 316 Palermo Park, Buenos Aires, with view of afternoon drive or parade, common in many places. 230 CITIES OF THE WORLD 329 Plaza in the formal style in Arequipa. Harvard University has built an observatory near this place. 389 In almost every German city the important public buildings and the principal stores are arranged around open spaces which are usually parked, as here illustrated. 422 The principal boulevards of Paris, especially the Champs Elysees, are so constructed and planted as to become parkways leading from one important point in the city to another. 435 It is important for every city to have one or more well located open places to be used for fetes, fairs, and other public cele- brations. 455 The recreation of people in Southern Italy is confined largely to the public streets except on special holidays and Sundays, when they visit the more distant parks. 482 The advantage of ample open space around the government build- ings at Petrograd is here well illustrated. 520 Chinese school children, Peking, China. 534 Japan is a fairyland of flowers, especially when the cherry trees are in bloom. The tea houses are always given a lovely setting. 535 Japanese gardens have their own style of picturesque design in which the question of scale is given special consideration. Beau- tiful results are secured in the smallest possible area. 588 Zoological Garden, Adelaide, Australia, combining scientific inter- est with outdoor recreation. 5. Public Buildings Public buildings constitute an essential element in a city plan, and of first importance is their location with regard to the city as a whole. They may be grouped in one center, or in various centers, according to the plan of the city and the local requirements. They are usually rightly placed when grouped in locations that will suit economic condi- tions, and when they are readily accessible to the public. The location of public buildings is bound up with the general struc- ture of the city. This means especially the street system and the sys- tem of transportation, which is largely governed by the street system. While building groups may be advantageously placed on prominent streets in a rectangular system, or composed with principal intersec- tions in the system of streets, yet for the more important groups the best location is at a focus of a number of streets. 7 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. 8 Old State House from Court Street, Boston, Mass. 28 Old and New City Halls and World Building, from City Hall Park, New York City. 80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. 88 House of Representatives (Interior), Washington, D. C. 89 Supreme Court Room in the Capitol, Washington, D. C. 90 From War, State and Navy Building — White House — Treas- PUBLIC BUILDINGS 231 ury, Pennsylvania Avenue and Capitol, Washington, D. C. 91 The White House, Washington, D. C. 92 Annex to White House (Cabinet Room), Washington. D. C. 93 From Washington Monument east to Capitol over Agricultural Department grounds, Washington, D. C. 95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C 96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. 109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Fla. 126 The Alamo, San Antonio, Texas. 260 With the flag goes the public school — Royal School, Honolulu, Hawaii. 309 Municipal Theater, handsomest playhouse fn the world, Sao Paulo, Brazil, So. Am. 315 The government buildings from the balcony of the Bourse, Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. Am. 324 Cathedral and Plaza. Women in native dress, Santiago, Chile, So. Am. 335 Famous Copacabana Church near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia. 340 National university and halls of Congress, Caracas, Venezuela. 349 Tower of London, London, England. 350 Westminster Abbey, London, England. 351 The Bank of England, London, England. 352 The House of Lords, London, England. 354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage, Shottery, England. 356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 360 An interesting glimpse of the old city of York with its cathedral, England. 362 Rydal Mount, home of poet Wordsworth, Lake District, England. 367 Historic Stirling Castle, Scotland. 376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 383 The Reiehstags-Gebaiide, Berlin, Germany. 384 Royal Palace, Berlin, Germany. 387 Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany. 417 Royal Palace (Council Room), Stockholm, Sweden. 424 The Grand Opera, Paris, France. 425 Notre Dame, Paris, France. 436 Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. 482 Senate and the Academy on the Vasili Island, Petrograd, Russia. 501 Temple, Benares, India. 502 The Taj Mahal, Agra, India. 503 The Jnmma Mosque. Delhi. Tndia. 582 City Hall, Cape Town, So. Africa. 587 Federal Parliament Building, Melbourne, Australia. 6. Residences and Homes The variety of houses due to climate, wealth, education, work, habit, or other causes is here well illustrated. 232 CITIES OF THE WORLD 9 Craigie House, Cambridge, Mass. Home of the poet Longfellow. A fine example of the Colonial style of architecture. The land opposite the house has been acquired as a public memorial park, thus keeping open forever the view of the house, and also the view from the house to the Charles River and Soldiers' Field beyond. 113 Cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born, Hodgensville, Ky. A humble but well constructed log cabin. The Lincoln Farm As- sociation has built over the cabin a beautiful Greek Temple. 205 Cliff Palace in the Mesa Verde, Col. Homes of the cliff-dwellers, the ancestors of our Pueblo Indians. Interesting architectural ruins. 211 Pueblo of Taos Indians, New Mexico. In this one building the whole village resides. 249 Dwellings erected for employees of the old French Canal Com- pany, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. Contrast the more recent dwellings constructed by the United States Government under the direction of such men as Gen. Goethals and Gen. Gorgas. 281 Adobe hut, City of Mexico. Home of the peon, the peasant of Mexico, descendant of the Aztec. The adobe or sundried brick is in use widely as a suitable building material throughout the Southwest. 299 Simple but homogeneous character of homes in Santiago, Cuba, due to the uniform shape and material of the buildings and the har- mony of the tiled roofs. 336 White houses with red tiled roofs in the best residence section of Guayaquil. Ecuador. Beauty of street view due to simplicity and harmony of buildings, the attractive balconies, and the oc- casional variety due to church spires. 338 The houses of La Guaira, Venezuela, fit the slopes of the hills. The city is small, and the population composed mostly of ne- groes, Indians, Spanish, and half-breeds. 354 Shakespeare's birthplace in Stratford-on-Avon, Eng., is a two- story house, typical of English village architecture, with a small garden back of it. 355 The Anne Hathaway Cottage at Shottery belongs now to Great Britain. The building is almost exactly as it was when Anne Hathaway lived there. Fine example of English farmhouse with heavy timbers and thick thatched roof. 362 The neat, mellow, vine-clad, characteristic English home of Words- worth at Rydal Mount. England. 372 Room in which Robert Burns was born. House consisting of two rooms, now owned by the Burns Society of Ayr. 373 Peasant home in the Scottish Highlands. The walls of these peasant houses are made of stones or bricks, and the roofs are of thatch. Simple as they are, they are very pleasant to the TYPES OF CITIES 233 eye. The walls are covered with vines, and each cottage has its garden. 389 The apartment houses in Strassburg, Germany, and in other Ger- man and Continental European cities, are the characteristic homes of the people. Compare with cottage homes in Eng- land. 402 Village homes in the Netherlands, with characteristic neatness, but no planting. 455 Picturesque street scene in tenement district, Palermo, Sicily. The Italians in America seek the same sort of housing. 457 Beautiful Renaissance Italian homes on the Grand Canal, Venice, full of art and beauty. A fit environment of the civilization of the time. 514 The boat-homes of the Chinese in the river or sea towns. People are born in houseboats, and their fathers before them. These boats are much better to live in than are many of the land houses of the lower class of Chinese. The larger ones are 75 feet long and 15 feet wide. They usually have three rooms, — a hall room, a living room, and a sleeping room,— which are again broken up for use by means of screens. 526 The native skill of the Japanese is evidenced by their happy com- bination of use and beauty. This view of Tokyo, the Japanese capital, shows the buildings close together, the houses low, and the roofs of heavy tile. 542 Homes of the Koreans. Note white robes of men even in winter, with snow on the roofs of the houses. 546 The " cascos " are the floating homes of many thousands in the Philippines. Compare with 514. Part II TYPES OF CITIES AND CITY LIFE Cities generally owe their existence to geographic influences, and such individuality as they have is due largely to topography. The chief topographical characteristics determining cities are the harbors, rivers, hills and plains. It has taken decades of urban development and of mistakes to impress upon the cities of the United States the necessity to respect and conserve these natural forces, to which they owe not only their form but often their very life. The classification of cities according to type or character may be conveniently considered under two heads: (1) Types distinguished by the size of the city; and (2) types distinguished by the dominant function of the city. A. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE i. Cities of 1,000,000 Population or More 25 to 31 New York City— (5,620,0^ ^ largest city in the New World, a commercial city. 234 CITIES OF THE WORLD 139 Chicago, 111.— (2,701,705) a railroad center. 80 to 84 Philadelphia, Pa.— (1,823,158) third city of U. S. in size. 304 to 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil— (1,200,000) capital and seaport. 314 to 316 Buenos Aires, Argentina— (1,637,000) largest city in South America. 348 to 352 London, England— (7,258,263) largest city in the world. 383, 384 Berlin, Germany— (1,900,000) the heart of the German Empire. 421 to 425 Paris, France— (3,300,000) largest city on the continent of Europe and third largest in the world. 462 Vienna, Austria— (2,400,000) a great inland city. 482 Petrograd, Russia— (2,300,000) not a natural site. 483 Moscow, Russia— (1,100,000) the center of Russian life. 500 Calcutta, India— (1,222,000) at the mouth of the Ganges. 520 Peking, China— (1,200,000) capital of the empire. 526 Tokio, Japan— (240,000) a capital city. 2. Cities of 500,000 to 1,000,000 Population 6 to 8 Boston, Mass. — center of life for N. E. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. — a wonderful natural site at the head of a great river and in the midst of mineral deposits. 230 San Francisco, Cal. — on the finest bay on our Pacific Coast. 347 Liverpool, Eng.— England's door open towards America. 399 Amsterdam, Hoi. — the largest city of a seafaring nation. 400 Rotterdam, Hoi. — the chief seaport of the Netherlands. 450 to 452 Rome, Italy — once the ruler of the world. 454 Naples, Italy — on the Bay of Naples. 513 Hong Kong, China — an English possession. 560 Cairo, Egypt — an ancient city. 587 Melbourne, Australia — metropolis for Australia. 3. Cities of 100,000 to 500,000 Population 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. — a governmental city. 119 New Orleans, La. — center of cotton and sugar trade. 167 Minneapolis, Minn. — center for grain lands of the north. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah — in the midst of a desert. 326, 327 Valparaiso, Chile — a protected harbor. 475, 476 Athens, Greece — once the center of the civilized world. 547 Manila, P. I. — a strategic position. 4. Cities of less than 100,000 Population 14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass. — a city built up by one industry. 106 Savannah, Ga. — outlet for products of Southern pine belt. 213 Ogden, Utah — a city surrounded by a desert. 264 Quebec, Can. — the fortified gateway to Canada. 277 Vancouver, B. C. — Canada's doorway to the Pacific. 5. Cities of Rapid Growth 116 Birmingham, Ala. — near deposits of coal and iron. Its population increased by one-third in the last decade. CAPITAL CITIES 235 121 Oklahoma City, Ok. — center of oil lands and rich farming country. 131 to 133 Akron, Ohio — the growth of the rubber industry gave Akron an increase of 200% between 1910 and 1920. 150 to 152 Detroit, Mich. — automobile manufacture more than doubled the population of Detroit in the last decade. 230 San Francisco, Cal. — at the discovery of gold this city sprang up almost in a night. B. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DOMINANT FUNCTION i. Capital Cities A country or state should show interest in its capital city as soon as it is enough conscious of its own unity to have pride in its own ideals and customs and to possess a sense of its own individuality. Our state capitals have not, as a rule developed in this way. In Europe, the capital of almost every kingdom, petty, principality, or dukedom, is embellished with splendid palaces, museums, gardens, art galleries, sculpture, opera houses, wide streets and promenades all expressing some phase of their community life. Such embellishment has proved a source of new wealth for travellers make long visits to such cities and spend millions of dollars thus justifying in another way the wisdom of this enlightened policy. 87 to 95 Washington, D. C— one of the few cities built according to a plan. 305 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil — capital city and seaport. 315 Buenos Aires, Argentina — the growing capital of a new people. 348 to 352 London, Eng. — the city with its famous buildings and its streets and monuments seems to express the long struggle of the Anglo-Saxon for civil liberty. 383, 384 Berlin, Germany— (1,900,000) the heart of the German Empire. 395 Brussels, Bel.— a little Paris. 399 Amsterdam, — Netherlands — essentially an expression of the Dutch people. 421 to 425 Paris, France — the most beautiful city in the world, because it expresses the ideals of the nation it is loved by every citizen as the soul of France. 450 to 452 Rome, Italy — the very architecture expresses power and domination. 475 Athens, Greece — even in ruins, its buildings express the spiritual characteristics of the ancient Greek. Resort Cities 60 Atlantic City, N. J. — a summer resort. 110 Palm Beach, Fla. — a winter resort. 427 Chamonix, France — for mountain scenery. 430 Cannes, France, — lovely scenery and climate. 457 Venice, Italy — visited for its scenery and its art. 236 CITIES OF THE WORLD 560 Cairo, Egypt — picturesque in both past and present. 3. Financial Cities 29 Wall St. New York City — the war made New York the financial center of the world. 351 The Bank of England, London, — the most famous bank, until lately the financial center of the world. 421 Paris, France — one of the richest of cities. 383 Berlin, Germany — great financial city of the German Empire. 4. Cities Noted for One or Two Industries 13 Gloucester, Mass. — cod fish. 14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass.- — more than sixty per cent, of its people work in textile mills. 21 Providence, R. I.— jewelry. 40 Troy, N. Y.— collars. 53 to 55 Paterson, N. J. — silk. 58, 59 Trenton, N. J. — porcelain. 61 to 67 Pittsburgh, Pa. — iron and steel. 76 to 78 Scranton, Pa. — anthracite coal. 86 Baltimore, Md. — oysters. 106 Savannah, Ga. — turpentine. 116 Birmingham, Ala. — iron and steel. 119 New Orleans, La. — cotton. 131 to 133 Akron, O— rubber. 140 to 144 Chicago — packing houses. 150 to 152 Detroit, Mich.— automobiles. 308 to 311 Sao Paulo, Brazil— coffee. 581 Kimberly, S. Africa. — diamonds. 5. Centers of Religious Interest There is a tendency for religions to manifest unusual strength in special sections, or to become more dominant in particular cities. The following list illustrates this tendency. 6 Boston, Mass. — a center of Congregationalism, Unitarianism and Christian Science. 80 Philadelphia, Pa. — Society of Friends, both Orthodox and Hick- site. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah — Mormonism. 365 Edinburgh, Scotland — City of Knox and Presbyterianism. 450, 451 Rome, Italy — center of Roman Catholic Church. 473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mohammedanism, Turkish Sultan its head. 475 Athens, Greece — site of old Athenian shrines and Panathenaic procession. 482 Petrograd, Russia — center of Greek Catholic church. 483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin, former center of Greek Catholic church. TYPES OF CITIES 237 495 Jerusalem, Syria — former Jewish capital, center of early Chris- tian church. 501 Benares, India — sacred shrine of Brahman religion, also birth- place of Buddha. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal, temple and holy place of Mohammedans. 503 Delhi, India — holy place of Mohammedans. 560 Cairo, Egypt — center of Mohammedan education. 6. Coast Cities — Ports for Ocean Vessels 25. 26 New York City — the best harbor and greatest commercial city of the western hemisphere. 52 Hoboken, N. J. 230 San Francisco — on a magnificent bay, the open door towards the Pacific. 257 San Juan, P. R. — a fine harbor. 280 Vera Cruz — a poor harbor on a sandy coast. 295 Havana, Cuba — the harbor is large enough to hold all the navies of the world. 314 Buenos Aires, Argentina — this great harbor must constantly be dredged. 326 Valparaiso, Chile, — a land locked harbor. 347 Liverpool, England — a doorway open to America. 374 Queenstown, Ire. — a great natural harbor. 457 Venice, Italy — once the commercial center of the world. 472 to 474 Constantinople — the strategic center of the world. 513 Hong-Kong — the city of Victoria on the island Hong-Kong. 514 Canton, China. 7. Cities on Rivers — Ports for Ocean Vessels 80 Philadelphia, Pa.- — Delaware River. 106 Savannah, Ga. — Savannah River. 119 New Orleans, La. — Mississippi River. 264 Quebec, Can. — St. Lawrence River. 267 Montreal, Can. — St. Lawrence River. 348 London. Eng. — Thames River. 386 Hamburg, Ger. — Elbe River. 8. Inland Cities on Rivers and Lakes 48 Buffalo, N. Y.— Lake Erie. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. — head of Ohio River. 128, 129 Conneaut. O— Lake Erie. 139 Chicago. 111. — Lake Michigan. 150 to 152 Detroit, Mich.— Detroit River. 164 Two Harbors, Minn. — Lake Superior. 174 St. Louis, Mo. — Mississippi River. 421 Paris, France — Seine River. 462 Vienna, Austria, — Danube River. 501 Benares, India — Ganges River, ENGLISH INTRODUCTION By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D., Litt.D. PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY The trend of modern education has been steadily away from interest in mere words. This is the meaning of the great de- velopment in museums, shops and laboratories in the equip- ment of our schools. We have come to realize that merely to hear or read about a thing and even to be able to talk or write about it, is no guarantee that the thing itself is known and understood. In the case of material objects, really to know involves to see, and, if possible, to handle and to use. If he is to have even the foundations of an education, his range of concepts must include many things that are far removed from his immediate environment. If he lives in the great Mississippi Valley, for example, we try to help him gain some idea of the sea, of the great mountain peaks and ranges, of cataracts like Niagara, of lumbering in the forests of the North and East, of life and industry in the East, the South and the Far West. We count it necessary that he should pic- ture to himself many of the scenes of historic or literary in- terest in Europe, the strange and teeming life of Asia, the un- couth and meager civilization of Africa. Since he cannot go to them we must somehow bring them to him. And here is where the miracle of pictures comes in. Most of us feel that stereoscopic pictures give the illusion of reality better than flat pictures. The sense of distance, the size of mountains, the depths of precipices and valleys — as in the Grand Canyon — often seem incredible for the first time when viewed through the stereoscope. How does all this apply to the study of English? In the first place, literature makes its appeal to the eye oftener than to any other sense. It presupposes in the reader a long record of seeing things. The shapes and colors of clouds and mountains, of flowers and birds and animals, the forms of 238 ENGLISH 239 trees and the look of lakes and streams, the customs of strange peoples, the houses and streets of cities, the great centers of commerce with their wharves and depots, — all these are frequently assumed to be a part of the reader's stock of visual memories. And so the reader's grasp of the content is firmer, if the text recalls these memories. But how if this assumption is mistaken and the reader has no such picture in his memory? Here the help of pic- tures is virtually a necessity. Think how little the pupil could get, unassisted, of a description of a cactus-covered desert. Though the appeal to the eye is far from being the only ap- peal that literature makes, it is so frequent as to be almost fundamental. The stereoscopic picture is the most vividly real of all photographs ; therefore, with some satisfaction to our sense of the fitness of things we remember that the present con- venient form of the stereoscope was invented by a man who combined the interests of science and literature, one of our best known American authors — Oliver Wendell Holmes. The Keystone Series helpful as it is as an aid in reading literature, has an equally obvious value in teaching composi- tion, oral and written. Something to say, something real, definite, interesting and detailed enough — this is the prereq- uisite to any profitable work in expression. One may get such material by reading and by being told. But he will get it still better if he can also see. The details in a picture or in a series of pictures on the same theme, the companion or contrast of scenes and actions, such assignments make ex- cellent composition lessons. A friendly rivalry among the members of the class, to see which could find the most in a given picture, or to see which could recall the most pictures of a given sort, or to see which, in the judgment of his class- mates, could give the best account of a picture, — such a con- test would also be an excellent basis for a lesson in language. The teacher will get the best results from these pictures: 1. If she learns to know the whole scenes so well herself that any opportunity of using them will come to her mind automatically. 2. If she makes a point of having the ap- propriate picture seen by the class, either through the stereo- scope or on the screen while the interest is fresh. 3. If she encourages the habitual resort to the series by the pupils, just as she would encourage " browsing " in the library. 17. LITERARY SUBJECTS AND SETTINGS By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D., Litt.D. PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY A little inquiry into the exact nature of the images in chil- dren's minds will usually yield some startling discoveries. We shall be amazed not only at what isn't there, but at what is there in mistaken form. There is not only so much that they do not know, but they know so much that isn't so. Of course, we realize when we come to think it over, that it couldn't be otherwise. Their experience is limited, much of it is second- hand and faint or inaccurate in the impression it leaves, and they have had as yet but a short period for correcting their impressions either by reflection or by checking them up through further impressions. In teaching literature we find constant need of helping the children to fill in and correct the images that are commonly re- ferred to in the poems and stories they read. We must be careful about what we take for granted. How many children there are who have never seen the ocean, or a mountain, or a forest, or a great city! How very few who have any image of the Parthenon, or Westminster Abbey, or Notre Dame! How few who have any lively conception of any kind of life outside their immediate environment ! One of the values of literature is that it does enlarge the bounds of our minds through vicarious experience. But for many experiences the literature alone is not enough. Pictures are needed to help us build up the images. Through pictures and poems and stories of the sea, an inland boy often gets so good an idea of the sea that when he comes to it for the first time, he finds it just as he expected it to look. And if he never sees it, he may yet have some notion of what it is like. The 600 pictures in this series have, quite properly, been se- lected mainly for their geographical value. Few of them are 240 LITERARY SUBJECTS 241 only literary in their interest. But yet, as will be seen from the selections that follow, a very large number of them may help in explaining references and pictures in literature and in making it interesting. The teacher must use her own judgment as to the plan of using them. Sometimes it may be best to show the pictures before the reading, sometimes after it. She will need to dis- criminate between what explains, as for example, the Poca- hontas picture, or the Turpentine Gathering, and what merely adds interest and reality as, for example, The Old North Church and Washington's Home. The former kind might be shown before the reading, the latter after it. The best use of these views is probably that made by the pupils on their own initiative. If the pictures stand in the room, free to the pupils in their free hours, they will go to them again and again, and come to know them in the thorough way that is possible only through repeated use. HIAWATHA — A SAMPLE LESSON The lesson is on Hiawatha's Childhood, beginning — " By the shores of Gitchee-Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water," and ending with the line, " Called them Hiawatha's Brothers." INTRODUCTION BY THE TEACHER This introduction will explain briefly and clearly that Hiawatha was the hero of an Indian tribe on the shores of Lake Superior (pointed to on a map), which the Indians called Gitche-Gumee, meaning Big-Sea- Water ; that Hiawatha was good and wise, and learned many things that helped his tribe — to catch fish, to make a canoe, to write letters by pictures, to grow corn, etc. He lived in a wigwam. What is a wigwam? Here let the children see picture 263. Tell them that these Indians are looking out over the St. Lawrence River, but they may make-believe it is Lake Superior. Don't hurry them. Lead them to see what the Indians there are doing, — weaving baskets. A little exchange of experience about Indian wares — not too long drawn out — will be very helpful. The class may now read the first ten lines. What parts of the lines were shown in the nicture? Were the pine trees and the firs shown? Read the next twelve lines. Do they see the babe in his cradle? Have they ever seen a cradle? An Indian baby's cradle? Now show picture 158. Do they note that it is at the base of a huge tree? 242 ENGLISH (The song, The Naked Bear, has been printed by several people. A version simplified for schools may be had by writing to The Macmillan Co. — The Little Owlet song is issued by several music publishers.) Read the next twelve lines. Wbo has seen a comet? Show picture 600. Wouldn't it be likely to set these simple-minded folk wondering? " Warriors with their plumes and war-clubs." What did Indian war- riors look like? Show pictures 168 and 182. Explain the reference to the " northern lights." As the rest of the lesson is read, explain such things as the speaking of the water and the pine tree, etc. The line " How the beavers built their lodges," will naturally call out picture 196, and the reference to the reindeer picture 413, Monda- min 184. Picture 169 presents an interesting scene. Such reinforcement of the intuitive basis must not, however, be al- lowed to smother the main idea of the selection : Hiawatha learning the secrets of nature from his old grandmother, Nokomis. ANTI-SLAVERY POEMS 101 Harpers Ferry, "John Brown's body lies a-moldering in the grave." 109 Old slave market. 105, 107, 117, 118, 119 Types of negroes. 570, 572, 578 Negroes in Africa. BIBLICAL SCENES 491 Tarsus, the city from which Paul came. 493 Damascus, said to be the oldest city in the world. The Bible refers often to life " on the house tops." 495 Jerusalem, from the Mount of Olives. In many ways, an- cient Jerusalem looked the same as this. 496 The Road to Jericho, where the Good Samaritan found the man who had fallen among thieves. 497 The old Hebrew law forbade the muzzling of an ox while threshing. 498 " Two women shall be grinding corn. The one shall be taken, the other left." 561 to 565 " Out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage." No doubt Moses saw things very like these. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT 30 The Crowded Street. 1, 162, 195, 224, 229 The Forest Hymn. 2, 72, 102, 198 The Gladness of Nature. 44, 175 The Planting of the Apple Tree. 2, 195, to 197, 228. Thanatopsis. LITERARY SUBJECTS 243 444, 599, 600 Hymn to the North Star. 221 Upon the Mountain's Distant Head. ROBERT BURNS 366 " A Man's a Man for A' That." 367 Bannockburn. 368 " Scots What Hae wi' Wallace Bled." 372, 373 The Cotter's Saturday Night. The Brigs of Ayr. My Heart 's in the Highlands. Auld Lang Syne. JOHN BURROUGHS 175, 44 The Apple. 72, 359 Tragedies of the Nests. 1 A Taste of Maine Birch. LORD BYRON The Siege of Corinth 477 Excavators at work at Old Corinth. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage 450 Rome, The Eternal City (canto IV, stanza 78). 451 The Tiber (canto IV, stanza 79). 452 Coliseum, the King of Ruins (canto IV, stanzas 128, 145). 457 The Grand Canal, Venice, Italy (canto IV, stanza 1). 475 Athens and the Acropolis (canto II). MARY MAPES DODGE Hans Brinker 399 Streets in Amsterdam, Holland. 400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam. 402 Scene in a Dutch village. EDWARD EGGLESTON Stories of American Life and Adventure 98 A white man among the Indians. 169 The making of a canoe. 136, 137, 160, 184, 292 Some things about Indian corn. 530, 534 Tea; 302, 310, 311 Coffee. The coming of tea and coffee. 415 Stories of whaling. 49, 50 A story of Niagara. 182 A prisoner among Indians. 208 Descending the Grand Canyon. 232 Buffalo. The lazy lucky Indian. 243 to 246 Adventures in Alaska. 244 ENGLISH NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE Niagara Falls 49 Summer view of the Falls. 50 Winter view of the Falls. WASHINGTON IRVING Sketch Book 350 Westminster Abbey. 38 Hudson River Valley. What Rip Van Winkle saw when he woke from his long sleep. 51 The Palisades of the Hudson, looking north. 36 The cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, near Tarrytown, N. Y. Irving is buried here. Stories from the Alhambra. 436 Exterior of Alhambra Palace. Astoria 226 Columbia River, Ore. HELEN HUNT JACKSON Ramona 241 San Gabriel Mission, California. RUDYARD KIPLING Captains Courageous 52 An ocean liner such as Harvey started on. 13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. Just So Stories 577 How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin. 588 Old Man Kangaroo. 505, 509 The Elephant's Child. (110 An alligator is very like a crocodile.) 565 How the Camel Got His Hump. Moti Guy, Mutineer; and Toomai of the Elephants 505 Elephants on parade. 509 Elephants at work. Kim 499 to 508 India, its life described by Kim. LUCY LARCOM Hanna Binding Shoes 41 Shoe factory. Lucy Larcom herself worked in a shoe factory in Lowell, Mass. LITERARY SUBJECTS 245 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 113 Lincoln's birthplace, Hodgeville, Ky. 73 Gettysburg Oration. 87 Inaugural Address. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW 9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. In this old house stood " The Old Clock on the Stair." Paul Revere's Ride 6 Old North Church, Boston, where the signal light was hung. 7 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, where Paul Revere often attended meetings. 10 Lexington, Mass. The minute men roused by Paul Revere fought the Battle of Lexington. Evangeline 262 " In the Acadian Land, on the shore of the Basin of Minas." Nova Scotia, Canada. Courtship of Miles Standish 409 Spinning wheel such as Priscilla used. The Ropewalk 553 Manila hemp industry. Hiawatha 158 The Indian infant. 168 Indians receiving guests. 169 Indian man and girl in canoe. 263 Indians weaving baskets. 184 The feast of Mondamin. 189 Hiawatha hunting. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL Vision of Sir Launfal 102, 38 "And what is so rare as a day in June?" 428, 448 " Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak, From the snow five thousand summers old." PATRIOTIC LITERATURE 10 Monument to Minute Men, Lexington. 246 ENGLISH 80 Old Liberty Bell, Philadelphia. 8/ The Capitol, Washington. 91 The White House, Washington. 90 Washington's home, Mount Vernon. 242 Submarines, battleships, torpedo boats, San Diego, Cal. Zo4 the battleship Missouri. lUU Battleships at Hampton Roads. MRS. NORTON Bingen on the Rhine 391 The Rhine Valley at Bingen. (Bishop Hatto's Tower, by Southey, and Longfellow's Children's Hour will be remem- bered here.) WILLIAM PRESCOTT 331 The Incas. Conquest of Peru Conquest of Mexico 282 to 285, 288 The Aztecs. ROOSEVELT AND LODGE Hero Tales from American History 96, 9, 37, 29 Washington, by H. C. Lodge. 119, 120 Battle of New Orleans, T. Roosevelt. 126 Remember the Alamo, T. Roosevelt. 100 Hampton Roads, T. Roosevelt. 73 Charge at Gettysburg, T. Roosevelt. 113, 73, 91 Lincoln, H. C. Lodge. WALTER SCOTT The Lady of the Lake and other stories of Scotland. 365 The famous monument to Scott, on Princess St., Edinburgh (pronounced Ed-in-bur-ro). 366 Highlanders in costume; as described in The Lady of the Lake. 367 Stirling Castle. The residence of the Kings of Scotland ; men- tioned in The Lady of the Lake, canto VI, st. XXVIII. 369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine. In the Trossachs (or "bristled country") near Edinburgh. Made famous by The Lady of the Lake. The Talisman 495 Jerusalem, to regain which city the Crusades were made. 496 The Jericho Road often traveled by Crusaders. 497,498 Scenes in Palestine. 494 A Sheik showing dress of the Saracen. LITERARY SUBJECTS 247 Kenilworth 348 London Bridge. 352 The House of Lords, London, Eng. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 354 His birthplace, Stratford. 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage. 356 Memorial theater in Shakespeare's honor at Stratford. 382 Sea Dirge. SAMUEL FRANCIS SMITH America See classification on Reading. 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 25, 38, 61, 71, 72, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 110, 117, 127, 178, 182, 188, 190, 198, 207, 208, 215, 221, 224, 242. " My Coun- try 'tis of thee." Let children see that all the country, far and wide with its diversified life is " my country." 51, 197, 228 "I love thy rocks and rills." 1, 102, 224, 229 "Thy woods and templed hills." 51, 207, 228 "Let rocks their silence break." ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON Inland Voyage 396 A scene on the streets of Antwerp. From the docks of this city Stevenson and his friend set off in their canoes for their trip through Belgium into France. 397 The river Meuse and Namur have been made by the war almost as famous as Antwerp. ALFRED TENNYSON The Brook 363 A wooded glen in Wales. J. T. TROWBRIDGE 138, 159, 165 Farmyard Song. CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER Being a Boy 130 The sugar camp. STORIES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON 96 Washington's home. Stories of his home life. 61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Story of Fort Necessity and Braddock's defeat. 248 ENGLISH 9 Longfellow's home. Washington taking charge of the American army at Boston. 37 Washington's headquarters at Newburg. Washington's refusal to think of being a king and his farewell to his army. 29 Wall St. Washington as President. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER The Corn Song and The Huskers 184 The corn that Whittier knew was the shorter kind grown in New England. 136 " There wrought the busy harvesters." The Pumpkin 137 " O, fruit loved of boyhood." The Barefoot Boy 488 " Barefoot boy with cheek of tan." WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 361 Lake Grasmere and village. Wordsworth's home during his early residence in the Lake District. 362 Rydal Mount, the later residence of Wordsworth 359 The Nightingale. SPYRI Heidi 445 A Swiss cottage in the Alps. The one in which Heidi and her grandfather lived was humbler and smaller than this. 441 On the top of a mountain. 444 A Swiss valley. 447 A Swiss village. 448 A famous Swiss mountain peak. 449 Some Swiss roads. MISCELLANEOUS 342, 346 Among the Icebergs, Dana. 452 Androclus and the Lion. 494 The Arab's Farewell to His Steed, Caroline E. S. Norton. 484 The Bells, Edgar Allan Poe. 375 The Bells of Shandon, Francis Sylvester Mahony. 450, 452 Ben Hur. Gen. Lew Wallace. 73 Gettysburg. 114 Lookout Mt. The Blue and the Gray. Frances M. French. 243, 246 The Call of the Wild, Jack London. 513, 515, 519 Chinese Stories such as The Poet Li or Woo of Hwangho. 38, 451 The Cloud, Percy Bysshe Shelley. LITERARY SUBJECTS 249 99 The Coast Guard, Emily Huntingdon Miller. 27 Crossing Brooklyn Ferry, Walt Whitman. 415 The Cruise of the Cachalot, Bullen. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244 Customs of American In- dians, Lewis and Clark. 359 Don't Kill the Birds. Colesworthy. 282, 369, 38, 39 Great, Wide, Beautiful, Wonderful World. 264, 265, 266 The Heights of Abraham, Parkman. 451 Horatius at the Bridge, Macaulay. 10, 130 How the Leaves Came Down, Susan Coolidge. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244, 263, 265, 328 Indian folk stories. 50 Jack Frost, Miss Gould. 71 Lake Erie and Commodore Perry. 32 The Making of an American, Jacob Riis. 88, 242, 260 The Name of Old Glory, James Whitcomb Rilev. 359 Ode to the Nightingale, Keats. 241 San Gabriel Mission, The Angelus, Bret Harte. 246 Stickeen, A Dog Story, John Muir. 264, 39 Story of Benedict Arnold. 98 Story of Pocahontas. 441, 444, 445, 446 to 448 Tell, to His Native Mountains. 10 The Tree, Bjornson. 415 Two Years Before the Mast, Dana. 415 The Typee, Melville. 109, 117, 119 Uncle Tom's Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe. 137 When the Frost is on the Pun'kin, James W. Riley. 71, 10, 224 Woodman, Spare that Tree. 178, 179, 72 Work, Cary. SONGS 366 The Bluebells of Scotland. 117 Dixie Land, D. Emmett. 38, 373 Home Sweet Home, John Howard Payne. 347 to 361 Isle of Beauty, T. H. Bayly. 495 Jerusalem, Bishop Reginald Heber. 377 Killarney, J. W. Balfe. 348 London Bridge, F. E. Weatherby. 429 Marseillaise, Roget de L'Isle. 382 The Song of the Sea, B. W. Procter. 88, 242, 260 The Star Spangled Banner, Frances Scott Key. 391, 392 The Watch on the Rhine, Max Schneckenburger. 18. ENGLISH COMPOSITION By JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, Ph.M. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN CHARGE OF EXTRA- MURAL COURSES, TEACHERS, COLLEGE, COLUMBIA J EDITOR OF "ENGLISH JOURNAL" AND "JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL METHODS" Success in teaching- children to speak and write English depends chiefly upon two things, good sense in assignments and emphasis upon one difficulty of form at a time. A proper assignment arouses in the pupil a desire either to entertain, inform, or persuade the members of his class and to gather to- gether the material for the chosen purpose. It is here that stereographs and lantern slides are found dis- tinctly helpful. They visualize the topic, they suggest possi- bilities, provide material, and open the way to investigation. Not only so; they also assist the young speaker in presenting his ideas by providing a focus of attention and by illustrating his points. Most important perhaps is the arousing of the pupil's interest so that he puts his energies into the work. The principal of a large city school was addressing a group of teachers in a neighboring city on the topic of visualizing school work. Being asked what influence his Keystone Set of stereo- graphs and slides had on his dull pupils, he replied that after he had used the set he had no dull pupils. He stated that the so-called dull pupil was usually one who lacked interest in his work or who had difficulty in getting knowledge from the printed page. The stereographs aroused an intense interest and the picture gave him the facts quickly. Having some- thing definite to tell, he was just as eager to tell it as were the others. In using the " 600 Set " to assist his class to grow in power of English expression, the teacher should bear in mind that composition is a process involved in all subjects, particularly in the study and class discussion of geography, history, and literature. To a considerable extent, therefore, his most ef- fective employment of the pictures for English work will con- sist in directing a fuller and more orderly presentation of ideas 250 COMPOSITION 251 in those subjects than is commonly the practice. Particularly should he plan individual and group activities so that the pupil reciting or reading a paper may be actually telling his fellows something that they do not already know. For the composition class itself may be reserved topics lending themselves to more extended or more literary treat- ment than is suitable for the history or geography class, and particularly the composition class should provide for instruc- tion in making outlines, writing clear sentences, and similar matters of necessary technique. Often a study begun as geog- raphy may wisely be concluded as composition. In all classes oral errors should be judiciously corrected as made, though not at the .sacrifice of the train of thought being followed, the aim being to train the pupils in habits of correct English. The usual classification of composition topics according to the forms of rhetoric is worse than useless for purposes of elementary composition. Children cannot speak or write ef- fectively when burdened with the consciousness of a form to be illustrated. What they need is consciousness of a real au- dience and of something definite which they wish to do for that audience. Hence the suggestions which follow have been grouped as a series of possibilities for interesting class work. Many other possibilities will readily suggest themselves to any- one who begins to follow out those here put down. -There should be no attempt to develop organization in a series of written paragraphs below the fifth grade. GIVING ACCURATE INFORMATION Obviously a large number of the scenes convey geographical or other information. To put this into words requires care as to clear- ness, accuracy and sequence. If only the stereographs are available, each child may be made responsible for a brief oral explanation of a scene, drawing his material from the description on the back and, if possible, from other sources. In the higher classes the best results will come from having each pupil, or a group of pupils, gather a fund of information on a subject illustrated by one or more of the stereo- graphs and then present it at length, either by reading from a paper or talking from an outline. In case lantern slides are at hand, the pupil may speak or read while the picture is thrown upon the screen. His classmates should be encouraged to ask him questions. Among the stereographs and slides most useful for informational talks or papers are the following: 252 ENGLISH Agriculture 108 Harvesting Indian River Pineapples, Fla. 136 Modern methods of harvesting corn, Indiana. 178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, S. Dak. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader, Neb. Animals 2 Wild moose in a Maine torest. 72 A woodcock on nest. 110 Alligator Joe's battle with a wounded alligator, Fla. 509 Giant beasts of burden, Burma, India. 512 Royal elephant hunt. Dairy Cattle 159 Group of dairy barns and Holstein cattle. 364 Jersey cattle. 403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near Rotter- dam, Netherlands. Glaciers 219 Crevasse, Paradise Glacier, Wash. 274 Crevasse in Victoria Glacier, Canada. 275 Illicillewaet Glacier, Canada. 276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 342 Greenland. 408 Buerbrae Glacier, Norway. 427 Glacier des Bossons, Chamonix. 428 Mer de Glace, Chamonix, France. 446 Blowing the Alpine Home, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland. Harbors 28 New York Harbor. 106 Rosin on the Docks, Savannah. 242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battle ships, San Diego Bay. 313 Great dredge by which the harbor is made navigable, Montevideo, Uruguay. 347 Landing stasre, Liverpool. 556 Harbor of Algiers. History and Literature 6 to 10 Boston, Mass. 71 Wagons used to haul ammunition to Perry. COMPOSITION 253 87 to 95 Washington. 101 Harper's Ferry. 369 Ellen's Isle. 354 to 356 William Shakespeare. 493 "The street called Straight," Damascus. 524 The Great Wall, China. 565 The Sphinx and Second Pyramid. 567 Caravan leaving oasis, Egypt. 358 An English breed of beef cattle. Interesting Sights 49, 50 Niagara Falls. 100 Ships in Hampton Roads. 72 A woodcock on nest. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzbergen. 505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, Ind. Industries 103 Burning charcoal, N. C. 112 Tobacco field, Ky. 443 The wood carver, Switzerland. 523 Chinese sawing timbers. 530 A country girl of old Japan. Irrigation 104 Flooding the rice fields, South Carolina. 210 The great Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 209 The effects of irrigation, Arizona. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 569 The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. Lumbering 215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Washington. 216 Port Blakely Mills, Seattle, Wash. 217 Shipping lumber, Wash. 214 One of the great trees of the rainy northwest, Oregon. Manufacturing 11 Cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, Mass. 14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. 21 Making jewelry, Providence, R. I. 24 Spinning silk, Conn. 62 to 68 Steel manufacturing, Pittsburgh, Pa. 412 Grindstones making wood pulp. 254 ENGLISH Mining 70 Shooting an oil well, Pa. 74 to 77 Coal mining, Pa. 155 Copper mining, Mich. 163 Iron mine, Minn. 581 Diamond mine, South Africa. 579 Gold Mine, South Africa. Stock Raising 127 Making a drive on the Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 185 Splendid Hereford cattle, Kansas. 186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. 385 An English breed of beef cattle. 370 Aberdeen Angus, noted breed of beef cattle, Scotland. Transportation 43 A busy path of commerce in central New York. 61 The Ohio river at Pittsburgh, Pa. 253 Gatun locks and Gatun Lake, Panama Canal. 575 Cape to Cairo R. R., South Africa. 580 Crossing the Vaal River, South Africa. 449 Goods for the high Alps, Switzerland. Consider the possibility of orderly explanation of the processes shown in the following: Automobiles 150 Assembling room, Cadillac Plant, Detroit, Mich. 151 Experts testing machines, Cadillac Plant, Detroit, Mich. Bark Cloth 570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. Coal 74 to 79 Coal mining in Pennsylvania. 129 Train load of coal, Conneaut, Ohio. Coffee 302 Coffee pickers at work, Guadeloupe, W. I. 310 Drying coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 311 Carts loaded with coffee, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Cotton 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 119 Cotton on the levee, New Orleans, La. 14 to 16 Views in textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. COMPOSITION 255 Farm Machinery 161 Reclaiming swamp land, Wisconsin. 166 Potato digging machine, Wisconsin. 178 Plowing with a tractor, S. Dakota. 179 Making a good seed bed, S. Dakota. 180 Manure spreader followed by. tractor plowing sod, Nebraska. 181 Handling alfalfa hay, Nebraska. Silk 536 to 539 Raising silkworms, Japan. 540, 541 Silk manufacture, Japan. 53 to 55 Silk manufacture, Paterson, N. J. 22 to 24 Silk manufacture, So. Manchester, Conn. Wool 190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Mass. 18 Doubling frame in woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 81 Spinning room, Philadelphia, Pa. Iron and Steel 62 to 67 Manufacturing iron and steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. COMPARATIVE AND GENERAL STUDIES Older pupils may occasionally bring together sets of scenes which present striking contrasts or suggest modest generalizations. Projects of this sort involve much more thinking than ordinary accounts of facts and require correspondingly more mature powers of expression. They are, of course, all the more educative for this reason. Note for ex- ample the following: Engineering Feats 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge. 174 The magnificent Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 366 The great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 170 Power dam in the Mississippi river, Keokuk, Iowa. 171 Generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 569 The great dam at Assuan, Egypt. 250 to 256 The Panama Canal. How Machinery Helps 14, 24, 81, Spinning. 46 Automatic machine filling and capping milk bottles, N. Y. 233 Combined harvester, Cal. 128 Unloaders at work on ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 144 Making sausage, Chicago, 111. 161 Reclaiming swamp land, Wis. 256 ENGLISH 178 Plowing with tractor, S. Dak. 179 Harrowing with tractor, S. Dak. 272 Tanning, Canada. How People Travel 31 Many forms of transportation in a large city, N. Y. 43 Busy path of commerce in central New York. 52 Steam ships, Hoboken, N. J. 71 Prairie schooner, Pa. 154 Canal traffic, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 246 Dog team, Alaska. 505 Elephants, India. 567 Caravan leaving oasis. Nature's Wonders 50 Niagara Falls in winter. 72 A woodcock on nest — protective coloring. 193, 194 Geysers, Yellowstone Park. 231, 300 Earthquake fissures. 201 Pikes Peak. 202, 208 Canyons. 229 A big tree. 219, 274, 275, Glaciers. 276 Mt. Sir Donald. 453, 545, 548 Volcanoes. Our Great Cities 6 to 8 Boston, Mass. 25 to 32 New York City, N. Y. 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. 139, 140 Chicago, 111. 264 to 266 Quebec, Canada. 348 to 352 London, Eng. 421 to 425 Paris, France. 472 to 474 Constantinople, Turkey. 513 Hong Kong, China. What Our Government Does for Us 32 Ellis Island, N. Y. 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. 209, 210 Irrigation. 191 to 197 National Park. STUDIES OF VOCATIONS It is now agreed that older children should learn a great deal about various occupations before the time comes to choose one. The "600 Set " will enable the class to center attention upon each of the fol- lowing: COMPOSITION 257 Dairying 45 Washing 1000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, N. Y. 46 Filling and capping milk bottles, N. Y. 57 Milking, N. J. 159 Dairy barns and herd, Wis. 165 Holstein cattle, Minn. Engineering 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge. 170, 171 Power dam and generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 209, 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 248 to 256 Panama Canal. 330 Cofa Bridge, Peru. 569 The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. Farming 47 Picking and loading cantaloupes, N. Y. 137 " When the frost is on the pumpkin and the fodder's in the shock," Ind. 166 Potato digging, Minn. 178 Plowing, S. Dak. 179 Harrowing, N. Dak. 180 Manure spreader and tractor plowing, Neb. 177 Threshing, N. Dak. 199 Combined harvester, Col. 104 Rice fields, S. C. 112 Tobacco field, Ky. 117 Picking cotton, Miss. Fruit Raising 44 Spraying apple orchard, N. Y. 85 Gathering peaches, Del. 108 Pineapples, Fla. 175 Picking, sorting and packing apples, Mo. 236 Tokav grapes, Cal. 237, 238 Oranges, Cal. Lumbering 1 Loss from forest. Maine, 162 Load of logs, Minn. 215 Chained lo? rafts. Wash. 216 Lareest lumber mill in the world, Wash. 217 Shinmnsr lumber. Wash. 224 A great tree, Ore. Manufacturing 11, 12, 41 Shoe factory. 258 ENGLISH • 14 to 24 Textile mills. 42 Salt. 62 to 68 Iron and steel mills. 124, 125 Cotton gin. 1*1. to 133 Rubber works. 134, 135 Glass works. 150 to 153 Automobile factory. 34, 35, 270, 271 Sugar industry. 272 Tanning. Mining 74 to 79 Coal in Pennsylvania. 155 Copper, Michigan. 163 Iron, Minnesota. 214 Silver, Nevada. 225 Gold, California. 245, 246 Gold, Alaska. Oil 69, 70 Boring wells, Pennsylvania. 122, 123 Oil region, Texas. Stock Raising 127 Making a drive on the Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 138 Champion team of Percheron draft horses, Indiana. 140 World s greatest stock market, Chicago. 185 Hereford cattle, Kans. 186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kans. 188 Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, Montana. 190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. Truck Gardening and Marketing 7 Quincy market, Boston, Mass. 47 Picking and loading' cantalounes, N. Y. 149 Celery blanched by boards. Mich. 387 Market, Nuremburg, Germany. RECREATIONS People should play as well as work. The class will profit by com- paring the various ways of spending leisure shown in the stereographs ; Travel 39 Looking up the Hudson River, N. Y. 49, 50 Niagara Falls. N. Y. 96, 97 Mt. Vernon, Va. 102 Overlooking the Blue Ridge, N. C. 114 View from Lookout Mt., Tenn. 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park. COMPOSITION 259 200 to 202 Rocky Mts., Col. 206, 208 Colorado plateau and canyon, Ariz. 221 to 226 Oregon mountains and Columbia River. 228, 229 Yosemite Valley. 274 to 276 The Canadian Rockies. 354, 355, 356 Places connected with Shakespeare. 440 to 449 The Alps and Switzerland. 508 The Roof of the World, the Himalayas, India. Mountain Climbing 219 Crevasse on Mt. Ranier, Wash. 275 Among ice peaks on Illecillewait Glacier, Canada. 276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 440 Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. Seaside Resorts 60 In the surf, Atlantic City. 430 Cannes, France. Parades 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal, Can. 505 Stately elephants on parade, India. A Pageant 265 Tercentenary pageant, Quebec, Can. 98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, Va. 158, 168, 169 Hiawatha. Dancing and Music 290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls. 261 Pretty Hula girls, Hawaii. Hunting 577, 578 An hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, S. Africa. Drinking Tea 373 A highland home. Scotland. 534 In the land of flowers, Japan. In a Garden 535 Where little Japanese maids delight to stroll. DISCUSSION Several of the scenes suggest topics about which people hold different opinions. By using stereographs or slides, class conversations may easily be developed into orderly oral discussions, with speakers on each side; for example — 260 ENGLISH Which Is the Most Valuable Mineral? 76, 77, 129 Coal. 163, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 27 Iron. 155, 156 Copper. 225 Gold. 214 Silver. Which Is the Most Valuable Crop in the United States? In tHe World? 218 Wheat. 147 Oats. 184 Corn. 117 Cotton. 105, 529, 550 Rice. Which Is the Most Valuable Vegetable? 166 Potatoes. 198 Beets. 469 Onions. 118 Peanuts. 59 Celery. Which Is the Most Valuable Fruit? 85 Peaches. 44, 175 Apples. 108 Pineapples. 237, 238 Oranges. 47 Cantaloupes. 294 Bananas. 236, 390 Grapes. Which Is the Most Valuable Fighting Machine? 100 Battleship. 242 Submarine. 394 Zeppelin. Which Is the Strongest Building Material? Most Useful? Most Valuable? 216 Wood. 210 Stone. 253 Concrete. 3 Granite. 4 Marble. 62 Iron. 66 Steel. COMPOSITION 261 Which Feeds the Most People in the U. S.? In the World? 233 Wheat. 136 Corn. 550 Rice. 166 Potatoes. Which Is the Most Valuable Animal to Man? 159 Cow. 183 Hog. 190 Sheep. 138 Horse. 124 Mule. 246 Dog. 509 Elephant. 564 Camel. 411 Goat. 413 Reindeer. 56 Chicken. Which Fiber Is Most Useful for Clothing? 117 Cotton. 269 Linen. 22 Silk. 17 Wool. Which Canal Carries the Most Traffic? Cost the Most? Most Valuable to the U. S.? Most Valuable to the World? 247 to 256 Panama Canal. 559 Suez Canal. 154 "Soo" Canal. Have the Indians Been Badly Treated? 98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, Va. 182 Mounted Sioux Indians. 204 Ute Indian and family. 211 Pueblo of Taos Indians. Where Is the Best Place to Live, Country, Village, City? 38 A charming landscape, Hudson Valley. 96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon. 181 Farm of William J. Bryan. 262 " On the shores of the Basin of Minas," Can. 25 to 31 New York City. THE STORY OF IT Some pictures at once suggest a story, anecdote, or historical ac- count. Let the pupils vie with each other in holding the interest of the class by their narratives in the case of the following: 262 ENGLISH 6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. 48 Erie Canal, N. Y. 72 A woodcock on nest, Pa. 80 Liberty Bell, Philadelphia, Pa. 98 Pocahontas. 126 The Alamo. 296 Battleship Maine. 342 Perry expedition. 346 Roald Amundsen. 235 Luther Burbank. 451 St. Peter's Cathedral. 452 Coliseum. 466 Sarajevo. 564 Nile. 567 Caravan. PUTTING YOUR READER THERE Making another see and feel what he would see and feel if he were present at a certain place at a certain time, is not easy, especially if you depend upon words. Nevertheless, the pupils will enjoy trying to picture a few of the scenes. Warn them to use concrete specific words. 186 Roping a cow. 189 Wild elk. 276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 243 Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 245 Placer Mining, Alaska. 354, 356 Stratford on Avon, England. 390, to 392 The River Rhine, Germany. 525 Fujiyama, Japan. 444, 445, 446, 448 Switzerland. 484 Bell market Nizhni Novgorod. 505 Indian princes on parade. 510 Elephant hunt. 577, 578 Hippopotamus hunt. 581 Diamond Mine. "HIKING" REPORTS Oral or written reports of scenes visited, observation made, and ex- periences enjoyed on "hikes" offer a splendid basis for English com- position. These stereoscopic views are so vividly real that in studying them one may well feel himself a part of the scene. He can thus write on the story of the "hike" with all the reality of the actual visit. For definite selections for this purpose see topic of Hikes in classifica- tion on Outdoor Life. BUSINESS LETTERS The Keystone " 600 Set " provides scenes which suggest business activities in practically every phase of life in all parts BUSINESS LETTERS 263 of the world. The thoughtful study of the stereograph by the pupil arouses interest, and stimulates his imagination to deal with the subject as though it were a real experience. The ac- companying text supplies the necessary facts. The sugges- tions herewith given call for letters which direct thought into channels of practical application and at the same time furnish the basis for an excellent drill in the use of correct English. 28 World Building. Write a letter enclosing a check or money order for a year's subscription to the New York World. 79 Shipping coal. Write an anthracite coal company in Ashley, Pa., and order a carload of anthracite coal (chestnut) to be sent to you in August. 52 Great ocean liners. Write to a steamship company at Hoboken, N. J., and ask for a position as wireless operator on one of their boats. State age, qualifications, experience. 47 Loading cantaloupes. A boy's father gave him a piece of land upon which he raised Rocky Ford muskmelons. He sold 50 boxes of the fruit fresh and of standard size to a commission merchant in Pittsburgh, Pa. Write the letter in which he of- fered the fruit for sale. 56, 1500 Hens. Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, New Jersey, enclosing one and one quarter dollars, for a setting of selected eggs. Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, N. J., and order 100 dozen eggs at fifty cents a dozen. Enclose check. 45 1000 lbs. of butter. Offer to some wholesale dealer in Buffalo, N. Y., this 1000 lbs of butter .'reshly churned from sweet cream. Tell that it will be done up in waxed paper, in cardboard boxes, each box containing one pound. 55 Weaving silk ribbons. Order from Marshall Field Co. (view 139) five yards of ribbon like enclosed sample. Also enclose check or money order. 11 Shoe factory. Write to the Lynn Shoe Co., Lynn, Mass., and say that you are a skilled shoe cutter, and ask if they have any places open in their leather cutting department. 38, 39 Along Hudson River. Write to a Hudson River Steamboat Co. for rates from New York City to Albany. Ask for illus- trated booklet and enclose stamps. 44 Spraying in apple orchard. Write to the Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C, and ask what is best to use for spraying apple trees in the summer time. Send a sample of a diseased apple tree to your state agricultural department. Ask what is the matter and what you caw do for it. Write to a farmer you know saying that you have gone into the business of caring for orchards and would like to spray and trim his trees. 58 Firing tableware, Trenton. Write to a pottery company in Tren- ton, N. J., and tell them that you received their letter of the 264 ENGLISH 10th of last month saying that the goods had been shipped. Tell them that the shipment has not reached you aYid ask them if they will try to trace it. 60 In the surf, Atlantic City. Write to the proprietor of a great hotel in Atlantic City to reserve for you two rooms with baths, for the second week in July. You want rooms overlook- ing the sea. 69, 70 Oil well. Write to an oil driller living in Oil City, Pa., and ask him what will be the earliest time when he can drill on your farm 10 miles north of Oil City. 2 Wild moose. Write a letter to a guide in Moosehead, Me., asking him about arrangements and expenses for a two weeks' hunting trip through Maine woods. You wish to hunt in No- vember. 82 Baldwin Locomotive Works. Write a letter to yourself from the general superintendent of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, ask- ing you to call at his office as soon as possible. 85 Gathering peaches. Write to a man in Woodside, Del. Ask him if he will have any peaches like those he sold you last year and if so, how many. 88 Joint session Congress. Write to your congressman asking for some government seeds. 90 View from State Building. Write to the State Department, Wash- ington, D. C, giving your age, stating that you are a natural- born citizen of the United States, that you wish to go to South America, and asking for a passport. 21 Manufacturing jewelry. Write to a jewelry firm in Providence, R. I., asking for designs and prices for class rings. The rings are to bear the initials of your school and the year when you graduate. 25, 30 New York. Write to a great hotel in New York City asking to have reserved for you an outside room with bath. Give time when you will arrive and leave. 115. Mining phosphate. Order a carload of phosphate from Colum- bia, Tenn. 118 Harvesting peanuts. Your father gave you 100 lbs. of peanuts. Write a letter to a firm in Little Rock, Ark., offering them for sale. 127, 186 Paloduro and Geneseo ranches. Write to some man on the Paloduro Ranch, Palodura, Tex., and offer him a place as superintendent of your ranch at Geneseo, Kan. 130 Tapping maple tree. Offer a commission firm in Cincinnati 150 gallons of maple syrup. Say that it was made from the first run of sap, is of standard weight and of the finest quality, put up in gallon tin cans and that your price is $1.50 per gallon. Order the syrup to be sent to you by freight. Enclose a check for the amount. BUSINESS LETTERS 265 132 Goodrich rubber factory. Ask for a position as bookkeeper in the Goodrich Rubber Co., Akron, O. 138 Percheron draft horses. Write a very nice note requesting some one to pay you the remaining $125.00 which he still owes on the team of Percheron draft horses which he purchased from you on June 12 of last year. Write the answer to the above letter. 142, 144 Packing house scenes. Order from Swift & Co., Chicago, 111., 500 lbs. of fresh sausage and 1000 lbs. of lard. 143 Trimming hams. Order from Armour & Co., Chicago, 111., 500 lbs. ham and eight hind quarters of prime western beef. 150 Assembling room, automobile plant. Write a note to a man you know asking him to set a time when you may call and show him an automobile you are selling. 151 Cadillac automobile plant. Send a note to the Cadillac agent in your town telling him that your new machine is not acting right and ask if he will send a man to attend to it. 166 Digging potatoes. Write to a firm in Minneapolis describing 200 bushels of potatoes and offering them for sale. They are large, smooth, of the Early Ohio variety. 172 Hogs in rape pasture. Your father promised you half the money obtained from the hogs on the farm. Write to the agricultural department of your state for information concerning the raising of hogs. Write to your state experiment station for bulletins on same topic. 175 Picking apples. This boy has ten barrels of apples as his own. Write to a commission house in Chicago describing variety, method of growing, picking, sorting and packing. 178, 179 Tractors in operation. Write to your agent in Watertown, S. Dak., telling him that at the beginning of the next month the price of all tractors will advance 5%. 180 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., for catalogues. 181 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., saying wheel on tractor broke and you are sending it to be repaired or replaced. 184 Corn field, Kansas. Write to a real estate firm in Atchison, Kan- sas, asking if they know of a good farm for sale. You wish a good grain farm. 184, 136 Corn fields. Write to the director of your corn club saying that you planted one acre of corn, doing the plowing, harrow- ing, planting, cultivating and harvesting yourself without help. Also state that your yield is 125 bushels of shelled corn. 190 Sheep on range. Offer Cudahy & Co., Omaha, 10,000 sheep de- livered at railroad in Grangersville, Ida., Sept. 1. 191 Yellowstone National Park. Write to Superintendent of Yellow- stone Park for trip books. 266 ENGLISH 198 Cultivating sugar beets. Write to a beet sugar company in Greeley, Col., asking prices per ton for raw sugar. 199 Colorado barley field. Write to your agent in Fort Collins, Col., asking bim to buy and ship to you in Chicago, all the barley that he can get up to 100,000 bu. 220 Seattle. Write to Traffic Manager of the Northern Pacific R. R., Chicago, 111., asking for information concerning a trip to Alaska. 234 Harvesting almonds. Write to a commission merchant in San Francisco offering 20 sacks of large, thin-shelled almonds for sale. 236 238 Orange trees. Order from a firm in Los Angeles 100 boxes of navel oranges and 50 barrels of Tokay grapes. 239 Cawston ostrich farm. Order four natural ostrich feathers at three dollars each from the Cawston Ostrich Farm, Cal. En- close check or money order. 264, 265 Quebec; 267 Montreal. Write to Canada steamship lines, enclosing 2c postage for map and guide for trip down St. Law- rence River from Niagara to Quebec. 289 Sisal hemp field. Write to your agent in Merida, Yucatan, telling him to buy and ship to you 1000 lbs. of sisal hemp fiber. 310, 311 Sao Paulo coffee scenes. Write to the American Consul in Sao Paulo asking information as to coffee crop, prices, etc. 314 to 321 Argentine views. Write to the President of the Pan- American Union, Washington, D. C, asking for pamphlets giv- ing information concerning Argentine. 546 to 551 Philippine views. Write to the Commissioner of Educa- tion, Washington, D. C, asking for a position as teacher in the Philippines. Give your qualifications and experience. AGRICULTURE INTRODUCTION By CHARLES F. CURTISS, M.S.A., D.S. DEAN DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERI- MENT STATION, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA. " At the head of all the sciences and arts, at the head of civilization and progress, stands — not militarism, the science that kills, not com- merce, the art that accumulates wealth — but agriculture, the mother of all industry and the maintainer of human life." Never before in the history of the world has so much de- pended upon intelligent, efficient, and well conducted agricul- ture. The great International war has not only brought about a marked shortage of food stuffs which is world-wide in its scope, but the determination of the outcome and results of the war promise to depend quite as much on the industrial forces as upon military achievement. Chief among the industrial forces of all of the great nations are those relating to the pro- duction of food and clothing. Agriculture has taken on a new significance throughout the world in recent years. Improved machinery, motive power and transportation facilities have tre- mendously increased production and widened the market for agricultural products. One hundred years ago it was neces- sary, under conditions then existing in the United States, for about ninety per cent of all of the population to engage in agricultural occupations in order to maintain a production that would meet the needs of the country and sustain the population. Even as late as fifty years ago, about two-thirds of the population of the United States was engaged in agri- cultural pursuits. Today, scarcely more than one-third of our population is engaged in farming and, notwithstanding this marked change and the tremendous increase of city popula- tion, agricultural production has made great advance and the farms have, until within the past few seasons, not only yielded abundantly for our own population, but a large surplus has 267 268 AGRICULTURE been exported to foreign markets. The great development of the manufacturing and commercial interests of the country, coupled with the demands growing out of the war, has created new economic conditions that have given to agriculture and to food production a new significance and a larger importance throughout the world. The agricultural problem has become a national problem, not only in the United States, but in for- eign countries as well. Government aid and encouragement in agriculture, as well as government direction and control of the distribution of food products on a fair and economical basis, will come about as an immediate result of the war conditions, but many of the policies inaugurated will have per- manent results. There is wide recognition of the need of thorough and effi- cient training for agriculture. This demand has become well nigh universal. Agriculture and home economics, or house- hold science, are now required subjects in the public schools of most of the states, but the Smith-Hughes bill passed by the Congress provides an extensive and far-reaching system of federal aid for vocational education that will give a tremendous stimulus to industrial education in the United States. Agriculture, home economics, and the trades and in- dustries are to constitute the basis of the system of industrial education fostered by the government under this measure. It is probable that this policy will eventually exert greater influ- ence upon the educational system of the United States than any federal legislation that has ever been enacted. Agriculture is a highly concrete, practical and definite subject. Agricul- tural education must be based upon principles and practice that are scientifically sound, and strong work in science should support all agricultural training, yet it is well known that agricultural education made but little progress until it was definitely connected up with concrete problems, in a practical way. This is one of the vital and most difficult problems that is encountered in extending agricultural instruction into the public school system of the United States. The Keystone View Company's " 600 Set " of stereographs and lantern slides cover a wide range of most interesting material relating to agri- cultural education, and they will be of great service in effec- tually visualizing agricultural conditions and processes. 19. SOILS By ALFRED VIVIAN, Ph.G. DEAN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS. O. PRESIDENT BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR STATE OF OHIO Without the soil we could not be living in this world today. The food which you eat could not be produced if there was no soil, for the plants which make the food for animals, in their turn derive all their nourishment from the soil. So, you see, the soil is after all very important to mankind. We are so familiar with the soil as it now exists that most of us do not stop to consider that it was ever anything differ- ent, but it has really taken a long time for Nature to form what we call the soil, and in doing so she has employed the wonderful agencies about which something will be said in this article. Most of you know that if you dig down deep into the soil you will come to solid rock. Sometimes rock is reached a few inches below the surface, and again you must dig many feet before you come to it, but sooner or later you are sure to find a bed of stone. Soils consist for the most part of very fine particles of rock (rock powder) mixed with a small quantity of organic matter; i.e. the remains of plants which have formerly grown upon the land, and which have partially decayed or rotted in the soil. The rock powder was formed by the pulverization of the original rocks of the earth's surface, the grinding of the rocks being due to several forces. 1. SOIL MAKERS (a) Action of Weathering The alternate action of heat and cold upon the rock, especially when the rock is saturated with water, causes the rock to crack, and small pieces to chip off. These pieces in their turn are made smaller and smaller by the same action of heat and cold, freezing and thawing. Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces, 269 270 AGR.— SOILS 191 Yellowstone. Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces. 208 The Grand Canyon affords wonderful examples of weathering. 322 Chilean Andes. The softer parts of the stone are worn away first, leaving the harder points. 330 Cordilleras Mts., Peru. The bits of rock which are split off slide into the streams, and are carried away to form a soil elsewhere. 382 Giant's Causeway. The waves of the ocean also wear away the rocks. 440 Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. Note the fine material loosened by weathering, which is sliding down into the valley below. (b) Action of Running Water Running water grinds the rock into flour, especially if the stream is swift enough to carry particles of sand or gravel which rub against each other and against the bed of the stream until the rock is worn away and ground to a powder. In this way deep valleys are some- times cut into the surface of the earth, and the fine material is carried away to form a soil at some other place. 49 The water in Niagara Falls is gradually wearing away the face of the cliff over which it runs. 51 Palisades. Running water carves deep valleys in the face of the earth. 197 Yellowstone. This deep valley has been formed by running water. 208 Grand Canyon. The combined action of weathering and running water has formed this canyon, which is a mile in depth. 228 Yosemite. The material carried away by the streams is deposited somewhere to form a soil. 363 Bettws-y-Coed, Wales. When the stream is swift enough to carry boulders it wears the rocks more rapidly. 576 Victoria Falls. Such a rush of water carries large quantities of soil making material. (c) Action of Glaciers Another agency which helps to grind the rocks is moving ice in the form of glaciers. As the glacier moves along, it carries with it large quantities of rocks, grinding them against each other until they are reduced to particles of various degrees of fineness. When this ma- terial reaches the melting end of the glacier it is deposited, and the finest of the material is carried away by the glacial stream. A large part of the northern United States was once covered by a great gla- cier. 219 Paradise Glacier. The northern part of the United States was once all covered with a sheet of ice much thicker than this. 221 Mt. Hood. The glaciers of the present day give some idea of the action of the great glacier. 274 Victoria Glacier. Note the rock material which the glacier is carrying with it and which will be deposited at the end of the glacier as the ice melts. TYPES OF SOILS 271 275 Illecillewaet Glacier. The ice sheet in some of the glaciers is very thick and has great grinding power. 276 Mt. Sir Donald. The action of weathering, running water and glaciers can all be seen in this picture. 427 Glacier des Bossoms. Note the amount of material which has been carried down by the glacier. A young forest is growing on part of the " moraine." 428 Mer de Glace. Such a sheet of ice has great power to pulverize stone. 446 Switzerland is noted for its wonderful glaciers. 448 Showing the sharp weathered point of the Matterhorn with the glaciers at its base. (d) Action of the Wind The wind carrying particles of dust and sand and hurling them against the rocks gradually carves the rocks into odd shapes and grinds them to powder. 200 Phoebe's Arch, Palmer Lake, Col. The wind carried particles of sand which wear away the softer parts of the rock. 201 Garden of the Gods. The wind carves the rocks into fantastic shapes. (e) Action of Volcanoes, etc. To a more limited extent volcanoes take part in soil formation by means of the ashes and lava which they throw out during eruptions. The soluble materials brought up by the hot springs, and the mechan- ical action of the earthquakes are of minor importance. 453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils consist almost entirely of lava from the volcanoes. 222 Crater Lake. The crater of an extinct volcano gradually being filled by the weathering of the side walls. 192 Yellowstone. The soluble material in the water of the hot springs is deposited as the water cools. 194 Old Faithful Geyser. Note the cone formed by the material de- posited from the water of the geyser. 300, 231 Earthquake fissures. In some few cases the surface of the soil is affected by earthquake action. 2. TYPES OF SOILS (a) Classification as to Origin Soils are designated as " residual," when the soils are formed from the underlying rock without being moved away or as " transported," when they are deposited at some distance from the rock from which they are formed. 515 Yangtze River. Soils which are transported by water and are deposited in the river valley are called " alluvial " soils. They are generally rich soils. 114 Tennessee River; 321 Mendoza River. The flat land near the river consists of alluvial soils. 272 AGR.— SOILS 262 Acadian Land. The alluvial soils of the lowlands are generally very productive. 408 Jordal Valley, Norway. In mountainous countries only the soil in the bottom of the valleys can be cultivated. 427 Chamonix, France. Soils which are transported by glaciers are known as " drift " soils. They usually contain much gravel composed of round particles of stone. Note the accumulation of " drift " at the foot of the glacier. 275 Illecillewaet Glacier. Soils which are transported by the wind are known as " loess " soils. A large part of the soils in the corn belt of the United States consist of loess. Note in this picture the particles of dust which the wind has deposited even at the top of the glacier. 322 Inca Lake, Chile. Lakes are gradually filled by the soil washed down from the surrounding high lands. 453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils are formed directly from the ashes and lava deposited by volcanic action. (b) Classification as to Composition Soils consist largely of four ingredients, sand, silt, clay and organic matter. When they contain considerable amounts of organic matter they are known as " loams." The individual particles of clay are very fine and a soil consisting largely of clay is very sticky when wet and very hard when dry. It is the most difficult soil to cultivate. Sand is lacking in plant food. The silt particle is intermediate in size be- tween sand and clay. Some of the best soils contain a large proportion of silt. The organic matter consists largely of the more or less decayed remains of plants which have formerly grown on the soil. Soils are given various names, depending on the relative amounts of the four ingredients which they contain, such as sandy, sandy clay, silty, clay, sandy loam, clay loam, silty loam, etc. Soils which are very high in organic matter are called peat or muck soils. 72 Fallen leaves decay, making rich soil. 357 Wheat thrives on a clay loam soil with rather a high proportion of clay. Farmers sometimes speak of such soils as " strong " soils. Wheat must have an abundance of available plant food. 147 Oats will grow in a variety of soils, but do best in a cool climate. 136 Indian corn, or maize, thrives on a loose, fertile, well-drained soil. It is at home in the silty loam soils, such as the loess of the corn belt. 47 Melons are usually grown on sandy loams. They will stand a large proportion of sand. 149 Harvesting celery. The soils formed in swamps and the bottoms of old lake beds usually contain a large percentage of organic matter and are called muck soils. They are adapted to celery and onions. Such soils must be well drained. 223 Sand dunes. Very sandy soils are so loose that they drift before the wind and are difficult to control. They are also very low in plant food. 183 Alfalfa. Such plants as clover and alfalfa will grow only in soils SOIL MANAGEMENT 273 which contain an abundance of limestone. If limestone is lack- ing in the soil it must be added before these crops can be grown. Soils formed from limestone are usually very fertile. 3. SOIL MANAGEMENT (a) Clearing the Land A large part of the cultivated land of the world was at one time covered by forests, and the trees had to be removed before the ground could be tilled and planted. 224 Felling tree, Oregon. Much labor and expense is involved in clearing such a piece of land. 72 The decaying vegetation made a rich soil. (b) Tillage — Plowing The oldest and most important tillage operation is that of plowing. The effect is to loosen the soil and to turn under manures and rubbish. The plow is the oldest tillage implement, varying from the ancient crooked stick to the modern gang plow with its steel mold-board. 561 The plow of Egypt is as old as the Pyramids themselves. 298 Cuban plow. The first plow was merely a pointed stick. 522 The agriculture of China is very ancient, but its plow is still the pointed stick. 488 Russian plowing. This plow is better than the pointed stick be- cause it will turn a furrow. 178 Tractor plow. The modern steel plow turns the soil and leaves it in much better condition than does the ancient plow. (c) Tillage — Harrowing After the land is plowed the harrow is used to break the clods and make the surface smooth. 179 Making good seed bed. The soil should be thoroughly pulverized after it is plowed. 332 Preparing the soil, Peru. Note the fine condition of the seed bed. 549 Filipino harrowing rice field. For rice the land is sometimes harrowed under water. (d) Tillage — Cultivation Certain crops are planted in rows and the soil is hoed and otherwise cultivated between the rows in order to kill the weeds, and to prevent the loss of moisture by forming a layer of loose soil on the surface (" dust mulch "). 105 Hoeing rice. The hand hoe is an effective implement with which to destroy weeds. 198 Cultivating beets. The horse cultivator covers the ground much faster than can be done by hand. 419 Women weeding beets. Hand weeding is necessary with some crops. 207 This cultivator is a most modern machine. (e) Tillage — Dry Farming In regions of scanty rainfall, crops are sometimes grown every other year, the surface of the soil being constantly stirred during the nor 274 AGR.— SOILS cropping year so as to conserve the moisture of two years for one crop. 199 Barley raised by dry farming method. Dry farming greatly in- creases the crop yield in areas of scanty rainfall. (f) Irrigation Growing crops use enormous quantities of water, 900 tons or more to the acre. In lands of insufficient rainfall the fields are artificially irrigated and in many places large dams and reservoirs are constructed to supply the water. Some crops like rice have to be flooded with water during a part of the growing season. 569 Assuan Dam. This great dam was built to provide water to irri- gate the farms in the Nile valley. 237, 284 Irrigation ditches. 209 Results of irrigating, Arizona. 104 Rice land is covered with water during part of the growing season. 528 Note the patches of rice which are growing in the standing water. (g) Drainage Some soils contain so much water that the excess must be removed by means of ditches or tile drains. In Holland the water is collected in canals and pumped out by windmill power. 161 Reclaiming swamp land. 399 The canals of Holland serve to drain the land and are also used ' for transportation. (h) Fertilizing — Farm Manures Constant cropping removes the plant food from the soil, and if more food is not added the soil soon fails to produce a profitable crop. Much of the plant food removed by the crops can be returned to the soil if the manure of the farm animals is spread on the ground and plowed under. When the crops are fed in the field, as in the case of " hogging down " corn or pasturing sheep and other animals, the manure is left on the ground and helps to maintain the fertility of the soil. 159, 165 Group of dairy barns. The manure from cattle is the best fertilizer. 57 The dairy cow is a great help in fertilizing the soil. 180 The manure spreader is almost indispensable on a farm. 183 Hogs in alfalfa pasture. A good way to maintain fertility is to feed the crops in the ground. This is what is known as " hog- ging down " alfalfa. 172 Hogs in rape field. This field will produce a large crop following the " hogging down " of the rape. 173 Sheep are said to have the " golden hoof " because the ground is thought to be more fertile after they are pastured on it. 480 Sheep on Argive plains. These old fields would be still less fer- tile if it were not for the flocks of sheep. (i) Green Manures — Leguminous Plants Green crops plowed under help to keep the soil fertile. Leguminous plants such as clover and alfalfa can by means of the bacteria which CROP RESULTS 275 grow in the nodules on their roots fix the nitrogen of the air and when plowed under they greatly enrich the soil. 181 Nebraska. When alfalfa land is plowed it is found to grow better crops than before the alfalfa was planted. (j) Fertilizing — Commercial Fertilizers In many cases it is necessary to buy commercial forms of plant food if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. This is especially true of phosphorus as it is sold from the farm in the grains, in milk, and in the bones of animals. Bone meal from the packing houses is used to supply phosphorus for fertilizers, but more of it comes from the so-called phosphate rocks which are found in several of the States. 115 Mining phosphate. Deposits of phosphate rock are found in sev- eral places in this country. (k) Crop Results Careful observance of the practices which maintain the fertility of the soil make it possible to produce large crops continuously. 357 Wheat. England by careful fertilizing still produces large crops of wheat, although her land has been farmed for centuries. 149. Celery. The right conditions of moisture and plant food make large crops possible. 237 The orange growers of California know that they must irrigate and fertilize to obtain large crops. 47 Melons. In addition to plenty of water and plant food such a melon crop demands warmth and sunlight. 108 Pineapples. Such crops are not produced by accident, but are the results of following the laws of good husbandry. 20. FARM CROPS By W. M. JARDINE, B.S.A., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN. All children know that animals require food, water, air and warmth but they do not know so generally that plants also must have food, water, air, and warmth. Neither do they un- derstand the importance of plant life. All animal life, includ- ing human beings, is dependent upon plant life. The greater part of the food of both mankind and animals is vegetable. The meat that we eat is first derived from plants because the animals from which it is obtained live on plants. Without plants no animal could live; therefore, the culture of plants is the most important phase of agriculture. Plants get their food from the soil and the air through roots and leaves. The leaves of the plant take food material from the air in the form of gas. The water in the soil absorbs plant food materials. This water is absorbed by the roots of the plant and the food materials are converted into plant tis- sues to serve, in turn, as food for animals. The plant secures all its water and ash and part of its organic matter from the soil through its roots. The soil then is very necessary to plant growth. All soils are not alike. By referring to the chapter entitled Soils, it will be found that soils differ in mode of formation and in the materials from which they are formed. Soils also differ in fertility and moisture holding power, and consequently in their ability to produce crops. It is not enough that there be plant food in abundance in the soil. This food must be in a form available for plant use. It is largely the business of the farmer who produces crops to handle the soil in such manner as to provide food in a form readily available for plant use. This may be accomplished by tilling or cultivating the soil and by supplying plant food to the soil. 27G FARM CROPS 277 CROP PRODUCTION Let us notice the steps in the process of producing and caring for a farm crop. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL The first thing necessary is to loosen the soil so that it may become permeated with air and warmth and absorb rain quickly ; also that the roots of plants may penetrate it easily. This is generally done by plow- ing. The soil must not be too loose, however, or it will not retain moisture. It must not be too rough or the seeds cannot be covered evenly. The lumps or clods must be broken finely and the surface made smooth before the seed is planted. A carefully prepared seed-bed will contain moisture and food read3'- for the plant. It will be sufficiently warm for seeds to germinate and loose enough for the roots of the young plants to penetrate readily. The following views show different means of preparing land for the planting of crops. i. Primitive Methods 561 Egypt ; 522, China ; 488, Russia. 2. Modern Methods 136, 398 The horse is a very important source of native power on the farm. 178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor. 179, 332 Clods of earth should be broken finely. 549 Even soil of flooded areas should be prepared. 161 For most crops excessive moisture must be removed. 180 Fertilizing manure spread evenly on the land and plowed under enriches the soil. 159, 165, 358, 364. 173 The best system of farming includes the keeping of live stock on the farm. 166 Rotation of crops is important in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Potatoes leave the soil in excellent condition for other crops, especially small grains. This is the same farm as shown in view 165, originally a potato farm ; the dairy was added to maintain fertility. PLANTING After the soil has been prepared as in view 179, the seed may be planted. The seed must be covered deep enough to get plenty of mois- ture to germinate it, but not so deep that air will be excluded. The young plants soon begin to make use of the light and air in preparing a part of their own food. CULTIVATION Some crops are planted in rows some distance apart and these crops require cultivation. Cultivation has a threefold purpose, viz., to de- 278 AGRICULTURE stroy weeds, to conserve moisture, and to make the plant food in the soil ready for use by the plant. Cultivation may be done by hand or by various types of horse cultivators. Crops planted thickly such as wheat and oats, tend to keep out the weeds ; the protection of the ground from sun and wind tends to prevent escape of moisture from the surface, consequently crops so planted do not require cultivation. In regions where there is little rainfall, dry-farming is practiced. Under this system land is sometimes planted to crops only one season in two years. The season no crop is grown on the land, moisture is conserved by cultivation at frequent intervals. Frequent cultivation keeps the surface soil in a loose condition so that all moisture that falls is absorbed readily and prevents evaporation from the surface. In dry- farming cultivation is done chiefly to conserve moisture. 419 Women cultivating sugar beets by hand. 105 Another method of cultivating crops by hand. 198 Most of the cultivation of farm crops is done by means of the horse cultivator. 184 Corn — the greatest cultivated crop in America. 207 Cultivating a field of cotton in Arizona. 235 In arid regions special crops are produced which have the power to grow with little rainfall and withstand long periods of drouth. HARVESTING After the crop has reached a certain size cultivation ceases and it is left to develop naturally until it is ripe or mature enough to harvest. Methods of harvesting different crops vary greatly as is shown in the following list of farm crops and in the classification on Production and Manufacturing. THRESHING, STORING, MANUFACTURING The handling of crops after harvest also varies greatly as will be seen by a study of some of the most important farm crops. IMPORTANT FARM CROPS Wheat and Barley Wheat is grown most extensively on the fertile prairie soils of America and Europe. The United States and Russia are the greatest wheat producing countries of the world. The leading wheat producing states of the United States are North Dakota, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Washington, and South Dakota. Wheat is used chiefly for human food because it is the best grain for making light bread. Wheat is usually grown in large fields and most of the work is done by ma-. chinery. In the following views it will be noticed that the men are doing very little work by hand. 178. 179 Show how the land is prepared before the seed is sown. 357 Harvesting wheat with the self-binder. This machine cuts the wheat, makes it into neat bundles, and ties a string around the bundle. FARM CROPS 279 199 This machine cuts off the heads of barley, leaving the straw to be plowed under. 147 Wheat is hauled in this way to the stack or threshing machine. 177 Threshing wheat. Mountains of straw from which the grain has been removed. 233 In some dry sections wheat can be cut and threshed at one opera- tion. California. 218 Harvesting wheat in Washington — Combined reaper and thresher. 479 Greece ; 497, 498 Palestine — Primitive methods. Corn Corn is the king of cereals. The average annual world's production is over 3.7 billion bushels which exceeds the yield of wheat, rice, or any other cereal. Corn is a native of America. The United States produces an average of over 2.7 billion bushels. This is over fourteen times as much as any other country in the world produces, and forms nearly three-fourths of the world's supply of corn. Other corn pro- ducing countries are Roumania, Egypt, Austria-Hungary, Argentine, Mexico, Italy, Russia, and Canada. Over half of the corn crop of the world is produced in the seven states : Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Mis- souri, Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas. 184 A field of corn in Kansas. 136, 160 Modern methods of harvesting corn. 165, 159 Corn put into the silo and fed to stock yields a good profit and the manure from the stock aids in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Rice Rice is an important article of food for nearly half of the population of the world. It furnishes the principal food for more people than any other one crop. Rice is grown only in warm sections. India, China, Japan, Siam, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, East Indies, and the Philippine Islands produce most of the rice of the world. In the United States, rice is grown chiefly in South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Rice, unlike any other grain, grows best when the plants are partially covered with water. It is therefore necessary that the land be very level so that the water will stand at an even depth over the field. Rice may be sown like wheat on well pre- pared land and water turned on the field after the plants get well started to grow. In some countries rice is planted in mud and water, or the plants are grown in small beds and transplanted into the mud just as we set out cabbage or tomato plants. The ground is kept cov- ered with water until the crop begins to ripen when it is drained off and the field allowed to dry before time to harvest the crop. In some rice growing sections, water is not left on the field con- tinuously. Sometimes there are three applications of water. The " sprout water " is applied as soon as the seed is planted and is left on only a few days. The " stretch water " is applied when the plants have two leaves and is left on about 30 days. When this water is turned off 280 AGRICULTURE the field is allowed to dry and the weeds and grass are hoed from among the plants. View 105 shows a field in South Carolina receiving this cultivation. After the plants begin to joint a third and final appli- cation of water is made. This is the " loyby flow " and is left on until the plants are mature. 549 Filipino farmers preparing land for rice. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 104 Irrigation of rice fields from canals. 530 Rice fields under irrigation. 105 Hoeing weeds and grass from among the rice plants before the water is turned on. 529 Harvesting rice just as wheat but in many countries primitive methods are still used. 527 Primitive method of threshing grain. 550 Removing rough hulls from the grain before use as human food. Oats Oats are an important farm crop. They are grown extensively in the cooler part of the United States, in Canada and in Europe. 408 Oats growing in Norway within sight of a glacier. (Note method of curing hay in foreground.) 147 Harvesting oats in the corn belt — Illinois. Sugar Practically all the sugar of the world is made from two plants, sugar cane and the sugar beet. Each of these produce about one- half the supply. Sugar cane is a tall, coarse-growing plant raised chiefly in British India, Cuba, Java, Hawaiian Islands, Philippine Is- lands, the United States, and South America. In the United States it is grown chiefly in Louisiana and Texas. Sugar cane is started by laying a continuous line of stalks in a row and covering them. New plants start from the joints and grow to a height of 8 to 15 feet. When mature the plants are cut and the tops and heavy leaves re- moved. The stalks are hauled to the factory and the juice pressed from them by means of heavy rollers. The juice is purified and heated to drive off the water. It then crystallizes into sugar. 332 Preparing the soil for sugar cane. Tractor drawing harrow and pulverizer, Peru, South America. 333 Replanting cane. Young cane plants will sprout up from the joints of stalks planted in furrows. 258 Cutting the sugar cane. A hundred years ago the sugar beet contained only 6 to 8 per cent, of sugar. By carefully selecting each year and planting for seed those beets which contained the highest per cent, of sugar, a type of beet has been developed which contains 16 per cent, or more of sugar. The leading countries in the production of sugar bjeets are Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and the United States. The beets are planted in rows and cultivated and hoed as are garden beets. When FARM CROPS 281 ready for harvest they are pulled, the tops removed and the roots hauled to the factory. Here the roots are sliced finely and the sweet juice removed. From this juice sugar is made. 419 Cultivating beets, Sweden. The young plants require careful at- tention. 198 Cultivating beets, Colo. When the plants become larger a two- horse cultivator is used. 270 Beets stored in sheds with V-shaped bins having canals underneath to carry them to the washing drum. 271 Beet pulp and juice flowing into large iron tanks where the sugar is removed from the pulp by water. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from the drying kiln. 185 Cattle are fed on the pulp of the sugar beets from which the sweet juice has been removed. Tobacco As a field crop, tobacco was first grown in Virginia in 1612. The world crop amounts to about 2.5 billion pounds of which nearly one billion is produced in the United States. Other countries which pro- duce tobacco are British India, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Japan, and the islands of Cuba and Java. 112 A tobacco field in Kentucky. 297 Harvesting tobacco, Havana Province, Cuba. Tobacco must be cut and the leaves hung up carefully to cure. The quality of tobacco is improved by growing the plants in partial shade, hence the companion crop of banana plants. In Florida it is some- times grown under sheds with partial roofs ; in Connecticut many acres are grown under canvas. Cotton Cotton is the greatest of all fiber crops. Most of the clothing of mankind is made from cotton. Cotton is grown only in warm cli- mates. Over three-fourths of all the cotton in the world is produced in the United States south of a line drawn from Norfolk, Virginia, to Memphis, Tennessee, thence west to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and El Paso, Texas. In the United States cotton is exceeded in value only by corn and hay. Other countries important in the production of cotton are India, Egypt, and China. Much of the labor of raising cotton is done by hand. The crop is planted in rows much like corn. After the plants are three or four weeks old they are thinned to the desired stand. This must be done by hand. The crop is cultivated several times and usually hoed. When mature the cotton is picked by hand and hauled to the gin where the seeds are separated from the lint and the latter put into large bales weighing about 500 pounds each ^>nd bound with iron bands. 207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 124 Loads of cotton ready for the gin. 119 Bales of cotton at the wharf ready for shipment. 282 AGRICULTURE An important fiber crop is hemp which furnishes material for making such articles as ropes, burlap, binding twine, and mats. Sisal hemp comes chiefly from the fiber of henequen, a plant which grows in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and somewhat in Florida and in Africa. Henequen is very much like our century plant and grows on land that is apparently worthless for other crops. Hemp Manila hemp is derived from plantain, a tree-like plant (abaca) of the banana family which grows in the Philippine Islands. Shawls are made from the finer fiber of plantain and ropes from the coarser fiber. Our binder twine and much of our other cordage is made from the henequen or sisal hemp plant. 289 Old henequen plants from which many leaves have been removed for the manufacture of the sisal fiber. Yucatan. 571 Henequen plants, showing the tall flower stalks, Uganda, Africa. 552 Stripping the stems of plantain to obtain Manila hemp fiber. Forage Crops Forage crops and live stock are two great essentials to a permanent system of agriculture. Live stock will consume much rough feed and convert it into valuable meat, at the same time producing manure which is of great value in keeping land fertile and productive. 172 Ames, Iowa. Rape makes a desirable hog pasture. 118 Harvesting peanuts, Arkansas. Choice bacon and ham is pro- duced in the south from hogs fed on peanuts. 183 Hogs in alfalfa. Alfalfa is our greatest legume. It is rich in protein — the food which makes young stock grow. 317 Some of the famous beef cattle of Argentina are grown on alfalfa pasture. 181 Harvesting alfalfa. The modern method of handling hay. 388 The old method of handling hay, Germany. 408 Curing hay under difficult conditions, Norway. 127, 186, 301 The natural forage of extensive areas is harvested by great herds of cattle. 480, 190, 173 Sheep are also used to consume the wild plants of plains and mountains as well as the more abundant grasses of our best pastures. 185, 140, 370 Farm crops may be marketed as beef after being fed on the farm. 371, 403, 57 Crops fed to cows and marketed as milk yield a good profit. 235 Spineless cactus, a promising new forage plant for semi-arid regions. Other Agricultural Products 166 Potatoes grown in the famous potato region of the Red River Valley, Minnesota. Harvesting potatoes by use of potato digging machines. 47 Picking and loading cantaloupes, New York, FARM CROPS , 2S3 118 Peanuts, a valuable food product. The pods are removed from the vines and allowed to dry thoroughly before marketing. 137 Pumpkins as an inter-crop with corn. 149 Celery raised on rich muck land. The bunches after being washed and packed are sent to market ready for us as food. 294 Bananas on cultivated plantation. 285, 287 Maguey plants from which pulque is made. 375 Cabbage, potatoes, turnips and other vegetables are valuable and usually cheap foods. 21. GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOODLOT By R. L. WATTS, M.S. PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, DEAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- TURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION, STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA. I. GARDENING The home garden as an economic factor cannot be over- estimated. Very many families, by intensive cultivation, raise the summer supply of vegetables and part of the winter supply, on a very small plot of land. Since the war began, gardening has become a war measure in the conservation of food. These gardens are giving outdoor work to men who are accustomed to work indoors and are doing a great health work. Market gar- dening is carried on wherever the produce can reach the cities. 83 The school-gardens are an important part of industrial education and they will occupy a still more important place as the country grows older. They aid materially in the food supply, give the children habits of industry, and cultivate the art of using the hands. Also they cause some to take up farm life and become professional food producers. 47 The cantaloupe or muskmelon is an important trucking crop from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. This truck farm is on the Lake Shore, which is especially adapted to fruit-raising because the large body of water stabilizes the temperature, preventing the early spring budding and the late frost. 137 A field of pumpkins. While the pumpkin is not considered a hor- ticultural crop, it makes such good pies that every horticulturist likes to grow a few for home use. It is also worth noting that pumpkins generally command good prices in the larger local markets. 149 The celery industry in the United States has grown to mammoth proportions. Some years ago the Kalamazoo district was made famous by its extensive fields, but now we find immense areas of this vegetable in various parts of the United States, especially where there are muck soils for its culture. Celery thrives best in deep, moist soils and muck lands seem to provide these ideal conditions. 284 GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 285 419 Beets are found in every home garden. Until the plants are large, some handwork is necessary to keep the weeds under control. The frequent and skillful use of wheel hoes, however, will reduce the handwork to a minimum and this is exceedingly important if the beets are to be produced more economically. The beets in 198 are grown under irrigation. 166, 47 The potato is for the most part grown as a field crop, but it is likewise an essential to the garden. The potato prefers a loose, loamy or sandy, well drained soil. There is scarcely any crop that responds so well to the heavy use of fertilizers. The potato is an important food crop in many countries. It thrives best in a cool climate. Dr. Patten, Dean of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, states that the potato was a direct factor in causing the great World War. The introduction of the potato to the sandy soils of Prussia enormously increased the food supply, which in turn was followed by marked increase in population, enabling Prus- sia to dominate Germany. 209, 210 Irrigation. Most garden crops require abundant moisture. This may often be obtained by thorough cultivation, thus pre- venting evaporation of the ground moisture. More and more gardens are being irrigated by overhead spraying systems. Nat- urally in connection with our great irrigation systems supplying all needed water, gardening may be carried on most advantage- ously. The statement is made that if Germany, at the beginning of the war, had been generally equipped with the most up-to-date irrigation systems as we know them in most parts of America, she would have had no serious difficulty in maintaining an ade- quate food supply. 423 The city flower markets of foreign countries must be exceedingly interesting. Not only are the flowers beautiful but the people themselves add to the picturesqueness of these markets. It is gratifying to know that flowers are being sold more and more on our own city markets. II. LANDSCAPE GARDENING 10 The village people of New England give their street trees better attention than do the people of some other States. Note the device around the fine old elm to prevent insects from going up the tree. These fine old trees throughout New England are appreciated and everything possible is done to protect them. 36 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. This old cemetery is kept in excellent condition. It is an object lesson to those who are careless in taking care of the grounds where their loved ones are sleeping. Trees, shrubs, and hardy perennials should be used instead of tender annual plants, which soon die and disappear. 37 Washington's headquarters at Newburgh on the Hudson. The splendid old trees in the background and vines on the building give this old house a most pleasing appearance. Hundreds of 286 AGRICULTURE humble homes might be made just as attractive as this one by the proper use of plants and trees. 90 Part of the city of Washington. The people of Washington are proud of their thousands of fine trees and shrubs. The collec- tion as found along the streets and in the parks represents a great number of different species. 91 The formal type of gardening as shown in this picture is pleasing to a great many people. The fountain in the center of the view is a prominent feature of the landscape. 93 A general view looking over Washington. The student of land- scape gardening will be interested in noting the arrangement of trees in the foreground. They are arranged in groups along the avenues, leaving large, broad expanses without any trees. 95 Congressional Library, Washington. The curved walks and drives of this view help to make it highly attractive. The use of curves in landscape gardening is one of the means of making beautiful landscape effects. 169 A bit of water with a canoe and occupants and tine trees in the background always present a most pleasing appearance. Note the wigwam on the right, which is reflected in the water. 241 San Gabriel Mission. This old building would not be half so attractive without the splendid specimens of palms which beau- tify the foreground. 249 Street in Colon. This would be a very commonplace picture were it not for the tall palms planted near the house. They give the scene a restful appearance which could be secured in no other way. 259 Papaya trees in Hawaii. The people of tropical regions are fond of planting along their walks and streets palms and other tropi- cal plants, just as we like to plant maples and other shade trees along our streets and roadways. They provide more or less shade and make the landscape exceedingly beautiful. 262 In the Acadian land. When we journey to the far North we are attracted by the fine specimens of evergreens. A few well- grown specimens as shown in the foreground of this picture are essential features in many of the northern landscapes. 316 A South American Park, Buenos Aires. This view is not unlike the ones which are common in the best parks in the United States. The broad, sweeping curves and splendid trees are noticeable features in this park. 355 Anne Hathaway's home. The well trimmed hedge and vines on the wall add greatly to the beauty of the scene. The well kept hedges of England are certainly more beautiful than the bare picket fences once so universal in America. 356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. Cattle, sheep, horses and other livestock always add to the beauty as well as the interest of a landscape. The contentment of these cows is thoroughly in accord with the quiet and beauty of the landscape. GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 287 360 In England great attention is paid to landscape gardening. These trees trimmed so closely and the wall covered with vines are typical of the country. 361 Lake Grasmere. Those who are interested in landscape garden- ing will do well to study the composition of this picture. Noth- ing can be omitted without sacrificing the attractiveness of the view. Tlie massed trees which stand in the foreground, the expanse of water broken by the island in the middle, the village on the other side of the lake, and the mountains in the back- ground, all go to make this an unusual scene. In planting gardens and trees, care should be taken not to cut off beautiful views. 362 The home of Wordsworth. A very humble home made beautiful by the skillful use of trees, shrubs and vines. This is a splendid demonstration of what might be accomplished around thousands of inexpensive dwellings. 376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. This old castle would have little to make it attractive were it not for the hedge and trees in the foreground. 377 The Lakes of Killarney. After all, Dame Nature cannot be ex- celled as a landscape gardener ! 386 Hamburg. The water front is beautified by the planting of trees wherever that is possible. 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris. The French people love trees and they are careful to give their street plantings the very best attention. 534 In the Land of Flowers. The Japanese are great lovers of flowers and particularly of the cherry blossoms. The " Feast of the Cherry Blossoms " is an annual celebration and all the people go where they can see and admire the beautiful flowers of this tree. 535 A Japanese garden is extremely interesting to a landscape gar- dener. They are especially skillful in dwarfing trees. The gar- den is more like a picture, a beautiful miniature, than it is like a real garden. 126 A view in San Antonio, Texas. The plants are arranged in an extremely formal manner. III. ORCHARDING 85 Peach harvest. New Jersey. Delaware, the Lake shore and warmer parts of the country produce immense quantities of peaches. These may be yellow or white with the pulp free from or clinging to the stone. Peach trees are very tender. They must be snraved and pruned and carefully cultivated. They are short-lived trees. 288 AGRICULTURE 108 Harvesting pineapples. This picture gives you some idea of the extent of the pineapple industry in Florida. Pineapples are grown on a very large scale and shipped. They are largely used for canning and preserving. The industry is profitable when properly managed. 44 In order to produce good fruit, trees must be sprayed. A strong spray is used when the trees are bare and weaker ones when in leaf. The trunks must be kept smooth and clean. Be- side producing better fruit, trees that are well kept live longer. 175 Harvesting apples. Scenes of this character are now common in all apple-producing districts of the United States. A large proportion of the apple crop is placed in barrels, though many of the better specimens are packed in boxes. 234 An immense quantity of almonds, as well as other nuts, are grown in California for market. The student should note how thor- oughly this orchard has been cultivated. This is one of the main reasons why the California horticulturists grow such fine nuts as well as fruit. They give their trees as well as their land the very best treatment. 236 California vineyards. These grapes are the result of intensive culture. The California vineyards have become famous for their large crops of grapes. Some of the bunches are mam- moth in size, as shown in the picture before us. 319 Vineyard in South America. This view shows the work which must be done in a successful vineyard. The vines must be cut back and the ground carefully cultivated. There must also be supports to keep the vines up with room to grow. 390 Some very fine vineyards may be found on the hills of Germany. These people have found it necessary to make all of their tillable land yield maximum returns. Note the thrifty growth of the vines. 237 A California orange grove of 10,000 acres. After seeing these immense orange groves of California, one wonders what is done with all of the fruit. The most intensive systems of culture and management are used in these groves and all possible care is exercised in picking and forwarding the fruit to market. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit. To those of us who are accustomed to seeing such fruit trees as apples, pear, peach and cherry, it seems strange to see both fruit and flowers on the tree at the same time. The large green foliage and the beautiful blossoms and fruits of the orange make the trees exceedingly attractive. 437 Picking Valencia oranges. It is not a difficult matter to pick oraneres from these low, well trained trees. Our American boys would not like to carry such a large load on top of their heads. 240 Olive trees. In California the olive is extensively cultivated. Great quantities of olive oil are made. GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 289 294 Harvesting bananas. This is exceedingly interesting to boys and girls as well as grown folks who are fond of bananas. They are practically green when harvested and shipped to northern storage houses for ripening. It is surprising how cheaply this fruit can be sold in our northern markets after being transported so far. 530 The tea farms are usually small and require careful cultivation and much attention, for the plant will thrive only in well manured or very rich soil. Although an evergreen, the leaves are useful only at a certain season. This Japanese maiden seems to be very happy as she starts out for a basket of tea leaves. The Japanese love plants and outdoor life, and all of us in America will do well to copy after them in this respect. 551 Husking coconuts. This beautiful scene of large piles of coco- nuts under the trees from which they have been harvested, gives us some idea of the quantities of coconuts which are used. IV. THE WOOD LOT 1 Logging in Aroostook Co., Maine. Scenes like this are common in Maine and other states where the land is heavily forested. The land had to be cleared and some farmers, lacking foresight, cleared all their land as soon as they could. 72 Woodcock on nest. Birds eat destructive insects and worms. Woodland conserves rainfall. The rain cannot run off and the trees prevent rapid evaporation. The wood lot, then, is im- portant in conserving moisture since the united woods of a neighborhood may cover an appreciable area. It is also im- portant as the home of birds. 74 On bare hills the rain runs off rapidly, swelling the stream at the base. This results in sudden floods very destructive to farm- ing interests. 445 The farmer with a wood lot has a constant supply of wood for fuel. 73 Pennsylvania ; 445 Switzerland. The farmer with a wood lot has a supply of wood for posts, building material and all the uses so numerous on a farm. 38 Hudson Valley. Notice how the hills are wooded. That pre- vents quick drainage of rainfall. The low land is partly wooded. The force of wind in the district is broken. Each farmer has a constant source of revenue, as the trees suitable for cutting are taken out year by year and the others are allowed to grow. 70, 71 Chestnut, elm, maples and other hard woods are increasing in value each year. 107 Turpentine farm. In the South a piece of such timber would yield turpentine, rosin and tar, besides a supply of pine timber valued in building. 130 Tapping a maple tree. This work is attended to at the approach of warmer spring weather. There is something especially in- 290 AGRICULTURE vigorating and uplifting in working among the trees at this season of the year. Farmers who do not have a maple sugar grove might add to their incomes as well as to the pleasure of their homes by planting a large number of sugar maples along the roadside or perhaps on rough land which is not suitable for agricultural purposes. A maple grove is also a source of timber and fuel supply. 162 A huge sled-load of logs. It is surprising how many logs a team can haul if there is snow on the ground. 184 On our prairies and plains timber was very scarce and was ac- cordingly valued the more highly. Such a wood as is shown in the background will be carefully conserved. 70, 72, 184 Some states, to encourage the care of woodland, give a rebate on the taxes of such land. 224 A very large tree of the Northwest. Trees of such mammoth size are common in California and throughout the Northwest. It may interest our readers to know, however, that some very large trees may be found in the eastern part of the United States. For example, some years ago the writer measured a chestnut tree in Montgomery County, Md., which was 12 feet in diameter. In 1888 a white pine tree was felled near Lumber City, Pa., that measured 100 feet in length after the limbs were removed and the spar was ready for market. Sixteen horses were required to draw it to the river. The butt of the tree was about 5 feet in diameter. 463 The wood supply in Bohemia is carefully conserved. 586 The eucalyptus trees of Australia rival the big redwood trees of California. 22. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY By W. A. COCHEL FIELD REPRESENTATIVE OF THE AMERICAN SHORT-HORN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, KANSAS STATE AGRI- CULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN. History shows that no permanent and profitable system of agriculture has been developed without livestock as a dominant factor, except on comparatively small farms, when special crops are produced. The most powerful nations of the world are those which are noted for their extensive development of livestock. More than one half of all the expenditures for food in the United States are for animal products. The problems of maintaining soil fertility and increasing acre yields of crops are most easily solved when the by-products from feeding livestock are available. The usefulness and value of animals of all kinds on the farms is an item to which too much attention can scarcely be given. DAIRY CATTLE 57 New Jersey; 159 Wisconsin; 165 Minnesota; 403 Holland. Hol- stein cattle are distinguished by their color, .vhich is always black and white, for their very heavy milk production, high total yield of butter, and low percentage of butter fat. These cattle are the largest of all the dairy breeds. 364 Jersey cattle come from the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel. The predominating color is fawn varying from a golden yellow to black with brown marking. They are frequently found with white markings on any part of the body. They are noted for the extreme richness in butter fat of the milk they produce and are the most popular of all breeds as family cows and near cities where milk with a high percentage of butter fat is called for. 371 The Ayrshire is a typical breed of dairy cattle, originated in Scot- land. They do not produce as much milk as the Holstein, nor is it as rich as that of the Jersey. Their milk comes more nearly meeting the requirements of the best city's trade, without modification than that from any other breed of dairy cattle. The Ayrshire is smoother and more thickly muscled than the other breeds of dairy cattle, hence are not discriminated against too much, by buyers of beef cattle on the markets. They are 291 292 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY better grazers and thrive on poorer pastures than the other breeds of dairy cattle. 356 Dairy Shorthorn cattle, England. While the Shorthorn is mostly a beef breed, in England considerable attention has been given to the development of the Shorthorn as dairy cattle. Perhaps three-fourths of the milk delivered to the City of London comes from this breed of cattle. Usually stock raisers wish cattle highly efficient either for beef or milk production. Many farmers, however, wish cattle that will give a fair milk supply as well as being satisfactory for beef. The dairy Shorthorns meet this requirement. Such cattle are known as dual-purpose cattle. 339 The dairy cow indicated in this view does not represent any of the breeds of special dairy cattle but belongs to the ordinary common stock of the country. She has the typically long, nar- row head, sharp withers and depth of body and wedge shape which indicates that her performance at the pail would be creditable. BEEF CATTLE 317 The predominate breed of cattle in Argentina is the Shorthorn. They are very popular in America and Great Britain. Red, white and roan are the typical Shorthorn colors. These cattle are the largest of any of the beef breeds, mature early and dress out a high percentage of beef to live weight. When finished the carcass yields a high proportion of high priced meat such as rib and loin, in which the fat and lean portions are so distributed as to present a beautifully marbled cut of beef. 358 Hereford cattle originated in Herfordshire, England. The typi- cal color is red with white face, a little white on crest and feet. They are noted as the best grazers of any of the breeds of beef cattle; they mature at an extremely early age, are hardy and able to withstand extremely adverse conditions. This has made them the most popular of all breeds for range purposes. They are especially heavy in their fore ribs and heart girth, also in their loins. 370 Aberdeen-Angus cattle originated in Scotland. They are black and hornless, of the extreme beef type, short legged, blocky, thickly and evenly fleshed, mature at a very early age and pro- duce when slaughtered, a smooth even carcass of well marbled beef. Aberdeen-Angus steers have won more championships for fat cattle at the leading American shows than those of any other beef breed. They dress out an unusually high percentage of beef to live weight. 127 Texas range cattle have been bred up from a Spanish or native foundation by the use of Hereford and Shorthorn bulls. The re- sult of the attention to breeding has made the range cattle better for the production of beef and more desirable in the feed lots DRAFT HORSES 293 than those that are produced in the older farming sections of the country. 185 The steers feeding in this view are typical range cattle from the herds from Texas, branded so as to distinguish them from other cattle when they become mixed. These cattle were taken out of the pasture on the 15th of August and put on full feed of corn and cotton-seed meal, bran and oats, the purpose being to put a sufficient amount of flesh on them to have them classify on the market as choice beef. They were fed ninety days. 186 Cattle shown in the round-up are of a mixed breeding and typical of the cattle that are found in the short grass country. The improvement being made by the use of pure bred beef bulls in herds of this sort is remarkable. 140 Stock yards, Chicago. These cattle are similar to those in 186 except that they have been fattened for market, probably on the farms in the corn belt. 301 The cattle of Jamaica are typical of the old-fashioned long horned steers of the early days of Texas. The same kind of cattle are being produced in Mexico. They are cattle very deep in the heart girth, narrow through the crops and loins, with compara- tively little muscular development in the hind quarters. They are noted for their constitution and rustling abilities. 548 Philippines. The cattle of Southern Asia do not represent any of the breeds which are of importance in America. They are from the same source as the sacred cattle of India, which are used for draft purposes rather than for meat. DRAFT HORSES 138 Percheron horses originated in France, their popularity is due to the fact that the French government has encouraged their breeding. They are the most widely distributed of all the breeds of draft horses in America. They are noted for size, quality, and disposition. The predominating colors are grey and black. 166 The potato sections of the United States demand the heaviest type and highest priced draft horses that are produced, because of the heavy machinery which they must handle and the weight of the loads which they must take to market. 398 Belgian horses are of the extreme draft type, short legged, deep bodied, and heavily muscled. They are kept fat very easily, which makes them quite attractive. The predominant colors are sorrel, roan and bay. They are second in importance among the draft breeds in America 320 The cart horse must have weight and substance in order for it to handle heavy loads without material effort. They usually pos- sess some blood of the draft breeds. The picture indicates a 294 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY horse of less bone and lighter type than is usually used for this purpose. CARRIAGE HORSES 312 Carriage horses have almost been eliminated from the city streets on account of the development of the automobile. They were usually matched as to color, size, style and action. Typical carriage horses were sixteen hands high and weighed 1,250 pounds each. They were symmetrical, carried their heads and tails well and were noted for their beauty of style and action. 195 Horses used on stage coaches are usually very rugged, of a type which is remarkable for endurance, quickness of action and sure footedness. They must be free from all unsoundness and extremely well broken. CAVALRY HORSES 71 Cavalry horses are lighter, quicker, and more compact than the draft breeds. The best type is from thoroughbred stock and has intelligence, speed and endurance. The Government is fos- tering the development of the cavalry horse industry, but in most farming sections, the heavy draft type is more profitable. PONIES 186, 188 The cow ponies are horses of remarkable intelligence and en- durance. They must be very quick, active and are very sure footed, in order not only to perform the service required of them, but not to endanger the lives of their riders. They are usually about fifteen hands high and weigh from 850 to 1,100 pounds. 182 The ponies used by the Indians are usually; from thirteen and one-half to fifteen hands high, will weigh from 750 to 1,000 pounds, are very tough and have a remarkable endurance. In- dians usually prefer the horses of broken colors, with a con- siderable amount of white, which makes them more attractive to them. MULES AND DONKEYS 124 Cotton mules are very compact, and from fourteen and one-half to fifteen hands high, they are quick and active. 311 Mules are very largely used in the coffee plantations, as they are very hardy, powerful and long lived. With inefficient labor they are the most useful of all work animals. 340, 341 The burro or donkey is a diminutive type of the jacks and jennets used in the United States for mule production. They are patient, slow plodding animals capable of carrying more than their own weights on their backs. They are very sure footed, have great endurance, are bothered very little with flies and heat. SHEEP — GOATS — CHICKENS 295 SHEEP 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. The sheep in this view are of the mutton type as distinguished from the wool type and represent the breeds that are most generally used in the farm- ing districts of the United States ; they are short of leg, deep of body and wide of back. 190, 589 Merino sheep on range. Range sheep are the most hardy and free from disease of all the sheep produced. They are the source of practically all the lambs which are marketed from the first of October to the first of May. GOATS 411 Norway, 447 Switzerland. In Europe more than in America the goat is an important feature of animal husbandry. There the milking goats are preferred and this variety is rather abundant. In America the milking goat is practically unknown, except among the European population in our industrial centers. With us the goat is raised for its hair, known commercially as mohair, and for its meat, which forms a considerable item in some mar- kets. Texas raises more goats than any other State. HOGS 172 The hogs used for pasturing rape in the corn belt of the United States are usually of the extreme lard or fat type, as distin- guished from the bacon type of hogs. 183 Poland-China hogs originated in the United States, are repre- sentative of the fat or lard type, and noted for their early ma- turity, thickness of flesh, good disposition and their popularity throughout the corn belt. 592 A hog which is not the result of careful breeding. CHICKENS 56 White Leghorn hens in laying house. Poultry keeping is one of the most important phases of animal husbandry. The farm flocks of the country produce eggs and meat that equal in value some of our most important grain crops. Near the city markets the raising of chickens is a specialized industry. No other form of animal husbandry appeals so strongly to the back-to- the-lander as chicken raising. No farm business is so widely engaged in bv amateurs and none reports so large a number of failures. It is exacting work, requiring great regularity of effort and close attention to details. 375 Fresh eggs are sold in every market. DUCKS AND GEESE 216 Puget Sound. Wash. : 401 Holland. Ducks and geese form an important item in poultry production. They are raised mostly 296 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY for the meat supply, but have considerable value also for egg? and feathers. They are water fowls and, if they have access to a stream or pond, will forage for a considerable part of their food supply. They are not so extensively raised as chickens although there are many large duck farms. 23. FARM MANAGEMENT— FARM MACHINERY By MARTIN LUTHER FISHER, M.S. PROFESSOR OF CROP PRODUCTION AND FARM MANAGEMENT AND IN CHARGE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. Assisted by WM. AITKENHEAD, A.M., M.E. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FARM MECHANICS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. I. FARM MANAGEMENT Farm management deals with the handling of the farm and its equipment so as to produce farm products with the great- est profit and still maintain, or even increase, the productive- ness of the soil. Management is different from production. One may grow a big crop (production) but he may not dispose of it to the best advantage (management). One must decide what breeds of live stock he will keep and how many his farm will furnish feed for (management), but he must breed, feed, and care for them properly also (production). It is not sufficient that the crops grown and the live stock kept are profitable — they should be the most profitable of their kind. Producing milk and butter may be profitable, but keeping beef cattle and selling fattened animals may yield a larger profit. Corn, oats, and clover is a good rotation and may be profitable, but corn, wheat, and clover may yield a larger profit. Every good manager will study the conditions surrounding him in order that he may engage in the type of farming best adapted to the soil, climate, labor supply, and markets. If the soil and climate are favorable and the markets accessible, grain farming may pay better than grazing live stock. In the disposition of the crops it may pay better to sell them than to feed them even though the manure be returned to land. If the prices of corn and hogs are too near alike, one had better sell the corn rather than feed it and thereby have the risk of loss by disease as well as the loss of labor and the grain fed. In the studies made of a great many farms it has 297 298 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT been found that neither the selling of all the crops nor the feeding of all of them gave the larger profits, but that where about 40% of the farm income came from the selling of the crop and the rest from the sale of live stock and live stock products the best results were obtained. It seems that it pays best to have some crop, or crops, to sell for cash. A great many people believe that the small farm is more profitable than the large one, but it has been shown many times that where the same type of farming is used on both farms the larger one is usually the better paying. A large income cannot be made from a small business. A large area furnishes the possibilities for big crops and a large number of market animals. The proper adjustment of equipment is important. The machinery, the teams, and the labor should be adapted to the size of the farm and the nature of the farming. A tractor is not profitable on a 40 acre farm but is quite likely to be so on a 200 acre area. Four-horse teams cannot be used to very good advantage on the small, but are decidedly useful on the large farms. Grain farming does not. require much hand labor but truck farming and gardening require hand work almost exclusively. A large labor income is what the good manager strives for. The labor income is found by subtracting all expenses of opera- tion from the gross income obtained by the sales of crops and live stock, and from this remainder take the interest on the investment, say at five per cent. In counting up expenses the cost of the family living is not included. Also, in determin- ing the labor cost, the labor done by members of the family and not paid for in dollars and cents should be calculated at a reasonable rate and added to the expenses. The labor in- come represents the farmer's salary. Beside this he has had the use of a house, garden and truck crops, butter, milk, eggs, and fruit — all of which has been found to amount to about ninety-five dollars per each adult member of the family. A. CHOOSING THE FARM In order to make a success at farming the farmer must give attention to the farm he selects. The farm ought to be well located for con- venience to roads, markets, and neighbors. The soil and climate must be adapted to the kind of farming which the farmer intends to follow. TILLED CROPS — GRAZING 299 1. CONTOUR (a) Tilled Crops Perhaps the first thing to give attention to in selecting the farm is its contour. 522, 488 Level or gently rolling land is easily plowed even by primi- tive equipment. 178,179,332 On level land tractors can be used and thus save horse labor. 180 This land is rolling, but not too much so to use the tractor effec- tively. I98, 209 Level fields make easy cultivation and the loose soil will not wash away in heavy rains. 166 Level land is desirable for potatoes, 'sugar beets (198), corn (137) and all crops that need cultivation during the summer. 149 Celery is always grown on level land, usually peat soils found in regions of old lake beds. 333 Crops like sugar cane and rice (104, 527, 528) which need irriga- tion must be grown on level land. 147, 199, 357 Level fields make easy harvesting, and usually produce the largest crops. 218, 233 The large level fields of the West permit large machinery to be used. This cuts down the cost of production. 408 A mountainous country may have many rich valleys, but the fields will be mere patches and labor saving machinery cannot be used advantageously. (b) Grazing 38 This is beautiful scenery, but the land is almost too rough for till- age. It would be better for pasturing cattle or for growing orchards. 388 This land is too hilly for any but hand work. L T nless labor is plentiful and cheap the cost of production runs high. It would be excellent pasture land, especially for sheep. 301, 317, 589 In sections where grain and cultivated crops are not grown extensively level lands are also used for grazing. 480 This level plain would probably return a larger profit if it were farmed in cultivated and grain crops. 183 If the farmer wants to graze pigs he will select level land so that the crop grazed can be one in the regular rotation. (c) Fruit Growing 44 While orchards are usually planted on rolling or hilly lands, level land is also well suited and is desirable when large sprayers are to be used. Rolling land is better for fruits than level land on account of the drainage offered for both air and rainfall. The air drainage prevents damage from frosts. 390 Grape production is nearly always on hillsides, although level land is also used (319). 108 Pineapples need irrigation, hence level land must be selected. 300 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 2. DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION (a) Drainage 147, 184 Good crops like these can be grown only on well-drained land. 390 This hillside does not need drainage. The hillside in the distance shows the effect of erosion. 180 Gently sloping lands tend to drain themselves naturally. 161 Our rich prairie soils often have to be drained to make them highly productive. 120 The delta lands are excellent for crops but must be drained. (b) Irrigation 104 Irrigation is the opposite. of drainage. 209 Results of irrigation, Arizona. 237 Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Cal. 528 The rice fields show how level the fields are in Japan. (c) Location 178 Farm life is isolated at its best and in selecting a farm one should give attention to location as regards roads, neighbors, and markets. This farm seems to be far from any human habitation. 180 This farm seems to be located near a traveled highway as there are several houses in the distance. 408 In this mountainous country there is little outlet to market. 147 The nearness of the house adds homelikeness to this farm. 43 The railroad suggests opportunity for marketing the products of the farm. The hauling of crops long distances to the shipping point is expensive. 108 The town in the distance suggests a marketing place as well as a shipping point. Unless the grower can ship and market his products easily and cheaply he is not encouraged to do his best. (d) The Soil 178 Much depends on the soil for successful crop production. Notice how black and mellow this soil is. 179 And see how nicely it works up when disked and harrowed. A good seed bed can be prepared without much labor in such soil. 120 The delta soils and the alluvial soils in river bottoms are the most productive and everlasting that can be found. 147, 184 Prairie soils are usually well adapted to producing grain. 413 If all other conditions were favorable the rocky soil here would prevent crop production. 38 Land like this is best for grass crops, like wheat, oats, and pas- ture. 166 Potatoes do best on a sandy loam soil. 149 Celery requires a rich muck or peaty soil. 391 The hillside is terraced to prevent the slipping of the soil. TYPE OF FARMING 301 (e) The Climate 408, 413 After all the climate determines what crops can be grown. In this region of snow and ice one cannot expect to grow any delicate crops. 136, 137, 147, 184 These are common scenes in the corn belt where con- ditions are most favorable for the production of the cereal crop. 199 Grain can be raised in regions of scanty rainfall. 44, 175, 85, 390 The temperate zone is also the region of large fruit productions. 108 Pineapples, 294 Bananas, and 238 Oranges — grow in the sub- tropical or warm part of the temperate zone. 258 Sugar cane grows best under tropical conditions. B. TYPE OF FARMING When a farmer gets most of his income from the grain which he grows and sells, he is said to be engaged in grain farming; when his income is mostly from fruits, he is engaged in fruit farming; and when his income is from several sources like grain, live stock, fruits, etc., no one of which yields over 40 per cent, of the income, he is said to be en- gaged in mixed farming, and so on, the type of farming being named according to the source of income. 1. MIXED OR GENERAL FARMING In this type of farming, the farmer raises some of the grains, like corn, wheat, oats, rye, or barley; some of the kinds of live stock like horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs; produces hay; has fruits; sells milk, butter and eggs, grains, and live stock. He has an income from several sources. General farming is the most common type because it is the safest. All of the farmer's hope of an income is not based upon one source, but if one thing fails, it is likely that some other crop will suc- ceed. General farming requires a rather large investment. A good deal of land is necessary to run so many different enterprises and it takes a good many kinds of machinery, buildings, and other equipment to carry on the different lines of work. 136, 137, 160 On the general farm the corn is usually cut and put in shock or in the silo. It is useful for winter feed. The corn- binder is a labor saving machine found in nearly all corn belt farms. 172, 183 On the general farm in the corn belt many hogs are kept. These are usually pastured during the summer, because this is an economical way of producing growth. Rape is used quite extensively for such a pasture. Alfalfa is an ideal pasture for pigs. It produces rapid growth and economical gains. 185 Feeding carload lots of steers is also common in the corn belt. 181 This is another example of large machinery on the general farm. The general farmer usually makes a good deal of hay to feed his stock in the winter season. 302 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 2. LIVE STOCK FARMING Live stock farming requires large areas of land because pasture is needed. Of course, cattle and horses require more pasture land than pigs and sheep. 127 The large cattle herds are in the West and on rather cheap land. 186 On the ranges it usually takes four to ten acres of land to fur- nish pasturage enough for an animal ; in the eastern part of the United States about two acres arc enough. 301 Large ranches of cattle are also found in the tropics. 317 Argentina has vast areas of land good for growing alfalfa atrJ other pasturage. These cattle come into competition with cattle in the United States to some extent. 3. PRODUCTION OF BREEDING STOCK On many farms the main source of income is from the sale of animals for breeding stock, that is, the sale of well-bred animals to start new herds and flocks. The fine stock business requires a big investment in animals, buildings, and care. They must be well housed, and carefully cared for by experienced men. If they can be sold for a good price the farmer will make money, but as work animals, producers of but- ter, milk, or wool, or whatever product is peculiar to the class of ani- mals, they are little better than high grade animals and these are not nearly so expensive to own and to care for. For various breeds of farm animals and comment regarding same see classification on Animal Husbandry. 4. GRAIN FARMING In grain farming large areas of land are used and usually the same grain is grown year after year on the same land. This is contrary to good practice in rotation of crops. In some sections the crop is corn year after year. On river bottoms which are frequently renewed by the deposits from overflows this continuous cropping does not seem to do harm, but on lands not so renewed the practice soon shows de- creased yields. 218, 233 The best examples of grain farming on a large scale is seen in the large fields of the West and Northwest. 179, 199 On these large grain farms of the West it may be that no live stock at all is kept since all the work can be done by machinery, Farming without live stock is disastrous unless great care is taken in returning the straw and stubble and supplementing this with mineral fertilizers, like phosphorus and potassium. 177 Here we see large stacks of straw from the threshers. In nearly every case this straw is burned instead of scattering it back over the land. Such farming is wasteful of the soil's fertility and is called exploitive. FRUIT FARMING — DAIRYING 303 5. FRUIT FARMING Fruit growing is a form of specialized farming and is done in a more careful (intensive) way than grain and mixed farming. Fruit farm- ing requires special knowledge of the fruits that are grown. It also requires special apparatus for spraying, harvesting, and packing. 44 The fruit grower has to fight insects and diseases. This is done hy spraying. 175 To get good returns from the market the fruit must he graded and carefully packed. Honest packing helps to sell the crop. 85 Most fruit growers give all their time to one or two kinds of fruit. There is a lot of work to do in spraying, pruning, thin- ning fruit, harvesting, packing, and marketing. 237 Oranges are grown on a very large scale in California and Florida. Orange growing requires very special knowledge. 236 This grower gives all his time to his grapes. 390 This shows the extent of some of the vineyards and gives an idea of the labor necessary for maintenance. 240 The climate of California is favorable for raising olives. The land under the trees is cultivated and fertilized. 6. DAIRYING Dairying as a business requires special knowledge of how to feed for milk production and how to care for the milk in the way to make the best product. A rather large investment is required in cows, barns, and land for grazing purposes. In America it rarely pays to keep cows up all the time. Labor is too scarce and high-priced, and our land is cheap as compared with European dairy sections. Also, we cannot get high enough prices for the butter or milk to pay for keeping animals on the soiling system. 159 This shows the large barns and valuable cows kept on this dairy farm. It is one of the most famous dairy farms in the United States. 165 This shows a more expensive equipment. Notice the large silos. Silage is one of the most important feeds for dairy cows. An expensive equipment means that the profits are cut down by a big interest on the investment. 57 It is a part of good management in a dairy to keep everything clean and sanitary. 7. POULTRY Poultry does not require a very large investment to get large returns. Knowledge of how to care for hens so as to make them lay is necessary. 56, 375 There are many breeds of poultry. Most people keep poultry mostly for the eggs which they lay. The White Leghorn is one of the best laying breeds. 8. SPECIAL CROPS The risk of failure in special crops is greater than where general farming is carried on. If the season is unfavorable, the crop may 304 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT fail partly or entirely. If it is favorable, there may be so large a supply that the market is flooded and a very small price is obtained. When general, or diversified, farming is practiced it is likely that one or more crops will bring a good price, or make a good yield even if some do fail, Special crops always furnish a labor problem, either a large amount is required, or else it must be highly skilled. Also, the special crop usually does not furnish regular and steady employment. 117 Cotton is the sole source of income for many farmers. It re- quires much hand labor at harvesting time. 198 The sugar beet requires much hand labor for thinning and har- vesting. The beet crop is a very profitable one. The farmer is always assured a market for this crop, because it is contracted for before it is planted. 47 The cantaloupe is in great demand in all cities and growers make good returns from their fields. 149 Celery belongs to the group of truck crops. It requires a special soil like peat. 108 The pineapple also requires a special soil as well as special knowl- edge of the crop. This field is fixed for irrigation, thus remov- ing any danger of loss by drouth. 112 Tobacco is widely grown in some states. It requires almost con- stant attention to keep the tobacco worms (large caterpillars) from injuring the leaves. Special care is required in harvest- ing and curing. Large curing sheds are needed. C. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS It is not enough that the farmer manage his farming operations skillfully. He must also market his products to the best advantage. Profits from farming quite largely depend upon selling at the right time. Successful selling depends a great deal upon the quality of the article and the way it is presented for sale. Staple articles like the grains, hay, and live stock are so widely used and so constantly in de- mand that one can always be sure of a market. There is never a time when these articles cannot be sold for a fair price. Such articles as fruits and vegetables, and sometimes butter and eggs, are frequently so abundant that they bring a very low price in the market — often so low that the grower is discouraged and ceases to produce them. Such products as hay, grains, and live stock do not receive much picking over and arranging before being marketed, but fruits, vegeta- bles, and eggs need to be carefully assorted and put in convenient containers before being offered for sale. Clean, fresh articles, uni- form in quality and size, displayed in attractive containers will always sell better than articles not so arranged. The staple articles are usually sold in large quantities, but the less staple ones are sold in small lots. Wheat, corn, and hay, etc., are sold in carload lots; live stock are sold by the head or pounds weight, but potatoes, apples, oranges, rhubarb, berries, etc., are usually sold QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT 305 by the small lots. In the larger cities there are usually market places for displaying the products and making sales. Sometimes it is in the open along the curbstone ; other times it is in a covered place. 7 Many of the large cities have market houses. 423 This is a curbstone market for flowers. 395 A market where vegetables are sold. Selling in the market usually nets the producer the largest possible return for his product. 140 These animals have been shipped from the farms and will be sold to butchers. They are fine animals and will bring the highest price paid. 124 The cotton farmer markets his crop as seed cotton, that is, the seed is still attached to the fiber. Many farmers lose a great deal because they do not take the seed back to their farms and use it as a fertilizer. 339 This way of marketing milk may insure a fresh article, but it is wasteful of time, and time is money. 396, 487 These methods are economical in that they use cheap labor and a small amount of equipment. 375 Fresh eggs, vegetables, baskets for sale, Cork, Ireland. D. QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT The quality of the product produced has much to do with the farmer's profits. A large yield per acre of crops is a measure of his success, provided it has been produced without excess labor and expense. Well bred animals are able to return larger profits for their feed and care than scrub animals. The grade of product put on the market is an indication of the farmer's ability. 160 The large ears indicate 60 or 70 bushels of corn to the acre, while the average yield is near 30 bushels. It took no more labor to grow the 60 bushels than to grow 30 bushels. 357 Here is a 30 bushel yield of wheat, while the average yield is about 14 bushels. Other things being equal, the man with the large yield makes the money. 181 An alfalfa field will give three or more crops in a season, while clover will not give more than two and timothy only one. 423 These flowers are the results of the florist's best efforts and will sell well. 236 The fine large clusters shown here indicate a heavy yield and that will give the grower a good income for his labor. 175 In any crop, and especially fruits, there is a considerable quantity of poor specimens. These should be graded out. 112 This excellent crop will probably bring its grower more than a hundred dollars an acre. 149 Notice how good a stand of plants is shown here. Truck grow- ing is intensive and expensive work and the farmer must have a good stand of plants. 47 These cantaloupes will sell for a good price. 198 This crop of sugar beets ought to bring its owner a hundred dol- 306 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT lars an acre. Twenty-five or thirty dollars will cover his ex- pense for production. 117 See how thick the cotton balls are on the stalks. This field will make a bale to the acre. The average crop is a quarter of a bale. 56 The kind of live stock one keeps and the way he keeps them shows something of a man's efficiency as a manager. Here is a lot of one of the best breeds of poultry and they are well and comfortably housed. 57, 159, 165 These fine barns and well bred cows suggest successful dairy farming. 358, 364, 370, 398 The very appearance of these animals tells of their good breeding. 172, 183 Note the sleek, thrifty appearance of these pigs. 185 It pays to feed crops to such animals as these. 173 These are the kind of sheep that pay. They will produce good fleeces of wool and furnish a good lot of mutton of high quality besides. E. LABOR Labor is of two kinds: man labor and horse labor. The efficiency of labor is greatly affected by climate, skill of worker, and the use of ma- chinery. In the extremes of climate workers cannot do their best. In cold regions the worker is not comfortable and the amount of clothing worn hinders his movements; in hot regions the worker must go slowly or be overcome by the heat. Workers who have been trained to do any kind of work become skillful in performing it and thus quite efficient. Some workers know no trade and are not inclined to learn. Their labor is usually expensive because of their waste of time and materials in not knowing how to labor effectively. The use of improved machinery adds greatly to the amount of work which one man can do. In many cases one man does the work which formerly took several men to perform. A man with four horses to a gang plow, or driving a tractor, accomplishes just as much as two or more men used to do with less improved machinery. See Tools, Implements, and Farm Machinery. (a) Labor and Equipment 357 A man with a self-binder can harvest as much wheat in a day as ten men used to cut with the cradle. 136, 160 One man with the corn binder and two other men to put up shocks can handle as many acres in a day as five or six men working with corn knives and do it more easily. 181 The scarcity of man laborers on farms has compelled farmers to buy improved machinery. The hay loader saves the labor of at least two men. 527, 479, 497, 562 The primitive method of threshing shown here can- not be so complete as that shown in 177. Too much grain re- mains in the straw and is lost. But the cost of production is LABOR AND FIELD CROPS 307 often less than that under modern methods, because of inexpen- sive equipment and low cost of labor. 177 The work here is completely done but at a high cost of produc- tion. The machinery is expensive and the labor high-priced. A larger yield per acre must be obtained to offset these costs. 138 A farm hand will take pride in doing his work when provided with a good team and equipment like the one shown here. Such a team is able to do a good day's work, too. 561 One would not expect much pride to be taken in an outfit like this, nor expect to do much work in a day. 549 The water buffalo is a homely animal, but he is the most efficient work animal for the rice farmer. 178, 179, 180, 332 On large farms much horse labor has been done away with by using the tractor. One man driving a tractor does as much work as three or four men and as many three-horse teams. (b) Labor and Live Stock 127, 186, 301 The grazing of cattle can be managed with very little labor. The labor cost per head is thus very small. 190, 480, 589 The life of the shepherd is very lonesome and monoto- nous, but not at all laborious. With the help of a good dog one man cares for hundreds of sheep. 183 Grazing hogs on alfalfa, or clover, is a cheap way of making pork. It requires little labor. (c) Labor and Field Crops 528 Rice probably takes more hand labor than any other crop. 105 Where a large number of workers are employed it is necessary to have an overseer or manager to direct the work. 419 Sugar beets require hand labor for weeding and thinning. This makes the beet a costly crop to produce. 112,297 Tobacco requires much hand labor. 166 Potatoes require extra labor for picking up at harvesting time. 117 Negro help is used almost entirely for cotton picking. 118 Peanuts have to be hand picked and sorted. 258 Sugar cane is handled mostly by man labor. The cultivation is performed by horse labor. 47, 149 Truck growing requires mostly hand labor. Large areas can- not be handled by one man. 147 Wheat is a good example of an extensive crop, that is, one that does not require much labor per acre farmed. The same is true of the hay crops like timothy and clover or alfalfa (181). (d) Labor and Fruit Crops 44, 175, 236, 390 Fruit crops require a somewhat higher intelligence and skill than ordinary field crops. 294, 302, 551 Tropical products are gathered entirely by hand. 308 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT (e) Skill in Laborers 396, 487 Women and children often do a great deal of unskilled labor and are rated as cheap labor. 485, 119 In many cities a great many workers are idle and do not seem to be concerned about their living. 105 This is a good example of labor that has to be directed. With- out a " boss " not much work would be done. 419 This is an illustration of how to get an important piece of work done by cheap labor. 47 The harvesting of cantaloupes and other truck crops requires more or less intelligence to know when the crop is ready for marketing. 136, 160, 177, 178, 180 The modern farmer needs to have skill in handling machinery. (f) Keeping Labor Employed 130 One of the problems of the farmer is to furnish work which will keep him or his hired help busy the year around. The sugar- camp employs labor early in the spring before the field work can be done. 403 Dairying requires work the year around. 57 Where dairying is done on a large scale the milking is a part of the regular day's work. 44, 175 Fruit growing requires work practically all year. The winter season is taken up with pruning, spraying and making boxes and barrels for packing and shipping. 218 Grain farming furnishes labor only for short seasons. The re- mainder of the year there is little to do. 185 Winter feeding of stock furnishes profitable work for the farmer and his hired help. II. TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND FARM MACHINERY As has been noted under Farm Management, the equipment of a farm has a great deal to do with the success or failure of its opera- tions. Every farmer should strive to have enough machinery and tools to carry on his work effectively. Oftentimes loss is caused by not having enough equipment to put out a crop in proper season, or to harvest it when ripe. On farms of large area and level surface, machinery of larsre capacity can be used to advantage, but on hilly farms and on small areas small sized machinery, or even hand tools, must be used. See Labor anrl Equipment. 1. HAND TOOLS 529 The oldest tool used for harvesting is the hand sickle. Less than an acre can he harvested in a day by one man. Consider how much more the farmer in 357 can do in a day. 388 The rough surface makes hand tools necessary here. The grass TRANSPORTATION 309 has been cut with a scythe (the scythe was the first improve- ment over the sickle) and now it is being raked into bunches with hand rakes. Note how different this is from 181. 105 The hoe was the first cultivating tool and is still used on small areas. It is very effective for killing weeds and loosening the ground when vigorously used. 47, 108, 175 The basket is a very useful piece of farm equipment. The average mature person can handle a basketful of almost any article grown on the farm. Besides the basket is useful to gather articles into larger piles. 2. TRANSPORTATION 449 The most primitive method of transportation is on the human back. This method is laborious, slow, and capable of moving only small articles. 311,396,438,454,554 The two-wheeled vehicle drawn by one or more animals is a great improvement over the " burden bearing " method. 124, 138 The most satisfactory means of transporting about the farm is the use of the two-horse wagon. 147, 177 When the wagon box is replaced by a hay-rack, or " hay-lad- der," the wagon is useful in handling bulky material like hay, straw, or sheaves before they are threshed. 47 The one-horse wagon is very convenient on the farm and espe- cially on a truck farm. 162 The sled is useful in handling timber in the forest. 3. TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS 488, 522, 561 Very crude types of plows. Only in very rich soil and with plenty of hand labor could such plowing of the ground produce a crop. 549 This harrow is much like a big, coarse comb and is adapted to the peculiar conditions under which the Filipino farmer works. 178 Here we see the most modern and up-to-date method of breaking the ground. This tractor is pulling three plows and doing the work of three two-horse teams and doing it quicker. One man can operate all the machinery and is thus saving the time and wages of two other men. This outfit will plow about one acre an hour. 179 It would take seven horses to draw the implements shown here and they would not be able to do it so quickly either. 180 Tractor and manure spreader. The tractor is of special value in plowing sod. The manure spreader scatters the manure evenly over the ground. The manure spreader pulls hard and when it is loaded furnishes a heavy load for a team. 332 The tractor is being used every place where large areas are to be prepared for crops. 310 \GR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 198 The two-horse cultivator is the most common tool for cultivating crops. 4. HARVESTING MACHINERY 357 With the self-binder one man and a team do the work of a team and five or six men. This is an American binder at work in England. See the name Piano on the grain shield. 136 The corn binder is a much later invention than the wheat binder. The corn binder saves the labor of two or three men and a great deal of hard work. 160 This binder has an elevator attached which carries the corn up and drops it on the wagon. This saves the labor of two men necessary to gather the corn from the ground when it is dropped as in 136. 181 The hay loader is a great labor saver and also time saver. 166 The potato digger is also a great labor saver. The hardest work here is the picking up of the potatoes. 5. THRESHING MACHINERY 527, 497 It takes a long time to thresh a crop of grain in this way. 177 The primitive methods would thresh only a few bushels in a day, while an outfit like this will thresh more than a thousand and have the grain clean enough to go to market. 218, 299 This machine harvests the heads of grain, threshes the grain, and drops it into sacks for the teams to haul to market. 233 Here the horses are replaced by a steam engine. By using a tractor for preparing the seed bed and sowing the seed the grain farmer can handle large areas of farm land and not have a single horse. 6. MISCELLANEOUS 161 The power ditcher saves a great deal of man labor. Notice the peculiar wheels on this machine. They are called caterpillar wheels, and move the machine slowly. Such a machine and two men will dig the trench and lay the tile for 100 rods, three and a half feet deep, in a day. 44 The power sprayer enables the orchardist to spray several hundred trees in a day. The sprayer is mounted on a wagon and the gasoline engine seen at the back forces the spray out of the nozzles. 24. FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE By A. E. WINSHIP, Litt.D., LL.D. LECTURER, EDITOR " JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON Marvelous changes in country life have occurred in recent years. These have made great progress toward retaining all that is best and most wholesome in rural living conditions and at the same time they have eliminated much of the drudgery and isolation of former days. A new era is at hand. For- tunately, most of the labor saving devices not only make the work more pleasant but also far more profitable so that the luxuries of yesterday are becoming the commonplaces of to- day. The country will never retain its boys and girls merely be- cause they can get a good start in life easier there than in the city, nor merely because it is more and more profitable to live in the country. Boys and girls must learn to love the coun- try in childhood and youth. They must be given real oppor- tunity for the joys of childhood in the country. Days of hard work must be limited as to hours. Life must not be all drudgery. Most men who flee from the country safety to city dangers are usually ticketed for the city by the poky life they lead in the country home. Nowhere is social live so easily made safe or so attractive as in the country, and no homes need the illustrated weekly and monthly magazines, music and other forms of pleasant recreation as do those in the country. The automobile is doing its full share to overcome the isolation of rural life. It is not without significance that our greatest farming states have the greatest number of automo- biles per thousand of population. The telephone, the trolley line and the daily mail delivery bring the farm into close touch with the community, the county and the outside world. The self binder, the hay loader and stacker, the silo, the cream 3" 312 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE separator, the tractor and the whole range of modern im- provements make for efficiency and profit in farm life. With families of the same means a country home can be made infinitely more attractive than a city home. Nothing homey is possible in a large city for a family of small in- come, while in the country even with a small income a place can easily be made very attractive and homelike. Cleaning up and dressing up for the evening meal will greatly help to make a country home attractive. Be sure that the whole family eat the evening meal together and that all sit at the table until all are through. The evening should have some- thing especially attractive to the whole family. In summer time out-of-the-house social life should be promoted. Appreciation of nature is of first importance in the coun- try. With teeming life growing and unfolding on every hand, there is that intimate association with nature that lifts one's mind to the higher and nobler things of life. Nowhere else is right living and high thinking so easily attained as in farm life ; nowhere else is faith in human nature £0 significant. 1. THE FARM HOME 91 White House, 96 Washington's old home. The city at its best can show no lovelier homes than the country. Washington, when President, used to long for the time when he could return to his country home at Mount Vernon. 37 Newburg, N. Y., 38 Hudson Valley, 262 Nova Scotia. The quiet beauty and prosperity of farm homes such as we see here is very attractive. There is no smoke, no dirt, no neighbor so close as to be almost in your own house. 102 North Carolina. Can you imagine anything more beautiful than this view which can be seen from this farm home? Travelers come hundreds of miles to see it. 367 Stirling Castle. The nobility of the British Isles, even the royal family, have homes in the country. 362 Wordsworth's home, 372 Burns' cottage. Very many of the great poets have lived in the country and found their inspiration there. 373 Highland home. This simple home in the Scotch Highlands seems to radiate contentment and cleanliness. 113 Lincoln cabin. In the pioneer days of our country, this was a common kind of home and some people still think of a farm- house as a place without comfort or conveniences. 147 Illinois. This kind of a farmhouse is far more frequently seen than the one above. 181 W. J. Bryan's home. You would expect a great man's farm to be up-to-date. This one has a windmill which pumps water for INDEPENDENCE — CHILDREN 313 use in the house and barns. Very many farmhouses now have bathrooms and all the sanitary appliances of the best cit\ homes. 2. INDEPENDENCE The farmer is the most independent of men for his farm supplies most of his living. If he is thrifty and wise, his food is the freshest and best. 57, 159, 364, 371 Dairy cattle. The country home is always sup- plied with milk and cream and fresh butter. 183, 172 Hogs, 185. 358 Beef cattle. Very often the farmer raises and prepares his own meat. Home cured hams, home made sausage and such things are delicious indeed. 141. 142, 143, 144 Packing house scenes. This kind of work in a crowded city cannot be half so pleasant nor so satisfactory as raising the live animals in the open, sunny fields. 56 Poultry. Every farm can have its chickens and fresh eggs. 83 School garden, 149 Celery field. Vegetables fresh from the gar- den have a much finer flavor than those which have stood in markets and stores. 166 Digeing potatoes. A farmer seldom if ever buys potatoes. 47 Cantaloupes, 85 Peaches, 175 Apples. It is very pleasant to pick ripe fruit and have it fresh every day. The farmhouse cellar is always rich with fruit stored away for winter. 147 Oats. 184 Corn, 357 Wheat. The farmer also raises grain for his family bread and to feed his livestock. 130 Tapping sugar maple. The Indians showed the first white settlers how to make maple sugar. A maple sugar camp in the woods in the early spring is a delightful place. 137 Pumpkins. With his milk and eggs, the farmer must of course raise pumpkins for pie and for food for his cattle. 85 Delaware. 112 Kentucky. 149 Michigan. 136 Indiana. 160, 161 Wisconsin. 178, 179 South Dakota. Usually the farmer is his own boss. He is working for himself and his family and this adds zest to life. 3. CHILDREN The country is an ideal place for children. 72 Woodcock ; 359 Nightingale. They see the birds and animals in their native homes and learn their ways. 2 Wild moose; 189 Wild elk; 359 Nightingale; 583 Gannets ; 584 Pen- guins. Sights of this kind are never seen in cities. 83 City school gardens. Country children are not confined to a tiny patch of garden. 314 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 236 Vineyard, California. They share in the life of the whole farm. 522 Chinese farm scene, 239 Ostrich farm. Children seem especially interested in little animals of all kinds. Calves, lambs, colts, as well as little ostriches, delight them. 56 Chicken farm. Very many country children like to gather eggs and feed chickens. 455 Palermo, Sicily. It seems too bad that the little children of the tenements cannot play with the flowers and birds in the sunny fields. 4. SCIENCE Sometimes farmers as a class have been looked upon as ignorant and unprogressive. If that ever were true, it is not so today. It takes real mental vigor to be an up-to-date farmer. 93 Overlooking Agricultural Department and grounds, Washington, D. C. In the Agricultural Department trained men are con- tinually studying and supervising experiments for the benefit of the people of the United States. 172, 173 Ames, la. Several colleges are devoted to agriculture and in them men and women are especially taught the best methods of farming. Nearly all our colleges have courses in agricul- ture. 83 Philadelphia. Because the tilling of the soil is necessary to the life of the people, and for its educational value, even the pub- lic schools are teaching it. 235 Improving plants already known and developing new varieties that will be useful is an important interest of agricultural sci- ence today. 44 Spraying apple trees. Spraying prevents disease and saves mil- lions of dollars' worth of fruit each year. 175 Picking apples. It is nice to sort fragrant apples in the orchard. 115 Phosphate, 180 Manure, 183 Nitrogen-fixing plants. The sci- entific farmer of today studies his soil and applies the kind of fertilizer needed. 57, 159, 165, 364, 371 Dairy cows, 185, 358, 370 Beef cattle, 138, 398 Draft horses, 172, 183 Hogs, 173 Sheep. The scientific farmer breeds his stock to suit the purposes he intends. Men enjoy greatly the owning and handling of fine stock. 161 Draining land. Also the farmer must be somewhat of a civil engineer to drain his land where it is too wet, or to lay out his ditches so as to irrigate it if too dry. 5. THE METHODS OF WORKING A large part of the farm work of the United States is done by ma- chinery. The farmer of today must be a mechanic. 388 Hay making, Germany. Here we see the old way of making hay. When work has to be done by hand, only small fields can be cared for. METHODS OF WORKING 315 181 Hay loader, Nebraska. This is the American way. It does away with the continuous lifting. 561 Primitive plowing. This kind of plow has been in use in Egypt over 5000 years. There has been no improvement. 522 Plowing, China. And this is a fair sample of plowing in China. 488 Plowing, Russia. This plow may not last much longer, as Russia is importing great quantities of American farm machinery. These scenes show how our ancestors worked. 178, 179, 180 Tractors. This is the way the great fields of the west- ern United States are plowed and prepared for seed. 66, 67 Steel works. 178, 180 Farming. Driving the tractor in the open air and sunshine seems much pleasanter and more health- ful than the hot, dangerous iron mill. 149 Celery, 68 Coke. These pictures show out-of-doors work but cer- tainly the farmer has the best of it. 529 Cutting rice. All grain was harvested with a sickle in ancient times. It was very slow and laborious. The scythe and cradle seemed a wonderful invention. 357 Harvesting wheat. The reaper and binder greatly lessen the work of the harvest. 199 Harvesting barley. Reaping and threshing with one machine. 147 Loading oats. Later they must be hauled to the barns to be threshed. 527, 479, 497, 562 Primitive threshing. This way of threshing has been used by all primitive people. It must be pleasant, this lei- surely work in the open air, but it is very inefficient. 177 Threshing wheat. The modern American way is efficient. See the mountain of straw that may be made into paper, or used to bed animals or perhaps be returned to the land as a fertilizer — unfortunately, at times it is burned. 218, 233 Harvesting wheat. Sometimes reaping and threshing is done by one machine. Only the heads of the grain are cut off leav- ing the straw to be plowed under. 184 Corn field, Kansas. There is no lovelier sight than a field of wav- ing corn. This grain makes a wonderful return to the planter. 160, 136 Corn harvesting. Corn is now cut and cared for by machin- ery making the farmer's work much lighter and the returns much greater. 47, 149 Market gardening is very profitable near large cities and very attractive work. 419 Sugar beets. Weeding done by hand is very tiresome. Yet is it more so than shopwork? 198 Cultivating beets, Colorado. Fortunately, in America, the culti- vator drawn by horses makes handwork less necessary. This man seems to be enjoying his work. 44 Spraying apple orchard. Fruit raising is a most attractive kind of farm work. Along the lake shore where this picture was 316 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE taken the air is filled with the scent of fruit from cherry blos- som time till apples are gathered. 85, 44, 175 Apple and peach orchards. Trees are no longer just let grow. They are now carefully attended and the perfect fruit fully repays the work. 237 Oranges. Careful cultivation such as is shown in this picture is hard work. But in such a place with such a view to rest one's eyes, we find hard work in its pleasantest form. 238 Oranges, 236 Grapes, 234 Almonds. One of the joys of farming lies in the fact that the farmer sees the finished product of his labor. 11, 12, 41 Shoe manufacture. These people who are skilled work- men do only one thing day after day. The monotony is wear- ing. 159, 165, 185, 358, 364, 370, 371 Well bred cattle. All over the civ- ilized world men take pride in breeding fine cattle. 57, 46 Modern dairying. Can you even imagine what we should do without milk? Because the health of the whole people depends largely on the milk greatest care is taken that it may be health- ful. 127, 186, 188 United States, 301 Jamaica, 589 Australia. Some men love the wild, free life of the cattle or horse ranch with the rid- ing and open air. 173 Ames, la. 190 Idaho. Most farmers keep a few sheep. But in the west vast flocks containing thousands roam over the land. Tending the flocks was one of man's earliest occupations. The life out in the open under the skies brings man in close har- mony with nature and with nature's God. Shepherd peoples have been notably religious peoples. It was not without reason that the Good News came first to the shepherds tending their flocks on the plains of Bethlehem. 104, 105 Rice, 112 Tobacco, 117 Cotton, 118 Peanuts. Negroes are especially adapted to the farm work in the south. Their orig- inal home was in the torrid zone and they thrive best in the warmer lands. 104, 105, 528, 527, 529 Rice farming. These five views of rice growing present vastly different conditions. 6. SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 118 Arkansas; 113 Lincoln's cabin. Very many city people think of farmers as living in homes like these and under poor condi- tions. Nothing is farther from the truth today. 45, 46, 47 New York. 56 New Jersey. 124 Texas. 165 Minnesota. 180 Nebraska. 184, 185 Kansas. 177 North Dakota. 175 Mis- souri. These and many other views show that farmers are not necessarily poor. 150, 151, 152 Automobile factories. An increasing number have auto- mobiles. These carry them so quickly to and from the city that SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 317 farmers may be said to have all the best advantages of city and country. 71 Pennsylvania. Good roads have done much to make country life easier. 166 Minnesota. The harvesting of a crop brings the country people together. 218, 233, 177 Threshing in the country is the occasion for exchange of work which unites the farmers and emphasizes community feeling. 188, 186, 127 Men on big ranches become like a large family. 210 Arizona. 198 Colorado. 236, 237 California. In irrigated districts the people live close together on small plats which are in- tensively cultivated with the most improved machinery. There is a community of interest not known in more favored sections. This often results in city improvements for the district such as the best of schools, electric lights, etc. 211 New Mexico. 199 Colorado. 224, 225 Oregon. The sparsely settled western communities have a friendliness not known in the more densely populated regions. 178, 179, 102, 103 Distance from cities causes the farmers to club to- gether in ordering goods from mail order houses. 38 Hudson Valley. Farmers in a progressive community are usually organized into a grange for social and economical purposes. 195 Yellowstone. 201 Colorado. 207, 208 Arizona. 221 Oregon. 228, 229 Yosemite. After the crops are cared for very many farm people travel to see their country. 93, 173 The Agricultural Department, and Agricultural Colleges send out men to hold meetings which are very enjoyable and profitable. They promote sociability and impart the knowledge that makes improved farm conditions possible. 172, 183 Hogs. Pig clubs are likewise efficient in improving animal husbandry and at the same time through the club meetings pro- vide social opportunities. 184 Corn field, Kans. 136 Harvesting corn. Corn clubs have given young people a greater interest in agriculture. They make foi improved farming conditions and afford many social occasions. Other products than corn are equally available for cl'ub work. Canning clubs also serve the double purpose of forwarding the work in Domestic Science and promoting sociability. 96 George Washington after he had been through the Revolution and had served as President said he saw no way of doing more serv- ice for his country than by improving its agriculture. NATURE STUDY INTRODUCTION By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE An ideal recreation is one which combines exercise of body, brain and senses with profit and interest that begets en- thusiasm which creates perseverance ; one which gives va- riety, outdoor activity and in which, above all things, teachers and scholars of all ages can go together, — both of them mak- ing discoveries. Surely Nature Study is the one, perhaps the only one, that completely fits these requirements, and whether we focus our power on animal or plant life, we find oppor- tunity for exercise and discovery that never loses its zest. For this is a well known secret : The naturalist never grows old. Because the eye gate is the main entrance for nature lore, we find our series of views of prime importance in making the acquaintance of the living things of our world. Your attitude will have much to do with your pleasure and your progress. If you wish to enjoy these pictures that set before you the ways of the animal world, begin by realizing that the animals and ourselves are very much alike ; that they have been evolving for ages, much as we have done, only we have gone farther on the road of mind growth ; our faculties are far beyond theirs, but their senses, in most cases, are much more acute than ours. The hearing of a dog or a fox is far better than that of a man, and the sense of smell of these creatures is as superior to that of man as the speed of an eagle is beyond that of a mud turtle. Man has, perhaps, better eyesight than a dog, but the birds 318 INTRODUCTION 319 are as superior to man in this department as the dog is in smell sense. In touch sense man is well developed, better than most big animals, but is probably far inferior to such delicate things as mice and insects; the same remark applies to taste. There are yet other senses, less generally discussed, such as direction, electric sense, etc., in which the animals seem far better equipped than we ; and the sum total of such observations leaves us convinced that both we and our wild brothers have struggled along in the ages of evolution, each fighting the same battle, only we had the luck to find a higher trail and with that reach a plane of higher joy and larger sorrows. This thought of kinship enlarges our sympathies, but we should not obscure the fact of man's supremacy and his right of eminent domain. We are justified in using all the animal kingdom for our lives and comfort ; but every law of profit, logic, and goodness forbids the infliction of unnecessary cruelty or destruction. What America is suffering today from the wanton destruc- tion of birds and wild life, should be a lasting warning, and solemn admonition to repair at once the damage — restore again the bird life whose loss is robbing us of our forests, or an even larger calamity shall be our inevitable and national punishment. It was recognition of the close relationship of forests and animals that led to their being grouped together as Nature Study. An utter novice has no difficulty in telling you the difference between plants and animals ; a trained naturalist is not so sure. The difference between a man and an oak is very obvious, but lower down in the scale we have animals which sprout into two and we also have sensitive plants that behave like animals; so that where the dividing line is, if it exists at all, is a much discussed question. The animal, being nearer to man has usually first claim on the interest of the young naturalist ; but, strange to tell, I know of some men who began by studying birds and quad- rupeds and later drifted away to trees and plants; the reason given being : The latter are easier to study ; they do not run and hide when you wish to be with them, and they respond so much better to attempts to cultivate and propagate them. 25. PLANTS AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS By JOHN M. COULTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR AND HEAD DEPT. OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Assisted by GEORGE D. FULLER, Ph.D. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO I. PLANT ASSOCIATIONS Plants are not scattered indiscriminately over the surface of the earth, but live together in definite communities called associations. For example, forests, meadows, swamps, are plant associations, each determined by the conditions for plant life. The factors whose combination determines what plants can live on a given area are water, temperature, soil, light, wind, etc. The most conspicuous plant association is the forest, in which trees are the dominant plants. The forest is called the climax type because in the history of every region there is a succession of plant associations, and the final association is some form of forest. A great many areas have not yet reached the forest stage. The kind of forest depends upon the region and its history. A. TROPICAL FORESTS Abundance of rain, a continuous growing season, and high tempera- ture give the richest and most luxuriant of forests. They have thin, broad evergreen leaves; the trees are often not large but of many di- verse kinds, growing crowded together with entangling vines and abundant herbaceous plants. 255 Rich tropical forests are seen near the Panama Canal. 592 New Guinea Islands. The even temperature of the south Pacific Ocean induces the development of rich evergreen forests. 247 Panama. The rubber tree grows in such rich forests. Ferns growing perched on the trunks of palms are often found in tropical forests. 259, 294, 570 Bananas are among the most useful trees of the tropical forests, as they supply materials for houses, baskets, and fo; food. Note their broad leaves. 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Some of the richest tropical forests in 320 PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 321 the world are in Brazil. This view is in a somewhat drier re- gion, but the trees are still evergreen. B. SEMITROPICAL FORESTS 586 Eucalyptus trees in Australia grow to a marvelous height. 576, 577, 574 When the rainfall is not quite sufficient, or some other conditions are less favorable, a less luxuriant forest develops. Palms often grow in such a forest. 575 Near Victoria Falls, Rhodesia, Africa. A moderate amount of rain in the tropics gives only a poor, often scrubby forest. C. GLOSSY-LEAVED FORESTS In lands with hot dry summers and cold wet winters, the ever- green trees often have hard shining leaves, such as those of the olive, orange, and tea. 238 Oranges; 240, olive grove; 530, tea. D. TEMPERATE EVERGEEN FORESTS 376,377 The climate is so mild in Killarney and neighboring parts of Ireland that many semitropical plants grow freely, and evergreen shrubs and vines are abundant. One reason for the name " Em- erald Isle " is to be found in these evergreen forests. E. CONIFER FORESTS The cone-bearing trees form some of the most valuable forests in the world. The most important kinds are the pines, spruces, and firs. They are evergreen, holding their small needle-like leaves for several vears. and grow in lands of cold winters and warm moist summers. 229. 224. 215. 216 The richest conifer forests in the world are those of the Pacific Coast. They are composed of sequoias, Douglas fir, hemlock, tide water spruce, western cedar, and western larch. They produce more lumber per square mile than any other for- ests in the world. Mountain Forests 195, 196. 222 Tn the mountains of the west the most abundant forests are often those composed of spruce and fir. 221.409.427,445 Many mountain sides have rich forests of pine, spruce and fir. Pine Forests 162, 221 Pine forests of the northern United States have been valuable but are being rapidly cut over. Southern Pine Forests 107 The longleaf or Georgia pine has for several vears furnished the largest cut of pine lumber in the United States. See also Yel- low Pine Forests following. 322 NATURE STUDY Northern Forests 1,246 The forests of Maine, Alaska, and Canada are often largely made up of white spruce and balsam fir. Bigtree Forests 229 The mountains of California have rich forests of pine and fir en- circling the giant Sequoias or " big trees." European Pine Forests 388 Germany has carefully preserved and cared for her pine forests. Yellow Pine Forests 191, 201, 228 On the slopes of many mountains of the United States yellow pine forms valuable but rather open forests. See also southern pine forests above. Pinon Forests 201,206 Even the semi-arid slopes of the southwestern United States have scrub forests of nut, pine and junipers. Scrubby Forests 200,201,228 Scrub oaks often mingle with pines in a scanty forest in dry regions. Mixed Forests , 162 Evergreen and deciduous trees often form mixed forests. Petrified Forests 206 Trees have turned to rock in the petrified forest of Arizona. The climate has evidently changed for at present the only trees grow- ing there are scrubby junipers. Zonation of Forests 221, 228, 445 Forest zonation is shown on many mountains and high cliffs. Often the more open pine forests are at the base of the mountains and the richer spruce and fir forests above. 213 When the mountain is in an arid region the forests are limited to the higher parts, where moisture is secured from clouds. 408, 409 Sometimes only the lower parts of the mountain are covered with forests of spruce and fir. The snow remains too long upon the higher parts to allow trees to grow. Pioneer Forests 39,51, 191 Forests often have a difficult time becoming established on rocky cliffs and hill sides. Arctic Forests 413 As the Arctic circle is approached the trees become low and stunted because of the short season, the cold and the strong winds. PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 323 F. DECIDUOUS FORESTS In the lands where there is a season too cold or too dry for trees to grow continuously, the forests shed their leaves at a certain time of the year, usually in the fall. Climax Forests 38, 70, 72, 73, 114, 130, 169 Many rich forests of this type are found in the United States. They abound in beech, maple, oak, tulip, chestnut and other trees. Oak Forests 361,369,379 Rich forests of oak, ash, and similar trees once covered much of the British Isles, and a few bits still remain. 103 Oak forests are among the most useful. Flood Plain Forests 470 The rich soil of flood plains often has forests of great luxuriance. Stream-side Forests 2, 120, 173 Along the water's edge willows and alders are common trees. Japanese Forests 525, 527, 529 The forests of Japan are very similar to those of the eastern United States. They contain considerable pine, spruce and fir. New Zealand Forests 591 Those of New Zealand are rich, containing both conifers and broad-leaved trees. G. GRASSLANDS Natural grasslands are usually found in regions where the rainfall is not sufficient to produce forests. They naturally become the feeding grounds of herds of cattle, horses, and sheep. Prairies 178,179.180.181 These are the richest of the grasslands and are abundantly developed in the central United States. Pastures 73. 173, 183. 301, 480. 589 Their grasses are both native and introduced. 127, 188, 190, 589 Scanty rainfall in mountainous regions makes the grasses short and scanty. Lawns and Parks 37, 316. 482, 587 These show bv their close turf the effect of good care and constant water supply. 324 NATURE STUDY Forest and Grassland 38 This is the usual type of landscape in the eastern United States. Farther to the west, in the prairie regions, trees are usually found only along the banks of streams as in 182. II. DEFINITELY IDENTIFIED PLANTS A. TREES — CONIFERS 162 (lower right), 265 White pine (Pinus strobus) has been the most valuable tree in North America, but few large forests of it re- main. 191 (in valley), 200, 201 (on top of ridge), 228 (in valley). Yellow pine (Pinus pondcrosa), the most valuable pine tree of the western portions of the United States. 107 Georgia pine (Pinus palustris), also called long-leaf pine. Now the most valuable pine in the United States, growing upon the sandy plains of the southeast and yielding lumber, resin, turpen- tine, and fiber (from needles). It is a yellow pine. 388,407,418 Scotch pine (Pinus silvestris) , the most valuable pine of Europe. 427,428,449 Mountain pine (Pinus montana), common on the high mountains of Europe. 1,262 White spruce (Picca canadensis) a tree of the northern United States and Canada, valuable for lumber and for paper pulp. 246 Alaska spruce (Picea sitchensis) also known as tide water spruce, a tall tree growing along the coast from Alaska to Washington. 412 Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), one of the valuable trees of north- ern Europe. Often planted for ornament in America. 162 (one tree in center) Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) , used for pulp wood. 222,228 (on higher parts) Red fir (Abies magniiica) , a fine tall tree of western mountains. 191,276 Mountain Balsam fir (Abies lasiocarpa), a tall slender tree common in the higher parts of the Rocky Mountains. 216,224 Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), also called red fir and Oregon pine, is the most valuable and one of the largest trees on the Pacific coast. 206 Arizona juniper (Juniperus monosperma), a small scrubby tree of the arid southwest of the United States. 229 Bigtree (Sequoia gigantea), the largest and oldest tree in Amer- ica. It attains an age of from 1000 to 2000 years, a height of 300 feet, and a diameter of 35 feet. B. TREES — BROAD-LEAVED 249,259,551,574 Cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera), a tree that supplies building material (stems), thatch (leaves), fiber (husk of nut) food, and drink (nuts). It is widespread in tropical lands. PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 325 556,566,567 Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a most valuable tree, furnishing food in many semi-desert parts of Asia and Africa. 294,297,302 Banana (Musa sapientum), a very broad-leaved tropical fruit tree. 552,553 Manila hemp (Musa textilis), a broad-leaved tree of the banana family, whose leaves and petioles yield a valuable fiber. 586 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), an Australian tree sometimes 400 feet high. 120, 173 Black willow (Salix nigra), a common tree along stream bor- ders. 182 Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), grown along streams even in prairies and desert regions. 466,489 Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra italica), a tall tree of re- markably upright growth, a native of Europe but much planted in America. 1, 162 Paper or canoe birch (Bctula papyrifcra) , a hardy tree witli papery white bark. 263 shows the bark of this tree used by Indians for tent covering. 10,37,71,96 American elm (Ulmus americana). 146 White Oak (Quercus alba) in background. 537,538 Silk mulberry (Morus alba), a small tree cultivated for its leaves, which are fed to silk worms. 70 Chestnut (Castanea dentata). It often produces shoots from the base of the trunk. 130 Sugar maple (Acer saccliarum), valuable both for wood and for the production of sugar. 379 Box tree (Buxus sempcnnrens), a small tree with glossy ever- green leaves. Often trimmed into ornamental shapes and used in hedges. 534 Flowering cherry (Prunus pseudo-cerasus), much grown for or- namental purposes in Japan. 259 The papaw (Carica papaya), a very broad-leaved tree grown in many tropical lands for its fruit. 240 The olive (Olca europaca), an evergreen tree of the Mediterra- nean region. 237,238,437 The orange (Citrus aurantium) , a tree with glossy ever- green leaves, valuable for ornamental purposes and for its fruit. 209 The mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) is one of the largest trees of the Arizona deserts. It belongs to the pea family. 44 The apple (Pyrus mains) is usually seen in orchards only. 85 The peach (Prunus persica). 234 The almond (Prunus amygdalus). 303 Cacao tree (Thcobroma cacao). 302 The coffee (Coffea arabica) is a small tree with evergreen leaves. 530 Tea (Thea sinensis) is from a small evergreen tree. 209 Giant cactus (Cereus giganteus), the giant of the deserts, growing to a height of 35 feet. 326 NATURE STUDY C. SHRUBS 355 European privet (Ligustrum vulgare) much grown for hedges. 188, 190 Sage brush {Artemisia tridentata). 209 Creosote bush (Coinllea mcxicano), one of the small shrubs com- mon in the deserts of the southwestern United States. D. VINES 37 Boston ivy (Psedera tricuspidata) , a hardy vine from Japan, much grown in Boston and the New England States. 354,362,376 English ivy (Hedcra helix) grows abundantly upon the houses and castles of the British Isles. The ivy of litera- ture. 236,319,390 Grape {Vitis vinifera), excellent as an ornamental vine as well as for its fruit. 137 Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo). 47 Cantaloupe (Cucumis melo). 359 Gill-over-the-ground (Nepeta glechoma). E. HERBS 37,285,287 Century plant (Agave am eric ana) . 91 Cannas (Comma glauca, C. annaei, and hybrids). 258,333 Sugarcane (S ac char um off. cinarum). 136,184 Corn (Zea mays). 172 Rape (Brassica campestris). 297, 112 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). 198, 270, 419 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris). 102 Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) . III. CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE FOR PLANT LIFE Although vegetation covers most of the earth's surface, there are cer- tain areas in which plants grow with difficulty. The result is a scanty vegetation made up of a few kinds of plants that are specially fitted to endure the hard conditions. The principal unfavorable conditions ap- pear in the following classification. A. TOO DRY Deserts 209, 563, 565 Where rain seldom falls only a few hardy plants survive. Semi-deserts 190.200.201,495 With scanty rainfall a scantv vegetation results. Small trees scattered widely over the soil use all the meager rainfall. PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 327 Dwarf Trees 535 The Japanese by planting trees in pots and limiting the supply of water so that life is barely maintained, produce curious dwarf trees. Individuals 12-18 inches high may be a century old. B. TOO WET 161 Too much water is almost as bad as too little, but drainage will improve this condition. C. TOO COLD Arctic Snows 243, 342, 345, 346 Near the poles the continuous cold excludes all plants. Alpine Deserts 219, 276, 279, 322, 323, 440, 441, 448 Where the perpetual snow covers the mountain tops plants are absent. Arctic Forests 244, 413 The cold winds make low shrubbery forests. Ice Burden 50, 191 Snow and ice crush trees and break off branches. D. TOO MUCH INJURIOUS GAS 62,63,68,187 Smelters, coke ovens, and other industrial plants often send forth great volumes of fumes and gases. These are de- structive to vegetation and wasteful as well, resulting in the loss of millions of dollars' worth of valuable chemicals that might be reclaimed by proper methods. 453, 545 Volcanoes emit great volumes of poisonous gas. City Conditions 6, 26, 27, 48, 61 The soil in the city is often too dry as the water is carried off in sewers. The houses crowd out plants, and smoke and gases destroy the foliage. E. TOO LITTLE SOIL Rock Plants 189, 208 Rocks permit few plants except mosses and lichens to flourish. A few find a foothold in cracks and crevices and gradually form more soil. Pioneer Plants 197, 191, 51 Forests slowly conquer steep cliffs and hillsides, but the pioneers have a hard struggle. 328 NATURE STUDY On Ruins 478, 284 As stone houses, castles and other stone structures fall to ruins, plants find resting places in shelves and crevices. They aid in breaking up the stones, forming soil and crumbling the building to the ground. F. TOO UNSTABLE SOIL Stream Erosion 191, 197, 208 As rivers cut away their banks the vegetation is destroyed. Plants find the crumbling soil precarious footing. Volcanic Hills 545, 453 The ash and cinders from volcanic action make plant life diffi- cult and uncertain. Sand Dunes 223 The wind moves the sand so readily that no plants can live. IV. WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS Probably the greatest of all dangers to plants is the lack of sufficient water. For deficiency in supply see under Conditions Unfavorable for Plant Life. The use and economy of the water supply is largely de- termined by the foliage condition of the plant. Broad thin leaves lose water rapidly. Such leaves are seen in : 160, Corn; 294, 297, 302, Bananas; 258, 333, Sugar cane; 259, Papaw; 172, Rape. See under Tropical Forest. 237, 238, 530 In lands with hot dry summers and cool winters the leaves are often evergreen, but have glossy surfaces which prevent the rapid loss of water. 224, 388, 591 When the winters are cold, such evergreen leaves are re- duced in size to mere needles. 249,259,301,574 Palms have large leaves, but they have a hard surface which retains water well. 10, 427 In lands with cold winters, many trees conserve their water by shedding their leaves in the autumn. See also under De- ciduous Forests. 209 Desert trees often retain their leaves only during a few weeks when moisture is most abundant. 188, 190 Sometimes, as in the case of the sage brush, the small leaves which constitute the foliage are covered with a thick coating of hairs that helps them to retain the water. 209. 235 The greatest economy of water in perennial plants is seen in cacti, with no leaves and thick juicy stems. Some will live for more than a year upon the stored water they contain. 586 The eucalyptus is planted in damp malarial regions. It takes up and gives off great quantities of water. PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 329 V. LIGHT RELATION OF LEAVES From the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the water of the soil green plants are continually making food. The energy for this manu- facture comes from the sunlight, and to obtain this sunlight many dif- ferences in leaf size and leaf arrangement show their success by the large areas of the earth's surface they cover. 294, 297, 302, Bananas; 112, 297, Tobacco; 259, Papaw ; 249, 259, 301, 574, 556, Palms. Large broad leaves work well where water is abundant. 247, 255, 592 Broad thin leaves seen in tropical forests work efficiently every day of the year. 237, 238, 437 Hard glossy leaves, being able to cling to the trees during the hot summers, are often very efficient. 169, 87, 70 Some trees, although only retaining their leaves during the summer, have large broad ones and so possess a good working capacity. 72 The fallen leaves decay and furnish food for the trees. 182, 537, 120 Some deciduous trees have smaller leaves but still thrive. 224, 229, 591 The conifers have small needle-shaped leaves, but by re- taining them for years do efficient work. 161, 173, 175, etc. The long ribbon-like leaves of the grasses cover vast areas of the earth's surface, testifying to their success. See Grasslands. 160, 258, 333 Corn and sugar cane expose great areas of green leaf surface. 181, 183,317 Alfalfa is successful with innumerable small leaves. 571 Rosettes of leaves seen in a favorite type of arrangement. 556, 564, 566, 574 Rosettes on the top of long stems are probably still more effective. 47 Cantaloupes. Mosaics over the ground are formed by many vines. 37, 354, 362, 376 Mosaics upon walls give climbers good leaf exposure. 224, 388, 591 Small leaves of pine and other conifers let light pass through to reach those below. 209, 235 Cacti have usually no leaves, the leaf work being done by the fleshy stems. VI. FOOD STORAGE The manufacture of food by the leaves of green plants not only pro- vides for the growth of the plant itself, but there is frequently a sur- plus supply stored in some of its organs. This food takes various forms- 285, 287 Water storage occurs in thick leaves, such as those of the century plant, or in the stems of cacti (209, 235). 551 Water storage also occurs in cocoanuts and in juicy fruits. See Fruits. Sugar is stored in fruits (which see) and also in the sugar maple 130 Sugar maple ; 198, 270, 419, Sugar beets ; 258, 333, Sugar cane. Starch storage is most abundant in cereals and grains (which see). 330 NATURE STUDY 166 Starch also abounds in the potato. Protein storage is most abundant in nuts, such as: Peanut, 118; Al- mond, 234 ; also in beans, 562. Oil abounds in: 480, 495, Olive; 118, Peanut; 303, Cocoanut. Drugs and flavors are stored in: 112, 297, Tobacco; 530, Tea; 30 1, Coffee; 303, Chocolate; 259, Papaw (pepsin); 108, Pineapple (pepsip 1 * ; 586, Eucalyptus trees. VII. ECONOMIC PLANTS See classifications on Production and Manufacturing, and Farn Crops, Horticulture and Textiles and Clothing. VIII. PLANTS FOR ORNAMENT For classication dealing with plants for ornament see Horticulture. 26. ANIMALS By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE I. HORSES We do not know whether the horse was first used as a saddle beast or as a draft animal ; but probably it served as a pack animal before it was either of the others. The pack of camp stuff was naturally fol- lowed by the human rider, and later some rude kind of drag was in- vented. Just as the travois of our Indians was evolved from the tepee poles being hauled from camp to camp. But men must have had roads before they had wheel vehicles, and that was a long time later. In the most primitive form of agriculture the donkey and the ox are found in service, but one is too small and the other too slow for the best results. It is a remarkable fact that agriculture cannot flourish without the horse. (A) DRAFT AND FARM HORSES It is difficult to believe that the magnificent elephantine draft horses are from the same stock as the Shetland pony; but it is generally con- ceded that such is the case, and it illustrates what can be done by se- lective breeding. 138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 398 Belgian draft horses, world champion in foreground. 71 A fine 6-horse Percheron team. 218 A 20-horse team on combined reaper and thresher. 166 Three fine 4-horse teams on Minnesota farm. 147 A good road and farm team. 149 A good truck farm team. 136 Percheron horses excellent for heavy work. 180 Horses still necessary on modern farm. 42 Percheron draft horses. 198 A good farm team, Colorado. 162 Hauling logs, Minnesota Pineries. 181 Horses hauling hay, Nebraska. 177 Horses hauling grain to thresher, North Dakota. 207 Horses pulling cultivators. 226 Teams used to haul in salmon nets. 357 Harvesting wheat, England. 488 Russian peasant plowing. 497 Horses treading out grain, Palestine. 331 332 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS (B) ROAD AND CARRIAGE HORSES 195 Stage teams, Yellowstone National Park. 221 Typical stagecoach horses on way to Mt. Hood. 312 Carriage horses, Montevideo, Uruguay. 320 Two wheeled gig, Argentina, South America. 39 Hansom, best type of two wheeled gig, London. 383 Cab drivers, Berlin, Germany. (C) SADDLE HORSES The proudest place of all for the horse is as a saddle beast. Fashions may change, breeds may come and go, or other means of traction win a place ; but the saddle horse is always in fashion. The best saddle horses are of Arabian blood and there is some reason for believing that these are of a different wild stock from the heavy draft horse. The readiness of man to accept the horse is shown in the history of our own Indians. Two hundred years ago they had no horses, and within fifty years of getting them, they so gloried in their steeds that they pretended the horse had always been among them and was a special gift of the Great Spirit in the beginning. The cowboy is the heir to the Indian range, and the pony is as essen- tial to him as the steed to the Arab or the reindeer to the Lapp. 494 A sheik and his faithful Arab steed, Syria. 193 Government officer on saddle horse, Yellowstone Park. 464 Hungarian officer, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest. 585 Mounted British officers reviewing troops, Sydney. 333 South American farmers inspecting work on ranch. 182, 204 Indians on horseback. 188 Cowboys roping their mounts in corral, Montana. 127 Cowboys riding on the range. 186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow. II. MULES AND DONKEYS (A) MULES There is an increase of mules as we enter the hotter regions of agri- culture. Experience shows the mule to be tougher than the horse in a southern climate and much less easily prostrated by heat — no doubt because its other ancestor, the donkey, is a native of the hot tropical deserts of the East. BEEF CATTLE — DAIRY CATTLE 333 175 Mule team in Mo.; 124 Texas; 249 Panama; 294 Cent. America; 311 Brazil; 438 Spain; 479 Greece. (B) DONKEYS The patient, plodding, sturdy, sand-loving, water-hating donkey is seen in his native best in the following group. (Animals like these are also called asses and sometimes burros.) 574 Donkeys in pasture ; 378, 522 as draft animal ; 566, 557 as saddle animal ; 560, 524, 341 as pack animal. III. CATTLE BEEF, DAIRY AND DRAFT A thousand years ago, there existed in Europe the kind of wild cat- tle known as urns or wild ox. These are represented today, first by the herd of wild cattle preserved in Chillingham Park, second by the domestic breeds found now in every quarter of the globe. There can be no question that all of our different common strains are descendants from the wild ox of Caesar's time; though there are reasons for be- lieving that to a slight extent one or two other breeds have been mixed in with it. The habits of the Chillingham cattle — as I know to my discomfort, for once there they put me in peril of my life — are precisely like those of the wild cattle of Texas, their blood kin. Owing to selective breeding, these wild cattle of Chillingham are now white with red ears and red knees. Yet we often see this com- bination on the plains of Texas. On the other hand, we often see a dun or brown Texan with black muzzle or legs and whitish under parts. This probably was the color of the original wild bull that the classic author describes as such a formidable monster. (A) Beef Cattle Wherever the white man has established himself, he has taken with him the horse, the cow, the dog, the cat, the hen, the rat, the mouse and the measles ; and by much experiment and selective breeding, has in each new climate produced a breed of cattle fitted to the new environment. There are three distinct kinds of service that the ox kind can render to man. First, as a range animal for beef and hides ; second, as a dairy animal, producing chiefly milk and butter ; third, as a draft animal. 370 Aberdeen Angus; 317 Shorthorns; 358, 127, 185 Herefords ; 186 range cattle (mixed); 301 Spanish cattle; 140 Stock market, Chicago. (B) Dairy Cattle There are many breeds claiming notice among the dairy kinds, from the Holstein, yielding 20 to 30 quarts of thin milk per day, to the Jersey, whose 8 or 10 quarts per day is as rich as cream, in some cases, has 334 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS produced 3 lbs. of butter per day. A combination of the two qualities is reached in some measure by the famous Ayrshire cow from the land of Bobbie Burns. 159,165,57,403 Holstein-Fresian ; 364 Jersey; 371 Ayrshire; 356 Dairy shorthorn ; 591 Mixed. (C) Draft Cattle There are certain great advantages in using cattle as draft animals ; for example, their strength, their fearlessness in soft ground, their simplicity of diet, and the possibility of their being a food supply when too old for work, etc., to all of which the chief disadvantageous offset is their slowness. C oiiDii on Ox 580 Oxen in S. Africa; 298 Cuba; 561 Egypt; 337 S. America; 497 Palestine; 454 Ox and horse, Italy. Buffalo 549 Philippines; 491 Syria; 474 Constantinople. Humped Cattle of Asia 562 Egypt; 548 Philippines. IV. BISON AND BUFFALO' If we follow the classification of Lydekker, the living cattle kind may be divided into four groups ; namely, The Common Ox Kind or Round-Horned Cattle, discussed in the previous chapter. Gaurs, Flat-Horned or Jungle Cattle, found in tropical Asia. Bisons, or Woolly Round-Horned Cattle, including the American Buffalo and its European cousin the Bison or Aurochs. Buffaloes Proper, with rough angular horns and nearly naked skin. The famous American bison (commonly called buffalo) has never been successfully tamed. Its temper is always morose and the crea- ture is subject to sudden fits of murderous rage. This is therefore one of the few in the cattle family that decline to become servants of man; we may kill him, but not enslave him. 232 Famous American bison, almost extinct. 549 Buffalo harrowing rice fields near Manila. 491 Shoeing a buffalo in a street of Tarsus, Syria. 474 European buffalo in yoke, Constantinople. V. SHEEP AND GOATS They have divided hoofs and chew a cud as oxen and cows do. There is little doubt that the dog was the first wild animal to be do- mesticated by man ; but it seems likely that sheep came soon after, and as early as the days of Abel, the flocks of sheep were established as CAMELS AND LLAMA 335 a form of wealth. We can trace with certainty the origin of all our other domestic animals except the dog, the sheep and the goat. The sheep especially has been puzzling, for it has been so long in our folds and has been so completely modified by selective breeding that it no longer resembles any wild sheep that we know of. A. SHEEP When we examine the bighorn sheep of America, or its larger kinsman the bighorn of Europe, we find, as in most animals, a fine wool next the skin, but quite hidden by the long coarse bristles. It is believed that ages of selective breeding have worked out the bristles and developed the under wool until it is as we see it in our finest long woolled sheep today. 190,480,589 Merino; 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold. B. GOATS When Americans learn a little better the lessons of thrift in daily life, they may adopt the goat as the poor man's cow. Such is the solu- tion that many a family in Norway, Switzerland and other European countries has adopted, for the goat is easily managed and fed. Its milk is especially acceptable for infants, and it is doubtful if any of our animals yield as high a percentage of profit as the lively goat, so valued abroad and so little understood with us. 411 Milking goats, Norway; 447 Goats, Switzerland. VI. CAMELS AND LLAMA Although there are no camels in North America, it is generally con- ceded now that the camel family originated on our continent and that a division took place so that the original home near California was broken up. One branch emigrated to Asia to father the humped camels of today, while the other went south to South America, where they are now represented by the tame llama, the tame alpaca, the wild guanaco and the wild vicuna. The branch that went to Asia originally inhabited the high, bleak, cold steppes of Central Asia; where, according to Prejevalsky, the wild race still survives. There are two well marked species of camel ; first, the one-humped, well known in Arabia, which some believe to be its native land. When bred for speed, this one-humped camel is the " dromedary " which is credited with traveling ten miles an hour and covering one hundred miles a day. The other species of camel is the Bactrian, or woolly camel of Central Asia. On account of its double hump it is called the two- humped camel, or, as described by a sailor, it is the " two masted ship of the desert." Of course, the masts are not masts at all, but magazines. The camel stores up fat in his hump when living is good and lives on his accumulated capital when food is scarce, also, by 336 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS means of a storage plant in his stomach, he can continue for several days without drinking. The llama was the only domesticated hoofed animal in America be- fore the white man came. It served as wool bearer and burden bearer, as well as for meat. In our zoological gardens it is noted for its readi- ness to spit in the face of any who annoy it. 567 Caravan leaving oasis in Egypt. 564, 565 Camels in Egypt; 504 Caravan, Jaipur, India. 518 Bactrian camels in Peking, China. 335 A llama near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. VII. DEER Deer are like cattle, sheep and camels, cud-chewing animals with di- vided hoofs. Their horns (antlers) are shed and renewed annually. There are numerous species and in many places they are an important source of food for man and the larger carnivorous animals. The flesh of the deer is called venison. The reindeer is an indispensable do- mestic animal in some northern regions. Some deer as the moose and elk attain a large size, others may not exceed 18 inches in height. The magnificent specimen of American elk shown in 189 is truly wild and was secured by careful stalking with the camera. 413 Reindeer herd, Lapland; 2 Moose; 189 Elk. VIII. DOG The dog is a carnivorous animal of the family Canidae, kept in a domesticated state by man since prehistoric times until it has become the most intelligent of beasts. It is undoubtedly a modified descend- ant of the wild species of the genus Canis among which are the com- mon wolf and jackal. The dog has figured as man's companion in three wholly different roles; first, as an aid in the chase. This was his earliest and his highest modern use. His second job was as a beast of burden, a draft animal, and his last as companion and watchman and guardian of his flocks. 279 Eskimo dog team, Hopedale, Labrador. 246 Gold miners and dog team, Alaska. 396 Dog drawing milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 190, 480 Shepherd dogs with the flocks. 204, 263 Faithful guardian of American Indians. 395, 490 Dog, companion to man in all walks of life. 529 The pet dog of a Japanese rice farmer. IX. HOGS When I was a small boy, I reasoned out for myself that a pig and an elephant must be cousins. For the pig is naked or bristly and thick- HIPPOPOTAMI — ELEPHANTS 337 skinned ; he has hoofs, he grows tusks and the end of his snout is mus- cular, sensitive and movable. Yes, he is surely a pachyderm ; and when I found that he really was in a large sense so classed, I felt proud and happy. But our views illustrate the hog not as a zoological exhibit, but one of the most important food products of the United States. There is not the least doubt that the wise men who forbade Jew and Turk to eat pork did it knowing that thereby they would save these people from much dreadful disease. But we live in a different time. Sanitation is better understood now. Modern methods of cookery put the terrible trichinae beyond the possibility of harm ; and we believe that robbed of pork America would today take a distinct backward economic step and gain nothing hy- gienic or ethical to offset the damage. 172 Hogs in rape pasture, Ames, Iowa. 183 Poland China hogs in alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 122 Hogs shifting for themselves, Texas. 592 This type of hog shows the lack of breeding. X. HIPPOPOTAMI If we call them " river horses," the naturalists chide us for our loose and incorrect nomenclature; but turn "river horse" into its ex- act Greek equivalent " Hippopotamus " and our scientific discrimina- tion is applauded. Next to the elephant the hippopotamus is the bulkiest existing quad- ruped. It is allied to the hog. It was formerly found in the rivers of most parts of Africa and is still quite common in the more remote districts. It is largely aquatic in its habits and can swim well and float and remain a long time under water. It feeds chiefly on aquatic plants but is sometimes destructive to cultivated crops. 577 Hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 578 Returning with trophies from hippopotamus hunt. XI. ELEPHANTS There are two well known kinds of elephant ; one the Indian, with the small ears and four toes on the hind foot; the other the bigger African elephant, with enormous ears and only three toes behind (both have five in front). Only the male Indian elephant has tusks while both male and female of the African elephant have these weap- ons. It is well to remember that we once had native elephants of our own in America. The mastodon was undoubtedly hunted by our Indian predecessors, and its remains are found in many parts of the United States and Canada. 510 Elephant hunt, Siam. 509 Elephants hauling teak logs, Burma. 505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 338 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS XII. ALLIGATORS The alligator is a cold-blooded reptile of the crocodile family. It lives in tropical and sub-tropical countries. There was a time when the alligator was very abundant in all Florida rivers, but the discovery that its hide made a strong, durable and highly ornamental leather created such a demand that it is quite possible the alligator may go the way of the buffalo. 110 Alligator, Palm Beach, Florida. XIII. BEAVERS The beaver is an amphibious rodent. It has webbed hind feet and a broad flat tail. It shows great ingenuity in constructing its home and in building dams across streams. The beaver dam shown in view 196 is a quarter of a mile long and is wriggled across to take advantage of every bump, root and supply of building material. It was the pursuit of the beaver that first opened up the great North-west. Thousands of pelts were used for fur and thousands also for felt. In the latter case, the skins left over were used as leather. 196 A beaver dam, Yellowstone National Park. XIV. KANGAROOS The kangaroo, the creature that walks on three legs (counting his tail) and carries its young in its pocket, was enormously abundant in Australia at one time and furnished one of the finest kinds of leather. It is quite possible that the high quality of this leather may operate to save the jumper from extinction. 588 Kangaroos, Adelaide, Australia. XV. SILK WORMS China was the original home of the silk industry, and so fully did they appreciate it as a source of wealth that every effort was made by these astute silk farmers to keep it to themselves. But the secret arts of the silk culture were learned by two Persian monks, who went to China to confer the blessings of their message and incidentally derive such benefits as they could in fair exchange. Having learned the methods of raising and reeling the silk, they returned to Constantinople, bringing with them a hollow cane in which was a quantity of silk worm eggs. This was in 552 A.D., under the Emperor Justinian, who did not a little towards giving this industry to the world at large. Several attempts have been made to introduce silk culture into America ; but so far it has not succeeded. Nor is it likely to succeed as long as the much larger opportunities of land, lumber, cattle and mineral exploitation are open to our thrifty population. For additional HARVEST OF THE SEA 339 information on silk manufacture see description on views 541, 22, 23, 24, 53, 54, 55. 536 Silk worm incubator, Japan. 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to voracious young silk worms. 539 Silk worm cocoons in their nests. 540 Reeling silk from cocoons. XVI. THE HARVEST OF THE SEA Fishing has always been carried on in all maritime countries and has added greatly to their prosperity. Of all fish that are important to mankind, the West Coast Salmon has perhaps the strangest history. It is hatched far up in the head waters of the West Coast rivers and works down to the sea. After three or four years, it returns a full grown salmon, goes up the river to some small stream, there spawns and dies. " All die after spawning once " ; so that the enormous catch of the canneries will have no effect on the salmon's number, if enough are left to stock the spawning beds. Jordan and Evermann say that the Pacific salmon " is unquestionably the most valuable fish in the world." The importance of fisheries, in the food supplies of nations and as affording large returns for labor can scarcely be overestimated. The sea harvest is ripened without trouble or expense to the fishermen. 226 Netting salmon in the Columbia River, Oregon. 227 Butchering salmon in cannery, Astoria, Oregon. 244 Indians drying salmon on Yukon River, Alaska. 13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. 531 Drying sardines on beach, Beppu, Japan. 97 Bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 86 " Shucking " oysters, Baltimore, Md. 481 Fisher women selling herring, Finland market. 345 Hunting seals on skis, South Polar Pack. 415 Whales and floating whale station, Spitzenbergen. XVII. SOME STRANGE AND USEFUL BIRDS 584 The Penguins are flightless sea-birds of the southern hemisphere. They have bartered their freedom of the air for a fuller free- dom in the water; for their powers of swimming and diving are so wonderful that they live on fish taken in open chase. 583 The Gannets in this view are a wonderful illustration of birds congregating in some favorite nesting ground well protected and near abundant food. There are said to be millions of these blacktailed gannets on this South African Island. The gannet has retained its mastery of the air combined with enough adaptation to the water to insure its securing fish for itself and its family. 340 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 239 Ostriches. Opposite the Gannet Island is the mainland of Africa, the home of the ostrich, the largest bird alive on earth today. Like the penguin, it has given up its hope of flight for some other advantages, in this case, great strength and bulk. This view was taken on a California ostrich farm, but the home of the industry is Africa. 56 Chickens. A similar idea may have to do with the white plumage of the Leghorns in this view ; though in this case the eggs are the most profitable product of the live stock. 401 Ducks. In the Dutch village here shown whose mainstay is fish- ing, we have in the foreground a side issue of the thrifty fish- eries, the ducks that careful breeding has brought to such per- fection and made so profitable. 216 Geese. Their kinsfolk, are seen in this Puget Sound picture. Here again in the background is the big industry of the country, but in the foreground a side line of feathers. These common geese are now seen throughout the new West, showing that thrift and all-round development have slowly become the order of the day. 415 Gulls. And now, going farther from the land, we have a scene that is of regular occurrence at the cutting up of a whale. Not less than a dozen species of sea-birds and as many thousands of individuals are here assembled, a sight to gladden the heart of the bird lover as well as of the artist. 535 White Crane's. This view shows one of the charming scenes typical of Japan, with the little brown ladies in the foreground and the big white cranes in the background. One cannot help hoping that the overpowering influence of the white man's ways will not wipe out these pretty scenes and end by putting all Japan in Bowery boots and overalls. 359 Nightingale. It is fitting to close this bird chapter with one of the shyest, rarest, plainest and most famous of all birds — the one whose wonderful song has inspired poets and singers in all ages, the sweet nightingale, plain brown in her lowly nest, brooding over her 1 plain brown eggs, in which there lies con- cealed " the music of the moon." 72 Woodcock. Here is a wonderful example of protective coloring. The woodcock is brown marked with black and can hardly be separated from the leaves and stems. Its eyes are set so that it can see on every side without moving. The tip of the upper part of the bill is very sensitive and movable. With this it feels about in the mud for the worms upon which it lives. 27. OUTDOOR LIFE BOY SCOUTS, CAMP-FIRE GIRLS, WOODCRAFT LEAGUE By DANIEL CARTER BEARD (" DAN BEARD ") HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT AND NATIONAL SCOUT COMMISSIONER, BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA, FLUSHING, N. Y. Long before there were any skyscrapers, cottages, log houses, " shacks, shanties, or shelters," people lived on this earth, and they lived in the open ! Our ancestors away back there were naked savages, but somewhere hidden in the simple brains of these people were the seeds that have since grown into wonderful minds, producing great statesmen, poets, artists and scientists. But the people in those early days had something just as valuable as culture — and that is vigorous health. Mainly be- cause of the large amount of work done indoors, the people of today do not have the vigorous health of the primitive men and women. The modern trend or desire for the open has produced the Sons of Daniel Boone, the Boy Pioneers, from which sprang the Boy Scouts of America, the Girl Pioneers, Girl Scouts, the Summer Camps, the Camp-fire Girls and the Woodcraft League. The primary object is to send the people back again to the open, so that they may in a measure regain some of the rugged health and the normal healthy condition of the five senses possessed by their primitive savage ancestors. It is acknowledged that the possession of vigorous health, clear farseeing eyes, acute ears and a delicate sense of smell is in no wise inconsistent with a highly developed intellect. Now the boys and girls of today have the young brains of mod- ern men and women which only need schooling and education to make as good minds as any possessed by the great people of our history. Here at school, by the aid of the Keystone stereographs, and lantern slides, we can in our minds take hikes anywhere on the face of the globe ! We can pretend to pack our knapsacks, strap them on our shoulders, grasp our staff and hit the trail 341 342 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE back through history. We can spend a day at the Pyramids, we can hobnob with the Sphinx, we can make a scout camp in the old Colosseum, or we can tramp among the cave dwellers of America and Europe. What fun ! I envy you young people the joy of your study. Think of sitting by your camp fire cooking flapjacks in the cliff dwellers' house, built in a cleft of a beetling precipice, or rolling up in your blanket and going to sleep where Julius Caesar slept or where the ancient Greeks fought and worked. We can do all this by help of these wonderful stereographs ; we can visit Palestine and tramp through the Bible land where the Apostles lived and worked, where Christ preached and per- formed miracles. We can even take hikes to the places where the crosses were set and awe-stricken, with bared heads, stand on the ground where Christ was crucified ! Imagination is a wonderful thing, and fortunately young people have more of this gift than their seniors, so fill your ditty-bag full of enthusiasm and imagination and pack your knapsack with the facts and scenes found in this wonderful series and then start on your hike, anywhere you choose to go. We can scale the Matterhorn or climb the Himalayas and step out on the roof of the world. We can go to South Africa and see millions of gannets and whole regiments of funny penguins Waddling about like white-vested soldiers. We can sail with Peary to the North Pole or travel with Amundson across antarctic lands. There is nothing we cannot do on this earth if our ditty- bag is well filled and we have the help of a stereoscope or lan- tern and this wonderful collection of Keystone Views. HIKES 1, 2 Some hunters hike through Maine woods. 6, to 10, 13 Visitors to Boston take hikes to historical places in and about the city. 14, to 18 A hike through the textile mills of Lawrence, Mass. 25, to 31, 34, 35, 51 The high school pupils take hikes about New York City. 36, to 39 Boy scouts, having read Irving's stories, take hikes in the Hudson River Valley. 47, to 50. Buffalo Camp-fire girls hike to Niagara Falls. 61, to 67 A hike to a steel mill at night is an experience never to be forgotten. HIKES 343 * 69, 70 Boy Scouts of Oil City hike out into the country to see a well shot. 12 On this hike we found a woodcock on her eggs. She was very difficult to see. 73 Old soldiers hike over the Gettysburg battle fields. 74, to 79 A hike to a coal mine is very interesting. 80, 82, to 84 The Boy Scouts of Germantown hiked to Phila- delphia to see the old bell and mint. They visited several factories while there. 87, to 96 Every American hopes some day to hike over Wash- ington, D. C. 98, to 100. Also every American looks forward to hiking about the historic places near the mouth of the James River. 102, 103 Winter visitors to the Carolina mountains enjoy, and gain health from the mountain hikes. 108, to 111 A winter hike in Florida is well worth while. 106 Sherman's march to the sea was a famous hike. 114 A hike over Lookout Mountain and the Chattanooga battlefields must not be missed. 119, 120 Hikes about New Orleans are interesting. 122, to 127 A hike through Texas shows the astonishing de- velopment of that country. 136, to 138 A party of Boy Scouts saw these scenes on a Satur- day morning hike. 139, to 144 Very many visitors to Chicago hike through stock- yards and packing houses. 150, to 152 Men are always interested in hikes to the factories where automobiles are made. 154, to 157 Michigan Boy Scouts hiked to the Lake Superior mines. 159, to 161 A morning hike along country roads will show scenes like this. 170, 171 Keokuk Scouts hike to the Great Dam. 174, 148 A hike along the river front at St. Louis, Mo., will show how the river must be watched. 191, to 197 The best way to see the Yellowstone is to hike through, camping each night. Professional guides help to make such an experience delightful. 202, 205, 208 A canyon gives its full beauty to the pedestrian who hikes along the winding paths. 206, 208 No matter what means of conveyance is used to reach these places, the sight-seer must hike over the steep trails if he is to see the best of it. 213, 214 Through such country, over mountains and valleys, hiked the gold hunters prospecting for gold. 219, 221 Enthusiastic mountain climbers hike to the tops of these mountains. They claim no exhilaration equals that ob- tained by mountain climbing. 228, 229 John Muir hiked through the Yosemite and made it 344 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE known to the rest of us. Great naturalists must be great hikers. 228, to 242 A winter's hike in California is very entertaining. 182, 189, 191, to 197, 221, to 223 Through this country Lewis and Clark made that long, long hike, exploring the Louisi- ana Territory which the United States had jnst purchased. 243, to 246 All the people who travel in Alaska hike. Miners, merchants, officials all go on foot. 262, 264, to 269 Every year visitors from the States take the trip down the St. Lawrence, stopping to hike through and around Quebec, Montreal and other interesting places. 274, to 276 In the same way travelers in the Canadian Pacific take hikes through the lovely mountain scenery. 280, to 283 From Vera Cruz, one may hike to Mexico City over a broad highway built by the Aztecs. Cortez and his men walked this road. 284, to 289 Take a hike through Mexico with Keystone Views. It is far safer than a real hike would be. 291, to 294 You will need "seven league boots," that is Keystone Views, for this hike through Central America. 305, to 311. A hike about Rio Janeiro and Sao Paulo will let you see where your coffee comes from. 324, 325, 326, 327 Boy travelers in Chili will hike from Valpa- raiso to Santiago and then to the rainless coast where nitre is gotten. 329, to 334 Imagine following the footsteps of Pizarro. The cruel conqueror would hardly know this country as it is today. 338, to 341 Just a little hike today. Caracas must get all its imports . through La Guaira, the port on the low hot coast. Let us hike along and see both cities. 347, to 352 English people walk much more than Americans. A hike through London's famous places is a hike through history. 354, to 356 Every boy and girl will be glad to hike to Shake- speare's home and perhaps attend a play in Memorial Theater. 365, to 372 Take your hike with Rob Roy, and Bruce and Wal- lace and Roderick Dhu. Over this country Sir Walter Scott loved to hike. 374, to 382 And next a hike through Ireland with proper re- spect to the " wee folk," not forgetting to kiss the Blarney stone. 383, 384 Boy Scouts must hike about Berlin. 385 American soldiers hiked to Cohlenz, where they were stationed. 388, to 394 So many people are looking back to the delightful time they spent hiking down the Rhine region, stopping everywhere to see the beautiful scenery and historic places. 396, to 397 If today you could hike from Antwerp to Namur, HIKES 345 it would be a different Belgium you would see, for Belgium has been almost destroyed by the war. 399, to 403 A hike through quaint Dutch places will show us that Holland, too, is feeling the war. 421, to 426 Be an American soldier on leave. Hike about Paris, and then go back to duty at the front. 427, 428, 440, to 449 The only right way to see the Alps is to go on foot. So take your staff, put on your mountain shoes and hike up the mountain roads. Climb the Matterhorn and study the glaciers and spend your nights in the lovely little pensions along your way. Whole schools in Switzer- land make hikes to historical places. 458, 459, 456, 457, 450, to 455 And when you have seen the Alps, hike down into Italy and Sicily. It will take a whole vacation to visit noted places in Milan and Venice, to hike on to Florence and Rome. You will want to climb Ve- suvius. 460 to 462 Again the " seven leagued boots " to hike through Austria. 467, to 471 It will take giant steps (only the Keystone Views can help us) to hike down the Danube, taking only a glimpse of each of the Balkan peoples. Watch out for bandits on your way. 472 to 474, 489 Take a hike about Constantinople and see if you can learn why it is the " key of the East." 475, to 479 All of you, boys and girls, will take this hike through Greece, and, as you go, imagination will bring back the ancient glory. 482, to 488 Every American boy and girl living under the Stars and Stripes will be interested in this newest republic. So let us get a passport at Petrograd, and hike to the old capital at Mos- cow and then to the great market at Nizhni Novgorod. Watch the oppressed Jews in Warsaw and then hike to Kief. 492, to 498 How your heart thrills as you take this hike over the same roads and stand in the same places where Jesus used to be. Perhaps you camp where Richard Cceur de Lion pitched his tent or where Saladan had his camp. 500 Here is another long hike. You must start in at Calcutta low and hot and come out on the roof of the world. 513 A hike in Hong Kong will surprise you. This Chinese city belongs to the English. Its name is Victoria and the island upon which it is located is Hong Kong. 515, to 519 A hike in this region is much pleasanter than riding in a palanquin. 519 Through people like these, our soldiers marched to Pekin to res- cue the western legations shut up in that city. With the Key- stone Views you can hike over the same ground much more safely. 525, to 541 A hike in Japan would include a visit to Fuji-Yama. You would go in the tea fields with this gay little girl. You would 346 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE buy shoes in this quaint shoe store, and visit the little ladies in the tea garden. 546, to 553 On your hike through the Philippines you will see buffaloes used as work animals and you may eat fresh coconuts and watch the natives making rope. 558, to 569 Start in at Alexandria and hike to Cairo. You will lunch with the Sphinx, camp in the shadow of the Pyramids. You will feel as if you had stepped into the far past until your hike ends at the very modern irrigation dam at Assuan. 575, to 577 Imagine you are with Livingstone hiking through the jungle, discovering the Victoria Falls. 570, to 573 Or with these views hike with Stanley searching for Liv- ingstone and visit the savages in their native homes. 579, to 584 In South Africa you will hike to the gold mines, cross the veldts, hunt for diamonds, then hiking south you will see the gannets and penguins and at Cape Town take the ship for home. 585, to 589 Boy Scouts in Sydney will hike to Victoria and Queens- land. •593, to 600 And finally with these views you can hike to some ob- servatory and see sun, moon, stars and a comet. 28. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE By MEYER BLOOMFIELD, B.A. DIRECTOR OF THE VOCATION BUREAU, BOSTON, MASS. EDITOR AND PUBLISHER OF " INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS " The story of the occupations is the story of about everything the world holds to be of human interest. Every occupation is a lesson in history, geography, civics, arithmetic, English and drawing. To have pictures of the world's work before our eyes as we go through our school lessons each day is to dra- matize these lessons for ourselves in a way our memories take joy in ; and when such pictures are of the kind the Keystone collection offers, the children react to them as they do to noth- ing less than an actual visit to the industries themselves. Here are pictures in three dimensions, solid, deep, and delicate in light and shade. Every child's imagination will supply the motion. A film or reel 01 moving pictures puts a strain on the eyes of young folks, the speed of the picture is often- times a distraction. The Keystone pictures are the more sat- isfactory for the quiet and composure they invite. For the reasons just mentioned, then, the use of the set dealing with various industries and employments is the best possible in- troduction for children to the vital subject of choosing a life career. During their early teens they get countless impres- sions ; in their adolescence they begin to test out these im- pressions in life-experience. A childhood start through such impressions and associations as the Keystone views afford may prove to be decisive in the future careers of many a boy and girl. In studying the pictures the thought that is most helpful to bear in mind is that everything we use and enjoy is the result of our own or some one else's labor, and that to do one's work well means skill, thought, effort, and sacrifice. These 600 stereographs and slides touch a very wide range of vocational activity. In the space available for this com- ment only a limited number can be dealt with. The resource- 347 348 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE ful teacher will find in the title list and the various classifica- tions a great deal of material that will prove helpful in pre- senting this subject. 1. PRODUCTION A. FOOD GIVERS (i) The Farmer Three out of ten of all the people in the United States are farmers. We owe the food we eat to the work of these country people ; from it the flour mills get their grain, the textile mills their wool and cotton, the packing houses their cattle. Our shoes, clothing, and bread owe their existence to the farmer. Agriculture or farming is the basic vocation, every other vocation rests upon it. To help nature produce the food we need is a wonderful thing to do. A farmer must know many useful things, and use his mind well, for whatever mistakes he makes may affect us all in our comforts and necessities. A good farmer is a scientist, engineer, and business man all in one. There are many interesting careers open to those who love the outdoor life, simple food, hard work, and the wonders of sky and field throughout the changing seasons. Railroads,' automobiles, the post office, the telephone and telegraph have brought to the farmer's doorstep many of the advantages of the crowded centers of population and have done away with the isolation of the country home. There are libraries, granges, clubs, and many kinds of social activities. The farmer is independent. He is his own master. He eats the food he raises. He is the backbone of our country. Farm work is a daily education. There is something new to learn every day. The United States Bureau of Agriculture and experiment stations are working on a thousand problems for him. See Food Products under classification Production and Manufacturing, also the Agricultural group. (2) The Stockman The stockman is a farmer who raises cattle, horses, mules, sheep or hogs for the market. His products are in great demand. The great range country which cattle and sheep require is west of the Mississippi. See classification on Animals. (3) The Dairyman Unlike the stockman, we find the dairy business near the great cities. New York is at the head in numbers of dairy cows. Selling milk and cream calls for a location within driving distance of many people, or near a railroad or trolley line. The work on a dairy farm is exacting, but pleasant to one who loves animals. Modern sanitary dairies and creameries are fine business establishments with many opportunities for ambition. MINING — LUMBERING 349 159, 165 Modern dairy barns ; 57, 403 Milking scenes ; 46 Filling milk bottles; 45 Washing butter; 356 Shorthorn dairy cattle; 364 Jerseys. (4) The Poultryman Here is one of the great businesses of our country. The eggs and poultry of the United States are worth as much as the hay or the wheat crop — about seven hundred millions of dollars. There are many lines of opportunity to the careful and intelligent poultryman. Commission trade, hotels, restaurants, ships, and selected homes are some of the markets. A small capital but much assiduity are needed for both a moderate or large success in this business. 56 Chickens; 401, 564 Ducks; 216 Geese. (5) Market Gardening The back yard is often the foundation of a good market garden busi- ness. Potatoes, cabbages, onions, asparagus, tomatoes, cucumbers, and melons, carefully grown, neatly packed, and delivered in fresh con- dition, have started many a boy and girl on the way to independence. Go to your grocer some day and find out where he gets his vegetables and how much he pays for them. See classification Orchard, Garden and Wood Lot, also Marketing and Market Centers. B. MINING This is work for good students interested in their physics, chemistry and mineralogy. Good health and constitution able to stand day and night work and periods of strain are needed. Mining engineering is fascinating, at times full of adventure, then again come long periods of drudgery, poor food and little shelter. Graduates of mining schools are in great demand. They earn little in the beginning, but if they are resourceful, industrious, and capable of carrying heavy responsibility, there is little to stop their advancement. Mining work itself is arduous, often dangerous, and yet it is at the basis of all our industries. 74 to 79, 129 Coal; 187, 155 Copper; 581 Diamonds; 245, 225, 579 Gold; 3 Granite; 163, 164, 128 Iron; 4, 5 Marble; 325 Nitrate; 378 Peat; 122, 69, 70, 123 Petroleum; 115 Phosphate; 214, 287 Silver; 176 Zinc and Lead. C. LUMBERING To one who has taken a course in Forestry and is willing to start at the bottom and work up, the lumbering industry offers large oppor- tunities. It calls for an intimate knowledge of trees. The work for the most part is heavy and out of doors, but pleasant to one who loves the open. For list of views see classification Wood Sources, etc. 350 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 2. MANUFACTURING AND CONSTRUCTION A. IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE The manufacture of iron and steel is one of our most important industries, in which hundreds of millions of capital are invested. Much of the manual labor in connection with the industry is done by foreigners, but many foremen and superintendents are needed. The work is heavy, strength and skill are required. The great size of the industry makes many positions for a large office and sales force. The more skilled workers are well paid and advancement is quite rapid. Students with technical training along lines of mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering are much in demand. For views see Metals in classification Production and Manufacturing. B. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL WORKERS This is hard work, oftentimes dangerous, and calls for endurance and steadiness. The task of this worker is to raise by means of engines the heavy steel trusses, girders, and beams, some weighing as much as twenty tons each, put them in place, and rivet them fast in order to make the skeleton of a building or bridge. 126 Steel framework for tall building being erected. 25, 26, 28, 30 New York skyscrapers, the framework of which is steel. 139, 167, 121, 230 Tall buildings with steel framework. 470, 174, 330, 366, 392, 27, 50, 500, 575 Bridges. 421 Eiffel Tower, tallest structure in world. 65, 150, 334 Structural steel in mill and factory interiors. C. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE This is now one of the great industries of the country, for both pleasure cars and trucks driven by gasoline or electricity are among the necessities of modern life and trade. In an automobile factory are employed designers, engineers, carriage makers, machinists, upholster- ers, cabinet makers, painters, and many kinds of mechanics. 132 Building up an automobile tire, Akron, O. 150 Assembling room, Cadillac automobile plant, Detroit. 151 Experts testing Cadillac engines, Detroit. 152 Employees leaving Ford motor plant, Detroit. D. TEXTILES In the manufacture of textiles many rather complicated machines are needed. The mills are usually located where much cheap labor is to be had, a large per cent used being women and girls. The textile com- panies usually pay good dividends. For views see Textile Industries under classification Local Industries. MASON — ARCHITECT — ELECTRICIAN 351 E. THE MASON The mason builds chimneys, walls, foundations, abutments, etc., by laying, according to plans, bricks, stones, and cement blocks, in orderly tiers with mortar between. He works in stone, concrete, cement, and plaster. A good mason is one who likes tools, science, mathematics, and drawing. Masons and carpenters are the backbone of the building trades and receive about the same pay. 3 Quarrying granite; 4 Marble quarrying; 5 Chiseling marble; 25 to 30 Examples of masonry in New York City; 87 Capitol building; 95 Congressional Library ; 139 Chicago buildings ; 167 Minneapolis ; 170 Keokuk dam; 210 Roosevelt dam; 230 San Francisco; 252, 253 Gatun locks; 348 London Bridge; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin; 424 Grand Opera, Paris; 425 Notre Dame, Paris; 429 Cathedral, Marseilles; 470 Cerna-Voda bridge; 483 The Kremlin, Moscow; 502 Taj Mahal. For further examples see classification Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile. F. THE ARCHITECT The architect plans and designs buildings for the many purposes of shelter, comfort, work, recreation, and assembly. There are two sides to the work, one the artistic planning, the other the practical construction. Each side calls for much training and skill. While the earnings are seldom large, and this is true of most professional work, the satisfaction for those of artistic taste with a keen desire to draw, plan, and construct is considerable. Cathedral, palace, workshop, cot- tage — ■ all owe their being to the dreams and the practical skill of these men. When you look at your city hall or dwelling, think of the long days of planning, sketching, figuring, then painstaking drawing of the smallest detail in the office of the architect. See Architectural Design under classification Industrial Design, including Architecture. G. THE ELECTRICIAN The electrical industry, like the automobile industry, is a recent and typically American development. American inventive geniuses, men like Edison and Westinghouse, have made it what it is. The practical elec- trician is a mechanic skilled in work of wiring houses, factories, and other buildings for electric lighting and electric power. Electrical engineers who are college trained men, well versed in science and mathematics, have charge of large constructions, such as power stations, electric railroads, mines, telephones and telegraphs. There are many avenues to choose in this big field, open to those who like hard work, study, and the application of electrical energy to the many needs of domestic and industrial life. 31 Electric car lines, New York City. 43 Electric R. R. by side of steam road. 49, 50 Niagara Falls great source electric power. 139 Street car lines on State Street, Chicago. 170 Great power dam and locks in Mississippi River, Keokuk. 352 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 171 Fifteen large electric generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 1Z2, 253 Electric towing engines and light lines along Gatun locks. 256 Wireless towers at entrance of Panama Canal. 43 Shows telegraph lines along railroad. 273, 324, 486, 590 Electric street car lines. 21, 84, 89, 92 Electric lighting fixtures. 88, 92, 94 Electric fans. H. CHEMISTRY As the manufacturing processes in this country become more ex- tensive and complicated, the importance of chemistry becomes more apparent. It might be classed as one of our new industries but one of the most important and one with an almost unlimited future. The demand for skilled chemists greatly exceeds the supply. 68 Coke ovens. Coal tar is a by-product obtained in the manufac- ture of coke from coal. From it are obtained many very valu- able chemicals. Formerly Germany manufactured most of the coal tar dyes and chemicals. Now the United States govern- ment is encouraging this very important industry. INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND UPON CHEMISTS 187, 156 Copper; 15, 16 Cotton; 134, 135 Glass; 287, 203 Gold; 62 to 64 Iron; 84 Money; 325 Nitrate; 412, 19, 20 Paper; 122, 69, 70, 123 Petro- leum; 58, 59 Pottery, 131 Rubber; 53 to 55 Silk; 214, 334 Silver; 116 65 to 67 Steel; 271, 258, 35, 34 Sugar; 272 Tanning; 107 Turpentine; 18, 81 Wool ; 176 Zinc and lead. 3. DISTRIBUTION A. RAILROADING This is one of the most fascinating and important of all occupations, for the spirit of our new country is summed up in our improvement in means of communication. Moving about speedily and easily is the secret of the growth of great civilization. From the time when James Watt mused over his steaming teakettle and its rattling lid to the present mogul engine and the electric locomo- tive, the world has been growing into a neighborhood. There are many kinds of occupations connected with railroading. The engineer is a man of long experience and proved quality. He probably began as a helper or cleaner in the round house, then was allowed to work as fireman on a yard or freight engine and finally if he has been a first-rate mechanic and man he is given one of the great passenger trains in charge. In the main departments of the railroad are those who look after operating, with superintendents, managers, foremen, section men, bridge builders, signalmen, yardmasters, as well as engineers and firemen. MARKETING — BANKING 353 Great repair shops are maintained to keep the engines and cars in order. The traffic department is charged with the duty of looking after the passenger and freight business, for a railroad must sell transportation if it is to have money. In this department we have also the mail and express service, as well as the station agents. The accounting department with its corps of bookkeepers and clerks keeps track of the immense amount of papers, records, and accounts. Railroad workers today are carrying a large responsibility and are required to be strong, of good habits, and most industrious. There are nearly two million men engaged in this work. See Railroad Trans- portation under classification Transportation. B. MARKETING Each year thousands of high school and business college graduates take positions as clerks and stenographers with firms that market food products, machinery, etc. Some of these positions offer large oppor- tunities. A helpful study of marketing and market centers can be made with the " 600 Set." See classification Marketing and Market Centers. C. BANKING A bank is not only a safe place in which to keep money and savings; it is the great means for giving credit or loans to those whose business requires funds or assurances that funds will be ready when necessary. In this way very little actual money passes. Bankers are advisers in matters of business, investments, loans, wills, and mortgages. A bank employs bookkeepers, clerks, messengers, and receiving and paying tellers. The cashier, treasurer, president are the highest officials. Work in a bank is congenial, and most of the time not very arduous, but the salaries paid are not very high except for the top officials, and promotions are slow. No one can get work in a bank who is not known for trustworthiness, neatness, good handwriting, and skill and accuracy in using figures. 29 Wall Street, now the world's financial center. 351 The Bank of England, London. 590 Union Bank of Australia, Hobart, Tasmania. 4. SPECIAL VOCATIONS A. PRINTING This work has to do with the manufacture of books, magazines, pamphlets, posters, and newspapers, and is one of the great industries of America. For neat, rapid, and well trained workers the field is un- limited, as the world calls each year for more and more printed matter of good quality. 28 World Building, New York, where one of our great newspapers is published. 94 Bureau of printing and engraving, Washington, D. C. 354 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE B. TEACHING Our civilization is kept together by the work of the teacher, who trains the growing generation to take up the work of the world and carry it on with fresh energy and ideals and human sympathy. More than twenty million children are in our public schools, taught by more than half a million teachers. The work is pleasant because it means helping children grow into fine men and women, but it is hard work, calling for strength, patience, constant study, and no end of sympathy. As a rule teachers are never paid as well as highly skilled mechanics, but their services are valuable for the help they give and the love of their pupils, who are started well along in the life career. A teacher must take a long course of training and be able to teach and to help in many ways. Education is a great science and means a lifetime of study and toil. 83 School gardens as a practical educational method. 260 Royal school, Honolulu, Hawaii. 306 American private school, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 520 American mission school, Pekin, China. C LIBRARIAN This is a new profession and requires more ability than most people are aware of. There are several training schools preparing young men and women for this important work. To manage a library requires intelligence, business skill, literary taste and technical knowledge, as well as a personal interest in the needs of readers and the reading public. 95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. D. CIVIL SERVICE This is the channel by which men and women mainly reach the posi- tions under our city, state, and national government. Our government is a great employer. In New York City alone over one hundred thou- sand men and women are city employees. Every kind of occupation is to be found in the Civil Service, which means that city, state, and nation need about the same kind of help that any private employer may need. So we find in the Civil Service positions for clerks, accountants, bookkeepers, court attendants, engineer, foreman, stenographer, draughtsman, librarian, and about all the trades. If you want to know what positions are open, and what you must do to prepare for an examination, write to the United States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. While the compensation is moderate, promotion slow, and opportunity limited, the work under the Civil Service is steady, and under good conditions. CIVIL SERVICE 355 8 Old State House, Boston. Many state officials are under the Civil Service. 28 New York City Halls, also many city employees. 32 Immigrants landing. Practically all of the employees of the United States government are under the Civil Service. 84 United States Government mint, Philadelphia. 87, 90, 94, 95 United States Government buildings, Washington, D. C. 193 Officers in our national park work under Civil Service. 260 School teachers in Hawaii and the Philippines work under the Civil Service. DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND DOMESTIC ARTS By MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, AND DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION DEl'T. OF HOME ECONOMICS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. INTRODUCTION Through a long period of evolution the family dwelling place had developed into a diversified manufacturing center where all the household arts and industries were carried out co- operatively under one roof by the women of the family. A girl growing up in that home gradually took her share in that labor and through constant observation and actual participa- tion gained an intimate knowledge of the materials and the processes of manufacture of all the articles used in the home. She need not leave her own threshold to be thoroughly schooled in every branch of the domestic sciences and arts. Such training was passed on from mother to daughter. Varied as were the industries of these homes of two or three genera- tions ago, the women presiding there had all the links in the chain of production within their own hands and did not need to investigate far beyond their own activities. When the widespread introduction of machinery brought in its wake modern methods of cooperative business, the indus tries of the home were gradually taken over into factories — changing the home from a manufacturing plant to an adminis- trative establishment where the housewife directs the purchase of equipment and commodities produced outside the home. For a time educators overlooked these changed conditions. Fortunately there came an awakening which resulted in the in- troduction of domestic science and art into our school system; and courses of study in home economics have been developed in our higher institutions of learning in order to train workers who are needed to teach in the public schools and to go among women whose advantages have been limited and to help in 350 INTRODUCTION 357 every possible way to organize and standardize the difficult business of home-making. The need for this knowledge has been impressed upon us by the great World War. The international food crisis showed that a woman's conserving work is of the greatest importance ; that the expenditure and waste of the individual home are inter- national problems. Consequently, the need for women to be specialized in their province of home-making has been enforced upon us and this resulted in starting an emergency pro- gram of education along the lines of proper home manage- ment. Such a program is basic to right living, and although started as a war measure, should be permanent. To this end, every means of education possible should be brought into play. It is not feasible to prepare women for intelligent direction of the highly organized modern home through lectures and text- books only. Such knowledge has been too long confined to the laboratory and the technical school. It must be made common to all the people, that there may be a more intelligent selection and use of food, clothing and shelter since these relate to the well-being not of one, nor of one group, but of us all. The sub- ject of Home Economics then, whether practiced for home mak- ing or for earning an independent living, becomes a profession, an opportunity for both men and women to place domestic life upon a rational business basis. Where the girl formerly learned these things in her own home, she now needs to have them presented to her as vividly and impressively as possible. The stereograph and lantern slide series does just this. It shows all the materials of tex- tiles used in the home and for clothing in their original forms, cotton growing in the fields, and ways in which it is gathered. It shows animals from which various fibers are obtained, how these fibers are woven into cloth, and it follows straight through to the marketing of the finished product. In the same way the subjects of household equipment, food, and home building are taken up and each step along the way is pictured. The Keystone Views make the world a practical laboratory and the world is none too large a laboratory for this important field of knowledge. They give such an exposition of processes and labor, that they tie education to living things and where it was theoretical they make it vital. 29. INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME By LORENZO DOW HARVEY, Ph.D. PRESIDENT OF STOUT INSTITUTE, MENOMINEE, WIS. Less than two hundred years ago, the ordinary home was an independent unit largely self-supporting. The men raised the food of all kinds; the clothes were entirely of home pro- duction. The houses were made of homemade boards or logs and even the nails were made at home. In these days of specialized industry, the home has become composite, drawing its materials for work and comfort from every industry and from all over the world. The Keystone Views show very clearly how every industry contributes to the home. WOOD INDUSTRIES In the United States most of our homes are made of wood. The inside finishing even in stone buildings is woodwork. 1 The forests of Maine furnish white pine. 162 A load of logs. Many kinds of hard woods were found in the American forests. 224 Felling a tree; 215 Chained log rafts; 216 Port Blakely mills. These three views show how trees are turned into lumber. 9, 10, 96, 181. Most of the houses in the United States are made of lumber. 107 Houses are protected from the weather by paint which is mixed with turpentine. 88, 89, 92 The insides of the most beautiful buildings are finished in woodwork. 92, 373, 417 Most of the furniture is made of wood. 412 Some of our homes are decorated with wall paper made from wood pulp. 445 Many homes are heated by wood fires. An open wood fire, once so universal, is now a luxury. MINING INDUSTRIES Most of our homes seem far removed from mining and yet the products of that industry are in use every day. The Keystone Views will show this very clearly. 358 INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME 359 75, 76 Our houses and offices are heated by coal. If steam or hot water is used, it is heated by a coal fire. 78 Slate pickers take out the stone, leaving only the coal. 77, 129 Long trains carry the coal all over the United States. 68 Coke makes a very clean fire with an even heat, so is much used. 378 In Ireland peat is the common fuel. 69, 70 In oil countries, oil and gas are used for fuel and light. 122, 123 As a result of refining petroleum, gasoline is obtained, also dyes for our clothing and medicines such as vaseline. 115 After fields have been cultivated, they become impoverished. Perhaps your own garden or fields have been fertilized with phosphates from this very mine. 155, 156, 157 Practically all the wires which carry electricity into your houses for light, for telephones or household use are copper. 187 Copper combined with brass is used in countless articles in our houses, from chandeliers to water faucets. 176 Zinc is used to cover other metals to prevent rusting. Galvan- ized ware is zinc covered. Zinc is also an important ingre- dient in brass. 214, 334 Silver is used in tableware, in photography, in jewelry and for coins. 214, 225, 287, 245 Gold fills our teeth, makes many pens and most of our watches and jewelry. 84 Both gold and silver are made into coins. 581 Besides their use as ornaments, diamonds are used where hard points are needed. The needle in some victrolas is diamond pointed. METAL INDUSTRIES 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Try to count the places where iron or steel is used in your home. Begin with the blade of your knife, do not forget the watch springs, nor the beams in the steel framed buildings nor the nails in the heel of your shoe. 150, 151, 152 Even if you have no automobile of your own, your gro- ceries, furniture, in fact whatever is delivered to you will probably come in some form of automobile. TEXTILE INDUSTRY It is a very good plan to let a child take some article of dress which he is wearing and trace it back through all the steps of its preparation for use. Such an exercise will show him very plainly how the home is affected by outside industrj'. It should develop the idea of inter- dependence and the responsibility of each worker in the sum of life. Cotton 41 View in sewing roof of a large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. These girls are clothed in cotton dresses. 207 Farmers planted and cultivated the cotton. 360 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 16 Lawrence, Mass. This cloth came from a printing room such as this. 15 Lawrence, Mass. Before the cloth could be printed, the design had to be made and transferred to the copper rolls. 14 Lawrence, Mass. The thread was spun before the cloth could be woven. 286 Mexico. Carding machines straightened the fibers before it could be spun. 119 New Orleans, La. The cotton came to the mills in the form of bales. 125 Texas. Gins had removed the seeds before the cotton could be baled. 124 Texas. Men with horses and wagons had carried it from the fields to the gin. 117 Mississippi. Negroes had picked it, and before that it had been planted and cared for. 41 View in sewing room. So these girls are dressed by the combined efforts of farmers, pickers, ginners, balers, carders, spinners, weavers, designers, printers, and merchants. 184 Kansas; 166 Minnesota. The starch used in preparing the cloth is made from corn or potatoes. Silk 55 Paterson, N. J. Your silk hair ribbons were perhaps woven in the factory at Paterson. 53 Paterson, N. J. For these hair ribbons men very carefully drew the warp. 23 Connecticut; 540, Japan. The threads used for this had been taken from the cocoon by machinery or else carefully reeled by some patient Japanese worker. 539 Japan. The cocoon had been spun by the silkworms. 538 Japan. These worms had been watched and fed. 537 Japan. Men went to the fields for the mulberry leaves which had been cultivated for that purpose. 536 Japan. Other workers had carefully watched the hatching of the silkworms. Wool In the same way, it takes a very great number of people and opera- tions to make the woolen cloth you wear. 506 Kashmir, India. The shawls woven by these people are often worth their weight in gold. 81 Philadelphia. The woven cloth is always made of yarn which must be spun. 409 Norway. It must be cleaned and carded before spinning. 17 Before it can be carded, it must be sorted and cleaned. 145 Each sheep is sheared in the spring. The thick wool which kept the sheep warm in winter is cut off. 173 Iowa; 190 Idaho; 589 Australia. To get the wool, sheep must be raised. INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME 361 PAPER INDUSTRY One of the great wastes of the nation is in the destruction of old cloth, the material from which the best paper is made. The more paper is made from rags, the less will it need to be made from wood pulp. The manufacture of paper from wood pulp is seriously depleting the forests. 19, 20 The rags in the first picture are the paper in the second. 412 Paper used in newspapers, wall paper, etc., is made from wood pulp. FOODS All industries which provide food — fisheries, agriculture, meat, dairy- ing, poultry and salt industries — all these supply the home. The chap- ter on Foods and Cookery contains a clear presentation of these sub- jects. TRANSPORTATION In these days of specialized labor, people, especially those in the city, make very few things for themselves. All their food, clothes, build- ing materials, everything is brought to them. So city people are abso- lutely dependent upon markets and transportation. 129 Conneaut, Ohio. The coal which heats your home must come by train. 123 Texas. If you use gas, it is transported by a pipe line. 119 Texas. Cotton raised in the South must be carried to the mills of the North or of England and the cloth is shipped to the users. 166 Potatoes ; 167 Minneapolis ; 139 Chicago. These Minnesota pota- toes will probably feed Minneapolis or Chicago. 140 Chicago, 111. Great trains bring the cattle to the stock yards. 141, to 145 Chicago, 111. Other trains of refrigerator cars carry the meat to us. For a complete treatment, see the chapter on Transportation. MARKETS 7 Boston, Mass. Some of our buying, especially the purchase o f fresh food, is done in local markets such as Quincy. 29 New York ; 139 Chicago ; 213, Ogden ; 380, Dublin. Far more of our buying is done in stores which are really specialized markets. See Markets and Marketing. 30. FOODS AND COOKERY By EDNA N. WHITE, B.S. HEAD OF DEPT. OF HOME ECONOMICS AND SUPERVISOR OF HOME ECONOMICS EXTENSION DEPT. OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Assisted by LELIA McGUIRE, B.S., M.S. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The World War crisis has clearly shown the importance of knowledge of the food problem. Never have the services of people trained along these lines been in such demand ; never has there been such an urgent call for the increase and con- servation of our food supply. Conservation means first of all prevention of waste. The one who selects the food must understand the use of the right kinds of food so that the body may make the very best use of the food eaten. For this reason people must learn what the body needs and what nutrients are in food materials, so that nothing will be wasted. Food is also wasted when it is spoiled in cooking, so those who handle the food in the home must learn how to prepare it. If food is not well seasoned or cooked, it is apt to be left on the table and so wasted. If it is carelessly handled and not kept clean, it spoils more quickly, so for this reason and because dirty foods carry disease, cleanli- ness is a necessity. The next conservation problem is the saving of surplus food (the material that is not needed for immediate use). The methods usually employed are canning and drying, and so everywhere people are being taught how to can and dry. Boys and girls may help in both ways to conserve food. Through their physiology they are taught what kinds of food to eat — they must remember to ask for what they can eat and no more — all food they take on their plates they must eat, so that none will be wasted. The boys and girls of our public schools can thousands of cans of fruit and vegetables every year. They form clubs to learn how and then collect their cans to sell. 362 FOODS AND COOKERY 363 I. FUEL Fuel is necessary for the cooking of food. i. Wood and Charcoal 103 Wood was doubtless the first fuel used for the preparation of food and even now in many regions it is our most economical and most available fuel supply. See chapter on Wood. 2. Coal It was a great day for the human race when the discovery was made that certain stones (coal) would burn. It is interesting to consider how much of our material civilization has depended upon the heat developed from the burning of coal. The mining of coal is one of our greatest industries. 129 A train load of coal with different sizes in separate cars, Conneaut, Ohio. This is the bituminous or soft coal. It burns freely but with considerable smoke and soot. 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. The surface dirt is removed and great beds of coal, sometimes thirty, forty or more feet in depth are found. The coal in this region is the hard or anthracite coal. It burns with great heat but with little smoke. 76 Miner drilling and laborer loading black diamonds, Scranton, Pa. This shows clearly the bright, shiny character of the anthracite coal. 77 Car of anthracite coal on cage at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 79 Shipping anthracite coal, Ashley, Pa. Showing different sizes in the various cars. Anthracite coal is graded more carefully than soft or bituminous coal. 3. Coke 68 Coke is made from soft coal in something of the same way that charcoal is prepared from wood. It is a good fuel, giving a strong heat, without smoke. 4. Peat 378 Peat is a fuel made by the accumulation of plants in bogs or swamps. The bogs are drained, the peat is cut in layers and dried in the sun. It is then burned largely in open fireplaces such as are represented by scenes 113 and 372. It is a poor type of fuel. 5. Oil and Gas 69, 70, 122, 123 These are very useful fuels and are taken from the earth in great quantities. They usually occur at considerable depth, wells often being drilled from 3,000 to 7,000 feet deep. Oil and gas occur in about the same regions; so in drilling they cannot always tell which they will secure. Sometimes nothing is found after great expense has been incurred. 364 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS Natural gas usually is found having considerable pressure, so that it flows freely from the well and through the pipes to the place of con- sumption. When the pressure is not strong enough, pumps are used to force it through the pipes. Oil as it comes from the well is known as crude petroleum. In this form it is not of much use for domestic fuel ; but as fuel for the boilers of ocean steamships it is much in favor. The products secured by refining crude petroleum are of considerable value as domestic fuels, the most valuable for this purpose being gaso- line and kerosene. These, like natural gas, are especially desirable for summer cooking as they may be started quickly, give a good fire and may be extinguished when the cooking is completed. II. FOODSTUFFS No countiy in the world is so rich as America in the amount and variety of its foodstuffs. It furnishes by far the greater part of its own food and is able to export great quantities to other countries. It is true that the people of the United States, living in such plenty, have become very extravagant. With the opening of the World's War there came a nation-wide movement to study foods and to use them more economically. i. Meat The people in America depend largely on meat for the protein or muscle building foods. No other group of people, except perhaps the Esquimaux, eat so much flesh, and it is probable that in many cases more meat is used than is desirable. Meat furnishes fat and mineral elements as well as protein but contains practically no starch or sugar. For this reason, it is usually served with potatoes or some other food material high in starch. 183 Thrifty and contented hogs in rich alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 589 Range sheep, an important source of Australian wealth. 185 Feeding Hereford cattle, Manhattan, Kan. Henry Clay of Ken- tucky brought the first Herefords into America. They are a good beef cattle. Shorthorns are the heaviest of the beef breeds, and Herefords rank next in weight. 140 This is a view of cattle in the pens of the Union Stock Yards in Chicago, the meat packing center of the world. This plant was begun in 1865. It now covers 500 acres of ground. 141 The animals are taken from the pens and are marched single file into the slaughtering gangways. The various processes of bleed- ing, skinning and dressing take place in rapid order. Every process is inspected by a federal meat inspector. In this picture is shown the last process, the washing of the beef with boiling water. 142 Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before placing them in refrigerator rooms. 143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling in preparation for market, Chicago, 111. FOODS AND COOKERY 365 144 Making link sausages with aid of machines which stuff ten feet per second. 145 Washing and tagging freshly killed lambs, Chicago, 111. 56 Chicken meat is prized almost the world over. 216 Geese furnish very palatable meat. 72 The woodcock is prized as a game bird. 2. Milk Milk is a remarkable food material because of the number of nu- trients found — fat, protein, sugar, mineral and growth producing ele- ments. It has a large proportion of water and is especially adapted to the child's needs. " A quart of milk per child per day " is a good rule. The care of milk is of great importance because it carries diseases such as typhoid, diphtheria, etc. The heating of milk at a low temperature known as pasteurization is required in most large cities at present to prevent the spread of contagious diseases through the milk. 159 Groups of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein cattle, Wis- consin. 57 Milking scene in modern dairy, New Jersey. 45 Washing 1,000 pounds of freshly churned butter. 411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. A large part of the peasants of southern Europe also depend on goats' milk and some of the finest cheeses, such as Roquefort, are made from goats' milk. 413 Laplanders milking reindeer, Norway. 403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein Friesian cattle near Rotter- dam, Holland. The Holstein gives great quantities of milk. The Dutch have a great name as butter and cheese makers. Various Means of Distributing Milk 339 Native method of distributing milk unadulterated in the narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela. 487 Quaint dairymaids delivering milk in earthenware jars suspended on poles in Kief, Russia. If you want a drink of milk, you can be served instantly. 396 Milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. Closed bottles such as these allow clean, pure milk to be delivered. 3. Oysters In nutritive value, oysters resemble milk, having about the same pro- portion of water. The difference in price is paid for flavor and scarcity and not for food value. There is some danger of transmitting disease through oysters if they are grown in impure water or carelessly handled, so precautions must be taken to prevent contamination. If oysters are cooked too long or at too high a temperature they become tough and undesirable. 86 Oysters are caught by dragnets or by long racks. Shucking con- sists merely of removing the shells. This is done by a stroke 366 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS of a hammer or a knife. The shucked oysters then go to the packing room. 4. Fish Fish is such a perishable type of food that much of it must be pre- served before it is sent to market. The most common methods are canning and curing. Salmon is one of the most valuable of the food fish and one of the most important fishery products. The great bulk of the catch is canned. Salmon is higher in food value than most fish, due to the amount of fat it contains. Fish is cured by soaking in brine or packing in salt and then drying. In preparing it for the table it must first be soaked to remove some of the salt and then is usually cooked in water. Codfish contains protein but very little fat and should be served with some starchy food, such as potatoes. Fat is usually added in its preparation. 226 You are here shown the nets which are used for catching salmon. 227 In this picture the salmon are being prepared for canning. It shows the size of the salmon. 531 Fish is a large part of the diet of the lapanese people. It is pre- served by drying. 13 Codfish sometimes grow to be as much as five feet in length. The fish are cleaned, salted and placed on platforms to dry. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. Dried fish is a very important article of diet among primitive people in cold regions. 5- Eggs The egg industry in the United States is of great importance, the amount of money involved being- equal to from one-half to one-third the value of the wheat crop. They are one of our most important sources of food. They are rich in mineral salts, protein and the fat is of a type especially adapted to the needs of growing children. A dozen eggs may be considered as approximately equal to two pounds of meat, and for children and invalids are more desirable than meat. 56 Hens' nests should be kept clean. In this picture is shown the white leghorn in a laying house, Corning egg farm, New Jersey. 375 Fresh eggs are sold in almost every market in the world. 583 The eggs of gannets are eagerly sought in South Africa and in the lands bordering the far North Atlantic Ocean where they are also found. 6. Cereal Grains Cereals furnish more nutrients for the great majority of people than any other type of food material. Some type is raised in all countries, so thev are easily procured. They are high in nutritive value, have very little waste and keen well. Thev are not palatable when eaten raw and so are practically always cooked. All of them contain starch in quantity as well as considerable fiber and so require long cooking. Wheat and rye contain a protein sub- stance which will hold air and on heating sets and can, therefore, be used for making loaves of bread. FOODS AND COOKERY 367 a. Wheat and Barley Wheat is the most important member of the cereal group, since it is best adapted for bread making. The hard wheats produced in the Northwest are especially desirable for this purpose. Flour produced by primitive methods of grinding contain more of the mineral and growth producing elements than the white flour of our markets. It is darker in color and much coarser, so that the bread made from it is dark and coarse-grained. Wheat contains starch, protein, mineral and growth promoting ele- ments but is low in fat and water content. 177 After the wheat is cut and made into sheaves, it is taken to the threshing machine. Here the grain is separated out from the straw. 199 This barley was raised in Colorado by the system called dry farm- ing. One of the first requirements of dry farming is to select a soil that will absorb much rainfall and hold it. 218 In the Western States are great wheat fields and most of the work of gathering the crop is done by machinery. This picture shows the combined reaper and thresher. 357 The wheat in England is cut in similar way to that in the United States, and most of the machinery used has been made in the United States. 498 Wouldn't this be a slow method of preparing wheat for bread? Notice the heavy stones used to crush the grain. b. Corn Corn is a staple article of food in parts of Africa, United States, Italy and the Balkan regions. It is a wholesome and nutritious food, high in starch, low in fat and mineral salt and while it contains about ten per cent, protein, it is not of the type that will hold air and form a loaf as does wheat and rye. It also contains considerable fiber, so must be cooked for a long time. Since the fat and protein are rather low, it is desirable to combine corn preparations with meat or cheese or eggs, and add fat of some kind. 184 The United States produces five-sixths of the corn crop of the world. 136 By the use of machinery the corn is cut and made into shocks. 160 Sometimes the corn is not taken from the stalk but is cut up by machinery and placed in a silo for cattle feed in the winter. c. Oats The oats used for food in America are served in the form of por- ridge as breakfast food. In the milling less of outer layers are removed than in most grains, and the greater part of the germ is left, so that oats are somewhat richer in protein and fat than the ordinary cereal. Because of the starch and fiber they need long, slow cooking. 147 Oats will grow on soil that is not rich enough to produce some of the other cereal grains. The men here seen are gathering oats which have been cut with a binder. The grain will be threshed from the straw. 368 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS d. Rice Rice is one of the staple cereal foods for about half the population of the earth. India produces one-half of the rice supply of the world. China produces one-fourth and Japan one-eighth. The Japanese farmers are busy setting out rice plants. They are set out in fields which have been flooded with water. In the United States the rice is sown by drills just as wheat is, and when growing looks like wheat or oats. It contains large amounts of starch, very little fat and pro- tein. For this reason it is frequently combined with meat, cheese and eggs, and fats of various kinds are added in the preparation of rice dishes. As ordinarily sold, the rice is polished, and this process removes a large part of the valuable mineral salt. The so-called brown rice has not been subjected to this process and is, therefore, to be preferred as a food. 104 Rice is a water plant, so the fields must be irrigated. 105 The men and women are busy hoeing rice in a field in South Carolina. 529 In Japan the rice is cut by a sickle. Rice straw is used to make mats, bags and ropes. 527 A primitive method of threshing. 550 Heavy mallets are used to hull out the rice grains. 7. Legumes The legume family, including beans, peas and peanuts, stands next to cereals in importance as foods. They are especially valued for their protein and should be used, therefore, as substitutes for meat, eggs, or cheese. They also contain considerable starch and mineral salt, but all except the peanut are low in fat. For this reason fat is commonly added in their preparation (viz. pork and beans). Because of the amount of fiber present they require long, slow cooking. Peanuts are usually regarded as nuts and eaten as an accessor}'. They are very high in food value and eaten in quantity may prove indigestible on this account. They should be mixed with other food ma- terials and served as a part of the meal. 562 In Egypt a very old method is used in threshing out the beans. 118 The peanuts grow in the ground like potatoes. The plants are pulled from the ground, dried and then the nuts are picked from the roots. 8. Nuts Nuts contain large amounts of fat and protein and may, therefore, cause digestive disturbances if eaten in quantity as an accessory to the diet. They are also valued for their mineral matter and may well be used as a substitute for meat, cheese or eggs. a. Almonds 234 Almond trees look like peach trees. The fruit from which we get the almonds is left to dry on the trees. Then the shriveled FOODS AND COOKERY 369 fruit is taken off, the seed is removed and put into sacks or barrels. b. Coconut The coconut is most familiar to us as food in the grated and dried form, and is mostly used in pastry and confectionery. It is very high in fat and contains some starch. Sugar is frequently added to it in drying. It is a staple article of food for many of the natives in the tropics. 551 The coconut is covered with a thick husk which is removed before the nuts are shipped. 9. Potatoes Potatoes belong to the class of starchy vegetables and are valued both for starch and mineral salt. They probably owe their popularity to their mild flavor which does not become tiresome, and is easily varied, and to the fact that they keep well and are usually rather low in price. A large part of the nutrients lie next to the outside layer and in careless paring may be lost. It is therefore desirable to cook them in their skins as far as possible. 166 Potato digging machines are used to dig the potatoes in Minnesota, which is a leading state in potato production. 10. Sugar The term sugar is usually applied to the sweet substance obtained from the sugar cane or sugar beet. There are, however, a number of other varieties found in fruits, honey, etc. The product obtained from sugar cane, sugar beets and sugar maple is identical, providing it is refined to the same degree, and is sold usually under the name granu- lated sugar. It is one of the purest food products on the market — concentrated food which is easily assimilated by the body if not eaten in excess. Because of its concentration, it is desirable to mix it with other nutrients in the diet. a. Process of Making Sugar from Beets 419 A large supply of the sugar in Europe is from the sugar beet. In this picture we see women weeding a field of sugar beets. 198 In this picture we see a field of sugar beets. Colorado has become the leading state in the production of beet sugar. 270 The sugar beets are white, large and very sweet. After the beets are gathered they are stored in sheds and there are carefully washed. 271 The beets are sliced and the juice extracted with water. b. Process of Making Sugar from Cane 332 Here we see a field in Peru that is being prepared for the plant- ing of sugar cane. The cane was brought into Peru by Span- iards. 333 In this picture we see the cane plant and the way it is planted. 258 When the sugar cane is ripe, it is cut in the same way as corn 370 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS but the leaves are pulled from the stalks. The juice is squeezed out when the stalks are run through large rollers. 35 The raw sugar is brown and moist and, by refining, the color is changed and the crystals become larger. Granulated sugar is about ninety-nine per cent. pure. 34 The loaf sugar is made by molding the granulated sugar. In this picture we see the large trays of loaf sugar after it has been dried out in the drying kiln. 130 In the northern part of the United States maple sugar is pro- duced to some extent. ii. Green Vegetables Green vegetables are valued in the diet especially for their mineral salt. They are largely made up of water and woody fiber and may contain small amounts of starch and sugar. The types that can be eaten raw, such as celery, are especially desirable, since none of their mineral matter will be lost in prepara- tion. 149 Harvesting celery blanched by boards in Michigan's famous celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. 83 Garden vegetables of all kinds are valuable food and large quan- tities can be raised on relatively little space. 375 Fresh cabbage, beets, turnips, potatoes and so on are offered for sale. 12. Fruits Fruits are especially valued in the diet because of their mineral salts. They also contain characteristic flavoring substances and organic acids which make them valuable as appetizers. Sugars of different types are found in most ripe fruits and a few, such as the banana, contain quan- tities of starch. The water content is high except in the case of raisins, dates, figs and other dried fruits. When these are eaten as purchased and not cooked, they form a concentrated food material. 175 The apple is an important fruit. It contains sugar, starch, mineral matter and a large amount of water. 85 Peaches are regarded as among the most valuable of all orchard fruits for evaporating, preserving and canning. 236 In this picture we see the Tokay grape, which is grown abundantly in California. They are large and firm. Grapes are used for making raisins, grape juice and various wines. Raisins are grapes that have been carefully dried. 294 The banana is more like a vegetable because it contains a large amount of starch. The food value of a banana is high. In the countries where the fruit is grown, the natives usually cook the banana before eating it. Banana flour is used to some extent to make cakes and bread. 108 Pineapples are planted in fields of sand. The fruit gets its name because of its resemblance to the cone of a pine tree. FOODS AND COOKERY 371 237 Oranges are valuable for their mineral salts and the juice is especially beneficial to young children. 240 Olives both ripe and green are eaten. The oil is used by people of the Mediterranean countries instead of butter and animal fats. 238 In this picture we see the beautiful orange blossoms and the large fruit on the trees. 437 Care must be taken in picking the oranges so the skin is not bruised. 47 The cantaloupe was given its name in Italy where it was first grown in Europe. It has become a favorite fruit in this coun- try. 137 The pumpkin is a member of the gourd family and is a valuable food. It may be successfully canned and used in the winter time. 13. Cocoa and Chocolate Cacao beans are roasted, crushed, the germ and hulls removed, and then thoroughly ground, which reduces the mass to a thin paste. This paste when cool forms the cakes of unsweetened chocolate. This contains some starch and considerable fat, so the food value is high. Part of the fat may be removed by pressure and the residue finally powdered is known as cocoa. Since the fat content is here lowered, the food value is not so high as in the chocolate. Both chocolate and cocoa may be combined with milk into beverages which are excellent for children. 303 It is from the fruit of the cacao trees that our commercial choco- late is made. 14. Coffee The coffee beverage is made from the ground roasted coffee beans. It is nearly all water of course, but contains very small amounts of flavoring materials and a stimulating substance knows as caffeine. The coffee beverage has no food value except from the cream and sugar that may be added. Because of its stimulating effect on the nervous system, coffee should never be given to children. 302 In the wild state the coffee trees grow from 20 to 30 feet tall, but if the tree is trimmed back the berries are easier to pick. The berries are dark red and inside of the pulp is found the two half beans with flat sides together. 310 The berries are picked, pulp is mashed and seeds are washed in vats. The green wet coffee is spread on cement floors to dry. 311 After the berries are dried — it takes about two weeks — they are placed in sacks holding about 132 pounds. 295 Coffee is shipped dried but green. It is roasted usually in the country to which it is sent. Brazil grows about three-fourjths of 372 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS the world's coffee. Santos, Brazil, is the greatest coffee port in the world. 15. Salt 42 Most of our salt is made from brine obtained from wells. The brine is placed in large vats. The sun and air evaporate the water and the salt is raked out. Salt is used to give flavor to food and is often used in too large amounts. 153 In this picture we see the refined salt being packed into barrels. III. PREPARING AND SERVING FOOD Quite as much food value depends upon the method of cooking and serving as upon the food itself. It is well known that food eaten quietly and pleasantly digests more easily than that eaten hastily or where the feeling was disagreeable. American homes are so supplied with materials prepared for cooking and means of serving that we sometimes fail to appreciate our advantages. 550 Pounding rice for breakfast. The menu of primitive people must be very limited for they cannot get foods prepared for cook- ing. These people, for instance, get their rice in the husk. Their cooking implements are of the crudest sort. 498 Women grinding wheat. Instead of the fine flour your mothers buy all ready for use, these women must begin their bread making with the grain. Their flour will not be white but it will contain all the nutritive value of the grain. 410 Making Norwegian flat bread. Can you imagine the thin hard bread of flour and water, baked two or three times a year in- stead of the light bread which comes fresh to your table several times a week? With so few materials to work with, house- keeping is very laborious. 292 Tortilla making. Cooking though primitive may be clean, as you can see. Here again the woman begins her work with the corn on the cob. Compare this kitchen with your own and tell where you think the better results can be obtained. 341 The city baker of Caracas is perhaps as clean as many of our own bakers. One wishes there were a law in Caracas as in many of our own cities to compel bakers to wrap their bread in paper before it is carried through the streets. 372 In Burns' home you see facilities for cooking vastly superior to those of the bread makers in Norway or Salvador. Notice the table and dishes for serving in this cottage. 373 A highland home. Tea is being served. Notice there is no at- tempt at a table cloth, the dishes are few and simple, yet the cleanliness and orderliness, and the evident good manners of the two old ladies, make the tea seem very appetizing. 468 Quite different are these tables with their embroidered cloths set * out in the street where they will catch dirt and dust. It does FOODS AND COOKERY 373 not seem quite consistent to be eating and having your boots blacked at the same time. 33 Dining room. Not every one has beautiful furniture and china and silverware for a dining room ; yet everyone can have a clean room and a well set table. Food really tastes better when daintily served and eaten in a well-bred manner. 59 Pretty dishes are so cheap now-a-days that very poor people may set attractive tables. Better designs in decoration are now used in the cheaper wares. Dishes do not have to be expensive to be in good taste. 534 The Japanese people give ideal service. Notice how simple is this arrangement for serving tea, how quiet and cool. The blos- soms of the trees furnish beauty. 152 One of these men carries a lunch box. Thousands of men (62 to 67, 134, 135) carry lunches every day. A lunch should be packed as carefully and daintily as a table is set. Each thing should be carefully wrapped in waxed paper so the tired worker can get all the possible refreshment from the clean, attractive food. 211 Notice the ovens in which baking is done. 519 An open air restaurant in China. Chopsticks take the place of knives and forks. 31. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING By ANNA M. COOLEY, B.S. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Assisted by EDITH P. CHACE, B.S., M.A. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS STATE COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA The teacher of clothing and textiles expecting to use the " 600 Set " to advantage should have a comprehensive and ac- curate knowledge of the various subdivisions of the classifica- tion under the headings of Textiles and of Clothing. The teacher can then select quickly the best pictures to be used for any topic bearing on the particular field. She should notice also the classification of this part of the field of household arts (or home economics) in its relationship to the whole, to the home, its industries, its food and management. It is only through having a connected idea of the whole that the. pic- tures of this group can be used most advantageously. The stereographs as well as the lantern slides will be found of great help in teaching the origin and manufacture of ma- terials, the uses of the various textiles, industrial occupations of the textile industry, and the costumes of various countries, both modern and historical. This means of instruction en- ables the children to obtain a complete visualization of the sub- jects which previously the teacher has only described or pos- sibly at times illustrated with small pictures or other devices upon which she has been forced to rely and to secure through her own initiative. These helps are vital to the best instruc- tion and pleasing to the children. The views in this set give a concrete idea of the fibers and materials used for various articles of clothing and the methods employed by the differ- ent races of the world in procuring, manufacturing and dis- tributing them. An interesting comparative study of the methods of differ- ent peoples along the lines of textile manufacture is, therefore, possible and highly desirable, for it leads to definiteness of thought in relation to the peoples of other nations and the 374 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 375 sources of many of our industrial supplies used in the making of clothing and other articles. If woman is to be an intelligent consumer of textile materials, she should know more about the source of those materials, their manufacture and means of distribution, and their relationship to the cost of living. An interesting study of the homes of other lands is developed in this comparative study of textile manufacture and of uses of clothing, and should be valuable to the children in giving them appreciation and ideals for the best type of home in a democ- racy, and complete understanding of the way in which the races of the world provide themselves with the necessities of life, clothing, shelter and food. The slides and pictures can be used most advantageously in preparation for visits to museums or places of manufacture. The things to be seen should be well outlined by the class be- fore the visit. The use of the slides makes this familiarity possible. The pupil because of this introductory study will gain more from the excursion. In places where there are no museums or mills, these pic- tures are a positive necessity. The depth of the stereographic picture gives ideas of reality and action which can not be ob- tained from any flat picture however good. In such places the " 600 Set " will be a real museum. And even where there are manufacturing plants, children as a rule do not go into them. They hear them discussed, but do not really know them. These pictures will make clear the children's hazy ideas and will bring them into a better understanding of the life about them. I. Textiles A. PRODUCTION The principal textile fibers belong either to the vegetable or to the animal class. There are in addition the mineral fibers as asbestos and also certain artificial fibers which are vegetable, mineral or animal in origin. 1. VEGETABLE FIBERS These are obtained from various parts of plants — the leaves, stem, seed pod, etc. (i) Cotton This is the soft covering attached to the seeds in the boll. 207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin. 376 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS (2) Hemp The leaves and also the stem of these plants furnish this fiber. a. Sisal 571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Africa. 289 Ucnnequin, the wealth of Yucatan, from which sisal fiber is pro- duced, Mexico. b. Manila 552 Manila hemp industry. Stripping the trees, Philippines. (3) Bark The covering of trees and some fruits is used for making cloth. 570 Peeling bark for bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. (4) Pina 108 Pina fiber comes from the leaves of the pineapple, Florida. (5) Palm The leaves of this plant are very useful for matting and coarse textiles. 566, 567 Some Egyptian palm trees. 259 Papaya and palm trees, Hawaii. 249 A street in Panama showing palm trees. 551 Gathering coconuts, the fiber of which is used for mats and coarse textiles, Philippines. 574 An east African palm tree. 2. ANIMAL FIBERS These are obtained from a great variety of animals. (1) Silk The tiny silkworm furnishes this fiber. 536 Silkworm incubator, Japan. 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silkworm, Japan. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the young silkworms. 539 Silkworm cocoons in their nest. (2) Wool Sheep of many varieties furnish wool. 173 Choice Shropshire, Oxford, and Cotswold sheep in pasture. 190, 589 Sheep grazing on range. 480 Shepherds and their flocks, Greece. (3) Hair The hair of many animals is used in the manufacture of textiles for clothing, house furnishing materials, bagging and other purposes. (a) Horse This hair is used with pthers in making a strong wiry cloth known as horse hair cloth. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 377 138 Champion team of Percherons, Indiana. 398 Belgian draft horses, Belgium. (b) Goats Some goats have long silky hair and others wiry hair. The wiry hair is used in making such materials as alpaca, mohair and brillian- tine. The softer goat hair furnishes us with cashmeres. 411 Milking the goats, Norway. 447 Swiss mountain goats. (c) Cattle The hair from cattle is mixed with other fibers and used in making coarse felts for roofing, covering steam pipes and boilers ; it is also used for stuffing cushions and is woven into coarse blankets. 140 From the Kansas plains. 185 Splendid Hereford cattle. 317 Argentina's famous cattle. 186 Cattle on ranch, Kansas. (d) Camel Hair from the camel is used in the manufacture of some clothing and the coarser hairs for bagging and coarse yarns. 564 Camels at Nile. 565 Camel at Sphinx, Egypt. 518 Bactrian camels have long hair. (e) Llama This animal helps to furnish us with strong lustrous fibers for dress goods. 335 The llama of Bolivia. B. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES In modern times very much of the work of manufacturing textiles is done in great factories where the labor is highly specialized. Hand labor still persists where labor is cheap and in isolated communities. I. VEGETABLE FIBERS The fibers from the plants must pass through many manufacturing processes before they are ready to be woven into cloth. (1) COTTON From the seed pod or cotton boll. (a) Ginning This process removes the seeds from the fiber. 124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 378 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS (b) Baling Making into compact bales of about 500 lbs. for transportation. 119 Bales of cotton ready for shipping, New Orleans, La. (c) Carding This process removes dirt and prepares for the next step in manu- facture. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Mexico. (d) Spinning Drawing out and twisting fibers together to make a continuous yarn. 563 Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 14 Spinning cotton yarn, Lawrence, Mass. (e) Printing Decorating the material by means of a stamped design. 15 Copying designs on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Law- rence, Mass. 16 General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. (2) LINEN This is obtained from the stem of the flax plant. 268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. (3) OTHER VEGETABLE FIBERS (a) Bark 570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. (b) Hemp — Rope Making 553 Interior of native rope factory, Philippines. 2. ANIMAL FIBERS Animal fibers must also be prepared and woven. (1) SILK This must be cleansed, twisted and woyen. (a) Spinning The silk fiber may be taken from the cocoon in two ways. It may be reeled by hand as is done in lapan ; or it may be made from " waste " by machinery, the method commonly used in America. 540 Reeling silk from cocoons, Japan. 22 Weighing and sorting raw skeins (reeled silk), S. Manchester, Conn, TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 379 23 First drawing or straightening of fibers (spnn silk), S. Man- chester, Conn. 24 Roving frame, in which the thread is made, S. Manchester, Conn. (b) Weaving Making the cloth. 53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth, Paterson, N. J. 54 Weaving room, Paterson, N. J. 55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N.J. 541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants. (2) WOOL (a) Sorting Wool must be sorted and washed before it is spun. 17 Sorting wool after cleansing "and washing, Lawrence, Mass. (b) Carding and Spinning Straightening the fibers and twisting them into thread. 409 Carding and spinning wool, Norway. 506 Spinning and weaving shawls, Kashmir, India. 81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, Philadelphia. (c) Weaving — Making Cloth The hand made shawls and carpets of the orientals are often won- derfully beautiful. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. (3) HAIR 272 Scraping hair from hides. C. USES OF TEXTILES Textiles are used for many purposes besides clothing. 1. FOR CLOTHING THE PEOPLES OF MANY COUNTRIES See II. Clothing. 2. FOR THE HOME IN ITS FURNISHINGS 33 Domestic art dining room (table doilies, curtains, rugs). 468 Table cloths woven by Bulgarian women. 417 Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, showing woven wool tapestries and upholstered furniture. 380 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 3. FOR OTHER PURPOSES (i) Paper Making 19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums, paper mill, Massa- chusetts. 20 Inspecting paper delivered by machines, Massachusetts. 94 Making paper money. (2) Tents 168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 263 Indian basket weaving. 265 Iroquois Indian tents. 585 Pavilion for officers reviewing troops. (3) Awnings 385' Awnings over market booths. 535 Idyllic spot where Japanese maids delight to stroll; the houses have awnings. 406 Round Tower, Copenhagen. The shops are protected by awnings. 213 The houses need the protection of awnings. 100 Awning for boat, Hampton Roads, Va. (4) Sails 27 Sailing vessels passing under Brooklyn Bridge. 514 Block of tenements, China. People living in boats. 525 A Japanese sail boat. (5) Sacks 35 Filling and sewing sacks of sugar. 119 Covering for cotton bales. 148 Building dikes of sand bags. 295 Coffee from Porto Rico shipped in bags. (6) Blankets 188 Cowboy, bronco corral, etc. 158 The Indian blanket. 204 Ute Indian blanket. 281 The Mexican's blanket. (7) Trappings 505 Stately elephants on parade. 565 Camel trappings. 494 A sheik and his body guard. (8) Umbrellas 548 Carrying an umbrella on the way to market, Island of Luzon, P. I. 387 Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany, stands pro- tected by umbrellas. 501 Umbrellas of India. 60 Protecting the bathers, Atlantic City. 510 Various kinds of umbrellas. (9) Flags and Banners 260 With the flag goes the public school. 585 Review of troops, Australia. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 381 481 Market scene in Finland. 100 Some of the great warships in Hampton Roads. 514 Each ship flies its flag. (io) Ropes 400, 559 Rigging of vessel; 502 Elephant hunt. (n) Fishing Nets 226 First haul of the season. (12) Wagon Covers 71 Wagon used to haul ammunition. (13) Mosquito Net 245 Placer mining in Alaska. II. Clothing Modern Clothing of Many Lands Clothing of different countries naturally varies according to materials obtainable, climate, taste, custom and tradition. In these days of rapid travel and easy communication, variations are disappearing. Native costumes are being displaced by the style of clothes worn in America and western Europe. 8, 22, 29, 31, 146, 235 United States ; 273, 275 Canada ; 305 Brazil ; 315 Argentina; 324 Chile; 340 Venezuela; 351, 355 England; 366 Scotland ; 375 Ireland ; 404 Copenhagen ; 423, 424 France ; 438 Spain; 443 Switzerland ; 452 Italy; 464 Austria; 474 Turkey; 486 Russia; 516 China; 541 Japan; 557 Tunis; 581, 582 S. Africa ; 585, 590 Australia. In all these views will be found men and women dressed in such clothes as we are used to see- ing, varied, in wool, cotton and silk according to use and climate. 1, 3, 5, 11, 12, 16, 42, 44, 46, 47, 57, 69, 75, 99, 105, 107, 108, 115, 117, 124, 125, 130, 143, 149, 153, 156, 226 United States; 271, 272 Canada; 280, 284 Mexico; 295, 297 Cuba; 310 Brazil; 319 Ar- gentina ; 327 Chile ; 333 Peru ; 339 Venezuela ; 357 England ; 378 Ireland; 388, 393 Germany; 437 Spain; 477 Greece; 488 Russia; 579 S. Africa. Among laboring people also the same general type of clothing is seen varying in its material and quantity to suit the needs of the people. Notice that the material changes with the climate. 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 40, 41, 117, 105 United States; 268, 269 Can- ada; 292 Salvador; 302 Guadeloupe; 319, Argentina; 338 Ven- ezuela; 411 Norway; 419 Sweden; 431 France; 541 Japan; 548, 550 Philippines. These clothes, even though some of them look like caricatures of others, show a similarity which proves how very adaptable our clothes are. They may be made of any material whatsoever and having no parts hanging loose are suited for work. 65, 66, 156 Men who work in hot places, such as smelting works, wear woolen clothing. 382 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 246 Alaska; 279 Labrador; 343 North Greenland; 413 Lapland; 328 Magellan Straits. People in very cold countries must wear skins and fur for warmth. Woolen cloth and blankets are used wherever they are obtainable. 481 Finland. This picture was taken in summer. 409, 410 Norwegian women; 418 Swedish girls. Norwegian and Swedish people wear a great deal of homespun wool and linen. 485 Hat and clothes market, Warsaw, Poland. 498, 555 The orientals have adopted clothing light, loose and cool. It may be cotton, wool or silk. 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565 In Egypt the loose cotton garment has, been the dress from time immemorial. 494 A sheik ; 566 A bey. The desert night is so cold that desert people must have a woolen coat or blanket in which to wrap themselves. 555 Morocco. Wonderful rugs are woven by oriental peoples. They are used for beds, for floors and even for tent covering. 503, 504, 505, 506 The common garments of the poor in India are made of cotton. Wealthier people wear silk and velvets. 506 Kashmir. The mountain people of India are noted for their woolen cloths, wonderful shawls and carpets. 510 In Siam, cotton is the common material. 519, 520, 521 In China, too, cotton cloth is worn by nearly every one. Warmth is obtained by padding. 528, 529, 530, 532, 536, 537 Japan. The working people wear cotton cloth often gaily figured. 535 The Japanese wear a great deal of silk, too. 570 Uganda. Bark cloth forms the garments for the negroes of Uganda, Africa. 572 The little clothing worn by these people is probably cotton. Cot- ton cloth manufactured in America or England finds its way into the remote places of the earth and is worn by savages. 490 Circassians. Here is a curious mixture of the uses of skins, woolen and cotton cloths. 592 New Guinea. The men wear a loin cloth, the women grass skirts. These with bracelets and nose and lip ornaments make a com- plete costume. 32. HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION By GRACE SCHERMERHORN, B.S. DIRECTOR OF COOKING IN THE NEW YORK CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. FORMERLY DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE TEACHING IN HOME ECONOMICS, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA In House Management, we aim to tie together the work done in Foods, Clothing and Shelter, dealing with the whole sub- ject from the point of view of the home maker. The many problems arise, such as the amount of money to be spent and how it shall be divided ; the planning of clothing not for one but for a whole family ; planning meals that shall be adequate, economical and appetizing, at the same time planning for the cooking and serving of these meals so that time will be left for other necessary duties and pleasures ; systematizing work so the family may be better cared for with less time given to the machinery of the household ; and a study of labor-saving machinery together with easy ways of doing work. Very often the other Home Economics courses have not provided instruction in many of the duties necessary in keeping a home, such as laundering, care and cleaning of the house and its fur- nishings, marketing, how to keep accounts, and home care of the sick. Under these circumstances, the Home Management course must teach the essentials of these subjects so that the student may appreciate their value and realize their impor- tance. Practice houses offer the best laboratory for teaching this work, but, since they are rare in our public schools, a very help- ful substitute may be found in pictures. The stereograph and lantern slides will be found invaluable — especially the stereo- graph because of its convenience and moderate price and the fact that it is the only picture true to life ; the pupil using it becomes a part of the scene. The following list of scenes are helpful not only in suggestions of things to be done and to be left undone, but they also show the household problems of other peoples. 383 384 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS Buying Food Only as we control market conditions can we control the food for the family. The following market scenes show native costumes, food containers, transportation facilities and buildings. 7 Quincy St. market, Boston. 341 The city baker selling his wares in Venezuela. A marked com- parison with our modern methods. 393 A market in Cologne, Germany. 395 Vegetable market in Belgium. 396, 487 Milk delivery — very different from our own methods. 447 A market in Switzerland. 466 A market in Serajevo, Bosnia. • 469 A market in Bulgaria. 472 Markets in Constantinople. 481 A fish market in Finland. 485 A market in Poland. 548 Market wares. 555 A market in Morocco. 572 A market in Africa. 582 A market in Capetown, Africa. Laundering Laundering is an important industry that is being taken from the American homes by the city laundry. Even in the country we find laundries being run in connection with the creameries, so that rural as well as city people are being relieved of this task. 40 Folding and ironing linen collars in a collar factory. 399 The Holland canals offer water supply for laundering. 431 Washing clothes in a river. A common method of laundering clothes among peasant people. 455 Clothes are dried in the streets in crowded city districts. Household Utensils and Methods of Housework 33 An attractive dining room where the table is laid with doilies. This makes the laundry problem more simple. For the busy woman with limited income, paper doilies may be used. 168 A simple dining service used by the Indians. The squaw prepares and serves the meal but does not eat with the men of the family. 204, 534 Japanese and Indian " baby carriages." 204 Not many sanitary laws are applied to baby's food and surround- ings. 534 Baby pacifiers are not confined to America alone. 263 Weaving baskets — a household duty of the squaw because they, with pottery, were used as household utensils. Now this is a pastime for women. 385 All sorts of dishes may be bought. 372 Kitchen in Burns' cottage. A good example of the open fireplace HOUSE ADMINISTRATION 385 that was formerly used for both cooking and heating. Note the orderly arrangement of dishes. 409, 506, 540 Textile industries that are no longer done in the home. 410 Crude cooking equipment of the Norwegian peasant. 411, 413 Milking. An industry from which most American women are relieved. In pioneer days, however, milking the cows was part of most women's daily schedule. Compare the open wooden pails used in Norway (411) with the modern sanitary method shown in 57. 550 Hulling rice for breakfast, Philippine. Note the heavy, crude utensils. All the girls of the family help with this task. House Planning An important factor in making housework more easily carried on. 6, 455 Tenement houses where large families live in one or two rooms. Would you prefer a small cottage or this type of house if a family could have only one room? 9 Such a flat roof is often used in crowded city districts in place of a yard. 91, 96 Large, roomy houses but too large for families who cannot keep a retinue of servants. 113, 281, 373, 542 Cottage types which show that houses may be too simple for comfort. These houses allow for no modern con- veniences and demand that all processes be carried on in one room. Under such conditions, sanitation and cleanliness are secured only with great labor and effort. 427 When building houses in rolling country, entrances at different levels save running up and down steps. 513 An apartment house in China. Apartment houses have the ad- vantage of having all rooms on one floor. Porches such as seen in this picture add much to the comfort of families living in apartments. 514, 546 These floating houses show that water alone is not enough to produce cleanliness. Where do the children play who live here? Water Supply Every home must be supplied with plenty of clean water. This should be made as accessible as possible for the use of the family. 168, 564 Primitive methods of water supply. Not only is the cleanli- ness questioned but the amount used will always be limited when it has to be carried long distances. 575 Water stored in tanks. With a little extra labor, these tanks could be placed high enough so the water might be piped tn the kitchen and drawn through a faucet. 236 In many places, the windmill pumps the water. This may then be stored in tanks (575) and easily piped to the house. 418 The well, if rightly situated, may supply clean water in sparsely settled regions — but why not have it piped to the kitchen so that with a pump the water can be easily obtained? INDUSTRIAL ARTS INTRODUCTION By CHARLES A. PROSSER, Ph.D. DIRECTOR DUNWOODY INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Industrial arts have for their purpose the unification of the community. Their introduction into the schools marks one of the greatest advances in democracy of our age. It was always felt that the professions called for education, but that workers had no use for it. Now we realize that our industrial life de- mands men and women who are highly trained, resourceful and broad in outlook and that work itself may be educative. These newer ideas are revolutionizing processes of education. Words are only the names of things. They mean nothing to us unless we have images of the things of which words are only the symbols. To see an object and to learn its name is to add that name as a permanent possession to one's mind. To see or to hear the name and not to understand the object is a sad waste of the child's time and energy. Probably no school system in the world is more guilty of teaching by the use of words unaided by experience and illustration than the American Public Schools. This is due to the wonderful development of the textbook as an aid to teaching. Most of the arguments against the use of textbook material alone have their bases in what is known among school men as the doctrine of apperception. This doctrine, which is uni- versally accepted in theory today (but more often honored in the breach than in the observance), holds that the human mind learns best when it works from the known to the unknown, from the related to the unrelated, from an experience to its in- terpretation, from an object to its name, from that in which we are interested to that which will explain it, from a picture to its explanation. Apperception adds to the bare perception the richer significations that are brought by previous preparation or broader experience. It teaches that you cannot develop im- agination in a child by words. Imagination is the supreme edu- 386 INTRODUCTION 387 cational faculty. It is the imaging of new forms out of old visions and experiences. Apperception teaches that children are interested in things which they understand, things which challenge their effort in moving from what they know to what they would like to know. The best way to get a clear understanding of any subject, such as the silk industry for example, would be to visit Japan, see the silk fiber made, then to return to the United States and see it manufactured into cloth. This is impossible because of the cost in money and time. The worst method, and the one we are using today, all too frequently, is to depend upon the printed word to convey ideas to our school children when they have no background with which to apperceive the meaning. The best schoolroom method, in fact the only possible method, is to bring about a combination, a cooperation between the textbook and the sup- plementary devices to illustrate and to explain. The number of pictures which can be printed to illustrate any subject must be limited by the size of the page, the picture and the book. They must, practically, be presented in the order of the paging. The stereographs are not hampered by such limitations and the teacher can control the order of their presentation. They are given in relief and in perspective from which pupils gain correct ideas of the relative sizes and dis- tances. The scenes presented by the stereographs are more in- teresting than the pictures of a book because they are more complete, more exact, more detailed and therefore, more strik- ing. These features make the study of the stereographs much easier from both the physical and mental standpoints. Classes can, by the use of this material in connection with the training in manual and domestic arts, be given information in a most attractive form about the way in which materials are gathered, transported and manufactured into finished goods. Through the very vivid stereographs, they will come to have a better understanding of the way the world does its work, and the applications and requirements of a wide range of activi- ties. This cannot but aid them in a choice of a life work. 33. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN INCLUDING ARCHITECTURE By RAYMOND P. ENSIGN INSTRUCTOR IN DESIGN, SUPERVISOR OF DESIGN CLASSES, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Part I INDUSTRIAL DESIGN With development through the basic relationship to natural physical forces, mechanical powers, and mechanism. I. ADVANTAGE TAKEN OF NATURAL FORCES I. The Force of Cohesion in Natural Products (a) Spanning Spaces Nature's Work 3 A demonstration of the cohesive force in the material. 200 Nature's use of the principle. 206 A wooden bridge has become a stone one. Man's Use of Nature's Provision. 242 A board bridges the space between the submarines. 506 Wooden lintels over the wall openings. 41 Crossbeams supporting a floor above. 150 The frame of an automobile offers a good example. 135 Steel girders as used in this and other ways. 27 Suspension bridge depends on cohesive force in cables. 99 The " breeches buoy " needs dependable force in rope. Man's Improvements on Nature. See Arches, Domes, Trusses, and Bridge Design in this chapter. (b) Containers Cohesive force makes possible all containers. 285 A primitive form of vessel. 65 Immense and dependable containers. 334 Great buckets in a smelter. 19 All boxes depend upon cohesiveness in the wood. 295 The ordinary bag sees rough usage. 311 Heavily laden carts. 388 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 389 498 Pleasing form of container in the foreground. 215 Well wrapped " bundles " of logs. 507 Weird boats standing rough treatment. (c) Various Applications Wood 217 Cohesive force in boards, timbers and masts. 113 Every sort of building dependent upon it. • 9 A more finished way of building. 536 A simple piece of furniture depends upon cohesiveness. 33 This is true of the most beautiful furniture. 245 A sturdy shovel handle. 224 Cohesive force in wood gives way before that in steel. 523 Many forces working here. Compare with 224. 443 The carver works against this force. 412 Machines for overcoming the cohesive force in wood. 20 The final result still dependent upon it. Natural Stone 3 No easy task to work the stone. 206 A peculiar kind of stone. 498 Difficult to wear out. 292 Cohesive force in stone greater than that in corn. 516 Cohesion in the stone roller plus many coolies makes for co- hesiveness in the road bed. 569 A magnificent example of this and other forces. 560 Cohesiveness of stone makes possible sculptured decorations. Manufactured Stone; Pottery and Tile. 123 Extensive use of cohesiveness in cement building. 121 Something of a skyscraper. 171 Attractive concrete construction. 170 A great concrete dam. 252 Concrete even to the lamp-posts. 161 An example in the tile used for draining. 487 Cohesiveness makes possible all pottery. Metal; Steel, etc. 66 Shaping a steel ingot. 67 Overcoming its cohesiveness. 157 Cohesive force does away with need of containers. 65 The steel hooks will hold an immense weight. 75 Many lives depending upon the chain. 215 The chains make excellent wrappings. 80 Some other force was greater. 82 Built to withstand the pressure of steam inside. 84 Machines for working useful metals. 224 Cohesive force in steel overcoming that in wood. 21 This force makes possible beautiful jewelry. See Steel Framework Construction, this classification. 390 INDUSTRIAL ARTS i Other Mineral Products. 76 Cohesive force in coal. 512 Finding great cohesiveness in gems. 135 Working glass into large plate glass windows. Leather and Skins. 285 Cohesive force makes pig-skin good container. 507 Another use for animal skins. See Leather in Products and Industries classification. Rubber. 131 A remarkable substance in crude form. 132 Peculiar cohesiveness makes for long wearing tires. 133 And in boots keeps the water from your feet. Miscellaneous. 45 Butter is an everyday example of cohesiveness. 2. The Force of Gravity (a) Unloading 1 Vast labor done by Nature's force. (b) Transferring Commodities from One Container to Another 156 Hot, molten metal easily poured. 334 On a large scale. 35 An easy way of sacking sugar. 164 Great ships are loaded rapidly. 128 The bottoms of these cars open to empty the load. 270 Gravity takes the beets into the conveyors. 271 Gravity active in this operation. 64 Pig iron drops from mold directly into car. (c) Gravity's Force at Work in Various Ways 49 Tremendous energy ready for harnessing. 210 Energy stored in vast amount. 569 Evidences of great power ready for use. 516 Heavy roller doing good work on a road. 108 Elevated tank makes great water pressure. 22 A delicate use of the force. 78 Another simple but clever appliance. 79 An interesting use in the coal breaker. (d) Specific Gravity The buoyant force of liquids and gases 169 A board will float on water. So will a -canoe. 39 Heavily laden boats held up by density of water. 507 Interesting ferries in use in Asia. 394 A modern airship riding on the air. 245 Water separates the gold from the dirt and gravel. 242 Submarines can submerge or come to surface at will. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 391 3. Electricity 170 The source of power. 171 Inside the power house. 252 Electric lighting along the Gatun Locks. 4. Light See Lighting Fixtures. 5. Sound 446 An unusual form of horn. 80 Liberty Bell, 71, 241, 484, and other bells. 6. Evaporation 42 An interesting view of production of salt. 310 Drying coffee makes it possible to keep it. 531 Note the construction of the drying racks. 244 A primitive method. II. MECHANICAL POWERS or Simple Machine Principles. 1. Leverage (a) Balance Carrying Loads 437 Small boy, large basket. 449 Heavy loads can be " packed " if properly balanced 487 One way of delivering milk. 378 Not as heavy as it looks. 524 Carefully loaded pack horses. Poised for Easy Movement 581 A car that can be easily dumped. 65 A tremendous weight but nicely balanced. 334 Adapted to pouring easily. The Cantilever Bridge 366 An immense balanced bridge in Scotland. 470 Also built on the cantilever principle. (b) Levers 418 A homemade affair. 156 A fine example of a lever. 134 A heavy load easily handled. 250 A powerful lever at work. 163 Another steam shovel doing heavy duty. 130 Leverage in the handle of the tool. 147 The pitchfork is a much used lever. 392 INDUSTRIAL ARTS (c) Wheel and Axle 512 An Oriental device employing the principle. 82 A good example in the drive wheels of locomotives. 180 Similar examples in automobiles and tractors. 16 At the extreme right, an example in gearing. 64 A close view of some gearing. 540 An interesting operation. 66 The principle plainly illustrated here. (d) Pulleys Fixed Pulleys 69 Simple pulley at the top of the picture. 161 Pulley used to raise and lower. 295 Numerous and useful. 400 Pulleys on sail boats. 23 Transferring power on a large scale. 54 Belts running on pulleys. Every roller a pulley. Movable Pulleys 135 Increased power in this arrangement. 150 Ready for work; in the upper right hand corner. 334 Tables running on pulleys, carry heavy loads. 2. Inclined Planes (a) Inclined Planes 181 Hay being loaded in an efficient way. 216 Logs carried into the sawmill on inclined planes. 440 A good view of an inclined railway. 75 A close view. (b) Wedges 242 Prow of submarines adapted to pushing the water aside. 254 All boats and ships are so shaped. 215 Raft built in this form to facilitate towing. 397 Wedge-shaped piers on bridge to divert water and ice. 470 A great protection to costly bridges. (c) Screws 153 An efficient machine for loosening the salt. 130 The screw principle on a smaller scale. 443 Every craftsman has one in his vise. III. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION i. Simple Tools and Devices (a) Primitive 554 Rude cart and yoke. 561 A crude implement for tilling the soil. 549 This looks like an unpleasant job. 562 Somewhat pretentious but crude. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 393 550 An interesting set of implements. 498 A well designed primitive mill. (b) Simple, but Efficient and Up-to-date 143 A curved draw-shave makes rapid work. 531 Note device for holding the side-rails apart. 75 The chain hook adjusts itself to the grade. 78 Exceedingly simple but most efficient. 2. Mechanism Simple in Principle (a) Levers 156 Mechanical assistance in an unpleasant job. 134 Permitting free movement in all directions. 250 A sturdy lever at work. (b) Inclined Plane 181 An efficient way of loading hay. (c) Cranes and Derricks 327 Steam shovel at work on the docks. 334 Traveling crane in a large smelter. 65 The bucket carried by a crane. 82 Used for moving parts of locomotives. 156 First aid in a hot place. 150 Thousands in use in automobile factories. 128 Fascinating type of traveling crane on coal docks. 295 Type of derrick used in loading ships. 122 Derricks in the oil fields. 69 Detail of such a derrick. 70 An interesting moment. (d) Steam Shovels 163 A steam shovel doing heavy duty. 250 An excellent view of a shovel at work. 251 Testimony to efficiency and value of steam shovel. (e) Conveyors 34 An arrangement to save much labor. 63 Ready to carry pig iron to the cars. 67 Note rollers on which hot steel beam is carried. 217 Saving much lifting in handling lumber. (f) Various Mechanisms 334 Carrying and pouring molten metal on a large scale. 45 An improvement on the kitchen churn. 540 An efficient and well built reel. 512 Both hands needed to operate these. 3. Complex Mechanism 64 An interesting arrangement of gears. 16 Faster than block-printing by hand. 394 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 15 A machine that is almost human. 150 Some automobiles are simpler but none is simple. 12 A far cry from the cobbler at his bench. 161 Note the " caterpillar " wheel arrangement. 136 This farmer believes in preparedness. 357 A machine that is now out-of-date. 233 Harvesting - and threshing on a large farm. See Multiple and Special Machinery, following. 4. Multiple Machinery (a) Farming 178 Three furrows at once. 179 Double disc and three-section harrow. (b) Spinning 24 Production on a large scale. 14 A vast room filled with large machines. 81 As far as the eye can reach. (c) Weaving 55 Turning out many ribbons at once. (d) Special 412 Eight blocks fed at once in each machine. 46 An efficient machine in a dairy. 5. Special Machinery (a) Various Examples 125 The cotton gin. 203 Machine that has made gold mining more profitable. 272 Scene in a tannery. 412 One of the steps in making paper. 153 A useful machine for loosening the salt. 84 Of interest to all of us. 40 Much easier and better than by hand. 46 Rapid and efficient machinery in a dairy. 45 Making butter in immense quantities. 132 An interesting and important process. 313 A modern dredge at work. 6. Steel Framework Construction (a) Uses Girders 135 Close view showing shape of edge. 65 Girders showing in upper left corner. 134 Note use in supporting the roof. Towers 327 A tall shaft for an arc light. 486 For a lamp-post in Russia. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 395 108 A modern windmill tower. 120 A wireless station tower. 421 The Eiffel Tower, nearly 1000 feet high. 254 Basket mast on a modern battleship. Arches 174 An immense arch over the Mississippi. Truss 330 Steel truss carrying a railway track. Cantilevers 366 An immense cantilever bridge in Scotland. (b) Details of Construction 65 Reinforcement. 129 Reinforced corners. 135 Shaped like letter I or L, to give stiffness. 128 Edges of cars strengthened by the L shape. 581 Edges reinforced by rolling them over a rod. 155 In need of reinforcement. IV. CONTRAST OF PRIMITIVE AND MODERN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRY Agricultural Implements (a) Reclaiming the Soil 161 Caterpillar tractor wheels lay their own track on hard or soft ground. (b) Preparing the Soil 561 Primitive plow does little more than stir soil. 488 A crude form of plow and a slow process. 178 A modern tractor gang plow. 180,207 Efficiency. Rapid work with up-to-date implements. 549 American farmer would dislike the implement and job. 522 Five patient workers. 179 Two operations on a wide area. 332 Modern machinery in South America. (c) Harvesting the Crops 529 Primitive method of harvesting grain. 357 A reaper of twenty-five years ago. 218 Twenty horse power but doing great deal of work. 233 Steam power combining three operations. 136 An interesting type of corn harvester. 160 Another modern labor-saving device. 181 A rapid way of gathering and loading hay. 147 The hay used to be loaded as these oats. 396 INDUSTRIAL ARTS (d) Threshing the Grain 497 Rather a lack of implements. 479 Footpower threshing floor. Note homemade pitchfork. 527 Another threshing floor. 218 A modern way of threshing. 233 No time is lost in getting the grain into sacks. 562 A cumbersome implement but doubtless effective. (e) Preparing the Grain for Use 550 These tools have pleasing designs but are not time savers. 498 Primitive form of mill, but interesting in design. 292 Grinding corn. Well shaped tools. V. DESIGN IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS i. Spacing — Arrangement — Proportion See Spacing under Architectural Design 2. Objects Whose Form is Specially Adapted to, and Expressive of, Their Purpose (a) Pouring 334 Excellent examples of the principle. 156 Neat and effective. (b) Grinding 292 Very simple but pleasing for that. 498 An example well worth study. (c) Various Purposes 80 A hinge design which is nicely adapted to its purpose. 42 An implement for scraping and pushing. 516 Better than ordinary for the purpose. 210 Arch principle involved in holding the water back. 154 A similar example at the right. 143 Curved drawshave for trimming hams. 543 Racks which allow the carrier to rest occasionally. 487 Milk jars that can be easily cleaned. 446 A unique and effective horn. 80 Bells furnish interesting examples. 3. Objects Whose Form is Especially Adapted to, and Expressive of, the Material and Process of Manufacture (a) Stone 292 There is no mistaking the idea here. 498 Primitive but pleasing stone mill. 516 Surely convincing of its heavy, stony nature. (b) Pottery 542 Evidently of a material once plastic. 487 Note general form and handles of the milk jars. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 397 58 Soft lines suggesting that the material was workable. 59 At a later stage. 385 Dishes of every kind. Many of them are of excellent shape. 519 Common Chinese dishes. (c) Metal 336 The simple scrolls tell of* wrought iron. 33 The coffeepot is a fine example. 396 Cans in the cart are expressive of thin metal. 80 Form and ornament well worth study. (d) Wood 536 Proportion and style suggestive of wood. 33 Wood adaptable in developing designs of chairs. 409 Expressive of the turning-lathe. 506 Note turning and carving on the spinning wheel. VI. PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE See classification Products and Industries. i. Ornament Adapted to Structure and Structural Lines See Industrial Products below, and Structural Lines under Archi- tectural Design. 2. Ornament in Industrial Products (a) Stone 498 The stone sufficiently ornamental. 5 Developing the design in the stone. 92 Simply structural decoration on the marble mantel. 288 Beautiful enrichment of the surface. 560 The silent sentinel. 252 Well designed lamp-posts of manufactured stone. (b) Pottery 59 Decorating porcelain in quantities. 33 Quaintly designed china adds to table effect. 487 Simple pottery, but expressive. 542 Sturdy pieces of considerable capacity. 517 Interesting pattern in roof tiles. (c) Metal 80 Beautiful adaptation of ornament to structure. 336 The wrought iron railing is fine in line. 534 A pleasing railing design from the Orient. 92 Well designed lighting fixtures. 351 Unusual refinement in the design of the street lamp. 33 Beautiful play of line on the coffeepot. 398 INDUSTRIAL ARTS (d) Textiles Woven 263 Developing the designs in the baskets. See Baskets under Designs in the Arts Allied to Architecture, this classification. 55 Producing ornament by wholesale. 158 Interesting examples of woven designs. 343 A variety from the far north. Printed 15 Making ready for the manufacturing process. 16 Applying the design in a thoroughly modern way. Embroidered 487 Beautiful patterns of an Eastern character. (e) Wood 536 An emphasis of construction the only ornament. 113 The corner construction produces interesting ornament. 409 A good example produced by " turning " in a lathe. 33 "Turning" and hand carving in the furniture. 92 Well shaped chairs. Mahogany clock on the mantel. 80 Refined and dignified ornament on standard. 506 Quaint " turning " and carving on spinning wheel. 417 Ornate carving on furniture and ceiling. 352 Beautiful enrichment of interior woodwork. 443 Doubtful ornament. (f) Printed Ornament 15 An interesting commercial development. 16 Ornament repeated endlessly. 94 The kind of ornament with a universal appeal. See Design in the Arts Allied to Architecture in this chapter. Part II ARCHITECTURE T. ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY i. Primitive Styles of Building 205 Early North American village; 265 Indian tepee; 113 Pioneer log cabin ; 331 Incan palace wall : 281 Home of mud bricks ; 550 Splint wall and thatched roof; 549 Thatched roof houses on stilts; 298 Thatched roof hut; 409 Timbered cabin; 592 Houses, New Guinea; 211 Pueblo of Indians in Southwest. ARCHITECTURE 399 2. Historic Styles of Architecture (a) Egyptian 561,564 Great Pyramid of Khufu; 565 Sphinx; 566 Step Pyramid; 568 Ruins of Egyptian Temple. (b) Grecian 475 Ruins of Jhe Parthenon on the Acropolis, Athens. 478 Ruins of an important Greek temple. 477 Searching for architectural fragments. 92 Mantel shows modern use of Greek Doric style. 91 Columns, entablature, pediment, etc., Greek Ionic. 90 Architectural details adopted from the Greek Ionic. 89 A modern use of the Ionic capital. 351 Modern uses of the Greek Corinthian styles. 87 Following the Corinthian style in details. (c) Roman 452 Notable development of arch principle in building. 453 Ruins of Pompeii. 451 Hadrian's Tomb; note use of arches in bridge. 391 Bridge built on old Roman foundations. (d) Byzantine 473,495 Byzantine churches, showing later influence of Mohammedan art in spires and domes. 483 The cathedral essentially Byzantine, but betraying Mohammedan influence in spires and domes. (e) Mohammedan (Saracenic) 466 Mohammedan mosque, showing the Byzantine influence. 493 Mohammedan minarets in evidence. 558 Typical Mohammedan architecture in the foreground. 502 A beautiful example of Mohammedan art in India. 503 Note the splendid spacing of wall surfaces. 557 An example of fine architecture in Africa. 436 Interior of Alhambra richly decorated in this style. (f) Romanesque 406 A round tower in the spirit of the Romanesque. 349 A building of great historical interest. 429 Modern structure in Romanesque style influenced by Saracenic art. (g) Gothic 360 The cathedral at York is English Gothic. 350 Glimpse showing numerous features of Gothic. 352 An interior in the late Gothic style. 425 A wonderful example of Gothic architecture. 387 Both cathedral and fountain are in this style. 389 The spire of Strassburg cathedral towers at the right. 458 An Italian interpretation of the Gothic style. 400 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 457 The palaces at the turn of the canal are Italian Gothic. 434 The Gothic cathedral in Burgos, Spain. 29 Trinity church, at head of Wall Street, in Gothic style. (h) Renaissance 451 In the distance, the dome of St. Peter's. 450 The Piazza and colonnades before St. Peter's. 28 Old City Hall, fine interpretation of Italian Renaissance. 95 A more elaborate treatment of the Renaissance style. 384 A conservative rendering of this style in Germany. 383 More modern and more ornate. 329 Spanish use of the Renaissance in America. 335 An interesting Spanish version, in America. 241 Another legacy from the Spaniards. 277 Somewhat suggestive of the early French chateau version. 351 Left and right show more classic French version. 90 Dignified American use of the Renaissance, following classic French version. 87 Suggestive of French Renaissance study of the classic. 91 A simpler use of the same style. 482 Russian building influenced by French architecture of this period. 424 Modern French Renaissance. 417 Following the elaborate French Renaissance styles of Louis XIV and Louis XV. 587 Modern form of French Renaissance. 590 Renaissance architectural details. 354 Domestic architecture of the English Renaissance. (i) Classic Renaissance Architecture in the United States (Colonial) 7 Both buildings follow this style. 8 Another Colonial example. Note the fine doorways. 28 Old City Hall, one of our finest pieces of architecture. 90 Several buildings in this style. 87 One of our imposing buildings. 89 Classic architectural arrangement in an interior. 92 The mantel shows pure classic detail. 91 Good example of Renaissance treatment of the classic. 96 The use of the style in a domestic building. 9 Typical example of our Colonial style in a residence. 10 A simplified form. 33 Architectural woodwork and furniture in Colonial style. (j) East Indian 501 Showing elaborate detail of style. 499 In the middle distance an example of the native style. (k) Chinese 521 Oriental love of intricate detail shows in this picture. 520 A closer view of the ornament. ARCHITECTURE 401 (l) Japanese 526 Showing the rather modest Japanese type. (m) Skyscrapers Store and Office Buildings of Steel and Concrete Construction. 26 These buildings house a tremendous office population. 25 Looking down into the mass. 30 A good view of the canyon-like streets. 28 Fine architectural design in a skyscraper. 139 Immense buildings but not so high as those in New York. 121 A simple design in a high building. (n) Modern Factory Buildings 123 An expressive use of concrete. 152 Fine type of building for the purpose. See Factory Interiors, this classification. II. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN i. Architectural Composition Spacing — Arrangement — Proportion. 96 Fine adjustment of spacing between posts. 499 In the foreground, a nicely spaced wall. 521 Well spaced ; ornament subordinated to spaces and masses. 354 A most interesting study in spacing. 123 A careful study in modern factory design. 457 Beautiful arrangement in fagade of palace in distance. 9 Well proportioned doorway. 80 An excellent example of Colonial panelling. 260 Side windows subordinated to the central one. 28 Fine examples in both the old and new city halls. 90 An arrangement following the Classic. 152 Well balanced spaces in a factory wall. 89 An interior after classic lines. 88 A long wall well broken up. 424 Intricate but well massed. 95 An example of which we may be proud. 425 Splendid adjustment of spaces and masses in this Gothic fagade. 352 Beautifully spaced. Richly carved. 503 A superb study in proportion. 502 A lovely work of art. 533 Restrained, dignified and restful. 557 Original and effective treatment of an arch. 241 A subtle variation in sizes, proportions and placing. 2. Structural Lines The emphasis of structure lines and the subordination of ornament to structural lines and masses. 402 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 123 Pleasing effects by emphasis of structural lines and good spacing. 152 A more elaborate structure but with structural lines dominant. 354 The enriched effect made by the structural lines. 96 Enrichment of posts emphasizing the vertical. 339 Pleasing effect obtained holding strictly to lines repeating the main lines of the building. 533 Nothing to distract from the structural. 536 Projecting constructive elements at corners make sufficient dec- oration. 80 Enrichment following structural lines in bell and standard. 384 Note lines on the dome and its base. 87 A dome which we all know. 95 A modern treatment of a dome. Same principle followed in dome and fagade. 28 Rich in examples of this principle. 499 Pilasters used effectively (in the foreground). 89 Structural lines dominant in this interior. 33 Rosettes enriching the doorway yield to the important lines. 425 The Gothic style gives us superb examples. 350 Somewhat hidden by the foliage but still evident. 458 Much ornament but all subordinated to structural lines. 434 A most pleasant arrangement. 352 The Perpendicular Gothic particularly rich in examples. 503 Plenty of enrichment but it is not obtrusive. 502 An architectural wonder. 558 Observe handling of lovely ornament on dome (left). 521 " We may decorate construction, but must not construct decora- tion." 3. Architectural " Orders " The classic styles, as shown in columns, and developments from the classic. (a) Doric 380 Modern use of pure Greek Doric column in the background. 92. The mantel shows use of Greek Doric; column and entablature. 340 Modern use of Doric columns at the left. 8 Colonial adoption of the Doric. (b) Ionic 91 The Ionic order in the portico; column, entablature and pedi- ment. 90 The Ionic used in two buildings. 89 " Volute " capital closely following the Ionic. 9 A development from the Ionic capital used on pilasters. 384 Renaissance use of the Ionic in the foreground. (c) Corinthian 351 At the right, classic Corinthian followed closely. 87 The Corinthian order used extensively. ARCHITECTURE 403 482 Renaissance use of the Corinthian. 460 Typical Corinthian column used for a monument. (d) Special 478 Ruins of ancient Grecian temple showing fragments of fluted columns. 450 Classic columns used in colonnades. 95 Modern use of classic columns in a composition. 5 Carving architectural capitals. 4. Architectural Design in Openings (a) Doorways and Entrances 8 A beautiful Colonial doorway. 9 Another Colonial example. 260 Well designed entrance to a public school. 329 A good example of the Renaissance style. 337 Simple dignified treatment of a doorway. 425 A splendid example of the Gothic. 502 Perfect beauty in the Saracenic taste. 503 A fine arrangement of masses. 520 An example of the Oriental ornamentation. 521 Showing the Chinese arrangement and decoration. 557 A well designed gateway. (b) Windows 37 Small paned window of the Colonial style. 339 An interesting example from South America. 152 Good architectural design in window arrangement of factory. 260 Well spaced group of windows. 362 An interesting treatment in the English style. 354 The English projecting "oriel" window. 387 Early Gothic "lancet" window. 434 Delicate tracery of the later Gothic. 352 Beautiful stained glass windows in the Gothic style. 425 Splendid Gothic examples. (c) In the Gothic Style 387 Early Gothic ; narrow " lancet " windows. 434 Later " geometric " Gothic with its tracery. 352 The interior effect. 425 Splendid examples of the style. (d) The Oriental Style 557 Saracenic architectural features. 502 One of the most beautiful designs in the world. 503 A beautiful arrangement of spaces and masses. 520 Characteristic Chinese treatment. 521 Subordination of ornament to architectural spaces and masses. 404 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 5. Roofs For examples of Roofs see Architectural Types (a) and (b) in this classification. 6. Architectural Ornament (a) Egyptian 568 Low relief carving on flat surfaces. (b) Classic The examples are Renaissance structures in the Classic style. 92 Triglyphs and metopes on frieze of Doric order (mantel). 351 Enrichment of capital and pediment of Corinthian order (at the right). (c) Gotliic 425 Decoration subordinated to structural lines. 350 Decoration rich but well placed. 434 A beautiful composition. 387 Cathedral and fountain in the Gothic style. 458 A beautifully enriched structure. 352 Fine example of Gothic carved decoration. (d) Renaissance 384 Characteristic of the period. 87 Decoration subordinated. 417 Rich ceiling and carved furniture. 424 An elaborately ornamented modern Renaissance structure. 383 A pretentious design in the style. 590 Late Renaissance details; ornate but not necessarily beautiful. (e) Saracenic 557 A striking manner of ornamentation. 558 Beautiful treatment of a dome (left). 503 Rather simple but effective decoration. 502 Surfaces inlaid and carved. (f) East Indian 501 In the fascinating native style. (i) Chinese 520 Characteristic style of decoration. 521 Rich ornament subordinated to structural lines and masses. (h) Japanese 536 Exceedingly simple but the projecting corners are effective with the fine spacing. (i) Details 89 The Ionic capital with its volutes. 5 Carving the volute on a capital. 460 Richly carved Corinthian capital. ARCHITECTURE 405 33 Rosettes on the doorway casing. 92 Metopes and triglyphs on frieze of mantel. 241 Mouldings well placed. 8 Cartouche in gable. 384 Cartouche over entrance. 282 Urn-shaped finials. Balustrade. 96 Ornamental railing. 283 Ornamental posts and railing. 336 Balcony railing. 425 Pose window; gargoyles; mouldings and bands. 434 Crockets on spires. 352 Richly carved canopy. 502 Inlaid pavement. 560 Architectural sculpture. III. ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCTION i. Spanning Spaces Examples of important constructive principles in the methods Oi spanning spaces, which methods have affected all Architecture. (a) The Lintel 506 A primitive example ; beam spanning window and door openings and carrying the weight above. 568 The massive lintel construction gave to Egyptian architecture its chief characteristics. 92 The member resting on top of the columns in the mantel is a de- velopment of the lintel. 91 The lintel carried over four columns. 351 Several examples here, that at the right closely following the ancient Greek style. 89 An example of a lintel in interior use. (b) The Arch 200 A natural arch but not constructed according to the true arch principle. 384 A good example of a true arch over the waterway. Note ar- rangement of stones with " Keystone " in the center. 524 A beautiful arch of olden times. 557 This gateway shows a fine arch. 427 A single arch over a river. Note arrangement of stones. 451 A series of arches in the nearer bridge. 391,397 A sturdy bridge of many arches. 456 Note beautiful group in center of first bridge. 348 A near view of a series of great arches. 241 Beautiful arrangement of several arches. 452 One of the earliest and most famous examples of arch construc- tion. 260 A modern use of arches. Note keystone and other stones in the second story arches. 406 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 89 An interior view showing an arched opening. 174 A magnificent arch of steel construction. 392 A fine example of the use of arches. 210 The arch principle employed in an immense dam. 154 An important use in the construction of canal locks. (c) The Dome (A development of the arch principle) 451 The splendid dome of St. Peter's in the distance. 384 A massive dome. Note the emphasis of structural lines. 87 Our best known dome. 7 A flatter form of dome. 28 Dome on the World Building at the right. 558 An interesting group of domes in the foreground. 483 Graceful clusters of domes in the Oriental style. 502 Splendid example of Saracenic architecture. 95 A modern form of the dome. (d) The Truss 202 The truss ; a built-up structure to span a space 330 A large inverted steel truss. 270 Countless wooden trusses carrying the roof. 271 Steel truss used to strengthen a floor. 150 Spanning an immense space. 2. Architectural Supports (a) Columns 92 Doric columns in a mantel design. 8 Doric columns in a doorway design. 380 Doric column as a monument shaft (distance). 89 Ionic columns in an interior scheme. 460 Corinthian column as a monument shaft. 478 Fragments of ancient Grecian columns. 18 Iron columns in a factory. (b) Columns in Porticos (Intercolumniation) 340 Doric columns at the left. 91 Ionic columns on the White House. 351 Columns in the Corinthian portico at the right. 587 Columns used in various ways. 384 Columns in pairs. (c) Columns in Rows (Intercolumniation) 450 Doric columns in a colonnade. 90 Ionic columns used in two ways. 87 Stately Corinthian columns. 482 Columns in groups and rows. 424 Grouped arrangement of columns. 95 A modern architectural arrangement. ARCHITECTURE 407 (d) Piers and Posts Exterior 568 Study Egyptian piers. 96 Delicate Colonial posts. 109 Heavier stone posts. 152 Piers as a development of the wall. Interior 272 Simple posts; no pretense to architectural design. 94 Brick posts or piers. 41 Square piers ; rounded corners. 171 Stately rows of piers. I* 470 Substantial yet graceful structures of stone. 27 Imposing piers of stone. See other bridge piers under Bridge Design. (e) Pilasters 9 Tall pilasters flanking an entrance. 33 Pilasters in a Colonial doorway. 89 Pilasters combined with columns. 29 Superimposed in a fagade. 587 Clustered at corners. 384 At corners in the foreground ; also used in the dome. 499 In the foreground, dividing wall «paces. 590 Ornate treatment of pilasters. 521 Appearing in a Chinese fagade. (f) Buttresses Gothic 387 Barely discernible; built up along the side of the cathedral. 425 The design employs the buttresses advantageously. 458 Richly decorated. 350 Flying buttresses in the second story. 434 Flying buttresses clearly shown along the side and at the rear end of the cathedral. 29 On old Trinity in New York. 340 An example at the right. Other forms 586 Great trees have natural buttresses. 282 Stone buttresses in the foreground. 241 A massive form, at the right. 152 As used in modern factory design. 123 As expressed in concrete construction. (g) Brackets or Corbels 376 Supporting the parapet. 260 Supporting a balcony. 408 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 3. Roofs For examples of roofs see Architectural Types (a) and (b) in this classification. 4. Materials For building materials such as lumber, stone, iron, steel, etc., see classification, Products and Manufacturing. IV. ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES 1. Architectural Types Examples of comparatively modern architectural design from various countries. (a) Public Buildings North America. 87 An imposing use of dome and colonnades. 91 Expressive of dignity and democratic simplicity. 95 A building of pleasing proportions. 90 A group of our government buildings. 26 The city " skyscrapers." 25 A nearer view of these office buildings. 30 One of the canyon-like streets. 28 A contrast in proportion, both fine. 139 Typical modern store and office buildings. 152 Typical factory building of today. 282 General view of buildings in modern Mexico City. South America. 315 A mixture of styles. 340 Classic influence on the left ; Gothic on the right. Europe. 351 A conservative style of architecture, befitting its purpose. 424 More elaborate, in character with its use. 436 General view in Spain. 457 General view in Venice. 383 An ornate structure. 384 Rugged exterior, elaborate furnishings within. 399 Good examples of Dutch architecture. 462 Distant view of buildings in Vienna. 482 Many columns used in this design. 468 Modern looking buildings in Bulgaria. 466 Oriental influence evident. 476 Modern buildings with details influenced by the ancient. Africa. 582 This is surely not " darkest Africa." 558 The Oriental and the European in Egypt. ARCHITECTURE 409 Asia. 499 European styles in foreground ; native influence in background. 521 Elaborate bit of architectural design in Chinese style. 513 The European influence in China. 526 Native architectural treatment dominant. A ustralia. 587 An imposing edifice in Melbourne. Hawaii. 260 Good architectural design and flag look well together. (b) Domestic Architecture United States. 9 A good Colonial type. 10 Beautiful setting for a home. 91 A dignified residence of national importance. West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America. 282 City buildings in Mexico. 299 Modest residences in Cuba. 249 An attractive street in Panama. 304 Interesting treatment on a hillside. 336 A trim and tidy city street. 337 Pleasing design in the houses here. 339 Narrow street but effective unity of architectural treatment. British Isles. 354 An example of fine village architecture. 355 A famous thatch-roofed cottage. 362 Charming setting for a country home. 368 Interesting domestic architecture. 379 A cottage and a country home. Holland. 402 Effective unity of treatment. Germany. 389 Residences in a German city. Austria. 461 Interesting house designs and background. Switzerland. 447 Typical Swiss architecture. 445 Swiss chalet with wide eaves. Bohemia. 463 Historic castle and village houses. 410 INDUSTRIAL ARTS Spain. 434 Rugged character of design in houses. Italy. 457 Along a Venetian " street." 454 Typical city houses in Naples. 455 One way of decorating architecture. Syria. 492 Densely populated Beyrout. 493 An interesting arrangement of roof shapes. Egypt. 558 A mixture of Oriental and European. India. 499 Another mixture of native and European. China. 517 Quaint native houses. 514 A tenement district unlike ours. Japan and Chosen. 526 Native architectural style dominant. 535 Charming house and its garden setting. 534 An intimate view of a Japanese building. 533 Simplicity and refinement in building and furnishing. 543 Peculiar native architecture well shown. Philippine Islands. 546 Quaint houseboats in Manila. 550 Splint walls and thatched roof. 549 A village on stilts. 2. City Views and Street Scenes See classification Cities and City Life. 3. Religious Buildings (a) Temples 568 Egyptian ruins; 475 Athena; 478 Greek ruins; 501 East Indian; 212 Mormon. (b) Mosques 495,558 Mohammedan in distance; 503 Indian; 483 Russian; 473 St. Sophia. (c) Russian Churches 483 Note similarity in design to the Mohammedan mosques. 495 Russian church in the foreground. (d) Cathedrals 350,360 English Gothic; 425 French; 387 Nuremburg; 389 Strass- burg; 458 Italian; 434 Gothic; 429 Romanesque, Saracenic; 324 Comparatively modern edifice. ARCHITECTURE 411 (e) Churches (Catholic Cathedrals) 451,450 St. Peter's; 329, 335 Spanish Renaissance. (f) Churches (Protestant) 406 Trinity, Copenhagen ; 6 Old North Church ; 29 Trinity, N. Y. (g) Mission 241 One of the Spanish missions of California. (h) Tabernacle 212 Mormon tabernacle in the distance. 4. Homes (a) See Primitive Styles of Building, this classification (b) Cottages 411 Little more than shelter. 373 Quaint homes in the Highlands. 355 Tliatched roof witli interesting lines. 372 Cottage interior with modern radiator out of place. 409 Timbered cabin in the background. 445 One of the attractive Swiss chalets. (c) Village Homes 401 Unity in village architecture. 402 Another instructive example of unity. 463 Beautiful village near Prague, Bohemia. 368 A Scottish type. 447 Swiss residences. 354 Fine example of English village architecture. 362 Surroundings should be considered with building. 535 The Japanese make beauty spots of their gardens. 517 Typical Chinese village. 37 A cottage in our own country. 96 Fine example of Southern Colonial. 10 Attractive setting for a village house. 9 Effective design for house in Colonial style. 33 An excellent example of a home interior. (d) Some City Homes 91 Suggestive for city or country. 6 City tenements on the right. 264 In the quaint city of Quebec. 339 Attractive designs in modest homes. 337 Restful and dignified in design. 389 Larger city houses. 457 City houses with no front yards. 455 Apparently not enough room inside. 434 Modest but simple and pleasing in style. 412 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 526 A crowded city but interesting architecture. 492 Crowded conditions in the Near-East. 5. Historic Homes 91 The home, for a time, of many of our great men. 37 An attractive country house. 96 One of the best known homes in our country. 113 Surely not elaborate architecturally. 9 A house with much historical association. 354 Birthplace of one of England's most famous men. 355 Concerned in Shakespeare history. 372 There was no steam heat when Burns lived here. 362 Beautiful home of one of the great English poets. 6. Historic and Famous Public Buildings (a) Examples 7 Busy scene near one of Boston's historic buildings. 8 Old State House hemmed in by modern high buildings. 6 Old North Church now surrounded by tenements. 29 Trinity Church at the head of Wall Street. 28 New York's old City Hall, fine example Colonial architecture. 87 Where our laws are made. 89 An imposing architectural setting. 90 A group of buildings in our National capital. 93 The surroundings of our government buildings. 95 Congressional Library, one of our most beautiful buildings. 88 An interior view in the Capitol. 91 The residence of our Presidents. 92 One of the rooms in the White House. 349 One of England's famous buildings. 351 An important building in London. 353 Of importance to all of us. 425 One of the noted buildings in Paris. 473 The most noted building in Constantinople. For further examples see Religious Buildings, Castles and Palaces and Historic Styles of Architecture, in this classification. 7. Castles and Palaces 367 Tales of Robert Bruce and others center about this old castle. 349 A forbidding looking group of buildings. 376 More formidable once than now. 417 A richly decorated apartment. 461 Commanding position for a castle. 384 A palace which was once a castle. 483 Fortress, palace and cathedral. 451 A castle with unique history. 457 Palace plainly seen at the end of the " street." 436 The palace of the Moorish Kings. 432 An ideal castle situation. ARCHITECTURE 413 463 Castle on a hill top, easily defended. 476 Modern palace with architectural detail suggestive of old Gre- cian influence. 283 A castle nearer home. 331 Arrangement of building stones in early South American palace. 277 Railway station with architecture based on the style of old French castles. 8. Special kinds of Buildings (a) Concrete Building Construction 123 A simple but effective design. 121 A twelve story building in the southwest. 152 A combination of brick and concrete. (b) Farm Buildings 159 Many barns on a large farm. 165 Immense barns and two silos. 138 Attractive buildings on a large stock farm. 57 Interior of a modern dairy barn. 185 Open hay barn. 56 Laying house, on large egg farm. (c) Houseboats 546 Evidently a popular style. 399 Houseboats are common on Dutch canals. (d) Windmills 400 Typical Dutch windmill. 108 Modern windmill on steel tower. (e) Towers 349 Tower of London contains many towers. 376 A typical castle tower. 442 Quaint water tower or light house. 406 Historic " Round Tower " in Copenhagen. 425 Typical cathedral towers ; Gothic style. 434 A series of Gothic towers. 27 Well-known bridge towers. 421 The Eiffel Tower, almost 1,000 feet high. 108 Windmill tower and water tank tower. 122 Countless towers in an oil field. (f) Miscellaneous 565 An Egyptian pyramid and the Sphinx. 452 An ancient theater, the Colosseum. 424 The Grand Opera, Paris. 260 Modern public school building. 272 Interior of a tannery. 227 Interior of a cannery. 58 Pottery kilns, Trenton, N. J. 56 Laying house, on large egg farm. 414 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 176 Shaft house and smelter, zinc and lead mines. 187 Copper smelters in Montana. 62 Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 116 Blast furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 79 Coal breaker, Pennsylvania coal regions. 216 Saw mill, near Seattle. 48 Grain elevator, Buffalo. 9. Monuments and Memorials 561 The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. 564 Another view of the Great Pyramid. 565 The Sphinx and the Second Pyramid. 566 The Step Pyramid in the distance. 568 Egyptian obelisks in their original positions. 451 Hadrian's tomb at the right. 558 A beautful mausoleum at the left. 502 One of the world's most beautiful structures. 368 An imposing situation for such a monument. 356 A memorial to England's greatest poet. 387 A beautiful fountain in the Gothic style. 365 Scott Memorial in Edinburgh. 146 Lincoln's tomb — Marshall Joffre at entrance. 380 The Nelson monument in the distance. 416 Statue of one of Sweden's heroes. 460 A memorial column in the Alps. 283 A soldier's monument attractively situated. 10. Interiors (a) Home Interiors 33 An interior architecturally dignified and refined. 372 A cottage interior wholly charming except for the modern steam radiator. 533 Fine combination of architectural lines and simple furnishings. 89 An effective design in a public room. 92 A room in which we are all interested. 88 Note the architectural spacing of the walls. 352 A richly treated English Gothic interior. 417 The rich decoration of a foreign council room. (b) Interiors of Public Buildings 88 Congressional Chamber, Washington, D. C. 89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. 92 Cabinet Room, White House, Washington, D. C. 80 Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 352 House of Lords, London. ♦17 Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm. ARCHITECTURE 415 (c) Factory Interiors 132, 150, 151 Automobiles; 227 Canning salmon; 40 Collar; 156 Cop- per; 125, 286, 14, 15, 16 Cotton; 134, 135 Glass; 21 Jewelry; 268, 269 Linen; 82 Locomotive works; 94 Making paper money; 141 to 144 Meat packing; 45, 46 Milk and butter; 84 Mint; 57 Mod- ern dairy; 19, 20, 412 Paper; 58, 59 Pottery works; 171 Power house; 334 Refining silver; 553 Rope factory; 133 Rubber boot; 153 Salt warehouse; 11, 12 Shoe factory; 86 Shucking oysters; 541, 53 to 55, 22 to 24 Silk; 65 to 67 Steel mills; 203 Stamp mill; 270, 271 Sugar beet; 34, 35 Sugar refinery; 272 Tannery; 145, 17, 18, 81 Wool. ii. Bridge Design Look up the principles involved in the construction of an arch, a truss, a cantilever, and a suspension bridge. See Steel Framework Construction, this classification. (a) Natural and Primitive Bridges 200 Looking under one of nature's bridges. 206 Another work of nature. 507 One kind of substitute for bridges. 408 A small bridge in the country. (b) Stone Arch Bridges 427 A single arch. 391,451 A series of arches. 397 A substantial stone arch bridge. 348 An arch bridge of which you have often heard. (c) Steel Arch Bridges 174 One of the most famous bridges in our country. 50 A delicate looking structure from a distance. 575 A modern bridge in the heart of Africa. 500 The arch above ; the roadway suspended. 392 An unusual and effective design. (d) The Truss Used in Bridge Design 202 A wooden truss. 330 The truss below the roadway. (e) Suspension Bridges 27 A famous bridge in our Metropolis. 379 A smaller suspension bridge in the country. (f) Cantilever Bridges 366 An immense and peculiar looking structure. 470 A unique and pleasing design. 416 INDUSTRIAL ARTS (g) Bridges of Special Interest 442 One of the unique bridges of the world. 456 A bridge of much historical interest. 472 A bridge connecting two continents. (h) Miscellaneous 61 Bridges close together but crossing different rivers. 560 A modern bridge in an ancient country. 391 A beautiful stone arch bridge. 404 A wide bridge in Denmark. 12. Dams and Locks (a) Dams 196 Dam made by beavers. 170 Great power dam in the Mississippi. 210 Thoroughly modern dam for purposes of irrigation. 569 A modern achievement in Old Egypt. 253 Emergency dam, Panama Canal. (b) Locks 252 Comprehensive view of the Gatun Locks. 253 Large freighter in the locks. Emergency dam in position. 154 Ship Canal Locks, Sault Ste. Marie. 13. Landscape Architecture — (See Civic Beauty below, also un- der classification Orchard, Garden and Wood Lot) 14. Civic Beauty (a) Streets 380 Wide streets make for city beauty. 504 Wide street and wide sidewalk. 422 Wide streets and sidewalks and trees. 421 A shady street in Paris. (b) Buildings 87 Government building; 260 School; 425 Church; 424 Opera house 152 Factory; 354 Unity of architectural style in residences. (c) Grounds about Buildings 28 The City Hall in New York has little enough space about it. 95 Beautiful grounds and approach to a public building. 90 An abundance of green grass and trees. 93 A well planned scheme. 91 Fine setting for a building. 309 Well kept grounds. 502 An impressive approach. 9 Spacious grounds in front of a residence. ARCHITECTURE 417 37 Neat and carefully kept. 362 Nature's lavish hand. (d) Parks 312 A bit of green in the city. 329 Too much concrete; not enough grass. 389 An inviting park in the center of a city. 350 A refreshing view. 126 A small but beautiful spot. 10 The New England " common." 535 The Japanese love to work with Nature. (e) Bridges See Bridge Design, this classification. 15. Naval Architecture (Boats) 169 Indian birch-bark canoe. 430 A varied assortment. 97 Detail of a sailing vessel. 119 River boats at New Orleans. 52 Ocean liners at their piers. 154 Lake boats in a great ship canal. 253 Large boat in locks, Panama Canal. 559 On board a liner in the Suez Canal. 280 Ready for a load. 157 Freighter loaded with copper. 254 Battleship in the Panama Canal. 296 Wreckage of the battleship Maine. 100 A group of battleships and a cutter. 242 Submarines and larger navy vessels. 313 A modern dredge at work. 415 Whaling ship with whales. 433 Scows in the harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 457 Gondolas and launches in the Grand Canal, Venice. 459 Pleasure boats on Lake Como, Italy. 511 Peculiar native boats, Ceylon. 514 " Tenement " boats, Canton, China. 525 With sail ready for the breeze. 546 Native houseboats, Philippine Islands. 16. Design in the Arts Allied to Architecture (a) See Architectural Ornament, this classification. (b) See Bridge Design, this classification. (c) Furniture Chairs and tables. 373 Sturdy simplicity: good chair design. 33 Colonial and English furniture: Chippendale near the window. 92 Office furniture pleasing in design. 418 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 352 Richly carved throne chairs of the Gothic period. 417 Arm chair in the foreground and the furniture against the walls are of the French Louis XIV design ; upholstered chairs " Mon- grel." 533 Refreshing simplicity. 532 Well designed stools. 536 Fine in line and proportion. 409 Interesting chairs and spinning wheel. 448 Light, graceful and comfortable willow furniture. Fireplaces and mantels. 372 Rugged dignity and simplicity. 33 Pleasing Colonial design. 92 Classic design in a mantel. Canopy. 352 Canopy over thrones in Perpendicular Gothic. (d) Objects in Stone 498 Shape nicely adjusted to purpose. 292 A crude affair but effective. 5 The process of making. 460 An impressive monument. 282 Fine urn-shaped finials. 560 A majestic sentinel. (e) Objects in Metal Lighting fixtures. 417 Candles singly and in multitude. 352 Elaborate candle standards (candelabra) and gas chandeliers. 92 Typical modern designs for electric light wall brackets and chandeliers. 331 An interesting old street light. 337 A fine bracket and street light. 381 A many sided lantern for street lighting. 351 A pleasing design for a street lamp. 486 A post of steel construction. 340 A cluster of lights with substantial post. 380 Gas light and electric side by side. 406 The suspended electric arc light. 312 Tall post with arc light. 521 A Chinese street light. Railings. 9 Simple, refined design for fence and gate. 336 A good example of wrought iron. 534 An effective design for a fence. 283 Iron railing around a monument. ARCHITECTURE 419 Bells. 80 Our Liberty Bell exhibits fine lines. 241 A most interesting grouping. 484 Plenty of chance for choice. Coffee Pot. 33 An interesting piece of pewter. (f) Baskets 263 Basket weaving — American Indians. 17 Baskets in commercial use. 117 Splint basket for carrying cotton. 108 Sturdy baskets for heavy loads. 375 Market baskets in Cork, Ireland. 378 Coal baskets in Ireland. 409 Norwegian basket holding wool. 423 Large market basket. 437 A well made basket and a full load. 572 Closely woven baskets in the center of the picture. 530 An interesting Japanese basket. 548 Two kinds of baskets used in the Philippines. 550 A flat kind of basket used in the Orient. (g) Pottery 58 Firing tableware. 59 Decorating tableware. 33 On the table ready for use. 385 Market where all sorts of common dishes are sold. 292 Crudely shaped pottery jar at the right. 487 Interesting milk bottles in Russia. 542 Peculiar shaped pottery in Korea. 519 Common dishes of China. (i) Various Objects 372 Simple but effective and pleasing plate and dish rack. 565 A bit of attractive cabinet-work. 409 A spinning wheel such as we have all seen. 506 A quaint spinning wheel and a crude loom. 80 Well designed standard for the Old Liberty Bell. 288 A richly ornamented cross. 352 A beautifully carved canopy. 521 Screen-like faqade of a Chinese building. See Architectural Ornament, Bridge Design, and Design in Industrial Products, this classification. 34. WOOD — SOURCES AND USES By GEORGE M. BRACE, M.A. DIRECTOR MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, ST. PAUL, MINN. Wood has been used since the earliest times as a means of producing fire; in making instruments for the securing of food; as a means of furnishing clothing for the body, and as a shelter against the elements. The oldest Greek temples were built of wood, the later stone temples being faithful copies, even to the wooden pegs used for fastenings. The ancients used wooden spears, bows and arrows, war clubs and catapults in warfare and in the hunt. Hoes, plows, and carts used in agriculture were of wood. Cloth for clothing was of woody fiber, paper for writing was of the same fiber. The American Indian built his home of wooden poles covered with the bark of the birch tree, and made his thongs from the inner bark of the cedar tree ; his canoes were made from birch bark and logs hollowed out by fire and primitive adzes. Wood still occupies the most important place as a material for house construction and furnishing, and will continue to hold that place until forced out by ruthless waste and lack of forestization. 1. SOURCES 162 A load of logs at the Kettle River landing, Minnesota Pineries. White pine (see also 265) is found in the northern part of the United States and in Canada and has been the most valuable tree in North America. The wood is soft, straight-grained, and yellowish-white in color. It is easily worked and stands well all kinds of weather conditions. Its principal use is for lumber in building operations. It has been so carelessly lumbered in the United States that little or no provision has been made for replenishing the extensive forest lands denuded by lumber com- panies and fires, while the pine forests of Europe (especially 420 WOOD 421 those in Germany, view 388) have been so carefully lumbered that they furnish a perpetual income to their owners. 107, 98 Georgia pine. It is sometimes called hard pine, long-leaved pine and yellow pine and is much used where great strength is required, as in girders and beams for mills, warehouses, etc. It has a beautiful grain and so is used for interior finish and flooring. It grows upon the sandy plains of the Southeast and yields besides lumber, resin, turpentine, tar, and fiber (which is made from the needles). It is the most valuable pine in the United States. 224 Felling a Douglas fir tree in Oregon. The most valuable tree on the Pacific Coast. The tree fellers usually cut the tree off several feet above the ground where it has a smaller diameter, also the tree near the roots is full of pitch and is not considered first class lumber. The fir tree grows to a great height and of large diameter and being very straight it is used for masts and booms for derricks. It is somewhat similar to white pine in grain, but is more difficult to work and splits more easily. 229 The redwood trees belong to the sequoia family. They furnish a very cheap substitute for white pine and fir. They grow to an immense size. The wood is reddish in color but is soft and does not hold nails well. However, it resists the elements and so is used for outside finish for buildings. 246, 262, 412 Spruce resembles white pine but splits more easily and is used extensively by paper mills in making pulp for paper. The demands of these mills for pulp wood is so great as to threaten the extermination of that kind of timber. 70 Group of second growth chestnut trees. The chestnut is a soft wood with a beautiful open grain much used for interior finish- ing. It was formerly a very abundant timber in some of the eastern states but the demand for the young trees for telephone and telegraph poles has made great inroads on the chestnut forests. Pennsylvania has still a large amount of standing chestnut timber, but a tree disease, the chestnut blight, threat- ens the destruction of these woods. 162 Some small birch trees (standing) ; 130 Maple; 146 Oak tree (in background) ; 369 Oak and ash in Scotland. These broad- leafed hardwood trees, maple, birch, oak and ash, are used for furniture making and interior finishing. They all grow in for- ests in nearly all climates. 255, 297, 307, 552, 570, 577, 554 Show tropical and sub-tropical for- ests where abundant rain and sunshine assure rank growth. 531, 538, 546, 550 Show bamboo tree used in various ways, almost indispensable in the Orient. It is very light and strong, much stronger in proportion to its weight than any other wood. 247, 249, 301, 551, 566 The palm tree is very useful in the manu- facture of rope and fabric and some varieties furnish food and drink for the natives. 586 The Eucalyptus trees of Australia furnish a good timber and the gum is valuable in medicine. For further sources see Plants and Plant Associations. 422 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 2. LUMBERING 224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy Northwest showing method of felling, Oregon. 162 Hauling logs to the river landing, Minnesota Pineries. 1 Landing and scaling logs, Aroostook woods, Maine. 215 Great chained log rafts containing millions of feet of lumber on the Columbia River, Wash. The log rafts are towed in this manner to the mills and sometimes across the ocean. 216 Logs in the mill pond ready to be manufactured. 509 Oriental. Giant beasts of burden. Patient elephants hauling logs from the Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 3. MANUFACTURING AND SHIPPING 216 Fort Blakely Mills, largest in the world, near Seattle, Puget Sound, Wash. 217 Ships being loaded with lumber, Puget Sound, Wash. 170 Piles of lumber for construction purposes, Keokuk, Iowa. 523 Primitive manufacturing. Chinamen sawing timbers for the Jap- anese army, Manchuria. 4. USES (a) Fuel Firewood As fuel all kinds of timber is used, being cut into lengths for stoves and fireplaces. Since it is bulky and difficult to ship, the kind of wood used for fuel in any given region is governed by the nearby local growths. 162, 224, 1 The forests supply abundant fuel. The lumbermen wish only the logs, leaving great quantities of tops and branches of the trees that are available as cord wood for fuel. 412 Showing timber cut to a size where it could be readily split for use in the wood stove. It may be used without splitting and in even greater length in the open fireplace common in Grand- father's day. 113 A type of the pioneer cabin with fireplace built as an addition to the house. These were open fireplaces where logs were burned and cooking done on the hot coals or in vessels sus- pended from an iron crane which swung over the fire. 372 Shows a modified form of the open fireplace. Here a grate has been built in and the beginning of the stove idea is apparent. The steam heating equipment shown in this scene is, of course, quite modern. WOOD 423 124 In the rear we see piled against the brick building a quantity of wood cut for use in the stove. 467 Immense piles of firewood on the banks of the Danube, Belgrade, Serbia. Charcoal 103 Wood as charcoal is also used as a fuel for heating homes, espe- cially in warm climates when artificial heat is needed. Before the manufacture of coke, charcoal was much used for reducing iron ore. Here we see them changing wood into charcoal. 543 Korean charcoal carriers who deliver the fuel supply to the homes. (b) Shelter 263 The Indian uses poles covered with birch bark as a shelter. 113, 409 The pioneer built his log cabin from hewn logs cut in clear- ing his land. 124, 159, 165, 358 Barns and outbuildings for sheltering cattle and storing crops are constructed mainly of wood. 9, 10 Houses built of wood in the United States ; 249, 255 Panama ; 291 Guatemala; 299 Cuba; 343 Greenland; 399, 402 Holland; 409, 411 Norway; 418 Sweden; 445 Switzerland; 534, 535 Ja- pan; 550 Philippines; 591 New Zealand. (c) In Mining Operations 74, 75, 77, 78, 155, 581 Great quantities of heavy timbers are used in mining operations, to support the roofs, construct shafts and to build tramways. 70, 122 Oil well derricks consume quantities of wood and resemble the forests they are displacing. (d) Clothing 551, 566, 570 Many tropical trees, mainly palms, furnish material for clothing. 552 The hemp tree furnishes material for the famous Manila ropes. (e) Wooden Shoes 402, 403 Wooden shoes worn by the people of Holland. 532 All sorts and sizes. A Japanese shoe shop. The shoes are made of wood and rice straw. (f) Wood Carving 443 Wood carver, Meiringen, Switzerland. 352 House of Lords, fine example interior carving. 33 Hand carved teak wood chest. 92, 89, 417 Fine examples of carved furniture. 521 Fine example of wood carving on Chinese building. (g) Paper 412 Blocks of wood being converted into wood pulp for the manu- facture of paper, Norway. The pulp mills are second only to 424 INDUSTkl YL AK IS the lumber mills in the quantity of timber consumed in the manufacture of paper. (h) Food 44, 175 Apple; 85 Peach; 234 Almond; 237, 238 Orange; 259 Papaya; 294 Banana; 303 Cocoa; 551 Coconut. Broad leafed trees fur- nish our supply of fruit and nuts. 130 Maple trees are a source of sugar and syrup. 537, 538 The mulberry tree furnishes food for the silkworm. (i) Turpentine and Tar 107 The southern pine is a source of turpentine and tar products. (j) Miscellaneous Uses 426 Airplane; 316, 152, 31 Automobiles; 175, 153, 48, 429, 438, 556 Barrels; 17, 393, 409, 359, 263 Baskets; 375, 439, 430, 514, 546, 326 Boats; 56, 46, 327, 469 Boxes; 442 Bridges; 44, 160, 162, 177, 181, 562 Farm machinery; 388, 310, 465, 447, 204 Fences; 33, 41, 92, 89, 88, 352, 448 Furniture; 577, 494, 266, 585, 426 Gun stocks; 43, 115, 267, 420 Rail- road cars; 163, 330, 43 Railroad ties; 342, 344, 556, 559, 280 Ships; 344, 345 Skis; 308, 309, 324, 449, 43 Telegraph and telephone poles; 47, 71, 138, 147, 311, 378, 396 Wagons and carts; 554 Cart wheels; 223 Wind break on sand dunes. 35. METALS — SOURCES AND USES By HARRY S. BITTING PRESIDENT WILLIAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES, WILLIAMSON SCHOOL, PA. Metals have been known to man for centuries and in the earlier periods of history were fashioned into implements of war, later into crude culinary utensils, then into ornaments and a great variety of useful articles. The process of procuring usable quantities has improved very greatly in recent years, and makes available an almost unlimited supply. Metals of various kinds are being used in all industrial effort in the form of ap- pliances and equipment for production and manufacture of other metal usable products, and in fact for all kinds of prod- ucts known to man. Its very general use is clearly illustrated in the pictures listed below : I. SOURCES Mining Camps This group illustrates the location of mining camps, where some of the various metals are taken from the earth. 187 Richest mining district in the world, Butte, Mont. 246 Gold miners' camp north of Arctic circle, Alaska. 243 Gold -miners encamped at foot of Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 287 Gold and silver mining camp, El Oro, Mexico. 214 Silver mining camp, Nevada. Mining Operations Here we have a series of mining operations representing those below ground, and two styles of surface mining ; namely, steam shovel surface work and placer mining. 163 The most modern method of surface mining. 187 Plant in which copper metal is extracted from the ore. 155 Loading cars with copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Michigan. 287 Rich gold and silver mining center, El Oro, Mexico. 579 Underground mining of gold quartz by the old method of hand picking. 225 Using the force of water under pressure to dislodge the earth in gold mining. 425 426 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS 245 Hand method of mining used in working shallow streams, or banks of large streams, also used by prospectors in locating profitable workings. 214 Silver mining, entrance to mines and culm piles, Nevada. II. PREPARATION OF METALS FOR THE MARKET Under this heading appears a list of scenes showing the various operations employed in the preparation of metal for the market. Here are smelters and concentrators for the rarer metals which are used principally in the manufacture of jewelry, and by our government in making coins ; also the blast furnace where iron ore is converted into pig iron and later refined for the manufacture of steel in its various forms. Iron and Steel 62 Plant in which metal is separated from the ore by heavy blast furnace process. 63 Machines for carrying molds into which the molten ore is dis- charged from the furnace. 64 End of the molding machine illustrated in 63 from which the pigs are emptied into the cars. 65 Modern and most efficient method of conveying molten metal from the furnace to the molds. 66 Steel ingot on the " table " of the " blooming " mill. 67 Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths by buzz saw, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 116 Steel furnace in Alabama's great iron center, Birmingham. 61 Pittsburgh, the principal city of metal industries in the world. Copper 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Michigan. Note difference in process between this picture and 65. 157 Loading 1400 tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. Gold 203 Most modern process of separating gold metal from the ore. Silver 334 Refining silver in smelter at the famous mining center of Cerro de Pasco, Peru. Zinc and Lead 176 Shaft house, smelter and tailing pile, zinc and lead mines, Joplin. Mo. III. ASSEMBLING METAL PARTS OF MACHINES The different parts of a piece of complicated machinery are often manufactured in several different factories with such precision that when assembled they fit perfectly. VARIOUS USES OF METALS 427 82 General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. 150 Assembling room — chassis ready for engines — automobile plant, Detroit, Mich. IV. TESTING MACHINERY Many experts are required in every large machinery shop to test the different articles as manufactured to see that the different parts have the exact measurements and contain no flaws in the materials used. 151 Experts testing motors in automobile plant, Detroit, Mich. V. VARIOUS USES OF METALS Metals are used as a whole or a part of practically all machinery employed in the manufacturing industries. The classification below indicates some of the many uses. Money Making 84 Presses used by the United States government in the manufacture of metal coins. 94 Machinery used in the manufacture of paper money. Steel and Iron Tools in Quarrying 3 Steel drill and hammer used in quarrying operations. 4 Quarry in which steam power drills are used. 5 Hand and power steel chisels used in stone decorative carving. Power Plant Equipment 171 Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied by power from the great dam at Keokuk, Iowa. Paper Making 19 Rags cut and washed by machinery for use in the manufacture of paper. 20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. Automobile Tire Making 132 Machinery used in the manufacture of auto tires. Machines for Fabric Manufacture Machines are constructed principally of metal for the manufacture of cotton, linen, wool and silk fabrics, and our next large and very important group illustrates very clearly the equipment used in fabric manufacture. This group makes clear the broad expanse of the industry and the use of machinery in its connection, as a number of places in this country are illustrated, as well as the interior of plants in foreign countries. Metal machinery is also used in the manufacture of shoes, plate glass, and in fact in about all the manufacturing industries in this country. 428 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS Cotton 125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 14 Spinning cotton yarn in the great textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, Mass. 16 General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. Linen 268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, linen industry, Canada. 269 Weaving the linen fabric, linen industry, Canada. 40 Folding and ironing linen collars by machinery, Troy, N. Y. Wool 145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 18 Doubling frame in a large woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, Philadelphia, Pa. Silk 23 First drawing or straightening of fibers, silk industry (spun silk), S. Manchester, Conn. 24 Spinning, silk industry, S. Manchester, Conn. 53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth in extensive silk mills, at Paterson, N. J. 54 Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N.J. 541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants, American machinery and American methods, Kiryu, Japan. Machinery Replacing Handwork in the Tanning Industry 272 Scraping the hair from the hides roughly by machinery, Canada. Manufacture of Shoes by Metal Machinery 12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, in a Massachusetts shoe factory. 41 General view sewing room, large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. Metal Appliances in the Manufacture of Plate Glass 134 Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Ross- ford, O. 135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. Excavating The old style method of pick and shovel excavating is replaced by the powerful steam shovel which contains a complete operating and pro- pelling power plant. 250 Site of the Gatun Lock, looking south from the lowest lock towards Lake Gatun, Panama Canal route. TRANSPORTATION 429 251 Excavations measuring 500 feet deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. Railway Transportation Metal is used in all kinds of railway transportation equipment such as tracks, bridges, cars and locomotives, for both freight and passenger service. 43 A busy path of commerce in central New York, four track rail- way, electric road at right, Erie canal at extreme left. 128 A comprebensive view of smaller unloaders at work on the ore docks, Conneaut. 129 A trainload of coal fresh from Pittsburgh fields for Lake Superior consumption, Conneaut. Water Transportation, Shipping and Naval Vessels Water transportation is largely dependent upon metal of all kinds for hulls of vessels, power plant and auxiliary machinery ; in fact, all but a very small percentage of this equipment is made of metal. 52 Great ocean liners at the docks, Hoboken, N. J., showing upper Manhattan Island and Hudson River. 154 Greatest canal traffic in the world, busy scene in the ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 164 Looking between ore docks 2 and 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 252 North over Gatun Locks and sea level entrance to Panama Canal, Atlantic Ocean in the distance. 253 South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, emergency dam in position — A busy scene on the Panama Canal. 242 Submarines in the foreground and battleships and torpedo boats in the background, San Diego Bay, Calif. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, the first battleship to pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific without " rounding the Horn," Panama Canal. 296 General view of the wrecked battleship Maine. Bridge and Elevated Railway Construction Metal as used in bridge and elevated railway construction in all parts of the world. 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York, N. Y. 31 Many forms of transportation required in large centers of popu- lation, New York City — elevated railroad, surface cars, auto- mobiles and entrance to subway. 101 Harpers Ferry, W. Va. 330 In the heart of the rugged Cordilleras Mountains, the Cofa Bridge on the Oroya Railway, Peru. 366 Highlanders in native costume at the great Forth Bridge, one and one-half miles long, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queens- ferry, Scotland. 379 Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 392 The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 430 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS 470 The great railway bridge over the Danube River at Cerna-Voda, Roumania. 500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River in Delta of the Ganges, Calcutta, India. 575 Scene above bridge on the Cape to Cairo Railway, over Zambezi River, near Victoria Falls, Africa. Oil Well Drilling and Preparation of Oil for the Market Oil well drilling, preparation for the market, and storage of the crude and finished products are dependent largely upon metal for desirable equipment. 69 Standing at right of man filling shell is steel drill. 122 Spindle Top, an important oil well region near Beaumont, Texas. 123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. Metal Saws Being Used in This Country and Abroad Metal made saws are used extensively throughout the world as is indicated by the pictures illustrating their use in this country and in Japan. 67 Red-hot steel beam being cut by buzz saw, Pittsburgh. 224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy northwest, showing method of felling, Oregon. 523 Chinamen sawing timbers for the Japanese Army, Manchuria. Chains and Cables 215 Metal chains used in fastening logs together for purpose of water transportation. 471 Chains used for fastening vessels to the docks. 27 Cables used in large bridge construction. 75 Chain used for attaching mine car to hauling cable. 379 Cables used in long span suspension bridges. Metal Used in Cannon Construction 73 Old style brass cannon, Gettysburg, Pa. 39 Brass cannon used in Revolutionary War, West Point, N. Y. 254 Modern steel guns on United States battleship Missouri. Metal Used in Bells and Chimes This group of pictures represents bells cast of a metal alloy which is made up of several ingredients and tuned for chimes, church tolling and other purposes, the principal one of which has been the casting of the dear old Liberty Bell now resting in the Cradle of Liberty, Inde- pendence Hall, Philadelphia. 80 The old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 241 San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 484 The great bell market at the fair, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. 71 Small bronze bells on harness. MODERN METHODS OF AGRICULTURE 431 Modern Methods of Agriculture Within the last twenty-five years methods of agriculture have been completely revolutionized by the use of labor saving machinery and devices of various kinds, which have made an extensive demand upon metal for a principal part of their construction. The machines and devices in which metal plays an important part are represented in the following groups, under sub-headings, showing clearly their applica- tion in modern methods of agriculture. Spraying 44 Orchard spraying by use of metal force pump. » Bnttcrmaking 45 Metal trimmed, power butter churns. Milk Bottle Filling 46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottle of milk. Preparation of Soil 178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, S. Dak. 179 Making a good seed bed — tractor drawing double disk and three- section tooth harrows, S. Dak. 180 Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near Omaha, Neb. 332 Tractor with cable drawing harrow and pulverizer to prepare soil for planting sugar cane, Lima, Peru. Cultivation of Crops 198 Cultivating a field of beets in Colorado. 207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. Drainage of Swamp Land 161 Reclaiming swamp land — digging ditch with tractor and laying drain tile, Wisconsin. Harvesting Crops 136 Modern methods in corn harvesting — cutter and binder at work on an Indiana farm. 160 Harvesting and loading silage corn in Wisconsin's famous dairy region. 166 Potato digging machines at work in the famous potato region of the Red River valley, Moorhead, Minn. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader on the farm of W. J. Bryan, Lincoln, Neb. 218 Harvesting in the great West — combined reaper and thresher, Washington. 233 A combined steam harvester which reaps, threshes and sacks, Cali- fornia. 357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 36. CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE By CHARLES M. SPOFFORD, S.B. HAYWARD PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN CHARGE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND SANITARY ENGINEERING OF THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND HARVARD UNIVERSITY « The growth of civilization may be clearly traced by the varying uses which man from time to time has made of stone. The crude stone implements of labor and defense developed by primitive man clearly marked his supremacy to the beasts in providing for his material needs; the beautiful statues of the Greeks, and the marvelous cathedrals of the Middle Ages testify to the growth of his spirit; the great stone and con- crete structures of today to the wonderful development of his mind. Although the qualities of strength, permanence, and beauty found in stone have been of the highest importance to man, its characteristic of decomposing into fertile soil under the long-continued influence of rain and frost has been indispen- sable to his very existence. As explained in the chapter on Weathering in the classification on Natural Forms and Forces, and in the chapter on Soils in the Agriculture group, the earth would be a barren desert void of animal and vegetable life were it not for the decomposed rock of which its soil is entirely formed. The development of other materials of construction in re- cent years has tended to diminish to a considerable degree, the use of natural stone for constructive purposes, and while it is still extensively employed for important buildings, bridges and dams, and for street pavements in our large cities, it is pos- sible that in the modern concrete, we have at last developed an artificial stone which may ultimately prove more valuable for constructive purposes than natural stone. Concrete is the name given to a compound formed of ce- ment, sand, and small stones, mixed with water until it flows 432 CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 433 sluggishly, and then poured into molds to form any desired shape. If concrete is made with special care out of selected materials, a fine grained substance receiving the name of ar- tificial stone is obtained. This substance very closely re- sembles natural stone and may be used for both exteriors and interiors. It may even be molded into intricate patterns closely resembling stone carvings. Concrete as generally used for frames of buildings as well as for cellar floors and the like, is, however, coarse in appearance and sometimes shows plainly the grain of the timber molds in which it is formed. It can be given a pleasing appearance either by the use of stone cutting tools, or by a process resembling sand- papering followed by rubbing. While concrete was used by the Romans, the Pantheon in Rome furnishing a notable example, it did not come into gen- eral use until the twentieth century, when the possibility of strengthening it greatly by steel rods to take the pulling-apart strains, which concrete cannot resist, was first extensively utilized. Since 1900, the employment of this new building material, called in this country " reinforced concrete " and in England " armoured concrete " and sometimes called " the stone with a steel backbone " has increased with tremendous strides, and one now sees it employed in some way or other in practically all pieces of architectural and engineering construction, its rapidly growing use for roadway surfaces being one of the most recent phases of its development. The era when stone implements were commonly used by man is called the Stone Age ; possibly the near future may go down in history as the Concrete or Artificial Stone Age. I. STONE. Crude Stone Utensils 292 Crude stone table and rolling pin for preparing food, as used in Spanish America. 410 Stone used as a primitive stove for bread baking in Norway. 498 Native women grinding wheat in Palestine. This scene shows crude stone utensils for preparing flour, still widely used among primitive peoples. The same method was used in our own flour mills until recently, the power being furnished by steam or water. The burr stone process has now been replaced by the roller process. 434 INDUSTRIAL ARTS Some Ancient Stone Ruins 205 Ruined homes of the cliffdwellers in the Mesa Verde, Colorado. 284 Pyramid of Sun, San Juan, Teotihuacan, Mexico. 331 Massive stone walls in the old Incan Palace, Cuzco, Peru, S. A. 452 The Colosseum, the " King of Ruins," Rome, Italy. Capable of seating about 80,000 people before its partial destruction. 478 Ruins of the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece. 561, 564, 565, 566 Egyptian pyramids. Tombs of the rulers of Egypt about 4000 B. C. 565 The Sphinx, Gizeh, Egypt. A colossal and mysterious statue. 568 The famous stone ruins at Karnak, Egypt. Some Sources of Building Stone 3 Quarrying granite at Concord, N. H. Drilling preparatory to splitting. 4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt., said to be the largest single quarry opening in the world. From this shaft the veins of marble are mined in various directions. 5 Chiseling marble — architectural department — Vermont Marble Company, Proctor, Vt. 51 Picturesque palisades of the Hudson River. Great quantities of stone were removed from the cliffs until this area was set aside, as a public park to prevent the destruction of its beauty. NOTE : For a general idea of rock formation throughout the world, see the classification on Natural Forms and Forces, and for both granite and marble industries in detail, see the Key- stone View Company's general catalog. Some Noted Stone Buildings 87 The Capitol; 91 The White House; 95 Congressional Library; 309 Municipal Theater, Sao Paulo; 315 Government buildings, Buenos Aires ; 340 National University, Caracas, Venezuela ; 349 Tower of London; 350 Westminster Abbey; 351 Bank of England, London; 367 Stirling Castle; 376 Blarney Castle; 383 The Reichstags-Gebaude, Ber- lin ; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin ; 387 Cathedral, Nuremburg ; 424 Grand Opera House, Paris ; 425 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris ; 429 The Cathe- dral, Marseilles; 432 The Prince's Castle, Monaco; 436 Alhambra Palace; 451 The Castle of San Angelo and St. Peter's Church; 458 The Cathedral, Milan; 473 St. Sophia's, Constantinople; 483 The Kremlin, Moscow ; 502 The Taj Mahal ; 587 Federal Parliament build- ing, Melbourne ; 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. Stone Combined with Steel in High Buildings 25 Looking down on New York skyscrapers from the Woolworth Tower, itself the highest business structure in the world. These buildings are made possible by the use of a steel framework to support the floors and to carry the stone curtain walls. CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 435 26 High buildings of lower New York City. 28 Old City Hall and new Municipal Building, and the World Build- ing, from City Hall Park, New York City. 30 Up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. 121 Looking north from Colcord Building, over City of Oklahoma. 139 Heart of great shopping center, State Street, Chicago. 167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis, Minn. 230 Market Street, San Francisco. 273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Canada. Stone as Masonry for Bridge Abutments and Piers and for Bridge Arches 27 Brooklyn Bridge, New York. A marvel of the world for many years because of its great height and span, but now surpassed by other bridges. 174 The Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Missouri. A famous steel arch bridge with stone piers. 348 London Bridge. The most noted bridge of history. 366 The great Forth Bridge spanning the Firth of Forth, Queensferry, Scotland. Pending the completion of the bridge across the St. Lawrence River at Quebec, this bridge had the longest clear span in the world. 391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. An attractive stone arch struc- ture. 379 Stone abutment and pier of suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 392 Steel arch bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany, with stone piers. 397 Stone arch bridge across the Meuse, Namur, Belgium. 450, 451 Roman stone arch bridge over the Tiber. 470 The railway bridge over the Danube River at Cerna-Voda, Rou- mania. Made famous by its importance in the European war. Stone Construction for Irrigation Dams Great dams such as these may have their interiors formed of concrete but they are usually faced with stone. 210 The Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Ariz. Instrumental in re- claiming vast areas by irrigation. Composed of concrete faced with stone. 569 The Assuan Dam, Egypt, built to control the waters of the Nile for irrigation purposes. Stone as Monuments Stone has always been a favorite material for the record of personal and historical events. 10 Granite marker on the Common at Lexington, Mass. 36 Tomb stones in the cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. 146 Lincoln's tomb, Springfield, 111. 283 Soldiers' monument, Chapultepec, City of Mexico. 436 IXDUSTRIAL ARTS 288 The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid, Mexico. 385 Coblenz, Germany. 416 Monument, Stockholm, Sweden. 433 Columbus monument, Barcelona, Spain. 450 Egyptian obelisk in court of St. Peter's Cathedral; also Castle of St. Angelo, and the Emperor Hadrian's tomb. 460 Monument to Empress Maria Theresa, Innsbruck, Austria. An impressive setting is formed by the Tyrolean Alps in the back- ground. 502 The Taj Mahal, a beautiful marble memorial building. 560 Monument on the great Nile Bridge in Egypt. 561, 564, 565, 566 The Pyramids. Monuments of ancient Egypt. 565 The Sphinx, a noted memorial. 568 Obelisks and other monuments in ruins at Karnak, Egypt. Some Other Uses of Stone 6, 380, 405, 464, 474, 486 Stone blocks used for pavng in modern cities. 43 Stone as ballast for railway construction. Without stone or other similar firm material as ballast, modern high speed traffic would not be safe. 184 Stone fencing. 206 Petrified tree, forming a natural bridge. 372 Flat stones for flooring in primitive homes. 400 Stone walls for dikes. 412 As an abrasive material. Grindstones converting blocks of wood into wood pulp. 516 Huge stone roller compacting a stone road bed. 524 Great wall of China. II. CONCRETE The composition of concrete and its method of manufacture have been described in a general way in the statement at the beginning of this chapter. It may be stated here that Portland cement, which is the vital element in concrete, is obtained from a mixture of calcium car- bonate and silicate. These substances are found in many forms, a common combination used in cement making being that of limestone and cement rock, the latter being itself an argillaceous limestone. A con- siderable amount of Portland cement is also manufactured from a combination of blast furnace slag and limestone. The stones are mixed in the proper proportions and ground to a fine powder which is calcined in a kiln. The clinker formed by the calcination is then ground to an impalpable powder, as fine as flour, and allowed to season some time before using. In case the raw material from which the cement is formed consists of soft or wet materials, such as chalk and clay, the mixing prior to the calcination is done by the so-called wet process. Portland cement mixed with water will gradually harden into a stone- like substance either in the air or under water. When stone and sand are mixed with it, it also hardens and gives the modern concrete of which vast quantities are used. A useful and economical mixture for CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 437 ordinary purposes consists of one part by volume of cement to three parts of sand and six parts of stone. Concrete has great strength against crushing, but little or none against forces tending to pull it apart; hence, steel rods are embedded in it to give it such strength where this quality is needed; the ad- hesion of the concrete to the rod is very great, and it is this property that makes possible the strengthening of the concrete by the rods. Reinforced concrete is usually made of one part of cement to two parts of sand and four parts of stone. 123 Modern reinforced concrete factory building. 154 Concrete construction at the famous locks of the ship canal at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. 170 Concrete construction in dam, power plant, and locks in the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. 171 Concrete columns in the electrical power plant at Keokuk, Iowa, where the falls of the Mississippi are converted into electricity. 210 Concrete spillway construction and a concrete bridge at the Roose- velt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona. 252 Concrete construction at the Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. 253 South over Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. III. CLAY PRODUCTS Baked clay products, such as brick, tile, china and other pottery, are made by molding wet clay and baking in a kiln until the piece becomes hard and strong. Bricks have been used since very ancient times. They are mentioned in the Bible, and the Egyptians and Romans made ex- tensive use of them ; they still constitute one of the most valuable forms of building material. In hot climates, sun-baked bricks made out of special clay called adobe are extensively used. In Egypt these bricks are formed by mixing the adobe mud with chopped straw to give it coherence — the Nile mud lacking in this respect, the difficulty in making bricks without straw mentioned in the Bible was by no means an imaginary one. After mixing, this material is then molded into blocks and dried in the sun. Primitive Pottery 292 Earthenware jar made by Central American natives. 487 Russian peasants delivering milk in earthenware jars. 542 White-robed pottery peddlers, Seoul, Chosen. 564 Egyptian carrying water jar on head. 572 Some earthenware jars used by African natives. Modern Table-Ware 33 Beautiful chinaware in a well furnished home. 58 Firing table ware in the noted pottery center, Trenton, N. J. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 385 Dish market, Coblenz, Germany. 519 Dishes used by Chinese. Terra Cotta Tiles are formed of molded clay sometimes coated with a special 438 INDUSTRIAL ARTS glaze and hardened by firing in kilns. They may be made of various colors and patterns, and have been used for many centuries for decora- tive and other purposes. The Alhambra in Spain furnishes a notable example of their use in decoration, and other important examples are found in the mosques of the Orient. Roof coverings of semi-cylin- drical unglazed tiles are common in Spanish-speaking countries, both in Europe and America, and are frequently used for important buildings in the United States. At the present time, tiles are extensively utilized for sanitary purposes, and the bathroom and kitchen of today are floored and walled with them, their smooth, water-repelling surfaces be- ing dirt and vermin proof. 171 Terra cotta floor; 299 Santiago, Cuba; 338 Terra cotta roof, La Guayra, Venezuela ; 394 In a German town ; 402 Dutch village ; 430 Cannes, France ; 434 Burgos, Spain ; 436 Granada, Spain ; 475 Athens, Greece; 492 Beirut, Syria; 517 Wuchang, China; 526 Tokio, Japan; 543 Chosen. Drain Tile 161 Reclaiming swamp land by means of tile drains. Adobe Brick 211 Adobe is the building material used. 281 Buildings constructed of adobe bricks. 564 Adobe hut on Nile River, Egypt. Brick of Fired Clay 400 Load of brick on boat, Rotterdam, Holland. 6, 8, 32, 138, 152, 398 Brick used in the construction of buildings of various types. 282 Brick paved roofs in the City of Mexico. 524 Ancient brick used in construction of the Chinese Wall. Clay as a Carrier of Precious Stones 581 Blue earth clay banks rich in diamonds, Kimberley, South Africa. 37. LOCAL INDUSTRIES By CLIFFORD B. CONNELLEY, Sc.D. COMMISSIONER OF LABOR AND INDUSTRY FOR THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. Fortunately for us, there is no law compelling the child to follow the parent's occupation ; there is, however, a psycholog- ical compulsion which constrains the average child toward the things with which he is familiar. Every child is vastly inter- ested in what the grown-up people about him are doing and very many of them grow up with the idea of pursuing the same work they have seen. Usually children cannot visit mills ; they cannot see the ac- tual operations that must be performed. In too many families the worker disappears at one fixed time and reappears at an- other. What happens in between is a dead mystery. These views will open to the child the life that goes on about him. They will give him accurate ideas, will enable him to think himself in relation to actual processes ; and when he finally enters some industry, he will adjust himself more easily than would be possible if he were in entire ignorance. Surely there should be a place in school for this pre-vocational training, for it is an important matter that children shall be prepared to some degree for the work toward which they are consciously or unconsciously tending. COAL Thousands of men in all the countries of the world are engaged in mining. Methods are being improved and safety devices applied so as to safeguard the men and at the same time increase the output. Skill in handling tools, acquired in Manual Training, is surely a great help. It is the chief local industry in many parts of our country, especially in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Colo- rado, etc. The anthracite coal mining here shown is confined to eastern Pennsylvania. 74 Stripping or surface mining is the simplest form. Steam shovels must take off the layer of dirt which covers the coal. Rail- roads must be built to market the produce. Mining engineers must make the plans for all this work. 439 440 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 75, 76, 77 Underground mining is more difficult. It calls for great strength and carefulness for the use of explosives is dangerous. The hole must be properly drilled, the blast carefully prepared and then the loose coal shoveled into the car. It is a strong man's work. These men should have safety lamps. 78 The slate picking and (79) breaking and sorting of the coal are less important operations. IRON AND STEEL No industry calls for more carefulness and skill than the iron and steel industry. The white-hot or red-hot metal is carried about, poured, rolled, cut, etc., and the men must watch every minute and must know just what to do to avoid accidents. This strain, even more than the labor, tires the workers. The Manual Training work in metals is a splendid preparation for the iron industry. 61 Pittsburgh. Very many of the boys of this region find work in the iron and steel mills. This is an important local industry in many parts of the country. Coke, limestone, iron ore, etc., are put into the blast furnace in proper order and proportions. The men must watch very carefully to know when the metal is ready to pour and then the furnace is opened very carefully, the white-hot metal runs out into the trough shown in the mid- dle foreground (63) ; the pig iron molds are filled, run out and empty themselves into the car (64). 65 Filling molds with steel. This work takes the greatest care. The furnace men use every precaution against danger in opening the furnace and letting the metal run into the ladle. These men are regulating the flow into the molds. The work is very hot, the metal is white-hot. If the lever were to slip or the ladle which holds probably twenty-five tons of metal should slip, lives would surely be lost. 66 These men look very leisurely just now. They are skilled labor- ers and their work is very hot and exacting. They keep the machine in the best working condition. They watch the rolling process very attentively and turn out good work. 67 This is hot work too. The men must watch very closely, for sometimes the end of the red-hot beam which is being moved along sticks and the whole thing doubles up and twists about. Of course the next beam will be stopped and thrown out. It is very dangerous. All these machines are run by skilled laborers. COPPER Copper mining is a local industry only in certain states, as Michigan, Montana, Idaho, Utah and Arizona, but copper working, and especially when used with the alloys to form brass and bronze, becomes a local industry in every important industrial center. The copper industry is a very old one yet it has developed wonderfully in late years because of its use in electrical appliances and munitions, and because water does PETROLEUM — MARBLE — GRANITE 41 1 not affect it. Very many young people in the vicinity of the copper mines become workers in that industry. 155 When mines grow large the roofs must be propped with timbers. All sorts of precautions must be used for safety. Notice the safety lamps. Mechanical drills bore holes into the rock. These holes are filled with dynamite which loosens the rock. It is then shoveled into cars and taken to the surface. 156 The smelting of copper is hot work and it needs skilled laborers. Notice with what precision and care these men are working. The molds are somewhat like pig iron molds, but much smaller. 157 When molded the copper is ready to be carried by railroad or by water to places where it will be made into useful articles. Very many boys go into railroading or become sailors on these lake vessels. PETROLEUM The drilling for and pumping of petroleum is a valuable local indus- try in such states as Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois. Oklahoma, Texas, California, etc., while the refining and handling of the products is a local industry in many centers. The first productive oil well drilled by Col. E. L. Drake in 1859 in Crawford County, Pennsylvania, marks the beginning of the oil indus- try in the United States. 69 To be a successful driller, one must know and be able to judge the land which is to be drilled. The machinery must be cared for too. The work is hard and calls for judgment and re- sourcefulness. 70 The shooting of wells is a dangerous operation and must be done very carefully. 122 The oil is pumped into pipes and carried to refineries and then to the large cities of the United States. Benzine, gasoline, naph- tha, kerosene, lubricating oils and paraffin are obtained by re- fining petroleum. MARBLE AND GRANITE There are vast strata of these stones in various parts of the United States. As yet the marble and granite industries are local industries in New Hampshire, Vermont and Tennessee. Boys entering these in- dustries should have instruction in Drawing and Design just such as Manual Training offers. We are now depending upon skilled laborers who have been trained in European countries. What are we to do when the demand exceeds the supply for this type of an artist? 3, 4 Here is another industry where men must use the greatest caution. Holes must be drilled, powder or dynamite used to blast the rock loose and the falling or loosened rock must be watched. 5 Work such as this takes a sure hand and a training in drawing. The beautiful carvings in stone that decorate our best public buildings are done in this way. The work is hard on the lungs. 442 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY The making of automobiles is a highly localized industry centering in Detroit which has exceptional facilities for transportation. 152 In the Ford factory each man does a specific piece of work. He becomes very skilful in that one thing but not necessarily a skilled workman. 150 In the assembling room the manufactured parts are brought to- gether in an automobile. 151 Experts test each engine before it is finally set in place. 109, 229 The finished automobile. TEXTILE INDUSTRIES Among the local industries of the cities of the East the making of textiles is probably the most important. In such cities as Lawrence, Mass., Manchester, Conn., and Paterson, N. J., a large proportion of the young people find employment in the textile mills. COTTON INDUSTRY 119 The cotton comes to the mills in bales. 286 It must first be cleaned and carded. 14 Spinning makes the cotton into yarn. These girls stand to reach quickly. They watch that the thread does not break or snarl. 15 Much cotton cloth is printed. The design must be made and transferred to copper rolls. The Arts and Crafts courses of our Manual Training departments are giving good preparation for such work. 16 The cloth is then printed, starched, dried and folded ready for market. WOOLEN INDUSTRY 17 Wool must be sorted before it is ready for making into cloth. 409 It is cleaned and carded. In the United States these operations are performed by machinery. 81 When carded it is ready for spinning. These machines call for constant watchfulness and care. 18 The threads are then joined and twisted to make it of the right size and then it is ready for weaving. THE SILK INDUSTRY All of our silk is imported from other countries. 540 In Japan the thread is carefully reeled from the cocoons and is shipped in skeins. 22 The skeins must be sorted and weighed. Such work calls for dis- crimination. 23 Usually the raw silk comes in bales and the fibers must be pulled apart and laid smooth ready for spinning. 24 Next the silk is spun into thread and now is ready for weaving. AGRICULTURE 443 S3 Warp must be drawn. This is a very delicate operation. Look at the lengthwise thread in a piece of silk lying so closely side by side and you will see what these men have done. 54, 55 Weaving is shown in these views. This is work for skillful operators. The threads are very fine, they break and snarl very easily and must be watched constantly, else the silk will have a flaw. AGRICULTURE Agriculture is carried on in every part of our country, but condi- tions are so different in various places that it really divides itself into a grourj of local industries. Cotton, for instance, must be raised in the South; wheat on the northern plains, etc. One of the greatest advantages of our consolidated rural schools is that Agricultural and Manual Training departments can be maintained. These raise the agricultural profession to an interesting art, which fascinates the learner so that he never desires to abandon it. The correct use of tools is an asset to the boy on the farm. He is able to do things the blacksmith and carpenter formerly did. 136, 161, 177 to 180 These are very intricate machines, very liable to get out of order. The boy who has had forge work, who can set a rivet, replace a valve, who is familiar with machinery, has a distinct advantage over the one without such training. A farmer is constantly doing work as carpenter and finds his Manual Training useful. 147 He must make a frame for his wagon so that he can haul hay or grain. 124 He may wish to enlarge his wagon oox to carry a bigger load. 175 He may need to make crates or boxes for fruit or potatoes. 185 His training in woodworking may be turned to good account when he has to build a shed or make a feeding trough. 56 Again and again farmers must build chicken coops and fasten up boxes for nests. 130 And also he will have learned what trees on his land should be cut and what left to conserve his timber land. 33 Girls in Domestic Science will have learned to keep a clean house. They will not, perhaps, have houses of this kind, but they will be clean and tasty and the food will be appetizing and nourish- ing. 83 Girls will know how to use garden vegetables, to can tomatoes, beans, corn and beets and supply vegetables for winter. 85, 175 The farm woman who learned in Domestic Art how to pre- serve the fruit of the farm in the cheapest and most effective ( way has a decided advantage over the less fortunate woman who must learn by experimenting. 15, 22 These two women with their neat shirtwaists and aprons are fair types of the girls who have learned in Domestic Art classes to sew and to have their clothes neat and well-fitting. Farm women used to be so isolated they were careless in dress or did 444 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES not know. That is no longer true. There is no place today for the slatternly housewife. 488, 522, 561, 298 These methods would not bring good results in America. No matter what is raised, the ground must be care- fully prepared. The method of doing this differs with the civilization of the people, the soil, the climate and all existing conditions. 115, 180 The American farmer must study and test his soil so he will know how to fertilize correctly and to plow to the right depth. 179 The ground must be harrowed and then planted. In America all this is done by farm machinery. 357, 147 On smaller fields the reaper and binder will be used with good effect ; the grain will be stacked up and later carried to the barns to be threshed. 218 The combined reaper and binder will be used on large fields. This leaves the straw in the fields to be plowed under to enrich the land. 177 This thresher is piling up the straw which probably will be re- turned to the land. 147 Oats are raised, harvested and threshed just as wheat. Most of the crop is consumed on the farm as food for cattle. 149, 166, 184, 198 Celery, potatoes, corn, beets, etc., must be cultivated to keep them clear from weeds. This can be done by hand (105, 419) where labor is cheap. 198, 207 The cultivator drawn by horses is commonly used in the United States. 527 to 529 From the Japanese could well be learned the lesson of in- finite pains. It is only by the most careful methods that small country is able to maintain so great a population. 549, 550 The Filipinos use the most primitive tools and methods in their work. 104 Raising rice in America is different, for here the work calls for some slight engineering as well as agriculture. Fields must be flooded and drained several times before the rice is ripe. 105 In most places this work is done with a cultivator drawn by horses. 184 Corn was unknown to the civilized world before 1492. The ground must be carefully prepared and later cultivated if the corn is to do well. 137 Pumpkins are very commonly planted with the corn. 136 When the corn is ripe, it is cut, the ears are husked and dried. The stalks are fed to cattle. 160 Corn for silage is cut before the frost so the juices will be left in the stalks. 165 On this up-to-date dairy farm, note the large silo from which the cattle are fed. 138 Every farmer needs horses and must know what kind is best and how to care for them. 173 Almost every farm can have a few sheep. They are almost pure profit, because they increase rapidly, the wool is cut each year MAPLE SUGAR — STOCK RAISING 445 and there are always animals to be killed for meat. Mutton and lamb always bring a good price. ' 159, 356 No farm is complete without cows to furnish milk and butter. 57, 403 Cows must be kept clean, people who handle the milk must be very clean and all the utensils used in caring for milk must be immaculate. Milk dishes must be washed and scalded each time they are used. 56 Almost every farm has chickens. To be really profitable chickens must be especially cared for. 44 No farm is complete without fruit. Today fruit trees must be sprayed to keep them healthy. One neglectful farmer can in feet a whole district. 175 Good apples, carefully picked and packed, always find a market. Trees must be pruned and kept in good shape in order to yield good fruit. 85 Peach trees demand care but they repay it. 236, 237 This orange grove and vineyard show the ground cultivated and kept clear from grass and weeds. Vines, like trees, must be carefully pruned and sprayed. 108 In Florida fruit raising and market gardening are the chief occu- pations. MAPLE SUGAR 130 The maple sugar season is confined to a few days in early spring when the sap first flows from the roots up through the trees. During this short time the work is fast and furious for the sap flows day and night and must be boiled. Almost every farm could have enough maple trees to make its own supply of maple syrup and sugar. STOCK RAISING Stock raising is an important local industry on the Western plains which are too dry to be farmed without irrigation. Farther east it is a local industry near business centers where the produce can find ready market. While every farm has some horses and cows, some farms make a business of raising certain kinds of stock. a. Horses 138 Percheron horses are heavy draft horses, especially suited to farm work. 398 Belgian draft horses are big horses for heavy work. Both Per- cheron and Belgian draft horses are very carefully reared. 188 On our Western plains are great ranches where horses are half wild with very little care in raising. These horses have great speed and endurance. 186 Horses show great intelligence and help in the work. 207 Horses working in cotton fields. b. Cattle The kind of cattle a man raises will depend upon what he wants from them. 446 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 364 Jersey cattle give rich milk but they are not good beef cattle. They are raised where butter is wanted. 371 Ayrshire cows give a great quantity of milk not so rich as the milk of the Jersey. Ayrshire cows are good ones for a milk- man to keep. 159, 165 Holstein cattle are good for general farm purposes. They give a great quantity of milk, moderately rich in butter fats, and they are. besides, good beef cattle. 185, 358, 370 Hereford and Aberdeen Angus cattle are especially good beef cattle. A successful farmer must know what kind of cat- tle he wants and how to care for them so as to get the largest profit. 127, 186 On the great ranches of the plains, cattle roam almost at will till they are ready to be shipped to market. 140 These are cattle from the Western plains. c. Hogs 172. 183 Hogs well fed and kept clean are almost clear gain to a farmer. 122 Too often pigs are not cared for but are allowed to act as scav- engers. Such pork is not first class. MEAT INDUSTRY Meat packing is a local industry in such cities as Chicago, Omaha and Kansas City, railroad centers, to which supplies can be brought easily, and from which the prepared meats can be distributed quickly. 140 In an amazingly short time all these cattle will be killed and turned into meat. 141 Each carcass must be carefully washed and cleaned. 142 Backbones are split and the carcass again inspected. 143 Hams are carefully trimmed and prepared. 144 Even . the trimmings of the meat are prepared for market. All these workers must be clean and the prepared meat must be inspected in order to comply with the pure food laws. DAIRYING Dairying is a local industry in and near almost every large city. Dairy products are especially valuable in New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois. Only in recent years this type of industry has sprung up and now it embraces important branches such as cheese factories, ice-cream plants, butter factories, etc. 57 If a man wishes to sell milk in the United States, his cattle and barns must be sanitary and all the people and utensils that handle the milk must be absolutely clean. 46 Bottles must be washed and scalded, they must be filled with milk and capped, then no dust can enter in delivery. The top of the bottle should be washed before the cap is taken out. LUMBERING — TRANSPORTATION 447 45 All the milk of one district may be brought to one factory, the cream separated, and churned and made into packages ready for market. Creamery butter can be made under absolutely sani- tary conditions. Milk from sources not clean must be refused. LUMBERING In Maine lumbering is one of the most important of local indus- tries. White pine is timber most valuable there. In the central states hard wood is cut; in the northwest, Douglass fir; and in the south, yellow pine. Each locality uses methods best adapted to itself. Lumbering is of two kinds, conservative and ordinary. The first seeks to treat the forest so that successive crops may be produced. The second takes no account of the future ; it cuts only the better part of the trees, often destroying young and promising trees in so doing. 224 The great trees of our western coast were cut so recklessly they were rapidly disappearing. Conservative cutting is now being done. 1, 162 These logs in Maine and in Minnesota are taken to a stream where they can be floated down to the sawmill. This is hard and dangerous work. 215 Log drivers see that these rafts do not jam. They must keep the rafts free and moving. This too is dangerous work. 216 In the sawmills the logs are cut into lumber by great circular saws. TRANSPORTATION Communication is now a universal requirement. No place is able to live independently in this age. Yet so tremendous an industry can never be managed as a unit. It is divided and subdivided. Railroads are operated in divisions and divisions in sections. So in its opera- tion transportation becomes a local industry, the men working on the part of the route near where they live. 43, 128, 129, 157 Every community gives some of its young people to the railroads. At least four men are necessary to run each train, two skilled workers and two unskilled. The conductor and engineer have a constant mindfulness of orders, watchful- ness of signals, of the track and of the train. These are posi- tions of great responsibility. Firemen must keep up steam and brakemen give signals, couple and uncouple cars and do other train work. 26, 52, 242 Great numbers of men find work on ships. The old time sailor of romance is fast being replaced with stokers, engineers and all the mechanics needed for steamships run by engines instead of sails. 25 New York; 248 City of Panama; 295 Havana, Cuba; 314 Buenos Ayres ; 347 Liverpool ; 429 Marseilles, France ; 433 Barcelona, Spain; 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan; 556 Algiers, Algeria. The sail- or's life, probably giving the least personal liberty, will always have the attractic n of permitting one to see the world. 38. HYGIENE — HEALTH HABITS By MICHAEL VINCENT O'SHEA, B.L. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Vigorous health is one of life's greatest blessings. We should guard it as one of our chiefest treasures. Not only should we zealously care for the store of good health that we now possess but we should seek by every means to add daily to our healthful vigor. Much can be done by the earnest teacher for the health of the pupils in her care. Stimulating suggestions as to health habits are naturally given by all progressive instructors. This set of stereographs and slides can be made the basis of many interesting and helpful lessons of this topic. Visualizing the work will make it impressive and will fix resolves more firmly than is possible with description only. 1. OUT-OF-DOORS LIFE 224 Oregon woods. Life in the woods will develop vigor and hardi- hood. 72 Woodcock on nest. The study of birds takes people into the open air and is exceedingly interesting. Only sharp eyes can detect a woodcock on its nest. Many other birds are protected by their coloring. 60 Atlantic City. Bathing and swimming are the best forms of re- laxation and physical exercise. 83 School garden. Every child in the city should have work in a garden in the summer. 102, 221, 228 United States; 441, 445, 448 Switzerland; 508 India; 367, 369 Scotland; 344, 345, 346 Antarctic; 377, 382 Ireland; 388 Germany. The purest and most invigorating air is found in mountainous sections. People who live in rugged countries are apt to develop vigorous health if they have food and cloth- ing enough and good shelter. 221 Mt. Hood. The great mountainous regions of the West fur- nish means of restoring health and vitality to the people who live in cities. 127, 186, 188 Cowboys. Ranch life on the great plains develops energy and endurance. 136, 233, 160, 178, 179, 181, 218 Farm lands, United States. The mod- 448 HEALTH HABITS 449 etn farmer should be the healthiest of men since he lives in the great outdoors and machines will do his heaviest work. II. HEALTH HABITS IN REGARD TO WORK 40 Linen collars; 41 Shoe factory. People who sit at their work should have frequent opportunity for brief intermissions to stand and move about, or they will lose their health. 62, 65, 66, 67 Iron and steel; 68 Coke; 134 Glass; 156 Copper; 334 Silver. People who work in metal foundries should have short hours and be protected from the extreme heat. 69 Oil well. Those who work with explosives are under strain constantly, and they should have very short hours with the best physical conditions. 74, 75, 76, 77 Coal ; 155 Copper. Workers in mines are usually un- dersized and in a low state of health because of lacking light and air and of breathing dust. Miners should have short hours because their work is so hard and unhygienic. 135 Work in glass is very trying to health. 272 The tanning business is injurious to health unless the hours of labor are short and the ventilation very good. Ill Sponge market. Those who work in the water much of the time are likely to suffer with congestion in the respiratory or- gans because they are not properly protected. 21 Jewelry; 11 Shoes; 15 Printing cloth. People who do finely co- ordinated work should have frequent relaxation to prevent nervous strain. III. HEALTH IN REGARD TO FOOD AND DRINK 44, 175 Apples are necessary in everyone's diet, but they must be protected from insect diseases. 47 Cantaloupes are a valuable addition to one's diet. 85 Peaches are a valuable adjunct to one's dietary. 108 Pineapples furnish acids which are very useful in digestion. 236 California; 390 Germany; 319 Argentina. Grapes when used fresh or as raisins are superior food. When used for wine their value is lost. Wherever many grapes are raised for wine, people will be underfed and over stimulated. 237, 437 Oranges. One could not over-state the value of ripe oranges in one's dietary. 294 Harvesting bananas. When thoroughly ripened they are luscious and nutritious. 551 Husking coconuts. They contain milk and meat that are nu- tritious. 234 Almonds. Nuts of all kinds make delicious and nutritious food. 118 Harvesting peanuts. They furnish fine food when roasted or made into peanut butter. 166 Potato digging machines. Potatoes grown in a sandy region make a necessarv and delicious food. 240 Olive oil is a valuable food. In the countries around the Mediter- 450 HYGIENE ranean Sea it is used wherever oil or fat is needed. 'It takes the place of butter and lard. 149 Celery and similar foods must be washed very carefully. 375 A variety of fresh vegetables helps to keep people in good health. 198 Beets make a very wholesome food, and should be used freely. 104, 105 United States; 527, 528, 529 Japan; 550 Philippines. Rice constitutes the principal food of many millions of the human race. 479 Greece; 488 Russia; 506 India; 516, 518, 522 China; 529 Japan; 543 Chosen ; 549 Philippines ; 561, 562, 563 Egypt. People who use primitive methods in agriculture and other industries must devote most of their energy to getting food enough to sustain life. 218, 357 Wheat. Bread and cereals made from the whole kernel of wheat contain all the elements of perfect nutrition. 498 Palestine. People who live on bread made of the whole grain ground in a rather coarse way have better health than those who live on fine sifted white flour, with nothing but the starch left in it. 375, 56 Eggs laid by well-fed and well-cared-for hens make an ideal food, for the young especially. 357 Wheat; 358 Cattle. Grains furnish a better and cheaper food than beef, as a rule. 141, 142, 143, 144 Packing houses. The greatest care must be taken with flesh food to avoid disease. 46,57,159,165,411,413 Dairying. In order to secure pure, clean, wholesome milk cows must be well cared for and have fresh air and wholesome food. Serious diseases are due to unclean milk. 166 Potato; 105 Rice; 140 Cattle. It would be better in every way for most people in American life if they ate more of vegetables and less of animal food. 34, 35, 258, 270, 271, 333 Sugar used in moderation is wholesome. Used in excess it is the cause of many disorders. 130 Maple sugar is an excellent food if used sparingly. When used too generously it overtaxes the system. 295,310,311,468 Coffee contains a drug and most people would be better off without it. 373, 530 Tea. Much tea drinking means weakened vitality. Tea is a menace to health. 303 Cocoa makes a much better beverage than tea or coffee when used sparingly. If used excessively it is very harmful. 285 Pulque. Any kind of intoxicating beverage is a poison in the system. 297, 112 Tobacco is harmful and everyone would have better health and vigor if he would let it alone. IV. HEARING 12 Shoes; 54 Silk; 82 Locomotive shop. People who work in very noisy factories lose keenness of hearing sooner or later. HEALTH HABITS 451 V. BREATHING 3 Granite; 5 Marble. Care must be taken not to inhale rock dust, which is very irritating to the lungs and mucous membranes. 177 Threshing, North Dakota. In up-to-date threshing men do not have to inhale dust as they did in an older day. 26 New York; 61 Pittsburgh. Where the smoke nuisance is not abated, people may suffer with nasal and lung difficulties. 17 Woolen mill; 19 Paper mill. People who work in wool or cot- ton or rags which are not clean often suffer from respiratory diseases. 76 Dust from coal may injure the lungs. 67 Sawing steel, small particles of iron or steel such as filings or dust from grinding machines may also cause lung trouble. VI. HEALTH HABITS IN REGARD TO AIR AND LIGHT 204,263,265 Indians. They had one advantage over people of cul- ture — they had fresh air constantly. 113 Lincoln cabin. People who live in log huts usually have an abundance of fresh air. 279 Labrador. Life in cold regions develops vigor and endurance if one has food and clothing enough. 103 South Carolina. In sections in which much charcoal is burned there are always gases which interfere with health. 93 Washington, D. C. ; 126 The Alamo Plaza. A city cannot be a healthful place unless it has many trees, wide streets, and is free from smoke and dust. All cities should have many open places for relaxation and fresh air as well as for beauty. 336 Ecuador. Children who do not have opportunity to play out-of- doors on grass never develop properly. 6 Boston tenement. Children who grow up in narrow streets can never develop properly. 30 New York City. In some streets in crowded cities sunlight never enters. In this street it enters with difficulty. 25 New York City. The time will come when the tops of build- ings in large cities will be used for playgrounds and recrea- tion, especially for children. 58 Pottery, N. J. Those who work in unventilated, unlighted work rooms cannot preserve their health. 16, 18, 24, 94 Every factory should have an abundance of light and air. 11 Shoe manufacture. A worker's light should come from above, not directly in front. VII. FATIGUE 178, 179, 180, 181 Farm machinery. Farmers should get machines to do the heavy work of the farm so far as possible. 452 HYGIENE 162 Hauling logs, Minnesota. Working with k;gs uses up m\tch en- ergy. Workmen should be well fed and well housed. 84 Mint; 94 Engraving and printing; 152 Ford plant. These em- ployees work but 8 hours per day, hence have time for recrea- tion to overcome the fatigue from their work. 181 Harvesting alfalfa ; 147 Oats. Farmers at harvest time work long hours but work in the open air gives less fatigue than thf same hours and work indoors. VIII. CLEANLINESS 120, 161 Ditching swamp land tends to breed germ diseases. It should be ditched and drained. 7 Boston; 393 Germany; 395 Belgium; 555 Morocco; 572 British East Africa ; 481 Russia ; 485 Poland. Much disease is spread in communities through dirty, insanitary markets. Markets like these are almost sure to spread disease among those who patronize them. 13,244,226,227 Fish. Disease is often spread when care is not taken to keep fish clean. 35 Sugar; 45 Butter. The food here is handled with care, but in some food factories little care is taken to keep the food clean, so people suffer with digestive difficulties, not knowing what the trouble is. 86 Oysters. Serious diseases are often spread by lack of cleanliness in preparing and shipping oysters. 292 Tortillas. Uncleanliness in preparing food is the cause of num- berless disorders. 572 Africa; 341 Venezuela. Much disease is spread by dirty methods in storing and handling goods. 32 Ellis Island. Serious germ diseases are often brought to our shores from foreign lands where the habits of the people are unclean. 431 France. Disease germs cannot be removed from clothing ex- cept by boiling. Washing in a river cannot make clothes health- ful. 501 Ganges River, India. Plagues always follow unclean practices such as shown in this picture. 438 Spain. Dusty roads are always a source of disease. 455 Sicily. People who live in dirt and squalor are never well. Cities must be kept scrupulously clean in order to insure health. 474 Constantinople, Turkey. Animals kept on city streets tend to pollute the atmosphere. 503 Delhi, India. It is well to remember that contagious diseases readily spread in crowds. FINE ARTS INTRODUCTION By C. VALENTINE KIRB? DIRECTOR OF ART EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA Ours has been understood to be a commercial age, depend- ent upon the heritage of the past for those things we have gen- erally regarded as works of art. Today, however, even the casual observer must be impressed with the significance of " art " in various phases of our daily life and work. Our homes with their furnishings are becoming objects of real beauty and comfort, the veritable expression of beauty by their makers. Our manufactured products are being refined (and consequently enhanced in value) by a greater charm of line, form and color. Our schools are producing our own design- ers of these products and freeing us from a foreign depend- ency. Our places of business, our shop windows, our adver- tising are today examples of real artistic expression. We are learning to express ourselves in our dress and make it more appropriate and generally charming. This growing desire for beauty is being expressed collec- tively in the improved city and township working for the best in town planning and civic beauty. Behold ! Art has not been lost — it is merely taking on new forms. It has been democ- ratized. We have at last obeyed Victor Hugo's injunction, " Away with Art for Art's sake., and give me Art for Human- ity's sake." Art has ever been found to be the basis for national wealth on the one hand, and true spiritual uplift on the other. The nations with tasteful skill have controlled the markets of the world. The man who can either produce or enjoy true works of art lives in the higher realms above the sordidness and vul- garity about him. 453 454 INTRODUCTION It is plain that our age requires and demands that all will love beauty and many will express it. The best place to in- culcate this love both for appreciation's sake and for expres- sion's sake is in the school room. Drawing and sketching, how- ever, have always been limited to objects that could be brought into or seen from the school room. This is especially true in cities and the field for such study has been very narrow. The stereograph has changed this. With the pupil's eyes in the stereoscope, the classroom shut out, the scene in proper per- spective, all forms correctly represented, outdoor sketching from nature becomes an indoor exercise possible in every schoolroom. The lantern slides offer even more attractive possibilities since the entire class is able to see the same view. With the latest Mazda lanterns a scene may be held on the screen without breaking the slides. Also this lantern can be used under daylight conditions with merely the window blinds drawn. These methods give the opportunity for careful study of nature which must be stimulating in its effect. They create an environment of unusual charm and rare opportunity ; they greatly enlarge the field of education in art. In order to contribute to these needs and facilitate this work, there has been assembled from our " 600 Set " of views the following group : 1. Drawing — study of pictures to show elements of art. 2. House Design and Decoration ; Costume Design. 3. Photography. Also see classification Cities of the World. These give the opportunity for careful study of elements that must be stimulating in their effect, creating, as they do, an en- vironment of unusual charm and rare opportunity. 39. DRAWING — STUDY OF STEREO- GRAPHS AND SLIDES TO SHOW ELEMENTS OF ART By HARRY W. JACOBS DIRECTOR ART INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. The following views have been selected to give classes in Drawing a practical view point in the subject of perspective and drawing in general. The views have been subdivided into sections with definite points of study, which will be of special interest to the student, classroom teacher and drawing super- visor. STUDY OF CIRCLE IN PERSPECTIVE 14 Cotton mill — circles seen with axis vertical and at angle to picture plane. 18 Woolen mill — circle seen with axis vertical and at an angle to picture plane. 20 Paper mill — circles seen at an angle to the observer. 23 Silk industry — showing convergence of circles in perspective. 33 Dining table with plates in perspective below eye level. 45 Revolving churn — an excellent example of circles seen obliquely. 48 Erie canal — study of circle below the eye level in perspective. 58 Firing tableware — showing circles with axis at various angles to picture plane. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware — circles with vertical axis at parallel to picture plane. 65 Filling molds — circles in perspective above and below eye level. 64 Pig iron machine — circles seen obliquely. 66 Steel works — showing circles at an angle to picture plane. 73 Cannon — showing circles at an angle to picture plane. 80 Liberty Bell — circles above and below eye level. 82 Baldwin Locomotive Works — showing axis of circles at angle to picture plane. 87 Dome of Capitol — showing circle in perspective above eye level. 88 The House of Representatives — the wide sweep of the seats showing the circle in perspective below the eye level. 123 Oil tanks — circles seen below and on the eye level. 455 456 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 124 Old wagons — showing axis of wheels at angle to observer. 132 Automobile tire factory — showing axis of circles at angle to ob- server. 153 Packing salt — axis of barrels are seen obliquely. 162 Logs of various lengths seen obliquely. 171 Large generators — showing circle in perspective below eye level. 175 Barrels — showing axis of ellipses at angle to observer. 180 Wheels on large tractor — show circle seen obliquely. 203 Stamp mill — showing circle seen obliquely. 241 San Gabriel Mission — bells above the eye level. 286 Carding room — showing circles in perspective with axis seen obliquely. 296 Turret of wrecked battleship Maine above level of eye. 320 Old cart and gig — wheels at angle to picture plane. 332 Preparing soil — showing circles at angle to observer. 378 Large heavy cart wheels — seen at angle to observer. 396 Quaint cart — with wheels at angle to observer. 412 Norway — circular blocks of wood showing circles seen at many angles to observer. 452 Coliseum — showing circle seen above and below eye level. 454 Naples — carts with axis of wheels at angle to observer. 484 Bell market, Russia — bells of various sizes seen below the eye level. 493 Damascus — circular shaped roofs in perspective below eye level. 498 Palestine — circular shaped vessels in perspective below eye level. 502 The Taj Mahal — showing circle in perspective above the eye level — eye level very pronounced. 530 Basket and Japanese hat in perspective above eye level. 563 Large spinning wheels seen at an angle to picture plane. PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE Subjects Parallel to the Picture Plane 6 Old North Church — a convincing illustration of dominant sur- faces parallel to the picture plane. 9 Longfellow's home — path leading to the home a good example of parallel perspective. 11 Shoe factory — the long benches offering excellent example of parallel perspective. 14 Cotton mill — long lines of textile machines vanishing at one noint on eye level. 24 Silk industry — showing all lines leading to one vanishing point. 25 From Woolworth Tower — tall buildings below the eye level. 29 Wall Street — showing dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 30 Broadway, N. Y. — dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 42 Salt works — excellent example of parallel perspective. 43 Railroad tracks with cars and surrounding landscape give a good example of parallel perspective. 63 Pig iron machine — a very pronounced example of parallel per- spective. ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE 457 79 Shipping coal — large coal cars leading to good interest point. 91 Portico of White House an example of parallel perspective. 128 Ore docks — most interesting example of parallel perspective. 133 Racks holding boots parallel to the picture plane. 139 State Street, Chicago — dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 149 Long rows of celery converging to one vanishing point. 167 Dominant surface in street scene parallel tG picture plane. 174 Dominant surface of Eads Bridge parallel to picture plane. , 237 Orange groves — showing retreating lines parallel to the picture plane, vanishing to one point on the eye level. 286 Carding room — a pronounced example of parallel perspective. 331 Showing narrow street — dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 336 Street in Ecuador — example of parallel perspective. 340 Large buildings — converging to one point in eye level. 352 Illustration of dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 381 Belfast, Ireland — illustration of dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 402 Picturesque Holland street scene in parallel perspective. 460 Innsbruck, Austria — showing dominant surfaces parallel to pic- ture plane. 500 An excellent example of parallel perspective. 502 Walk leading to the Taj Mahal — a good example of parallel perspective. 573 Mombasa, Africa — an old street in parallel perspective. ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE Subjects at an Angle to the Picture Plane 7 Showing Faneuil Hall and market wagons in angular perspective. 8 Old State House, Boston — an excellent example of angular per- spective. 19 Large boxes below eye level and at angle to picture plane. 27 Brooklyn Bridge and surroundings — an example of angular perspective. 28 Tall and low buildings above and below the eye level. 33 House interior — showing examples of angular perspective. 34 Trays of loaf sugar — showing many small cubes in angular per- spective. 37 Washington's headquarters — an out-of-door illustration of angu- lar perspective. 87 The Capitol — combining the circle seen in perspective with angu- lar perspective. 89 Showing chairs and tables with lines of room at angle to picture plane. 92 Cabinet room with furnishings at an angle to picture plane. 95 Congressional Library — an example of angular perspective. 96 Washington's old home — an example of angular perspective above eye level. 109 The picturesque old slave market in angular perspective. 458 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 113 Abraham Lincoln's cabin — a good example of angular perspective. 116 Angular perspective showing cars and steel furnaces in back- ground. 124 Wagons at cotton gin in angular perspective. 157 Loading copper — an example of angular perspective. 170 Great power dam and houses in foreground in angular perspective. 176 Many tall and narrow buildings illustrating angular perspective. £14 A group of houses below the eye level in angular perspective. 241 The old Mission Wall — an example of angular perspective. 281 Home of the peon — illustrating angular perspective. 305 Dominant surfaces at an angle to picture plane. 310 Old house in Brazil — example of angular perspective. 320 Old cart with house in background in angular perspective. 354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare — example of angular per- spective. 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage seen in angular perspective. 365 Edinburgh — dominant surfaces at angle to picture plane. 368 Wallace Monument — illustration of angular perspective above and below eye level. 372 Burns' cottage — an interesting interior in angular perspective. 373 A picturesque old Highland home showing angular perspective. 376 Blarney Castle — fine example of angular perspective. 425 Notre Dame — leading lines of building and foreground an excel- lent example of angular perspective above and below eye level. 429 The Cathedral, Marseilles — many examples of angular perspective. 461 Public square — dominant surfaces at angle to picture plane. 463 Castle above and village below eye level — surfaces showing angu- lar perspective. 473 Constantinople — many interesting examples of angular perspec- tive. 524 An old gateway in angular perspective. 533 Japanese bed — an interesting interior in angular perspective. 536 Silkworm incubator — an excellent example of angular perspec- tive. 557 An old gate illustrating angular perspective. POSTER DRAWING The following views may be used in poster work. They show good mass arrangement and may be well arranged in drawing and with let- tering applied as needed to be used as a commercial advertisement. This selection of views is particularly adapted to classes in commercial poster work. 6 Old North Church — material for a travel or historic poster. 7 Boston, Mass. — material for a travel poster. 8 Old State House, Boston — a historic poster or post card. 9 Longfellow's home — an excellent example of simple masses for a historic poster. 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge — a strong example of a large mass with interesting surroundings. SKETCHES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS 459 28 Old and new city halls, New York City — material for the de- velopment of a post card or poster. 29 Wall Street — a good example of material for a travel poster. 30 Up Broadway — poster for New York City. 37 Newbtirgh on the Hudson — material for a travel poster — strong contrasts shown. 42 Mouth of Erie canal — material for an industrial poster. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis — a poster advertising a city or railroad — showing strong contrasts. 195 Rocky Mountain divide — material for a travel poster or book cover advertising Yellowstone Park. 241 San Gabriel Mission — excellent material for a travel poster or post card. 276 Mt. Sir Donald — shows strong contrast for poster work. 335 Famous Copacabana church, Bolivia — an excellent travel poster. 425 Notre Dame — large masses with interesting surroundings for poster work. 460 Maria Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria — interesting background with large masses in foreground giving excellent material. PENCIL, PEN OR CHARCOAL SKETCHES FROM PHOTO- GRAPHS TO DEVELOP TECHNIQUE The student should select a print and make a drawing of it, using any of the above mentioned mediums. All sketches should be thor- oughly thought out, having eye level and vanishing points located. This drawing should be followed by completing in light and shade a similar drawing, using one of the mediums mentioned. 6 Old North Church — showing an excellent center of interest in sunlight — shadows in foreground. 7 Quincy Market — excellent illustrations of mass arrangement. 8 Old State House — a good example for pencil technique. 9 Longfellow's home — showing strong contrasts of light and dark. 27 Brooklyn Bridge — a good example for pen, charcoal or pencil. 28 New York City — showing strong mass arrangements. 29 Wall Street — an example for pen, charcoal or pencil. 30 Up Broadway — broad masses are well illustrated in this picture. 37 Washington's headquarters — a good subject for pencil or pen. 48 Month of Erie canal — a subject for pencil technique. 109 Old slave market — an excellent example for pen and ink or pencil rendering. 174 Eads Bridge — good subject for charcoal drawing. 241 San Gabriel Mission — shows broad mass arrangement. 281 Home of peon — excellent example for pen and ink or pencil drawing. 320 The high cart and gig — a subject for pencil drawing. 354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare — material for pencil or pen and ink rendering. 372 Burns' cottage — an excellent pencil interior. 373 Highland home — good example of contrasts for pencil handling. 460 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 376 Blarney Castle — good example for pencil or charcoal mediums. 402 Quaint Holland street — excellent pencil subject. 425 Notre Dame — subject gives strong contrasting masses for char- coal. 461 Gratz, Austria — showing many examples for pencil drawing,. 473 Constantinople — excellent material for many pencil sketches. Nature The following views may be used as suggestions for design motifs and for nature drawing. For a more extensive list of subjects see Nature Study group. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit; 235 Spineless cactus; 236 Tokay grapes ; 249 Palm trees. Trees and Landscapes 38 Exceptional view — rolling hills, Hudson River Valley. 70 Trees in foreground with mass of trees in background. 463 Trees singly and in masses. 71 Elm trees — shown in mass. 95 Trees below the eye level. 192 Trees stripped of their foliage. 259 Papaya and palm trees in Mauna Loa Valley. 362 Low shrubbery and excellent tree masses. 376 Trees beautifying the center of interest. 10 Old elms; 73 Trees on hilltop; 173 Trees in fall; 195, 591 Pine trees ; 229 Monarch of trees ; 234 Almond trees ; 566, 564, 574 Palm trees ; 359 Various leaf forms ; 444, 534 Trees in blossom ; 586 Eucalyptus trees ; 399 Trees along canal. Figures in Action 98 Indians in costume in pantomime act. 99 Life saving corps in action — excellent examples of various run- ning positions. 107 An excellent example of figure bending forward. 186 The tight rope shows that the horse is pulling back. 115 Mining phosphate — a good example of how angular lines denote action. 117 Figures in various positions picking cotton. 108 Harvesting pineapples — farm hands in various action positions. 168 "Brought forth food" — excellent pose for Indian drawing. 258 Cutting sugcfr cane — figures showing excellent action. 290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls in national costume. 295 Figures loading coffee — strong in action. 366 Highlanders at great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 105 Hoeing rice; 130 Tapping sugar maple; 147 Loading oats; 152 Walking; 153 Shoveling; 158 Indians in action; 169 Indians in canoe; 263 Indians weaving baskets; 224 Felling tree; 266 Troops marching; 292 Making bread; 516 Hauling roller; 523 Sawing timbers: 528 Planting rice; 529 Harvesting rice; 550 Hulling rice; 551 Husking coconuts; 552, 570 Stripping trees; 565 Egyptian figures on camel. BOATS — SHIPS — ANIMALS 461 Boats — Ships 26 Ferry boat ; 27 Sailing vessel ; 48 Lake boats ; 52 Ocean liners ; 100 United States war ships; 106 Schooners; 119 River boats; 154 Canal boats; 253 Large transport vessels: 254 U. S. S. Missouri; 280 Vessels in port; 313 Dredge; 415 Whale boat; 430 Small craft; 511 Native boats ; 525 Japanese boats. Animals 72 Woodcock; 110 Alligator; 232 Bison; 565 Camel; 140 Cattle in stockyards; 159, 165 Holstein cattle; 185, 358 Hereford cattle; 339 Cow and calf; 356 Cows in profile; 364 Jersey cattle; 370 Aberdeen Angus cattle ; 371 Cow — side view ; 403 Milking cows ; 454 Horse and ox team ; 510, 548 Humped cattle; 127, 186, 301, 317 Range cattle; 246 Dog team; 396 Belgian dog; 340 Donkey in action; 505, 509, 510 Elephants; 189 Elk; 136, 147, 198 Teams of horses; 494 Saddle horses; 138, 398 Excel- lent horses ; 188 Bronco with cowboy ; 182 Horses in action ; 588 Kan- garoos; 335 Llama; 2 Moose; 239 Ostriches; 345 Seal; 173, 190, 480, 589 Sheep. Indian Costume The following views may be used in Indian illustrations and the study of Indian costumes. 98 Pocahontas pleading for life of John Smith. 158 " Nursed the Little Hiawatha." 168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 169 " From the wigwam he departed." 182 Mounted Sioux Indians in " full feather " leaving camp. 204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 263 Indian basket weaving, Prince Edward Island, Canada. 265 Iroquois Indians, Quebec, Can. 328 Indians on the Straits of Magellan, Chile. 211 Indians of New Mexico. See also classification on Costume Design. 40. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION; COSTUME DESIGN By MARY J. QUINN SUPERVISOR OF DESIGN, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. I. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION No child can be taught anything more important than the art of home making and it is easier to have a good home where the house is beautiful to the eye and arranged in the most con- venient manner. Too many women work in houses so ar- ranged that to do the necessary things takes all the time and energy, leaving none or very little for self -improvement. So houses should be studied and children should be taught to judge what is best in a given circumstance. So, too, in furniture and clothes. If children look at these from the standpoint of beauty and use, if they see the differ- ences of time and nationality, surely they will acquire broader and better ideas and will no longer slavishly follow a prevail- ing fashion. A little start in such matters nearly always leads to great development. A large part of the crudities in build- ings, in furniture and in dress come from real ignorance in- stead of essential lack of taste. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 96, 298 Home is the place where the family life centers, the heart of a civilization. 10, 373, 535 But in its construction, its living arrangements, and in appearance it differs according to the climate, the environment, and the habits of life. 126, 249, 255, 306 For instance, in semitropical countries it is neces- sary to build for protection from the sun and the heat. There are wide piazzas, roofed porticoes, as in Italy and parts of South America. 462 HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 463 9, 354, 355, 372, 373, 411 In colder countries, the house is closely built to protect from the cold. There are chimneys and open fireplaces, and well built windows to catch sunlight, as in Northern Europe and America. 442, 445, 447 In mountain countries, as in Switzerland, where snows are heavy, the roofs are slanting to shed the snows, and firmly constructed with reinforcements to withstand the winds, which sweep through the valleys. 492, 499, 558 In warm climates, the roofs are more frequently flat. 1, 9, 10, 124, 236, 418 In countries wheie there are great forests, wood is used for building material. 29, 90, 349, 425, 565, 568 In countries with marble and stone quarries, stone construction is common. 336, 337, 341 Stucco is used in warm climates. 281, 292, 339, 550 The habits of living influence the construction and arrangement of houses. 282, 493 In southern countries where people live out of doors during many months of the year, the houses are dark, cool places used mostly for dining and sleeping quarters. 33 In northern countries, where most life is spent indoors, attention is given to the comfortable arrangement of the interiors. 549, 550, 554 Among primitive peoples, the houses furnish only the bare necessity of protection from the weather. 91, 384, 432, 476 In rich countries with courts of great wealth and splendor of living, the palaces represent the wealth, power and taste of the ruling classes. 9, 10 In New England, the austere habits of life are reflected in the fine simple proportions and arrangements of the colonial architecture. 533 In Japan, where habits of life are prescribed by artistic sim- plicity, the houses are beautifully clear of bric-a-brac and un- necessary furnishings. 25, 30, 61, 139 In great modern cities where people are crowded in a small area, tall buildings, apartment houses and tenements are the result of the high cost of land and the need to live within the city area. 28, 385, 422 In countries with modern standards of civilization, sani- tation makes for clean streets and orderly arrangements of living. 454,455,474,487,491,555 In older and less progressive communities, these matters are neglected — to the detriment of health and comfort of the people. 372 Before fireplaces were built, there was an open fire in the center of the great hall or living room, with an opening in the roof for the escape of smoke. Later the great fireplaces were the only means of heating the houses. There are many stories of the hiding and escape of prisoners through the large chim- neys. 9, 10, 96 In the 18th century, much attention was given to architec- 464 FINE ARTS tural details of houses. Beautiful doorways and windows were built and the inside woodwork and the mantels were often of elegant design. Our colonial houses in New England and the South are examples of this period in America. 33 It was not until the 18th century that the many rooms of the house as we now know it were built. Drawing rooms, living rooms, bedrooms, dining rooms and kitchen were included in the plan of the house. With the decline of taste in the 19th cen- tury all sorts of architectural monstrosities were built. Houses with two or three kinds of roof constructions and windows, and with towers and ugly porches decorated with fret work, were built. But for the past ten or fifteen years, a new era of domestic architecture has replaced the ugly houses of 1870-'80-'90 with well arranged and well proportioned types of houses which have some claim to beauty. 37, 96 Simple forms are always better in domestic architecture than are elaborate and overdecorated styles. A house should be built to conform with its surroundings. 354 The gabled roof with casement windows require much decorative planting of trees and shrubs to make them, a part of their sur- roundings. 10, 96 The houses of Colonial type and those with simple vertical and horizontal lines are likely to prove more beautiful and livable than more varied styles. Fortunately today, much attention is paid to the sanitation and the economic arrangement of rooms. A large kitchen, for instance, is a waste of space in the average house. It wastes the energy of the person who is to work in it. The limited space in apartment houses of large cities requires a very eco- nomic arrangement of rooms. This is the golden era of the home. The architect who builds it, the artist who decorates it, and the homemaker who decides what is necessary and useful, all bring to bear the essential points of view to make a beautiful and practical home. 373, 409, 443 Peasant furniture all over the world is similar in type. Crude strong construction and simple lines characterize it. 92, 417 The furniture of palaces and homes of the wealthy is more elaborate, often heavily carved, and gilded, representing the finest workmanship of the time. 292, 533 In tropical and eastern countries where people live out-of- doors, there are only the necessary pieces of furniture made simple or elegant according to the class of the people. 33 In Western Europe and America where people live more indoors, many more pieces of furniture to fit the needs of modern living are used. During the middle and latter part of the 18th century, often called the Victorian period, the decline in taste was reflected in the furnishings of the homes. The furniture was usually HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 465 ornate, the wall papers and carpets overdecorated, and useless bric-a-brac and elaborate lace curtains and draperies were used. The reaction from this period of bad taste began with the introduction of the simple sturdy designs of Mission furni- ture. The result of study in interior decoration and the appli- cation of art to furnishing shows results in the fine taste that is being exercised in house furnishing. The influence of the simplicity and art of the Japanese in their houses has also had an effect in making us realize the beauty of empty spaces and fine arrangements. 33, 92 In planning the furnishing of a house, the needs of each room should be carefully considered. The furniture should be selected with reference to its use, its good proportions and lines, and placed so that there is a balanced arrangement in the room. The furnishings throughout a house should be similar in type. A color scheme including very few variations will always be more restful and effective than a great variety of inharmonious colors. The spacing and arrangement of the furniture and of pictures, if carefully considered, will avoid the effect of dis- order which comes from overcrowding. African (Central) 572 These buildings were constructed by the European commercial agents. The natives live in huts built of poles and branches with roofs of grasses and branches. 573 Arabian influence is shown in the barred window gratings and high balconies. 575 Portable houses are built which can be packed and shipped in sections for European agents living in Africa. Australian Modern 587, 590 The buildings in Australian cities are similar to those of Great Britain. Austria 460 In all European cities apartments are built over the shops. The shutters are hung to protect from the sun without closing out the air. 461 Steep sloping roofs with dormer windows show German Gothic influence. 462 This shows the regular apartment houses of modern European cities. Asia Minor 493 Houses in the Orient have few windows in order to keep the interiors as cool as possible. The semicircular archways over the streets are built to protect from the hot sun. 497 Small windows are common in houses in hot climates. 498 The interiors of these houses are as primitive as the exteriors ; usually earth or clay floors with mats to sit on — the Oriental 466 FIXE ARTS seldom uses a chair. The simple food is eaten from large bowls. Ceylon 512 In all oriental countries the houses are dark and simply furnished. The family works and lives out-of-doors all day. Very few of the poorer houses have chairs or tables. Mats are laid on the earthen floors for beds and a board or a bench serves as a table. Houses of China In China, as in Japan, the architecture of the houses, palaces and temples has a uniformity never found in western countries. The houses are usually built around a court. They have green, yellow or brown tile roofs which slant concavely and turn up at the corners. The roofs are supported by wooden pillars which stand on stone founda- tions. The beams and cross beams and under the eaves are richly carved and decorated in color and gold. As one enters from the street to the court, the living apartments are on either side and at the end of the court. If the family is rich, there may be a series of courts and wings of apartments with several roofs or double roofs. Over doors and windows are open panels of rich carving. The floors are of clay or brick. The Chinese sleep on mats with a square piece of hard woodwork lacquer for a pillow. Unlike other Asiatic peoples, the Chinese use chairs, and tables straight in line, of ebony, redwood or bamboo, some- times decorated with geometric openwork carving. They use two long pointed sticks called chopsticks instead of knives and forks. The Chinese make beautiful lacquer chests and cabinets. Carved stands in which are placed flowering plants or dwarfed trees or shrubs are placed against the walls. On the walls are hung long scrolls of paintings or printed quotations from their books of wisdom. Chinese paintings are very beautiful in their exquisite drawing and composition of color. The Chinese have made beautiful porcelains for hundreds of years. The European porcelains of the 18th century — Meissen (or Dresden), English and French — were made as a result of the importations from China. In the crowded cities of southern China, the people live huddled on boats placed as closely together as city tenements and nowhere in the world are living conditions worse than among the poorer Chinese in their crowded cities. Chinese 513 These city buildings show European and American influence. Only the wealthier classes of Chinese merchants and the visit- ing foreigners have their offices here or live in these quarters. The open balconies are comfortable during the hot season. 514 Millions of Chinese live in houseboats. 517 The bright colored tile and the lifted corners of the roofs give Chinese villages a picturesque appearance. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 467 520 Over doorways and in halls and over windows, the Chinese place carved and gilded panels. Instead of window glass, paper is used for keeping out the air, but admitting the light. These little children have to sit on very straight chairs or benches. 521 Beautiful designs of carved wood used as decoration over doors and under roofs and cornices. Chosen (Korea) 542 The winter snow covers the thatched roofs of these plaster or stone native cottages. Inside there is one large room with an earthen floor. Denmark 404 Steep roofs and dormer windows are of Gothic type. 406 City apartments in Copenhagen like those of other European cities. Dutch 402 The interiors of these Dutch homes have a charm in their orderly simple furniture and their arrangement of the brass and copper cooking utensils. The Dutch like gay color and paint the doors and windows bright blue or green. With the red geraniums in the window boxes and the bright colored dresses of the girls, the blue trousers of the fishermen, they present a gay appearance. 400 In all European cities, people live over the shops, one floor being used by each family. 401,399 Dutch streets are always gay. Indoors there is a large living room with a fireplace for cooking and a few small rooms adjoining and one or two sleeping rooms upstairs. The furni- ture, tables, chairs and benches are of simple straight design. The beds are closet beds built in the walls with curtains drawn across in front. The Anti-Tuberculosis Society is trying to abolish this type of bed. A Dutch kitchen has copper pots and pans, pewter ware, and blue and white china ranged in regular and picturesque order on racks along the wall. Egypt 558 Alexandria is now a modern city. The houses of the wealthy and the hotels are like European houses. The poorer classes of natives live in adobe huts of one or two rooms and sleep on earthen floors. English Half-timbered and plaster houses with steep gables and casement windows with small leaded glass panes. 354 The walls of these 17th century houses were made of heavy tim- bers crudely hand-hewn from logs and fastened together by joints and wooden pegs. Between the timbers, the spaces were filled with plaster, which made both inside and outside walls. The windows had very small panes of glass leaded together, for 468 FINE ARTS glass was both expensive and rare and was not made in large sheets as today. The furniture was of oak with turned legs, strongly put together with joinery and wooden pegs. 355 Elizabethan cottage with thatched roof, half-timbered and plaster walls and small casement windows. It was heated en- tirely by open fires and simple straight oak furniture was used. The roofs were thatched with rye straw tied to cross rafters in bunches and laid on row over row like shingles. It is very picturesque but inflammable. 360 This shows a few houses with gabled roofs and small casement windows of merrie England. 362 Picturesque country house with casement windows, many chim- neys for open fires, vine-clad walls and a beautiful garden. French 421, 422 In Paris, the apartment houses are beautiful and well kept. On the first floor lives the concierge, or caretaker, who admits all visitors and opens the doors at night for late comers. French interiors have always been beautifully furnished. 423 The French houses of the last half of the 19th century were solidly built of brick or stone with mansard roofs. 430 These lovely villas with their orderly architecture and well ar- ranged gardens are luxuriously furnished in the modern French style. French Canadian 262 The comfortable clean farmhouses of Canadian French farmers have the picturesqueness of French rural cottages. Germany 389 The old houses on this square have the steep roofs with dormer windows of medieval Gothic Germany and France. 394 Modern German houses are well built and comfortable. 391 A castle occupies the hill top. Greek 475 Modern Greek houses are similar to those of any modern Italian city. 476 This palace has the classical proportions of the Italian palaces. Indoors the great reception rooms, halls and living apartments are richly furnished in the European fashion. Greenland 343 Houses in Greenland are primitive in their construction. The small windows are necessary in so cold a climate. India In all Oriental countries, little attention is given to the architecture or furnishing of the home. In India, the average house has few if any windows; these are barred to protect from thieves. The floors are of earth or clay. There is little furniture; the family usually sleeps and HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 469 eats on the floor. In fact, it is only when sleeping or eating or during the rainy season, that they remain indoors. 499 These European houses in India have the balconies which are a part of the domestic architecture of all hot climates. 504 Note how few and how small the windows are. 506 The crudeness of the interior of this house matches the primitive wood and stone construction of the outside. Living arrange- ments are very simple. Irish 376 This feudal castle was built before scientific # household manage- ment was considered. The stairways were narrow and steep for protection against attack from an enemy. The windows were small and, in the 16th century, without glass. There were great halls used for living and dining room and sleeping apartments. 378 As in all European cities, people live over the shops. 379 The cottage at the left is built of stone with slate roof. The windows are small, due to the high cost of glass for window panes in the early part of the last century. There are two rooms downstairs with small bedrooms upstairs under the rafters. The cooking is done over a large fireplace in pots hung from metal hooks and cranes. Bread and meats are baked on hot stones in front of the fire. The large white house in the distance is a modern stone building of Elizabethan style of architecture. Italian 450 The front view of two Italian palaces shows the regularly spaced windows and flat roofs of the Renaissance type of domestic architecture. These Italian palaces are furnished with elegance. 454 The flat roofs and regularly spaced windows are typical of Italian city houses. 455 The crowded tenements of Sicily are less sanitary than New York's Italian quarter, but the family laundry is quite as decorative. 456 In Florence, the old palaces were of brick and stucco. They were spacious with massive furniture. 459 All through Italy are houses of white stucco with colored tile roofs. They are picturesque with beautiful gardens and orchards of olive, orange, almond trees and palms. The rooms of these houses are spacious and comfortable. Houses of Japan Japanese houses are usually of one story with slate, tile or thatched roofs. They are built with permanent walls on only one or two sides. So that the houses may be entirely open to the gardens, thin walls or movable partitions are built to slide in grooves and so divide the space into rooms or close in the house. Many beautiful kinds of screens are 470 FINE ARTS also used for partitions. The windows are covered with white rice paper instead of glass. Matting and grass woven mats are used on the floors. The Japanese never use chairs — they both sleep and eat on the floor. The beauty of the Japanese house lies in its simplicity. There are few pieces of furniture, no bric-a-brac and very carefully selected decorations. Only one vase with beautifully arranged flowers and one picture are shown at one time. This picture or vase of flowers is placed in a recess in the room called a tokonoma. A Japanese may own many vases and pictures but only one is used at a time. The bedding, pillows and their clothes are kept in cupboards or chests of drawers. The same study of beautiful arrangements of form and color is shown in the Japanese gardens. In all their arts, they avoid bisymmetrical arrangements and their gardens are composed with little streams and waterfalls, rocks, shrubs and dwarfed trees and many kinds of beautiful flowering plants. 526 There is a uniformity among all the Japanese houses, which is not found in a western city. 533 This shows the paper window panes of a Japanese house. 534 Even the fence is beautiful in design. The furniture of the tea house is of course European, for what Japanese lady ever sat in a chair to drink tea ! 535 The entire side of this house can be opened to the garden by re- moving the paper window screens and awnings. 540 The bamboo reeds do not make an effective curtain at this Japanese window. Mexican 290 The houses of the poorer classes in Mexico were small huts made of adobe with only one doorway and one or two small windows. New Guinea 592 These houses are made of matting with roof of coarse thatch. They are dry and airy. Norway 409 This picture shows the primitive wood construction of the Scan- dinavian farmhouse. 411 This shows the crude timber construction of Scandinavian country homes. Panama 249 What American civilization has done for Panama is seen in these well built comfortable houses. 255 As in all warm climates, wide porches and piazzas make the houses comfortable. Philippines 546 We cannot imagine very elaborate housekeeping on these boats. 547 Manila. The flat roofs, arched windows and shaded piazzas are HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 471 like other Spanish stucco buildings, which are planned for warm climates. The United States has introduced sanitary plumbing. 549 The houses are built on poles with a ladder or notched trees to climb to the entrance. They are high from the dampness and safe from attack. The sides are sometimes covered with mat- ting as are also the floors. The housekeeping is very simple — cooking is done outside on a brush fire. 550 Primitive house construction — lower part like a stockade of woven timbers, the roof roughly thatched with native grasses. 553 Primitive building — note space between roof and walls for cool- ness and ventilation. Poland 485 Houses in this picture are similar to the houses of all modern European cities. They are Renaissance in type, with large spacious rooms inside. Cuba and Porto Rico 299 These small adobe houses with their tile roofs so like a Spanish city are primitive in their living arrangements. One or two rooms, with few windows and doors house large families. 257 The flat roofed houses in Porto Rico with regular arrangement of windows are Renaissance in their origin, having been built by the early Spanish inhabitants. Scotch 367 The castles of the feudal period in Great Britain were also fort- resses. They are spacious with great halls and sleeping apart- ments. 368 These sturdy cottages with the smoke arising from the open fire- places have the attractive hedges and tiny gardens which are a part of all British country. 372 The walls are of rough plaster. The fireplace is built with a raised shelf on either side on which to stand kettles and pots to keep warm. It is called hob grate. Bobby Burns may have heard his mother say " Stand the kettle on the hob." The cook- ing was done in pots suspended over the fire and baking was done either at the side or in front of the fireplace. The old chair has a split back and is early 18th century type. The sideboard or dresser on which stand the old blue and white plates and bowls is the earliest type of sideboard. It was used as early as Queen Elizabeth's time. It is called a Tudor dresser and was used all over the British Islands. The table is the simple cot- tage type of furniture. The furniture is probably of oak. '673 The straw-thatched stone cottages of Scottish peasants usually contained one large room with a fireplace where all cooking was done and a small bedroom. The furniture is of sturdy oak, with simple straight line designs, unvarnished and unpainted. There was seldom more furniture than a table, a dresser for china, a few chairs and a bed. 472 FINE ARTS South American and Spanish Houses Spanish people have a love of beauty and color which expresses itself in their houses. Spanish houses are of stone or plaster and are built around a central patio or courtyard open to the sky. This courtyard is the center of the family life during the hot summer evenings. In wealthy homes, there is a pool and fountain, whose sprays give a wel- come coolness. The family receive and entertain their guests in the courtyard during the warm weather. On the second story, both over- looking the street, and within the court, are balconies where the mem- bers of the family may sit during the evening. Indoors, the plaster walls are painted blue, yellow, or other soft colors. The large rooms are simply furnished with massive walnut furniture usually heavily carved or inlaid. The living arrangements are rather primitive. The cooking is done in a large kitchen over charcoal fires, in glazed pots or bowls and copper or brass utensils. In many South American countries, the arrangements of the houses is very similar to those of Spain. 304 Here the flat tiled roofs are like those of Italy' and Spain. 306 The beautiful ironwork in the balcony shows the influence of Spanish domestic architecture. 307 These white adobe plaster houses are more picturesque than com- fortable. 310 The fence of closely placed poles, cut from trees, forms a barrier against small animals. It is used on country estates as a lattice against which to grow vines and hedges. The many windows in the house are necessary in this hot climate. 312 Balconies and covered porticoes are a feature of the houses in Spanish South America. 320 Modern brick construction with corrugated iron roof. 336 Charming Spanish balconies. 337 Spanish influence shows in the balconies and grills at the windows of South American houses. 338 White plaster houses with red tile roofs show Spanish influence. 339 In this warm climate the large number of open windows give light and air and the overhanging eaves give protection from the sun and rain. These windows would not be practical in a northern colder climate. The houses are covered with stucco. The grill work shows the Moorish influence on Spanish architecture. 434,436 The houses in Spain are strongly built of brick and stone often covered with stucco, with colored tile roofs. As in other European cities, they are built directly on the street, with over- hanging balconies on the upper floors, where the family sits in (he cool evenings. Indoors the houses are dark and cool in summer and heated only by a charcoal brazier in the short win- ter. The rooms are large and in the better class of homes the furniture is massive and elaborately carved and decorated in gold and color. The hangings and upholstery materials are of rich silks and velvets. The sanitary arrangements of a Spanish HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 473 house are usually primitive and there is more beauty than comfort. 341 The iron grill work on the windows is similar to that used in Spanish houses and shows Moorish influence. Like in old Euro- pean cities, the houses are built directly on the narrow streets. Swedish 417 The great armchair at the head of the table and the sofas and side chairs against the walls are good examples of the French Louis XV period of the 18th century, with their curved legs, broad comfortable seats and backs upholstered in damask silk or velvets. These chairs and sofas of carved and gilded wood were probably imported from France. The side chairs along the table show the extravagant puffing in upholstery of the Vic- torian period. The walls and ceilings and doors are carved and paneled. The paneling of the walls and over the door encloses great tapestries woven in the 18th century. The great candelabra of cut crystal is also French, similar to those used in the French palaces in the 18th century. 418 In Sweden, the great forests furnish the rough timber of which the farmhouses are built. Inside, there is a great living room extending to the roof, with a fireplace for cooking, and on either side are sleeping apartments. The walls are of rough plaster hung with woven tapestries of geometric design. The furniture is crude, of simple straight lines, often decorated with carving. Swiss Modern 427 Everywhere the modern concrete construction is replacing the older types of dwellings. 441 No house could afford more cheer to the cold mountain traveler than the warm comfort in these modern mountain hotels. 442 Steep Gothic roofs with dormer casement windows. 443 Plaster walls and simple peasant furniture. 444 Through the valleys of the Alps, small timber cottages are built in which herdsmen may spend the night when off on far pastures in charge of cattle. The heavy stones on the wide roof help to secure it against the wind. 445 The Swiss mountaineer's chalet has wide eaves and slanting roof to protect from winter storms and summer sun. The balconies which hang shaded by the eaves are decorated with carving. Frequently the first floor is used for cellars and stable. 447 The overhanging roofs protect from the winter snows and the hot summer sun. The first story is often of stone, the upper struc- ture of wood. 474 FINE ARTS United States American Indian nouses The houses of American Indians varied according to tribe ana dis- tricts. The Pueblo houses of the Southwest are solidly constructed, 01 srone and adobe. They had several stories built on top of each otner rike steps. Most of the tribes built long narrow rectangular nouses or cimber framework covered with bark, skins and blankets with a door at each end of the house. On each side of the central passage, tne space inside was divided into stalls by partitions of skins. Each stall was occupied by a family. In the central passage were series or open nearths where the cooking was done. Many of the tribes had different nouses for summer and winter. After the white men brought horses to the Indians, tiiey Degan to rollow the buffalo and the game and to move about mucn more tnan nefore. They invented the tent now used among many Indian tribes. The framework of poles tied together at the top and spread to make a circle at the bottom is covered with buffalo and other animal skins sewed and laced together and pegged down tight at sides. The smoke nole at the top has a flap which adjusts the drafts for the fires. These tents are pitched in a circle and the horses are tethered inside at night. Z63 This very crude tent is made of animal skins not even seweo or fastened together. Z65 Indian tents were usually made of skins. This is made ot neavy cotton tent material. Zll Indians in the southwest lived in pueblos. Log Cabin (United States) 113 The one story log cabin of the pioneers in the Middle West snow their perseverance and rugged character. The logs were laid one on another alternately and the chinks filled in with earth or plaster. There was a brick chimney at one end. Window glass was too scarce to allow of many windows. Colonial Houses and Furniture The New England States, New York, and Pennsylvania and the South had colonial houses and furniture of which they may well be proud. The earliest New England houses were built of wood, with wide clap- boards and steep gable roofs. The windows were regularly spaced on either side and above a central doorway. The doorways were espe- cially fine in proportion and detail of classic decoration. They were frequently made with classic columns, and with panels of glass over and at either side of the door. The windows had small panes, for glass was expensive in the early days. In the South, the houses were larger and more pretentious than in New England. The main central part of the house had a wide piazza with white classic columns. Wings with several rooms were built on either side. The slaves lived in small houses away from the main house. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 475 The kitchen was a large sunny room. In the earliest houses, the cooking was done over the fireplace in pots suspended from cranes and hooks, around which a spacious brick oven was built for baking. Later the stoves were used instead of fireplaces. Candles and wicks in whale oil were used for lighting until late in the 19th century when kerosene lamps were invented. Cotton prints and chintz imported from England made attractive curtains for windows and four-poster beds. The women wove rag rugs and sewed braided rags into round rugs. They also made attractive rugs by pulling colored strips of cotton and wool cloths through burlap into patterns of stripes and flowers. These are called hooked rugs. All over the country the beauty and value of colonial furniture has been realized and museums and private collectors are gathering the now rare and fine pieces of colonial furniture. In all the Eastern States patriotic societies are establishing museums of historic old houses with the furniture of the colonial period. 6 The tenement district has invaded the old residential quarters of Boston, and houses which fifty years ago were fine homes are now rented by floors and rooms to the crowded foreign popu- lation. 10 All through old Massachusetts towns are these wide shaded streets and fine colonial houses. The small panes of glass were quite expensive and larger panes were not even made. Inside the dignified front door, the rooms were arranged on either side of a central hall. A stairway with delicate spindles and mahogany handrails curved up to the second story where the bedrooms were arranged. Old maple and mahogany furniture, chairs, sofas, highboy and lowboy bureaus, and tables were placed in an orderly fashion inside these houses. On the floors were woven rag carpets or sewed or hooked rugs. Plain white cloth, cotton prints or chintz were used for curtains. 33 This beautiful old Brooklyn house was built by a retired sea cap- tain in the latter part of the 18th century. The rooms have the fine white mantels and paneled woodwork at doors and windows. The furniture all of old colonials represents many periods. In the living room is a rare Chippendale mahogany armchair. Over the mantel and between the windows are two colonial gold mir- rors. The long narrow one has a landscape painted on glass in the panel above the mirror. In the dining room, the empire mahogany dining table is surrounded by chairs of Sheraton design. Against the wall near the door is a fiddle-back walnut chair of the Dutch colonial period. On the Sheraton side table stands a Japanese tea tray decorated with a stenciled gold design and a silver teapot and salt shakers made in 1790. The tall pewter teapot and the old cut crystal goblets and the blue and white china date back to 1800. The rooms are furnished in dull blue and gold. The curtains hang in straight folds to the end of the window trim. 476 • FINE ARTS 37 This stone Dutch colonial house has the small window panes and long sloping roofs of the early cottages. 90,91 A beautiful example of classic colonial architecture. The in- terior has been redecorated in the original style. 92 The beautiful mantel of Adam classical design and the cornice and finely paneled door with glass knob are fine examples of colonial interior design. The furniture, while entirely modern, has a simplicity and elegance and fitness not always found in our public buildings. 96 The Southern colonial mansions were less austere than those of New England. The two story portico supported by classical columns was a feature of southern houses of the 18th century. Frequently there was a small balcony from the second story • windows. Many southern houses had wings or porches on each side of the main central building. Mt. Vernon is one of the most beautiful houses in America, one of which all Americans may be proud. It compares favorably with the fine houses in the Old World. Modem Houses (United States) 212, 213 Everywhere in the large American cities, apartment houses are simplifying the cost and labor in housekeeping. 214 In mining towns all over the United States, the houses are crudely built and lack the beauty of little villages in Europe. 147, 181, 236 It can no longer be said that the farmer houses his cattle and horses better than his family, for the modern American farmhouse is well built and well arranged, with telephone service and, in some districts, electric lights. 236 Modern farmhouse with gambrel Dutch colonial roof. In southern California, the hot water supply is often furnished from a tank on the roof where the water supply is left open and heated by the sun. II. COSTUME DESIGN The clothes of the people reveal their civilization. They express the manners, the habits of living, the workmanship, the art of the people. The materials used represent the local products and the wealth. They often bear a relation to the religion. In many countries they have local costumes which repeat the life of past generations. The women in medieval times wore high caps and other headdresses from the back of which were long flowing veils. The modern peasant head- dress shows this medieval influence. COSTUME DESIGN 477 With the development of courts and manners the costumes of both men and women become more complex and elaborate. In colonial days in America, the fashions followed those of France and England. George and Martha Washington dressed as the gentlemen and ladies of their time in England and France. In the 19th century, the knee breeches developed into the long trousers worn by the men of today. Women's costumes, however, have gone through many transitions of fashion since then. Taste in clothes has improved and much attention is being given to the designing of practical and beau- tiful dress. In these days of rapid and easy communication, varieties of clothing are disappearing. In almost every country will be found people dressed in the formal clothing which we are used to seeing and native costumes are gradually being dis- placed. This proves how very adaptable such clothing is. Made of light material, loosely fitted, it is suited to the warm- est climates ; made of heavier material, it can be worn even in the coldest regions. A. MODERN COSTUMES Modern Dress 8, 22, 29, 235, 273, 275 These people of the United States and Canada are dressed in the same manner. 60 The sweaters and trunks of the short skirted bathing suits of women are worn at every American bathing beach. 276 The shirt waist is an American article of dress and has never become so popular in Europe as in America. 249 The United States has shown the natives how to dress. 257 The white costumes of the native may not be as clean as they look but they are cool and comfortable. 258 These laborers are dressed like the negro workers in the Southern States. 280 The Mexican always wears a large brimmed felt or woven straw hat. 281 The poor natives of Mexico dress in primitive garments for pro- tection from the heat and sun. 290 More purely Spanish costumes would only be found in a Spanish village. The wide sombrero hats of the Mexican are woven of grasses with bright colored straws for decoration. The hand- woven Indian blankets of bright colors are more for decoration than warmth. 292 These cotton print dresses have been adapted to the needs of the hot climate. 478 FINE ARTS 284, 285 The Mexicans make baskets and hats of the native straws. Wide brimmed hats are worn in all the semitropical coun- tries. 295 Cuban native workmen wear simple, rough cotton clothes similar to those of the American rural negro of the South. 297 One of the men wears a Mexican sombrero. 319 They pay as much attention to their dress as does their brother in sunny Italy. 355, 365, 375, 404, 423, 424, 438, 443, 464, 486 In Europe in both warm and cold countries this same style of dress prevails. 541 In China and Japan, Western dress has become common. 557, 581, 582 Africa feels the influence of Europeans in the matter of dress. 585, 590 Australians dress as the English do. 324 Like in all Latin countries, the peasant women go about the streets without hats. Usually a black veil or scarf is worn on dress occasions, for it is forbidden to go into a church with uncovered heads. The long cape ahd shawl are frequently worn both by men and women. 328 Very primitive costumes of skins crudely fastened together and blankets are worn over heavy wool skirts. 331 The pattern and cloth in the costumes show the high develop- ment of textile design and weaving of the Inca Indians, the pre- historic tribes of Peru. The blankets worn as shawls are in Spanish fashions. The hats are also Spanish in style. 338, 339 The natives' costumes show the influence of the old Euro- pean civilization which has been here for centuries. 340 The European clothes of men. The boys in comfortable white trousers and bare feet. 485 The men are wearing hats and caps of exactly the same styles as those offered for sale. Modern Working Clothes 11 The making of shoes has reached the highest perfection in the United States. " American shoes " are the best. 15, 40 The modern factory girl is tidy in her dress. 42, 75, 130, 227 High rubber boots protect from the wet. 44 American overalls and hat protect clothing while at work. 46, 57 Health laws have made dairy men observe sanitary rules in dress. 105, 117 Negroes in the South dress like their poorer white brothers. 142, 143 Pure food laws require sanitary dress, therefore absolute cleanliness marks the working costumes of men in the packing houses. 72.7 Chinese workmen of the Pacific Coast have adopted American clothes. COSTUME DESIGN 479 243 The warm clothing of the trappers and miners of Alaska is a necessary protection during the long winters. 245 The net masks protect from mosquitoes which come after the melting of the snows. 431 Modern European working women look very much as Americans do. 481 The shawls which these women wear on the heads are also used as neckerchiefs. Children's Dress Children's clothes are much like those of their elders. Among Euro- pean peasants, children's dresses are elaborately made and decorated. The poor children of Oriental countries wear very little clothing or none at all. 61, 187 Clothes of a typical American school boy. 236 Children dressed comfortably for play. 239 These little children hardly realize the miUinery use to which the ostrich feathers will be put by their elders. 292 Little children in warm climates need very light clothing. 290 The little Mexican children wear typical Spanish costumes very much like those of their elders. 306 These children are dressed very much as American children. One little girl wears a dress of elaborate lace made by drawing threads and darning in patterns. 336 The pretty white lace trimmed dress probably came from Paris. 341 The clothing of these children is very like that of American or European children. 413 A little Laplander is comfortable in clothes of reindeer skin. 437 This Spanish boy is not dressed very differently from the com- mon American boy. 465 The bright colored needlework of Galician women is shown in the school satchel carried by the girl. 471 Picturesque peasant costumes. The short jacket of the boy is decorated with many buttons, and the skirts of both mother and child are decorated with characteristic embroidery. 487 These Russian peasant girls have the bright colored needlework on their skirts and collars. 498 The street garments of the Orient. The headdress is decorated with coins. 520 The long coats and skirts of the Chinese children are very pic- turesque. Their slippers made of bright colored materials turn up at the toes for easy walking. 522 This belt and coat of the Chinese boy is similar to the Russian peasant costume. 530 A serviceable costume for walking and a rice straw hat which protects the complexion. Japanese are adepts in basket making. 532 The Japanese wear sandals made of woven straw and fastened across the ankles with band of bright colored material. This picture shows the obi, sash, worn about the waist of the kimono. 480 FINE ARTS 534 Pretty cotton materials are worn in Japanese kimonos. The mothers carry the babies in a carrier strapped to their backs, not unlike that of American Indians. 562 The turbans and simple flowing garments are comfortable attire for the hot climates. 563 The Egyptian costume has not changed much in many centuries. 402 Dutch children. Little girls wear tight waists, full skirts and close fitting caps. The boys have very wide bloomers. Both wear wooden shoes. Modern Military Uniforms Uniforms used to be decorated with gay colors. Now they are neutral in color and plain as possible in order that the wearers may be inconspicuous. 146 The United States has long used inconspicuous uniforms of dark blue. This has given place to a still less conspicuous uniform of khaki. 266, 366 The Highland costumes are very picturesque with plaited skirts made of the plaid of the clan. Each clan has a different plaid. These are the service coats of the costume made of fine broadcloth. The small caps date from Rob Roy. The great brushes worn suspended from the belts are reminders of the trophies of the hunt of older days. They are now used as purses. The fashion of light topped shoes and gaiters here worn is centuries old. 293 A soldier of Nicaragua. 476 The Royal Guards of the King's palace wear the fustanella or wide cotton kilt which was originally part of the Albanian peas- ant dress. Peasant Costume In rural districts and small cities and towns the peasant costumes have changed very little in centuries. Each province or district usually has some distinctive feature. The costumes are decorated with the characteristic needlework and handicraft of the community. 262 The kerchief and cap headdress of the French Canadian girls sug- gests the costume of the Brittany fisher folk of France. The dress is of strong homespun wool for which there is a good market in American cities. 373 These old peasants wore simple dresses of homespun wool and kerchief caps of linen. They made the materials, cleaning, card- ing, spinning and dyeing the wool and weaving the homespun ; and retting, bleaching, spinning, and weaving the flax into linen. 375 The woolen shawl is convenient and warm. 388 The costumes of these peasant women have not changed in gen- erations. It has the tight bodice and kerchief of the 18th cen- tury. The hats are similar to those worn by all mountain peo- ple of Central Europe. The wool skirts and heavy stockings are products of home industries. COSTUME DESIGN 481 390 The costumes of these women working in the fields show the tidi- ness of the average German " hausfrau." 393 The old women still wear the old peasant costumes with ker- chief used for headdress. The younger women have adopted modern costumes. 396 The costumes of these girls which are made of thick woolen dresses and cotton print aprons are made to withstand wear and weather. The heavy shoes of coarse leather are first cousins to wooden sabots. 401, 402 Dutch women wear wide skirts, tight bodices with necker- chiefs and beautiful white caps. The men wear wide bloomers and tight short jackets. 409 The neat dress of Norwegian women showing in the jewelry of silver and gold the fine workmanship of the Scandinavian countries. 411 The Scandinavian working girl's costume like other European dress. Peasant headdress on women. Goats' hair is woven into materials for dress. 410 Hats are unknown among the poorer peasant women of Eu- rope. 413 Skirts and warm belted coats of reindeer skin are necessary in this cold climate. 418 Swedish women's costumes. The apron is woven of bright col- ored material. Many silver ornaments for fastening coats and belts are worn as well as merely ornamental rings, belts and necklaces. A Swedish peasant bride in the older times re- sembled a jeweler's shop window, so covered was she with silver ornaments. 449 The mountaineers of Switzerland wear low brimmed hats to protect them from the hot rays of the sun which are reflected from the snow. They carry long poles to guide their footing in climbing. 466 Throughout Bosnia many picturesque costumes with rich em- broideries and elaborate caps are still worn by the peasants. 471 Picturesque peasant costumes. The short jacket of the boy is decorated with many buttons and the skirts of mother and child are decorated with characteristic embroidery. 465 The bright colored needlework of Galician women is shown in the school satchel carried by the girl. 468 The costume of Bulgarian peasant, with bright colored embroid- ery. 469 The quilted coats and embroidered dress of these Bulgarian women show their needlework art. 479, 480 The belted coat and long tight trousers of Greek peasants. The kerchief protects the head from the weather. 485 Jewi?h peasant costumes, showing the long beards worn by the Jewish men since Biblical days. 487 The skirts and collars of these girls' dresses show the native bright colored needlework of the Russian peasants. 482 FINE ARTS 488 The Russian peasant wears a blouse belted at the waist, high boots and in colder parts of Russia, a fur cap. 496 The women peasants of Russia with their wide skirts and shawls show the drudgery of their lives. The caps and long belted coats of the men are more picturesque. 544 Siberia. The high boots and long coats of Russia. II. ORIENTAL COSTUMES Arab Costumes Throughout Mohammedan countries in Northern Africa and Asia Minor, the costumes are somewhat similar. The sheiks and men of importance wear loose long robes, flowing white headdress of cotton and wool materials. They wear sandals or go barefoot. The poorer classes wear very little clothing — they are bare to the waist, wear one straight garment and huge turbans to protect their heads from the sun. 494 The long belted garments and turbaned flowing headdress have been worn by Arab chiefs for centuries throughout Asia Minor and Northern Africa. 555 The turbans and flowing headdress of the Arabs differ very little from those worn in the Orient. The modern European dress shows the difference in civilization between the Mohammedan and the Christian. 566 The long flowing garments and turban of the Arab are more elab- orate than the simple straight garment of the Egyptian water boy or carrier. 557 European influence shows in Tunis costumes. 558 Turkish fez. Egyptian Costumes 561 Egyptian peasant costumes have changed little since ancient days. 562 The fez and loose white garments are typical of Mohammedan countries. 564 The turban headdress is a protection from the sun. 565 The turban and flowing garments of the Egyptian are frequently of white to protect from the strong sunlight. The trappings of the camels' saddles are elaborate and beautiful, of rugs and knotted fringes. 566 The long flowing garments and turban of the Arab are more elaborate than the simple straight garment of the Egyptian water boy or carrier. 567 Egyptian soldiers. Ceylon Costumes 511 The turban is worn in tropical Asia. East Indian Costumes 500 Loose flowing garments, long coats and turbans are worn by men in India. COSTUME DESIGN 483 501 There is no fashionable bathing-suit for East Indian natives. 503 The turban headdress of men and the long straight garments are characteristic of the costume of Mohammedan countries. 504 This East Indian city shows a motley crowd, wearing the long cotton garments and turbans of the East. 505 The long skirted garments of the East Indian natives are of cot- ton material sometimes decorated with colored embroidery. 506 The East Indian man is never without his turban. The beautiful many colored shawls which they wove were fashionable in Queen Victoria's time. In Paisley, Scotland, machine copies of Indian shawls were made. Chinese Costumes The dress of the Chinese differs according to climate and the class of the people. The working people wear two loose garments of coarse deep blue cotton materials. In cold weather, the thin coat is replaced by a quilted and wadded one. The men wear their hair in a long straight braid called a cue. When working, this is sometimes bound about the head. In the fields, wide conical brimmed rice straw hats are worn for protection from the sun. On gala occasions silk garments are worn. Slippers of straw or cotton materials turned up at the toe are worn by both men and women. The poorest classes wear very little clothing. The men usually are naked to the waist and barefoot. In the coast cities, the Chinese are adopting European dress. The cue is slowly going out of fashion, in consequence of which great shipments of Chinese hair come into American markets for the manu- facture of false hair. 516 Many of these coolies have dispensed with the cue. 517 The Chinese coolie or workman wears simple garments of col ton materials. 518 The quilted coats and warm clothes are necessary during cold weather. 519 A variety of Chinese costumes. 521 The Chinese were very proud of iheir long braided cues of hair. They are now adopting the hair cut of the American * and European. 522 The Chinese primitive costume. 531 One of these kimonos shows the tying of the obi at the waist. 543 White costumes are usually worn in semi-tropical climates. Kor- ean (Chosen) costumes are similar to the Chinese. Japanese Costumes Japanese women wear three or four straight kimono-like garments one over the other. At the open folds of the loose sleeves the different colors of the garments may be seen. The obi, or wide sash, is the most important part of the Japanese woman's dress. Some are richly em- broidered on silk or the very costly ones are of cloth of gold. The Japanese wife and mother never wears bright colors nor adorns 484 FINE ARTS her hair. The geisha girls wear bright flowers in their hair and lovely bright colored kimonos. A woman's age can be told by the colors she wears. The same colors are worn at certain ages by all women. The Japanese men wear loose trousers and straight rather short kimonos, belted at the waist. The field laborers wear loose blouse-like garments belted at the waist and wide conical shaped straw hats. Both men and women wear short light stockings and sandals or slippers. They carry gay parasols when out walking. American and European clothes are being adopted in the large cities. 528 Adaptation of Japanese costumes for working in the water of the rice fields. 527, 529 The great hats which protect the workers from the sun in the rice fields are made of rice straw. 530 A serviceable costume for walking, and a rice straw hat which protects the complexion. Japanese are adepts in basket making. 532 The Japanese wear sandals made of woven straw and fastened across the ankle with bands of bright colored material. This picture shows the obi sash worn about the waist of the kimonos. 533 The elaborate headdress of Japanese women is not disturbed when they sleep. 534 Pretty cotton materials are worn in the Japanese kimonos. The mothers carry the babies in a carrier strapped to their backs not unlike that of American Indians. 535 Beautifully embroidered kimonos are worn by wealthy Japanese girls. On one of these kimonos is shown the obi. Miniature gardens artfully planned, with waterfalls, shrubs, trees and flowering plants, are one of the great artistic achievements of the Japanese. 536 The costumes of this Japanese man and woman differ very little. The silk from these silkworms will be woven into beautiful materials and probably sold in America. Since the great Euro- pean war, much of our silk has come from Japan. 537 Light trousers and long shirts with wide belts are made of cotton materials. The conical shaped hat is made of rice straw and is worn in the fields for protection from the sun. 536 The kimono of the Japanese factory girl's costume differs very little in cut from the costumes of her wealthier sisters. 540 Beautifully designed Japanese crepe in kimono. See Silk Industry. 541 Japanese factories have become Americanized even to costumes. Note shirt waists of girls and business tailored suits of men. Hawaiian Costumes 260 American influence shows in the clothes of the younger genera- tion. 261 The dancing girls of Honolulu usually wear skirts of coconut fiber, but these have adopted the European materials. Their decorations of flower wreaths swing rhythmically as they dance. COSTUME DESIGN 485 III. PRIMITIVE COSTUMES Very primitive tribes in tropical and semi-tropical countries wore few garments and those were simple in construction and design. Primi- tive people in colder climates wore garments made of the skins of ani- mals. Americans or Europeans who go to the polar regions adopt the native dress, partially at least. African Native Costumes The dark skinned natives of central Africa are still savages, and their costumes consist of very little covering. In many tribes the na- tives painted their bodies for ceremonial occasions. The men wear a loin cloth. In some tribes, the women wear skirts of leaves or vegetable fibres. Bright colored beads and crude jewelry are worn in some tribes. Missionaries tell amusing stories of the African interest in European dress. At one celebration of a local chief, the men wore the dis- carded hats and brims of hats of European travelers, with their native costumes. 572 The semicivilized and savage tribes wear very few clothes. A loin cloth wrapped about their bodies suffices. 570, 573 These native Africans have lived near the great European commercial posts on the west coast, and are more clothed than their less civilized brothers of the interior. 578 The natives' dress is most primitive, consisting of only a loin cloth. Their uncovered heads bear the intense heat of the trop- ical sun. 581 The dress of the white man and the negro shows the difference in civilization in South Africa. New Guinea Island Costumes 592 The most primitive savages wear a loin cloth of woven cotton material. The women are wearing skirts made of dried grass. Frequently they have elaborate headdresses and ornaments of bone or ivory in the nose or upper lip. Philippine Costumes 543, 546 White clothes are usually worn in semitropical climates. 548 The wide hats of the men are of Spanish origin. 549 Primitive Philippino costumes. 550 These costumes show European influence. 551, 552 This Philippino native wears clothes for comfort. 553 Manila native qpstumes vary according to the tribe. Character- istic dress of semicivilized natives. Arctic Costumes 246 Arctic men with fur boots and caps, worn fur inside. 279 Sealskin clothes and cap are worn with the fur inside. Antarctic Costumes 328 These Indians have never reached a degree of civilization where beauty has become a real feature of dress. 486 FINE ARTS American Indian Costumes The dress of the different tribes of American Indians varied with the degree of civilization and with their ceremonial customs. The cos- tumes were usually made of the cleaned and dressed skins of animals. The costumes of Indian men consisted of several garments. In all tribes, the men wore breechclouts of skin or cloth fastened between the legs and brought up and held by a belt which fastened in front with long decorated ends. Over this were worn buckskin leggings fringed on the outer sides and a jacket or shirt of buckskin often reaching to the knees. This was decorated with beads, feathers or painting. Over the shoulders was worn a long woven blanket. The war headdress consisted of a crown or band of upright feathers and fastened to this a long strip of cloth to which eagle feathers were attached. This headdress was supposed to protect the wearer from the arrows of the enemy. Both men and women wore moccasins of soft skins which were elaborately decorated with beads. ' The Indian women wore buckskin trousers, short skirts reaching to the knees and short bright colored jackets. They wore their hair parted in the center and either braided in two long braids or bound loosely with decorated headbands. Both men and women wore silver ornaments, necklaces, beads and bracelets. The men's necklaces were made of elk teeth and badger claws, representing trophies of the hunt. In many Indian tribes, American dress, has been adopted. 98 The fringes and bead-work decoration are more elaborate than in the average everyday costume of the Indian. 158 Little papoose in his warm handwoven blanket admires the lovely bead-work and leather trimmings of his mother's dress. How pretty is this Indian mother's beaded headband and fringed skirt and sleeves, and how patiently she dyed and wove the bright colored blanket for her papoose. 168 The beaded and feather headdress of the Indian maiden and the elaborate skin costumes of the men are ceremonial in their elaborate decoration. 169 With their silver necklaces and bracelets and elaborate dress, these Indians are on peaceful mission. 182 The elaborate feather headdress of Indian men. The costumes as well as the horses' bridles were decorated with bright colored beadwork. 204 This Indian has accepted the white man's dress. His wife wears her hair braided in two plaits and near the woven Indian blanket stands the board which she wears strapped to her back for carrying her papoose. 244 These Indians have adopted American clothes. 263 These Indians in their American clothes are working on their beautiful grass baskets for sale to the American tourists. 265 Good examples of the elaborate decorative bead-work on Indian costumes. 41. PHOTOGRAPHY By C. E. K. MEES, D.Sc. DIRECTOR RESEARCH LABORATORY, EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Since the " 600 Set " of Keystone stereographs and lantern slides are made by means of the camera, they naturally present an excellent series of examples for a study of the art of photography and especially for that part of the art which deals with the composition and arrangement of photographs. They can be used for the study of composition, scale of gradation, and perspective with great advantage, and suggestions are made here for the selection of scenes illustrating these various points. The study of composition by means of these photographs is particularly valuable, as few people realize the way in which pictures are built up or constructed. Then, again, we see photographs taken under various condi- tions with the objects at different distances from the camera, ranging from very close to very far-away photographs, in sun- light and shadow, and even under such unusual conditions as at the bottom of mines a mile under the earth, or photographing millions of miles through space. There are excellent interior photographs and architectural photographs in the " 600 Set " of stereographs and slides, but it is particularly when we deal with the applications of photog- raphy there shown that we realize the wide scope of the art of the camera. We have photography applied to industry, to farming, to surveying, to the recording of scenes in the moun- tains and in the tropics, to the recording of the habits and cos- tumes of mankind in many parts of the earth, and of the behavior and life of birds and animals, while, finally, the astron- omer uses the photographic plate as his chief tool and is able to contribute some wonderful records of the heavenly bodies. 487 488 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 1. THE COMPOSITION OF A PHOTOGRAPH Composition is the art of placing the different objects in a picture so as to be pleasing to the eye and best tell the story. An essential to good composition is a point of central interest around which the picture is built up. It is usual to choose a point of interest and then to arrange the standpoint so that the lines of the picture are concen- trated on it and lead the eye up to it. 6 Old North Church, Boston. The point of interest in this pic- ture is the church in the distance, and the convergence of the lines of the street lead the eye to the church so that the whole picture is built around it. Compare with 406, The Krystal-Gade and the Round Tower, Denmark ; 502, The Taj Mahal, India ; 79 Shipping coal, Ashley, Pa. ; 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. 70 Oil Field, Pennsylvania. Here again the lines of the trees and the very attitude of the people in the foreground all converge on the well, which is the center of interest in the picture. See also 448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland ; 300 Volcanic eruption, Martinique, F. W. I. ; 88 Congressional chamber, Washington, D. C. ; 98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, James- town Exposition. 186 Cowboy' and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. The figures in the foreground make the center of interest. It should be noticed that the center of interest should not be exactly at the center of the picture but should be near it. The eye naturally follows the rope to the horse and the fact that the rope is stretched tight shows that the horse is pulling. The photographer has succeeded wonderfully in showing intense ac- tion. The group of cattle and the hills beyond furnish a back- ground of great depth. 104 Flooding rice fields, South Carolina. If there is not a natural center of interest in the picture, it is sometimes possible to utilize casual objects to make a center of interest. Thus in this picture the black piles in the water combined with the water gate make a center of interest on which the composition of the photograph is built. See also 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. ; 229 Fallen monarch, Yosemite Valley, Cal. 525 Sacred Mountain of Fuji-Yama, Japan. In this picture the boat with its white sail makes an excellent center point. Note center point in these: 575 Bridge over Zambezi River, Africa; 535 Japanese garden. 507 Ferryboats, India. Here the group of people in the foreground make an excellent center to the picture. Compare with 528 Rice planters, Japan ; 549 Harrowing rice, Manila. 443 Wood carver, Switzerland. In a portrait it is often an advantage to have the subject intent on something so that the eye is led by the gaze of the subject himself and by his attitude toward the center of interest. Compare with 538 Feeding mulberry leaves, Japan; 540 Reeling silk, Japan; 550 Hulling rice, Phil- COMPOSITION 489 ippine Islands; S8S Review of troops, Sydney, N. S. W. ; 551 Husking coconuts, Philippine Islands; 132 Building up auto- mobile tire, Akron, Ohio. 171 Hydroelectric generators, Keokuk, la. In every landscape com- position we must have a general controlling shape correctly placed in the picture, and if a secondary controlling shape is present it must be in some way connected with the first. Per- haps the simplest composition for a photograph is that of con- verging lines, the center of interest being in the middle dis- tance or far distance and all the lines of the photograph converging to this, as was seen in stereograph or slide 6, Old North Church. There are many good examples of this in the set of photographs. See 322 Inca Lake; 399 Water Street, Zaandam, Holland; 270 Sugar beets, Montreal, Can.; 163 Burt mine, Minnesota; 149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo; 390 Pick- ing grapes, Germany. 133 Rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio; 286 Carding room of cot- ton mills, Mexico. These examples of interior scenes show this convergence. It should be noticed that care has been taken in these pictures that the center of interest is not in the middle of the picture, the standpoint being chosen so that the con- vergence of the two sides of the picture is not quite the same, thus giving a much more pleasing view than if a center view were chosen. Examples of the same composition occur in all kinds of scenes. See topic of Parallel Perspective in classifica- tion on Drawing. 30 Broadway, New York; 139, State Street, Chicago; 167 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis; 308 Rua 15th of November, Sao Paulo; 331 Street in Cuzco, Peru. Street scenes with their straight lines lend themselves particularly to this kind of composition. See also 220 Second Street, Seattle, Wash.; 339 Street of La Guaira, Venezuela ; 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris ; 513 "Queen's Road," Hongkong; 504 Spacious thoroughfare, Jaipur, India; 273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Can.; 336 Street Scene, Guayaquil, Ecuador. 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. In open air scenes a good exam- ple of this type of composition is found. 251 Excavations in Gaillard Cut, Panama, and 74 Stripping coal, Pennsylvania, show the use of railroad crossings to produce convergence lines. 128 Unloading iron ore, Conneaut, Ohio. Railroad tracks and cars themselves used for lines converging upon the freight loader, which is the center of interest. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. The edge of the landing stage has been used in the same way. 129 Trainload of coal, Conneaut, Ohio. It shows a modification of this convergent composition, the convergent lines in this case being curved so that we get a long sweeping curve winch makes a very beautiful composition. 404 Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. The same general scheme of composition. 490 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 430 Cannes, France. 304 City and harbor, Bahia, Brazil. Here it is present, though less clearly marked. 489 Bosphorus, Turkey. A less usual form of controlling shape, this being an elliptical shape in the foreground. The theme is du- plicated in this slide, both the mound surrounded by trees and the sea in the distance taking the elliptical shape. 316 Four o'clock parade, Palermo, Argentina. This elliptical figure again, with some tendency toward the converging curve. 326 Harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. A shape frequently used in the composition of landscapes is the zigzag. The eye is first led to the right by the white road at the bottom and then again to the left. 528 Rice planters, Japan ; 529 Rice harvest, Japan. The composition of these pictures is very greatly helped by the use of the zig- zag shape. The line of work-people would lead the eye out of the picture were it not for the break in the rice, which leads the eye back again. 210 Roosevelt Dam, is also an example of zigzag shape. 369 Ellen's Isle, Scotland; 461 Public Square, Gratz, Austria; 200 Phoebe's Arch, Colorado. Occasionally in landscapes great use can be made of the vista composition, that is, of a choice of posi- tion such that the picture appears to be framed within some natural objects close to the camera. This is particularly effec- tive in stereoscopic views. 536 Silkworm incubator, Japan ; 561 Farm scene in Egypt ; 564 In- undation of the Nile, Egypt. In photographing groups it is im- portant to have some definite geometrical design in mind in arranging the group. Perhaps the safest design is a rough pyramid, thus, in 536 the bodies and heads of the two figures together with the man's hand leading the eye up to the ther- mometer make a roughly pyramidal shape. 548 Cattle as pack animals, Island of Luzon. The group of animals and riders in the foreground duplicates in its lines the moun- tain in the background. 498 Grinding wheat, Palestine. An excellent example of a perfectly posed group. The women, forming a pure pyramid and keep- ing intent on their work, make a very pleasing picture. 2. LIGHT a. The Scale of Gradation Since the purpose of photography is to represent by the different tones of the print the relative brightnesses of the corresponding portions of the original scene, the most important thing in obtaining an accu- rate photograph is that the scale of gradation of the photograph shall correspond through all its tones to those of the original scene. This can be accomplished only by correct exposure and development of the negative and by printing upon a paper exactly suitable to the scale of the negative. Such a photograph, having a very accurate scale SCALE OF GRADATION 491 of gradation, is said to be of technically good quality and is invariably pleasing to the eye. While all the stereographs and slides represent the scenes well, the following have been selected as showing a particularly excellent scale of gradation : 18 Scene in a woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. Note the way in which the variation in brightness of the bobbins on the right as they recede into the distance is accurately reproduced. See also 14 and 16 Scenes in a cotton mill ; 22 and 24 Scenes in a silk mill. SO Niagara Falls, N. Y. In this very beautiful scene all the fine gradation of the highlights is retained and produces the charm of the picture. 70 Shooting oil well, Pennsylvania. In this view we have particu- larly accurate rendering of the middle tones. See also 83 School gardens, Philadelphia; 112 Tobacco field, Kentucky; 117 Pick- ing cotton, Mississippi; 138 Horses at work, Indiana; 176 Zinc and lead mines, Missouri ; 180 Farm machinery, Nebraska ; 359 Nightingale, England. 74 Stripping coal, Pennsylvania. Note the retention of gradation and detail in the shadow in this picture. Any underexposure would have been fatal to this. 192 Angel Terrace, Wyoming. This view is remarkable for the accu- rate rendering of the gradation of the high lights. See also 196 A beaver dam, Yellowstone Park; 197 Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone National Park. 543 Charcoal carriers, Chosen. This is a good example of portraiture in natural surroundings. The lighting of the face deserves study. 200 Phoebe's Arch, Colorado. In spite of the extreme range of brightness occurring in this view, the distant hills and the dark rocks are retained in perfect gradation. See also 202 Box Canyon, Colorado; 235 Burbank and the spineless cactus, Santa Rosa, Cal. 216 Port Blakely mills, Seattle, Wash. The gradation in this view is excellent throughout. Note that the highest light is not in the sky but in the near foreground. 258 Cutting sugar cane, Porto Rico. Observe the gradation shown in the white shirts of the men. Compare with 290 Mexican musicians. 291 Volcanoes, Gautemala, C. A. The accurate reproduction of the high light detail helps to give the sense of distance in this view. See also 274 Glacier, Canada. 301 A cattle ranch, Jamaica. This is a good photograph of a rather easy subject. 361 Lake District, England. Photographically considered, this is per- haps a most perfect reproduction. 492 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 408 Jordal Valley, Norway. Note the retention of gradation at the two extremes of the scale — in the water and snow, and in the dark hillside. See also 412 Paper mills, Skotifos, Norway; 419 Field of sugar beets, Sweden; 444 Lauterbrunnen Valley, Switzerland. 489 Looking up the Bosporus, Scutari, Asia. While there are no extreme contrasts in this view, any failure of gradation would have been fatal to its beauty. See also 506 Weaving woolen shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan; 530 Tea fields, Shizuoka, Japan; 562 Thresh- ing beans, Egypt. The rendering of gradation is very good. 575 Bridge over Zambezi River, Africa. The gradation in this scene from high light to shadow is particularly good. b. Flashlight Work Photography by artificial light is a very fascinating branch of the art and the use of burning magnesium powder, either in what are termed " flash cartridges " or " flash sheets " only requiring to be fas- tened up and lighted, makes it possible to obtain photographs under conditions which without this method would be quite impossible. 2 Wild moose, Maine. This is a wonderful flash-light photograph of a wild animal at night. 76 Coal mines, Scranton, Pa. Here the flash-light has been used to give us a picture of the miners actually getting coal from the mines. 155 Calumet-Hecla Mines, Michigan. This photograph, taken a mile underground, is an excellent' example of flash-light work. 579 Gold mine, South Africa. Here again, we have a picture in a gold mine showing what can be done by flash-light photography. 3. PERSPECTIVE A lens photographs a scene exactly as the eye sees it from the same standpoint, and when a stereograph is examined the rigid correctness of photographic perspective is easily realized. The apparent falsity of perspective in some photographs is due to the fact that to get cor- rect perspective the eye should be at the same distance from the photo- graph as the lens was from the plate or film when the picture was taken. If a lens of very short focus was used, it would be difficult to view the picture from a sufficiently small distance and the perspective would appear incorrect. In the stereoscope, however, the viewing dis- tance corresponds to the lenses used in the camera and correct per- spective is realized. 366 Great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. Note the strong perspective when this is viewed from a distance ; in the stereo- scope the perspective is seen to be correct. 392 Bridge over river Rhine, Germany. Owing to the greater dis- tance of the bridge from the camera, the perspective in this view appears much less violent than that of 366. Compare with 470 Bridge over the Danube River, Roumania ; 472 Galata Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey. STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 493 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar, New York; 171 Hydroelec- tric generators, Iowa; 270 Sugar beets stored in sheds, Mon- treal, Can. ; 139 State Street, Chicago. a. Depth of Field In many photographs some objects are close to the camera and others are very far away, and such objects at different distances from the camera can only be photographed to give an equal degree of sharpness by the use of a small aperture in the lens. 1 Logs, Aroostook Co., Maine. Notice the sharpness of all the different objects at various distances from the camera. Such a view is said to have great depth of field. 186 The cattle are almost as clear in outline as the figures in the foreground. See also 5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. ; 10 Lexington Common, Lexington, Mass. b. Rendering of Distance The obtaining of clear photographs of distant objects in a landscape is a matter of great difficulty if the atmosphere is at all hazy, as it usually is in northern latitudes. At the same time this haze in the dis- tance may be of value as giving a sense of distance which could not be obtained in a clearer view. 51 Palisades of the Hudson River, New Jersey. Here one gets a strong sense of the distance of the opposite shore of the river, owing to haze. 190 Sheep, Idaho; 237 Orange groves, California. In the sharp, clear air of this view, the distant hills show but little more mist than the rise in front of them. See also 228 The Sierras, California. 288 " Old Popocatepetl," Mexico. Here in the clear air of the tropics we see the mountain at a great distance, clear-cut against the sky. 4. STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY A stereograph does not consist of two ordinary pictures but is a double picture taken by two lenses placed three inches apart so that they photograph two distinct images of the same subject from slightly differ- ent standpoints. The combination of these two images in the stereo- scope gives the appearance which would be seen by a person whose two eyes occupied the position of the two lenses of the camera when the stereograph was taken. This principle is well illustrated by com- paring the following stereographs with the corresponding views made by mounting side by side on one card two ordinary photographs taken from the same standpoint. 231 Earthquake fissure, Berkeley, Cal. The same view without stereoscopic effect. 303 Cacao tree, Dominica, B. W. I. The same view without stereoscopic effect. 197 The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Wyoming. The same view without stereoscopic effect. 494 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 5. SUBJECTS AND SCENES a. Unusual Subjects The following photographs are of interest owing to the unusual nature of the subject photographed; the hot metal must have presented photographic problems of no small difficulty. 65 Steel mill, Pittsburgh, Pa. Note the halation from the intensely bright white-hot steel as it pours into the mold. 67 Steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. The showers of sparks from the rolling mill make a most interesting stereograph. 12 Woodcock. Such pictures are very difficult to get and are very rare. The protective coloring of birds is admirably shown. 414 In this wonderful photograph of the midnight sun, an effect is seen which is common in photographs where bright lights, such as the sun, are included in the field of view. This is the reversal of the light source itself, the brightest portion of the sun being seen as a dark ring against the bright halo surrounding it. 186 This picture shows action in a remarkable degree. b. Interiors In photographing interiors, the arrangement of the lighting is of the greatest importance if a harmonious picture is to be obtained. It is especially important that the lighting should be as even as possible. 33 Dining room and living room. This is a good photograph of an interior. 92 The Cabinet Room, Washington, D. C. Note the excellent light- ing in this photograph. 372 Burns' cottage, Scotland. Here we have an interior in which the gradation throughout is good. In such a scene as this there is often great difficulty in avoiding underexposure in the side far- thest from the window. 533 Japanese home. This interior is smoothly and well lighted, a pleasing effect being obtained. See also 14, 16 Cotton mills. Lawrence, Mass. ; 17 Woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. ; 20 Paper mill, Holyoke, Mass.; 34 Sugar factory, New York; 53 Silk mills, Paterson, N. J.; 57 Modern dairy, Plainsboro, N. J.; 59 Pottery, Trenton, N. J.; 65 Steel mill, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 132 Rubber plant, Akron, Ohio ; 135 Plate glass works, Rossford, Ohio; 141 Packing house, Chicago; 151 Automobile plant, De- troit, Mich. ; 153 Packing salt, St. Clair, Mich. ; 171 Hydro- electric generators, Iowa; 268, 269 Linen mill, Canada; 353 Regulator of the world's clocks, Greenwich, Eng. ; 412 Paper mills, Norway; 417 The council room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, Sweden; 536 Silkworm incubator, Japan; 541 Silk weaving plant, Japan. c. Architectural Photography Photography has been of great assistance to the architect and the photography of buildings is a fascinating branch of the art. The INDUSTRY — ENGINEERING 495 " 600 Set " of stereographs and slides contains many excellent examples from which the following are selected : 139 State Street, Chicago. The great height of the buildings makes this a difficult subject. 425 Though by no means the most beautiful of the cathedrals of France, Notre Dame has an attraction of its own and makes a splendid subject for the photographer. The picture is so sharp that with a good lens the famous gargoyles can be made out. 442 Lucerne, Switzerland. An unusual photograph of a well-known subject. 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy. This is an excellent example of Gothic architecture. 483 Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. Note the domes so characteristic of Russian churches. 502 Taj Mahal, India. This is generally regarded as the most per- fectly proportioned building in the world. 524 Nankow Pass, China. Note how the inclusion of the caravan has given life and interest to this photograph. 521 Store of Chinese tea merchant. Here again the peddler's display in the foreground is of great value pictorially. d. Photography Applied to the Factory 150 Assembling room, automobile plant, Detroit, Michigan. Photog- raphy is much used for keeping records of the situation in a factory at various times, thus the photograph shown might be taken from the same standpoint at fixed intervals in order to keep the management informed as to the stock of machines in process in this room. 152 Ford plant, Detroit, Mich. Factories often take photographs of their work people and plants for publication in the " house organ " or magazine to which such pictures lend interest. 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts. Engineers often make photographs of machines and workers ; these are frequently used for efficiency studies. e. Photography Applied to Engineering 313 Great dredge, Montevideo, Uruguay. It is usual to photograph all such important pieces of engineering work as this dredge when they are completed by the maker. 161 Digging ditch with tractor, Wisconsin ; 163 Steam shovel at work, Burt mine, Minnesota ; 210 Great Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. Contractors often make periodical photographs showing the nature of the work and the progress made. 250, 251, 254 Photographs were taken regularly of the Panama Canal throughout its construction. f. Photography and the Farm It is doubtful whether farmers make as much use of photography as they might do ; certainly such records as the following would be of use for comparison from time to time. 496 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 47 Cantaloupes, near Buffalo, N. Y. This is well chosen to show the crop on the ground and yet the introduction of the wagon avoids the lack of interest likely to occur when photographing a flat field. 136 Cutter and binder at work on Indiana farm. Such photographs as this give an excellent idea of the value of agricultural ma- chinery. 149 Celery; 108 Pineapples. These are good photographs showing special crops. 178 Plowing with tractor, South Dakota; 179 Tractor drawing har- rows, South Dakota; 332 Tractor drawing harrow and pulver- izer, Lima, Peru. Here we sec the use of various types of agricultural machines. 185 Hereford cattle, Manhattan, Kan. This splendid photograph of stock suggests a regular use of photography for the purpose of making similar records. g. Photography Applied to Surveying and Map Making Photography is much used for record making and even accurate surveying, special cameras being used. Much of the Canadian survey work is done photographically. Photographic records from air craft have also been of great importance in war, photographs being taken daily showing alterations in the positions of defences and guns. 394 Every Zeppelin air craft is fitted with specially designed photo- graphic apparatus. 248 City of Panama; 25 New York; 435 Madrid, Spain; 361 Lake District, England; 93 Washington, D. C. ; 170 Keokuk Dam, Iowa; 422 Paris; 489 Bosporus. These show views suitable for the construction of maps. h. Alpine Scenery Alpine scenery with its high lights and deep shadows, and its great distances, gives many very interesting photographs. 102 Blue Ridge Mountain scene. This is a remarkable photograph. The fruit tree and fence lead the eye to the center and give a suggestion of man and his work. The real interest, however, lies in the mountain tops and the valleys filled with clouds. A peculiar effect is the idea of unlimited extent which is con- veyed to you. 219 Crevasse of Paradise Glacier, Washington. It is not altogether easy to get a good rendering of the tones in ice and snow such as is shown here. 274 This photograph of the crevasse in Victoria Glacier is worthy of careful study. It is roughly pyramidal in shape with lines con- verging at the right. The mountain cuts the sky in a sharp SURVEYING AND MAP MAKING 497 line. The center of interest is, of course, the icy wall in the foreground, its whiteness being in strong contrast to the stone covered surface of the glacier. The picture seems to show the texture of the ice and stone. v 275 lllecillewaet Glacier, Canada ; 448 Switzerland. As we ascend to high levels, the sky becomes darker owing to its freedom from dust particles which reflect and scatter the sunlight until finally the sky appears dark instead of blue and the white clouds and ice peaks stand out strongly in contrast. 276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. The lady in the immediate foreground adds a bit of life and human interest, but is only an acces- sory part of the picture. The rock wall with the wind swept clouds, the glaciers at the right and left sending down their foaming streams, these make the real picture. Notice how the lines tend to converge, and the angles are softened by the curves of the ice and streams. The lady above the tops of the slen- der pine trees gives a sense of depth seldom obtained in a pic- ture. 427 Glacier, Chamonix, France. Here we have wonderful lighting effects. The glacier is, of course, the center of value, and yet so many of the lines converge at the point where the house stands that the eye is drawn toward the home. 428 Mer de Glace, Chamonix, France. The notable things in this photograph are the sweeping lines, the lights and shadows. Such a figure as the stunted tree in the foreground emphasizes the bareness of snowy slopes. 444 Lauterbrunnen Valley and the Falls of the Staubbach. This shows a fine scale of gradation. Against the grey walls of the narrow, shadowy valley, the mist of the falling water shines with dazzling whiteness. In the far background the walls open to show sunshine on the snowy mountain and the clouds. The daisies in the foreground and the shining water in the valley serve to bring out strong contrasts. 446 Here is a very clever composition. The Alpine horn in the fore- ground excites our curiosity and the old man under the tree our sympathy. The eye, however, travels past the men to the rough surface of the glacier and to the mountains. There is a sharp contrast between the grassy slopes and trees in the foreground and the bare mountains farther on. Notice what graceful curves sweep toward the right and what depth is shown. 449 In this mountain scene it will be noticed that there is no sky, the rising ground on the other side of the valley filling the picture. This is very characteristic of pictures taken in hilly country. 508 The Himalayas, Northern India. In some respects this is the most wonderful picture in the " 600 Set." Notice first the light which, coming from the right, gives the glistening whiteness to mountain snows and clouds, in strong contrast to the deep 498 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY shadows. The mountains are roughly pyramidal with all lines running off the picture. We catch glimpses of peaks hidden by clouds both before and behind the mountains. The effect of the whole picture is an idea of illimitable space, of depth, and height and distance. We realize that what we see is only a little part of what really is. The leafless branch in the fore- ground suggests life and emphasizes distance. i. Tropical Scenes The lighting conditions characteristic of the tropics are the high, almost vertical, sun, the clear air, and the deep shadows unsoftened by the light scattered from the sky which modifies the shadows of the temperate zone. Since photographic exposures must be such as to re- cord the shadows, exposures in the tropics should be longer than would be judged from the brilliant sunlit portions of the scene, and, in- deed, they are generally not less than in temperate climates. 259 Hawaii. Photographs of tropical gardens, while inviting because of the brilliancy of the scene, are apt to be disappointing owing to the absence of the vivid coloring which was so attractive in the original. 301 Jamaica. Such scenes as this are common in Jamaica and make excellent and most interesting photographs. 249 Panama. A very typical scene in the West Indies and Central America, a happy hunting ground for many tourists with their cameras. 302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. In this scene the scale of. gradation is very good. 560 The Great Nile Bridge, Egypt. Notice the convergence of line. There is no deep shadow to form contrasts and the center of interest is in the immediate foreground. 572 The native market, Central Africa. This picture should be com- pared with 560. Instead of the strongly converging lines, the eye begins at the front left-hand corner and travels back through a zigzag line till it reaches the water in the far back- ground. This view has great depth of field. 300 Earthquake Fissure, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. Distance is well shown and the scale of gradation is very fine. 288 The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid and "Old Popocatepetl," Mexico. 291 Volcanoes, Guatemala, C. A. The clouds before the mountains emphasize the distance and the height. j. Natural History Photography Recently the camera has replaced the gun for many hunters, and instead of killing the wild birds and animals, photographs showing their appearance, natural surroundings, life and habits are made. RECORDING COSTUMES 499 588 Kangaroo; 239 Ostriches. Even when animals are in captivity, interesting photographs can be made. 2 Wild moose ; 196 A beaver dam ; 232 American bison. The most valuable results are obtained when the animals are living in their natural surroundings. 72 Woodcock on nest; 359 A nightingale; 583 Gannets ; 584 Pen- guins. Good photographs of wild birds are difficult to ob- tain, often demanding much patience and skill on the part of the photographer; sometimes bird photographs are made by means of very, long focus, or " telephoto " lenses but many ex- cellent results are secured simply by the exercise of sufficient patience to remain motionless until the opportunity for exposure comes. 539 Silkworm cocoons in their nests, Kiryu, Japan; 209 Desert vege- tation, Arizona ; 247 Rubber tree, Panama. When photograph- ing such subjects as these the same difficulties do not arise, but nevertheless good photographs of wild flowers or plants growing will often tax the skill and patience of the photog- rapher. k. Photography for Recording Costumes, Appearance and Habits of the Various Races of Mankind One of the most valuable applications of photography is to the re- cording of customs and clothing which soon pass away and would be forgotten but for the photographic records. 98, 158, 168, 182, 204, 265 These records of the North American In- dian will be of value when his picturesque dress and interest- ing customs have long been only a memory of the past. 205 Cliff dwellings, Colorado. Doubtless these relics of the aborigines of the country will be carefully preserved, but photographs enable knowledge of them to be spread to many who could never see the originals. 328 Indians on Magellan Strait ; 343 Eskimo girls, Greenland. Everywhere records are being made of such isolated tribes as these. 261 Hula girls, Hawaii ; 592 Papuans. The island people are fast los- ing their customs and becoming absorbed, so that these records are of value. 418 Sweden. In western Europe the native costumes are still worn in some places, especially on festal occasions. 402 Holland. Here we see at the same time children in their native dress and also in modern clothes. 471 Roumania; 490 Circassians; 491 Tarsus, Asia Minor; 498 Pales- tine. As we go towards the East, we find the costumes and habits of the people preserved in their original form. 478 Ruins of Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece; 507 Ferryboats, India; 568 Ruins of Karnak, Egypt. These records of the relics of vanished civilizations are very impressive. Note how the pho- tograph brings out the vast size of the colossi in comparison with the men and animals at their feet. 506 Srinagar, Kashmir; 507 India; 519 China; 530 Shizuoka, Japan; 500 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 543 Chosen. The East is full of interest for the photographer who finds new subjects at every turn. 1. Astronomical Photography Photography is the handmaid of many sciences, but to no scientific worker is it of greater importance than to the astronomer ; indeed the modern astronomer very rarely observes the heavens with his eye — he almost always photographs instead, merely guiding the telescope bv visual observation. 593 The sun naturally requires very short exposures and was the first heavenly object to be photographed. 594, 595 The moon gives the most interesting photograph of any object in the sky and forms a splendid object for the stereo- scope. 596 With the planet Mars it is still a matter of dispute as to whether the much discussed " canals " can be shown in a photograph. 597 Saturn with its wonderful ring system makes a marvelous tele- scopic object and its appearance is well represented in this pho- tograph. 598 The far-away planet Uranus with its moons gives us an idea of the vast size of the solar system. 599 Meteors, or " shooting stars." This stereograph makes the near- ness of the meteor, in comparison with the starry background, very apparent. 600 This wonderful picture of a comet, one of those strange wanderers which come to the sun, forms a marvelous stereoscopic object. FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS By WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Concreteness is essential at all stages of the educative proc- ess, but it is especially important in the early grades of the elementary school. Here the emphasis in all subjects of in- struction must be upon the formation of clear, definite, and typical images as a basis for the more abstract concepts. These images should be based upon experiences — actually under- gone or vividly imagined — in a large number of situations typifying the most important phases of human life and the most significant natural phenomena which surround and con- dition human life. It is through insuring the effectiveness of the imagined experiences that the stereograph can be most profitably used in these lower grades. Even though the child's immediate environment may be narrowly circumscribed he may look through the stereoscope into a larger world, and a few well directed questions by the teacher will enable him to imagine how it would feel to be in this world, and how he would act if he were actually there. It is this actual transla- tion of one's self into the pictured situation that conditions the effective educational use of the stereoscopic views. If it is a mountain that is pictured, the child should imagine how it would feel to climb the mountain, clambering over the rocks, watching to avoid the crevices, and slowly toiling toward the summit. If he vividly images these conditions, he will have a basis for understanding later why mountain ranges are bar- riers to communication and travel, and the significance of hu- man ingenuity in constructing railroads over mountain passes and in piercing the ranges with tunnels. Or it may be a series of pictures that follow through the various stages of the lumber industry; he, too, must work Soi 502 INTRODUCTION with the woodmen felling the trees; help them to saw the trunks into- logs, load them on the sledges, and haul them to the river ; follow the " drive " down the rapid stream to the mill, balancing himself with the other drivers on the rolling logs; watch the great saws as they slice the logs into lumber, and then help load the boards upon the tram cars to be carried to the drying piles in the yard. The imagination of little children is naturally most readily caught and stimulated by pictures dealing with the life and activities of children themselves. A most effective introduc- tion to the study of other countries, then, is through the child- life and the home-life of these countries. Again the problem is to get the child to put himself into the picture — to imagine himself playing or working with the other children and learn- ing in this way fundamental facts about the region that is be- ing studied, its climate and surface-features, its productions, occupations, and industries, and the social customs of the peo- ple. In View No. 292, for example, a primitive Central American home is pictured* If a child actually reads himself into this situation and imagines himself aiding in the work that the members of the family are doing, he will gain a vivid idea of the conditions of life in this region and of the many ways in which these differ from the conditions under which he lives. But there are certain resemblances, too ; food must be provided for the family and prepared for eating; there must be utensils for preparing the food and for keeping the home in a condition of reasonable comfort ; and the chil- dren, even in Central America, must help with the home work. It is through these points of similarity that the differences can be made clear and interesting and may come to form the basis of an understanding of the characteristic features of the region that is being studied and of its life and customs. This is only suggestive of what the stereograph may be made to do in stimulating the imagination and thus impelling the child to undergo the significant experiences which in their totality may well give him the essential basis of a clear con- ception of the world in which he lives. And this kind of in- struction may be carried on systematically (but with constant regard for the importance of concreteness and vividness) dur- ing the first four years of school life. 42. CHILDREN OF THE WORLD By G. A. MIRICK, A.M. LECTURER ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, HARVARD. FORMERLY ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, SUPERVISING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, STATE OF NEW JERSEY Children are interested in children, but not very much in descriptions of them or in scientifically classified facts about them. They like to see children in action, doing the things that children naturally do. They also enjoy seeing grown people engaged in the common affairs of life. A skillful story teller can paint word-pictures that children appreciate, but the photograph is superior to most word-pic- tures, and the stereograph is the most lifelike of all photo- graphs for it is the only three dimension picture and seen through a stereoscope, each figure in a stereograph stands out in bold relief and exact size in relation to the other objects in the scene. The stereograph teaches concentration, it can be studied in detail and it gives the impression of solidity and of space, so that for young children, possibly for them even more than for adults, the stereograph has a value and an at- tractiveness all its own. After the pictures are thoughtfully selected from the point of view of the interests and mental capacities of the chil- dren who are to use them, a few only should be used in one lesson. As a rule, one is more useful than a larger number. If several pictures illustrating one topic are available, it will generally be more profitable to study two or three in sucr cessive lessons rather than to give a hasty, ill-considered glance at all, for it is the study of a picture that makes its use edu- cational, not the mere looking at it. The stereographs for this classification have been selected because of the clearness with which they picture their story ; but yet each picture illustrates a variety of topics. For ex- ample, in stereograph 550, there is the home with its side of bamboo poles and its thatched roof of dried grasses ; or one may study the girls, their color, features, hair, clothing; or 503 504 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD one may approach the picture with an interest in what the people are doing and the implements they are using. While a teacher may properly allow pupils to study a given picture for all of these things, yet, in general, it will be found more profitable to consider one element of a picture at a time, using several pictures that portray the same kind of facts. Each of these pictures may then be restudied in other lessons to learn other sets of facts that they illustrate. It requires some skill on the part of the teacher to keep the minds of " little folks " centered on one point of interest, but in proportion as she is successful in doing this, she will find her picture les- son educationally profitable to them. The stereographs that are here suggested for use in kinder- garten and primary grades are grouped by countries first. This is the First Series of Studies. This grouping shows, at a glance, the available material for illustrating any course of study that a teacher may be following. The analysis of each picture indicates, like a table of contents, what it teaches. But, because many schools follow a course of study in these lowest grades that is based on the family, school and com- munity life, a second grouping is made by topics. This is the Second Series of Studies. No attempt is made to give a com- plete list of the topics that may be illustrated by the stereo- graphs, but enough are given to show clearly their varied use- fulness in this kind of study. A third grouping has been made from the point of view of primitive life. This is the Third Series of Studies. FIRST SERIES OF STUDIES Stereographs and lantern slides grouped by countries. Throughout each of the three series of studies, there will be found under the various topical headings a considerable range of scenes showing children — at work, at school, at play. Likewise there is a good representation of the homes and home life in the various lands. UNITED STATES Children at Play 60 Children at play by the seashore. Relates to summer sports, bathing, seabeach. FRUIT — VEGETABLES — GRAIN 505 School Garden 83 Children at work in a school garden. Relates to nature study, gardening, useful work children may do. Fruits 175 In an apple orchard. Picking, sorting, and putting into barrels. 236 Picking grapes in California. Vineyard; farmer's home and windmill. 85 In a peach orchard. Picking peaches. 47 In a field of cantaloupes. Vines and fruit ; picking and loading into a wagon. 108 In a field of pineapples. Growing pineapples ; white and colored men picking them ; windmill pumping water into a water tank for irrigation. Note the thick gloves worn by the men. Vegetables 137 In a field of pumpkins. Related to fall of the year. Pumpkins growing in a field of corn. Corn stacked to dry and harden. For field of corn, see 184. 166 Digging potatoes. A large field in Minnesota. Digging by ma- chinery. Gathering into baskets. 149 Celery. Blanching and harvesting; team of horses; dog; rich moist soil. 375 A market where fresh vegetables may be bought. Grain 184 Kansas cornfield. Stone wall ; corn stalks two and three times as tall as a man ; corn flowers. For corn stacked in a field, see 137. 218, 177 Wheat. 147 Oats. Hauling from shocks ; team ; wagon ; home in distance. 199 Barley. 105 Rice. Negroes hoeing rice grown under irrigation. Nuts 118 A crop of peanuts. Peanuts grow on the roots of vines as po- tatoes do. The picture shows in the background the vines stacked around a pole to dry. The pole is to keep the stack from falling over. In the middle ground are colored men and women picking the nuts from the vines and into barrels to ship away. The white woman is evidently selling her crop to the man in front of her. Peanuts grow in the southern part of the country. 234 A shower of almonds. An almond orchard in California. Men shaking the nuts onto a sheet. 506 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD Sugar 130 A maple tree grove. Tapping a tree; the sap running into pails; collecting the sap in wagons ; the shed where the sap is " boiled down " to syrup and " sugared off." 35 Filling bags with granulated sugar made from either sugar cane or sugar beets. 34 Loaf sugar received from drying kiln. Cotton 117 Colored children picking cotton. A field of cotton in full bloom; a basket of picked cotton. Note that the cotton plant grows as tall as the larger girl in the foreground. Compare with plants the pupils know. Animals 190 Sheep in a pasture. An Idaho range. Shepherd and sheep dog. 173 A flock of sheep in the fall of the year. Heavy fleece on the sheep. Trees without leaves. 172, 183, 122 Hogs feeding. A Kansas pasture. 186, 127 Cattle at pasture. A western range. "Rounding up" a herd; a lasso ; calf in foreground of 127. 188, 138, 71 Horses. 57 Milking cows. Fine modern dairy barn. 56 In a hen-house. A beautiful flock of white hens. Scratching lit- ter on floor; roosts on the left. The open box on right of the picture is a nest. 239 Baby ostriches. Also ostrich eggs and grown ostriches. 216 Geese. For meat and feathers. At large lumber mill. 246 Dog team in Alaska. Miners within Arctic circle. Fish 13 Drying codfish in the sun. A fishing boat in the right middle ground. The fish after being caught in the ocean are brought to shore, their heads cut off, they are split open, sprinkled with salt and put on racks in the sun to dry. Pupils can see cod- fish and haddock in the fish markets. Dry fish nowadays gen- erally is sold in shredded form or cut into pieces and packed in pound boxes. 226 Catching salmon in nets. 244 Indians drying salmon. Good Housekeeping 33 A dainty dining room. Indians 158 A little Hiawatha. Costume of mother; Indian blankets; cradle. 204 Papooses. Cradle with Indian baby inside; blanket; braided hair of man. 244 Indians drying fish in Alaska. AMERICAN COUSINS 507 OUR BROTHERS AND SISTERS IN POSSESSIONS OF UNITED STATES 260 Learning to be Americans. A schoolhouse and children in Hawaii ; the American flag. 244 In cold Alaska. Drying fish. 249 At the Panama Canal. A village scene. 551 Our Philippine brothers. A coconut grove. The palm leaves and coconuts on the trees ; piles of coconuts ; taking off the husks, cutting open the nuts. Clothing of the native men and boys. 550 Our Philippine sisters. Bamboo hut with thatched roof of dry grasses. Native girls in native dress pounding rice. 548 Riding on oxen. Philippine natives on way to market. Note the baskets, the harness, the barefoot man and woman, the cloth- ing for a hot country and the American umbrella. Note also the shadow cast by the oxen, which shows that it is about noon. AMERICAN COUSINS TO THE SOUTH OF US Mexico 290 Little cousins in gala dress. Children's costumes; odd hats of the men. 281 Poor little Mexicans in untidy surroundings. Central America 292 Learning to make corn cakes. A family scene. The mother is rolling the corn ; the older daughter is forming the dough into a cake; the small daughter is watching. Note the jar of water, the little stone table and roller and the odd-looking broom. 294 In a banana grove. Bunches of bananas have been loaded on a mule. A man in the left foreground is taking down a bunch from the tree. In the midde ground, a bunch can be seen hanging high in the tree. Note the beautiful vista between the trees, the large leaves and the bananas growing upside down. 298 A tropical farmyard. A thatched-roof cottage with the family gathered about the door. Note the palm trees, a sign of a hot country. South America 306 South American cousins. School children, Brazil. Note their likeness in dress and general appearance to American school children. 336 A city cousin. Playing on a balcony. 324 Home from the store with mother. The little boy is carrying his mother's bundle. Politeness is the same all over the world. 339 Fresh milk. A little boy is buying some milk for the family. 508 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD The cow is brought to the door. Note the narrow street and sidewalks. 338 The pet rooster. Looking down on a city of Venezuela. Note the baby without any clothes. This is a sign of a hot climate. Note also the tiny backyard in the foreground. This is a crowded tenement district. 341 The baker. Note the height of the donkey compared with the height of the man. Then note the big barrels in which the bread is carried. 328 Our cousins in furs and blankets. Note the different signs that the climate is cold — the furs, the blankets held tightly around the neck and body, the babies tucked down inside the fur wraps on the backs of their mothers. EUROPE British Isles 347 Landing in England. Steamboats and wharf, Liverpool. 378 Irish coal. Donkey carts loaded with peat. 373 A home in Scotland. Summer time: afternoon tea: boy in mid- dle ground. Note the vine growing up over the cottage roof; the thatched roof; the grasses that are growing from the turf on the roof of the ell in the left foreground. Compare with 281. Northern Europe 411 Milking time in Norway. A farmyard scene. 409 Carding and spinning wool in Norway. A basket of wool ; a woman combing it to straighten the fibers; a woman spinning; a spinning wheel and balls of spun wool. Note the women's costumes and the farm houses in the background. 410 Making bread in Norway. An out-of-door kitchen. 413 Milking time in Lapland. A herd of reindeer. Note their height compared with the man. Compare with animals the children know. Note also the pasture fence, and the child and dog in the foreground. 481 Selling fish in Finland. Women are both selling and buying. See back of stereograph. 396 Selling milk in Belgium. Dog cart, milk cans, peasant's dress. 402 Dutch children. Costumes, wooden shoes. 403 Milking time in Holland. Note the rope around the cows' hind legs to keep them from walking away; wooden shoes of men. Windmills in background. 400 Dutch canal and windmill. Windmill works a large pump that pumps the water from the low land into the canal. Central Europe 423 Flower market in Paris. 431 Washday in France. Bringing bundles of clothes on head to wash; scrubbing; piles of wet clothes; drying them. Tell th* SOUTHERN EUROPE — JAPAN 509 story of the dangers of floods related on back of the stereo- graph. 390 Harvest time in a vineyard — Germany. Baskets of grapes ; height of vines ; long straight rows. 393 Market day in Germany. 388 Making hay in Germany. Note the pitch fork in the left fore- ground. 465 School children — Poland. 487 Russian girls selling milk. Milk carried in jars. Note caps, collars, ornamented skirts. 485 Market day in Poland. Hebrew quarter. 469 Market day in Bulgaria. A pile of onions, of potatoes, and of cabbages can be distinguished. 471 Roumanian mother and children. Native costumes. 488 Farmer boy in Russia. Hunting for worms. The boy in dress looks like an American farmer boy. The man's dress and his plow are distinctively Russian. 447 Market day in Switzerland. Little country girl with basket and her goats; small garden on right (cf. 445) ; store on left; and tent-like booth in middle ground. Note wide overhanging roof and snow capped mountains. 445 Home scene in Switzerland. Cottage ; winter's fire wood piled against the house ; sled runners suggesting the long winters ; rocks on the roof of the little shed to keep it from blowing away; the little garden fenced in to keep out the cows, goats and sheep that come down from the mountain pasture at night. Winter all the time on the top of the mountain in background. Southern Europe 479 Harvest time in Greece. Mules treading on the grain to shake the seeds from the stalks. Note the costumes and the pitch fork. 455 Neighbors in Sicily. Note how the clothes are put out to dry. This is the customary way in crowded tenement districts all over the world. 437 Helping in an orange grove — Spain. 438 Barrels of grapes from the vineyards, Spain. Children have seen the little barrels of white grapes packed in sawdust in fruit and grocery stores. The picture shows these barrels piled on two-wheeled carts. They are going from the vineyards to the wharf where the grapes will be shipped for foreign coun- tries, perhaps to America. ASIA Japan 533 Bed time. See back of stereograph for description. 534 Babies and flowers. See back of stereograph. 510 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 535 A Japanese garden. Fine landscape gardening. Little girls in quaint dress. 532 In a shoe shop. Cf. Wooden shoes in Holland 402, 403. 530 Working in a tea field. Japanese girl, costume, basket. 531 Drying sardines on the beach. 538 Feeding silkworms on trays in silk factory; mulberry leaves. Korea 542 Jars for sale. Note size and shape of jars and probable weight; the "saddle" on which they are carried; the peddler's hair; two kinds of Korean hats. 543 Charcoal peddlers. China 520 School children. Costumes and cues ; American teachers in back- ground. 522 Farmer boys. Note height of donkey compared with the boys ; compare with reindeer 413 ; rude harness of ropes and wood. 514 House boats. Bamboo roofs in sections; several sections raised on one side; platforms on side. The roofs are evidently the playgrounds of the children. India 505 An elephant ride. Ornamented tusks and harness ; the cover- ings ; native costumes, especially turbans. 509 Elephants at work. The harness and saddle; the driver's hooked ■joad. 506 Making shawls. Spinning wool (cf. Norwegian method 409) ; a loom with weavers ; natives, costumes, turbans. 503 Going to church. Mosque (church) ; native, costumes. 507 A queer kind of boat — inflated skins. Palestine 498 Grinding wheat. See back of stereograph. AFRICA Egypt 562 A farmer boy in Egypt. Oxen drawing a drag over a pile of beans ; boy helping. Note costume of hot country. 563 Boys spinning cotton. Desert scene. Morocco 555 Market day. Note the English and native costumes ; Native tents. BABIES IN MANY LANDS 6 In Boston, Mass.; 158, 204 Indian; 328 In cold southern lands; 338 In hot Venezuela; 455 In Sicily; 532, 534 In Japan. AT HOME — AT WORK — AT PLAY 511 Children at Home 6 Tenement, Boston; 122 Texas oil field; 158, 204, 263, 328 Indian children ; 236 California vineyard ; 239 On ostrich farm ; 249 At Panama ; 281 In an adobe home ; 292 Making totillas ; 298 On a Cuban farm ; 319 On an Argentina vineyard ; 336 Ecuador ; 337 Colombia; 338, 339, 341 Venezuela; 343 Greenland; 354, 355 At English cottages; 402 Holland; 411 Norway; 413 Lapland; 455 In Sicily; 506 Kashmir, India; 546 Philippines. Children at School 83 Children of the U. S. in a school garden. 306 School children in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 260 Little American citizens in Hawaii. 465 Polish school children. 520 A mission school in China. Children at Work 83 In school garden; 117 In the cotton fields; 175 Packing apples, Mo.; 244 Alaska; 396 Milk delivery, Belgium; 437 Picking oranges, Spain ; 438 Hauling Malaga grapes, Spain ; 488 Rus- sia ; 522 Boys plowing, China; 551 Husking coconuts, P. I.; 552 Gathering hemp, P. I. ; 562 Threshing beans, Egypt ; 563 Spinning cotton, Egypt. Children at Play 60 By the seashore ; 290 Mexicans ; 306 School children, Brazil ; 336 Ecuador; 338, 339 Venezuela; 402 Dutch children; 435 Holiday in Spain ; 471 Roumanian children ; 488 Russian boy. Some Children in Other Scenes 32 Arriving at Ellis Island; 70 In an oil region; 61 Seeing Pitts- burgh; 187 At Butte, Montana; 202 In Box Canyon; 324 Santiago, Chile; 340 Caracas, Venezuela; 367 At Stirling Castle; 347 On landing stage, Liverpool ; 388 In hay fields, Germany ; 392 On the banks of the Rhine, Bonn, Germany ; 378 With the "peat" carts, Killarney; 381 In the streets of Belfast; 387, 393, 447 In the markets; 404 In Copenhagen; 486 In the streets of Kief, Russia ; 535 Japanese gardens ; 557 At the gates of Tunis ; 564 In Egypt ; 576 Seeing Victoria Falls, Africa. Central Africa 572 Market day. Baskets, jars, bowls for carrying and holding things to sell ; scanty clothing ; ornaments ; small quantities of things on sale. Note the porcelain washbasin in foreground and the wire fence and familiar gate in background, signs of nearness of white men. 512 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD SECOND SERIES OF STUDIES Stereographs and lantern slides grouped topically for the study of child life in different countries. House Work 431 Wash day in France. 455 Wash day in Sicily. 292 Making corn cakes in Central America. 410 Making barley bread in Norway. 498 Grinding wheat and embroidering in Palestine. 550 Preparing rice for breakfast in the Philippines. 33 A well cared for dining room. Raising and Preparing Grain 184 Corn ; 147 Oats ; 549 Harrowing rice field ; 528 Planting rice ; 529 Harvesting rice; 550 Preparing rice for breakfast; 479 Treading out grain, Greece. Growing Vegetables 47 Melons; 166 Potatoes; 137 Pumpkins; 562 Threshing beans in Egypt. Orchards and Vineyards 175 Apples; 294 Bananas; 236 Grapes, Cal. ; 390 Grapes, Germany; 237, 238 Oranges, Cal.; 437 Oranges, Spain; 85 Peaches; 108 Pineapples. Harvesting Nuts 234 Almonds; 551 coconuts; 118 peanuts. Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate 303 Chocolate or cocoa ; 302 Coffee ; 530 Tea. Sugar 130 A maple grove; 198, 270, 271 Sugar beets; 333, 258 Sugar cane; 35 Granulated sugar; 34 Loaf sugar. Fish 226 Fresh salmon; 227 Canning salmon; 13 Drying fish, Mass.; 244 Drying fish, Alaska; 531 Drying sardines, Japan. Poultry and Birds 401 Ducks; 583 Gannets ; 216 Geese; 415 Gulls; 56 White Leghorn hens: 338 Game cock; 359 Nightingale; 239 Ostriches; :84 Penguins ; 240 Pigeons ; 535 White cranes. Cotton 117 Where cotton grows and how it is gathered. 124 Carrying the cotton to the mill where the seeds are removed. WOOL — BEEF — PORK 5 1 3 119 Baled cotton ready to ship. 14 Spinning cotton yarn in a United States mill. 563 Spinning cotton in Egypt. Wool 173, 190, 589 Where wool comes from. 145 Shearing sheep. 17 Sorting wool for making different kinds of cloth. 409 Spinning wool in Norway. 506 Spinning and weaving wool in India. Milk and Butter 159, 165 Holstein dairy cattle eating grass. Dairy barns. 57 Milking time in an American dairy. 46 Filling and capping bottles of milk. 45 1,000 lbs. freshly churned butter. 403 Milking time in Holland. 413 Milking reindeer in Lapland. 411 Milking goats in Norway. 339 Selling milk in Venezuela. 396 Selling milk in Belgium. 487 Selling milk in Russia. 160, 184 Food for the cows, corn. 181,388 Food for cows, hay. Beef 186 On a ranch in Kansas. 185 Fat cattle in feeding pens. 140 Cattle in Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 141 Dressed beef ready for shipment. Pork 172, 183 Hogs in pasture. 142 Splitting carcasses in packing house, Chicago. 143 Trimming and skinning hams. 144 Making link sausages. 592 Even savages have pigs. Useful Animals 565 Camels : 317, 403. 589 Cows : 190. 396. 246 Dogs ; 522, 378 Donkeys ; 401. 564 Ducks: 505, 509 Elephants: 216 Geese: 411, 447 Goats; 56 Hens ; 172, 183 Hogs ; 138. 147, 136, etc., Horses ; 294 Mules : 239 Ostriches; 561, 298, 549 Oxen; 240 Pigeons; 190, 173 Sheep ; 454 A mixed team. Selling Produce 341 Selling bread — Venezuela; 375 Vegetables, Ireland; 378 Peat, Ireland; 542 Earthen jars, Korea; 543 Charcoal, Korea. 514 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD Markets Many of the preceding lessons relate to raising food and the ma- terial of which clothes are made. Lessons based on the following will call in review previous lessons, for markets everywhere are places to which are brought the products of the soil. Such lessons should be related to a study by the pupils of the stores and markets that they visit daily. 7 A market in a great American city ; 393, 387 Germany ; 395 Bel- gium; 423 Paris; 469 Bulgaria ; 481 Finland; 485 Poland; 555 Morocco; 572 Central Africa; 375 Cork, Ireland. THIRD SERIES OF STUDIES Stereographs and lantern slides grouped to illustrate primitive life. PRIMITIVE LIFE Many schools introduce children in the primary grades to the study of geography and history through the study of primitive life. There are good reasons for this plan. Primitive life is simple and easily understood. Its very crudeness appeals to children's interests, because their own play is crude. Primitive life is also picturesque and children can find many things in it that they can imitate ; i.e., dramatize and fashion. The pictures relating to Indian life are grouped first, as generally this is the first type of primitive life considered. Indian Life 158 Little Hiawatha. 168 Minnehaha. 169 Hiawatha and Laughing Water leaving the wigwam. 265 A group of Indians — pageant picture. 98 Pocahontas and John Smith — pageant picture. 182 Mounted Indians. 204 Indian family. Signs of white man's education; trousers; clean, white shirt ; felt hat ; braided hair. Compare with primitive woman and papoose. 263 Basket making. These Indians live near a white man's town. Note signs of education. Primitive Homes 359 A bird's home. One of the simplest of homes — a shelter from the storm and from bird enemies ; a soft, warm place in which to rear young. 205 Cliff dwellers' home. Prehistoric. Protection from weather and enemies. 265 Indian tent. Hides of wild animals and blankets are used where cloth cannot be bought. PRIMITIVE OCCUPATIONS 515 263 Birch bark used for tent covering. 113 A log cabin. Lincoln's birthplace. 211 Pueblo, home of Indian tribe. 281 Home of poor man in Mexico. Made of loose stone and clay. 373 Home of poor people in Scotland. Much like home in 281 except slanting roof. There is. more rain in Scotland than in Mexico. Note grass growing on roof. How clean and cared for it is. 372 Inside of cottage in Scotland. Burns' birthplace. Note modern steam radiator beside the primitive fireplace. 549 Simple home in a hot country. In background the bamboo, thatched roof huts. 298 Another hut in a hot country. 546 Simple homes on a river. Houseboats in China. Straw mat- ting for roof, made in sections so that part can be raised at a time. 592 Homes of Papuans in New Guinea. Some Primitive People 328, 343 In a cold country. 550, 592, 572 In hot country. Primitive Housekeeping 410 Making bread in Norway. 292 Making bread in Central America. Note also the homemade broom. 550 Making rice flour. 498 Making wheat flour. 409 Spinning wool in Norway. 506 Spinning wool and weaving in India. 563 Spinning cotton in Egypt. Primitive Farm Work 488 Plowing in Russia. The little boy looks very modern, but the plow is like those used hundreds of years ago. 549 Harrowing in the Philippines. 522 Plowing in Asia. 561 Plowing in Egypt. 562 Threshing beans in Egypt. 479 Threshing grain in Greece. Note pitchfork. 284 Threshing grain in Mexico. Other Occupations 523 Sawing wood. 516 Rolling a highway. The roller is modern, but the man-power is the most primitive form of motive power. 244 Curing fish in Alaska. Burden Bearers 572 In central Africa. Burdens carried on the head, 543, 542 In Korea. 516 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 554 Carts in Guam. 548 Cattle in the Philippines. 294, 524, 560 Pack Donkeys and Mules. Receptacles 375 Baskets of all kinds. 285 Pig skins for holding liquids. 572 Native baskets and jars. Markets 375 In Cork, Ireland. 469 In Bulgaria. 572 In central Africa. Clothing 570 Made of bark of trees. The cloaks worn by the man are made of the bark similar to that he is peeling from the tree. 328 Furs in cold climates. 158 Blankets woven by natives and suits of leather. 43. PLANTS AND ANIMALS By ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK PROFESSOR OF NATURE STUDY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. EDITOR " NATURE STUDY REVIEW " A. PLANTS i. Apples 44 The man here is spraying the fruit trees with poisoned water so that the little caterpillars of the codling moth that make our apples "wormy" will get a drink of it as soon as they hatch from the egg and die before they bore into the tiny apple. He also sometimes puts substances into the water that kills the fungi which attack the fruit. See view 175 for fruit. Did you ever find a wormy apple? Do yon know the history of the cod- ling moth which causes it? 2. Bananas 294 If we could imagine the common dooryard weed, plantain, with leaves 20 feet high we would have some idea of the appearance of th) banana plant. From 12 to 16 of these great leaves form a giant rosette at the center of which grows a stalk on which appear clusters of tube-like flowers. Each of these flower clus- ters develops into a bunch of bananas which may weigh from 80 to 100 pounds. In the tropics the fruit is cooked as a vegetable ; in Africa a drink is prepared from it, strong mats are made from the fibers of the leaves and the leaves themselves are dried and used to thatch the roofs of the dwellings. 3. Cactus 209 The cactus is a desert plant. Spines are all the leaves which it has. All the moisture which the cactus can gather, it stores up in its fleshy stems and does not waste it by sending it out to evaporate from leaves. This is a picture of the giant cactus which grows in the Arizona desert, and almost every one of them has in it a woodpecker hole. The owls sometimes nest in these holes so the giant cactus is really a bird house. How many kinds of cacti do you know? Have you seen one blos- som? If so, describe it. 517 518 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 4. Cocoa 303 The cacao tree grows about 20 feet high and has large glossy leaves. The fruit is a great pod from 7 to 10 inches long, which does not grow upon the little branches like the pod of a locust but springs from the trunk or a large branch as if nailed there. Cacao trees grow wild in Central and South America and are cultivated in many countries. The fruit pod is hard and leath- ery and has five cells in each of which are 12 or fewer large seeds. These seeds are called beans; they are gathered and prepared by a long process and are finally roasted and ground into powder which is known to us as cocoa or chocolate. South American Indians used cocoa for food and drink long before Columbus discovered America. 5. Coffee 302 Can you see the coffee fruit which these people are pick- ing? Each fruit is red like a cherry and has two seeds at its center instead of one. Coffee blossoms are white and star-like and it requires six or seven months after the blossoms fall be- fore the fruit is ripe. Look at a coffee bean before it is ground and notice the flat side. Place two of the beans, flat sides to- gether, and see how they grow at the center of the fruit. 6. Grapes 236 Grapes have been grown for thousands of years. There are many species, some of them adapted for hot countries and some fitted for the temperate regions. We have in the United States sev- eral native species. These wild grapevines often climb the highest trees. The fruit of the grape is a berry and therefore what we call a bunch of grapes is really a cluster of berries. In the past grapes have been grown for the making of wines but now they are grown, in America, more largely for raisins and grape juice and for table use. 7. Orange 28, 237 The orange tree is an evergreen and its leaves shine as though they were varnished. The finest of our sweet oranges is a na- tive of China, while the original wild orange of Seville which was planted in Florida by the pioneer Spaniards has very bitter fruit. Now many varieties have been developed by men, one of the most noted being the navel seedless orange which is grown so largely in California. The orange trees cannot stand heavy frost without damage. 8. Peach 85 Some trees always. wrap their seeds in a pulp which we find most delicious. The peach, plum, and cherry all have this pleas- PEACH — PINEAPPLE 519 ant habit but the most interesting part of the peach, from the peach tree's standpoint, is the pit because of the precious seed contained in its thick shell. When the peach pit is planted the hard shell pushes apart like magic and very soon after the seed within begins to grow. Do you think that an almond looks like a peach pit? Can you tell how these fruits resemble and differ from each other? 9. Peanut 118 The peanut grows on a trailing vine. Its flower is small and yellow and shaped somewhat like the flower of a pea or bean. But as soon as the blossom falls a queer thing happens. The branch on which the little pod is forming becomes stiff and pushes it down into the ground where it grows to be a peanut. If the young pod is not pushed into the ground it fails to grow. In how many different ways is the peanut used? Does its foliage make good hay? 10. Pineapple 108 The pineapple plant is a native of tropical America. In shape it resembles that of the dandelion only the leaves of the pine- apple stand out very gracefully, have many sharp teeth on them, and are from 2 to 3 feet or more in length. From the center of this rosette of leaves arises the fruit stem which at the top is crowded with many flowers in the form of a cone. The fruit develops from these flowers and retains its cone shape and be- cause of this resemblance is called the pineapple. 11. Pumpkin 137 The pumpkin is a beautiful fruit and if it grew on a tree instead of a vine we should think it very wonderful. The pumpkin blossoms are of two kinds and if it were not for the work of bees in carrying pollen from one flower to another no pumpkin would ever grow. The pumpkins were planted by the Indians before Columbus discovered America. Why are pumpkins planted in cornfields? For zvhat do the farmers use pumpkins? How do the children use them at Halloween? 12. School Gardens 83 The good gardener knows how to make the plants feel comfort- able. To do this the gardener must understand each plant that grows and its needs. He must know what sort of roots it has, its stems and leaves, how its blossoms look, and how the seeds grow, in what sort of soil the plant likes to live, and whether it needs much or little water. // you have a garden, are yov 520 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS acquainted with all the plants in itf Do you knozv the weeds from the garden plants ivhen they first appear? 13. Sisal Hemp 571, 289 Strong twine and rope are made from the fiber of hemp; but there are three very different plants used to make hemp. Sisal hemp is made from the leaves of a near relative of the century plant called Agave rigida which grows in hot countries like Yucatan and Uganda. The leaves grow in a great rosette at the base of the blossom stalks. Each leaf may weigh a pound and a half when fresh but it takes a thousand leaves to pro- duce fifty pounds of fiber. How does hemp twine differ in looks from other twine? Is it stronger? 14. Tea 530 The tea plant is an evergreen shrub which is usually allowed to grow about four or five feet high. The young tender leaves are plucked for tea and these have to go through a long process of curing and drying until finally they are in tiny rolls ready for market. We find at the store black tea and green tea which seem very different in color and taste but they both come from the same plant. The colors are produced by different methods of curing. Tea is grown mostly in China, Formosa and India. B. ANIMALS 1. Alligator 110 Alligators live in the warm waters around the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The mother alligator makes a nest on the land in which she lays maybe sixty eggs a little larger than those of a hen. She covers the nest with twigs and dead leaves and the hot sun hatches the eggs. Then she takes the whole brood to shallow water where each baby alligator, scarcely more than eight inches long, can find plenty of small fish to eat. The big father alligator can bellow like a bull. What is alligator's skin used for? 2. Beaver 196 The beaver is the civil engineer of the animal world. It began building dams across our streams before Columbus discovered America. It cuts down trees with its sharp gnawing teeth so that they will fall across the stream and form the foundation of a dam which it then makes tight and firm with grass and sticks. The beaver needs a pond in which to live and build its house and so it builds a dam and makes the pond in a convenient place to find its food. It feeds upon the bark and twigs of trees which it cuts down and sinks in the water of its dam. How does the CATTLE — CHICKENS 521 muskrat resemble the beaver in its habits? Read "In Beaver World" by Enos A. Mills. 3. Bison — Buffalo 232 The bison is often miscalled "buffalo" but the true buffaloes live in Asia and Africa. The bison used to roam on the western plains in great herds. In 1871 there is record of a herd twenty-five miles long grazing near the Arkansas River. These animals have been hunted and killed until now there are only about two thousand of them left and these are preserved and cared for in our national parks. Compare the bison with cattle and tell hotv they resemble each other in form and habits. 4. Camel 565, 564, 504, 518 The camel is especially fitted to take long journeys in the desert. Its stomach has a special reservoir of cells in which it is able to store water and so after drinking its fill it can go several days before drinking again. The hump on the camel is comprised largely of fat which is stored food and enables a camel to go for some time with only a small amount of food. The camel's feet are broad and flat and are fitted to travel over the soft, hot sand. The camel is so tall that it has to be taught to kneel in order that people can mount or pack merchandise upon it. 5. Cattle 57, 127 Cattle are raised either for milk or for beef. The Holstein- Friesian (165), the Jerseys (364), and the Ayrshires (371) are leading dairy breeds of cattle. They give great quantities of rich milk which is one of our chief food products. It is sold as milk or made into butter. The Shorthorns (317), Herefords (185), and Angus (370) are important beef breeds. These, with the exception of some of the Shorthorns, do not give enough milk to make them profitable in the dairy. They take on flesh readily and make good beef. 6. Chickens 56 The hen lays an egg a day until she has enough to make a nestful. Then she sits on them for three weeks, keeping them warm and turning each egg over carefully every day until the fluffy little bright-eyed chicks break the shells and come out all clothed in down and active, ready to follow their mother about while she scratches the earth and finds seeds and insects for them to eat. How does the mother hen call her chicks? How does she warn them of danger? How do we know when she has laid an egg? How are her strong toes and beak fitted to help her get her food? 522 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 7. Codfish 13 The cod is a fish of the ocean and when it is fully grown may weigh 150 pounds. More than 600 fishing vessels are sent out from the United States each season to catch the codfish which are dressed and packed in salt when caught and at the end of the season are brought home and dried. Much of the fish sold under the name of codfish is not cod but may be some other kind of fish inhabiting the ocean. Read " Captains Courageous," by Kipling, which gives the story of the adventures of the cod fishermen. 8. Eskimo Dogs 279 How tired these dogs look ! They have been harnessed to the loaded sledge which may be seen in the picture and have drawn it many miles over snow and bare rock. These dogs are so strong that they are called huskies. They are very much like wolves in appearance and habits. One of these dogs, called " Klondike Jack," pulled 450 pounds 500 miles one winter. See view 246. In what other countries are dogs used to draw loads? Why are they better than horses for this purpose in very cold countries ? Read " Stickeen" by John Muir. 9. Elephant 509, 510 The elephant is the largest. animal we have that lives on land; it is very intelligent and has a wonderful nose which we call a trunk and with which it can pick up a log or a pin. It also has wonderful incisor teeth which we call tusks and which are solid ivory and so large that one may weigh 125 pounds. The young elephants shed these teeth just as we shed our first teeth. See views 505 and 573. What is ivory used for? Where do wild elephants live? Read " Toomai of the Elephants" in the Second Jungle Book of Kipling. 10. Elk 189 Of all the deer family, the elk is the most magnificent. A bull elk may weigh as much as 900 pounds and have antlers that spread 60 inches from point to point. The strange thing about the antlers is that they are shed each year and new ones grow out again larger than the year before until maturity. It takes about nine years for an elk to attain full sized antlers which may weigh 50 or 60 pounds. The elk feed upon vegetation but they are es- pecially fond of browsing upon trees and shrubs. 11. Gannet 583 The gannet is a sea bird and closely related to the pelican although it is goose-like in form. The wings of our most common species may measure six feet from tip to tip. Gannets nest upon certain chosen islands and each mother bird lays but one egg in a nest, which is usually a mere depression in the earth lined with a little GEESE — HOG — HORSE 523 seaweed. The common gannet is found along the coast of North America, and other species along the South American and South African coasts. The gannets feed on fish and are of great use to the fishermen in aiding them to locate shoals of fish. These birds fly in single file over the ocean at the height of one to two hundred feet and when the keen eyes of one discovers a fish it drops like a bullet upon its prey and rarely misses it. 12. Geese 216 Geese are valuable for their feathers, eggs, and as food. They were formerly more extensively raised than at present. Before the invention of the metallic pens, goose quills supplied all the pens used. Geese are closely allied to ducks (see view 401) but much larger. 13. Goat 411 The goat is closely related to the sheep but its covering is hair instead of wool. Goats live in herds and, in a wild state, prefer mountainous regions. They are very skilled climbers and are very sure-footed. They feed upon vegetation and chew their food like a cow. They also were used as domestic animals in prehistoric ages. Their hair was woven into clothing, their skins were used for leather and also for carrying water. Their milk is considered very nutritious and from it special kinds of cheese are made. The flesh of the young goats makes very good meat. 14. Hog 183 From a very early period indeed the hog has been a domesticated animal. Its flesh provides a large part of the food of many nations. The skin of the hog is made into leather. The bristles are much used for making brushes. For packing house views, see 142 to 144. 592 Even savages have pigs. 15. Horse 398 Look at these horses and see how strong and large their shoulders and necks are and how big and firm are their feet. France and Belgium and England all have developed breeds of horses famous for their ability to draw heavy loads. See views 138 and 71. Where does a strain come upon a horse in drawing a heavy load? Why does it need big firm feet to do this work? Hotv does a draft horse differ from a trotting horse in form? View 186. What is this horse doing? 16. Kangaroo 558 When any creature has long, strong hind legs it is sure to be a great jumper whether it is a grasshopper, a frog, a rabbit, or a kangaroo ; twenty-five feet at one leap and ability to keep it up for miles is the record of the kangaroo. The mother kangaroo has a pouch in which she carries her babies just like our opossum. The kangaroo lives upon grass and its home 524 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS is in Australia. How does the kangaroo fight ? What is its skin used for? What country has a kangaroo on its postage stamp? 17. Llama 335 The llama belongs to the same family as the camel and is used as a beast of burden in the mountains of South America. It is about four and a half feet high when full grown. It fur- nishes milk and wool and its flesh is eaten by the Indians. From what wool is alpaca made? 18. Moose 2 The moose is the largest species of all the deer family. The bull moose has antlers that sometimes measure six feet from tip to tip, and may weigh ninety pounds. Moose get their food by browsing on the leaves of shrubs and trees ; they are good swim- mers. The cow moose has no antlers; it is the cow moose shown in the picture. Do you knozv in what part of North America the unld moose are still found? 19. Ostrich 239 Here we see two baby ostriches just out of the shell and another egg which has just been pipped. An ostrich egg is about six inches long and equal in contents to two dozen hen's eggs. Back of the fence you can see the full grown birds. They are the largest birds we have. They live in a wild state in Africa but are now raised for their plumes (quill feathers of the wings and tail) as we see in this California scene. The legs are big and powerful and able to deliver a kick almost equal to that of a horse. A full grown male ostrich stands fully seven feet high and weighs almost 200 pounds. 20. Oyster 86 The oyster has such a soft body that it needs its shell to protect it. Although it is so soft, it has a mouth, stomach, liver, heart and gills. When first hatched the young oyster can move about but soon settles and grows fast to some object. It lives in shallow salt water. It has two shells which are hinged and which it can open when it is feeding and can shut when it is frightened. Where are oysters grozvn? For what are oyster shells used? 21. Penguin 584 The penguin is a bird fitted for swimming and not for flying. It has flippers instead of wings ; its feet are strongly webbed and its feathers are scale-like. It stands erect on land and makes its nest in a shallow burrow. The penguins nest in flocks of thousands on certain islands. Their eggs are gathered and sold in the markets of South African towns. How does the duck swim? How does the penguin differ from it in this re- spect? SALMON — SEAL — SHEEP 525 22. Reindeer 413 In the cold and frozen north regions this animal takes the place of both horse and cow. The reindeer is brownish-grey in color ; its hair is an inch thick to keep it warm. Both the males and females have antlers. They have large dewclaws and large crescent-shaped feet which serve as snowshoes. Reindeer live upon the hard dry little plants that we call lichens and they have to dig them from under the snow very often. They were domesticated long ago by the Laplanders. They are used to draw the sledges and their milk and their flesh are used for food. The United States Government in 1891 introduced the reindeer into Alaska. Our native caribou belongs to the rein- deer family. 23. Salmon 226 The salmon are among the best food and game fishes in the world. After they are grown they live in the ocean but they come back to the fresh water streams in great schools to lay their eggs. It is when they are coming back for this purpose that they are caught in the nets and killed by the tens of thou- sands for the markets and canning factories. Where does the canned salmon which we eat come from? Read " The Story of a Salmon" by David Starr Jordan to learn the life history of one of these interesting fish. 24. Seal 345 The fur seal is awkward on land but is a wonderful swimmer al- though it is a mammal and not a fish. It lives in the water most of the time and feeds upon fish and mollusks. In the spring the seals go to favorite islands where the " pup " seals are born and all these young ones live together in thousands ; but each mother can go away and get food and come back and pick out her own baby to feed without making any mistake. Why do the Eskimo hunt and kill the seals? For what is seal skin used? Describe the seal fur. 25. Sheep 173 The sheep are cud-chewing, hollow-horned, hoofed animals ; they feed upon grass and herbage, but can also live upon moss and lichens in the high mountains. In some species only the males have horns, in others the females also have them. Sheep have been domesticated since before the dawn of history. Their wool has been used to make clothing, their skins have been used for leather and clothing, their flesh for food. There are many domestic varieties of sheep. The handsomest of all wild sheep is found in North America. It is the bighorn or Rocky Moun- tain sheep. 526 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 26. Sponge 11 1 The sponge which we use when we take a bath is the skeleton of a very peculiar animal. Its flesh is just like jelly and it covers the whole sponge. It lives grown fast to some rock below the surface of the water. It pumps water through the many pores of its flesh and skeleton and gathers from the water material to eat. The baby sponge can swim about. How are sponges pre- pared for market? 27. Whale 415 The whale is not a fish although it lives in the water. It is warm- blooded and the mother whale feeds her young calf on milk just as a cow feeds hers. The whale breathes air by coming to the surface and filling a breathing chamber with fresh air and then dives and remains under water for some time. When it next comes up for air it spouts .out the impure air in a fountain of spray. The whale is the largest animal in the world as it some- times is seventy-five feet long and it may require a hundred years to get its growth. What is whalebone? For what is whale oil used? 28. Woodcock 72 The woodcock lives along streams or marshes where it is able to push its long bill into the soft mud and feel for worms to eat. Its bill is very sensitive, and the end of the upper part is mov- able. The woodcock is a game bird, prized by hunters. It is brown with black markings, exactly the color of wood and dead leaves. This makes it difficult to see. 44. READING By CHARLES MADISON CURRY, A.M. CHAIRMAN OF THE EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMITTEE PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE IN THE INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TERRE HAUTE, IND. One of the most important problems for the teacher of read- ing is that of securing the proper visualization or image in the pupil's mind. That means that the reader's mind must act somewhat as a moving picture machine and produce a series of clear and connected images. The language of a poem or story suggests these images for us. As life becomes more complex and each individual tends to confine his experiences to one small part of the world's activi- ties, he is likely to have a body of experiences too narrow for fully interpreting much that he reads. When the larger por- tion of our population was rural and most of the processes concerned in producing food and clothing and other common needs passed before the eyes of almost every individual, an extended common body of experiences could be assumed as a basis upon which to build. But the rapid growth of cities and industrialism has changed all this. Older teachers who spent their childhood in the country are constantly surprised at the growing inability of children to understand some of the passages in such a simple poem as Whittier's " Snow Bound." The fact is that " Snow Bound " is no longer a simple poem, since few children have the oppor- tunity nowadays of a group of winter experiences which prac- tically all children had sixty years ago. The passage telling the manner in which the fire was built " as night came on " falls on deaf ears. Such terms as " backlog," " backstick," " forestick," have to be explained in some concrete fashion. The modern furnace offers no point of contact with the old- fashioned fireplace, and the open fire of coal offers little more. The " well sweep " and the " well curb " are entirely outside the pupils' world. With small knowledge of the habits of bees, they are unable quickly to understand what the poet means when he speaks of the marshes as " mile wide as flies the laden bee." 527 528 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING Such deficiency must be overcome in some way. Language must be alive. It is alive to the user when it grows directly out of definite experiences, and it is alive to the listener or the reader when it suggests definite meanings and images to' him. In primary classes, children are at first generally taught words that name familiar objects, such as dog, cat, horse. Be- fore the word is given, the object (say, a dog) is called before the mind by means of a conversation in which the children are encouraged to talk about interesting dogs they have known and, in various ways, the story or meaning or image to be asso- ciated with the word is made definite. Many pictures of dogs may be brought by members of the class or by the teacher. Primary teachers find pictures or other concrete illustrations an absolute necessity in all lines of work. The " 600 Set " contains many pictures that will help give a background for much of the reading work. It should, of course, be kept in mind that the pictures have not been made to interpret the story or poem. They deal with the raw ma- terial out of which the story or poem has been constructed. Sometimes only a portion of the picture can be helpful, per- haps a child in the foreground or a mountain in the distance. For instance, in the well known fairy story of " The Snow Queen " there is a good deal about a reindeer, Lapland, Fin- land, and the cold regions of the north. At one place in the story the Snow Queen refers to Mt. Etna and Mt. Vesuvius as her " black kettles." Some or all of the following group could be used to advantage in illustrating the background of it. I. READING FROM TEXTBOOKS THE SNOW QUEEN 413 Reindeer. 414 Midnight sun. 481 Fish wives of Finland. 453 Mt. Vesuvius. A CHILD'S GARDEN OF VERSES By Robert Louis Stevenson Some of Stevenson's poems in this book admit of the same kind of suggestive illustration. The seven titles following are taken from it. SINGING — TRAVEL 529 Foreign Children 158 " Little Indian, Sioux or Crow." 343 " Little frosty Eskimo." 474 " Little Turk." 534 " Or Japanee." 239 Ostriches and their eggs. Singing 359 " Of speckled eggs the birdie sings, And nests among the trees ; " 217 " The sailor sings of ropes and things," 511, 525 "In ships upon the seas." 530, 532, 535 " The children sing in far Japan." 437 " The children sing in Spain." The Cow 356, 403 " The friendly cow all red and white." 57, 403 " She gives me milk." Travel 493 " Mosque and Minaret." 524 " Where the Great Wall round China goes." 568 " Some deserted city." 504 " With a camel caravan." Where Go the Boats 33, 52, 242, 254, 511, etc. "Where go the boats?" 39, 397 " Dark brown is the river." 564 " Golden is the sand." Historical Associations 480 " Simple Shepherd's Land." THE WORLD By W. B. Rands 38 A beautiful valley landscape. 90 A view over Washington. 1.26 Where Davy Crockett lost his life. 530 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 535 Tn Japan. 38 Hudson Valley. "Great wide, beautiful, wonderful world," 382 Ireland. " With the beautiful waters around you curled." 361 England. "And the wonderful grass upon your breast — " 444 Switzerland. " World, you are beautifully dressed." THE HIAWATHA STORIES 158 " Nursed the little Hiawatha, Rocked him in his linden cradle." 168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 169 Hiawatha and Minnehaha departing in the birch canoe. " From the wigwam he departed, Taking with him Laughing-Water." 265 Indian encampment by a river. 184 The feast of Mondamin. " Yes, the friend of man, Mondamin." 600 " Gleamed like Ishkoodah the comet." 413 " I have given j'ou roe and reindeer." 182 "Then in swift pursuit departed." 196 " To a dam made by the beavers." INDIAN STORIES 204 An Indian family in Colorado. 244 Indians drying fish in Alaska. 263 Indians weaving baskets. 328 Indians of southern South America. STORIES OF HOLLAND 52 The great ocean liner to carry us across the Atlantic. 400 Where we may land in Holland. Notice the windmill. 399 Canal and market, Amsterdam, Holland. 401 An interesting fishing village in Holland. 402 Some of the children seen in a village street. 403 Milking scene on a farm in Holland, with windmills in the dis- tance. STORIES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN 113 Abraham Lincoln's early home. 91 Abraham Lincoln as President. 73 Abraham Lincoln' in the Civil War. 146 Abraham Lincoln as a living influence. STORIES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON 96 Washington's early life and home. 61 The story of Fort Necessity and Braddock's defeat. 9 Washington taking command of the American army. 37 Some people wished to make Washington king. His farewell to the army. 29 Washington as President. ANIMAL STORIES 531 NUREMBURG By Longfellow 387 " Quaint old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town of art and song." BREAK, BREAK, BREAK By Tennyson 382 Sea breaking on a rockbound coast. AMERICA By S mi tli 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 25, 38, 61, 71, 72, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 110, 117, 127, 178, 182, 188, 190, 198, 207, 208, 215, 221, 222, 224, "My country, 'tis of tbee." (It is a good plan to give children an idea of what " my country " really means, and of how many people may say it.) 222, 228 " I love thy rocks and rills." 38, 39 "Thy woods and templed hills." HOME, SWEET HOME By Hozvard Payne 60, 91, 384 " Mid pleasures and palaces tho' we may roam." 373 " Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home." 96, 354, 355, 373 " There's no place like home." WHO STOLE THE BIRD'S NEST? By L. M. Child 356 " ' Not I,' said the cow." 480 " ' Not I,' said the sheep." ANIMAL STORIES 110 Alligator; 196 Beaver; 549 Buffalo; 565, 564 Camels; 118, 204, 246, 279 Dogs; 341, 522, 557 Donkeys; 505 Elephants; 189 Elk; 411, 447 Goats; 138, 204 Horses; 588 Kangaroo; 2 Moose; 172, 183 Pigs; 413 Reindeer; 345 Seals; 173, 190, 480 Sheep. MISCELLANEOUS 452 " Androclus and the Lion." 555, 494, 557, 558, 560, 562, 563, 564, 565 Stories of Arabs. 398 " Black Beauty." By Anna Sewell. 400 " Blow, wind, blow ; and go, mill, go." 532 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 365 to 373 Stories of Bruce. 530, 532, 534, 535 Boys and girls of Japan. 520 The Chinese school. 513 to 524 Chinese stories. "Aladdin" had its setting in China. 56 Chickens. 348 to 352 Dick Whittington, Lord Mayor of London. 365 to 373 Stories of Douglass. 445, 449 " The Fir Tree." By Hans Christian Andersen. 159, 353 "The Foolish Weathercock." 475 to 480 " Stories of Ancient Greece." 131, 132, 133 Charles Goodyear. 401, 402 " The Leak in the Dike." By Cary. 60, 382 " Little Drops of Water." 158, 204 "Little Papoose." 130 Making maple sugar. 173 " Mary had a little lamb." 104, 105 " One Little Bag of Rice." By Thomas Smith. 407 to 414 Old Norse legends. 98 Story of Pocahontas and John Smith. 359, 204 " Rock-a-bye, baby, in the tree-top " 450 to 452 " Stories of Ancient Rome." 480 " The Shepherd." By Wm. Blake. 525, 27 " A ship, a ship a'sailing." 217 "A'sailing on the sea." 356, 403 " Thank you, pretty cow." 411, 447 "Three goats named Gruff." II. SUPPLEMENTARY READING No reading course today is confined to the school reader. To be sure there always must be an intensive study of certain selected pieces of literature in order that children may be taught how to read. But knowing how is not enough, they must be led to do it. All during life, reading must be the chief method by which knowledge will be obtained. The reader will be intelligent. In school then, supplementary reading is introduced in order to give children breadth of ideas and some knowledge of the wealth of books about them. Teachers will find that the Keystone stereographs in them- selves furnish a supply of supplementary reading of a very fine quality. The descriptions on the backs of the views are written in clear and simple English for the special use of children. They contain a wealth of good reading matter in a wonderfully fluid form so that their uses are almost illimitable. One day SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS 533 the views may be selected so as to give a geographical reader full of most interesting facts. Another day an historical reader may be made, or a book of industries or of people. More peo- ple get knowledge through the eyes than through the ears. These views may be used as supplementary reading so as to give much needed training in this line. In most reading classes all the children have books and each may get the thought for himself, keeping only so much track of the reader as will enable him " to keep the place." When the Keystone Views are used as the reader, only one child can read at one time. He must give the meaning to the others, they must get it from him. Such lessons are invaluable, giving expression, attention and self-control. Some few books, such as " Carpenter's Geographical Read- ers," " Seven Little Sisters," etc., seem to be almost universally selected for supplementary reading, and these are readily vis- ualized by the Keystone Views. This combination of books and views cannot be surpassed. A. SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS By Jane Andrews (Ginn and Co.) The Little Brown Baby 554 A tropical scene. " Far away in the warm country." P. 5. 551 Coconuts. " She drinks the sweet milk of the coconut from a round cup made of its shell." P. 6. Agoonak 342 Greenland. The kind of country in which Agoonak lives. 345 Antarctic regions. " The seals love best to live in the seas of the cold countries." P. 11. 413 Laplanders. The reindeer " is their kind, gentle, and patient friend." P. 16. 346 Norway. From ice fields such as these " the great white whale came swimming down from the far north." P. 21. Gemila 565 The Sphinx and Pyramid, Egypt. "Did you ever see a camel?" P. 29. 494 Syria. An Arab and his horse. P. 30. 504 India. A camel caravan. (Notice the shadows.) P. 32. 534 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 239 Ostrich farm, California. " See, there is the ostrich ! " P. 35. 564 Nile River, Egypt. " Green feathery tops of the palm trees." P. 40. The Little Mountain Maiden 443 Switzerland. "A little chamois — carved of wood." P. 43. 448 Switzerland. " Those high snowy peaks." P. 43. 445 Switzerland. " This small house upon the great hills." P. 44. 447 Switzerland. " She should go with him on market days, to sell the goats' milk cheeses." P. 48. 444 Switzerland. " Over the green grass, over the rocks, far up among the snow and ice, and the frozen streams that pour down the mountain sides." P. 50. 446 Switzerland. " Among the mountains the echoes answer each other again and again." P. 51. 443 Switzerland. The wood carver. P. 52. The Story of Pense 514 Yangtse River. Houseboats, Canton, China. P. 59. 517 Hankow, China. " Here it was that Pense saw the little lady in the house on the hill." P. 61. 520 Peking, China. Where " the little lady " goes to school. 521 Chifu, China. " Store of a great merchant." P. 63. 530 Shizuoka, Japan. " When the tea leaves were in bloom." P. 69. 537 Japan. " Mulberry trees, with their purple fruit and white." P. 69. 538 Japan. " The little worms that eat the mulberry leaves." P. 69. 539 Japan. " Spin for themselves a silken shell, and fall into a long sleep inside of it." P. 69. 540 Japan. " Spin off the fine silk and make it into neat skeins." P. 69. The Little Dark Girl 592 New Guinea village. Some of Manenko's people. 578 Rhodesia, S. A. " The chief is very proud and happy to bring home such a load." P. 80. 573. Mombasa, S. A. Where ivory is shipped. P. 80. 557 Tunis. " Oh, what mighty beasts ! " P. 82. 572 Central Africa. "These are simple, happy people." (Notice ornaments.) P. 83. 576 Rhodesia, S. A. " The wonders of the things about them." P. 84. Louise, the Child of the Beautiful River Rhine 392 Germany. "Have you heard of the beautiful River Rhine?" P. 85. 391 River Rhine, Germany. " Sweeping between the high hills." P. 85. 390 Rudesheim, Germany. " Here the grapes are hanging in heavy purple clusters." P. 92. GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 535 Louise, the Child of the Western Forest 386 Hamburg, Germany. 25 The Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor. 30 New York City. " They are to stop but two days in this city." P. 102. 32 Ellis Island. Where " they reached the land again." P. 104. 113 Log cabin. The kind of house they lived in. P. 107. B. CARPENTER'S GEOGRAPHICAL READERS (American Book Company) i. North America 102 Blue Ridge, S. C. " The green Appalachians." P. 14. 221 Mt. Hood, Ore. " The lofty, snow clad peaks of the Rocky Moun- tain highland." P. 14. 189 Wild elk, Montana. " There are wild animals in the mountains." P. 16. 43 Central New York. " The United States has more railroads than has any other country." P. 17. 93 Washington, D. C. " The circles and triangles are filled with statues, fountains, flowers and trees." P. 21. 91 The White House. " The roadway which leads to the great porch before the front door." P. 27. 92 Washington, D. C. " Later on we are shown the Cabinet room." P. 31. 90 Washington, D. C. " Down Pennsylvania Avenue to the National Capitol." P. 31. 87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. " It appears like a huge marble palace with a great white dome." P. 31. 88 President Wilson reading message. " We are in the hall of the House of Representatives." P. 31. 89 Supreme Court room. " We can go into the same room." P. 34. 100 Hampton Roads. " A country like ours must have many warships to defend it." P. 37. 242 San Diego Bay, Cal. " There are torpedo boats, which travel be- low the surface of the water and send out bombs." P. 38. 86 Shucking oysters. " There are in Baltimore many thousand men and women who do nothing but take the oysters out of their shells." P. 52. 97 Hampton, Va. " There are also oyster farms . . . where the seed oysters are put and where shells are thrown into the water to which the young oysters can fasten themselves." P. 52. 81 Philadelphia, Pa. " Thousands are busy weaving woolen cloths." P. 55. 82 Baldwin Locomotive Works. " Others who are doing work in iron and steel." P. 55. 536 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 80 Old Liberty Bell. " We visit Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence was adopted." P. 57. 84 Philadelphia mint. " The coining is done by the coining ma- chine." P. 62. 30 Broadway, New York. " The chief business street of New York. . . . How lively it is and how noisy ! " P. 66. 25 New York City. " How high the buildings are ! " P. 68. 28 New York City. " We walk up Broadway past City Hall Park." P. 68. 29. New York City. " We are in the Wall Street section." P. 69. 31 New York City. " Let us . . . take a ride to the lower part of the island." P. 72. 26 Ferry slips, New York. " New York has twenty-five miles of water front on Manhattan Island alone." P. 75. 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. " A procession of steamers is always moving back and forth." P. 76. 32 Ellis Island, New York. " We visit the place where these immi- grants land." P. 79. 27 Brooklyn Bridge, New York. " It is an immense structure of stone and steel." P. 81. 14 Lawrence, Mass. " Many kinds of cotton goods come from its factories/' P. 86. 15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. " Huge mills which make ginghams, mus- lins, calicoes." P. 86. 17, 18 Lawrence, Mass. " A large part of woolen goods of the United States is made in New England." P. 87. 19, 20 Holyoke, Mass. " In Massachusetts are some of the biggest paper mills of this country." P. 87. 21 Providence, R. I. " There are large factories in Rhode Island which make beautiful jewelry." P. 87. 11 Lynn, Mass. " Let us visit one of the shoemaking establishments." P. 91. 41 Syracuse, N. Y. " Machines that will sew six hundred pairs of shoes in a day." P. 92. 12 Lynn, Mass. " Each part of the shoe is made by a different ma- chine." P. 92. 1 Logs, Aroostook Co. " Maine has large forests of pine and other trees." P. 95. 13 Gloucester, Mass. " They catch millions of dollars' worth of fish every year." P. 95. 3 Concord, N. H. " Cut into blocks, to be shipped to all parts of our country." P. 96. 4 Proctor, Vt. " More care is used in getting out marble." P. 96. 5 Proctor, Vt. " They are carefully smoothed and polished." P. 96. 130 Maple sugar tree. " Holes are then bored in the trees not far above the ground." P. 98. 7,8 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall; Old State House. "Every- where in Boston we see things which remind us of the stirring times of the past." P. 102. GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 537 6 Boston, Mass. "We next visit the old North Church." P. 104. 10 Lexington Common, Mass. " In the books you have read How the British regulars fired and fled." P. 104. 109 Old slave market. " They were kept in slavery until freed during the great Civil War." P. 108. 118 Harvesting peanuts. "The vines are then dug up . . . with the nuts hanging to them." P. 110. 112 Tobacco field, Kentucky. "We see tobacco fields everywhere." P. 115. 117 Mississippi plantation. " Negroes and whites walk through the rows and pull the soft white lint from the stalks." P. 118. 124 Greenville, Texas. " After picking, the cotton is carried to the gin." P. 121. 125 Greenville, Texas. " The men throw the cotton into the top of a machine so that it falls between fine circular saws so arranged that the seeds can just pass between them." P. 122. 14 Lawrence, Mass. " Rolled upon long spools, called spindles, by what is known as the mule spinner." P. 126. 104 Rice fields, South Carolina. " The fields have little banks about their edges." P. 130. 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. " The soil is then plowed and hoed." P. 130. 106 Along the wharf. " Brings us to Savannah, a thriving seaport." P. 134. 107 A turpentine farm, South Carolina. " There are farms of this kind all along our South Atlantic coast." P. 135. 110 Palm Beach, Fla. " Alligators by the hundreds crawl through the muddy waters." P. 139. 108 Harvesting pineapples. " In southern Florida we see great fields of pineapples." P. 148. 120 Mississippi Delta, La. " We enter the Mississippi River through . . . one of its mouths." P. 149. 119 Levee, New Orleans. "Hundreds of thousands of bales . . . are sent from here every year." P. 156. 198 Greeley, Col. ; 270, 271 Montreal, Can. " In the western part of our country a great deal of sugar is now made from beets." P. 158. 148 East St. Louis, 111. " The Mississippi River is very hard to control." Pp. 167, 168. 174 St. Louis, Mo. " We look at the huge bridges across the Missis- sippi." P. 172. 184 Corn field, Kansas. " We are . . . looking over a sea of green leaves, spotted with the golden tassels." P. 173. 136 Corn cutter and binder, Ind. " The corn crop is now ready for harvest". P. 173. 137 Indiana. "Cut and shocked." P. 173. 180 Omaha, Neb. "Turn under the tough sod." P. 179. 179 South Dakota. " Harrowed in much the same way " P. 179. 538 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 199 Fort Collins, Col. " Stand them on end in shocks." P. 180. 177 Red River Valley, N. Dak. " More than one thousand bushels of wheat in a day." P. 180. 233 Harvester, California. " These great machines are often drawn by steam engines." P. 181. 218 Reaper and thresher, Washington. " Or by teams of from twenty- five to thirty horses and mules." P. 181. 167 Street scene. " Minneapolis is a fine city." P. 183. 157 Houghton, Mich. " Ships loaded with copper from the mines of the Michigan peninsula." P. 187. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. " We are in the famous lock of the Soo Canal." P. 190. 163 Mesabi Range, Minnesota. " Our richest beds of this ore . . . are about Lake Superior." .P. 193. 164 Two Harbors, Minn. " A fleet of fast steamers is kept busy carrying the ore down the Great Lakes to the furnaces." P. 193. 156 Calumet, Mich. "The golden liquid is poured into the molds." P. 198. 162 Minnesota pineries. " A load of logs big enough to fill an ordi- nary bedroom." Pp. 202-203. 48 Mouth of Canal. " The Erie Canal, which has its terminus at Buffalo." P. 209. 128 Conneaut, Ohio. " The iron ore docks." P. 212. 49 Niagara Falls — summer. "Then take their hundred-and-sixty foot leap downward into the great abyss below." F. 214. 50 Niagara Falls — winter. "How the river thunders as it dashes over the rocks ! " P. 216. 122 Beaumont, Tex. " Derricks must be erected." P. 222. 69, 70 Oil field, Pennsylvania. " A torpedo of nitroglycerin is put down into the bottom of the well and exploded." P. 222. 103 Sapphire Co., N. C. " He had to make the charcoal." P. 229. 76 Scranton, Pa. "Anthracite coal is almost as hard as stone." P. 230. 79 Ashley, Pa. " This is done in what is known as a coal breaker." P. 232. 78 Scranton, Pa. " They are then run through inclined troughs, or chutes." P. 232. 129 Conneaut, Ohio. " Vast amounts of coal are shipped from Pitts- burgh to many parts of our country." P. 233. 75 Hazleton, Pa. " Let us go into one of the mines." P. 234. 77 Scranton, Pa. "A little railroad traci< which has been made for the coal cars." P. 234. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. " Where the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers flow together." P. 236. 116 Steel furnace. "Birmingham, [Ala.] . . . promises some day to rival Pittsburgh in its product of iron and steeL" P. 236. 68 Connellsville, Pa. " They are the coke ovens." P. 238. 62 Pittsburgh, Pa. " The smelting furnaces are immense round iron tanks." P. 2^0. GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 539 64 Pittsburgh, Pa. " Ready to be shipped to different parts of the country." P. 242. 65,66,67 Pittsburgh, Pa. "The wonderful processes of turning iron into steel." P. 243. 139 Chicago, 111. "Huge stone and brick structures from ten to twenty or more stories high." P. 247. 140 Stock yards, Chicago. " At times there are several hundred thou- sand animals in the yards." P. 254. 142, 153, 144 Chicago. " We follow the hogs." P. 256. 201 Colorado. " The Garden of the Gods . . . filled with huge rock formations." P. 260. 206 Arizona. " Great forests which have been turned into stone." P. 261. 274 Canadian Rockies. " Glaciers more wonderful than those of the Alps." P. 261. 208 Grand Canyon, Ariz. " He seems to be flying by mighty cities, dashing under huge forts, and past enormous cathedrals." P. 262. 214 Mining camp, Nevada. "Towns have sprung up ... to accommo- date the minerg." P. 264. 225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. " Threw the water against the sides of the hills." P. 265. 203 Ouray, Col. "We shall then follow it to the mill." P. 266. 186 Geneseo, Kan. " Where there is water, large herds of cattle can be pastured upon the high plains." P. 258. 190 Idaho. " Great flocks of sheep." P. 283. 212 Utah. " Salt Lake City. It lies in a valley, surrounded by mountains." P. 284. 210 Phoenix, Ariz. " These deserts might be made to pay." P. 290. 237 San Gabriel Valley. " The oranges here seem even bigger and sweeter." P. 295. 234 San Joaquin Co., Cal. " Orchards loaded with almonds." P. 295. 236 Acampo, Cal. " Vineyards of the choicest grapes." P. 295. 229 Yosemite Valley. " The biggest trees of the world." P. 301. 228 Yosemite Valley. " Leaps over the rocks down into the valley." P. 304. 230 San Francisco. " One of the largest and most prosperous of our cities." P. 306. 224 Oregon. " Some of the biggest forests of the United States are to be found in the Pacific Northwest." P. 312. 217, 216 Washington. " Some of the best timber in the world comes from this region." P. 312. 215 Columbia River, Wash. " The long trees are cut into logs." P. 312. 226 Columbia River, Ore. " Caught by nets and traps in great num- bers." P. 316. 540 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 227 Astoria, Ore. " Canned and sent to all parts of the world." P. 317. 219 Ranier National Park, Wash. " The grand white cone of Mount Tacoma." P. 318. 195 Rocky Mt. Divide, Wyo. " Parts of which are covered with woods." P. 322. 191 Yellowstone Park. " Full of natural wonders." P. 322. 192 Yellowstone Park. " Falls into one semicircular basin after an- other." P. 322. 193 Yellowstone Park. " Another fountain is always vomiting fortli masses of green, slimy mud mixed with sulphur." P. 323. 194 Yellowstone Park. " Old Faithful sends up . . . an immense volume of steam and boiling water." P. 324. 197 Yellowstone Park. " A fall . . . almost twice that of the Ameri- can Falls at Niagara and a gorge far more wonderful." P. 324. 187 Butte, Mont. " The largest output of copper ... in the world." P. 326. 204 Ute Indians, Col. Indians " now dress much like white people." P. 329. 158 Hiawatha picture. "That is a papoose, or an Indian baby." P. 329. 98 Pocahontas and John Smith. " Dangerous and cruel foes." P. 332. 243 Chilkoot Pass. " Alaska has high mountains." P. 336. 245 Placer mining, Alaska. " Millions of dollars' worth of gold are now being taken out of the sand and earth." P. 350. 279 Labrador. "We meet . . . some Eskimos in furs." P. 354. 2 Maine. " Moose hunting is by no means child's play." P. 356. 278 St. John's, N. F. " The greatest cod-fishing grounds that have ever been known." P. 358. 276 Mt. St. Donald, Canada. "We fly past glaciers." P. 364. 277 Vancouver, B. C. " It owes its growth to . . . this excellent har- bor." P. 364. 273 " Winnipeg is the capital of Manitoba." P. 366. 267 Montreal, Can. " Immense cargoes of grain." P. 369. 280 Mexico. " We land in Vera Cruz." P. 376. 284 Mexico. " The farmers use the poorest of tools." P. 383. 289 Yucatan, Mex. " It is henequen, or sisal hemp." P. 383. 285 Making pulque, Mex. "The juice . . . turns into a beer." P. 384. 282 Mexico City. " We see that the roofs are flat." P. 386. 290 Mexicans. " The Mexicans are fond of music and they spend much time out of doors." P. 387. 283 Mexico City. " Chapultepec, the great hill." P. 388. 281 Mexico City. " Such slaves are known as peons." P. 389. 292 Salvador, C. A. " The women are their own millers." P. 390. 287 El Oro, Mex. " Much silver has come from Mexican mines." P. 391. 288 Cholula, Mex. " Popocatepetl . . . which is visible from any part of Mexico City." P. 392- SOUTH AMERICA 541 294 Costa Rica. "The chief market for the bananas is the United States." P. 394. 247 Panama canal zone. " There are also India rubber trees." P. 398. 131 Crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. " Smoked to harden it into cakes for the markets." P. 399. 2. South America 249 Colon, Panama. " See the palm trees shading the houses." P. 16. 254 U. S. S. Missouri. " The canal was completed August 15, 1914." P. 20. 251,250 Panama Canal. "Something of the great work Uncle Sam has accomplished in the construction of this mighty ditch." P. 21. 253 Panama Canal. " That wall of green is the Gatun Dam." P. 23. 252 Panama Canal. " The deck is soon high above the walls." P. 23. 255 Hospital grounds, Panama. "The streets go uphill and down." P. 28. 256 Panama. " A great bay which is guarded from the sea by green islands." P. 28. 337 A street in a Colombian city. " White buildings covered with plaster." P. 31. 336 Guayaquil, Venezuela. " There is not a chimney rising above any of the houses." P. 39. 333 Near Lima. " Sugar cane is one of the chief crops of Peru." P. 54. 332 Lima, Peru. " Many of the rich farmers use steam plows and harrows." P. 54. 330 Peru. " We shall go there upon one of the steepest railroads of the world." P. 67. 334 Peru. " The Andes of this region are noted for their mineral de- posits." P. 73. 335 Bolivia. " The odd little animals which act as beasts of burden upon this highland." P. 75. 331 Cuzco, Peru. " Ruins of the great temples which the Spaniards found in the days of Pizarro." P. 77. 329 " Arequipa, one of the chief cities of Peru." P. 84. 326 Chile. " Come to anchor in the Bay of Valparaiso." P. 109. 327 Valparaiso, Chile. " They are loading and discharging goods." P. 111. 323 Juncal, Chile. " We shall ride over the railroad to the top of the mountain." P. 119. 321 Andean Foothills. " On one side we could see the pampas of Argentina." P. 122. 322 Andes, Chile. " We must be satisfied with the magnificent views we have had as we rode through the pass. P. 122. 324 Santiago, Chile. " That big building over there is the Cathedral." P. 128. 328 Indians on Straits of Magellan. " The women let their hair grow so that it hangs down over their shoulders." P. 166. 542 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 317 La Plata. " In these pastures is found the chief wealth of Argentina." P. 174. 319 Argentina. " We enter a land of great vineyards." P. 183. 320 Argentina. " Carts which have come in from the farms." P. 186. 314 Buenos Aires. " Just the point where steamers from Europe can most easily land their goods." P. 192. 315 Buenos Aires. "The government house, where the President of Argentina has his offices." P. 196. 316 Palermo, Argentina. " This park is one of the finest in all South America." P. 200. 313 Montevideo, Uruguay. " Extensive harbor improvements have had to be made." P. 201. 312 Montevideo, Uruguay. "We ride by . . . two-story and three- story houses, now passing great plazas, or squares, filled with trees." P. 205. 309 Sao Paulo, Brazil. " One of the most enterprising cities of the republic." P. 255. 308. Sao Paulo, Brazil. " It is more like one of our own towns than any South American place we have yet seen." P. 255. 310 Sao Paulo, Brazil. " Great fields paved with cement, upon which the coffee beans are dried in the sun." P. 263. 311 Sao Paulo, Brazil. "Ready for shipment." P. 266. 307 Rio de Janeiro. " Covered with the rich green of the tropics." P. 267. 305 Rio de Janeiro. " The main street is the Avenida Central." P. 274. 306 Rio de Janeiro. " Rio has many rich citizens." P. 275. 304 Bahia, Brazil. " These bluffs rise almost straight up from the water." P. 283. 247 Rubber tree, Panama. " With a hatchet he makes a gash in the bark." P. 316. 341 Caracas. " A little back from the seacoast is a nest in the moun- tains." P. 336. 340 Venezuela. " Later on we visit the Caracas University." P. 340. 3. Europe 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. " Our ship is one of the greyhounds of the Atlantic." P. 12. 25 New York City. " Past the tall buildings of lower New York." P. 13. 374 Ireland. " We soon find ourselves at anchor in the harbor of Queenstown." P. 15. 379 Kenmare, Ireland. " We do not wonder that the country is called the Emerald Isle." P. 16. 376 Blarney Castle. " We try our best to kiss the famed Blarney Stone, set into the wall below." P. 23. 377 Lakes of Killarney. "A picture wonderfully beautiful." P. 25. EUROPE 543 378 Ireland. " ' Irish coal,' peat, is a spongy, vegetable matter which might be called half-grown coal." P. 25. 380 Ireland. " Dublin is a magnificent city." P. 27. 382 Giant's Causeway. " We see acres of huge stone columns rising out of the sea." P. 29. 381 Ireland. "We find Belfast full of interest." P. 31. 369 Scotland. " Through the scenes described in Sir Walter Scott's poem, ' The Lady of the Lake.' " P. 42. 373 A Highland home. " All the Highlands of Scotland are beauti- ful." P. 42. 367 Scotland. " We stop at Stirling to see the great castle." P. 42. 366 Highlanders. " At first we hardly know whether they are women or men." P. 43. 365 Scotland. " We are delighted with Edinburgh." P. 44. 366 The Great Forth Bridge. " An enormous structure of stone. iron, and steel, more than a mile and a half long." P. 45. 372 Robert Burns. " We visit the cottage in which he was born." P. 46. 358 England. " Some beautiful cattle." P. 50. 357 England. " They are good farmers, and they have the best farm- ing tools." P. 50. 347 Liverpool. " The magnificent stone docks which wall the banks of the Mersey for miles." P. 65. 354 Stratford-on-Avon, Eng. " The house in which Shakespeare was born." P. 66. 355 Shottery, Eng. " The cottage in which he courted Anne Hatha- way." P. 66. 351 London. " That is the Bank of England, one of the most famous banks in the world." P. 71. 349 The Tower of London. " A gloomy building on the banks of the Thames." P. 73. 348 London Bridge. " The busiest of all the twenty bridges which cross the Thames in the city." P. 74. 352 London. " Let us go into the House of Peers." P. 81. 350 London. "We visit Westminster Abbey near by." P. 81. 431 Nice, France. "Watch the women washing at that stream out- side the town." P. 92. 429 France. " We spend some days at Marseilles." P. 100. 421 Paris, France. " A vast network of cream-colored houses." P. 106. 422 Champs Elysees, Paris. " We leave our carriage and walk down the avenue." P. 111. 424 Paris, France. " Our eyes catch the roof of the Opera House, another magnificent structure." P. 112. 423 Paris, France. " We stop at the flower market." P. 120. 425 Paris, France. " Later on visit Notre Dame." P. 120. 397 Namur. " We have left France and are traveling through Bel- gium." P. 125. 544 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 395 Brussels, Belgium. " Its people can raise nearly all their own food." P. 127. 399 Holland. " In many Dutch cities the canals form the principal streets." P. 138. 403 Holland. " Notice how careful they are of the cattle." P. 140. 402 Holland. "Did you ever see such shoes?" P. 142. 400 Rotterdam. " Ship canals ... so that big vessels come into the cities to load and unload." P. 145. 401 Holland. " What a lot of towns and villages there are scattered over the country." P. 147. 406 Copenhagen, Denmark. " How clean the streets are ! " P. 158. 404 Copenhagen, Denmark. " The buildings are chiefly of stone or light-colored brick with tiled roofs." P. 159. 407 Norway. " The noise is made by that great volume of water dashing down into the fjord." P. 165. 413 Lapland. "They milk the reindeer just as we milk our cows." P. 170. 415 Spitzenbergen, Lapland. " Many ships are engaged in catching them for their oil and whalebone." P. 173. 414 Lapland. " We look at our watches, and lo ! it is midnight." P. 175. 412 Norway. " Ground into pulp to make printing paper." P. 178. 408 Norway. " Racks of wood or wire at the sides of the fields." P. 179. 410 Norway. " It is of the kind known as ' flat-brod ' which is used all over Norway." P. 179. 409 Telemarken, Norway. " The women and girls make all the clothes of the family." P. 180. 420 Goteborg, Sweden. " Its canal streets filled with shipping." P. 181. 416 Stockholm, Sweden. " We cross at least two bridges every half mile." P. 182. 417 Stockholm, Sweden. " This is the palace of the King of Sweden." P. 184. 419 Sweden. " We see . . . many women and children at work in the fields." P. 185. 386 Hamburg, Germany. " The chief outlet for Germany in its com- merce by sea with the rest of the world." P. 195. 393 Cologne, Germany. " Early one morning we go to the market." P. 214. 383 Berlin. " We visit the Reichstag building." P. 217. 384 Berlin. "We go with our guide to the great palace of the em- peror." P. 218. 388 Bavaria. " In some fields there are more women than men," P. 224. EUROPE 545 390 Rudesheim, Germany. " We see vineyards everywhere, as we steam on up the river." P. 240. 391 Germany. " Fair Bingen on the Rhine." P. 243. 389 Germany. " Strassburg is especially noted for its cathedral and the great clock within it." P. 247. 444 Switzerland. " There are silvery cascades, emerald meadows, and level uplands spotted with flowers." P. 251. 448 Switzerland. " There are hotels everywhere." P. 252. 441 Switzerland. " Much of the way is over dangerous paths." P. 254. 446 Switzerland. " The views are indescribable." P. 254. 427 France. " The best place to see them is in the valley of Chamouni." P. 256. 428 France. " We are now in the midst of a wide, turbulent ice river." P. 256. 440 Switzerland. " Go up the Rigi and other mountains by cog rail- roads." P. 259. 443 Switzerland. " Carving things out of wood." P. 262. 447 Switzerland. " He makes butter and cheese, sending some from time to time to the village." P. 266. 445 Switzerland. " Almost all the houses are of wood, but they are comfortable, and many are very picturesque." P. 266. 387 Germany. " We first go to Nuremberg." P. 273. 460 Innsbruck, Austria. " The Alps extend ... on into Austria, be- ing then known as the Tyrol." P. 275. 464 Budapest, Hungary. " We take a drive through the wide Andrassy Road." P. 299. 467 Serbia. " At the junction of the Save and the Danube." P. 305. 470 Roumania. " The Danube flows on and on." P. 308. 468 Sofia, Bulgaria. " The people . . . seem to be more prosperous and more enterprising." P. 309. 471 Roumania. " The Roumanians especially are a fine-looking race." P. 309. 469 Bulgaria. "We end our journey on the Danube at Ruschuk." P. 309. 488 Russian peasant. " The Russians are largely a nation of farmers." P. 320. 482 Petrograd, Russia. " We again cross the Neva to visit the palaces and government departments." P. 338. 481 Russia. " We make excursions north into Finland." P. 339. 485 Poland. " Another trip takes us to Warsaw." P. 339. 483 Moscow. " In the very center of the city is a great fortress or citadel known as the Kremlin." P. 347. 484 Russia. " At Nizhni Novgorod, on the River Volga." P. 351. 489 " The Strait of the Bosporus . . . winds in and out through a deep mountain valley." P. 361. 472 Constantinople. " Let us walk over the bridge." P. 368. 473 Constantinople. " The largest mosque of the world." P. 375. 546 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 474 Constantinople. " We . . . are making our way through the city." P. 368. 475 Athens " has many magnificent buildings of the purest white marble, and thousands of two, .three, and four-story houses of brick covered with stucco." P. 384. 476 Athens. " There are palaces with gardens about them." P. 384. 477, 478 Olympia, Greece. " We learn that scholars come here from all parts of the world to study the ruins of old Greece." P. 390. 479 Greece. " Nearly all the farming is of the rudest description." P. 391. 457 Venice, Italy. " You can step from your house right into your boat." P. 394. 458 The Milan Cathedral " is a great Gothic structure, made of the purest white marble." P. 408. 456 Florence. " We stroll along the River Arno, which flows through the town." P. 410. 459 Lake Como. " The scenery is very beautiful." P. 410. 450 Rome. " A bird's-eye view of the city." P. 412. 451 Rome. " That mass of huge buildings, with the high dome above them, ... is Saint Peter's Cathedral, and the palace of the Vatican, where the Pope lives." P. 412. 452 Rome. " All that is left of the Coliseum, the greatest show ground of all times." P. 413. 453 Naples. " The most interesting thing about Naples ... is the great volcano outside." P. 421. 433 Spain. " We have crossed the Mediterranean ... to Barcelona." P. 428. 437 Spain. " How our train flies by orange groves." P. 429. 438 Spain. "The roads are poor." P. 429. 435 Madrid " is situated almost in the center of the plateau, with dreary plains reaching out for miles on every side." P. 437. 436 Granada, Spain. " We explore the ruins of the Alhambra." P. 443. 439 Gibraltar. " The enormous bare rock commanding the strait." P. 444. 4. Asia 534 Japan. " The cherry tree is cultivated for its blossoms." P. 24. 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan. "A white mountain cone which hangs like a silver cloud on the western horizon." P. 25. 526 Tokyo, Japan. " With the Japanese capital spread out before us." P. 36. 535 Japan. "Did you ever see anything more beautiful?" P. 37. 532 Japan. " There are crowds at the shops buying goods." P. 43. 534 Japan. "The Japanese mother often goes about with the baby tied to her back." P. 50. 531 Japan. " Have fish cooked in all sorts of ways." P. 55. 533 Japan. " We have been wondering where we should sleep." P. 56. 528 Rice fields, Japan. " And set out the young sprouts in the mud." P. 83. ASIA 547 529 Rice fields, Japan. " The straw is then cut off close to the ground with a sickle." P. 83. 527 Rice fields, Japan. " It is human muscle that makes man's bread." P. 84. 536 Japan. " Another interesting occupation ... is the rearing of silkworms." P. 86. 539 Japan. " The cocoons." P. 86. 538 Japan. " The worms . . . fed upon mulberry leaves." P. 86. 540 Japan. " Raw silk reeled from them." P. 86. 537 Japan. " The country has many mulberry orchards." P. 86. 541 Japan. " They now have also the finest of modern silk mills run by electricity." P. 87. 523 Manchuria. " Boards sawed out by hand as they are needed." P. 91. 542 Chosen. " Trotting along with a cartload of pottery tied to his back." P. 95. 543 Chosen. " Korean porters . . . still carry much of the freight." P. 96. 517 China. " The Yangtze . . . navigable for steam vessels for one thousand miles from its mouth." P. 111. 515 China. " Railroads can be easily built." P. 112. 519 China. "Swarming with yellow-skinned people." P. 115. 518 China. "There are caravans of brown, woolly camels on their way to Mongolia." P. 114. 516 Nanking, China. " The people are beginning to want modern roads." P. 120. 521 Chif u, China. " Suppose we enter a store." P. 125. 520 China. " We find all sorts of schools in Peking." P. 133. 524 The Great Wall of China. " At last we reach the gate that leads through into Mongolia." P. 139. 523 Manchuria. " Almost every kind of labor is still done by hand." P. 158. 522 China. " In North China the plowing is done also with ponies and donkeys." P. 159. 536 Silkworm incubator. " Within a few days the eggs hatch." P. 168. 538 Feeding silkworms. " As the worms grow older they are fed once an hour." P. 168. 539 Cocoons. " Enveloped in a tightly wrapped silk shell or cocoon." P. 169. 540 Reeling silk from cocoons. " The women and girls unwind the silk by means of rude machines." P. 169. 513 Hongkong. " We land and take a ride through the city." P. 180. 514 Canton. " Millions of Chinese are born, live, and die upon the water." P. 155. 548 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 509 Burma. " Elephants at work." " They will take the timbers from the river and load them on the cars." P. 226. 500 Calcutta, India. " There are buildings on both sides of the river." P. 249. 499 Madras, India. " The chief seaport of southern Hindustan." P. 254. 506 Kashmir, India. Cashmere shawls. " They are made by hand, by families who work at the trade from generation to generation." P. 271. 502 Agra, India. The Taj Mahal. " Thought by travelers to be the most beautiful structure of the whole world." P. 274. 503 Delhi, India. " We see temples and shrines almost everywhere." P. 276. 501 Benares, India. "Tens of thousands of Hindus go every month to worship and bathe in the Ganges." P. 278. 504 Jaipur, India. " One of the most picturesque crowds of men and . beasts to be found in the world." P. 288. 505 Jaipur, India. " But look at the elephants ! " P. 289. 508 Northern India. " They are the highest of all mountains." P. 295. 494 Syria. " We must pay a tribute to the chiefs, or sheiks, to keep their subjects from robbing us." P. 339. 472 Constantinople. " Who lives at Constantinople in Europe." P. 348. 495 Palestine. " On the Mount of Olives outside Jerusalem." P. 352. 496 Palestine. " Many Russian pilgrims on foot." P. 356. 493 Syria. " Damascus is one of the oldest cities of the world." P. 360. 492 Syria. " The thriving Mediterranean port of Beirut." P. 360. 497 Palestine. " Near each little town is a threshing floor upon which the grain is trodden out by oxen or donkeys." P. 361. 544 Siberia. " We are traveling this morning on the great Trans- Siberian Railroad." P. 373. 5. Africa 25 New York. "Out through the harbor of New York, past Staten Island, and on into the Atlantic." P. 9. 439 Spain. " In Gibraltar Bay under the frowning guns." P. 14. 556 Algiers. " The harbor is full of vessels." P. 40. 557 Tunis. " The city proper is almost surrounded by walls." P. 49. 564 The Nile, Egypt. " The water is now conducted over all the farms possible." P. 86. 569 Assuan Dam, Egypt. " Some of these dams are among the won- ders of the world." P. 87. 562 Egypt. " We stop now and then to talk with the farmers." P. 88. 563 Egypt. " The Egyptian cotton has a fiber which is very desirable for certain kinds of cloth." P. 92. 558 Egypt. "We are now in Alexandria." P. 93. 556 Algiers. "There are . . . turbancd sheiks on donkeys." P. 9$. AUSTRALIA 549 560 Cairo. " We cross the Nile over a magnificent iron bridge guarded by bronze lions." P. 103. 561 Egypt. " The Great Pyramid was once four hundred and eighty- two feet high." P. 104. 565 Egypt. "No one knows just how old the Sphinx is nor why it was made." P. 106. 568 Egypt. " Wonderful ruins ... at Karnak in Upper Egypt, in- cluding the remains of temples." P. 107. 559 Suez Canal. " We take passage . . . for Suez, and are soon steaming along tbrough the desert." P. 112. 572 Native market, Victoria Nyanza. " The natives are strange in the extreme." P. 136. 570 Uganda. " The cloth comes from a stately tree with small green leaves." P. 142. 572 Native market. " The tusks are a valuable article of commerce." P. 152. 577 Rhodesia. " We meet some English hunters who have killed a hippopotamus." P. 182. 572 Port Florence, Victoria Nyanza. " Suppose we visit a market and see how the Africans do business at home." P. 243. 574 Dar-es-Salaam. " A little farther down the coast on a beautiful bay." P. 255. 576 " The Victoria Falls are in many ways more wonderful than Ni- agara." P. 280. 575 " The Cape to Cairo Railroad . . . crosses the Zambesi on one of the highest bridges of the world." P. 280. 581 Kimberly, S. A. "A guide . . . takes us down into the works and shows us how diamonds are mined." P. 299. 579 Johannesburg, S. A. Gold quartz mine. " Much of the rough work is done by Kaffirs, superintended by white men." P. 309. 582 Capetown. " Table Mountain . . . rises behind the town in a sheer precipice." P. 318. 580 Crossing the Vaal, ■ S. A. " Huge wagons with long teams of oxen." P. 322. 6. Australia, Our Colonies, and Other Islands of the Sea 585 Sydney, Australia. " Sydney has several thousand acres of parks devoted to public amusements." P. 23. 587 Melbourne. " Magnificent buildings of gray stone." P. 43. 588 Kangaroos. " We see specimens of every kind in the zoological gardens." P. 47. 589 Range sheep. " Queensland . . . has rich farms and pasture fields not far from the coast." P. 53. 584 South Africa. " We see winged penguins." P. 68. 590 Tasmania. " We are in Hobart ... in the Switzerland of Aus- tralia." P. 69. 550 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 591 New Zealand. " Auckland lies on an isthmus at the foot of Mount Eden." P. 84. 551 Philippine Islands. " The coconuts are gathered when they fall and the husks taken off." P. 125. 260 Honolulu. " Schools as good as our own." P. 132. 259 A scene in the Mauna Loa Valley. P. 145. 546 Manila, P. I. " Huge barges, called ' cascos.' " P. 162. 547 Manila, P. I. " The principal street of ' Old Manila,' the Walled City, where most of the officials have their offices." P. 164. 549 Philippine Islands. The carabos " are strong, and can plow and harrow the muddy rice fields, where a horse or mule would sink through." Pp. 169, 179. 550 Philippine Islands. Hulling rice. "After this the hulls must be pounded off with hard wooden pestles in a mortar made of a block of tough wood." P. 181. 548 Philippine Islands. Mayon Volcano, " one of the most beautiful mountains of the Philippines." P. 192. 553 Philippine Islands. Hemp " is made into all sorts of ropes from clotheslines to cables." P. 194. 552 Philippine Islands. "The hemp plant looks just like a banana plant." " The hemp comes from the white inner leaves." P. 195. 512 Ceylon. "We pass Kling women . . . blazing with jewels." How the gems are ground. P. 261. 511 Ceylon. "In the harbor of Colombo surrounded by ships from all parts of the world." P. 264. 455 Palermo. " We spend some time in wandering about." P. 310. 257 Porto Rico. " We find ourselves in front of San Juan." P. 329. 302 Guadeloupe, F. W. I. Coffee pickers at work. P. 338. 295 Havana docks. " Porto Rico raises some of the best coffee of the world." P. 338. 258 Porto Rico. " In the great belt of sugar cane which almost en- circles Porto Rico." P. 342. 301 Jamaica. " The island has great natural' resources." P. 353. 299 Santiago, Cuba. " A city of white buildings, with roofs of red tiles." P. 362. 298 Cuba. " There the same work is done by oxen." P. 367. 297 " The stalks are now cut into sections of two leaves each, and the sections are hung on poles and carried to the drying sheds." P. 369. 343 Greenland. Eskimo girls. P. 377. 45. SOME THINGS WE EAT; SOME THINGS WE WEAR By WILLIAM M. GREGORY CURATOR OF EDUCATION MUSEUM, CLEVELA.ND, OHIO This selection of views from the Keystone " 600 Set " has been made to supply teachers with dynamic material for the use of elementary pupils. Every modern course of study includes progressive plans for the teaching of the basal facts relating to our food and clothing. It is the aim of this col- lection of views to make real and vivid these elementary ideas of life. To give your pupils a live keen interest in these common needs of life, the views have been grouped under the two headings of " Some Things We Eat " and " Some Things We Wear." Let all teachers fully realize that mere word or definition teaching is useless. Schools are to supply children with ideas and ideals ; these to be useful must be based upon facts that are gathered by the pupils. It is the business of the modern school to supply the materials for observation. We must have stereographs, specimens, excursions, word pictures and many other devices. In the study of our food and clothing, it is very necessary that children fully realize the actual conditions under which we live and how we are almost wholly dependent upon many different people to supply our many needs. It is impossible to take pupils to all the countries where foods are grown or clothing is made. Likewise there is a limit to the actual specimens that can be wisely used in a classroom and the raw materials give to children no impressions of the produc- ing countries — hence, the great value of this series of stereo- scopic views that makes each pupil feel as if he were in the scene pictured. The stereograph requires and stimulates real observation by the pupil. It arouses his interest and gives real ideas that form a definite background for clear concepts. 55i 552 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT I. SOME THINGS WE EAT Fruits 175 Apples. These apples are large and hard ; they will keep until after Christmas. The barrels are filled and then nailed tight. They are then ready to be shipped a long distance on the train. 294 Luscious bananas. All bananas grow in the hot belt where the days are very warm and there is much rain. The bananas are green and solid when picked. They can be shipped a long dis- tance and they turn a beautiful golden yellow if kept in a dark cool place until ripe. 236 Tokay grapes. Some of these California grapes are shipped to us for use as fresh fruit. Most of the grapes, however, are made into wines and raisins. The grapes are laid on trays in the hot sunshine and in a few days they have shriveled up; they are soon packed into boxes and shipped to various parts of the country. 47 Fine muskmelons. This fruit is common in our gardens for the muskmelons g'row in nearly all parts of the United States. The cantaloupe is a species of muskmelon. 437 Oranges in Spain. All of the orange trees of the United States have been grown from sprouts and seeds that came from Spain. We do not import into this country any large number of oranges from Spain ; for our California and Florida oranges are superior and cheaper. 238 Orange fruit and blossoms. Here is a cluster of beautiful orange blossoms with the golden fruit ready to pick. 237 Orange grove. We are looking at a grove of more than 50,000 orange trees in California. These orange trees are on irrigated lands, which means that the trees live upon water which is brought to them in small ditches. 85 Peaches. We cannot eat all this fruit when it is ripe and it will soon spoil. Some of the peaches mother will put in glass cans at home and then in the winter we will have peaches for sauce and pies. Many of the peaches are canned in tin cans in large factories. 108 The pineapple grows only in warm climates. It grows well in Florida, California and the Hawaiian Islands. The fruit is carefully gathered, packed and placed on a fast freight train and soon reaches our home where it is mainly used as dessert. Oatmeal, Corn Flakes and Crackers 147 Hauling oats. After the oats are threshed, the grain is sent to a mill and ground or rolled flat. Then we buy the oatmeal or rolled oats at the store and when it is properly cooked, sweet- ened with a little sugar and covered with cream, it makes a de- licious breakfast. 136 Cutting corn. If it were not for the use of such machines as this MILK — BREAD AND BUTTER 553 it would be almost impossible to harvest our great corn crop. Corn is used as a food in several different ways such as corn meal mush, corn bread, corn cakes, toasted corn flakes, etc. 357 Harvesting wheat. Wheat flour is used for making pies, cakes, crackers, etc. Graham crackers are made from unbolted wheat flour. Vegetables 375 Cabbage, potatoes, turnips and other vegetables are good and healthful food. Milk 57 Milking the cows. The nice rich milk that all children love to drink and to eat with their porridge comes from the dairy cow. This is a fine dairy in which everything is kept very clean and sweet. 46 Bottling pure milk for the children in the city. After milking the cows, the milk is taken to a large room where it is care- fully strained of all impurities and then it is sometimes pas- teurized. This means that it is slowly heated to a certain tem- perature and cooled. This renders the milk less liable to spoil or to sour. Nearly all cities require milk to be placed in clean bottles which are sealed at the dairy. 411 Milking goats in Norway. You remember the story of Heidi where the goat supplied her people with milk and cheese and it is the same in the country of Norway where the people depend upon the goat to furnish them milk. 413 Laplanders milking reindeer in Norway. 396 Dog cart for peddling milk in Belgium. In the place of peddling the milk in bottles, the Belgians have a dog draw the cart holding the milkcan to the customer's door, and there they measure out the milk with the little measuring cup on the front of the cart. 487 The girls are selling jars of fresh milk in Russia. It looks like a heavy load. It would seem that the milk in these open jars would gather dirt and other impurities. 339 Selling milk unadulterated in a hot country. Bread and Butter Wheat 357 Wheat is our staff of life or our most important food. No meal is complete without bread. Wheat bread is the most common in the United States. In the prairie plains a single farm may have a thousand acres in a great field of wheat. 177 Threshing wheat. This machine cleans the grain of its chaff and straw and then we say that the grain has been threshed. The grain is next taken to the railroad station and shipped to the great mills which grind it into flour. Minneapolis on the Mis- sissippi River in Minnesota has the largest flour mills in the world. 498 Grinding wheat in the oldest kind of a mill. They seldom grind more than enough flour for one day. The flour made in this 554 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT way is coarse and dark colored and not as white and clean as the flour which is made in the mills of the United States. Butter 45 Butter enough for 4,000 loaves of bread. Butter is made from the fat which is found in milk. 341 Selling bread in South America. In this South American city the bread is baked in very crude ovens, piled into a barrel and car- ried through the streets on the back of a donkey. Compare with one of our large city bakeries. Corn 184 Corn field. Observe how high this corn grows. Corn is the world's greatest crop and is used for food in many different ways. 292 Making corn tortilla. The tortilla (tor-te'lya) is the kind of bread that is eaten by many children in Mexico and South America. Barley 199 Harvesting barley in Colorado. 566 A barley field in Egypt. 410 A curious kind of bread. This is the Norwegian bread that has been made of water and barley flour rolled very thin and baked on a hot stove. Sometimes they make enough of this bread to last several months. Some Drinks for All the Family Chocolate and Cocoa 303 This is the chocolate or cacao tree. The seeds are taken out of the pods and carefully dried. They are packed in bags and shipped to England, Holland and the United States. There they are ground very fine and made into chocolate and cocoa. A very fine drink for children. Coffee 302 Picking the red cherry-like coffee berries. This tree is growing in the shade of a banana plant. The berries that the woman picks are put into a little sack that she carries. 310 Coffee drying in Brazil. Each berry looks like a fine ripe red cherry and at the coffee house, usually near the center of the plantation, the outer red part is removed and the coffee is spread out on these smooth cement floors to dry. 311 Carts carrying coffee to the railroad. At the railroad station the coffee is loaded onto the train, which takes it to some great city of South America on the ocean. The city Santos ships the most of the coffee of the world. 295 Loading sacks of coffee on ships. This coffee is not ready to use for it must be roasted and carefully ground. Children should not drink coffee. TEA — SUGAR 555 Tea 530 Tea is from the tender leaves of bushes that are cultivated in large plantations in Japan, China and India. This girl is protected from the hot sun by a very cool and comfortable rice straw hat. When she has picked a basket full, it is taken to a tea house at the edge of the plantation and carefully treated to give it a fine flavor. The tea is packed in boxes and sent to some of the cities which ship the tea to our country. 521 This is a large Chinese tea store. Some tea is made from the tender little buds of the tea plant and it is flavored with orange blossoms. This tea is highly prized and is served by the Chinese only at a Wedding. 534 Tea house. In many places in the far away country of Japan they have little buildings like this one for travelers to stop at and drink a cup of tea. 373 Drinking tea in Scotland. Tea is a drink very refreshing for grown people and I trust that you often play tea-party but never drink the strong tea. Milk is the best drink for children. Sugar 198 A sugar beet field in Colorado. Much of our sugar comes from fields like these in Colorado, California and Michigan. 419 Sugar beets in Sweden. Many other countries besides our own raise sugar beets. In all of the sugar beet fields you will find many boys and girls working with their fathers and mothers ; for many people are required to keep the weeds out of the sugar beets. 270 A pile of sugar beets that will make two thousand barrels of sugar. In no country in the 'vorld do the people eat as much sugar as we do. What feasts we have with pies, cake and candy ! 271 Stream of juice m^de from sugar beets. Now the water will be separated from this juice and the fine white sugar obtained. 35 Sugar is packed in barrels and bags. Granulated sugar is made from either sugar cane or sugar beets. 34 Making loaf sugar. When this loaf sugar is dried, it is carried on this moving belt we see to a part of the factory where it is packed into boxes and shipped to the stores. 258 Cutting sugar cane. In warm countries like Louisiana, Cuba, 'and the Hawaiian Islands, sugar is obtained from the sugar cane. This is planted and harvested much like corn. The stalks of the sugar cane are crushed in the mill and the sweet juice makes the coarse brown or the white sugar. Granulated sugar is made from either sugar cane or sugar beets. 130 Tapping a maple sugar tree. The sap of the maple tree is used to make the delicious maple syrup and sugar. 556 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT Meats Beef 185 Fat cattle for beef. They are ready to be shipped in cattle cars across the country to some of the cities in which are great slaughter and packing houses. 140 This is a great stock market in Chicago, the largest in the world. The cattle are unloaded into these yards or pens and the buyers look them over very carefully. The finest and fattest are bought and taken to the great slaughter houses that are nearby. In Chicago as many as 5,000 cattle may be made into beef in a single day. 141 The last process in dressing beef. The packing house is very clean and neat. Every part of the animal is used, the meat for food, the bones for combs, the hair for plaster, the hide for leather, the hoofs for glue and many other useful things. Most of the meat that we buy at the butcher s,hop was shipped to us in refrigerator cars. Pork 183 The meat of the pig makes pork. It comes to our homes either fresh, as pork chops and sausage, or salted and smoked, as hams and bacon. 142 Cutting up pigs. All parts of the hog are used, the bristles for brushes, the hide for gloves, the bones for knife handles, the fat for lard, the hams and bacon for smoked meat. Each day a whole train of refrigerator meat cars leaves Chicago and goes to the great eastern cities to supply them with meat. 143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling. 144 Making link sausage of pork. Mutton 173 Sheep come to our tables as lamb or mutton. These meats are considered more delicate than either beef or pork but not so strengthening. 190 In the mountain valleys of Idaho and other Western states are great flocks of sheep, sometimes containing thousands of ani- mals. In the fall they are shipped to the packing houses in Omaha, Kansas City or Chicago. 480, 589 Sheep are raised in all parts of the world and their meat is valued everywhere. Fozvls and Eggs 375, 56 Chickens. In every continent chickens are raised for eggs and meat. Of course the chickens that are carefully cared for are better for both purposes. 338 The boy in the foreground is carrying a pet chicken in his arms. FISH — SALT — VEGETABLES 557 It is very probably a game chicken, highly prized among all Latin Americans. 216 Geese also are raised for their eggs and meat. The eggs are large in size. The grease or fat is fried out and used in cook- ing in place of lard. Goose feathers, too, are very valuable. Game 2, 72, 189 Men are very fond of game, as the flesh of wild birds and animals is called. Game must be hunted and state laws allow wild animals to be killed only at certain times of year. Fish and Oysters 226 Fine fresh salmon just caught. This fish has a firm pink flesh and it is considered one of our finest. 227 Chinese preparing salmon for canning. The fish are cut into slices that just fit a can and after the can is filled it is put into boiling water or steam chests which cooks the fish. The cans are carefully sealed and shipped to all parts of the world. 244 The salmon being dried by Indians. The dried fish is stored away for use in the long cold winter. 13 Drying codfish. The cod is caught in the ocean waters from Massachusetts north to Greenland. It is a fine fish to eat when fresh from the water. The codfish is also salted and dried in large quantities. The dry fish are packed into boxes and shipped to all parts of the world. 531 Drying sardines. In Japan very small fish are caught in nets and dried in the sun. These little fish are boiled in oil and packed in little cans and sold as sardines. 86 The oyster is an animal that lives in a two part shell in the ocean. Along our Atlantic coast and in the Chesapeake Bay are many oyster beds. They are scooped up from the bottom of the ocean. The oyster boat carries them to a market where they are sold to a packing company. These women are em- ployed by the company to remove the shells from the oys- ters before they are packed and shipped. Salt 42 Making salt. How flat our food tastes without salt! The men are collecting the white salt that has been made from salt water or brine. The salt brine is pumped to the surface through pipes that go deep into the earth. 153 Packing salt into barrels. The salt is stored in sheds and looks like great piles of snow. It is ground fine and shoveled into barrels to be shipped to the grocery stores. Vegetables 83 Children learning how to grow vegetables. 166 Potatoes are almost as necessary to us as wheat. They are dug by the machines drawn by the horses. The men are picking up the 55S FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT potatoes which are soon to be loaded on the cars to be shipped to people living in the city. 149 Celery. Near Kalamazoo in Michigan many acres are planted with celery. You see how it grows in long rows. Why the boards? 7, 375 A vegetable market. This is the place where the vegetables raised on the farms are shipped and sold to the people. On some of the wagons you can see boxes of potatoes, crates of celery, barrels of apples and other things to eat. 105 Growing rice in the United States. Rice is being much used as a vegetable. One pound of rice is said to contain as much nourishment as four pounds of potatoes. In the southern part of the United States we grow rice but only a small part of what we use. Most of the rice we eat comes from Japan, India and China. 528 Planting rice in Japan. Rice is the food of nearly one-half the people of the world. In Japan the rice fields are small and flooded with water as you can see. 527 Threshing rice in Japan. Most of the rice we use is grown in these fields in Japan. India and China also grow rice. 550 Preparing rice for food in the old way. In this country we send the rice to a mill where the grains are polished white. This destroys much of the food value. Pudding, Pies and Nuts 529 Most of the rice we use in pudding and in various other ways is grown in Japan. Rice grows to about the same height as our wheat. 137 We all like pumpkin pie. There are many wagon loads of shin- ing yellow pumpkins in this field. I would like to have this large one nearest us for a Jack-o'-lantern and I could carry one other for making pies. 175 Apple pie is our most common pie. 85 Peach pie is a treat and in this peach orchard are fine trees just loaded with the luscious fruit. This man may be picking some for pies or peaches and cream. 234 Almonds are easy to crack and the meats are sweet. These nuts grow in California, Texas, etc. When the nuts are ripe a canvas is spread on the ground and long poles used to knock off the nuts. 118 The peanut is the favorite nut of children and very few of them know that it grows in the ground like the potato. It grows best in the warm climate of our southern states. When the peanut is roasted it is ready to eat or to be ground fine for peanut butter. COTTON — LINEN 559 II. SOME THINGS WE WEAR Some Queer Clothing 204, 98, 158, 168, 211 Indian Costumes. 490 Skins used for coats, hats and shoes. 246 Warm fur caps and coats in Alaska. 328 These Indians of southern South America wrap the skins of animals about themselves iv the same way as we use blankets. 343 Eskimos wearing Teg moccasins of fine furs. 290 Big straw hats, decorated coats, and colored scarfs. 402 Dutch children wearing wooden shoes and queer caps. 465 The girls wear shawls for hats and the boys wear decorated trousers. 519 The padded coats of the Chinese are warm. 592 Savage people of warm climates wear little clothing. 572 Native Africans wear little clothing. 570 The man peeling the bark from the tree is wearing cloth made out of bark. Cotton 207 Fields must be kept free from weeds while the cotton plants are growing. 117 Picking cotton, the most widely used of any fiber. The cotton is picked from September to Christmas. Many colored people help to pick the fluffy balls of cotton. 124 The cotton is hauled to the gin. After the cotton is picked the seeds must be separated from the fiber. The small seeds con- tain oil which is pressed out and sold for cooking and many other purposes. 125 The cotton gin was invented in this country for it was very slow work to separate the seeds and fibers by hand. The white fibers are packed into bales each weighing about 500 pounds, and then are ready to be shipped to the cotton mills. 119 The 500 pound cotton bales on the docks. New Orleans is a city on the Mississippi River that buys much of the cotton from the plantations. It is then shipped all over the world. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Arizaba, Mexico. 14 Spinning cotton yarn. When the bales of cotton reach the mill, the cotton is cleaned, combed and spun into yarn. The cot- ton yarn is twisted into a hard thread and wound on the hun- dreds of spools or spindles which are seen in this room. 16 Printing the design on the cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is made plain white or it may be printed in many designs of checks, bars, flowers, etc. Linen 268 Preparing flax for making linen. The flax plant grows like wheat. From the straw is obtained these fine white fibers. The fibers are spun into thread which is wound from the large skeins upon small spindles for weaving. 269 Weaving linen cloth. The threads from the many spindles are 560 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE WEAR woven by the machine into the fine linen cloth. Linen is stronger and more durable than cotton, but more expensive. Name the different articles made from linen. 40 Making fine linen collars, Troy, N. Y. Wool 173, 589 Sheep that furnish wool for your clothing. Wool is used to make underwear, caps, mittens, suits and many other gar- ments. 145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 17 Sorting wool after cleaning and washing. 18 Spinning yarn in a woolen mill. The woolen fibers must be twisted and pulled together into thread and yarn. Many ma- chines are busy preparing the yarn and thread for making into cloth on the noisy looms. 409 Spinning woolen yarn. The woman at the right is combing the wool and filling the basket with it. The woman at the spin- ning wheel is twisting and drawing the wool into yarn. What can be made from the yarn in the balls? 506 These people show us how cloth is made from wool. The yarn is made by the person at the small wheel. This yarn is used on the loom where it is woven into cloth. This way of mak- ing cloth is much more simple than in the great factories that are filled with noisy machines. Silk 536 Silkworm incubator in Japan. In Japan the people raise the silkworm so that they may have the fine fiber that it spins. The worms are hatched from very small eggs. 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silkworms. 538 The young girl keeps the silkworms supplied with fresh leaves so that they will grow rapidly. 539 The cocoons or nests. The worm makes a silken thread and weaves it into a small soft nest. The cocoons are collected and the worms killed by being exposed to the sun or by steam or heated air. 540 The silk thread is unwound from the cocoon and the raw silk is then ready to go to the factory. 541 One of Japan's largest silk weaving plants. 22 Sorting and weighing the skeins of raw silk in Connecticut. Raw silk is received from many different countries, especially Japan, China and Italy. 24 Working in a silk mill. The silk fibers must be twisted and spun into yarn and thread. After leaving this room the silk thread is ready to be made into the cloth. 55 Making fine silk ribbons. The silk thread is used to make cloth for fine dresses, and the bright colored ribbons you see. SHOES — RUBBER BOOTS — JEWELRY 561 Shoes 272 Making leather out of the hides of animals. 11 Cutting leather into the required shapes for shoes. Years ago our shoes were made by one man called a cobbler. In a mod- ern factory all of the parts for thousands of shoes are cut out. 41 Sewing together the parts of a shoe. The sewing is done on machines run by electricity and operated by many young ladies who are very skillful. 12 A machine that shapes the shoe. So many machines are used and the men are so skillful that more than 10,000 pairs of shoes are made in a single day in some of the great shoe fac- tories in Lynn or Brockton in Massachusetts. 532 A Japanese shoe shop. These people wear quite a different shoe from ours. It is made of a wooden board and fastened to the foot by a heavy rope of rice straw. Some of these Japanese clogs, as they call their shoes, have an upper part of cloth or rice straw. These shoes sell for from five to ten cents per pair. Rubber Boots 247 The wonderful rubber tree. The milk or sap of the tree flows from the cuts and it is from this sap that our rubber is made. 131 Crude rubber gathered from many countries. Name five differ- ent articles made from rubber. 133 Making rubber boots. The rubber is heated, colored and rolled out into sheets. In this large room the rubber boot is put to- gether. When we wear our next pair of rubbers let us try to imagine a story of their travels. 75 Rubber boots are needed by these miners. 227 Chinese wearing rubber boots to keep feet dry. Jewelry and Fine Ornaments 21 Making fine jewelry. This factory is in Rhode Island and the gold and precious stones used here come from many parts of the world. 512 Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, etc., Ceylon. 581 Mining diamonds in South Africa. They are found in this clay. 245 Gold is sometimes found in the sand of creeks. 579 Gold mining in Africa. 334 Refining silver in smelter, Peru, S. A. 573 Ivory ready for shipping. Ivory is used in many ways for orna- ments. (See 509, 510 for elephants.) 46. HOME GEOGRAPHY By R. H. WHITBECK, A.B. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. EDITOR " JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY " Home geography is the study of the region surrounding the home. It is based upon first hand observation by the pupils. If the study is carried no farther than the observation of the home region, the full purpose of home geography will not be achieved. In America, home geography means the study of various types of things which belong to geography and which are observable in the home region. By means of directed observation of the things which are around the pupils, certain fundamental concepts are built up ; for example — the purpose of a home, the need of home industries for supplying our wants, the purpose of clothing and how the materials for clothes are obtained ; and an understanding of simple indus- tries ; trade, travel, and transportations. Nearly every pupil is able to observe some of these fundamental things in his home environment, thus obtaining the vivid concepts which only observation can produce. But the pupil will find less interest in this study and will see less purpose in it, if his studies do not reach out to things beyond his home, but which are closely related to things ob- servable at home. It is here that the photograph plays a highly important part. Manifestly pupils cannot obtain cor- rect notions of homes in general by observing simply the kind of homes in which they or their neighbors live; but by means of the stereograph they may be introduced to homes in many parts of the world and may thus obtain not simply special concepts but general concepts. By means of the stereograph pupils may see homes in the Frigid Zone, in the Temperate Zone, in the desert, in the hot countries, in city, village, and country. The stereograph becomes an invaluable supplement to the textbook, for nothing except seeing the actual thing is more 562 TYPES OF HOMES 563 impressive than seeing an excellent picture, and especially a picture which brings out scenes in real perspective, as does the stereograph. By studying the simpler industries of his home region and then by examining stereographs of selected industries in other parts of the world the general notion of why and how people are employed in various countries is obtained. The same idea is carried out with respect to each of the other funda- mental notions belonging to home geography. If circum- stances permit, home geography includes the study of rock weathering, soil, stream erosion, and deposition and the ob- servation of as many kinds of land forms and waters as the home region supplies. It is in fact a study of the geographical environment, not only for itself but also as a means of ap- preciating many geographical facts which are not directly ob- servable. In harmony with the needs of presenting Home Geography to the younger pupils, only a limited selection of geographical scenes has been made. For a more extended selection of geo- graphical scenes see the group of classifications assembled un- der the heading of Geography. I. TYPES OF HOMES A. SIMPLE HOMES 359 Home of the nightingale. Consider kinds of homes built by birds and animals. Why do they have homes? 205 Ruined homes of the cliff dwellers. Consider why these people built their homes in such places. 211 Homes of Indians, a pueblo. 281 A lowly home in Old Mexico. What is adobe and why is it used? 546 Floating homes in the Philippine Islands. Could they be used in our climate? 373 A Scotch Highland home. Of what is it made? 445 A home in the Swiss Mountains. How does it differ from the Highlander's house in view 373 ? 533 The neat and simple interior of a Japanese home. Why do the Japanese have less furniture than we? 409 Country homes in bleak Norway. 411 Compare with home life in America. 401, 402 Little homes in Holland, land of canals and windmills. 214 Miners' homes in Nevada. Why are they built in such an unat- tractive place? 517 A group of homes in China. 564 HOME GEOGRAPHY B. HISTORIC HOMES 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage in England. Why should this cottage be preserved so many years? 354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare in England. Who was Wil- liam Shakespeare? 362 Home of the poet, Wordsworth, in England. Read Wordsworth's beautiful poem, " The Daffodils." 372 Birthplace of Robert Burns in Scotland. Do you know anything about Robert Burns? 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. 9 Longfellow's home in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Do you know any poem written by Longfellow? 113 Log cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born. This cabin is now enclosed by a larger building which protects it. Why is such a poor cabin so carefully preserved? 96 Washington's home at Mount Vernon, Virginia. Compare this with Lincoln's home in the previous scene. For a more com- plete list of homes see classification Children of the World in- cluding Home Life. II. THE CITY HOME Starting from his own home, its materials, life etc., the child will see homes centered about mills, factories, stores, banks and offices. He will see the materials for work and living brought in and will trace them to their sources, at the same time showing what the city does in return. A. KINDS OF HOMES IN CITIES 90, 93, 121, 212, 220 Here we have general views of cities where land is very valuable and people live crowded together. 455 There are tenement homes in all the large cities of the world. This picture could very well have been taken in New York or Chicago or any of our large cities. 9, 10, 37 Farther out from the business parts of a city are homes with yards and even gardens. Here are the pleasantest places to live. 83 City people often can have little gardens which are both pleasant and profitable. B. BUILDING MATERIALS i. Wood 9, 10, 147, 236 These homes are made of wood brought from the forests. Usually there are city ordinances forbidding the use of wood as a building material in the crowded parts of the city. Why? 224 Cutting a great tree in an Oregon forest. 586 Great forest of Eucalyptus trees. THE CITY HOME 565 1 Logs piled on a stream bank in Maine. Why are the logs piled on the bank of the stream and what will these logs be used for? 162 Hauling logs in a Minnesota forest. Would this method of haul- ing logs be employed in the South? 215 A log raft on the Columbia River. Why are the logs moved by this method? 216 A great sawmill in Washington. 523 Sawing lumber in northern China. Why are such laborious methods used in China? 2. Stone 3, 4, 45, 37 Stone is a splendid building material as it lasts prac- tically forever. Stone must be taken out of the ground and usually is expensive. 3. Brick 121, 212 Very many of our homes are made of brick. It is more durable than wood and less expensive than stone. C. STREETS 6,8,31,266,273,331,340,464,474 Consider reasons for paved streets, street sweepers, broad sidewalks, street cars, and lights. Why not so necessary in a village or in the country? 7, 31, 139, 230, 273, 315, 373, 380, 587 Street cars, elevated railroads and automobiles make it possible for people who must work in cities to live out where it is cleaner, healthier, and pleasanter and where they can have yards and gardens. D. FOOD People who live in the city depend absolutely upon the country for their food. 57,46,159,165,339,396,403,411,413,487 Milk is one of the most im- portant of foods and milk must be brought from the country. Notice the different methods of caring for milk. 45 Butter too must come from the country and should be made under the most sanitary conditions. 56 Eggs and chickens are of the highest importance as food. They are shipped to the cities by millions. 127,159,172,183,185,186,190,301,480,589 No city produces its own meat. All the city can do is to prepare it for use and provide cold storage. 47, 83, 149 Market gardens near great cities supply them with fresh vegetables. Quick and cheap transportation gives fresh vege- tables nearly all the year round. 85, 108, 175, 235, 236, 237, 238, 294, 551 Transportation is such now that the whole world sends fruit to our cities. 302,310,311,303,530 Coffee, cocoa and tea are found on the table of nearly every city home. They are prepared for use and dis- tribution in our cities. 566 HOME GEOGRAPHY 166 The potato is a staple article of food. 136, 146, 147, 177, 199, 218, 357, 408 The grain fields furnish the bread, our staff of life. Oat meal and corn meal are used almost uni- versally and every baker's shop sells rye bread as well as wheat bread. 104, 105, 527, 528, 529, 549 Rice has much the same food value as the potato and can readily be used instead. People like to eat what they are accustomed to eating; so people in American cities do not change easily to rice when wheat and potatoes are scarce. It is amusing to learn that people in Hong Kong or Yokohama are no better satisfied with our grains and potatoes when rice is scarce. 13,86,226,227,278,481,531 Cities are often well supplied with fresh fish and oysters from the rivers, lakes or seas. 34,35,130,198,258,270,271,419,332,333 Sugar comes to us from re- fineries in cities but they must get their raw material from the farms. E. CLOTHES Almost all the clothes we wear, whether of cloth or leather, are city products; the textile mills and the tanneries get their raw material from the country. i. Cotton 207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 117 Picking cotton in Mississippi. From what part of the cotton plant is cotton obtained? 124 Hauling cotton to the cotton gin. What is a cotton gin? 119 Bales of cotton at the wharf in New Orleans. Why is the cotton baled? 14 A cotton mill in Mississippi. What is meant by spinning cotton? 2. Wool 589 Sheep in Australia. 480 A flock of sheep in Greece. 17 Sorting wool in a Massachusetts woolen mill. 18 Spinning wool in great factories. 81 What process follows spinning in making woolen cloth? 3. Linen 268 Preparing to make linen cloth. 269 Weaving linen. For what purpose is linen cloth preferred to cot- ton or wool? 4. Silk 537 Gathering mulberry leaves in Japan. What are the mulberry leaves used for? 538 Tending the silk worms in Japan. 539 Silk cocoons. What are the cocoons and how are they made? 540 Reeling silk from cocoons. 541 Weaving silk cloth in Japan. THE CITY HOME 567 55 Weaving ribbons in New Jersey. 22 Skeins of silk. 5. Leather 186 Cattle ranch in Kansas. From what is leather made? 272 Scraping the hair from the hides roughly. 11 Cutting leather in a shoe factory. 12, 41 Making shoes by machinery. 532 A shoe shop in Japan. Contrast the Japanese shoes with ours. For styles of dress see Classifications Costume Design, Textiles and Clothing, and Children of the World. F. HEAT AND LIGHT 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Most of the heat used in warming our houses, driving our machinery and melting our ores comes from coal. 68 Coke makes a very hot, even fire and is much used in iron and steel mills. 69, 70, 122, 123 Oil and gas for both light and heat are used in many of our city homes. They are clean and save labor. . 144,445 Wood used to be the common fuel. Today it may be con- sidered a luxury in the city home. 6, 31, 40, 43, 53, 84, 139, etc. Electricity is rapidly coming into use as motor power and as light. Cars, machinery, automobiles, eleva- tors and machinery of all kinds are run by electricity. Electric washing machines, irons and stoves lighten housework. G. OCCUPATIONS In the cities are diversified employments. It is a good thing for children to think of what work is done by fathers, brothers, sisters and friends ; then work done by other people in their cities, then work of other cities. They will then be ready to understand locations and commerce. i. Manufacturing 11,12,41,532 Shoe factories employ thousands of men and women. As a rule each worker does only one thing — which makes the work monotonous with little to cause mental develop- ment. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 81 The textile industries furnish employ- ment for great numbers of men, women and even children. Most states now forbid child labor and have compulsory educa- tion laws. Why? 40 The making of ready-made clothing is an important industry. Here again each person does the same thing day after day and opportunities for growth are few. This light room is very dif- ferent from the sweat shops and tenement homes where a great deal of sewing is done. 58, 59 In New Jersey and in eastern Ohio very many people are busy making dishes. 568 HOME GEOGRAPHY 61, 62, 63 Large cities grow up where both iron ore and coal can be obtained for the manufacture of steel. Great numbers of for- eigners gather into these mills to do the unskilled labor. 116 There are vast mines of both iron and coal in the south which are being developed very rapidly. 65, 66, 67 The wonderful machinery of the steel mills is run by skilled workers whose wages are very high. It takes a high class of men to do this work. 82, 150, 151, 152 The manufacture of engines and of machines of all kinds call for skilled labor which is always high priced. De- troit has had a wonderful growth since it became the center of automobile manufacture. 131, 132, 133 Akron, Ohio, is the center of the rubber manufacture in the United States. 134, 135 Glass factories are not very numerous in the United States. Glass-making demands skilled laborers. 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha and other cities have immense packing houses where meat for the world is prepared. 187, 203 Cities also grow in our mining districts, for ores must be re- duced. 2. Transportation and Commerce Food and raw materials must be brought to the cities for use or for further distribution and manufactured products must be sent out. If our means of transportation were to stop operation for only a few days, there would be nation-wide suffering and destruction. City peo- ple would starve, people would freeze, mills would stop, stores close, vegetables and fruit would spoil. We can not count the ruin. 25, 26, 52, 106, 119, 217, 264, 267, 280, 295, 304, 314, 338, 347, 374, 386, 391, 392, 400, 443, 559 Do you live in a seacoast city with a good harbor? To such cities come ships bringing the products of other lands and carrying back what you have to sell. The good harbor fixed the location of your city. 61, 119, 128, 157, 164, 170, 174, 264, 267 Is your city on a navigable river? Transportation by water is cheaper than by land. 48, 158, 174, 248, 250, 252, 253, 399, 457, 462, 559 To facilitate commerce canals have been constructed and these cause the growth of great cities such as Buffalo. 31, 41, 43, 61, 79, 82, 129, 128, 148, 157, 174, 223, 251, 253, 277, 323, 330, 440, 470 What railroads enter your city? Is it what you call a railroad center? Railroads carry food, manufactures, coal, oil, light, in fact everything to market. Conductors, engineers, brakemen, switchmen, firemen and a great army of other em- ployees keep our railroads going and most of these men live in cities. So important are the railroads that the United States government regulates the conduct of those passing through more than one state. 31, 145, 273 The elevated railroad and the interurban trolley car with THE CITY HOME 569 the common street car enable men to live far from their work and so make large cities possible. 7, 150, 152 Horses and automobiles are the means of local transpor- tation. For instance coffee is brought to your country by ship, to your city by rail, to your house by automobile or wagon. 7, 29, 31, 139, 230, 387, 395 Products brought from all the world to the cities are sold in stores and markets which employ countless numbers of clerks, book-keepers, cashiers, etc. As a rule these people are not highly paid. Some states have made laws regu- lating hours and fixing minimum wages. 8, 25, 30, 61, 121, 126, 139, 152, 167, 212, 213, 220 Everywhere, in all cities of the country, are offices where the business of the world is carried on. There are thousands of superintendents, managers, treasurers, bookkeepers, clerks, stenographers, office boys, jani- tors, etc., all busily working that the world's industries may con- tinue. 29, 351 Other men in banks are carrying on the financial operations of the world. 30 Newspapers have a regular army of people engaged in the work of disseminating current history. 28, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 95, 99, 315, 352, 383, 417, 482 Countless other people are busy carrying on the work of the government. H. GOVERNMENT All these things must be regulated by the government in order that people will not infringe upon each other's rights and that there may be the greatest freedom and safety for all. 7, 10, 28, 31, 46, 139, 349, 386, 389, 381, 405, etc. City governments see that streets are lighted and paved. They establish schools, make traffic regulations and do the things which affect us most directly. 8, 464 Look closely for the policemen in these views. A police sys tern in every city preserves order and safety. 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 41, 74, 75, 76, 77, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, etc. The state government grants city charters. Also the state regulates the hours and conditions of labor, makes laws regarding health, family, property, business and grants civil and political rights. 26, 32, 52, 154 Foreign and interstate commerce is regulated by the United States. III. THE COUNTRY HOME Starting with the country home as a unit, the child will see his people engaged in some form of agriculture. He will see his labor products taken away and other things brought in and he will be interested in destination and source. Both city and country children should be 570 HOME GEOGRAPHY made to realize their dependence upon each other and to see tha'-. every home both gives to and receives from the whole world. A. KINDS OF HOMES IN THE COUNTRY In what kind of country do you live? Pick out of the list the home that is nearest like your own. 38, 262. Here are two general views of country homes in hilly lands. The houses are not crowded together, there is always room, light and air. 96 This is a wealthy home in the rolling lands of Virginia. 147 This is a home on the prairies of Illinois. What is a prairie? 181 This home is on the broad plains of Nebraska. 235, 236 There are very lovely farm homes in the valleys of California. What are mountains or valleys? B. BUILDING MATERIALS 96 Most country homes are built of wood or brick. 368, 373 In other lands where wood is not so plentiful, country homes are made of stone. C. ROADS 7, 71, 209 Instead of the crowded street, is the open road. Country roads in the United States have been very poor, but now they are being paved. Almost every farmer has horses, very many have automobiles and these with good roads give country people all the advantages of both city and country. D. FOODS Country people raise a large part of their own food and supply the cities too. 57, 46, 159, 165, 339, 396, 403, 411, 413, 487, 45 The farmer has fresh milk and butter for himself and to sell. 56 You can not imagine a farm without chickens and fresh eggs. They are a source of wealth. 127, 159, 172, 173, 183, 185, 186, 190, 301, 480, 589 Country people raise their own meat. 47, 83, 149, 375 Vegetables fresh from the fields have a much finer flavor than those which have to be shipped. 136, 146, 147, 177, 199, 218, 357, 408 The high cost of grain does not bother the farmer. His own bread is sure and what he sells is profit. 104, 105 In the South rice is grown. 166 The farmer expects to have potatoes to eat and still more to sell. 85, 108, 175, 235, 236, 237, 238, 294 Farmers have fruit which ripens on the vines and has a much finer flavor than that which ripens while being shipped. They buy fruit which they cannot raise just as city people do. THE COUNTRY HOME 571 302, 310, 311, 303, 530 Coffee, cocoa and tea, they must buy. 130 Some farmers in the East make maple sugar for household use. 34, 35, 130, 198, 258, 270, 271, 419, 332, 333 Most of the sugar is bought. E. CLOTHES 409 In early days women spun the thread and wove the cloth for the family clothes. 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 53, 54, 55, 268, 269 Farmers buy the cloth or the readymade clothes just as city people do. 117, 173, 190 The cotton and wool come from the country. 11, 12, 41, 133, 272 Residents of farms need heavier shoes for walk- ing on the damp, rough earth. 127, 183, 186, 581 The hides from which leather is made all come from farms and ranches. F. HEAT AND LIGHT 144, 445 Wood is the common fuel used in country homes. 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Coal is also much used, especially on prairies and plains where trees are scarce. 69, 70, 122, 123 Oil is commonly used for light. G. OCCUPATIONS Nearly all country people are engaged in some form of agriculture or stockraising, but just what they will raise depends upon where the farm is, what kind of soil and climate it has, and its nearness to markets or shipping places. A farmer's work is always varied and calls for in- telligence all the time. Skilful progressive farmers find the work mentally stimulating and financially profitable. A farmer today must know how to run and care for machinery. i. Agriculture 178, 179, 180 No matter what a man is raising, he must fertilize and plow and plant. His success depends largely upon the prepara- tion of the land. 47, 149, 236 If he has rich ground near a city he may run a market garden. Always he will have his own kitchen garden. 83, 198, 184, 419 As soon as the plants are well started he must cul- tivate and free from weeds. 85, 175, 207, 236, 237, 238, 44 If he has an orchard or a fruit farm he must trim and cultivate and spray his trees or vines in order to have perfect fruit. 136, 137, 146, 147, 181, 184, 199 If he lives on the prairies or plains he may have immense fields of grain which he must harvest at the right time. 177, 233 The grain must be threshed ; corn must be husked and shelled. 117 If the farm home is on the rich lands of the southern states, cotton will be the important crop and there will be many negro farm hands to care for it and pick it when ready. 572 HOME GEOGRAPHY 124, 125 When ripe the cotton crop must be taken to the gin to be pre- pared for market. 118 Peanuts are an important crop in the warmer parts of our country. 104, 105 In the low warm lands which can easily be flooded, farmers raise rice. Here again we see the negro laborers who cultivate the fields. Negroes work easily in the warm lands. 45, 46, 57, 138, 159, 172, 173, 183, 185 He may have the pleasure of raising thoroughbred cattle or horses, sheep or hogs. 127, 186, 188, 190, 589 Perhaps the farm is a ranch with great droves of horses, cattle or sheep roaming wild. Such farms are mostly on the plains. 2. Commerce and Transportation The process here is just the reverse of what occurs in the city. The farmer sells food, cotton, wool and animals. These must be shipped to the city. In return he buys manufactured goods, cloth, shoes, sugar, machinery, nails, tools, coffee, tea, etc. 7, 124, 150, 152 Horses and automobiles carry the stuff away from the farm to the market, the store, the mill or the shipping place. What is your nearest market? 31, 41, 43, 61, 79, 82, 129, 128, 148, 157, 174, 223, 251, 253, 277, 323, 330, 440, 470 Long trains carry the milk, the grains, the cotton and wool, the cattle, etc., to the cities where the food may be eaten, the cotton and wool made into cloth, the grain ground into flour, and the cattle turned into meat and leather; or it may be shipped to other places. What railroads are nearest you? 48, 61, 119, 128, 157, 158, 164, 170, 174, etc. Vessels ply our rivers and canals carrying grain and other farm produce to the cities. 267, 280, 295, 304, 314, 338, 347, 374, 386,391, 392, 400, 443, 559 And in our coast cities are ocean vessels waiting to carry our grain and cotton and meat to England and other foreign countries. Per- haps the wheat in your own field may be carried to France and there feed our own soldiers. And you may eat your own bread from a plate brought from France on the return voyage. H. GOVERNMENT 71 Local governments in the country have far less to do than in cities. Roads are kept in order, schools are established, there are local courts. 8 Property, business, inheritances, civil and political rights are con- trolled by the state just as in the city. 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95 The Federal government is over all people whether in country or city. IV. NATURAL FEATURES OF LAND AND WATER 391 The Rhine River in Germany, an important waterway. 467 The Danube River in Central Europe, much used for navigation. THE COUNTRY HOME 573 39 The Hudson River in New York State. Compare the steep banks of the Hudson at this point with the broad plains bordering the Danube in the previous view. 377 A lake among the hills in Ireland. 388 Among the low mountains of Southern Germany. 361 A lake and rounded hills in England. 322 Peaks of the lofty Andes in South America. 291 Volcanic peaks in Central America. Notice that they rise above the clouds. 276 Sharp peaks and little glaciers in Western Canada. 427 Mountain peaks of the French Alps. 448 A mountain peak in the Alps. 428 A glacier in the Alps. Explain what a glacier is. 275 A close view of the surface of a small glacier in Canada. 219 Surface of a small glacier, Wash. 318 Beautiful waterfalls in South America. 576 Great waterfalls in Africa. 444 A beautiful waterfall in Switzerland. 567 An oasis in the Desert of Egypt. 194 Geyser in Yellowstone Park. Explain what a geyser is. 453 A volcano in Italy. 430 A harbor in France, Cannes. 326 A harbor in South America, Valparaiso. For what are harbors? 47. TRAVELOGUE AND LECTURE SUGGESTIONS By RUSSELL H. CONWELL, D.D., LL.D. LECTURER, PRESIDENT OF TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, PHILADELPHIA The teacher who would fully instruct or the orator who would inspire his audience finds his chief task to be in awaken- ing the imagination of his pupils or hearers, so as to produce clear mental pictures of scenes and events. If one depends upon the spoken word, the orator or lecturer must choose those words which will awaken the thought of the hearer and call to his mind clear images of the things presented. If the stu- dent has. a memory stored with clear, sharp images, a careful choice of words will bring the scene or event vividly to mind. For the most part, however, and especially in dealing with the pupils having a limited range of personal experiences and whose opportunity for travel has been limited, more than words are needed. Fortunate is the teacher who in dealing with the child has at hand such a wealth of concrete, helpful illustra- tions as are contained in this Keystone " 600 Set " of stereo- graphs and lantern slides. They deal with a wide range of school topics and in a clear and effective way. The work with the lantern slides will naturally be held to the review of the work covered by the study of the stereo- graphs in the regular course. For this, one can not too strongly recommend the plan of having the pupils give the description for the slides as presented. Such a method will accomplish much in inspiring the pupil with confidence in ap- pearing in this prominent way before the class, but it also pro- vides a most excellent drill in oral composition and public speaking. The child who appears before the class and ex- presses his ideas in a clear, confident way gets a training that will be helpful to him throughout life. One of the vital problems for every progressive superintend- 574 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 575 ent and principal is that of closely linking the community and the school. Our schools should be made the real center of the community life. The Parent-Teacher's Associations throughout the country have been doing a great work along these lines. Interesting program material is needed for these meetings. An excellent idea is to have the pupils review with the lantern slides the regular class instruction in geography, history, etc. It brings the classroom instruction directly in touch with the home, and arouses an interest in the work the children are doing. At the same time, appearing before the larger audience gives the pupil a still greater training than does appearing before the class. It may be that the principal in using the lantern himself or conducting an exercise with the children will wish to present material arranged on a travelogue or lecture plan rather than on the regular classroom basis. For this purpose, the classifi- cations in this chapter have been arranged and will prove help- ful. They are all based on the Keystone " 600 Set " of lan- tern slides. TRAVELOGUE AND LECTURE SUGGESTIONS i. A Day in the New England States Fishing 13; History 6, 7 to 10; Interesting sights 2: Lumbering 1; Manufacturing 11, 12, 14 to 24; Quarrying 3 to 5. 2. A Day in the Middle Atlantic States Agriculture 47; Children 83; Cities 26, 30, 61; Domestic Art 33; Harbors 25: History 36, 37, 71, 73, 80; Immigration 32: Industries 42, 44 to 46, 48, 56 to 59; Interesting sights 27 to 29, 38, 39, 49 to 51, 60: Manufacturing 34, 35, 40, 41, 53 to 55, 62 to 68, 81, 82, 84; Mining 69, 70, 74 to 79; Transportation 31. 43, 52. 3. A Day in the South Atlantic States Agriculture 104, 105. 108: Harbors 100, 106: History 87 to 92, 96, 98. 101, 109: Industries 85, 86, 97, 103. 107, 111; Interesting sights 93, 95. 102, 110: Life saving 99; Manufacturing 94. 4. A Day in the South Central States Agriculture 112, 117. 118: History 113, 114, 126; Industries 119; Interesting sights 120, 121; Manufacturing 116. 123 to 125; Mining 115, 122; Stock raising 127. 576 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 5. A Day in the North Central States Agriculture 136 to 138, 147, 149, 160, 166, 175, 177 to 181, 184; Build- ing dike 148; Cities 139, 167; Dairying 159, 165; History 146, 158, 168, 169; Indians 182; Industries 128, 130, 140 to 145, 161; Interesting sights 170, 171, 174: Lumbering 162; Manufacturing 131 to 135, 150 to 153, 156; Mining 155, 163, 176; Stock raising 172, 173, 183, 185, 186; Transporta- tion 129, 154, 157, 164. 6. A Day in the Plateau States Agriculture 198, 199; Cities 212, 213; Interesting sights 189, 191 to 197, 200 to 202, 204 to 209, 211; Irrigation 210; Mining 187, 203, 214; Stock raising 188, 190. 7. A Day in the Pacific States Agriculture 218, 233, 235 to 238; Cities 220, 230; Fishing 226, 227; History 241; Industries 234, 239, 240; Interesting sights 219, 221 to 223, 228, 229, 231, 232; Lumbering 215 to 217, 224; Mining 225; Sub- marines 242. 8. A Day in the Outlying Possessions of the U. S. Alaska 243, 246 ; Panama, Porto Rica, Hawaii 247 to 261 ; Philippines, Guam 546 to 554. 9. A Trip Through the Thirteen Original States New Hampshire 3; Massachusetts 6 to 20; Rhode Island 21; Con- necticut 22 to 24; New York 25 to 50; New Jersey 51 to 60; Pennsyl- vania 61 to 84; Delaware 85; Maryland 86; Virginia 96 to 100; North Carolina 102, 103; South Carolina 104, 105; Georgia 106. 10. A Trip Through the Mississippi Valley Pennsylvania 61 to 72; Ohio 130; Indiana 136 to 138; Illinois 146 to 148; Kentucky 112, 113; Tennessee 114, 115; Mississippi 117: Louisiana 119, 120; Arkansas 118; Missouri 174 to 176; Iowa 170 to 173; Wiscon- sin 159 to 161 ; Minnesota 165 to 169; North Dakota 177: South Dakota 178, 179; Nebraska 180 to 182; Kansas 183 to 186: Oklahoma 121: Texas 127; Colorado 198 to 201; Wyoming 191 to 197; Montana 187 to 189. 11. A Trip Through the Louisiana Purchase Arkansas 118; Colorado 198 to 201: Iowa 170 to 173: Kansas 183 to 186; Louisiana 119. 120; Minnesota 165 to 169: Missouri 174 to 176; Montana 187 to 189; Nebraska 180 to 182; North Dakota 177; Okla- homa 121 ; South Dakota 178, 179; Wyoming 191 to 197. 12. A Day in Canada, Alaska and the Arctic Regions Alaska 243 to 246; Canada 262 to 277; Newfoundland 278, 279; Arctic 342, 343. LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 577 13. Mexico, Central America and West Indies Agriculture 289, 297, 298, 302, 303 ; Cities 281 to 283, 299 ; Fruits 294 ; Harbors 280, 295 ; History 293, 296 ; Industries 285 ; Interesting sights 284, 288, 291, 300; Manufacturing 286; Mining 287; People 290, 292; Stock raising 301. 14. A Day in South America and the Antarctic Region Agriculture 319, 332, 333; Antarctic 344 to 346; Children 306; Cities 304, 305, 308, 309, 315, 316, 312, 324, 336 to 341 ; Harbor 307, 314, 313, 326, 327; Industries 310, 311, 325; Interesting sights 318, 320 to 323, 328 to 331, 335; Mining 325; Silver refining 334; Stock raising 317. 15. A Day in the British Isles Agriculture 357 ; Cities 348 to 352, 360, 365, 375, 380, 381 ; Harbors 347, 374; History 354 to 356, 367, 368; Interesting sights 353, 359, 363, 366, 369, 361, 362, 372, 373, 376 to 379, 382; Stock raising 358, 364, 370, 371. 16. A Day in France, Monaco and Spain Cities 421 to 425, 429 to 432, 434, 435; Fruit 437, 438; Glaciers 427, 428 ; Harbors 433 ; History 436, 439 ; Interesting sights 426. 17. A Day in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden Agriculture 419; Cities 395, 396, 399, 400, 404 to 406, 416; Harbors 420: History 397; Industries 409 to 411; Interesting sights 401, 402, 407, 408, 413 to 415, 417, 418; Manufacturing 412; Stock raising 398, 403. 18. A Day in Germany, Austria and Hungary Agriculture 388, 390; Children 465; Cities 383 to 385, 387, 460, 461; Harbors 386; History 389, 466; Interesting sights 391, 392, 464; People 393 ; Transportation 462, 463 ; Zeppelin 394. 19. A Day in Switzerland and Italy Cities 442, 450, 455, 456, 458; History 451, 452, 457; Industries 443; Marketing 447; Interesting sights 441, 444 to 446, 448, 453, 454; Lakes 459; Transportation 449, 440. 20. A Day in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey, the Ukraine, Russia, and Poland Agriculture 488; Cities 482, 483, 486; History 467. 470, 472, 475, 477, 478; Industries 469. 473, 479, 481, 487; Marketing 469, 485; Interesting sights 473, 476, 484 ; People 468, 471 ; Stock raising 480 ; Transporta- tion 474. 21. A Day in Africa Agriculture 561 to 562, 571; Cities 557, 558, 560, 582; Harbors 556. 574 ; History 565 to 568 : Industries 555, 570, 573 ; Interesting sights 564, 575 to 578, 583. 584: Irrigation 569; Mining 579, 581; People 572; Transportation 580, 559. 578 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 22. A Day in Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and North Africa Agriculture 561 to 563 ; Cities 493, 557, 558, 560 ; Harbors 492, 556 ; History 495, 565, 568; Industries 497, 498; Marketing 555; Interesting sights 489, 491, 564, 569; People 490, 494, 496; Transportation 559. 23. A Day in India, China and Japan Agriculture 522, 527 to 530; Cities 500, 513, 517, 526; Harbors 499 511; History 501, 502; Industries 507, 512, 516, 521, 523, 531, 542, 543 Interesting sights 508, 514, 515, 525, 533 to 535; Manufacturing 541, 506 Shoe shop 532; People 503, 510, 519, 520; Silk Culture 536 to 540 Transportation 504, 505, 509, 518, 524. 24. A Day in Asia Agriculture 522; Cities 493, 500, 513, 517; Harbors 492. 499. 511; History 495, 501, 502; Industries 497, 498, 507, 512, 516, 521, 523; Inter- esting sights 489, 491, 508, 514, 515; Manufacturing 506: People 490, 494, 496, 503, 510, 519, 520; Transportation 504, 505, 509, 518, 524. 25. A Day in Japan, Australia and the East Indies Agriculture 527 to 530, 549; Cities 526, 587, 590; Harbors 591; His- tory 547; Industries 531, 542, 543, 550 to 553; Interesting sights 525, 533 to 535, 545, 585, 586, 588, 546, 554; Manufacturing 532, 541 ; People 592 ; Stock raising 589 ; Transportation 548. 26. Noted Monuments 10 Lexington, Mass.; 25 New York City; 283 Soldiers' Monument, City of Mexico ; 288 The Sacred Shrine and " Old Popocatepetl," Cho- lula, Mexico; 350 Westminster Abbey; 365 Scott's Monument; 368 Wallace Monument : 380 Dublin. Ireland ; 416 Stockholm ; 433 Colum- bus Monument; 450 Rome; 451 St. Peter's Cathedral, Rome: 460 Marie Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria; 463 Vienna, Austria; 473 St. Sophia, Constantinople: 475 Acropolis, Athens; 502 Taj Mahal, Agra, India; 561, 564, 566 Pyramids; 565 The Sphinx; 390, 391 National Monument, Germany; 568 Karnak, Egypt; 385 Berlin, Germany: 29 Washington Monument; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin; 387 Cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany ; 375 Cork, Ireland. 27. State and National Capitals 6 to 8 Boston; 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. : 121 Oklahoma, Okla. : 248 City of Panama; 260 Honolulu, Hawaii; 264 Quebec, Canada: 273 Winnipeg, Can.; 305 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 315 Buenos Aires. Argen- tina: 324 Santiago, Chile; 340 Caracas, Venezuela: 348 to 352 London; 365 Edinburgh, Scotland: 380 Dublin, Ireland; 383, 384 Berlin: 389 Strassburg. Germany; 395 Brussels. Belgium: 404 Copenhagen, Den- mark: 416 Stockholm, Sweden; 421. 425 Paris; 432 Monaco: 435 Madrid, Spain: 450 to 452 Rome: 455 Palermo, Sicily: 460 Innsbruck. Austria; 462 Vienna; 464 Budapest, Hungary; 466 Bosnia, Jugo- LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 579 Slavia; 468 Sofia, Bulgaria; 472 to 474 Constantinople; 475 Athens; 485 Warsaw, Poland; 493 Damascus; 495 Jerusalem; 503 Delhi, India; 506 Kashmir, India; 511 Colombo, Ceylon; 526 Tokyo, Japan; 556 Algiers, Algeria; 560 Cairo, Egypt; 574 Dar-es-Salaam, German E. Africa; 587 Melbourne, Victoria; 590 Hobart, Tasmania. 28. Show Places of America Massachusetts 6 to 10; New York 25 to 32, 36 to 39, 49, 50; New Jersey 51, 52, 60; Pennsylvania 61. 73, 80; Washington, D. C. 87 to 95: West Virginia 101; Florida 109; Kentucky 113; Tennessee 114; Texas 126; Illinois 139 to 144, 146; Michigan 154; Iowa 170. 171; Missouri 174; Montana 187; Wyoming 191 to 197; Colorado 200 to 202, 205; Arizona 206 to 210; Utah 212; Washington 219; Oregon 221. 222: California 228 to 230, 237, 241 ; Panama Canal 248 to 256 ; Canada 262, 264 to 267, 274 to 276. 29. Show Places of Europe Liverpool 347; London 348 to 352; Greenwich 353; Shakespeare 354 to 356; York 360; Lake District 361, 362; Wales 363; Scotland 365 to 369; Ireland 376, 382; Germany 383 to 387, 391; Belgium 395 to 397; Holland 400; Denmark 404 to 406; Norway 407; Sweden 417; Paris 421 to 425; Monaco 432; Spain 435, 436; Gibraltar 439; Switzerland 446 to 448; Italy 450 to 453, 457; Vienna 463; Sarajevo 466; Roumania 470; Constantinople 472 to 474; Greece 475 to 478; Russia 482, 483. 30. Mountain Scenes United States 102, 114, 189 to 197. 200 to 202, 207. 208. 212 to 214, 219, 221, 222, 228; Alaska 243; Canada 274 to 276; Mexico 282, 288; Guate- mala 291: Argentina 321; Chile 322, 323; Peru 329, 330: Bavaria 388; Norway 408: France 427, 428; Spain 436; Switzerland 440, 441, 444 to 449; Italv 459; Austria 460; Bosnia 466; Greece 480; India 508; Japan 525: Philippines 548; Africa 580; Bohemia 463. 31. Places Tourists Spend Fortunes to See Boston 6 to 8: New York 25 to 30; Niagara Falls 49. 50; Washing- ton, D. C. 87 to 95; Mt. Vernon, Va. 96; Chicago 139, 140; Yellowstone National Park 191 to 197 ; Cliff Dwellers Palace 205 : Yosemite Valley 228, 229: Panama Canal 248 to 256: Quebec 264 to 266; Canadian Rockies 274 to 276: Rio de Janeiro 305 to 307; Buenos Aires 314 to 316: Santiago 324; Valparaiso 326, 327; Incan Palace 331; London 348 to 352; Sterling Castle 367: Blarney Castle 376; Berlin 383, 384: Paris 421 to 425; Monaco 432; Madrid 435: Alhambra Palace 436; The Matterhorn 448: Rome 450 to 452: Venice 457; Rock of Gibraltar 439: Lake Como 459 ; Bohemia 463 ; Budapest 464 : Constantinople 472 to 474; Athens 475, 476; Corinth 477; Olympia 478; Petrograd 482; Mos- cow 483 ; Damascus 493 ; Jerusalem 495 : Jericho Road 496 : Nazareth 497; The Taj Mahal 502; Great Wall of China 524; Fuji-Yama 525; Manila 546, 547 ; Alexandria 558 ; Suez Canal 559 ; Cairo 560 ; Pyramids 580 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 564 to 566; Thebes 567; Karnak 568; Great Assuan Dam 569; Victoria Falls 576; Cape Town 582; Melbourne 587. 32. Great Engineering Feats Bridges 27, 50, 174. 348, 366, 392. 470, 472, 560; Canals: Danube 462: Erie 48, 43; Panama 248 to 256; " Soo " 154; Suez 559; Dams: Great Assuan 569; Keokuk 170, 171; Roosevelt 210; Eiffel tower 421; Great wall of China 524; Incan Palace wall 331 ; Pyramids 284, 561, 564, 565, 566 ; Skyscrapers 25, 26, 28, 30, 139, 230 ; U. S. Capitol 87 ; Transporta- tion devices: Automobile 150, 316; Submarine 242; Zeppelin 394; Great engineering feats when built: Trinity church 29; Congressional Library 95; Notre Dame 425; St. Peter's Cathedral 451 ; Colosseum 452; Milan Cathedral 458; Kremlin 483; Parthenon 475; Temple of Zeus 478; Taj Mahal 502 ; Karnak 568. 33. Important Harbors and Waterways of the World New York Harbor 25, 26; Erie Canal 48, 43; Hudson River 38, 39, 51 ; Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio Rivers 61 ; Hampton Roads 100; Savannah River 106; Mississippi River 170, 119, 120; Great Lakes 128, 154, 164; " Soo" Canal 154; Columbia River 215, 226; Puget Sound 216, 217; Panama Canal 248, 252, 253, 254, 256: St. Lawrence River 264, 267; Vera Cruz Harbor 280; Havana Harbor 295, 296; Rio de Janeiro Harbor 307; Buenos Aires Harbor 314; Valparaiso Harbor 326; La Guaira 338 ;' Liverpool 347; Thames River 348; Firth of Forth 366; Queenstown 374; Hamburg 386; Rhine River 391, 392; Rotterdam 400; Marseilles 429; Barcelona 433; Strait of Gibraltar 439; Tiber River 451 ; Danube Canal 462 ; Danube River 467, 470, 471 ; Constantinople Harbor 472, 473; Neva River 482; Bosporus 489; Ganges River 500, 501 ; Canton Harbor 514; Yangtze River 515, 517; Algiers Harbor 556; Alexandria Harbor 558; Suez Harbor 559; Nile River 561, 564; Dar- Fs-Salaam Harbor 574; Auckland Harbor 591. 34. Through Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey Germany 383 to 394; Austria-Hungary 460 to 466; Bulgaria 468, 469; Turkey 472 to 474, 489 to 498. 35. Through Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Russia, Rou- mania and Serbia Great Britain 347 to 382; France 421 to 431; Belgium 395 to 398; Italy 450 to 459; Russia 481 to 488, 544; Roumania 470, 471 ; Serbia 467. 36. Other Suggested Trips A visit to the country in U. S. and possessions. A visit to the country in other lands. A visit to the city in U. S. and possessions. A visit t© the city in other lands. INDEX This index for the Teachers' Guide is prepared on a two- fold working basis. First, there is given for each item paging reference in the various classifications, referring to the pages of the complete Teachers' Guide. Second, there is given in many cases a reference to the serial numbers of stereographs and slides, which illustrate the topic. This selection of serial numbers has been purposely limited, so that in going directly to the set for the material, the illustrations will be obvious. We have omitted many references which are necessary when considered in connection with the classifications of which they form a part, but where the references would not be so clear without such explanatory statement. Abbreviations used in this index are as follows : Am. Today = America of Today An. = Animals An. Hus. = Animal Husbandry Arct. = Architecture. Children = Children of the World Cities = The Cities of the World Com. Civ. = Community Civics Con. Stone B. & T. = Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile Cos. Dsn. = Costume Design Dev. Na. =The Development of the Nation Draw. = Drawing Farth N. = Earth Neighbors Eat & Wear = Some Things We Eat. Some Things We Wear Eng. Comp. = English Composition E. Am. Na. = Foundations of the American Nation Farm C. = Farm Crops Farm H. & F. L. = Farm Home and Farm Fife Farm M. = Farm Management — Farm Machinery Food & Ckry. = Food & Cookery For. Beg. = Foreign Beginnings of American History Gdn. Orch. & W. = Garden. Orchard and Wood Lot Geo. = Geographical Classification Govt. = Government Home Geo. = Home Geography House Adm. = Household Administration House Dsn. = House Design and Decoration Hyg. = Hygiene — Health Habits Tnd. Dsn. = Industrial Design Tnd. Sun. Hnme = Industries Supplying the Home Lit. Sub. = Literary Subjects and Settings Loc. Ind. = Local Industries 58l 582 INDEX Metals = Metals — Sources and Uses Mkts. = Markets and Marketing Ntl. F. = Natural Forms and Forces (Physical Geography) Out Door L. = Out Door Life p. = Page pp. — Pages Peo. = People of All Lands (Racial Geography) Photo. = Photography PI. & An. = Plants and Animals PI. Asso. = Plants and Plant Associations Pol. Geo. = Geography by Nations (Political Geography) Prod. Mfg. = Production and Manufacturing Read. = Reading S. No. = Serial Number Tex. & CI. = Textiles and Clothing Trans. = Transportation Trav. & Lee. = Travelogue and Lecture Suggestions Voc. Guid. = Vocational Guidance Zones = Zones and Their Effect on Life. The numbers given in black faced type are the serial numbers of the stereographs and slides. These serial numbers correspond with the serial numbers in the Geographical Classification and Title List (page 3), also with the serial numbers on the stereo- graphs and slides. This plan enables one to turn directly from the Index to the Title List or to the cabinet of material and select instantly the scene desired. Abbev, Westminster. Geo. p. 20 S. No. 350 Aberdeen Angus, Ceo. p. 21 An. Hus. p. 292 S. No. 370 Acadia, F. Am. Na. p. 162 S. No. 262 Acropolis of Athens. Geo. p. 25, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 475 Adams, John, Dcv. Na. p. 164 S. No. 80, 91 Adams, J. Q., Dev. Na. p. 165 S. No. 87, 88, 91, 92 Adelaide. Geo. p. 30 S. No. 588 Administration, Household, no 383 to 385 Adobe, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 438, 470, House Dsn. pp. 470, 471, 472 S. No. 211, 281, 290, 299, 564 Africa, Geo. p. 28, For. Beg. p. 157, House Dsn. p. 465, Cos. Dsn. p. 485, Children p. 510, Read. p. 548, Trav. & Lee. p. 577 S. No. 555 to 584 Africa. British Fast. Geo. p. 29. Pol. Geo. pp. 128. 130 S. No. 570 to 573 African People, Geo. pp. 28, 29, Peo. p. 43 S. No. 555, 560 to 566, 570, 572, 573, 577 to 580 Africa. South. Geo. p. 29. Pol. Gen. pp. 128. 130 S. No. 579 to 584 \goonak, Read. p. 533 \gra. India. Gen. p. 26 S. No. 502 Agriculture, p. 267, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, F. Am. Na. p. 159, Fug. Comp. p. 252, Soils p. 269, Farm C. p. 276. Gdn. Oreh. & IV. p. 284, INDEX 583 An. Hus. p. 291, Farm M. p. 297, Farm H. & F. L. p. 311, Metals p. 431, Home Geo. p. 671 Agricultural Implements, Farm M. p. 308 Agricultural Methods, Dcv. Na. pp. 166, 174, Am. Today p. 178, Farm C. p. 279, Farm H. & F. L. p. 314, Metals p. 431, Loc. Ind. p. 443, Children p. 515 S. No. 136, 161, 178, 179, ISO, 207, 237, 284, 332, 488, 522, 561 Agricultural Methods, Modern, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Farm C. p. 277, Farm M. p. 299, Metals p. 431 S. No. 44, 45, 46, 147, 149, 159, 166, 173, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 198, 199, 218, 233, 333, 357, 358, 364 Agricultural Methods, Primitive, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Farm C. p. 277, Children p. 515 S. No. 105, 479, 488, 497, 522, 528, 529, 549, 561 Agricultural College. Geo. p. 12, Govt. p. 196 3. No. 172, 173 Agriculture, Department of, Govt. p. 196 S. No. 93 Air, Hyg. p. 504 Airship, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 86, Am. Today p 178 S. No. 394 Aitkenhead, Wm., pp. xxxvii, Farm M. p. 297 Alahama, Geo. p. 9 S. No. 116 Alamo, Geo. p. 10, Dev. Na. p. 167 S. No. 126 Alaska, Geo. p. 15, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. pp. 171, 173, Am. Today, p. 186, Govt. p. 198, Children p. 507, Read. p. 540 S. No. 243 to 246 Alexandria, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo p. 128 S. No. 558 Alfalfa, Geo. p. 12, Farm C. p. 282 S. No. 181, 183 Alhambra, The, Geo. p. 23, Lit. Sub. p. 244 S. No. 436 Algeria, Pol. Geo. p. 132 S. No. 556 Algiers, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo. p. 132, Read. p. 626 S. No. 556 Allegheny River, Geo. p. 7 Alligators, Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na. p. 169, An. p. 338, PI. & An. p. 520 S. No. 110 Alluvial Soil, Ntl. F. p. 105, Soils p. 271 S. No. 237, 467, 515 Almeria, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 438 Almonds, Geo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 288, PI. Asso. p. 325, Foods & Ckry. p. 368 S. No. 234 Alps, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 427, 428, 440 to 449 Altitude, Zones p. 118 Altitude & Effect on Life, pp. 109 to 120, Earth N. p. 143 " A man's a man for a' that " — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Americans, Citizens, Com. Civ. p. 202 American History, Foreign Begin- nings, pp. 150 to 157 American Nation, Foundations, pp. 158 to 163 America of Today — Our Re- sources — Preparedness pp. 177 to 187 America — Smith, Lit. Sub. p. 247, Read. p. 531 America — Spanish, Geo. pp. 17, 18, 19, 20, Dev. Na. p. 172 S. No. 280 to 341 American Indians, Peo. pp. 42, 43 American People, Peo. pp. 33, 34 Among the Icebergs, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Amsterdam, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 79, Cities p. 222 584 INDEX S. No. 399 Amundsen, Roald, Geo. p. 20 S. No. 346 Andersen, Hans Christian, Read. p. 532 _ Andes, Mountains, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 321 to 323, 329, 330 Andrews, Jane, Read. p. 533 Androclus and the Lion, Lit. Sub. p. 248, Read. p. 531 Angelus, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Angus, Aberdeen, An. Hus. p. 292 S. No. 370 Animals, pp. 331 to 340, Eng. Comp. p. 251, Draw. p. 475, Children pp. 506, 513, PL & An. p. 520 S. No. 2, 110, 118, 138, 172, 173, 188, 189, 232, 335, 345, 364, 411, 413, 505, 509, 549, 565, 588 Animal Fibers, Tex & CI. p. 276 S. No. 539, 173, 411, 565, 335 Animal Husbandry, pp. 291 to 296 Animals & Plants, pp. 517 to 526 Animal, Transportation, Trans, p. 75 Antarctic, Geo. p. 20 S. No. 344 to 346 Anthracite, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg. p. 56, Dev. Na. p. 174, hid. Sup. Home p. 359 S. No. 74 to 79 Antwerp, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 396 Apartment Houses, House Dsn. p. 465 S. No. 462 Appalachians, Geo. p. 8 S. No. 102, 103 Apple, The — Burroughs, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Apples, Geo. pp. 6, 12, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Dev. Na. p. 170, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 288, PL Asso. p. 325, Food & Ckry. p. 370, PL & An. p. 517, Eat & IV ear, p. 552 S. No. 44, 175 Apron, Cos. Dsn. p. 481 S. No. 396, 418 Arabs, Cos. Dsn. p. 482, Read. p. 531 S. No. 494, 555, 560, 562 to 566 Arab's Farewell to His Steed, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Arbitration, Govt. p. 198 Arch, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Arct. pp. 399, 405, 415, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 455 S. No. 174, 260, 348, 384, 392, 397, 425, 450 to 452, 456, 524, 557 Architect, Voc. Guid. p. 351 Architectural Composition, Arct. p. 401 Architectural " Orders," Arct. p. 402 Architectural Photography, Photo. p. 494 Architecture, pp. 388 to 419, House Dsn. p. 463 Architecture, Domestic, Arct. p. 409 Architecture, History, Arct. p. 398 Architecture. Industrial Design, pp. 388 to 419 Architecture, Styles, Arct. p. 399 Arctic Circle, Geo. pp. 15, 20, An. pp. 337, 339, Cos. Dsn. p. 485 S. No. 246, 342, 343, 413 to 415 Arctic Forests, PL Asso. pp. 322, 327 S. No. 244, 413 Arctic Snows, PL Asso. p. 327 S. No. 243, 342, 345, 346 Arequipa, Peru, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 329 Argentina, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 124, Read. p. 542 S. No. 314 to 321 Arid, Zones p. 114 S. No. 561, 563, 564, 566 Arizona, Geo. p. 13, Ntl. F. pp. 98, 99, Read. p. 539 S. No. 206 to 210 Arkansas, Geo. p. 9 S. No ; 118 Armada, Spanish, Pol. Geo. p. 127 Arnold, Benedict, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Arno River, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 456 Aroostook, Me., Read. p. 536 INDEX 585 Arrangement, Arct. p. 401 Art & Domestic Science, p. 356 Arts, Domestic, p. 356, Ind. Sup. Home, pp. 358 to 361, Food & Ckry. pp. 362 to 373, Tex. & CI. pp. 374 to 382, House Adm. pp. 383 to 385 Arts, Fine, p. 453, Drazv, pp. 455 to 461, House Dsn. pp. 462 to 476, Photo, pp. 487 to 500 Arts, Industrial, p. 386, Ind. Dsn pp. 388 to 419, Wood pp 420 to 424, Metals pp 425 to 431, Con. Stone B & T. pp. 432 to 438, Loc Ind. pp. 439 to 447 Ash, Wood P. 429 S. No. 369 " A ship, a ship a-sailing," Read. p. 532 S. No. 27, 525 Asia, Geo. p. 25, Children, p. 509, Read. p. 546, Trav. & Lcc. p. 578 S. No. 489 to 554 Asia Minor. Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 152, Trav. & Lcc. p. 578 S. No. 489, 490, 491 Asphalt. Prod. Mfg.. p. 57 S. No. 48, 316 Assuan, Geo. p. 29 S. No. 569 Association, Plant, pp. 320 to 330 Astronomical Geography, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. pp. 140 to 147 S. No. 593 to 600 Astronomical Photography, Photo. p. 500 S. No. 593 to 600 Athens, Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 152, Read. p. 546 S. No. 475, 476 Atlantic City, Com. Civ. p. 201, Hyg. p. 448 S. No. 60 Atmosphere, Ntl. F. p. 98 Atwood, W. W., pp. xxxi, 97 Auckland, Geo. p. 30 S. No. 591 Auld Lang Syne — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Australia, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. pp. 128, 129. House Dsn. p. 520, Read. p. 549, Trav. & Lcc. p. 578 S. No. 585 to 589 Australia & Islands, Geo. p. 30 S. No. 585 to 592 Australians, Peo. p. 40 S. No. 585, 590 Australia — South, Pol. Geo. p. 129 S. No. 588 Austria, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 137, House Dsn. p. 465, Read. p. 545 S. No. 460 to 466 Authors, Lit. Sub. pp. 242 to 249 Automohile. Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 62, Trans, p. 85, Dev. Na. p. 175, Farm H. & F. L. p. 317, Voc. Guid. p. 350, Loc. Ind. p. 442 S. No. 31, 109, 122, 126, 150, 152, 167, 229, 230, 305, 315, 316 Avon River, Geo. p. 20 S. No. 356 Awnings, Tex. & CI. p. 380 S. No. 100, 213, 406, 535 Ayr, Scotland, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 372 Ayrshire Cattle, Geo. p. 21, An. Hits. p. 291 S. No. 371 Aztecs, Geo. p. 17 S. No. 282 B Babies, Children pp. 587. 588 S. No. 6, 158, 204, 328, 338, 455, 534 Bagley, William C, pp. ix, xxix, xliii, 579 Bahia, Brazil, Geo. p. 18 S. No. 304 Baker, Franklin Thomas, pp. xxxii, 243, 245 Balance, Ind Dsn. p. 391 Balboa, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Am. Today, p, 187 586 INDEX Balconies, House Dsn. pp. 472, 473 S. No. 306, 312, 336, 445 Balfe, J. W., Lit. Sub. p. 249 Baltimore, Geo. p. 8 S. No. 86 Bamboo, Geo. pp. 27, 28, Wood p. 421 S. No. 514, 531, 534, 538, 546, 550 Banana, Geo. p. 17. Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 289, PI. Asso. pp. 320, 325, Food & Ckry. p. 370, PL & An. p. 517, Eat & Wear p. 552 S. No. 259, 294, 297, 302, 570, 575 Banking, Voc. Guid. p. 353 Bannockburn — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Barcelona, Geo. p. 23, For. Beg. p. 157 S. No. 433 Barefoot Boy. The — Whittier, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Barges, Geo. p. 78 S. No. 61, 267, 429 Bark Cloth, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. pp. 53, 69, Eng. Com p. p. 254, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 378 S. No. 570 Barley, Prod. Mfg. pp. 46, 65, Food & Ckry. p. 367, Farm C. p. 278, Eat & Wear p. 554 S. No. 199, 410, 566 Barns. S. No. 57, 159, 165, 185, 236 Barranquilla, Geo. p. 19. Zones p. 110, Cities p. 221, hid. Dsn. pp. 397, 403, Arct. p. 408 S. No. 337 Basaltic Formation S. No. 51, 382 Baskets, Arct. p. 419 S No 17, 108, 177, 263, 375, 378, 409, 423, 437. 530, 548, 572 Bathing, Geo. pp. 7, 26 S. No. 60, 501 Battlefields, Famous, Geo. pp. 7, 9, 22 S. No. 73, 114, 397 Battleships, Trans, p. 82 S. No. 100, 242, 254 Bavaria, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 388 Bayly, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Bays. Ntl. F. p. 104 S. No. 248, 492, 527 Beaches, Geo. pp. 7, 23, 27, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 13, 60, 430, 432, 439, 531 Bead-work, Cos. Dsn. p. 486 S. No. 98, 168, 182, 265 Beans, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 S. No. 562 Beard, Daniel Carter, pp. xxxviu, Out Door L. p. 341 Beaver Dam, An. p. 338, PI. & An. p. 520 S. No. 196 Beef, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Children p. 513, Eat & Wear p. 556 S. No. 127, 140. 141, 185, 186, 301, 317, 358, 370, 580 Beet, Geo. p. 13, Prod. Mfg. p. 47. Gdn., Orch. & W. p. 285, PI. Asso. p. 329 S. No. 198, 270, 271, 419 Beet Sugar — See Sugar Beet S. No. 270, 271 Being a Boy — Warner, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Beirut, Syria, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. p. 151 S. No. 492 Belfast, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 381 Belgica Antarctic Expedition ' S. No. 344, 345 Belgium, Geo. p. 22, Peo. p. 35, Pol. Geo. p. 133, Children p. 508, Read. p. 543, Eat rr Wear p. 553 S. No. 395 to 398 Belgrade, Serbia, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 467 Bells, Arct. p. 419, Metals p. 430 S. No. 71. 80, 241, 484 Bells of Shandon, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Bells, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Benares, Geo. p. 26, Trans, p. 80, Cities pp. 227, 231, 237, Arct. p. 410 S. No. 501 INDEX 587 Ben Hur, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Reppu, Japan, Geo. p. 27 S. No. 531 Berlin, Geo. p. 21, Read. p. 544 S. No. 383, 384 Bettws-y-Coed, Wales, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 363 Beverages, Prod. Mfg. p. 49 S. No. 285, 287, 295, 302, 303, 310, 311, 373, 468, 521, 530, 534 Bible, Lit. Sub. p. 242 Big trees, PL Asso. p. 322, Wood p. 422 S. No. 224, 229 Bingen on the Rhine — Norton, Geog. p. 22, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Birch, PI. Asso. p. 325, Wood p. 421 S. No. 1, 162 Birch Bark S. No. 169, 263 Birds, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, An. p. 339, Children p. 512 S. No. 56, 72, 239, 240, 583, 584 Bison, Geo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 334, PI. & An. p. 521 S. No. 232 Bitting, Harry S., pp. xli, 475 Black Beauty, Read. p. 531 Black Race, Peo. p. 43 S. No. 115, 117, 118, 119, 338, 570, 572, 577, 578, 579, 581 592 Blake, Wm.', Read. p. 532 Dlanching Celery S. No. 149 Blankets, Tex. & CI. p. 380, Cos. Dsn. p. 486 S. No. 158, 188, 204, 281 Blarney Castle, Geo. p. 21, Gdn., Orch. & W. p. 287 S. No. 376 Blast Furnace S. No. 62 Bloomfield, Myer, pp. xxxix, Voc. Guid. p. 347 Blooming Mill S. No. 66 " Blow, wind, blow ; and go, mill, go." Read. p. 531 Blue and the Gray, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Bine Bells of Scotland, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Blue Gum. See Eucalyptus Blue Ridge, Geo. p. 8, Read. p. 535 S. No. 102 Boats, Trans, pp. 78, 79, 80, Arct. p. 417, Draw. p. 461 S. No. 26, 27, 32, 39, 48, 52, 100, 106, 119, 154, 217, 253, 254, 280, 326, 386, 396, 415, 430, 459, 511, 514, 546, 559 Bohemia, Geo. p. 24, Ntl. F. p. 100, Arch. pp. 412, 413, Draiving, p, 456 S. No. 463 Bolivia, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 335 Bonn, Ger., Geo. p. 22 S. No. 392 Boots, Rubber, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Eat & Wear p. 639 Boots, Leather, Prod. Mfg. p. 69. S. No. 161 S. No. 42, 46, 75, 130, 133, 161, 227 Bosnia, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 38, Pol. Geo. p. 137 S. No. 466 Bosporus, The, Geo. p. 25 S. No. 489 Boston, Geo. p. 5, Com. Civ. p. 200, Read. p. 536 S. No. 6 to 8 Botany (see PI. Asso.) Box Tree, PI. Asso. p. 325 S. No. 379 Boys & Girls of Japan, Read. p. 532 S. No. 530, 532, 534, 535 Boy, The Barefoot — Whittier, Lit. Sub. p. 248 S. No. 488 Brace, Geo. M., pp. xli, 420 Brackets, Arct. p. 407 S. No. 260, 376 588 INDEX Brass, Prod. Mfg. p. 58 S. No. 92. 94. 352. 494 Brazil, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 124, Children p. 507, Read. p. 542 S. No. 304 to 311 Bread, Eat & Wear p. 553 S. No. 341, 410 Break, Break, Break — Tennyson, Read. p. 531 Breakwaters S. No. 256, 374, 430, 492, 499, 556 Breathing, Hyg. p. 452 Breeding Stock, Farm M. p. 302 Brick, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 432 to 438, Home Geo. p. 565 S No. 6, 8, 32. 138, 152, 282, 398, 400, 524 Bridges, Geo. pp. 6, 12, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 84, Cities p. 223, Ind. Dsn. pp. 391, 395, Arct. p 423, Metals p. 429, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 435 S. No. 27, 61, 348, 366, 379, 391, 392, 442, 456, 470, 472, 500 Brigs of Ayr, The — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 British Columbia, Geo. p. 16 S. No. 274 to 277 British Empire, Pol. Geo. p. 125 British Isles, For. Beg. p. 154, Children p. 586, Trav. & Lee. p. 656 S. No. 347 to 382 Broadway, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 30 Bronchos, S. No. 182, 186, 188 Bronze, Prod. Mfg. p. 58 S. No. 71, 80, 241, 484 Brook. The — Tennyson, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Brooklyn Bridge, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 27 Brown, John, Dev. Na. p. 168 Bruce, Robert, Biog. p. 295, Read. p. 532 S. No. 367 Brussels, Geo. p. 22, Com. Civ. p. 200 S. No. 395 Bryant, William Cullen, Lit. Sub. p. 242 Bryan, William Jennings, Geo. p. 12, Farm H. & F. L. p. 312 S. No. 181 Budapest, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 464 Buddhists. Pol. Geo. p. 129 S. No. 501 Buenos Aires, Geo. p. 18 S. No. 314, 315, 316 Buffalo, Trans, p. 77, An p. 334, PL & An. p. 521 S. No. 474, 491, 549 Bufl'alo, N. Y., Geo. p. 6, Trans. pp. 80, 81 S. No. 48 Building Material, Home Geo. pp. 564, 570 Buildings, Arct. pp. 413, 416, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434 Factory, Arct. p. 401 Historic Cities p. 218, Arct. p. 412 S. No. 6, 7, 8, 29, 87, 90, 91, 93, 95, 349, 425 Primitive, Arct. p. 398 S. No. 113, 205, 281, 298, 331, 409, 549, 550 Public, Cities p. 230, Arct. p. 408 Religious, Arct. p. 410 S. No. 324, 350, 425, 451, 458, 495, 501, 503 Bulgaria, Geo. p. 24, Pco. p. 40, Children p. 509, Read. p. 545 S. No. 468, 469 Bullen, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Burdens on Back. Trans, p. 74 S. No. 243, 328, 449, 507, 530, 532. 542, 543 Burdens in Hand, Trans, p. 74 S. No. 46. 47. 69, 182, 258, 516, 531, 544, 555 Burdens on Head, Trans, p. 74 S. No. 257, 437, 542, 564, 572, 578 Burdens on Shoulders, Trans, p. 74 S. No. 108, 175, 266, 327, 487, 494, 513, 585 Bureau of Fisheries, Govt. p. 197 INDEX 589 Bureau of Standards, Govt. p. 197 Burg-os, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 434 Burma, Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p. 129, Read. p. 547 S. No. 509 Burns, Robert, Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. p. 243 S. No. 372 Burro, See Donkey Burroughs, John, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Business, Com. Civ. pp. 204, 206 Business Letters. Eng. Comp. p. 262 to 266 Butte, Mont., Geo. p. 12, Com. Civ. p. 201 S. No. 187 Butter, Geo. p. 6, Children p. 513, Eat & Wear p. 553 S. No. 45 Buttresses, Arct. p. 407 Bvzantine Architecture, Arct. p. 399 C Cabbage, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 S. No. 469, 375 Cabin, Uncle Tom's, Lit. Sub. p 249 Cabinet. The U. S., Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 165, Govt. 193 S. No. 92 Cables, Metals p. 430 S. No. 27, 379 Cabot, John, F. Am. Na. p. 161 Cacao, Geo. p. 18, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, PI. Asso. p. 325, Food & Ckry. p. 371, Eat & Wear p. 632 S. No. 303 Cactus, Geo. pp. 13. 14. PL Asso. p. 325, PI. & An. p. 517 S. No. 209, 235 Cairo, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. p. 130, Cities pp. 218, 225, 234 S. No. 560 Calcutta, India, Geo. p. 26 S. No. 500 Calhoun, John C, Dev. Na. p. 164 California, Geo. p. 14 S. No. 228 to 242 Call of the Wild, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Camel, Trans, p. 77, An. p. 335, Tex. & CI. p. 377, PI. & An. p. 521 S. No. 504, 564, 565, 518 Canada, Geo. p. 16, Peo. p. 42, Pol. Geo. pp. 128, 129, House Dsn. p. 468, Trav. .& Lee. p. 655 S. No. 262 to 277 Canals, Geo. pp. 6, 11, 15. 22, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 79, Dev. Na. pp. 172, 173 S. No. 48, 154, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 293, 399, 400, 457, 462, 559 Cane Sugar, See Sugar Cane S. No. 34, 35 Cannas, PI. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 91 Cannes, Geo. p. 23, Zones, p, 113, Cities, pp. 227, 235 S. No. 430 Cannon, Metals p. 430 S. No. 39, 73, 254 Canoe, Trans, p. 78 S. No. 169 Cantaloupe, Geo. p. 6, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 284, PI. Asso. p. 326, Food & Ckry. p. 371 S. No. 47 Cantilever Bridge, Ind. Dsn. p. 391, 395 S. No. 366, 470 Canton, Geo. p. 27, Trans, p. 81, Mkts. p. 90 S. No. 514 Canyon, Geo. v. 13 S. No. 202, 208 Cape Colony, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. p. 128 S. No. 582 to 584 Capes, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 248, 414 Cape Town, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. p. 130, Read. p. 549 S. No. 582 Capitol, U. S., Dev. Na. p. 164, Govt. p. 191 S. No. 87 Captains Courageous — Kipling, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Carabao, See Buffalo Caracas. Geo. p. 20 S. No. 340, 341 Caravan, Geo. pp. 27, 29, Trans. p. 77 S. No. 518, 567 Carding, Tex. & CI. pp. 378, 379, Eat & Wear p. 637 S. No. 286, 409 590 INDEX Carlstein Castle, Geo. p. 24, Cities p. 219, Arch. pp. 412, 413, Drawing, p. 456 S. No. 463 Carpenter's Geographical Readers, Read. p. 535 Carriages, Trans, p. 76 S. No. 312, 349, 383, 424, 472, 547 Carrier, Trans, p. 73 S. No. 27, 43, 246, 396, 449, 518, 548, 578, 580 Cars, Tranp. p. 84 Cartier, Jacques,* For. Beg. p. 156, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Cashmere, See Kashmir Castles, Arct. p. 461, House Dsn. p. 469 S. No. 376, 432, 451, 463 Cathedrals, Geo. pp. 21, 22, 23, Com. Civ. p. 201, Arct. p. 410 S. No. 360, 387, 425, 429, 434, 451, 458 .Cattle, Beef, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, Trans, p. 77, Dev. Na. p. 170, Am. Today, p. 179, An. p. 333, Tex. & CI. p. 377, Loc. hid. p. 455, Photo pp. 488, 493, 494 S. No. 127, 140, 185, 186, 301, 317, 358, 370 Cattle, Dairy, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, An. Hus. p. 291, An. p. 333, Tex. & CI, p. 377, Loc. Ind. p. 445 S. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 364, 371 Cattle, Draft, An. p. 333 S. No. 298, 474, 549, 580 Caucasian Race, Peo. pp. 32 to 40 S. No. 3, 5, 69, 94, 235, 266, 306, 355, 378. 390, 396, 402, 409, 455, 471, 487, 490 Causeway, Giant's, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 382 Celery, Geo. p. 11, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 284, Eat & Wear p. 636 S. No. 149 Celts, Peo. p. 36 S. No. 366, 373, 378, 443 Census Office, Govt. p. 197 Center of Interest, Photo, p. 489 Central Africa, Children p. 589 Central America, Geo. p. 17, Pol. Geo. p. 124, Children p. 507, Read. p. 541 S. No. 291 to 294 Century Plant, Zones p. 112, PI. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 37, 57, 285, 287, 289 Cereal Grains, Food & Ckry. p. 366 Ceylon, Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, House Dsn. p. 466, Cos. Dsn. p. 482, Read. p. 550 S. No. 511, 512 Chace, Edith P., pp. xl, Tex. & CI. p. 374 Chains, Metals p. 430 S. No. 75, 471 Chairs, Arct. p. 407, House Dsn. pp. 471, 475 S. No. 33, 89, 92, 352, 373, 417, 448, 532 Chamberlain, James F., pp. xxxii 141 Chamonix, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 427, 428 Champlain, Samuel de. For. Bee;, p. 156, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Champs des Elysees, Geo. p. 23, For. Beg. p. 156, Cities pp. 217, 222, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 287, Arct. p. 416, House Dsn. p. 468 S. No. 422 Change of Seasons, Earth N. p. 144 Chapultepec, Geo. p. 17, Dev. Na. p. 167 S. No. 283 Charcoal. Geo. p. 8. Prod. Mfg. p. 60, Am. Today p. 181, Food & Ckry. p. 363, Wood p. 423 S. No. 103. 543 Chateau-Thierry, Geo. p. 23, Dev. Na. p. 174 S. No. 426 Chemical Elements, Action of, Ntl. F. p. 98 Chemistry, Voc. Gitid. p. 352 Cherry, Flowering, PI. Asso. p. 325 S. No. 534 Chestnut, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 289, PI. Asso. p. 325, Wood p. 421 INDEX 591 S. No. 70 Chicago, Geo. p. 10, Com. Civ. p. 204, Read, p 539 S. No. 139 to 144 Chickens. Geo. p. 7. Prod. Mfg. p. 51, An. Hus. p. 295, An. p. 340, PL & An. p. 521, Read. p. 532, Eat & Wear p. 556, Home Geo. pp. 565, 570 S. No. 56, 338 Chifu, Geo. p. 27 S. No. 521 Childe Harold's Pilgrimage — Byron, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Children p. 511 Children at Plav, Children pp. 504, 511 S. No. 60, 290, 336, 338, 339, 402, 435, 471, 488 Children. Farm, Farm H. & F. L. p. 313 S. No. 83, 236, 487, 488, 522 Children of the World, pp. 503 to 516 Children's Bureau, Govt. p. 197 Children's Clothes, Cos. Dsn. p. 479 S. No. 260, 292, 306, 343, 465, 520, 532 Child's Garden of Verses, A, Read. p. 528 Chile, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 42, Pol. Geo. p. 125, Read. p. 541 S. No. 322 to 328 Chilkoot Pass, Geo. p. 15 S. No. 243 Chimneys, House Dsn. p. 463 S. No. 9, 187, 354, 355, 372, 373 China. See Pottery China, Geo. pp. 26, 27, Pol. Geo. p. 138, Dev. Na. p. 173, House Dsn. p. 466, Chil- dren p. 511, Read. p. 547, Trav. & Lee. p. 578 S. No. 513 to 524 China and Manchuria, Geo. p. 26 S. No. 513 to 524 Chinese, Peo. p. 40, Dev. Na. p. 168, Cos. Dsn. p. 483 S. No. 227, 519, 520, 521 Chinese Architecture, Arct. pp. 400, 404 S. No. 520, 521 Chinese Stories, Lit. Sub. p. 248, Read. p. 532 Chinkiang, Geo. p. 27 S. No. 515 Chippendale, House Dsn. p. 475 S. No. 33 Chocolate. Geo. p. 18. Food & Ckry. p. 371, Children p. 512, Eat & Wear p. 554 S. No. 303 Choosing a Farm, Farm M. p. 298 Chosen (Korea), Geo. p. 28, Peo. p. 41, Pol. Geo. p. 139, House Dsn. p. 467, Read, p. 547 S. No. 542, 543 Churches, Com. Civ. p. 201, Arct. p. 411 S. No. 6, 29, 406, 451, 458 Circle, Draw. p. 455 Cities, Dev. Na. pp. 166, 167, 170, 175, Govt. p. 189, Com. Civ. p. 210, Cities p. 216 S. No. 25, 26, 61, 93, 121, 139, 152, 167, 220, 230 Cities of the World, The, pp. 215, to 237 Cities, Religious, Cities, p. 236 Cities, Size, Cities p. 233 Cities, Types, Cities p. 233 City Hall, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 28 City Homes, Arct. p. 411 S. No. 264, 389, 434, 455, 457 City Making, Cities p. 216 City Plans, Cities p. 220 Civic Beauty, Com. Civ. p. 208, Arct. p. 416 Civil Service, Voc. Guid. p. 354 Civil War, Dev. Na. p. 167, Am. Today, p. 177 S. No. 73 Classification of Soils, Soils po 271, 272 Clay, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 437. 438 S. No. 581 Clay, Henry, Dev. Na. p. 164 Cleanliness Com Civ. p. 203, Hva p. 452 Clearing Land, Soils p. 273 S. No. 224 592 INDEX Clerks, Home Geo. p. 569 Cliff Dwellings, Geo. p. 13, Home Geo. p. 562 S. No. 205 Cliffs, Sea, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 432, 439 Climate, Farm M. p. 301 Clothes, Working, Cos. Dsn. p. 478 S. No. 15, 40, 42, 44, 75, 130, 227, 243 Clothing, pp. 559 to 561, Prod. Mfg. p. 52, Tex. & CI. pp. 379, 381, Wood p. 423, Children p. 516, Eat & Wear p. 559, Ho vie Geo. pp. 566, 567, 571 S. No. 146, 551, 552, 566, 570, 585 Clothing & Textiles, pp. 374 to 382 Clothing. Modern, Tex. & CI. p. 381 Cloud, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Clouds, Earth N. p. 142 S. No. 102, 264, 276, 282, 441, 442, 451, 452, 508, 525 Coal, Eng. Comp. p. 254, Food & Ckry. p. 363, Loc. Ind. p. 439, Read. p. 538, Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 Coal, Anthracite, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg. pp. 56. 63, Dcv. Na. pp. 1 166. 169, 174, Am. Today p. 182 S. No. 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Coal, Bituminous, Prod. Mfg. p. 56 S. No. 61, 129 Coastal Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 S. No. 104, 105, 108, 122, 289, 399 Coast Forms. Ntl. F. p. 103 Coast Guard, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Coblenz, Geo. p. 22, Prod. Mfg. p. 70, Cities, p. 218, Dev. Na p. 174, House Adm. p. 384, Arch. p. 397, Ind. Dsn. p. 419, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434 S. No. 385 Cochel, W. A., pp. xxxvii, An. Hus. p. 291 Cocoa, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Food & Ckry. p. 371, PI. & An. p. 317, Eat & Wear p. 554, Home Geo. p. 565 S. No. 303 Coconuts, Prod. Mfg. p. 49. Gdn, Orch. & W. p. 289 Food & Ckry. p. 369 S. No. 551, 249, 259 Cocoons, Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Tex. & CI. p. 378, Eat & Wear p. 560 S. No. 536, 539, 540 Codfish, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 339, PI. & An. p. 522, Read. p. 540, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 13 Cofa Bridge, Geo. p. 19 , S. No. 330 Coffee, Geo. pp. 17, 18, 24, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Eng. Comp. p. 254, PI. Asso. p. 325, Food & Ckry. p. 371, Children p. 512, 'PI. & An. p. 518, Eat & Wear p. 554, Home Geo. p. 565 S. No. 302, 310, 311, 295, 468 Cohesion, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 Coke, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg. p. 56. Am. Today, p. 181, Food & Ckry. p. 363, Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 62, 68 Colesworthy, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Collars, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 40 Collective Industries, Prod. Mfg. p. 62 Cologne, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 393 Colombia, Geo. p. 19, Dev. Na. p. 172, Read. p. 541 S. No. 337 Colonial Houses, House Dsn. p. 574 S. No. 9, 10, 37, 90, 91, 96 Colonies: Dutch. Pol. Geo. p. 133 English, Pol. Geo. pp. 129, 130 French, Pol. Geo. p. 132 German, Pol. Geo. p. 137 Colorado. Geo. p. 13, Dev. Na. p. 167, Metals, 426 S. No. 198 to 205 Colosseum, Rome, Gen p. 24 S. No. 452 INDEX 593 Columbia River, Geo. p. 14, Read. p. 539 S. No. 215, 223, 226 Columbus, Christopber, Pol. Geo. p. 126, F. Am. Na. p 161, Columns, Arct. p 406 S. No. 8, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 340, 450, 460, 478 Comet, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 146 S. No. 600 Commerce, Dep't., Govt. p. 196, Home Geo. pp. 568, 572 Commercial Fertilizer, Soils, p. 275 Commercial Geography, pp. 87 to 96 Communication, Com. Civ. p. 207 Community, Com. Civ. p. 200 Community Civics, pp. 200 to 214 Como, Lake, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 459 Composition, Eng. Comp. p. 250 to 266 1. Giving Accurate Information, Eng. Comp. p. 251 2. Comparative and General Studies, Eng. Comp. p. 255 3. Studies of Vocations, Eng. Comp. p. 257 3. Recreations, Eng. Comp. p. 258 4. Discussion, Eng. Comp. p. 259 5. Story, Eng. Ccmp. p. 261 6. Putting Your Rpader Tbere, Eng. Comp. p. 262 7. Hiking Reports, Eng. Comp. • p. 262 8. Business Letters, Eng. Comp. p. 262 Composition, Arct. p. 401, Photo. p. 544 Composition, English, pp. 250 to 266 Comstock. Anna Botsford, pp. xliii, 517 Concrete, Am. Today p. 184, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 432, 436, House Dsn. p. 473 S. No. 123, 154, 170, 171, 210, 252, 253 Concrete, Stone, Brick & Tile, pp. 432 to 438 Concreteness in Education, p. ix Congress. Geo. v. 8. Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 174 S. No. 88 Congressional Library, Gov. p. 197 Cities p. 231, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 286 S. No. 95 Conifers, PL Asso. pp. 321, 324 S. No. 215, 216, 224 Connecticut, Geo. p. 5 S. No. 22, 23, 24 Connelley, Clifford B., pp. xli, 439 Conquest of Mexico — Prescott, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Conquest of Peru — Prescott, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Conservation, Dev. Na. p. 176 Constantinople. Geo. o. 25, For. Beg. p. 154, Read. p. 545 S. No. 472, 473, 474 Containers, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 S. No. 19, 65, 285, 295, 311, 334 Construction, Voc. Guid. p. 350, Ind. Dsn. p. 395 Constructive Industries, Prod. Mfg. p. 67 Conveyor, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 S. No. 34, 63. 67, 217 Conwell, Russell H., pp. xlv, 574 Cookery & Food, pp. 362 to 373 Cooley, Anna M., pp. xl, Tex. & CI. p. 374 Coolidge, Susan, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Copenbacen, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 404, 405, 406 Copper, Geo. pp. 5. 11, 12, Prod. Mfg. pp. 58, 64, 69, Am. Today p. 181, Metals p. 426, Loc. Ind. p. 440, Read. p. 540 S. No. 15, 155, 156, 157, 187 Cordaee. Prod. Mfg. p. 69 Corruth. Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 152 S. No. 477 Corinthian Architecture, Arct. p. 402 S. No. 87. 351, 460, 482 Cork. Geo. p. 21 S. No. 375 Corn, Geo. pp. 10, 11, 12, 17, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Dev. Na. p. 177, Am. Today p. 179, Farm C. p. 279, PI. Asso. p. 326, Food & Ckry. p. 594 INDEX 367, Read. p. 537, Eat & Wear pp. 552, 554 S. No. 136, 137, 160, 184, 292 Corn Song — Whittier, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Coronado, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Cortez, Hernando, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Costa Rica, Geo. p. 17 S. No. 294 Costume Design, pp. 476 to 486 Costume, Indian, Drazv. p. 461 S. No. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 263, 265, 328 Costumes, Modern, Cos. Dsn. p. 477 S. No. 8, 22, 29, 60, 146, 276, 280, 585 Cottages, Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. pp. 469, 471 S. No. 355, 368, 373, 411, 445 Cotter's Saturday Night, The — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Cotton, Geo. pp. 5, 9, 10, 17, Prod. Mfg. pp. 52, 68, Dev. Na. pp. 165, 169, Am. Today p. 184, Eng. Comp. p. 254, Farm C. p. 281, hid. Sup. Home p. 359, Tex. & CI. pp. 375, 377, Metals p. 428, Children pp. 506, 512, Eat & Wear p. 559, Home Geo. pp. 566, 571 S. No. 14, 15, 16, 117, 119, 124, 125, 207, 286, 420, 563 Cottonwood, PI. Asso. p. 325 S. No. 182 Coulter, John M., p. xxxviii, 320 Counties, Govt. p. 189 Country Home, Farm H. & F. L. p. 312 S. No. 96, 147, 181, 236, 373 Courtship of Miles Standish — Longfellow, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Cow The — R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 529 Cowboys. Geo. p. 12, Loc. Ind. p. 445, Hyg. p. 448 S. No. 127, 186, 188 Cows, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, An. Hus. p. 291 wS. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 364, 371, 403, 591 Cranes, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 S. No. 65, 82, 128, 150, 156, 327, 334 Crane, White, An. p. 340 S. No. 535 Crater Lake, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. F. p. 103, Soils p. 271 S. No. 222 Crevasse, Geo. pp. 14, 16 S. No. 219, 274 Crops, Farm, pp. 276 to 283, Soils p. 275 S. No. 47, 108, 147, 149, 175, 181, 184, 237, 357 Crossing Brooklyn Ferry, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Crowded Street, The — Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 242 Cruise of the Cachalot, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Cuba, Geo. p. 17, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 171 S. No. 295 to 299 Cultivation, Soils p. 273, Farm C. p. 277, Metals p. 431 S. No. 105, 198, 207, 419 Curry, Charles Madison, pp. xliv, 527 Curtiss, Charles F., pp. xxxvi, 267 Customs of American Indians, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Cuzeo, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 331 Czechoslovakia, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 137 S. No. 463 Dairy, Geo. pp. 7, 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Trans, p. 77, Am. Today p. 180, An. Hus. p. 291, Farm M. p. 303, Voc. Guid. p. 348, Loc. Ind. p. 446 S. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 364, 371, 403, 591 Daisy, PI. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 102 Damascus, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. p. 151 S. No. 493 INDEX 595 Dams, Geo. pp. 12, 13, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Arct. p. 416, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 435 S. No. 170, 210, 569 Dana, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Danube River, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 470, 471 Dar-es-Salaam, E. Africa, Geo. p. 29 S. No. 574 Darjeeling, India. Geo. p. 26 S. No. 508 Dates, Prod. Mfg. p. 48 S. No. 556, 566 David, For. Beg. p. 151 S. No. 495 Declaration of Independence, F. Am. Na. p. 163, Am. To- day p. 177 Decoration & Design, House — Costume Design, pp. 462 to 486 Deer, Pro d. Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 336 S. No. 2, 189, 413 Delaware, Geo. p. 8 S. No. 85 Delhi, India, Geo. p. 26, Com. Civ. p. 201 S. No. 503 Delta Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 S. No. 120, 500, 558 Denmark, Geo. p. 22, Pol. Geo. p. 134, House Dsu. p. 467, Read. p. 544 S. No. 404 to 406 Deposits, Ntl. F. pp. 100, 101, 105, Soils, p. 271 S. No. 192, 193, 194 Depth of Field, Photo, p. 493 Derricks, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 S. No. 69, 70, 122 Design & Decoration, House' — Costume Design, p. 462 to 486 Design, Industrial, Including Architecture, pp. 388 to 419 DeSoto, Hernando, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Deserts Arid and Semi-Arid, Zones, p. 114, PI Asso. p. 326 S. No. 190, 200, 201, 209, 495, 561 to 566, 569 Cold, Zones p. 117, PI. Asso. p. 327 S. No. 219, 276, 279, 322, 323, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 440, 441, 448 Detroit, Geo. p. 11, Loc. Ind. p. 442 S. No. 150 to 152 Development of Our Nation, The, pp. 164 to 176 Diamonds, Prod. Mfg. pp. 59, 64, Read. p. 549, Eat & Wear p. 560 S. No. 581 Dikes, Geo. p. 11 S. No. 148 Dionysius, Lit. Sub. p. 256 Discoverers & Explorers, F. Am. Na. pp. 161, 162 Discussions, Eng. Comp. p. 259 Dishes, Prod. Mfg. pp. 59, 70, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 437, Ind. Dsn. pp. 397, 419, Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 33, 58, 59, 372, 373, 385, 519 Distance, Photo, p. 493 Dist. of Columbia, Geo. p. 8, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 191 S. No. 87 to 95 Distribution, Prod. Mfg. p. 72, Mkts. pp. 87 to 96, Voc. Guid. p. 353 Divides and Passes, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 195, 243, 251 Dixie Land, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Docks, Geo. pp. 6, 9, 11, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 28, Prod. Mfg. p 72, Trans, pp. 80, 81 S. No. 26, 48, 52, 106, 128, 157, 164, 174, 267, 280, 295, 327, 347, 400, 420, 429, 556 Dodge, Mary Mapes, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Dogs, Geo. pp. 15, 16, Trans, p. 77, Am. Today p. 186, An. p. 336, PL & An. p. 522 S. No. 118, 190, 204, 246, 279, 396, 480, 490, 529 Domes, Arct. pp. 399, 406 S. No. 28, 87, 95, 384, 451, 483, 495, 502 596 INDEX Domestic Science and Domestic Arts, p, 356 Dominica, Geo. p. 18 S. No. 303 Donkeys. Trans, p. 76. An. Hits. p. 294, .1;;. p. 332 S. No. 340, 378, 496, 522, 557, 560, 566, 574 Don't Kill the Birds, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Doorways, .Ire!, p. 403 S. No. 8. 9, 260, 337. 425, 502 Doric Architecture, Arct. p. 402 S. No. 8, 92, 340, 380 Douglass, Wm. Read. p. 532 Drainage. Ntl. F. pp. 99, 100, Soils p. 274, Farm M. p. 300, Metals p. 431 S. No. 161 Dramatization, p. xviii Drawing, pp. 455 to 461, Loc. Ind. p. 441 Dredge, Geo. p. 18 S. No. 313 Dress, Earth N. p. 144, Tex. & CI. p. 381, Cos. Dsn. p. 477, Home Geo. p. 566 S. No. 146, 182, 280, 503, 506, 528 to 533, 551, 552, 572, 592 Drift Soil, Soils p. 272 S. No. 427 Drilling, Metals p. 430, Loc. Ind. p. 451 S. No. 69, 122 Drink & Food, Hyg. p. 449 Dromedary, See Camels. Drowned Coasts. Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 277, 299, 307, 374, 382 Drowned Rivers, Ntl. F. p. 102 S. No. 39, 51, 100, 264 Dryer, Charles Redway, pp. xxx, 45 Dry Farming, Geo. p. 13, Soils p. 273 3. No. 199 Dublin, Geo. p. 21. Pol. Geo. p. 129. Cities pp. 218, 221, Arct. pp. 402, 406, Read. p. 543 S. No. 380 Ducks, Prod. Mfe. p. 51, An. Hits. p. 295, An. p. 340 S. No. 401 Dunes, Sand, Ntl. F. p. 99, PL Asso. p. 328 S. No. 223 Dunn, Arthur Wm., pp. xxxv, 203 Dutch, t'eo. p. 35, Pol. Geo. p. 133, For. Beg. p. 156, Arct. pp. 409, 411, House Dsn. p. 467, Cos. Dsn. p. 481, Children p. 508 S. No. 399. 4C0, 402, 403 Dwarf Trees, PI. Asso. p. 327 S. No. 535 Early History, U. S., F. Am. Na. p. 163 Earth Neighbors, pp. 140 to 147 Earthquakes. Ntl. F. p. 101, Soils p. 271 S. No. 231, 300 East Africa, British, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Mkts. p. 94, Zones p. 113, Pol. Geo. p. 130 S. No. 570 to 573 East Africa (German) Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 113, Pol. Geo. p. 137 S. No. 574 East Indian Architecture, Arct. pp. 400, 404, House Dsn. p. 469 S. No. 499 501 East Indies, Geo. p. 28 S. No. 545 to 554 Eat, Some Things We, pp. 551 to 561 Eaves, House Dsn. p. 473 S. No. 445 Economics. Home, See Foods and Cookery, pp. 362 to 373 Ecuador, Geo. p. ly S. No. 336 Edinburgh, Scotland, Geo. p. 21, Pol. Geo. p. 128 S. No. 365 Editorial Board, pp. xxv. to xlii Education, Am. Today p. 185, Govt. p. 196, Com. Civ. pp. 203, 208, Farm H. & F. L. p. 314 Eggleston. Edward, Lit. Sub. p. 243 INDEX 597 Eggs, Farm M. p. 303, Food & Ckry. p. 366, Eat & Wear p. 556, Home Geo. pp. 565, 570 S. No. 375 Egypt, Geo. p. 28, Peo. p. 39, Pol. Geo. pp. 128, 130, For. Bey. p. 151, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 436, House Dsn. p. 467, Cos. Dsn. p. 482, Children p. 510, Read. p. 548 S. No. 558 to 569 Egyptian Architecture, Arct. pp. 399, 405, 410 S. No. 561, 564, 565, 566, 568 Eiffel Tower, Cities p. 217, Arct. p. 413 S. No. 421 Electrician, Voc. Guid. p. 351 Electricity, Ind. Dsn. p. 391, Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 15i, 171 Elephants. Prod. Mfg. p. 67, Trans, p. 77, An. p. 337, PI. & An. p. 522 S. No. 505, 509. 510 Elevated Railways, Trans, p. 84 S. No. 31 Llevation, Climate, Zones p. 118 Eliot, Charles William, pp. vii, xxix Elizabethan style of Architecture, House Dsn. p. 469 Elk, Geo. p. 13, PL & An. p. 522, Read. p. 535 S. No. 189 Ellen's Isle, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 369 Ellis Island, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 32 Elm, PL Asso. p. 325 S. No. 10, 37, 71, 96 Embargo, Govt. p. 198 Embroidery, Ind. Dsn. p. 398, Cos. Dsn. p. 481 S. No. 465, 468, 471, 487 Emmett, D., Lit. Sub. p. 249 Energy, Solar, Earth N. pp. 142, 143 Engineering, Prod. Mfg. p. 70, Eng. Comp. p. 255, Trav. & Lee. p. 580 England, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, Pol. Geo. p. 128, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 287, Arct. pp. 399, 404, 412, House Dsn. p. 467, Read. p. 543 S. No. 347 to 362 English, p. 238 English Composition, pp. 250 to 266 English Language, Pol. Geo. p. 127 Ensign, Raymond P., pp. xl, 437 Equatorial Belt, Zones p. 110 S. No. 247, 249, 251, 252, 254, 255, 293, 294, 337, 338, 570, 571, 572, 573 Erie Canal, Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 78, Dev. Na. p. 166 S. No. 43, 48 Erosion, By Water, A r //. F. p. 100, PL Asso. p. 328 S. No. 49, 50, 197, 208, 318, 363, 407, 576 Eruption, Volcanic, Geo. pp. 18, 24, Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 453, 545 Eskimo, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 40, Prod. Mfg. d. 56, F. Am. Na. p. 160, Tex. & CI. p. 382, Eat & Wear p. 559 S. No. 343 Estuaries, Ntl. F. p. 102, Pol. Geo. p. 135. Ethiopian Race, See Black Race, Eucalyptus, Geo. p. 30, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 290, PL Asso. pp. 321, 325, 328, Wood p. 421, Home Geo. p. 564 S. No. 586 Europe, Geo. p. 20, Children p. 508, Read. p. 542 S. No. 347 to 488 Evangeline — Longfellow, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Evaporation, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 S. No. 42, 244, 310, 531 E\aporation, Solar, Earth N. p. 142 S. No. 13, 42, 244. 310, 531 Excavating, Metals p. 428 S. No. 250, 251 Expansion, Dev. Na. p. 171 Explorers, F. Am. Na. p. 161 Expression, p. xxiii Eye Level, Draw. p. 455 598 INDEX Factories, Prod. Mfg. pp. 54. 55, Dev. Na. pp. 165, 169, Com. Civ. p. 204, Cities p. 220, Voc. Guid. p. 370, hid. Sup. Home p. 407, Arct. pp. 408, 415, Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 11, 12, 14 to 16, 18 to 20, 22, 23, 24, 40, 41, 62 to 67, 152, 541 Factory Processes, Prod. Mfg. p. 52 Falls, Geo. pp. 6, 22, 23, 29 S. No. 49, 50, 318, 407, 444, 576 Family, Com. Civ. p. 202 Faneuil Hall, Geo. p. 5, F. Am. . Na. p. 162, Arcl. p. 412, Read. p. 536 S. No. 7 Farm Crops, pp. 276 to 283 Farmer, Voc. Guide, p. 348 Farm Home and Farm Life, pp. 311 to 317 Farm Houses, House Dsn. pp. 468, 470, 476 S. No. 147, 181, 236, 409 Farming, see Agriculture, Voc. Guid. p. 348 Farming — General, Farm M. p. ^301 Farm Machinery, Geo. p. 12, Dev. Na. p. 166, 176, Am. To- day p 178, Eng. Comp. p. "255, Farm M. pp. 308, 309, 310, Farm H. & F. L. p. 315, Loc. hid. p. 443 S. No. 44, 136, 160, 161, 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 218, 233, 332, 357 Farm Management — Farm Ma- chinery, pp. 297 to 310 Farm Methods, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Dev. Na. pp. 166, 176, Farm C. p. 277. Farm M. p. 301, Farm H. & F. L. p. 315, Metals p. 431 Modern S. No. 136, 160, 161, 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 198, 218, 233, 332, 357 Primitive S. No. 298, 388, 419, 479, 488, 497, 522, 527, 529, 549, 554, 561, 562 Farmyard Song — Trowbridge, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Fatigue, Plyg. p. 451 Feathers, Prod. Mfg. p. 56 S. No. 56, 216, 239 Federal Reserve Board, Govt. p. 197 Ferdinand and Isabella, For. Beg. p. 157 Ferry Boat, Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 79 S. No. 26, 32, 386 Ferry Slip, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 26 Fertilizing. Cm. p. 12, Soils on. 274, 275, Farm C. p. 274, Home Geo. p. 571 Fibers, Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Farm^ C. p. 273, Tex.& CI. pp. 375 to 379, Eat & Wear p. 559 S. No. 17, 22, 117, 124, 145, 268, 553 Fields, Prod. Mfg. p. 65 S. No. 104, 105, 137, 178, 179, 180, 184, 218, 284, 357. 488, 522, 561. 562 Figures in Action, Drazv. p. 460 Filipinos, See Philippines Fine Arts, p. 453 Finland, Geo. p. 25. Tex. & CI. n. 482, Cos. Dsn. p. 479, Chil- dren p. 508 S. No. 481 Fins, Pol. Geo. p. 138 S. No. 481 Fir, Balsam, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 162 Fir, Douglas, PL Asso. p. 324, Wood p. 421 S. No. 216, 224 Fir, Red, PL Asso. p. 324 S. No. 222, 228 Fireplaces, Arct. p. 418, House Dsn. pp 463, 471 S. No. 33, 92, 113, 372 Firewood, Food & Ckry. p. 263, Wood p. 422 S. No. 124, 467 Firth of Forth, Geo. p. 21, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 84 S. No. 366 INDEX 599 Fir Tree, The, Read. p. 532 Fish, Prod. Mfg. p. 63. Am. To- day p. 180, Food &■ Ckry. p. 366, Children pp. 506, 512, Eat & Wear p. 557, Home Geo. p. 566 S. No. 13, 226, 227, 244, 481, 531 Fisher, M. L. p. xxxvii, Farm M.- p. 297 Fisheries, Am. Todav p. 180 S. No. 13, 86, 97, 226, 227 Fishing Boats, Prod. Mfg. p. 63. An. p. 339, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 13, 481, 531 Fishing Nets, Tex. & CI. p. 381 *S. No. 226 Fissures, Geo. p. 14. Nil. F. p. 101 S. No. 231, 300 Flags, Tex. & CI. p. 380 S. No. 100. 242, 254, 260, 280, 514. 585 Flashlights, Photo, p. 492 S. No. 2, 76, 155, 579 Flax. Prod. Mfg. p. 53 S. No. 40, 268, 269 Flood Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 S. No. 321, 467, 509, 515, 549, 561, 564, 580 Florence, Italy, Geo. p 24, For. Beg. p. 154 S. No. 456 Florida, Geo. p. 9. Mkts. p. 91. Zones p. 115, Read. p. 537 S. No. 108 to 111 Flowers, Geo. pp. 7, 23. Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 287 S. No. 423, 444, 534 Food, Buying, Mkts. pp. 88, 91, 92, House A dm. p. 384 Food Commission, Govt. p. 198 Food and Drink, Health, Hyg. p. 449 Food Givers, Voc. Guid. p. 348 Food, Preparation, Food & Ckry. p. 372 Food, Service, Food & Ckry. p. 37 J Food and Cookery, pp. 362 to 373 Foods and Foodstuffs. Prod. Mfu. p. 46, Am. Today p. 178, PI. Asso. p. 328, Food & Ckry. pp. 364, Wood p. 424/ Hyg. p. 4-W. Eat & Wear p. 552. Home Geo, pp. 565, 570 Forage Crops, Farm C. p. 282 S- No. J 18. 172. 173. 181., 183, 235, 317, 338. 408 Forces, Natural Forms and. pp. 97 to 108. hid. Dsn. p 388 Foreign Beginnings of American History pp. 150 to 157 Foreign Children — R. L. Steven- son, Read. p. 529 Forest Hymn — Brvant. Lit. Sub. p. 242 Forests. Com. Civ. pp. 203, 208, PI. Asso. pp. 320 to 324, Wood p. 421 S. No. 70, 102, 162, 169, 195, 196. 221, 224, 228, 229, 388, 427 Forests, Deciduous, PI. Asso. p. 32.3 S. No. 38, 70, 73, 169 Forests, Petrified, PI. Asso. p 322 S. No. 206 Form of the Earth, Earth N. p. 144 S. No. 100 Form Adapted to Material, Ind. Dsn. p. 396 Form Adapted to Purpose. Ind. Dsn. p. 396 For the Little Folks p. 501 Foundation of American Nation pp. 158 to 163 Fowls, Eat & J J' ear p. 556 S. No. 56, 216, 401 France, Geo. p. 23, Pco. p. 37, Pol. Geo. p. 131, For. Beg. p. 156. House Dsn p. 468, Children p. 508, Read. n. 543, Trav. & Lee. p. 578 S. No. 42i to 431 French, Frances INI. Lit. Sub. p. 248 Frost. Nth F. p. 100 S. No. 50. 342, 344, 345, 346, 427, 428 Fruit, Geo. pp. 6. 8. 12. 17, Prod Mfg. pp 48. 66. Dev. Nn p. 169, Farm M. p. 303, 600 INDEX Food & Ckry. p. 370, Children pp. 505, 512, Eat & Wear p. 552 S. No. 47, 85, 108, 175, 234, 236, 238, 259, 294, 551 Fruit Growing, Farm M. p. 299 S. No. 44, 108, 175, 237, 390, 437 Fuel, Frod. Mfg. p. 69, Dev. No. p. 166, Food & Ckry. p. 363, Wood p. 422 S. No. 68, 74, 76, 77, 79, 103, 129 Fuji-Yama, Japan, Geo. p. 27, Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 525 Fuller. George D., p. xxxviii, PI. Asso. p. 320 Furnishings. Home, Tex. & CI. p. 379 S. No. 33, 417 Furniture, Arct. p. 417, House Dsn. p. 464, 471 to 475 S. No. 33, 89, 92, 352, 373, 409, 417, 443 Furs, Prod. Mfg. p. 56, Cos. Dsn. p. 485, Children p. 508 S. No. 158, 243, 246, 279, 328, 343, 345, 490 Gabled Roof, House Dsn. p. 464 S. No. 354 Galicia, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 38 S. No. 465 Gambrel Roof, House Dsn. pp. 473, 476 S. No. 236 Game, An. pp. 336 to 340, PI. An. pp. 520 to 526, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 2, 110, 189, 345, 415, 577, 578 Ganges River. Geo. p. 26. Ntl. F. p. 105, Hyg. p. 452 S. No. 500. 501 Gannets, An. p. 339, PL & An. p. 522 S. No. 583 Garden of the Gods, Geo. p. 13, Read. p. 539 S. No. 201 •An. 340, 59, Eat & Garden, Orchard and Wood Lot, pp. 284 to 290 Gardens, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Dev. Na. p. 175, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 284, Voc. Guid. p. 349, Home Geo. p. 571 S. No. 47, 83, 137, 149 Gas, Food & Ckry. p. 363 Gasoline, Am. Todav p. 182 S. No. 123 Gasoline Motors, Prod. Mfg. p. 62. Soils, p. 273, Farm M. p. 309 S. No. 44, 151, 161, 178 to 180 Gatun Lake. Geo. p. 15, Dev. Na. p. 173 S. No. 250 to 253 Geese, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, Hus. p. 295, An. p. PL & An. p. 523, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 216 s Gemila, Read. p. 533 Gems, Prod. Mfg. p. Wear p. 561 S. No. 512, 581 General Introduction, p. vii Geographical Classification, pp. 3 to 30 Geography, p. 1 Geography by Nations (Political Geography), pp. 121 to 139 Geography, Commercial, Trans, p. 73, Mkts. p. 87 Geography, Home, pp. 562 to 573 Geography, Industrial, Prod. Mfg. p. 45 Geography, Physical, pp. 97 to 108 Geography, Political, pp. 121 to 13V Geography, Some Things We Eat ; Some Tliines We Wear, pp. 551 to 561 Georgia, Geo. p. 9 S. No. 106, 1C7 Gerlache, Adrien de. Geo. p. 20 S. No. 345 Germany, Geo. p. 21, Pol. Geo. p. 135, For. Beg. p. 157. 4m. Today p. 177, Children p. 509, Read. p. 544 S. No. 383 to 394 Germans, Peo. p. 34, Pol. Geo. p. 136 INDEX 601 Geryon, Lit. Sub. p. 251 Gettysburg-, Geo. p. 7, Dev. Na. p. 168 S. No. 73 Gettysburg Oration, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Geysers, Geo. p. 13, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 193, 194 Giant's Causewav, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 382 ' Gibraltar, Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 128, Read. p. 546 S. No. 439 Gill-over-the ground, PL Asso. p. 326 S. No. 359 Gin, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 52, Dev. Na. p. 165, Ind. Sup. Home p. 360, Tex. & CI. p. 377, Eat & Wear p. 559, Home Geo. p. 566 S. No. 124, 125 Ginning, Tex. & CI. p. 377 Girders, Ind. Dsn. p. 394 S. No. 65, 134, 135 Glacial Lakes, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 48, 154, 361, 369, 377, 459 Glacial Plains, Ntl. F. p. 106 S. No. 136, 137, 147, 161, 488 Glacier, Geo. pp. 14, 16, 22, 23, Ntl. F. p. 100, Eng. Comp. p. 252, Soils p. 270, Read. p. 539 S. No. 219, 274, 275, 408, 427, 428, 446, 448 Glaciers, Continental, Ntl. F. p. 101 S. No. 342, 344, 345, 346 Glaciers, Effect on Human Affairs, Ntl. F. p. 101 Glaciers. Valley, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 219, 274, 275, 276, 279, 408, 427, 428, 446, 448 Gladness of Nature, The, Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 242 Glass, Geo. p. 10. Prod. Mfg. pp. 59, 70, Dev. Na. p. 170, Am. Todav p. 184, Metals p. 428, Hyg. p. 449, Home Geo. p. 568 S. No. 134, 135 Gloucester, Mass. (Harbor), Geo. p. 5, Read. p. 536 S. No. 13 Goats, Geo. p. 22. Prod. Mfg. pp. 50, 67, An. Hits. p. 295, An. p. 334, Tex & CI. p. 377, PI. & An. p. 523, Eat & Wear p. 553 S. No. 411, 447 Goethals, George Washington. Dev. Na. p. 173 S. No. 248 to 256 Gold Mining, Geo. pp. 13, 15, 17. Prod. Mfq. pp. 64. 69, Dev. Na. p. 170, Am. Todav p. 182, Metals p. 426, Read. p. 549, Eat & Wear p. 561 S. No. 203, 225, 245, 287 Goode, J. Paul, pp. xxxi, 87 Goodyear, Charles, Read. p. 532 Gorgas, William Crawford, Dev. Na. p. 173 S. No. 248 to 256 Goteborg, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 420 Gothic Architecture, Arct. pp. 399, 404 S. No. 350, 352, 360, 387, 425, 434 458 Gould, Miss', Lit. Sub. p. 249 Government, pp. 188 to 199, Home Geo. pp. 569, 572 City, Govt. p. 189, Cchii. Civ. pp. 210, 212 Executive, Govt. p. 192 Judicial, Govt. p. 192 Legislative, Govt. p. 191 Local, Govt. p. 187 National, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 191, Com. Civ. p. 213 Rural Community, Com. Civ. p. 212 Self, Com. Civ p. 210, 211 State, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 190 Townships, Govt. p. 189 Work, Govt. p. 193 Grains, Prod. Mfg. pp. 46, 65, Dev. Na. p. 170, Farm M. p. 302, Food & Ckry. p. 366, Children pp. 505. 512, Home Geo. pp. 566, 570 S. No. 137, 147, 177, 184, 199, 218, 233, 284, 357, 479, 497, 527, 529, 550 Granada. Geo. p. 23, For. Beg. p. 157 602 INDEX S. No. 436 Grand Canyon of Col., Geo. p. 13, Ntl. F. p. 102, Lit. Sub. p. 243, Read. p. 539 S. No. 208 Granite, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. n 59, Am. Today p. 183, Voc. Guid. p. 371, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 43-i. Lor. Ind. p. 441, 7/yg. p. 451 S. No. 3, 7, 95, 146, 569 Grapes, Geo. pp. 15, 22, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Zones p. 114. Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 288, PL Asso. p. 326, Pood & Ckry. p. 370, Hvq. p. 449 P/. <";• An. p. 518, £af &• Wear p. 552 S. No. 236, 319, 390 Grasslands, PI. Asso. p. 324 Gravity, Ind. Dsn. p. 390 Gratz, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 461 Grazing, Prod. Mfg: p. 66, Farm M. p. 299 S. No. 127, 186, 190, 301, 317, 480, 589 Great Lakes, Trans, p. 80, Am. Today p. 187 S. No. 154 Great Wall of China, Geo. p. 27 S. No. 524 Great, Wide, Beautiful, Wonder- ful World, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Grecian Architecture, Arct. pp. 399, 404 S. No. 87, 89, 90, 91, 351, 475, 477. 478 Greece, Geo. p. 25, Peo. p. 37. Pol. Geo. p. 135, For. lies,, p. 152, Children p. 587, Read. p. 546, Trav. & Lee. p. 577 S. No. 475 to 480 Greenland, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 40. Zones p. 118, House Dsn. p. 468, Read. p. 550 S. No. 342, 343 Greenwich, En?.. Geo. p. 20, Earth N. p. 144 S. No 353 Gregory, William M„ pp. xliv, 629 Grill Work, House Dsn. pp. 472, 473 Grindelwald, Switzerland, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 445, 446, 447 Grinding, Ind. Dsn. p. 396, Eat & Wear p. 553 S. No. 292, 498 Ground Water, Ntl. F. p. 99 Guadeloupe, Geo. p. 18, Prod. Mfg. p. 49 S. No. 302, 300 Guam, Geo. p. 28, Zones p. 113, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dct. Na. p. 171, Govt. pp. 196, 198 S. No. 554 Guatemala, Geo. p. 17 S. No. 291 Guayaquil, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 336 Guidance, Vocational, pp. 347 to 355 Gulls, An. p. 340 S. No. 415 H Habits, Health — Hygiene, pp. 448 to 452 Hair, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 379 S. No. 138, 140, 147, 185, 188, 335, 411, 447, 564, 565 Hamburg. Germany, Geo. p. 22, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities pp. 217, 237 S. No. 386 Hamilton, Alexander, Dev. Na. p. 165 Hampton Roads, Va.. Geo. p. 8, F. Am. Nc. p. 162, Dev. Na. p. 168, Read. p. 535 S. No. 100 Hankow, Geo. p. 27, Cities p. 228, Ant. p. 410 S. No. 517 Hannah Binding Shoes — Lucy Larcom, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Hans Brinker — Dodge, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Harbors, Mkts. p. 89, Ntl. F. p. 104, Pol. Geo. n. 128. Com. Civ. p. 204, Cities p. 225, Eng. Comp. p. 252, Home Geo. p. 568 S. No. 25, 26, 257, 277, 278, 299, 304, 313, 314, 374, 430, 489, 492, 499, 511, INDEX 603 514, 556, 574, 591 Hardanger Fjord, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 411 Harness, Prod. Mfg. p. 55 Harpers Ferrv, Geo. p. 8, Dev. Na. p. 168, Cities pp. 223, 226 S. No. 101 Harrow. Geo. pp. 12, 19, 28, Dev. Na. p. 166, Soils p. 273, Farm M. p. 309 S. No. 179, 33^, 549 Hart, Albert Bushnell, pp. xxxiii, 148, 158 Harte, Bret, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Hardest, Farm C. p. 278, Farm M. p. 310, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Metals p. 431, Hyg. p. 452, Home Geo. p. 571 o. No. 136, 160, 166, 181, 199, 357 Harvest of the Sea, An. p. 339 Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, p. xxxix, Ind. Sup. Home p. 358 Hathawav, Anne, Geo. p. 20. Lit. Sub. p 247, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 286, Arct. p. 412 S. No. 355 Hats. Cos. Dsn. pp. 539. 540 S. No. 290, 485, 529, 530, 537, 585 Havana. Geo. r>. 17. Pol. Geo. P. 123, Am. Today p. 177, Cities p. 237 S. No. 295, 296 Hawaii, Geo. p. 16, Peo. p. 39, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 171, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cos Dsn. p. 484, Children p. 507, Read. p. 550 S. No. 259 to 261 Hawthorne. Nathaniel, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Hay, Geo. pp. 12. 22. Prod. Mfg. pp. 60, 66, Farm C. p. 282 S. No. 181, 183, 185, 232, 388, 408. 454 Headdress, Cos. Dsn. pp. 480, 486 S. No. 168. 182. 26!i, 411 Health — Air & Light, Hyg. p. 451 Health, Com. Civ. p. 203 Health — Food & Drink, Hyg. p. 449 Health — Work, Hyg. p. 449 Hearing, Hyg. p. 449 Meat, Ntl. F. p. 101, Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 Hellenic People, Peo. p. 37 S. No. 476, 479 Heidi, Spyri, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Heights of Abraham, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Hellenic People, Peo. p. 37 Hemp, Geo. pp. 17, 28, 29, Prod. Mfg. n. 53. Dev. Na. p. 171, Farm C. p. 282, PI. Asso. p. 325, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 378, PI. & An. p. 520 S. No. 289, 552, 553, 571 Mcneqnen, Prod. Mfg. p. 53 S. No 289 Herbs, PI. Asso. p. 326 I Tereford Cattle, Geo. pp. 12, 21, An. Hits. p. 292 S. No. 185, 358 Hero Tales from American His- tory — Roosevelt & Lodge, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Herring, An. p. 339 Hiawatha, Lit. Sub. pp. 241, 245, Children p. 506, Read. p. 530 S. No. 158, 168, 169 Hides, Geo. n. 16. Prod. Mfg p. 55, Eat & Wear p. 561, Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 272 Highlanders — Scotch, Geo. pp. 16, 21, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 S. No. 266, 366, 373 Hikes, Out Door L. p. 342 Hiking Reports, Eng. Comp. p. 262 Hills. Geo. p. 19, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 73, 127, 262, 321, 479, 480, 496, 497, 530 Himalayas, The, Geo. p. 26, Ntl F. p. 106, Zones p. 113 S. No. 508 Hippopotamus, Geo. p. 29, Prod Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 337 S. No. 577, 578 Historical Associations — R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 529 Plistoric Buildings, Cities, p. 218, Arct. p. 412 604 INDEX S. No. 6, 7, 8, 29, 87, 90, 349, 351, 353, 435, 463 Historic Homes, Home Geo. p. 643 S. No. 9, 96, 113, 354, 355, 362, 372 History & Civics, p. 148 History and Literature, Eng. Comp. p. 252 Hobart, Geo. p. 30, Cities p. 223, Read. p. 549 S. No. 590 Hoboken, Cities pp. 226, 237, Read. p. 536 S. No. 52 Hogs, Geo. p. 12, Am. Today p. 179, An. Hus. p. 295, An. p. 336, Loc. Ind. p. 446, PI. & An. p. 523 S. No. 122, 172, 183 Holcomhe. Artlmr Norman, pp. xxxi, 191 Holland, Geo. p. 22, Peo. p. 35, Pol. Geo. p. 133, For. Beg. p. 155, Children p. 508, Read. pp. 530, 622 S. No. 399 to 403 Holmes. Oliver Wendell, p. xiv Home, Com. Civ. p. 202, Cities p. 231, Tex. & CI. p. 426, Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. p. 462, Home Geo. pp. 563, 564, 569 Home, barm, and Farm Life, p. 311 to 317 Home Geography, pp. 562 to 573 Home, Industries Supplying the. pp. 358 to 361 Home Lite — Cbildren of World. p. 511 Homes, Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. pp. 462 to 476, Home Geo. pp. 564, 569 Homes — Historic, Arct. p. 412, Home Geo. p. 564 S. No. 9, 37, 91, 96, 113, 354, 355, 362, 372 Homes — Primitive, Children, p. 514 Homes — Simple, Home Geo. p. 563 S. No. 113, 205, 373, 402, 409, 411, 517, 533, 546 Homespun, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 Homestead Aet, Com. Civ. p 203 Home Sweet Home — J. Howard Payne, Lit. Sub. p. 249, Read. p. 531 Hongkong, China, Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p. 128 S. No. 513 Honolulu. Geo. p. 16, Cos. Dsn. p. 539, Read. p. 550 S. Imo. 260, 261 I loratius at the Bridge, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Horse Cars, Trans, p. 76 S. No. 474 Ibuses, Geo. pp. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 22, 25, Prod. Mfg. p. f>7 Trans, p. 75, An. p. 331, Tex. & CI. p. 376, Loc. Ind. p. 455, PI. & An. p. 523 Horses, Carriage, An. Hus. p. 294, An. p. 332 S. No. 195. 207, 221, 312, 383 Horses, Draft, An. Hus. p. 293, An. p. 331 S. No. 42, 71, 136, 138, 149, 166, 198, 218, 357, 398 Horses, Saddle, Trans, p. 75, An. Hus. p. 294, An. p. 332, Photo, p. 488 S. No. 71, 127, 186, 188, 193, 464, 494, 585 I forticnlture, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, See Orchards. S. No. 44, 85, 175, 234, 236, 237, 238, 302, 303, 319, 390, 437. 530 Hosic, James Fleming, pp. xxxvi, Eng Comp. p. 250 Hotel, House Dsn. p. 473 S. No. 441 Hot Springs, Ntl. F. p. 99 S. No. 192, 193. 194 House, Cities p. 236, House Dsn. pp. 462 to 476 Houseboats. Trans, p. 78, Arct. p. 413 S. No. 457, 514, 546 House Desien and Decoration, pp. 462 to 476 House Design and Decoration: Costume Design, pp. 462 to 486 Household Administration, pp. 383 to 385 INDEX 605 Housekeeping, Children pp. 506, 572 Housekeepiner. Primitive, Children p. 515 House Planning, House Adm. p. 385 Housework, House Adm. p. 384 How People Travel, Eng. Comp. p. 256 How Machinery Helps, Eng. Comp. p. 255 How the Leaves Came Down, Lit. Sub. p. 249 How to Study Stereographs and Slides, p. xi How to Use Stereographs & Slides, p. xv Hudson. Henry, F. Am. Na. p 160 S. No. 39, 51 Hudson River. Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 79, Com. Civ. p. 200 S. No. 38, 39, 51 Humped Cattle, An. p. 334 S. No. 548, 562 Hungary, Geo. p. 24, Pol. G. 137 S. No. 464 Hunting, Prod. Mfg. p. 63, Eng. Comp. p. 259 S. No. 2, 110, 345, 415, 577, 578 Husbandry, Animal, pp. 291 to 296 Huskers. The — Whittier, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Hygiene — Health Habits, pp. 448 to 452 Hvnin to the North Star — Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Tee, Geo. p. 20, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 342, 344, 345, 346 Ice Fields, Ntl. F. p. 101 S. No. 344, 345, 346 Tee Fields, work of, Ntl. F. p. 101 Idaho, Geo. p. 13, Read. p. 539 S. No. 190 If I Were a Sunbeam — Lucy Larcom, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Tguazu Falls, Geo. p. 18 S. No. 318 I Have a Little Shadow — R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 529 Illinois, Geo. p. 10 S. No. 139 to 148 Immigration, Geo. pp. 6, 19, Dev. Na. pp. 168, 175, Govt. p. 197 S. No. 32, 319 Immigration Bureau, Govt. p. 197 S. No. 32 Implements, Farm M. pp. 208, 209, hid. Dsn. p. 395 S. No. 178, 179, 180, 198, 332, 488, 549, 561 Inca, Geo. p. 19 S. No. 331 Inclined Planes, Ind. Dsn. pp. 392, 393 S. No. 62, 75, 181, 216, 440 Independence, Farm H. & F. L. p. 313 India, Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, Pol. Geo. p. 129, Com. Civ. p. 201, House Dsn. p. 468, Read. p. 548, Trav. & Lee. p. 578 S. No. 499 to 508 Indiana, Geo. p. 10 S. No. 136 to 138 Indian Folk Stories, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Indians, Geo. pp. 11, 12, 13, 16, 19, Peo. p. 41. F. Am. Na. p. 160, 161, House Dsn. p. 474, Cos. Dsn. p. 486, Chil- dren pp. 506, 514, Read. p. 548 S. No. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 211, 244, 263, 265, 328 Indian Stories, Read. p. 530 Industrial Arts, p. 386 Industrial Design Including Ar- chitecture, pp. 388 to 419 Industrial Geography, pp. 45 to 72 Industries, Prod. Mfg. pp. 45 to 72, Am. Today pp. 178 to 188, Ind. Sup. Home pp. 358 to 361, Tex. & CI. pp. 374 to 382, Wood pp. 420 to 449, Metals pp. 425 to 431, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 432 to 438 Industries Supplying the Home, pp. 358 to 361 606 INDEX Inland Voyage — Stevenson, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Innsbruck, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 460 Interesting Sights, Eng. Comp p. 253 Interior, Arct. p. 414, Photo, p. 494 S. No. 33, 88, 89, 92, 352, 372, 417, 533 Interior, Department of, Govt. p. 196 International Relations, Govt. p. 198 Interstate Commerce Com. Govt. p. 197 Ionic Architecture, Arct. p. 402 S. No. 9, 89, 90, 91, 384 Iowa, Geo. p. 12 S. No. 170 to 173 Ireland, Geo. p. 21, Peo. p. 36, Pol. Geo. p. 129, House Dsn. p. 469, Read. p. 542 S. No. 374 to 382 Irish, Peo. p. 36, For. Beg. p. 155 S. No. 374, 375, 378, 380, 381 Iron. Geo. pp. 7, 10, 11. Prod. Mfg. pp. 57. 64. 69. Am. To- day p. 180, Euti. Comp. p. "255, Voc. Guid. p. 350, Metals p. 427, Loc. hid. p. 440, Read. \\ 538 S. No. 62, 63, 64. 128, 154, 163, 164 Iroquois, F. Am. Na. p. 160 S. No. 265 Irrigation, Geo. p. 13. Prod. Mfg. p. 61, Dev. Na. p. 176 Com Civ. p. 203, Eng. Comp. p. 253, Soils p. 274, Gdn. Orch. & W . p. 285, Farm M. p. 300 S No. 104, 199, 209, 210, 237, 527, 528, 530, 549, 564, 569 Irving, Washington, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Islands, AW. F. pp. 104, 105 . S. No. 25, 99, 256, 369, 382, 401 Isle of Beauty, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Isthmus. Ntl. F. p. 104 S. No. 432 Ttaly, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 134, For. Beg. p. 153, House Dsn. p. 469, Read. p. 546 S. No. 450 to 459 Ivory, Prod. Mfg. p. 61, Eat & Wear, p. 561 S. No. 505, 509, 573, 577, 578 [vy, Boston, 77. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 37 Ivy, English, PI. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 354, 362, 376 Jack Frost, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Jackson, Helen Hunt, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Jackson, Patrick, Dev. Na. p. 165 Jacobs, Harry W., pp. xlii, 509 Jaipur, India, Geo. p. 26, Trans, p. 78. Cities p. 222, An. p. 337 S. No. 504, 505 Jamaica, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 128, Read. \\ 550 S. No. 301 Japan, Geo. p. 27, Peo. p. 41. Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Pol. Geo. p. 139, Cities pp. 219, 230, 233, Arct. pp. 401,404, 410, House Dsn. p. 469, Chil- dren, pp. 509, 510, Read. p. 546, Trav. & Lee. p. 578 S. No. 525 to 541 Japanese Architecture, Arct. pp. 401, 404 S. No. 526, 533 to 536 Tardine, W. M., p xxxvii, Farm C. p. 276 Java, Geo. p. 28. Pol. Geo. p. 133. Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 545 Jefferson, Mark, pp. xxx, 31 Jefferson. Thomas, Dev. Na. p. 165 S. No. 80, 87, 91 Jericho Road, Geo. p. 26 S. No. 496 Jersey Cattle, Geo. p. 21. Prod. Mfg. p. 67, An. Hits. p. 291, An. p. 379 S. No. 364 rersey Island, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 364 Jerusalem, Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p. INDEX 607 137, For. Beg. p. 151, Cities pp. 217, 237, Lit. Sub. p. 249 S. No. 4S5 Jewelry, Mfg., Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 69, Eat & Wear, p. 561 S. No. 21, 512 Jews, Peo. p. 38, Mkts. p. 88, Pol. Geo. p. 138 S. No. 485, 497, 498 T ob, Lit. Sub. p. 258 Toffre, Joseph Jacqvte Cesaire, Geo. p. 10, Dcv. Na. p. 174 S. No. 146 Johannesburg, Geo. p. 29 S. No. 579 lohnson, Emery R., pp. xxx, 73 fordal Valley, Geo. p. 22, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 408 Jugo-Slavia, Geo. p. 24 Juniper, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 206 Justice, Dept, Goi't. p. 195 S- No. 89 Just So Stories — Kipling, Lit. Sub. p. 244 K Kaffirs, Peo. p. 43 S. No. 581 Kangaroos. Geo. p. 30, Prod. Mfg. p. 55, An. p 338, PI. & An. p. 523 S. No. 588 Kansas, Geo. p. 12, Ntl. F. p. 106, Zones p. 116 S. No. 183 to 186 Kansk, Siberia, Geo. p. 28. Peo. p. 38, Cos. Dsn. p. 482 S. No. 544 Karnak, Egypt. Geo. p. 29, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 219, Arct. pp. 399, 404, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 434, 436 S. No. 568 Kashmir. Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Pol. Geo. p. 129, Ind. Sup. I Ionic p. 360, House Dsn. p. 469, Cos. Dsn. p. 483 S. No. 506 Keats, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Kenihvorth, Scott, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Kentucky, Geo. p. 9, Farm C. p. 281, Read. p. 537 S. No. 112, 113 Kerchief, Cos. Dsn. pp. 480, 481 Kerosene, See Oil Key, Francis Scott, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Kief, Russia, Geo. p. 25, Cities, p. 222, Food & Ckry. p. 365 S. No. 486, 487 Killarnev, Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. p. 249 S. No. 377, 378 Kimberley, Geo. p. 29, Peo. p. 43, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Read, p. 549 S. No. 581 Kim — Kipling, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Kimonos, Cos. Dsn. p. 484 S. No. 532, 534, 535, 536 Kipling, Rudyard, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Kirby, C. Valentine, pp. xlii, 453 Kiryu, Japan, Geo. p. 27, Peo. p. 41, Prod. Mfg. p. 68 S. No. 539, 540, 541 Korea, See Chosen Kremlin. The. Gen. p. 25. Cities pp. 217, 219, 236, Arct. p. 399 S. No. 483 Labor, Farm M. p. 306 Labor and Equipment, Farm M. p 306 Labor and Field Crops, Farm M. p. 307 Labor and Fruit Crops, Farm M. p. 307 Labor and Live Stock, Farm M. p. 307 Labor Disputes, Dcv. Na. pp. 168, 170, Govt. p. 197 Labrador, Geo. p. 16, Trans, p. 77, An. p. 336, Hyg. p. 452, Cos. Dsn. p. 485, PL & An. p. 522 S. No. 279 Lady of the Lake, The — Scott. Lit. Sub. p. 246 608 INDEX La Guaira, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 34, Mkts. p. 88, Zones p. 110. Cities pp. 217, 232, Food & Ckry. p. 365, House Dsn. p. 462 S. No. 338, 339 Lake District. Eng., Geo. p. 21 S. No. 361, 362 Lakes, AM. P. p. 102, Horn? GVo. p. 573 Glacial, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 48, 154, 361, 369, 377, 459 Non Glacial. Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 222, 293 Plains. Ntl. F. p. 105 S. No. 47, 149, 166 Lake Grasmere, Geo. p. 21, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 287 S. No. 361 Lakes, Effect on Human Affairs. Ntl. F. p. 103 Landscape, Draw. p. 460, Photo. pp. 496 to 498 S. No. 38, 51, 102, 276, 288. 427, 444, 446, 448, 508 Landscape Gardening, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 285 S. No. 10, 36. 37, 91, 93, 95, 259. 360, 362, 535 Lapland. Geo. p. 22. Peo. p. 40. Zones p. 120, An. p. 336 Food & Ckry. p. 365, Tex. & CI. p. 382, Cos. Dsn. p. 479, Children p. 508, Eat & Wear p. 552 S. No. 413 to 415 Larcom, Lucy, Lit. Sub. p. 244 La Salle. Rene Robert Cavelier. de, Sieur, F. Am. Na. p. 160 Lasso, Geo. p. 12 S. No. 186 Latin People in America, Peo. p. 34 S. No. 306, 319, 336, 337, 339 Latin People in Europe. Peo. p. 37 S. No. 423, 438, 455, 471 Latitudes, Hich, Earth N. p. 143 S. No. 243 to 246, 279, 328. 342 to 346 Lauxidry, House Adm. p. 384 S. No. 40, 431, 455 Lauterbrunnen Valley, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 444 Lava, Soils p. 272 S. No. 453 Lawns, PL Asso. p. 323 S. No. 37, 91, 316, 482, 586, 587 Lawrence, Mass., Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Cities p. 220, Ind. Sup. Home, p. 360, Read. p. 536 S. No. 14 to 18 Lead, Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Metals p. 426 S. No. 176 Leak in the Dike — Cary, Read. p. 542 Leather, Geo. po. 5, 16, Prod. Mfn. p. 55, Eat & Wear p. 561, Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 S. No. 11, 12, 41, 272 Leather Shoes, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 69 S. No. 11, 12, 41 Leaves of Plants, PI. Asso. pp. 321 324 329 S. No.' 44, 71, 238, 249, 259, 294, 551, 574 L'Enfant, Dev. Na. p. 164 Legumes, Food & Ckry. p. 368 S. No. 118, 183, 562 Lehnerts, E. M. pp. xxxii, 121 Levees, Am. Today, p. 187, Com. Civ. p. 204, Cities p. 226, Read. p. 537 S. No. 119, 148 Leverage, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 S. No. 65, 130, 147, 156, 366, 449, 581 Levers, Ind. Dsn. pp. 391, 393 S. No. 130, 147, 156, 250, 418 Lewis & Clark, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Lexington, Mass., Geo. p. 5, F. Am. Na. p. 163, Com. Civ. p. 202, Cities, p. 218, Arct. p. 400, House Dsn. p. 475, Read. p. 537 S. No. 10 Liberty Bell, Geo. p. 7, Govt. p. 199 S. No. 80 Liberty Bonds, Dev. Na. p. 174 Librarian, Voc. Guid. p. 354 Library, Govt. p. 197, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 286 S. No. 95 INDEX 609 Life Saving Corps, Geo. p. 8, Govt. p/194, Com. Civ. p. 204 S. No. 99 Light, Earth N. p. 142, Com. Civ. p. 204, Ind. Dsn. p. 391, Hyg. p. 451, Photo, p. 490 Light, Fixtures, Arct. p. 418 Light, Relation to Plants, PI. Asso. p. 328 Lime, Am. Today p. 184 Lincoln, Abraham, Geo. pp. 9. 10, Lit. Sub. p. 245, Read. p. 530 S. No. 73, 88, 91, 92, 113, 146 Linen, Geo. p. 16, Prod. Mfg. P- 68, Tex. & CI. p. 378, Metals p. 428, Eat & Wear p. 559, Home Geo. pp. 566, 567, 571 S. No. 40, 268, 269 Lines, Structural, Arct. p. 401 Lintel, Arct. p. 405 S. No. 89, 91, 92, 351, 506, 568 Lisle, Roget de, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Literary Subjects and Settings, pp. 240 to 249 Little Brown Bab)', Read. p. 533 Little Dark Girl, Read. p. 534 Little Drops of Water, Read. p. 532 Little Mountain Maiden, Read. p. 534 Little Papoose, Read. p. 532 S. No. 158, 204 Liverpool, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, Prod. Mfg. p. 72, Trans. p. 82, Pol. Geo. p. 128, Earth N. p. 145, Cities p. 227 S. No. 347 Livestock. Prod. Mfg. p. 67, Dev. Na. p. 170, Farm C. p. 282, Farm M. p. 302 S. No. 127, 172, 173, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190 Llama, Ueo. p. 1°, Trans, p. 77, An. p. 335, Tex. & CI. p. 377, PL & An. p. 524 S. No. 335 Local Government, Pol. Geo. pp. 123. 129, 130, 136, Govt. p. 189 Local Industries, pp. 439 to 447 Loch Katrine. Geo. p. 21, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 369 Lock, Geo. pp. 11, 15, Dev. Na. p. 172, Arct. p. 416 S. No. 154, 253, 253 1 ocomotives, Geo. p. 7, Trans, p. 83, Com. Civ. ' p. 205, Metals p. 427, Hyg. p. 450, S. No. 43, 82, 101, 163, 330, 575 Lodge, Henry Cabot, Lit. Sub. p. 246 Loess Soil, Soil p. 272 Logs, Geo. pp. 4, 11, 14, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 289, Wood p. 422, Hyg. p. 452 S. No. 1, 162, 215, 216, 509 Log Cabin, Hyg. p. 452, House Dsn, p. 474 S. No. 113, 409 London, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, Mkts. p. 89, Pol. Geo. p 128, Cities pp. 217, 219, 221 S. No. 348 to 352 London Rank. Geo. p. 20, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities, p. 231, Arct. p. 412 S. No. 351 London Bridge, Lit. Sub. p. 249, Arct. p. 415 S. No. 348 London, Jack, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Longfellow, Llenry Wadswoith, Geo. p. 5, Lit. Sub. p. 245, Read. p. 531 S. No. 9 Longitude and Time, Earth N. p. 144 S. No. 353 Lool-ont Mt.. Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na. p. 168 S. No. 11* ' otefos. The, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 407 r ouise. Read, p. 612 Louisiana. Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 52, Cities p. 226 S. No. 119, 120 Lowell, Francis, Dev. Na. p. 165 Lowell, Tames Russell, Lit. Sub. p. '245 610 INDEX Lucerne, Switzerland, Geo. p. 23 S. No. 442 Lumber, Geo. pp. 9, 14, Dev. Na. p. 169, Am. Today, p. 183, Eng. Comp. p. 253, Voc. Guid. p. 349, Wood p. 422, Loc. Ind. p. 447 S. No. 107, 217, 523 Lunar Illumination, Earth N. p. 145 S. No. 594, 595 Luzon, P. I., Geo. p. 28 S. No. 546 to 553 M Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lit. Sub. p. 254 Machinery, Prod. Mfg. p. 70, Dev. Na. p. 170, Gov. p. 196, Farm M. p. 308, Ind. Dsn. p. 394, Metals p. 427 S. No. 53, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 78. 128, 179, 541 Farm, Farm M. p. 301, Metals p. 431 S. No. 44, 136, 160, 161, 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 218, 233, 357 ; 497 Machinery, Farm — Farm Man- agement, pp. 297 to 310 Madras, Geo. p. 26. Trans, p. 81. .-I ret. p. 400, House Dsn. p. 470 S. No. 499 Madrid, Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 132, Cities pp. 217, 231 S. No. 435 Maguey, Prod. Mfg. p. 53 S. No. 285, 287 Mahony, Francis Sylvester, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Maine, Geo. p. 4 S. No. 1, 2 Maine, The, Dev. Na. p. 171 S. No. 296 Maize, See Corn Making Maple Sugar, Read. p. 532 Making of an American, The, Com. Civ. p. 202, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Manchuria. Geo. p. 27, Read. p. 547 S. No. 523 Manila Hemp. Geo. p 28, Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Fann C. p. 282, PL Asso. p. 325, Tex & CI. p. 376 S. No. 552, 553 Manila, P. I.. Mkts. p. 90. Zones p. 113, Dev. Na. p. 171. Cities p. 223, House Hsu. P. 470 S. No. 546, 547 Mantels, Arct. p. 418, House Dsn. PP. 475, 476 S. No. 33, 92, 372 Manufacturing. Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Dev. Xa. p. 169, Eng. Comp. p. 253, Farm C. p. 278, Voc. Guid. p. 350, Tex. & CI. p. 377, Lid. Dsth. p. 397, Home Geo. p. 646 Mam ire, Soils p. 274 Maple Sugar, Prod. Mfg. p. 47, Gdn. Orch. & IF. p. 289, PI. Asso. p. 325, Wood p. 420, Loc. Ind. p. 445, Read. p. 536, Eat & Wear p. 555 S. No. 130 Marble, Geo. p. 5. Prod. Mfg. p. 59, Aw. Today p. 183, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434, Loc. Ind. p. 441 S. No. 4, 5, 36, 87 Mariposa Grove, Geo. p. 14, PI. Asso. pp. 322, 324 S. No. 22S Marl-en, Island of, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 401 Markets, Geo. pp. 5, 21, 22, 23, 29, Mkts. p. 87, Com. Civ. p. 200, Farm 31. p. 304, / 'oc. Guid. p. 353, Ind. Sup. Home p. 361, Children pp. 514, 516, Home Geo. p. 565 S. No. 7, 109, 375, 387, 393, 395, 423, 447, 466, 469, 484, 485, 555, 572 Market Centers, Mkts. p. 88 Market Gardening, Voc. Guid. p. 349 Markets and Marketing, pp. 87 to 96 Mars, Geo. p. 30, Earth X. p. 146 INDEX 611 S. No. 596 Marseillaise, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Marseilles, France. Geo. p. 23, Mkts. p. 88, Cities p. 227 S. No. 429 Mary Nad a Little Lamb, Read. p. 532 Maryland, Geo. p. 8 S. No. 86 Massachusetts, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Tex. & CI. p. 378 S. No. 6 to 20 Mason, Voc. Guid, p. 351 Masonrv. (on. Stone B. & T. p. "435 S. No. 27, 174, 331, 348, 366, 379, 391, 392, 397, 450, 470, 565, 569 Matterhorn, The, Geo. p. 24, Ntl. /■'. p. 107 S. No. 448 Manlmain, Burma, Geo. p. 26 S. No. 509 Mayon, Mt. Geo. p. 28, Zones p. 118 S. No. 548 McFarlane, Charles T., pp. xxix, 1 McGuire, Lelia, pp. xxxix, 362 McKinlev. William, Dev. Na. p 170 McMurry, Frank M., pp, xi, xxi Meat, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 50 Mkts. p. 91, Food & Ckry p. 364, Eat & Wear p 556, Home Geo. pp. 565 570. See Cattle, Hogs Sheep, etc. S. No. 127, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 173, 183, 185 Meat Industry, S. No. 140 to 144 Mechanical Construction, hid. Dsn. p. 392 Mechanical Power, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 Mediterranean Climate, Zones p. 113 Mediterranean World, For. Beg. p. 152 Mees, C. E. K., pp. xliii, 543 Melbourne. Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 129, Cities p. 217, Read. p. 549 S. No. 587 Melville, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Memorials, Arct. p. 414 S. No. 146, 356, 365, 368, 451, 502, 561, 565, 568 Mendoza River, Soils p. 271 S. No. 321 Mesa, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 475 Mesahi Range, Prod. Mfg. pp. 57, 64 S. No. 163 Mesquite, PL -lsso. p. 325 S. No. 209 Metal, Ind. Sup. Home p. 359, Ind. Dsn. pp. 389, 397, Arct. p. 418, Metals pp. 425, 426, 427 Metals — Sources and Uses, pp 425 to 431 Meteor, Geo. p. 30, Earth .V. p. 147 S. No. 599 vlcthod of Using Stereographs & Slides, xv to xxix Methods. Modern Farming, Prod. Mfg. p. 46. Farm. C. p. 277, Farm H. & F. L. p. 314, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Metals p. 431 S. No 163. 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 198, 199, 218, 233, 357 Primitive Farmini?. Prod Mfg. p. 46, Farm C. p. 277, Ind. Dsn, p. 395 S. No. 341, 409, 479, 488. 497, 498, 506, 522, 561, 562 Meuse River, Geo. p. 22 S. No. 397 Mexican War, Dev. Na. p. 167, Am. Today p. 177 Mexico. Geo. p. 17, Peo. p. 42 Prod. Mfg. pp. 52. 58 Trans, p. 81, Zones p. 112, Pol. Geo. p. 124, Dev. Na, p. 173, Tex. & CI. p. 378, Arct. p. 409, Metals p. 425, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434, House Dsn, p. 470, Cos. Dsn. pp. 478, 479, Photo, p. 498, Children p. 507, Trav. & Lee. p. 577 S. No. 280 to 290 612 INDEX Mexico City, Geo. p. 17, Pol. Geo. p. 124, Dev. Na. p. 173, Cities p. 217 S. No. 282 Michigan, Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. pp. 58, 64, Trans, pp. 79, 81 S. No. 149 to 158 Middle Atlantic States, Geo. p. 5, Trav. & Lee. p. 654 S. No. 25 to 84 Milan — Cathedral. Geo. p. 24. Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 217, .drcf. pp. 399, 404 S. No. 458 Military Uniforms, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 S. No. 146, 266, 366, 476, 585 Milk. Geo. pp. 6, 7, 20, 22. 25, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Food & Ckry. p. 365, Children p. 512, Eat & Wear p. 553, Home Geo. pp. 565, 570 S. No. 46, 57, 339, 396, 403, 411, 413, 487 Miller. Emily Huntingdon, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Mills, see Factories Minaret, Arct. p. 399 S. No. 473, 493, 502 Mines and Mining, Geo. pp. 7, 11 12. 14, 15. Prod. Mfg. pp 56, 59, 63, Dev. Na. p. 170 Com. Civ. pp. 201, 204 Eng. Comp. p. 254, Voc Guid. p. 349, hid. Sup Home p. 359, Wood p 423, Metals p. 425, Home Geo. p. 568 S. No. 69, 70, 74 to 79, 115, 122, 155, 163, 176, 187, 214, 225, 245, 287, 579, 581 Mining Camp, Geo. pp. 12. 14, 15, 17, Com. Civ. p. 201, Metals p. 425, Read. p. 539 S. No. 187, 214, 246, 287 Minneapolis. Geo. p. 11, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 221 S. No. 167 Minnesota. Geo. p. 11, Trans, pp. 75, 81, Zones p. 116, Farm II. & F. L. p. 316, Wood p. 420 S. No. 162 to 169 Mint, Geo. p. 8, Prod. Mfg. p. 58, Govt. p. 194 S. No. 84 Minute Men, Geo. p. 5, F. Am. Na. p. 163 S. No. 10 Mirick, G. A., pp. xliii, 581 Mississippi River, Geo. pp. 9. 11. 12, Trans, p. 80, Ntl. F. pp. 102, 105, Am. Today p. 187, Read. p. 537 S. No. 119, 148, 170, 174 Mississippi (State), Geo. p. 9, Read. p. 537 S. No. 117 Missouri, Geo. p. 12 S. No. 174 to 176 Mlembo River, Geo. p. 29 S. No. 577 Modern Clothing, Tex. & CI. p. 381 Mohammedan Architecture, Arct. pp. 399, 404 S. No. 466, 502, 558 Mombasa. Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 110 S. No. 573 Monaco, Geo. p. 23, Zones p. 113 S. No. 432 Money, Prod. Mfg. p. 61, Dev. Na. p. 168, Metals p. 427 S. No. 84, 94 Mongolians, Peo. p. 40 S. No. 343, 510, 519, 523, 530, 532, 53S. 543 Monongahela River, Geo, p. 7 S. No. 61 Monsoon Regions. Zones p. 113 Montana. Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p 58 S. No. 187 to 189 Montevideo, Geo. p. 18, Photo, p 496 S. No. 312, 313 Montreal, Geo. p. 16, Trans, pp. 81, 82. 83, 84, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 238 S. No. 267 Monuments, Cities p. 217. Arct. p. 414, Con. Stone B. & T. P. 435 S. No. 283, 368, 380, 385, 391, 416, 433, 450, 460 Moon, The. Geo. p. 30. Earth N. p. 145, Read. p. 532 INDEX 613 S. No. 594, 595 Moose, Geo. p. 4, An. p. 336, PI. & An. p. 524, Read. p. 540 S. No. 2 Moraines. Lateral S. No. 428 Terminal, S. No. 276, 427 Material carried, S. No. 274, 428 Mormons, Dev. Na. p. 167 Morocco. Geo. p. 28, Mkts. p. 87, Pol. Geo. p. 132, Children p. 510 S. No. 555 Moscow, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 138, Cities p. 236, Photo. p. 495 S. No. 483 Moslems. Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p 129 S. No. 503 Mosques. Cities p. 235. Arct. p. 410 S. No. 466, 473, 483, 493, 495, 503, 558 Moti Guv. Mutineer — -Kipling, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Mount Hood, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. P. p. 107, Zones p 119 S. No. 221 Mount Pilatus. Geo. p. 23. Ntl. F. p. 106 S. No. 440, 441 Mount Rainier, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 219 Mount Tacoma, See Mt. Rainier Mount Vernon, Geo. p. 8. Dev. Na. p. 164, Govt. p. 189, Farm H. & F. L. p. 311, Arct. p. 412, House Dsn. p. 476 S. No. 96 Mountain Climbing, Ens. Comp. P. 259 Mountain Peaks, Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 221, 276, 445, 447, 448, 508 Ranges. Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 102, 213, 243, 276, 284 Scenes, Trav. & Lee. p. 579, See Alpine Scenery S. No. 102, 219, 274, 275, 276, 444, 446, 448, 449, 508 System. Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 508 Mountains, Geo. pp. 8, 14. 16, 17, 22, 23, Ntl. F. p. 106 S. No. 102, 213, 219, 228, 230, 274, 276, 409, 427, 428, 440, 441, 444, 445, 447, 448, 508, 522, 523 Mountains, Effect on Human Af- fairs, Ntl. F. p. 108 S. No. 187, 214, 243, 287, 408, 413, 440, 441 Mountains of World. Ntl. F. p. 108 Old, Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 38, 39, 102, 361 Volcanic, Ntl. F. p. 107 S. No. 221, 288, 291, 545, 453, 525, 548 Young-. Ntl. F. p. 106 S No. 201, 213, 276, 322, 323, 427, 440, 441, 445, 447, 448, 508 Muir, John, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Mulberry. Geo. p. 27. Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Zones p. 116, PI. Asso. p. 325, An. p. 307, Tex. & CI. p. 376, Chil- dren p. 510, Eat & Wear p. 560, Home Geo. p. 566 S. No. 537, 538 Mules, Trans, p. 76, An. Hus. p. 294, An. p. 332 S. No. 124, 175, 249, 294, 311, 438, 479 Muskmelons. See Cantaloupes Mutton, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, Am. Today p. 179, An. Hus. p. 295, Eat & Wear p. 556 S. No. 145, 173, 190, 480, 589 Mv Heart's in the Highlands — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 N Name of Old Glory. The, Lit. Sub. P. 249 Namur. Geo. p. 22 S. No. 397 Nanking. Geo. p. 27. Trans, p. 7A. Cities p. 223 614 INDEX S. No. 516 Naples, Geo. p. 24, Trans, p. 75, For. Beg. p. 153 S. No. 454 Narvaez, / ; . Am. Na. p. 162 Nat! nal Parks, Geo. pp. 13, 14, Govt. p. 196 S. No. 191 to 197, 201, 208, 219, 222, 228, 229 Nature, Draw. p. 460 Nature Study, p. 318 Natural Bridges, J ret. p. 415 S. No. 200, 206 Natural Features of earth surface, Ntl. F. p. 102, Home Geo. p. 651 Natural Forms and Forces, pp. 97 to 108 Natural History, Photography, Photo, p. 498 S. No. 2, 72, 189 Nature's Wonders, Eng. Comp. p. 25;, Naval Stores. See Turpentine & Tar Navv, Am. Today, p. 178, Com. Civ. p. 204 S. No. 100, 242, 254 Navy Department, Govt. p. 195 Nazareth, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. p. 152, Lit. Sub. p. 242 S. No. 497 Nebraska, Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p. 65, Zones p. 116 S. No. 180 to 182 Negroes, Geo. pp. 9, 29, Peo. p. 43, For. Beg. p. 157, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Dev. Na. pp. 165, 167, 176, Cos. Dsn. p. 484 S. No. 105, 108, 115, 117 to 119, 570, 572, 577, 578 Netherlands, Holland. Nets, Fishing, Tex. & CI. p. 381 S. No. 226, 245 Nevada, Geo. p. 14 S. No. 214 Newburgh, N. Y., Geo. p. 6, F. Am. A' a. p. 164, Gdn. Or eh. & 11'. p. 285 S. No. 37 New England States, Geo. p. 4, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Trav. & Lee. p. 575 S. No. 1 to 24 Newfoundland, Geo. p. 16, Pol. Geo. p. 128 S. No. 278, 279 New Guinea, Geo. p. 30, Peo. p. 112, Zones p. 43, House Dsn. p. 470, Cos. Dsn. p. 485 S. No. 592 New Hampshire, Geo. p. 5, Loc. hid. p. 441 S. No. 3 New Jersey, Geo. p. 6 S. No. 51 to 60 New Mexico, Geo. p. 13 S. No. 211 New Orleans, Geo. p. 9, Trans, p. 79, Mkts. p. 93, Dev. Na. p. 168, Com. Civ. p. 201, Ciiies p. 226, Read. p. 537 S. No. 119 New South Wales, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 129 S. No. 585 New York City, Geo. pp. 5, 6, Trans, p. 81, Mkts. p. 89 Ntl. F. p. 104, Dev. Na. p 166, Govt. p. 192, Com Civ. pp 200, 205, 207, 209 Cities pp. 217, 218, 220 223, 225, Arct. p. 212 Hyg. p. 451 S. No. 25 to 35 New York (State), Geo. pp. 5, 6, Zones, p. 116, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Govt. p. 190 S. No. 25 to 50 New Zealand, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. pp. 128, 130, House Dsn. p. 470, Read. p. 550 S. No. 591 Niagara Falls, Geo. p. 6. Ntl. F. p. 100, F. Am, Na. p. 159, Govt. p. 193, Lit. Sub. p. 244, Read. p. 538 S. No. 49, 50 Nicaragua, Geo. p. 17 S. No. 293 Nice, France, Geo. p. 23, Mkts. p. 96, House Adm. p 384, Children p. 512 S. No. 431 Nightingale. Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. p. 249, An, p. 340 S. No. 359 INDEX 615 Nile River. The, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 62, Pol. Geo. p. 128. Read. p. 548 S. No. 561, 564, 569 Nitrate, Geo. p. 19, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Mkts. p. 94 S. No. 325 Nitro-Glvcerine. Gak, Wood p 421 S. No. 146, 369 Oasis. Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 114 S. No. 567 Oats, Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Am. Today p. 179, Farm C p. 280, Food & Ckry. p. 367, Eat & IV car p. 552 S. No. 147, 408 Oceans, Geo. p. 22 S. No, 100, 414, 415, 511 Ocean Transportation, Trans, p. 81 S. No. 52, 277, 280, 295, 314, 326, 511, 556, 559 Occupations, Home Geo. pp. 567, 571. See Industries Ode to the Nightingale, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Ogden, Geo. p. 13, Zones p. 117 S. No. 213 S. No. 128 to 135 Ohio River, Gee. p. 7, Trans, pp. 80, 85, Dev. Na. p. 166. Am. Today, p. 187, Com. Civ. P . 201, Cities p. 223 S. No. 61 Oil, Geo. pp. 7, 9, Dev. Na. p. 169, Food & Ckry. p. 363, Metals p. 430. Read. p. 538. Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 S. No. 69, 70, 122, 123 Oklahoma. Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na p 169 S. No. 121 Old North Church, Geo. p. 5. F. Am. Na. p. 163, Arct. pp. 411, 412 S. No. 6 Old State House (Mass.L Gen. p. 5, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Arct pp. 400, 412 S. No. 8 616 INDEX Olives, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Zones l». 114, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 288, PL Asso. p. 325 Olympia, Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 152 S. No. 478 One Little Bag of Rice — Thomas Smith, Read. p. 532 Onions, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 S. No. 469 Oranges, Geo. p. 23, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Gdn. Orch. & II '. i>. 288, Farm M. p. 303, PL . Isso. p. 325, Food & Ckry. p. 371, PL & An. p. 518, Eat & Wear p. 552 S. No. 237, 238, 437 Orchards, Geo. pp. 6, 8, 12, 14, 15, 23, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 287, Farm M. p. 299, Children p. 512 S. No. 44, 85, 175, 234, 237, 437 Ore, Prod Mfg. p. 57, Dcv. Na. p. 170, Com. Civ. p. 201. See Metals S. No. 128, 154, 155, 164, 176, 579 Oregon, Geo. p. 14, Zones p. 115, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 221 to 227 Orient, For. Beg. p. 150 Oriental Costumes, Tex. & CI. p. 382, Cos. Dsn. p. 482 S. No. 494, 500, 519,. 555, 562 1 Irion, Geo, p. 30 S. No. 599 Ornament, Ind. Dsn. p. 397, Arct. p. 404 O'Shea, Michael Vincent, pp. xlii, 501 Ostriches. Geo. p. 15, An. p. 340, PL & An p. 524 S. No. 239 " O. the Pretty Flowers!" Read. p 532' Outdoor Life, pp. 340 to 346 Out-of-doors Life. Hvg. p. 448 n, Trans, p. 77. An. p. 334 S. No. 298, 561, 580 Ovsters, Geo. pp. 8, 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 52. Dev. Na. p. 169, An. p. 339, Food & Ckry. p. 365, PI & An. p. 524, Eat & Wear p. 557, Home Ceo. p. 566 S. No. 86, 97 Pacific States, Geo. p. 14, Trav. & Lee. p. 576 S. No. 215 to 242 Packing Houses, Geo. p. 10, Mkts. p. 91, Govt p. 190, Cities p. 236, Home Geo. p. 568. See Meat Pageant, Zing. Comp. p. 259 Palaces, GYo. p. 21, ./re/, p. 412 House Dsn. p. 463 S. No. 384, 417, 436, 483 Palermo, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 37, Fur. Beg. p. 153, Cities p. 222 S. No. 455 Palestine, Geo. p. 26, P:7. p. 194 S. No. 248 to 256 Pan American Union, Dev. Na. p. 172, Govt. p. 197 Papaw. See Papava S. No. 259 Papaya. Prod. Mfz. p. 48, PL Asso. p. 325, Tex. & CI. p. 376 S. No. 259 Paper, Geo. pp. 5, 22, Prod. .1//".? pp. 61, 70, Am. Today INDEX 617 p. 185, Ind. Sup. Home p. 361, Tex. & CI. p. 380, Wood p. 423, Metals p. 427 S. No. 19, 20, 94, 412 Papoose, Cos. Dsn. p. 486, Chil- dren p. 506 S. No. 158, 204, 328 Papuans. See New Guinea Parades, Eng. Comp. p. 259 Paris, Geo. p. 23, Mkts. p. 90, Pol. Geo. p. 132, Com. Civ. p. 201, CihM P- 218 S. No. 421 to 425 Parkman, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Parks, Cities p. 228, PI. Asso. p. 323, Arct. p. 417 S. No. 10, 28, 126 Parks, National, Govt. p. 196 S No. 93, 191 to 197, 201, 207, 208, 219, 228, 229 Parthenon, Arct. p. 399 S. No. 475 Passes and Divides, Ntl. F. p. 10b S. No. 195, 243, 251, 322, 323 Pastures, PI. Asso. p. 323 S. No. 127, 173, 183, 190, 301, 480, 589 Patent, Govt. p. 199 Paterson, N. J., Geo. p. 6, Prod M/?. p. 55, Cities p. 220 S. No. 5Z, 54, 55 D aul Revero's Ride — Longfellow, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Payne, J. Howard, Lit. Sub. p. 249, Read. p. 531 Peach, Prod. Mfg. pp. 48, 66^ PI. Asso. p. 325. Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 288, Food & Ckry. p. 370, PI. & An. p 519, Eat & Wear p. 552 S. No. 85 D eaks, Mountain. ATff. F. P- 107 S. No. 221, 276, 445, 447, 448, 508 Peanuts, Geo. p. 9, Prod Mfg.VV- 49 65, Dev. Na. p. 169, PI Asso. p. 330, Food & Ckry. p. 368, PI. & An. p. 519 S. No. 118 °eary, Robert Edwin, Geo. p. ^0, Trans, p. 82, Zoji^j p. 117, Cow, Cw\ p. 201 S. No. 342 Peasant Costume, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 S. No. 373, 388, 390, 393, 396 Peat, Prod. Mfg. p. 56, Food & Ckry. p. 363 S. No. 378 Peking, Geo. p. 27, Pco. p. 40, Dev. Na. p. 173 S. No. 520 Penguins, Geo. p. 29, An. p. 339, PL & An. p. 524 S. No. 584 Peninsulas, Ntl. F. p. 104 S. No. 248, 256, 432 Pennsylvania, Geo. p. 7. Mkts. p 95, Dev. Na. p. 174, Farm H. & F. L. p. 317, Loc. Ind. p. 441 S. No. 61 to 84 Pense, Read. p. 534 Peon. Geo. p. 17 S. No. 281 People of All Lands, pp. 31 to 44 People — Primitive, Children p, 515 Percheron Horses, Geo. p. 10, An. Hits. p. 293 Perry Commodore, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Pershing, John J., Dev. Na. p. 174 Perspective, Photo, p. 492 Perspective, Angular, Draw, p 457 Perspective, Circles, Draw. p. 455 Perspective, Parallel, Drazv. p. 456 Peru, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 43, Zones p. 112, Pol. Geo. p. 125 Read. p. 541 S. No. 329 to 334 Petrified Forest, Geo. p. 13 S. No. 206 Petrograd, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 138, Cities p. 231 S. No. 482 Petroleum, Prod. Mfg. pp. 56. 64 Am. Today p. 182, Loc. Ind. p. 441. See Oil S. No. 69, 70, 122, 123, 256 Phases of the Moon, Earth N. p. 145 S. No. 594, 595 Philadelphia, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg r>i8 INDEX p. 70, Govt. p. I'M, Com. Civ. p. 209, Cities p. -'-'1 S. No. 80 to 84 Philippines, Geo. p. 28, /Y<>. p. 41, Zones p. 113, /'"/. (/('ii. p. 123, /Vr. A,/, p. 171, Govt. p. 198, House Dsn. p. 470, t'n.v. Dsn. p. 485, Children p. 507, Read. p. 540 S. No. 546 to 553 Phoebe's Arch, Geo. p. 13 S. No. 200 Phosphate, Geo. p. 9, Prod. ftlfa. p. 57, Soils p. 275 S. No. 115 Photography, pp. 487 to 501) Photography, Alpine SoeneiT, Photo, p. 496 Applied to Engineering, Photo. p. 495 Applied to Factory, Photo, p. 495 Applied to Surveying and Map Drawing, Photo, p. 496 Astronomical, Photo, p. 500 Natural History, Photo, p. 498 Tropical Scenes, Photo, p. 498 Physical Geography, pp. 97 to 108 Piazza, House Dsn. pp. 462, 470 Picture Plane, Draw, pp. 455, 457 Pi« rs, Arct. p 407, Con. Stone II & T. p. 436 S. No. 94, 152, 174, 379, 392, 568 Pike's Peak, Geo. p. 13 S. No. 201 Pilasters, .tret. p. 407 Pilatus, Mt., Geo. p. 23, Soils p. 270 S. No. 440, 441 Pina. Prod. Mfq. p. 53, Tex. & CI. p. 376 Pine, Dev. No. p. 168, PI. Asso. pp. 321, 322, 324, Wood p. 421 S. No. 98. 107, 162, 191, 224. 228, 265, 388, 407, 418 449. 527 Georgia, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 107 Mountain, /'/. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 427. 428. 449 Nut, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 201, 211 Scotch, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 388, 407, 418 White, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 162, 265 Yellow, PI. Asso. p. 324 S. No. 191, 200, 228 Pineapples, Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Pood & Ckry. p. 370, PI. & An. p. 519, Read. p. 537, Eat & Wear P. 552 S. No, 108 Pine Nuts, Prod. Mfg. p. 49 Pittsburgh, Geo. p. 7, P. Am. Na. p. 162, Am, Today p. 182, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities PP. 223, 226, 237, Read. p. 538 v No. 61 to 67 Plains, Coastal, Ntl. P. p. 105 a. No. 104, 105, 108, 122, 28t> compound Alluvial, Ntl. P. p. ivo S. No. 237, 46/ Delta, Ntl. P. p. 10h S. No. 120, 500, 558 Effects on Human Affairs, Ntl. P. p. 106 Flood, Ntl. P. p. 105 S. No. 321, 408, 467, 509, 515, 561, 564, 580 Glacial, Ntl. P. p. 106 S. No. 136, 137, 147, 161, 488 Great Western of U. S., Ntl. P. p. 106 S. No. 181, 183, 186, 198, 199 Lake, Ntl. P. p. 105 S. No, 47, 149, 166 Planets, Earth N. p. 146 S. No. 596, 597, 598 Planting, Farm C. p. 277 Planting of the Anple Tree — Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 242 Plants and Animals, pp. 517 to 526 Plants — For" 1 Storage, PI. Asso. P. 328 Plants and Plant Associations, pp. 320 to 330 Plaster Walls, House Dsn p. 467 S. No. 354 Plateaus, Ntl. P. p. 106 Plateau States, Geo. p. 12, Trav. &• Lee. p. 576 S. No. 187 to 214 Playgrounds, Cities p. 228 Plowing. Geo. pp. 12, 25, 27, Prod. Mfg. p. 65, Soils p. 273, INDEX 619 Farm C. p. 277, Farm M. p. 309, Farm H. & F. L. p. 315, Children p. 511, Home Geo. p. 571 S. No. 178, 180, 298, 488, 522, J61 Plucking, Prod. Mfg. u. 62 S. No, 175, 294, 302 Pocahontas, Lit. Sub. p. 249, Read. p. 532 S. No. 98 Poc, Edgar Allan, Lit. Sub. p. 248, Poland. CZf.n. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 139, House Dsn. p. 471, Children p. 509 S. No. 465. 485 Polar Regions. Geo. p. 20, Zones p. H 7 S. No. 246. 242 to 346, 413 to 415 Political Geography, pp. 121 to 13° Pompeii, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 453 Ponce de Leon, Juan. F Am. Na. p. 162 Ponies, An. Hits. p. 294 S. No- 182. 188, 20* Poplar, Lombardv, PL Asso. p. 325 S. No. 466. 489 Popocatapetl, Geo. p. 17. NtL & p. 107 S. No. 288 Pork, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Children p. 513. Eat & IVear p. 555. See Meat. S. No. 122, 142, 143, 144, 172, 183 Portable Houses, House Dsn. p. 464 S. No. 575 P<->rto Rico. Geo. p. 15. Fr 1 G*n, p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 171, Govt. p. 198, House Dsn. p. 471, Read. p. 550 S. No. 257, 258 Ports, Trans, p. 81, Cities p. 237 See Harbors Possessions of U. S., Geo. pp. IS, 28 S. No. 243 to 261, 546 to 554 Posters, Draw. p. 458 Post-Office Dept., Govt. p. 195 Posts, Arct. p. 407 S. No. 96, 109, 27? Potatoes, Geo. p. 11, Prod Mfg. pp. 47, 65, Dev. Na. p. 174, Farm C. p. 282, Gdn. Orch. &■ W. p. 285, Farm M. p. 307, Food & Ckrv. p. 369, Eat & Wear p. 557, Home Geo. pp. 566, 570 S. No. iec Potterv C* n n . 7. P.-od. Mfg. p 59, Dev. Na. p. 169, Ind. Dsn. pp. 389, 396, 397, . Iret. p. 419, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 437 S. No. 58. 59. 292. 372, 487, 519- 542. 564. 5^2, 385 Poultry, Am. Toda\i p. 180, Farm M. p. 303, Voc. Guid. p. 349. Children p. 512. See Chickens, Ducks, Geese S. No. 56, 216, 240. 401 Pouring, Ind. Dsn. p. 396 S. No. 65, 156, 334 Prague. See Bohcnii? Prairies, Com. Civ. p. 203. Farm C. p. 278, Farm M. p. 300, PI. Asso. p. 323 S. No. 178, 179, 180, 181 Precious Stones, Geo. p. 26, Prod Mfr. p. 59. Con. Stone 5, & T. p. 438 S. No. 512, 581 Preparation of Soil, Soils p. 273, Farm C. p. 277, Farm M. pp 300, 309, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Home Geo. p. 571 S. No. 179, 180. 448, 549. 561 Preparedness, pp. 177 to 189 Preparing and Serving Food, Food & Ckrv. p. 472 Prescott, William, Lit. Sub. p. 246 President, Pol. Geo. p. 123, C. 102 S. No. 49. 195. 228. 363. 407 Roads. Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Cities p 221, Home Gen. p. 570 S. No. 31, 43, 71, 195, 209, 221, 330 Rock. See Stone Rock-a-byc Baby, Read. p. 532 Rocky Mountain, Geo. pp. 12. 13. 16, Zones p. 119, Dev. Na. p. 170 S. No. 187 to 205, 274 to 276 Roman Architecture, A ret. p. 399 S. No. 451, 452 Romanesque Architecture, Arct. p. 399 S. No. 349, 391, 406, 429 Rome. Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 135, For. Beg. p. 154, Com. Civ. p. 201. Cities pp. 217, 218, 219, 236 S. No 450 to 452 Roofs, Arct. p. 408, House Dsn. pp. 463 to 476 S. No. 37, 355, 384, 442, 461, 492, 499, 517, 558 Roosevelt, Theodore, Lit. Sub. p. 246 S. No. 87, 90, 91 Ropes. Prod. Mfg. p. 69. Tex. & CI. pp. 378, 380 S. No. 99, 188, 559 Ropewalk. The — Longfellow, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Roselti, Christina, Read. p. 532 Rotterdam, Holland, Geo. p. 22, Prod. Mfg. p. 72. Mkts. p. 90, Cities p. 227 S. No. 400 Roumania, Geo. p. 24, Pen. p. 37, Pol. Geo. p. 137, Children p. 509, Read. p. 545 S. No. 470, 471 Rubber, Geo. pp. 10, 15, Prod. Mfg. pp. 53, 62, Dcr. Na. pp. 170, 175, PI. Asso. p. 320, lud. Dsn. p. 390, Eat & Wear p. 561, Heme Geo. P. 568 S. No. 131, 132, 133, 247 Rubber Roots. Prod. Mfg. p. 53. Eat & Wear p. 561 S. No. 133 Rudeslieim, Geo. p. 22, Pco. p. 35. Prod. Mfg. p. 48 S. No. 390 Rugs, House Dsn. p. 475 S. No. 33, 92 Running Water, Ntl. F. p. 99, Soils p. 270 Russia. Geo. p. 25, Peo. p. 38, Pol. Geo. p. 137, Children p. 509, Read. p. 545, Eat & Wear p. 553 INDEX 623 S. No. 481 to 488 Rustchuk, Bulgaria, Geo. p. 24 S. No. 469 Sacks, Tex. & CI. p. 380 S. No. 35, 148, 166, 295. 325 Sage Brush, PL Asso. p. 326 S. No. 188, 190 Sail Boat, Trans, p. 79 S. No. 27, 525 Sailing Vessels, Trans, p. 82 S. No. Ill, 217, 257, 295, 342, 344, 473, 525 Sails, Tex. & CI. p. 380 S. No. 514, 525 Sakkara or Step Pyramid, Geo. p. 29, Arct. p. 399 S. No. 566 Salmon. Ceo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. pp. 51, 63, Govt. p. 197, An. p. 339, Food and Ckry. p. 366, PL & An. p. 525, Read. p. 640, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 226, 227, 244 Salt, Geo. pp. 6. 11. Prod. Mfg. pp. 52, 69. Food & Ckry p. 371, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 42, 153 Salt Lake City, Geo. p. 13. Zones p. 117, Cities pp. 217, 236, Read. p. 539 S. No. 212 Salvador. Geo. p. 17. Peo. p. 42, Prod. Mfg. p. 68 S. No. 292 San Antonio, Geo. p. 10, Gdn. Or eh. & W. p. 287 S. No. 126 Sandals, Cos. Dsn. p. 484 S. No. 532 Sand Dunes. Geo. p. 14, Nil. F. p. 99, PL Asso. p. 328 S. No. 223 San Dieeo Bav, Geo. p. 15, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Read. p. 535 S. No. 242 San Francisco. Geo. p. 14, Trans. p. 85, Com. Civ. pp. 201, 212, Cities p. 234, Read, p 539 S. No. 230 San Gabriel Mission, Geo. p.. 15, Cities p. 219, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 286, Arct. pp. 400, 411, Metals p. 430 S. No. 241 San Juan, Porto Rico, Geo. p. 15, Trans, p. 81. Zones p. Ill, Cities p. 227 S. No. 257 Santiago de Cuba. Geo. p. 18, Trans, p. 81, Cities p. 227 S. No. 299 Santiago de Chile, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 42, Pol. Geo. p. 125, Cities pp. 217, 231 S. No. 324 Sao Paulo. Geo. p. 18, Zones p. 112, Cities pp. 221, 231, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434 S. No. 308 to 311 Sardines. Geo. p. 27, Prod. Mfg. p. 52, An. p. 339, Eat & Wear p. 557 S. No. 531 Saturn, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 146 S. No. 597 Sault Ste. Marie, The " Soo," Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 79, Am. Today, p. 187, Com. Civ. p. 201, Read. p. 538 S. No. 154 Savannah, Ga., Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 60, Trans, p. 81, Dev. Na. pp. 168, 174, Cities, p. 226 S. No. 106 Saving, Com. Civ. p. 208 Saw Mill. Geo. p. 14. Prod. Mfg. p. 60, Am. Today p. 183, Wood p. 422, hoc. Ind. p. 447, Home Geo. p. 565 S. No. 216 Scale of Gradation, Photo, p. 490 Scandinavians, Peo. pp. 34, 35 S. No. 407 to 420 Schermerhorn, Grace, p. xl, House A dm. p. 431 School Gardens, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 284, Hyg. p. 501, Children p. 505, PL & An. p. 519 624 INDEX S. No. 83 Schools, Geo. pp. 16, 18, 27, Com. Civ. p. 208, Cities p. 231, Voc. Guid. p. 354 S. No. 260, 306, 520 Schneckenburger, Max, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Scotch, Pol. Geo. p. 128, For. Beg. p. 155, House Dsn. p. 379 S. No. 365, 366, 368, 373 Scotch Pine, PI. Asso. p. 324 Scotland, Geo. p. 21, Peo. p. 36, Pol. Geo. p. 128, Read. p. 543 S. No. 365 to 373 Scott, Sir Walter, Lit. Sub. p. 246 " Scot's wha hae wi' Wallace bled." Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Screw, Ind. Dsn. p. 392 S. No. 130, 153 Sea. See Ocean Sea Cliffs, Ntl. F. p. 103 S. No. 432, 439 Sea Dirge — Shakespeare, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Sea Foods, Prod. Mfg. p. 51 S. No. 13, 86, 226, 227, 244, 345, 415, 481, 531 Seal, Geo. p. 20. Prod. Mfg. p. 52. An. p. 339, PI. & An. p. 525 S. No. 345 Seasons. Earth S. r> 14? Seaside Resorts, Eng. Comp. p. 259 Seattle. Gen. p. 14, Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 237 S. No. 220 Selective Draft, Govt. p. 197 Selling, Children p. 514. See Mar- kets Semitic People. Peo. p. 38 S. No. 485, 491, 494, 498, 566 Seoul. Chosen, Geo. p. 28 S. No. 542 Sequoia, Geo. p. 14, PL Asso, pp. 321, 322, 324, Wood p. 421 S. No. 229 Serajevo. Geo. p. 24, Mkts. p. 88. Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 218 S. No. 466 Serbia, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 137, Dev. A r a. p. 173, Read. p. 545 S. No. 467 Serving Food, Foods & Ckry. p. 372 Seton, Ernest Thompson, pp. xxxiii, 363, 377 Seven Little Sisters, Jane An- drews, Read. p. 533 Shadow, Read. p. 529 Sewell, Anna A, Read. p. 531 Shakespeare, Geo. p. 20, For. Beg. p. 155, Lit. Sub. p. 247, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 286 S. No. 354, 355, 356 Shawl Weaving, Geo. p. 26, Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Tex. & CI. p. 379 S. No. 506 Sheep, Geo. pp. 10, 12, 13, 25, 30, Prod. Mfg. pp. 54, 66, 67, An. Hits. p. 295, An. p. 334, PI. &■ An. p. 525, Read. p. 539, Eat & Wear p 560 S. No. 145, 173, 190, 480, 589 Shellev, Percy Rysshe, Lit. Sub. p. 248 Shelter, Wood p. 423 S. No. 9, 10, 113, 409, 445 Shepherd, The, Read. p. 532 S. No. 480 Sherman. Frank Dempster, Read. p. 532 Sherman, General William Te- cumseh, Dev. Na. p. 168 Shipbuilding, Prod. Mfg. p. 70 Ships, Geo. p. 6. Trans, p. 82. Dev. Na. p. 174, Am. Today p. 176, Drazv. p. 461 S. No. 26, 27, 48, 52, 100, 106, 111, 119, 154, 217, 253, 254, 257, 280, 295, 342, 344, 415, 473, 525 Shizuoka, Japan, Geo. p. 27 S. No.' 530 Shoes, Geo. pp. 5. 6. Prod. Mfg. p. 60. Metals p. 428, Hvg. pp. 450, 451, Eat & Wear p. 561, Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 S. No. 11. 12, 41, 402, 403 Factories, Prod. Mfg. p. 69 Home Geo. p. 567 S. No. 11, 12, 41 INDEX 625 Wooden, Wood, p. 423, Eat & Wear p. 561 S. No. 402, 403, 532 Short Horn Cattle, An. Hus. p. 292 S. No. 356 Shottery, Eng., Geo. p. 20, Cities p. 232 S. No. 355 Shrubs, PI. Asso. p. 326 S. No. 188, 190, 209, 355, 362, 379 Siam, Geo. p. 26, Prod. & Mfg. p. 60 S. No. 510 Siberia, Geo. p. 28, Cos. Dsn. p. 482, Read. p. 548 S. No. 544 Sicilv, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 37, For. Beg. p. 153, Hyg. p. 452, House Dsn. p. 469, Chil- dren, p. 509 S. No. 455 Siege of Corinth — Byron, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Silk, Geo. pp. 5. 6, Prod. Mfg. pp. 54, 68, Eng. Comp. p. 255, hid. Sup. Home p. 360, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 378, Metals, p. 428, 7fy£. p. 503, Eat & Wear p. 560, Home Geo. p. 566 S. No. 22, 23, 24, 53, 54, 55, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541 Silk Worms, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, An. p. 338 S. No. 536, 538, 539 Silver, Geo. pp. 14, 17, 19, Prod. Mfg. pn . 58, 64, .4m. To- day p. 182, Mefak p. 426, Hyg. p. 459, Eat & Wear p. 561 S. No. 84, 214, 287 Singing — R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 519 Sioux Indian. Geo. p. 12, Peo. p. 42, Trans, p. 75, Z}^f. iVa. p. 167, Cos. Dsn. p. 486 S. No. 182 Sisal, Geo. pp. 17, 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Farm C. p. 282, Tex. & CI. p. 376, PI. & An. p. 520 S. No. 289, 571 Sketch Book, Lit. Sub. p. 244 Sketching, Draw. p. 469 Skis, Zones p. 118 S. No. 344, 345 Skyscrapers, Arct. p. 401 S. No. 25, 26, 28, 30, 121, 139, 230 Slater, Samuel, Dev. Na. p. 165 Slavery, Dev. Na. p. 165 Slavonic Peoples, Peo. p. 38 S. No. 465, 487, 488, 496, 544 Slavs, Pol. Geo. p. 138 Sleepy Hollow, Geo. p. 6, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 285 S. No. 36 Smelting, Loc. Ind. pp. 440, 441 S. No. 62, 156, 187, 334 Smith, John, For. Beg. p. 154, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Read. p. 532 S. No. 98 Smith, Samuel, Lit. Sub. p. 257, Read. p. 531 Smith, Thomas, Read. p. 532 Snow. Geo. p. 6, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 50, 276, 427, 428, 448 542 Snow Queen, The, Read. p. 528 Social Side of Country Life, Farm H. & F. L. p. 316 Sofia, Geo. p. 24, Cities p. 222 S. No. 468 Soils, pp. 269 to 275, Farm M. p. 300, PI. Asso. p. 328, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Metals p. 431 Soil Management, Soils p. 273 Solar Energy, Earth N. pp. 142, 143 Solar Evaporation, Earth N. p. 141 Soldiers. Geo. pp. 22, 23, 30 S. No. 293, 426, 476, 567, 585 Some Things We Eat, Some Things We Wear, pp. 551 to 561 Some Things We Wear, pp. 559 to 561 Song of the Sea, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Sound, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 Source, Ntl. F. pp. 99. 100 S. No. 191, 276, 408, 448 626 INDEX South Africa, Union of, Geo. p. 29, Peo. p. 43, Pol. Geo. p. 130 S. No. 579 to 584 South America, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 124, House Dsn. p. 472, Children p. 507, Read. p. 541 S. No. 304 to 341 South Atlantic States, Geo. p. 8, Trav. & Lee. p. 575 S. No. 85 to 111 South Australia, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 129 S. No. 588 S. Carolina, Geo. p. 9, Zones p. 115 S. No. 104, 105 South Central States, Geo. p. 9, Trav. & Lee. p. 575 S. No. 112 to 127 S. Dakota, Geo. p. 12, Zones p. 116 S. No. 178, 179 Spacing, Arct. p. 401 Spain, Geo. p. 23, Peo. p. 37, Pol. Geo. p. 132, For. Be«. p. 156, House Dsn. p. 472, Children p. 509, Read. p. 546 S. No. 433 to 439 Spanish America. Geo. pp. 17. 18. 19, 20, Dev. No. p. 172 S. No. 280 to 341 Spanish War, Am. Today, p. 177 Spanning Spaces, Ind. Dsn. p. 388, . Irct. p. 405 S. No. 91, 202, 270, 384, 451, 473, 524, 568 .Spans, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 S. No. 3, 27, 41, 135, 150, 200, 206, 242, 506 Specific Gravity, Ind. Dsn. p. 390 Sphinx. The, Geo. p. 29, Arct. p. 399, Con. Stone B. & T. P. 434 S. No. 565 Spinning, Tex. & CI. pp. 378, 379 S. No. 14, 81, 409, 506, 563 Spitzbersen, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 82 S. No. 415 Spofford, Charles M., pp. xli, 483 Sponges. Geo. p. 9. Dev. Na. p 169, Hyg. p. 502, PL & An. p. '520 S. No. Ill Spraying, Geo. p. 6, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, Trans, p. 76, Zones p. 116. Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 288, Farm M. p. 308, Farm H. & F. L. p. 314, Metals p. 431, Loc. Ind. p. 445, Home Geo. p. 571 S. No. 44 Springs, Ntl. F. p. 99 Springs, Hot, Ntl. F. p. 99 S. No. 192, 193, 194 Spruce, PL Asso. p. 324, Wood p. 421 S. No. 246. 262, 412 Spyri, Lit. Sub. p. 248 St. John's, Geo. p. 16. Trans, pp. 81, 82, Cities p. 227 S. No. 278 St. Lawrence, Geo. p. 16, Trans. p. 80, F. Am. Na. o 159 S. No. 263, 264, 265, 267 St. Louis, Geo. pp. 11. 12, Zones p. 116, Am. Today p. 187 S. No. 148, 174 St. Peter's, Rome, Geo. p. 24, Cities p. 217, Arct. p. 411 S. No. 450, 451 Star Spangled Banner, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 State Department, Govt. p. 193 State & Nat'l Capitals, Trav. & Lcc. p. 578 States, Geo. no. 4 to 14, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 190 Statue of Liberty, Geo. p. 5 S. No. 25 Steamers, Trans, pp. 79, 80, 82, Am. Today p. 186 S. No. 26, 52, 119, 252, 253, 267, 277, 280, 293, 314, 415, 420, 511, 514, 556. 559 Steam Engine, Dev. Na. p. 176 S. No. 177 Steam Shovel, Ind. Dsn. p. 493 S. No. 163, 250, 251 Steel. Geo. pp. 7. 9. Prod. Mfg. pp. 57, 69. Mkts. p. 89, Dei Na, p. 170, Am. Today INDEX 627 pp. 180, 181, Voc. Guid. p. 350, hid. Dsn. pp. 389, 394, Metals pp. 426, 427, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434, Loc. hid. p. 440, Home Geo. p. 647 S. No. 65 to 67, 116 Stephens, H. Morse, pp. xxxiv, 164 Stereoscopic Photography, Photo. p. 493 Stevenson, R. L., Lit. Sub. p. 247, Read. p. 528 Stickeen, A Dog Story, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Stirling. Scot., Geo. p. 21, Cities, p. 231, Lit. Sub. p. 246, Farm H. & F. L. p. 312 S. No. 367, 368 Stockholm, -Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 134, Cities p. 231 S. No. 416 to 418 Stockman, Voc. Guid. p. 348 Stock-raising, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, Farm M. p. 301, An. p. 331, Voc. Guid. p. 348, Loc. hid. p. 445. See Cattle, Horses, Hogs, Sheep S. No. 127, 186, 301, 317 Stockvards, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Mkts. p. 90, An. Hus. p. 293, Food & Ckry. p. 364, Read. p. 538, Eat & Wear p. 556 S. No. 140 Stone, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 59, hid. Dsn. pp. 389, 396, 397, Arct. pp. 415, 418, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 433, Loc. hid. p. 441, Home Geo. p. 565 S. No. 3, 4, 5, 478, 568 Stone, Concrete, Brick & Tile, pp. 432 to 438 Stone, Monuments, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 435, 436 S. No. 10, 36, 146, 283, 288, 450 Stone, Ruins. Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434 S. No. 205, 284, 331, 452, 478, 568 Stones. Sources. Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434 S. No. 3, 4, 51 Store, Mkts. p. 91. Home Geo. p. 648. See Markets Stories of American Life and Ad- venture — Eggleston, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Stories of Ancient Greece, Read. p. 532 Stories of Ancient Rome, Read. p. 532 Stories of Washington, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Storing, Farm C. p. 278 Story, Eng. Comp. p. 261 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Straits, Ntl. F. p. 104 S. No. 439, 489 Strasshure. Geo. p. 22, Cities pp. 217, 233 S. No. 389 Stratford-on-Avon. Geo. p. 20. Cities p. 231, Lit. Sub. p. 247 S. No. 354, 356 Street Cars. Trans, p. 85 S. No. 27. 31, 139, 220, 230, 273, 315, 380, 416, 473, 587, 590 Streets, Geo. p. 6, Cities p. 220, Arct. p. 416, Hyg. p. 451, House Dsn. p. 475, Home Geo p. 565 S. No. 29, 90, 139, 167, 230, 273, 305, 337, 351, 365, 380, 399, 416, 422. 464, 504, 513 Strikes, Dev. Na. p. 168, 175 Structural Iron & Steel, Am. To- day p. 184, Voc. Guid. p. 350 S. No. 126, 421 Stucco, House Dsn. pp. 463, 469, 472 S. No. 336, 337, 341, 456 Subjects for Photography, Photo. p. 494 Subjects & Settings, Literary, pp. 240 to 249 Submarines, Geo. p. 15, Trans, p. 82, Dev. Na. p. 173, Am. Today p. 178, Gov. p 195 S. No. 242 Sub-Tropics, Zones p. 113 628 INDEX Sue/ Canal, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. p 72, 7>a>w. p. 79. To/. Geo. p. 128, food. p. 549 S. No. 559 Suffrage, Com. Civ. p. 210 Sugar Beet, Geo. pp. 13. 16. 23. . fW. M/g. pp. 47, 65, | /47H. Today p. 180, Fohm j C. p. 280, Food & Ckry. \ p. 369, Hyg. p. 452, Chil- j id. Djh. p. 394, Arct. p. 413 S. No. 349, 376, 406. 421, 425, 442 Towns, Govt. p. 189 Townships, Govt. p. 189 Tractors, Geo. pp. 11, 12, 19, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Dev. Na. p. 176, Farm M. p. 309, Lor. Ind. p. 453, 7>/<<. p. 496 S. No. 161, 178, 179, 180, 233, 332 Tracks, Trans, p. 83 S. No. 43, 101, 129 Trade Routes, Am. Today p. 186 Trade Wind, Zones p. Ill Tragedies of the Nests — Bur- roughs, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Trains, Trans, p. 84 S. No. 43, 79, 101, 129 Transportation pp. 73 to 86 Transportation — Methods, Dev. Xa. pp. 166, 169, Am. To- day pp. 181, 185, Com. Civ. p. 207, Cities p. 219, Eng. Comp. p. 254, Farm M. p. 309, Ind. Suf>. Home p. 361, Metals p. 429, Loc. Ind. p. 447, Home Geo. pp. 565, 568, 572 Trappings, Tex. & CI. p. 380 S. No. 494, 505, 565 Travel, R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 529 Travelogue & Lecture Sugges- tions pp. 574 to 580 Treasury, Govt. p. 194 S. No. 90 Tree, The — Bjornson, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Trees, F. Am. Xa. p. 159, PI. Asso. pp. 320 to 328, Draw. p. 460. See Gar- den, Orchard and Wood Lot. See Wood. See Horticulture Trinity Church, N. Y., Com. Civ. p. 201, Arct. pp. 407, 411 S. No. 29 Tropics, Zones p. 110 Trowbridge, J. T., Lit. Sub. p. 247 Trusses, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Arct. pp. 406, 415 S. No. 150, 202, 270, 271, 330 Tunis, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo. p. 132, Cities p. 223, Arct. pp. 399, 403, Read. p. 548 S. No. 557 Turban, Cos. Dsn. pp. 482, 483 S. No. 494, 503, 505, 506, 555, 565, 566 Turkey, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 137 S. No. 472 to 474, 489 to 498 Turpentine, Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 60, Dev. Xa. p. 169, . 1m. Today p. 185, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 289. Wood p. 424, Read. p. 537 S. No. 107 Twinkle. Twinkle, Little Star — Jane Taylor. Read. p. 532 Two Years Before the Mast, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Typee, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 U Uganda, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Zones p. 110, Read. p. 549 S. No. 570, 571 Ukraine, Geo. p. 25, Pco. p. 38, Pol. Geo. p. 138 S. No. 486, 487, 488 Umbrellas, Tex & CI. p. 380 S. No. 60, 387, 452, 501, 510, 548 Uncle Tom's Cabin, Lit. Sub. p. 249 Underground Water, Ntl. F. p. 99 Uniforms, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 S. No. 146, 266, 293, 366, 426, 476 Union of South Africa, Pol. Geo. p. 130 S. No. 579 to 584 United States, Geo. p. 4, Peo. pp 33, 42, 43, Prod. Mfg. p 46, Trans, p. 74, Pol. Geo p. 122. F. Am. Na. p. 158 Dev. Na. p. 164, Govt, p 189, Com. Civ. p. 201 ( 'ities p. 216, Farm C p. 277, Gdn, Orch. & IV INDEX 631 p. 284, An. Hits. p. 291 Farm M. p. 297, PL Asso p. 320, Voc. Guid. p 348, Ind. Sup. Home p 358, Food & Ckry. p. 363 Arct. p. 409, Wood p. 420 Metals p. 425, i7o»jf Dsn. p. 474 S. No. 1 to 242 Upon the Mountain's Distant Head, Lit. Sub. p. 243 Uranus, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 146 S. No. 598 Uruguay, Geo. p. 18, House Dsn. p. 472 S. No. 312, 313 Utah, Geo. p. 13, Dev. Na. p. 167 S. No. 212, 213 Utensils — Household, House Adm. p. 384 Vaal River, Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 112 S. No. 580 Vaca Cabeza de, F. Am. Na. p. 162 Valencia, Spain, Geo. p. 23, Zones p. 114 Vale of Kashmir. See Kashmir Valley, Geo. pp. 6, 14. Ntl. F. p. 102 S. No. 38, 61, 114, 276, 515 Valley Glaciers, Ntl. F. p. 100 S. No. 274, 275, 276, 279, 408, 427, 428, 446, 448 Valparaiso, Chile, Geo. p. 19, Trans, p. 82. Zones p. 114, Cities p. 227 S. No. 326, 327 Vancouver, B. C. Geo. p. 16, Trans, pp. 83, 84, Cities p. 234 S. No. 277 Van Rensselaer. Martha, pp. xxxix, 356 Vaterland, Geo. p. 6, Dev. Na. p. 174 S. No. 52 Vegetable Products, Prod. Mfg. p. 52 Vegetables, Farm C. p. 283, Food & Ckrv. p. 370, Children pp. 505, 512, Eat & Wear pp. 553, 557 S. No. 149, 166, 375 Venezuela, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 43, Pol. Geo. p. 125, Govt. p. 193, Children p. 508, Read. p. 542 S. No. 338 to 341 Venice, Geo. p. 24, For. Beg. p. 153, Cities p. 221 S. No. 457 Vera Cruz, Geo. p. 17, F. Am. Na. p. 163, Dev. Na. pp. 167, 173, Cities p. 227, Read. p. 540 S. No. 280 Vermont, Geo. p. 5, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 434, Loc. Ind. p. 441 S. No. 4, 5 Verrazano, da Giovanni, For. Beg. p. 153 Vesuvius, Geo. p. 24, Soils p. 271 S. No. 453 Viaducts, Cities p. 223. See Bridge Victoria, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 129 S. No. 586, 587 Victoria Falls, Geo. p. 29, Com Civ. p. 201, Read. p. 649 S. No. 576 Vienna, GVo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 137. Cities pp. 218, 222 S. No. 462 Village Homes, Arct. p. 411 S. No. 10, 37, 354, 362, 368, 401, 402, 447. 517, 535 Villages, Govt. p. 189 Vines. PL Asso. p. 371 S. No. 37, 47, 137, 236, 319, 354, 359, 362, 376, 390 Vineyards. Geo. pp. 15. 19, 22. Prod. Mfg. p. 48. Mkts. p. 92. Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 288, Loc. Ind. p. 445, Chil- dren p. 512 S. No. 236, 319, 390 Virginia, Geo. p. 8, F. Am. Na. p. 162 632 INDEX S. No. 96 to 100 Vision of Sir Launfal, Lit. Sub. p. 245 Vivian, Alfred, p. xxxvi. Soils p. 269 Vocational Guidance, pp. 347 to 355 Vocations, Studies of, Eng. Lamp. p. 256 Volcanic Mountains, Ntl. P. P- S No. 221, 288, 291, 453, 525, 545, 548 Volcanic Soil, Soils p. 271 S. No. 192, 194, 222, 453, 545 Volcanoes, Geo. pp. 17. 18. 24, 27. Soils p. 271, PI. Asso. p. 328 S No. 291, 293, 300, 453, 525, 545 w Wagons, Geo. p. 7. Trans, p. 75 S No. 7, 47, 71, 138, 147, 167, 177, 195, 273, 406 Wales, Geo. p. 21 S. No. 363 Wall St.. Geo. p. 6, Dev. A«. P 164, Govt. p. 194, Com Civ. p 201, Cities p. 221 S. No. 29 Wallace. Gzn. Lew. Lit. Sub. p. 248 Wallace, Sir William, Geo. p. 21, S. No. 368 Ward, Robert De C, pp. xxxn, 109 War Department, Govt. p. 194 War of 1812, Am. Today p. 177 S. No. 71 Warner, Charles Dudley, Lit. Sub. p. 247 Wars, Our, Am. Today p. 177 Warsaw. Geo. p. 25. Mkts. p. 88, Cities p. 218 S. No. 485 Warships. Geo. pp. 8. 15, 17, .4m. Tnr/cry p. 186, Go^/. P- 195. See Battleships, Sub- marines. Torpedo Boats S. No. 100, 242, 254, 296 Washing, Geo. p. 23, House Aim p. 384, Hyg. p. 452 S. No. 431 Washington, D. C, Geo. p. 8, Dev. Na. p. 164, Govt. p. 191, Cow. Civ. p. 200, Cities pp. 217, 221, 229, Gd». Or/i. 6- W. p. 286, Foe. Guid. p. 354, ^rcf. p. 400, //v-. p. 451, i?cad. p. 535 S. No. 87 to 95 Washington, George, Geo. pp. 6, 8, /•'. Am. Na. p. 163, Dev. Na. p. 164, /?