|: %.# :f^\\.%^ •*A ^ ,«=, tp^ ^ -?% " , $ r0( °0 V s %«? v v % f ^ y> ,; "' vV ^ A GRAMMAR GREEK LANGUAGE, USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., JAY-PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. NEW-YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-STREET. 1 84 1. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by Charles Anthon, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 'R 181929 ■ THE REV. WILBUR FISK, D.D., PRESIDENT OF THE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, gfjts OTorfc is Krcscrtbetr AS A TRIBUTE OF SINCERE RESPECT TO ONE, IN WHOM HUMAN LEARNING IS SO ADMIRABLY BLENDED WITH THAT BETTER AND PURER KNOWLEDGE, WITHOUT WHICH IT IS COMPARATIVELY VALUELESS PREFACE. The author's object, in preparing the present work, was to furnish the student with such a view of the leading fea- tures in the Grammar of the Greek Language as might prove useful to him, not only at the commencement of his career, but also during its whole continuance. Nothing has there- fore been omitted, the want of which might in any degree retard his progress ; and yet, at the same time, the work has been brought within such limits as will render it easy of reference and not deter from perusal. The best and latest authorities have been carefully consulted, and every effort has been made to exhibit a concise outline of all the leading principles of Greek Philology. Under the head of Prosody the author has given merely a brief collection of rules, as the larger work on this subject, now in the press, and which will appear in a few weeks, will be found to contain all that is requisite in this department of instruction. To that same work the author has been compelled to transfer the remarks on the analogies of the Indo-Germanic tongues, which were originally intended to form part of the present volume. It was found, as the Grammar advanced towards its completion, that the addition of these analogies would A2 make it too large in size ; and although a work like the present is certainly the true one for such a discussion, yet it is hoped that the remarks in question will not be out of place even at the end of a treatise on Greek Prosody. The present work, it will be perceived then, lays but few claims to originality either of design or execution. The object of the editor has been to present, in a small compass, all that his own experience as an instructor has shown him to be really useful in Greek elementary studies. His principal guide has been the excellent grammar of Matthise, of which the present volume may be in some re- spects considered as an abstract ; and valuable materials have been at the same time obtained from the labours o£y Buttmann, Rost, and other distinguished philologists. As regards the formation of the Greek verb, he has preferred . the old system to the more philosophical and elaborate one of Thiersch, from its being better adapted to the ca- pacities of younger students. Thiersch's system will do very well after an acquaintance with the formation of the Sanscrit verb, but its success otherwise, in this country at least, is extremely problematical. In preparing the present edition for the press, great pains have been taken to ensure accuracy, and in several in- stances changes have been made where the language ap- peared either obscure or wanting in precision. One or two inadvertences of expression, moreover, of no great moment in themselves, have also been rectified, and the work is now presented to the young student in the full as- surance that he will find in it both a useful and an accu- rate manual. The compiler of the present volume owes it to himself to state, that he intends, at no very distant day, to publish a Grammar of the Greek Language which will lay more claim to the character of an original work, and will be elu- cidated throughout by references to the Indo-Germanic tongues. Such a work, of course, will be intended for more advanced students. In the mean time, he hopes that the plain and unpresuming volume which he now puts forth will not be regarded as the "ultima Thule" of his own researches in Greek philology. Columbia College, June, 1839. INDEX. PAGE Accents 7, 275 Accusative 36 , Syntax of . . 243 Active Voice Adjectives Adverbs 194 .Eolic Dialect 282 Anapaestic Verse .... 270 Apostrophe 10 Article 19 , Syntax of . . . 229 Attic Dialect 283 Augments 101 Breathings 6 Cases 18 Changes of Letters ... 13 Comparison 67 Composition, Prosody of . 255 Conjunctions 202 Consonants . . . . . . 13 Contracted Verbs .... 139 Contraction 9 Dative 37 , Syntax of .... 241 Declensions 20 Deponents 138 Dialects 281 Digamma 7, 274 Diphthongs 3 Doric Dialect 282 Elfiai, " I clothe myself ~El/u, " I am" . El/it, " I go" . Hfiat, " I sit" . Enclitics . . Feet $7i[ii, " I say" . . First Aorist Active Passive Middle First Future Active Passive Middle Formation of the Tenses Genders Genitive, Syntax of . Iambic Verse . "lrjfit, " I send" Imperfect Active Active in fit Passive in fit Infinitive, Syntax of Ionic Dialect . . Irregular Nouns . Adjectives Verbs Verbs in fit Kelfiat, " I lie" PAGE 164 89 158 164 279 267 167 108 116 119 108 117 119 108 18 236 269 161 108 115 156 156 245 282 43 63 170 158 165 Letters Metres . . Middle Voice N added .... Nominative and Verb Noun Numbers . . . Numerals . . . Participle, Syntax of Parts of Speech Passive Voice . . , Syntax of Patronymics Perfect Active . ■ Middle . Pluperfect Active . — — — — Passive — Middle . PAGE 1 268 124 231 20 18 72 247 17 95 245 47 109 115 127 110 116 118 PAGE Prepositions 210 Pronouns 78. Prosody 251 Relative, Syntax of . . . 234 Second Aorist Active -Middle . . - Active in /it . - Middle in fit . Second Future Active • Middle Substantive and Adjective Syntax Verbs in [it, . Vowels . . 110 117 119 156 156 111 117 119 233 229 149 GREEK GRAMMAR, I. THE ALPHABET. 1 The Greek alphabet consists namely : of twenty-four letters, A, a, "AA(^a, Alpha, a. 33, (5, 6, B?yra, Beta, b. r, y,r, Td;jfia, Gamma, & A, 6, Ae^ra, Delta, d. E, e, ^EijilXov, Epsllon, 2 e, z,£ Zrjra, Zeta, z. H, 7J, r Rra, Eta, a. e, #, e, QiJTa, Theta,- th. \,i, 'Iwra, Iota, i. K,k, Karma, Kappa, k. A, A, Adfj,6da, Lambda, I. M, fi, Mv, Mu, in. N, v, Nv, Nu, n. x;i E£, Xi, X. 0, o, 'OflLKpOV, micron, 3 o. II, n, m, Pi, p^ P,P, r P«, Rho, r. 2, (7, (when final, $] i 4 2,iyfia, Sigma, s. T,r, Tav, Tau, t. T r v, ™Til>lX6v, Upsilon, 5 u. #,#* $7, Phi, pk x,%, X2", Chi, ch. ■$', -0, *Z, Psi, ps. fl, 6), '"Q.fisya, Omega, 6. 1. Consult Excursus 1, at the end of this volume. 2. Smooth, or unaspirated e ; so called to distinguish it from H, which was anciently one of the marks of the rough breathing, or aspirate. 3. Small o, to distinguish it from omega (w), or great (i. e., long) o. 4. The German scholars have introduced the practice of using c at the end of syllables likewise, when they make an entire word with which another is compounded ; as, Syg/nevr/c, slg^po, TcpogetTcov. But this practice, which has not even the authority of MSS. in its Tavour, cannot be systematically introduced without inconvenience to orthography ; and it is not agreeable to the genius of the ancients, who were not accustomed to separate, by the understanding, the different parts of discourse. 5. Smooth v, to distinguish it from the aspirated v (T), which was one of the ancient signs of the digamma, and also passed into the Latin V, as, Vidi, Aivom. 2 PRONUNCIATION. II. PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS. 1 A, when long, is sounded like the English a in far when short, like the a in fat. r, before a vowel, like the hard English g ; but before another y, and also before a ft, £%, is sounded like ng in sing. Thus, ayyeXoc. , pronounce ang-elos ; aynG)v> ang-kon, &c. 2 E, like the short English e in met. Z, like a soft d passing gently into the sound of z. Thus, %d,G), pronounce d-zao ; fieXl^G), melid-zo, &c. H, like the English a in cane. 3 G, like the English th in think. I, when long, like the English e in me ; when short, like the i in pin. T, like the French u in une, or the German u. X, always guttural, like the German ch in buch. ft, like the o in throne. PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 4 Ai, like the English adverb aye. Av, like the syllable ow in now. ~El, like the English word eye. 1. The pronunciation here given is that which has been adopted at the institution from which the present work emanates. It is by no means offered as accurate in every respect, but merely as giving, in some cases, an approximation to the ancient sound, and, in others, the result of mod- ern, though erroneous, usage. A separate work on this much-contested point will appear at no very distant day. 2. The true sound of the y before a vowel would appear to have re- sembled that of the soft g in the German liegen. 3. The 7j appears to have had, originally, a middle sound between a and e, and the grounds on which this opinion rests are as follows : 1 . The contraction of as and ea into rj ; as, xP^ £TaL -, XPV TaL i fae^c, £??c, reixea, T£(-XV, akrjdsa, ItXrjdrj. 2. The augment 7], q, and tjv, from a, ai, and. av ; as, tjkovov, yvsaa, and Tjvda. 3. The Doric and iEolic change of 7] into a ; as, . K > r> x- r, 6, d. of the mouth, may be called back-vowels ; and the sounds of i and v, be- ing formed in the front part of the mouth, may be denominated froni- vowels. 1. Originally, the a, y, ct were closely allied to at, ei, oi, and only so distinguished, that, in the latter, a, e, and o were sounded of the same length with the i ; while, in the former, the long sound of a, e, and o pre- ceded, and the i merely followed as a short echo. This accurate pronun- ciation, however, appears to have been lost at an early period, even among the Greeks themselves, and therefore, at present, we pronounce a, y, a> in the same way as a, n, u ; and the subscribed or underwritten iota serves as a mere grammatical sign for determining the derivation and for distinguishing the forms. Originally, the i, even in these improper diph- thongs, was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of cap- itals this practice still obtains. Thus we write a<5j](;, but "Aidrjg, passing over, in either case, the sound of the t. So, again, udrj, but, with tho capital letter, 'Quty. DIVISION OF LETTERS. 5 4. Mutes of the same class must always come together, from a principle of euphony. Thus, INTERMEDIATE. SOFT. ASPIRATE. ebdofiog. enrd. (pdovog. oydoog. dfcroo. £%Qog- 5. From the organs with which they are pronounced, n, (3,

, composed of any letter of each of the three orders of mutes, followed by c. Thus, 7rc, (3g, (pg, form ip ; «?, r?, xsi form I; (re), dg, (6g), form J.« 9. These double consonants are universally used (except in iEolic and Doric Greek) instead of their corresponding simple letters. Not, however, where the two simple letters belong to two different parts of the compound, as etc-oevo), not et-evo). 2 1. The combinations re and dg are merely inserted to complete the analogy to the eye ; since C, is equivalent, in fact, to dg merely, and whenever a, r, or 6 comes before a, it is thrown away ; as, avvao for avvTGo, and Trelacj for midou. Sometimes, even in the case of cV, the same rejection takes place, as Epeiao for kpeidao), where C, could not oc- cupy the place of the characteristic letter (er) of the future. 3. Yet 'Ad7/va& is used instead of 'Adqvacrde. A3 BREATHINGS, IV. BREATHINGS. 1. Every vowel, or diphthong, which is pronounced with- out a letter preceding it, is necessarily connected with a breathing, 2. There are two breathings, the soft 1 and aspirate ; and, consequently, every word beginning with a vowel, or diph- thong, must be pronounced with one of these breathings. 3. The. signs employed for these breathings are, for the soft ('), as asi, £% ; and for the aspirate ( f ), as vnsp, rj[xelg. 2 4. The soft breathing has no perceptible power ; 3 the as- pirate is equivalent to the modern h } as vnep, pronounce huper. 5. T at the beginning of words in the Attic dialect is al- ways to be pronounced with the aspirate ; as v&favOog, vdXog, v(3pig. 6. In diphthongs the breathings are marked over the second vowel ; as ol, at, evOvg, avrog | because the breath- ing does not belong to either of the blended vowels separ- ately, but to the whole mingled sound. When, however, an improper diphthong has the iota adscribed, as in the case of capital letters, or, otherwise, subscribed, the mark of the breathing is placed by or over the initial vowel, as "Aiding, adr t g. 7. P is the only consonant that receives a breathing, since it cannot be pronounced without an audible expiration. When p stands at the beginning of a word, therefore, this breathing is always the aspirate ; as peo), pvrog, which in Latin is placed after the R, as rhetor, from the Greek prjrcop, 1. Called also " smooth," and by its Latin name lenis. 2. Originally the rough breathing alone had a sign, namely, H, and the smooth remained unmarked. Afterward that sign was divided into two halves, and the first half, I, was employed to denote the aspirate, the second half, 1, the soft breathing. By a subsequent abbreviation of these, two other marks were formed, namely, [ and J, which finally changed into (') and ('), the signs now in use. 3. It attaches itself to the sound pronounced, as if spontaneously, with- out any exertion of the lungs. DIGAMMA. 7 8. But when a p is followed by another p, the first must have the soft breathing, and the latter the aspirate, as dp- pTjtcrog, eppeov ; for two of these letters could not be pro- nounced in succession each with an aspirate. V. DIGAMMA. 1. Besides the rough breathing, there was in several di- alects another sound, somewhat similar in nature, formed between the lips, and having the same relation tof, ph, and v, that the aspirate bears to ch, g, and k. 2. It was originally a full and strong consonant, and rep- resented by a letter closely resembling the Roman F. This letter was called digamma, because looking like a double gamma, and originally occupied the sixth place in the Greek alphabet. 3. The term. JEolic digamma was given to it, because .it was retained in the alphabet principally by those branches of the Greek race that were of JEolic descent. Its true name, however, was Bav ( Vau), the other appellation hav- ing been invented by the grammarians. 4. In the dialects which retained the digamma, its sound was soon softened down, and it then answered, in pronun- ciation, to the English wh. Between two vowels it was still more attenuated, and passed, even with the iEolians, into v ; as avrjp, aixbg, for ar\p, 7]0)g. 5. In iEolic the digamma served also for the rough breathing, which had no place in that dialect. 1 VI. ACCENTS. 2 • 1. There are three accents in Greek; the acute, grave, and circumflex. 2. The acute is denoted by the sign ('), as jjloi, tgjv irapov- ro)v fcatc&v ! (pev ! , %, 6) ; but, in this case, the aspi- rated consonant which stands at the beginning of the first syllable is changed into its kindred smooth. Thus, B 14 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. For (f)e(f)tXi]Ka we say TrE(t>i?L7]iia. -dedvrjita " reOvrjica. Exceptions. (1.) The passive termination in $7)v, and all its derivative terminations which begin with $, have no in- fluence upon the preceding aspirate ; and thus we write, G)pdG)dr]v, £%v6t]v, -&(L(j)dT]' i]\iipav (for err' rjfiepav), &c. 7. Aspirates are never doubled ; but, when two come to- gether, the first must be changed into its own smooth ; as, SarrcpG), not l,a are changed into fi ; CHANGES OP THE CONSONANTS. 15 as, for rerpcdfiac write rerpL/ijiai ; for rervTr/jiaL write re- Tv\i\iai ; for yeypa " ^ thing" Some nouns, how- ever, are both masculine and feminine ; as, 6, r], tconvog, " the wild olive-tree." These are said to be of the common gender. 5. There are three numbers, the Singular (aptdfibg evt- fcog), Dual {dvlitog), and Plural (nXTjOvvriKog). The sin- gular denotes one ; the plural more than one ; the dual, two, or a pair. 6. There are five cases, the Nominative (iTT&Gtg ovofzaa- rinrj), Genitive (yeviftr}), Dative (Soriicrj), Accusative (aire- ariKfj), and Vocative {iikr\TiK,r\). 7. The Greek name of the ablative would be acpcupeTi- K7], but the national grammarians of Greece do not make mention of this case, because in Greek its form is, in every instance, the same with the dative. GENERAL RULES. 1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, ac- cusative, and vocative alike in all the numbers ; and these cases in the plural end always in a. 2. The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 3. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are alike ; as also the genitive and dative. 4. The dative singular in all three declensions ends in i. In the first two, however, the i is subscribed. 5. The genitive plural ends always in uv. THE ARTICLE. 19 XVI. THE ARTICLE. 1. The article is a word prefixed to a noun, and serving to ascertain or define it. Its declension is as follows : Singular. Masc. Fern. Neuter. Nom. 6 n TO the. Gen. TOV T1]C TOV of the. Dat. TGJ TXI rw to the. Accus. TOV TTjV Dual TO the. Nom. > Accus. ) T(x) rd TO) the two. Gen. 1 Dat. \ Tolv ralv Plural. TOlv of or to the two. Nom. ol at TO, the. Gen. TG)V TGJV TGJV of the. Bat. ToZc rdig Tolg to the. Accus. rovg rag TO, the. REMARKS ON THE ARTICLE. 1. The article was originally a demonstrative pronoun; but, in the later Ionic and Attic dialects, it became merely a means of denning nouns. 1 1. In the older grammars two articles are given ; the prepositive, 6, 7j, to, and the postpositive, bq, rj, 6, which we call, at the present day, the relative pronoun. In a sentence like the following, " This is the man who will deliver us" (Ovrog kcvLV 6 avrjp og aucei rjfiag), the two words " the" and " who" (6 and bq ) refer so intimately to each other, and lock, as it were, into one another so much like joints, connecting in this way the two clauses as members or limbs of one sentence, that the Greeks termed them apdpa, articuli, or joints. The first of these, how- ever, namely, 6, rj, to, stands very commonly with its simple clause alone, and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer an article or joint. But this arises from the circumstance, that, in very many instances of this kind, the second clause is not expressed in words, out is left to be mentally supplied; such as, "who is spoken of," or 20 NOUNS. 2. There is no form of the article for the vocative, for w is an interjection. 3. If the particles ye and 6e are annexed to the article, it has the signification of the pronoun " this," but the de- clension remains the same. Thus, ode, r\de, rode, genitive rovde, rfjode, rovde, &c. 4. In the early Greek the article was rog, rr\, to, and hence arise the plural rot, rat in Doric and Ionic, and the r. in the neuter and the oblique cases. XVII. NOUNS. 1. The Declensions (tcXiGecg) of nouns are three, corre- sponding to the first three declensions in Latin. 2. The First Declension has four terminations : two fem- inine, a and t\ ; and two masculine, ag and rjg. 3. The Second Declension has two terminations, og and ov. Nouns in og are generally masculine, sometimes femi- nine ; nouns in ov are always neuter. 4. The Third Declension ends in a, i, v, neuter; 0) fem- inine ; and v, £, p, a, ip, of all genders ; and increases in the genitive, XVIII. FIRST DECLENSION. Terminations. n¥* 5 > masculine. m 5 1. Nouns in pa and a pure, that is, a preceded by a vowel, together with some proper names, as Arjda, 'Av- dpojieda, ^iXofirjXa, b.iori\ia, and also the substantive dXa- Xd, " a war-cry," have the genitive in ag, and retain their a through all the cases of the singular. " who is here concerned," or " whom you know," &c. Hence it "became, by degrees, a usage of the language to annex the prepositive article 6, ^, to by itself to every object which is to be represented as definite, either by means of the language itself or from the circumstances. In their whole theory, however, the two articles are adjective pronouns. (Butt- manri's larger Grammar, p. 121, Robinson's transl.) FIRST DECLENSION. 21 2. All the contracted nouns of this declension likewise retain the a in the genitive and other cases of the singular ; as, fiva, [iv-dg, &c. ; 'AOrjvd, 'A6r]v-ag, &c. 3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in Tjg, and da- tive in xi ; but in the accusative and vocative they resume their a. 4. Nouns in tj retain the r\ throughout the singular num- ber, making the accusative in tjv, and the vocative in tj. Singular. N. ri r/uep-a, G. rrjg quep-ag, D. rrj T]fiep-a, A. TTjv quip-av, V. 7/fiep-a. Examples. t) rjjxepa, " the day? Dual. N. ra, r)(j.£p-a, G. ralv Tfuep-acv, D. ralv 7]^L£p-aiv, A. ra rjfiep-a, V. ijfiep-a. Plural. N. at yusp-ai, G. r&v rjuep-uv, D. ralg rjuep-aig A. rag rjuep-ag, V. 7]\iip-ai. Singular. N. rj cofyi-a, G. rfiQ ao&i-ag, D. ry ao(j>t-a, A. rrjv coa?L-7/, G. ryg Keipah-yg, D. ry Kea?i-£)v, D. ralg tceipal-alg, A. rag KEtpal-dg, V. Kea%rj, ko/j,tj, hair, (puvij, a voice, 66n, a song, vefysXrj, a cloud, aeTirjvn, the moon, TLjurj, honour. 5. Nouns in ag make the genitive in ov, and the dative in a, and the remaining cases like those of rj^epa. 6. Nouns in rjg make the genitive in ov, the accusative in 7]v, and the vocative in r\, and the rest like ?]fispa. Examples. Singular. N. 6 veavi-ag, G. rov veavi-ov, D. to veavi-a, A. rov veavc-av, V. veavi-a. 6 veaviag, " the youth" Dual. N. to veavi-a, G. rolv veavi-aiv, D. rolv veavi-aiv, A. to veavi-a, V. veavi-a. PluraL N. ol veavi-ai, G. ruv veavc-uv, D. roic veavi-aic, A. rovg veavi-ag, V. veavi-ai. Singular. N. 6 re\£)v-r}Q, G. rov reX6v-ov, D. to rekuv-n, A. rov reluv-nv, V. reX6v-7]. 6 reWv7]g, " the tax-gc Dual. N. to reXuv-a, G. rolv reX6v-atv, D. rolv re7iC)v-aiv, A. to reX6v-a, V. reluv-a. therer." Plural. N. ol reXdv-at, G. tox> re^wv-wv, D. role. re?i6v-aic, A. roiif rehuv-ag, Like veaviag, fioviag, a solitary, rajiiag, a steward, tcox^iag, a snail, Alveiag, Mneas, Hvdayopag, Pythagoras, 'Avagayopag, Anaxagoras. Decline Like rekdviqg, aKivaung, a short sword, Xecporexvrjg, a workman, aiyQdijXng, a goat-sucker, eXXnvodcKng, a judge at the games, 'Arpeidng, Atrides, 'Ayxlong, Anchises. FIRST DECLENSION. 23 7. Nouns in rijg, compounds in m]g ; as, fcvvcon^g, " an impudent person ;" names indicative of nations ; as, ILeporjg, " a Persian" Etcvd'ng, " a Scythian ,*" together with deriv- atives from [lerpoj, ttcjXcj, and rpi6o), as, yeofierprjg, " a ge- ometer," fivpoTr&Xrjg, "a vender of perfumes" TTaidorpcdrjg, " a teacher of gymnastics" make the vocative singular in a, not in ?/. Thus, KVVG)7T7]g, voc. Kwoyrrd ; ILeparjg, voc. Ilep- (7a. But ILeparjg, a man's name (Perses), makes ?;. 8. Nouns in crr^c have ?? or a in the vocative ; as, Xrjarf)g f " a robber" voc. Xrjarf) or Xrjard. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 1. In forming these contractions, ea preceded by p, and also aa, make a ; as, epea, contracted epd, " wool ;" fivda, \ivd, " a mina" (3opeag, (3oppag, " £Ae wor^ windy 2. But ea not preceded by p, together with erj and o?;, become r) ; as, yea, yfj, " the earth ;" yaXerj, yaXij, " a wea- se/;" diirXorj, dcnXr), " double;" f Epf*eac, 'Ep^c, "Mercu- ry ;" 'AneXXerjg, 'A.ireXXrjg, " Apelles." 3. In the genitive, ov absorbs the preceding vowel ; as, 'Epjxeov, 'Epuov. Examples. e*pea, contr. epa, " wool" Singular. Dual. Plural. N. epe-a, ep-2, G. epe-ac, zp-dc, D. epe-a, ep-a, A. epe-av, kp-dv, V. epe-a, ep-a. N. epe-a, G. epe-aiv, D. epe-aiv, A. epe-a, V. epe-a. N. epe-ai, ep-al, G. epe-uv, ep-uv, D. epe-aic, ep-alc, A. epe-ac, ep-dc, V. epe-at, kp-al. yaAe^ , contr. yaXr), " a weasel" Singular. Dual. Plural. N. yake-n, ya?.-?i, G. yake-vc, yak-rjc, D. yaki-w, yak-Hj, A. yake-rjv, yak-rjv, V. yake-7), yak-jj. N. yake-a, yak-d, G. yake-aiv, yak-alv, D. ya?J-aiv, yak-alv, A. yake-a, yak-d, V. yake-a, yak-d. N. yake-ai, yak-al, G. yake-uv, yak-tiv, D. yake-aic, yak-ale, A. ya/le-af, ya/l-df, V. yake-ac, yak-dX. 24 DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 1. Instead of the terminations 77c and ag of the nomina- tive singular, the iEolians employed a. Hence iroirjTrig and veavlag become, in iEolic Greek, noirjrd, veavia. So also we have in the same dialect the Homeric nominatives, \ir\riird, v£(f)eX7]jepsrd, evpvoird, &c. From this source comes the Latin nominative singular of the first declension, poetd, cometa, &c. 2. The iEolians made the genitive singular end in dig, and also in ag, which latter form was common unto them with the Dorians. Thus, 7\\iipdLg for rjfiepag ; doi-ag for So^rjg, from the iEolic nominative 36£;a. From the genitive in dig the Latins derived, by dropping the final c, their old genitive of the first declension in a'i, as musai, auldi, terrdi, which afterward changed to v of the genitive plural into ecov ; thus 'Arpeidecj for 'Arpetdov ; ttol7]t£g) for izocrjTOv ; K0ll7]T£G)V for fCOflTjTGJV ; lfteT6G)V for ItlETCdV. 7. The Ionians employed the termination ea instead of t]v in the accusative singular of nouns in r\g ; as, deanorea for dscTroT-qv ; Kafi&voea for Ka\i§vo7]v. So in the accusa- SECOND DECLENSION. 25 tive plural they used sag for ag \ as, dearroreag for dea- norag. 8. The Ionians, in the Dative plural, employed yet for aig as, decnor^ai for deorcoTcug ; vqoLUT'noL for vnoi&raig XIX. SECOND DECLENSION. Terminations. og, masculine, sometimes feminine. ov, always neuter. 1 Examples. 6 Xoyog, " £^e discourse." Singular. Dwa£. Plural. N. 6 Xdy-oc, N. to) Xoy-u, N. oi 16y-oi, G. row /\.dy-ov, G. rotv /loy-oiv, G. tuv Xoy-uv, D. r

od-Oiv, G. tuv 66-cJv, D. 777 6d- Singular. Dual. Plural. N. rd dtip-ov, N. ra) 66p-u, N. ra 6&p-a, G. roti dtip-ov, G. ro£V 66p-oiv, G. tuv 66p-o)v, D. T<3 dtip-u, D. roa> 66p-oi,v } D. roig 66p-oLg, A. to dtip-ov, A. TO) 6o)p-G), A. ra, 6tip-a, V. dup-ov. V. 66p-cj. V. 6fip-a. 1. Except in diminutives of female names, where, by a species of sy- nesis, the gender refers to the person meant, not to the termination of the noun. Thus, 1) Thvuepiov, from T?^vK£pd ; ij Aeovnov, &c. So in Terence, " mea Glycerhim." c SECOND DECLENSION. Decline Like loyog, S/j/xog, a people, Kvptog, a master, " avdpuirog, a man, adeltyog, a brother, viog, a son, avsfiog, a wind, ay/slog, a messenger, vojiog, a law, oltiog, a house, olvog, wine. Like dupov, devdpov, a tree, £v?iov, wood, ' '~~bpyavov, an instrument, epyov, a ivork, pvffkov, an apple, Ttpoftarov, a sheep, £uov, an animal, tekvov, a child, fiodov, a rose, cvkov, a jig. Like 666g, afnreXog, a vine, vfjaog, an island, voaog, a disease, GTiodog, ashes, 7rap6evog, a maiden, (3i(31og, a book. 1. Many words of this declension have a double gender, as something masculine or feminine is denoted by them ; as, o $e6g, the god, r) #£<5c, the goddess ; 6 dvdpwirog, the man, t) dvOponog, the woman ; 6 dpurog, the he-bear, r) apu- rog, the she-bear, &c. 2. Others, again, have a double gender, without such ground ; as, 6, r), ptvog, the shin ; 6, r\, tidfivog, the shrub; 6, 7], 6dp6irog, the lyre ; 6, r), ol\iog, the path, &c. 3. Some with the gender alter likewise the meaning ; as, 6 %vyog, the yoke, r) %vyog, the balance ; 6 Innog, the horse, 7] Irnrog, the cavalry, and also the mare ; 6 XeraOog, pulse-broth, 7] Xetctdog, the yolk of an egg. 4. The following become neuter in the plural : 6 (36orpvxog, the curl, rd (Soorpvxa. 6 deofjiog, the chain, rd decrfid. 6 deo/wg, the law, rd -&eofid. 6 di(ppog, the chariot-seat, rd di(f)pa. t) fceXevdog, the way, rd KsXsvda. 6 Xvxvog, the torch, rd Xv^va. b airog, the corn, rd air a. ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 27 5. The vocative singular has not only e, but likewise og for a termination. Thus, 6 -&eog, voc. g5 tieog. So, also, c5 (ptMg, &c. This is particularly the case in the Attic di- alect. ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 1 1. The Attic form of declension makes the vocative like the nominative, and has w in the termination of every case. 2. The final v is often omitted in the accusative singu- lar ; as, Xaycj for Xaydov ; yew for veuv ; eco for eW. This is particularly the case in proper names ; as, Ka>, Kew, Te(x>, "AOo), for K&v, Ksg)v, &c. Examples. 3 Xay&g, " the hare.'' Singular. Dual. Plural. N. 6 "kay-uq, N. to ?,ay-6, N. ol 2,ay-6, G. tov Xay-6, G. toZv Xay-&v, G. tov ?<.ay-o)v, D. tcj ?\,ay-ti, D. toIv Xay-6jv, D. tol£ ?My-o)?, A. tov Xay-6v, A. TO) ?M}-d), A. Tovg Tiay-oog, V. ?My-6g. V. ?My-6. V. 2,ay-o). to dvc oyeo)v, " the dining- room." Singular. Dual. Plural. N. to dv6ye-o)v, N. to) avoys-o, N. tcl av6ye-o, G. tov avcoye-o), G. toIv avuye-ov, G. to)v avo)ye-o)v, D. Tib avojye-G), D. toIv av6ye-o)v, D. TOig avo)ys-o)g, A. to avtoye-uv, A. to) av6ye-o), A. to, avuye-o, V. avtoys-wv. V. avuye-o). V. dvuye-u. 1. The neuters of some adjectives have also w in the nominative and accusative, especially ayrjpteg, neuter ayf\- po). 2. Words, which otherwise belong to the third declen- sion, are often declined after this particular form ; as, MiVw 1. Buttmann calls this an old and peculiar mode of inflection, em- ployed by the Attics (Ausf. SprachL, p. 157). Thiersch, on the con- trary (G. G., § 53, 4), maintains, that these forms arise merely from the rejection of the formal letters o, e, a after the vowels contracted into e&>» Buttmann's opinion is undoubtedly the true one, 28 CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. (from M.LV(og, Mtvcoog) for M.tvo)a in the accusative. So, also, yeXov (from yeAcoc, yeXorog) for yeXcjra ; and T/pwj* (from r\puq, ?/pwoc) for r\pcda. 3. Only one neuter in o)g is assigned to this form of de- clension, namely, rb xpeoyg, the debt. According to the an- cient grammarians, it has %p&ug not only in the accusative, but also in the genitive singular. All the other parts are formed from %p£og ; thus pi. %p£cb, &c. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 1. The letters eb, 6e, and 6o become ov ; as, adeX, A. TOV VO-OV, VOVV, V. vo-s. vov. Examples. o voog, contracted vovg, " the mind. Dual. N. rib vo-o, v&, G. toIv vo-oiv, volv, D. toIv vb-oiv, volv, A. tg) vo-u, vu, V. vo-o, v£>. Plural. N. ol vo-ol, vol, G. TUV vo-ov, v&v, D. Tolg vo-oig, volg, A. rovg vo-ovg, vovg, V. vo-ol, vol. to bariov, contracted barovv, " the hone." Singular. N. TO OOTS-OV, OGT-OVV. G. TOV OCTE-OV, OOT-OV, D. tu bare-cp, oot-C), A. TO OCTS-OV, OGT-OVV, Y. OGTE-QV, bcr-ovv. Dual. N. Tcb bcTe-o, OGT-U, G. toIv ogts-olv, oct-oIv D. tolv ogte-olv, ogt-oL A. to bcTs-u, ogt-Cj, V. OGTE-O), OGT-&. Plural. N. to, boTs-a, bcT-a, G. tuv ogtz-ov, ogt-uv, D. Tolg bare-oig, bar-olg A. to, boTE-a, boT-a, V. boTs-a, ogt-i~> DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 1. The iEolians wrote the dative singular without the i subscribed ; as, aocpCS for <7opc5. Hence the Latin dative and ablative in o of the second declension. In the accusa THIRD DECLENSION. g9 live plural they are said to have employed the termination otg for ovg ; as, Karrotg v6\ioig for Kara rovg voiiovg. 2. The Dorians changed the termination og of the nom- inative into op ; as, Tifiooeop 6 MtXr]GLop for Tijiodeog 6 MiXrj(7Log. In the genitive singular they changed the ter- mination ov into G) ; as, rc5 vofio) for rov vo\iov. And in the accusative plural they employed the termination wc for ovg ; as, r&g XvKwg for rovg Xvnovg. Hence the accusa- tive plural in os of the second declension of Latin nouns. 3. The Ionians use sg), in the termination of the genitive- singular, for ov ; as, Kpotaeo) for Kpoioov ; Barred) for Bar- rov. In the plural they changed Cc>v of the genitive into ecjv ; as, nsaoeoyv for neaoGJv ; Trvpeov for nvptiv ; and in the dative used otoi for ocg; a,s,XidoiGi for XiQoig. 4. The form of the genitive oio for ov occurs for the most part in the poets only, chiefly the epic. The original form of the genitive seems to have been -oo (analogous to ao in the first declension), whence came ow, and by contraction ov. In the genitive and dative dual the epic poets insert an- 1 ; as, lttitouv, &\ioCLv, aradfiouv. . 5. The old form of the dative occurs also in Attic ; as, Kanoloiv, Plat. Gorg. p. 497, D. ; rovrocot, ib. p. 28 ; oikol- mv, Soph. (Ed. T. 249, &c. XX. THIRD DECLENSION. Terminations, a, i, v, neuter, a), feminine. v, £, p, g, ip, of all genders. 1. The third declension is distinguished from the two preceding in making the oblique cases longer by one syl- lable than the nominative. In other words, it is said to increase in the genitive. The genitive ends always in og.„ - 2. The root of the words in this declension is generally disguised in the nominative by added vowels and conso- nants, and is to be discovered by taking away og from the genitive. Thus, nominative 6 6aCiio)v, " the deity" geni- tive datfjLov-og, root daiuov ; 6 yiyag, il the giant" gen. yi- C2 30 THIRD DECLENSION. yavr-og , root yiyavr ; rb otifia, " the body" gen. acofiar-og, rOOt O&IMLT) &c. Examples. 1 6 #?7p, " £Ae wild beasi 5J — Singular. N. 6 i%, G. tov -d-vp-og, D. tg) ftrip-i, A. rov -d-rip-a, V. &flo. Dual. N. rw -d-ffp-e, G. ro?v -d-r/p-otv, D. roiv "&7]p-otv, A. rw d-ijp-e, V. -&7jp-e. Plural. N. ot fif/p-eg, G. rwv -&r]p-{bv, D. ro?c -d-np-oi, A. rot>c -d-ijp-ug, V. -&?jp-eg. 6 ala)v, " ^e age." N. 6 atoiv, G. tov aicjv-og, D. tcj alwv-i, A. tov altiv-a, V. a«5v. N. rw aiwv-e, G. ro?v altJv-otv, D. ro?v aiidv-otv, A. ra) altiv-e, V. altiv-e. Plural. N. oi aluv-eg, G. tcov aluv-uv, D. roic alu-tu, 2 A. roi)c alcov-ag, V. a£wv-cf. 6 Sat/low, " ^e eZa'ty. ? Singular. N. 6 daifitov, G. rov daifiov-og, D. ru 6ai[iov-i, A. rov daiuov-a, V. dalfiov. DwaZ. N. rw Saifiov-e, G. roiV Sac/iov-OLv, D. toIv 6aiju6v-OLv, A. ra> daifiov-e, V. daiftov-e. 6 Xsgjv, " the lion." Plural. N. oi daijiov-eg, G. rwv dai/j,6v-uv, D. roZf daifio-uc, 3 A. roi)c daifiov-ag, V. dacjuov-eg. Singular. N. 6 Zeaw, G. row /leovr-of, D. r<3 Movt-c, A. rov teovT-a, V. Xeov. Dual. N. rw Movt-s, G. ro?v Aedvr-oiv, D. ro?v /ledvr-otv, A. rw Movt-s, V. TieovT-s. Plural. N. ot /leovr-eo, G. rdiv' /ledvr-wv, D. ro?c ?Jov-ai, 4 A. roi)c Aeovr-ac, V. MovT-eg. 1. We have placed the paradigms before the remarks on the formation of the cases, an arrangement less repulsive to the learner than the other would have been ; though, in strictness, the remarks on the cases ough to come first. 2. Old form aldv-ai, whence, by rejecting v before cr, we have alti-ci 3. Old form 6aifiov-ci, whence, by rejecting v before a, and retaining the short vowel of the root, we have 6at,fj,o-ac. 4. Old form Movt-cu, whence, by rejecting the vt and changing o intc ov, we have "keov-at. Singular. N. rj XalXaty, G. rj)g Xaila7r-og, IX ry TiafkaK-L, A. ttjv lallan-a, Singular. N. # irrepv^, G. rrjg TTTEpvy-OQ, D. ry TtTepvy-i, A. ttjv Trripvy-a, V. TTTSpV^. Singular. N. 6 £p«f, G. tov epur-og, D. TO) epcjT-i, A. roi> epar-a, V. epwc. Singular. N. 6 ludc, G. ro£» ladvr-og, D. T6J LfiaVT-L, A. tov IfidvT-a, V. ifidv. THIRD DECLENSION. ?5 XalXaip, " 4*A XaiXdrr-oiv D. raw J^at'Kd'K'OLv A. rd Xai?,diT-s, V. /laiAa7r-e. 31 Plural. N. ai Xai?M7r-sc, G. rwf /iaiAa7r-wv, D. ra?c Xaclaip-t, 1 A. rdc XaiXa7r-ag, V. haihan-eg. r\ nrepv^, "the wing. Dual. N. rd irrepvy-e, G. ra?v Tcrepvy-oLv, D. raw TTTEpvy-otv, A. rd -nTepvy-e, V. irrepvy-e. b epo)g, " ^e Zoue." N. rd epor-e, G. T04V ep6r-otv, D. rofy epur-oiv, A. rd epor-e, V. epur-e. 6 Ijxdg, " *7*e thong" Dual. N. rd- lfzdvr-e, G. row IfidvT-oiv, D. T04V l/J,dvT-OLV, A. rd ludvr-e, Plural. N. at rcrepvy-eg. G. rdv Trrepvy-ov, D. ralg irrepv^-c, 2 A. rdc Tcrspvy-ag, V. rcrepvy-eg. Plural. N. 04 epor-eg, G. rov epur-ov, D. rofc epo-Gt, 3 A. roiif epur-ag, V. eptor-eg. Plural. N. ot IfidvT-eg, G. rdv ijjidvr-uv, D. T04C IfiaG-i* A. roi)c i/idvr-ag, V. IfxdvT-eg. rj (pdXayi-, li ^e 'phalanx." Singular. N. ^ fydlay^ G. r^f tydlayy-og, D. r?? d?iayy-i, A. ttjv d?iayy-a, V. aldyy-oiv, D. ra4v (f>aldyy-oiv, A. rd d?iayi;-i, 5 A. rdc (j>dlayy-ag, V. tig, t) §CkoTr\g, to povXevfia TOfieTit, t) Trelsidg, t) Kopvg, 6 yiyag, 6 oSovg, d Tidiy^, •j? oaTnuy!;, Gen. biTog, GapKog, -Tijpog, -incog, -oyog, rpixfc, (puTog, -TTJTOg, -arog, -Lrog, -ddog, -vdog, -avTog, -ovTog, -tyyog, -tyyog, the voice, the flesh, the preserver, the herald, the flame, the hair, the light, the friendship, the counsel, the honey, the dove, the helmet, the giant, the tooth, the pebble, the trumpet. Nom. avai;, a/If, ipaXTT/p, Tpd,p, 6 Ti.tjxrjv, 6 UtCflUV, r) vvt;, • TTVp, Xa/nrag, jidpTvp, p7Jrop, Kopa^, rj dltJirnt;, to ovg, Gen. -aKTog, aXog, -rjpog, (ilvog, -Qvog, ipapog, -svog, -ovog, VVKTOg, Tvvpog, -ddog, -vpog, -opog, -anog, -EKog, uTog, the king, the sea. the harper, the nose, the storm, the starling, the harbour, the anvil, the night. the fire, the torch, the witness, the orator, the raven, the fox. the ear. I. Old form aufiar-at, FORMATION OF THE CASES. 33 FORMATION OF THE CASES. Genitive. As a general rule, the genitive singular of nouns of the third declension is formed by adding og to the termination of the root, such changes taking place, at the same time, as the laws of euphony require. 1. Some nouns, and chiefly those which, in the nomina- tive, end in v or p, form the genitive by adding og to the termination of the nominative ; as, \jlt\v, " a month" gen. y,7)v-6g ; u(orr]p, " a preserver" gen. GG)rrjp-og, &c. In the greater part, however, the long vowel in the termination of the nominative is changed into the corresponding short vowel ; as, Xi\lt\v, " a harbour" gen. Xt[iev-og ; prjTTjp, " a mother," gen. \ir\TEp-og ; %EXld&v, " a swallow" gen. %eXi- dov-og, &c. 2. When the nominative already has a final c, this final letter disappears before the og of the genitive, and the long vowel preceding it in the termination of the nominative is changed into its corresponding short ; as, rpcfjprjg, " a tri- reme," gen. rptrjpeog, &lc. 3. When the nominative ends in a double consonant, such as | (which is equivalent to yg, ng, or %g) or ip (equivalent to (3g, ng, or (pg), the double consonant is re- solved into its component parts, the termination og is ad- ded, and the c, or final letter of the root, is thrown out ; as, al%, " a goat" resolved into alyg, genitive aly-6g ; aXtinTji;, " a fox" resolved into dXcJnrjfcg, genitive (with the short vowel also for the long) aXuneic-og. So, also, dpi^, " hair" (rpfyg), gen. rptx-og ; cf)Xeif), " a vein" (Xe6- bg ; to'ip, "an eye" (gjttc), gen. (brr-og ; fcarrjXtip, " a roof" (icarrjXLcpg), gen. KarrjXccp-og. In like manner, avr-og ; ^tfioeig, " the river Simois" (root Sifioevrg), gen. Xtpoevr- og ; odovg, " a tooth" (root odovrg), gen. odovr-og. 5. Words which end in a, i, v, add the syllable rog to the termination of the nominative, and thus form the geni- tive case ; as, oti^a, " a body," genitive oo)^ar-og ; \iiXt, " honey," gen. fieXtr-og. Those in v change also this vowel into a before rog ; as, dopv, " a spear," gen. dopar-og ; ybvv, " a knee" gen. yovar-og. In strictness, however, these nouns in a, i, v come from roots that terminate in r ; as, a&\iar, fieXcr ; and hence og is only added, in fact, to the root. While with regard to the vowel-change in yovv, dopv, and other words of similar ending, it must be borne in mind that the old nominatives were in ag, as yovag, do- pag (i. e. yovarg, doparg), whence, of course, the geni tives yovar-og and dopar-og, by dropping the final c of the root. 1 6. Words in ap make either arog in the genitive ; as^ oveiap, " a dream" gen. 6veiar-og ; ijnap, " the liver" gen. rjirar-og ; 7\\iap, " a day? gen. r\\iar-og ; c; as, aepGig, npi- G)C,,&C. the root avaic, after the removal of the g . From the regular declension of cvaf (i. e., avaic-og in the genitive, &c.) comes 'Avatcsg, the name of Castor and Pollux ; while, on the other hand, the oblique cases of nox in Latin show the t of the root. Compare the German nacht and the English night. 1. Matthice, G. G. vol. i., §72, 1. The noun yaka, " milk," makes ya\a,KT-og, as from yaXa% (i. e., yalatcrg) ; civrjiu, "mustard" makes, according to § 11, GLV-fjTU-og, and in Attic aivrj'Ke-ug ; corv, "a city," makes aare-og, Att. aare-ug. Other nouns in U also vary from the ruls above given ; as, dattpv, " a tear" gen. da/cpti-of, &c. FORMATION OF THE CASES. 35 8. Nominatives in avg make aog and 7jog ; as vavg, " a ship," gen. vaog and vrjog. 9. Nominatives in eig, different from those mentioned in § 4, make the genitive in evog ; as, ureig, " a comb" gen. Krev-vg ; or in eidog ; as nXeig, " a ^e^," gen. rcXeidog. 10. Nominatives in ??c, other than those alluded to under § 2, make the genitive in rjrog and 7/0o£ ; as, §iXoT7\g, "friend- ship" gen. (ptXoTTjr-og ; nevng, " « ^?oor man," gen. 7rev7]r- og ; Udpvrjg, "a mountain on the confines of Attica" gen. TLdpvnd-og. Here again o^ is added to the termination of the roots, (piXorrfrg, rrev7]rg, &c. 11. Nominatives in ig make the genitive in tog, tdog, Wog, trog, and ivog. The Attics, however, changed tog into ewe. Thus, o0i^, " a serpent" gen. b(pi-og (Att. o£- wc) ; hXrdg, " hope," gen. e/l7m5-oc ; bpvig, " a bird," gen. bpvld-og ; %oipig, " a favour," gen. xdpir-og ; dfcrlg, " a beam of the sun" gen. d/mo>-oc. All these terminations, like those mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are only og added to the several roots. 12. Neuters in og make the genitive in eog, which the Attics contract into ovg ; as, rel^og, " a wall," gen. ru%£.-og, contr. T£t%-o?;c. 13. Words in ovg, other than those mentioned under § 4, make the genitive in oog ; as, (3ovg, " an ox," gen. (3o-6g. Some again, when ovc arises by contraction from oeig, gen. de^roc, make the genitive in ovvrog ; as, 'Onovg, " Me name of a city," gen. 'Onovvr-og. So, also, Tpcnre&vg, [ieXirovg, &c. 14. Words in v£ make the genitive in v%og ; as, dcojpv^, " dp/a;c, " Phorcys," gen. c, " a hero," gen. 7/pw-oc ; wc, " light," gen. (f)G)r6g ; epcog, " Zove," gen. epo)r-og ; aldcog, " modesty," gen. aldo-og, contr. a«5- ovc ; T£TV(pG)g, perf. act. participle of tvtttg), gen. rervtp- 6r-og. 36 FORMATION OF THE CASES. Accusative. As a general rule, the accusative singular of nouns of the third declension, that are not neuter, is formed by changing og of the genitive into a ; as, \ir\v, gen. \ir\v-og, accus. [irjv-a. 1. But nouns in eg, vg, avg, and ovg, whose genitive ends in og pure, take v instead of a ; as, rroXtg, " a -city" gen. iroXi-og, ace. ttoXlv ; vavg, " a ship" gen. vr]-6g, ace. vaw ; /3oi)c, " aw o#," gen. (36-og, ace. (3ovv, &c. 2. Other nouns in ic, t>c, &c, whose genitive ends in 0£ impure, and which have no accent on the last syllable of the nominative, make the accusative in a and v, the latter particularly with the Attics. Thus, bpvig, " a bird," gen. opved-og, ace. bpvid-a, Att. bpviv ; nXelg, " a key" gen. Ac/t£i<5-oc, ace. aXelS-a, Att. tcXelv. So the compounds of ttovc ; as, fipadvirovg, " sZow; of foot" ace. ftpadvnod-a, Att. fipadimovv ; Oldinovg, " CEdipus," ace. Oldlnod-a. Att. Ot- (5t7TOW. The vocative of the third declension is generally like the nominative ; and this is particularly the case among the Attic writers ; as, 6 #?/p, " the wild beast," voc. -&f]p ; ?} #e£p, " the hand," voc. %e/p. 1. But the endings evg, ig, vg, as also the words nalg, " a boy" ypavg, " aw aged female," and j$o£c, " an o#," cast off their c to form the vocative, and those in evg then as- sume the circumflex ; as, f3aat,Xevg, " a king," voc. (3aoiX- ev ; llapic, "Paris," voc. Ilap-i ; T7/0i>c, " Tethys," voc. Trjd-v ; 7ratc, voc. 7rat ; ypavg, voc. ypav ; /fovc, voc. /3oD. Other nouns in ovg more frequently retain than drop the c. Thus, Oldln-ov is found ; but Oldinovg is more com- mon. 2. Words in ag and eic, which arise from old forms end- ing in avg and evg, and which form their genitive in avog, avrog, or evrog, throw away c in the vocative, and then, for the most part, resume the v ; as, rdXag, " miserable" gen. FORMATION OF THE CASES, 37 rdXav-og , voc. rdXav ; Alag, " Ajacc" gen. Alavr-og, voc. Alav ; ^apiece;, " graceful" gen. %apitVT-og, voc. x a P Lev ' But several proper names in ac, avroc, have in the voca- tive only the long a; as, "ArAac, gen. "ArAa^T-oc, voc^ v ArXa. 3. Words which have r\ or a) in the termination of the nominative, and the corresponding short vowel (e or o) in the genitive, and which have no acute accent on the last syllable, take the short vowel also in the vocative ; as, \i/r\- T?]p, ll a mother" gen. p,rjrep-og, voc. firjrep ; pfjTGip, " an orator, gen. prjrop-og, voc. pr\rop ; 'EoKpdrrjg, " Socrates" gen. ^(OKpdr-eog, voc. HcotcpaTeg. If, however, the last syllable of such words has the accent, then the long vowel is retained in the vocative ; as, 7TOLp,f)v, " a shepherd," gen. rroLfisv-og, voc. ttoi\i7]v. But this only applies to nouns, not to adjectives, and hence KeXacve(pi]g makes in the voca- tive KeXaivec, avc, and ovc, is formed by appending i to the termination of the nominative singular ; as, fiaotXevg, (3aaiXevoi ; vavg, vav- ai ; (3ovg, [3ovgL In the case of other nouns, the dative plural is formed by adding at to the root, such changes being at the same time made as the rules of euphony re- D 38 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. quire ; as, vug, gen. vvicr-og, dat. pi. vvi-i (i. e. vv/ctgl) ; odovg, gen. odovr-og, dat. pi. bdovot (i. e. ddovrai) ; iralg, gen. naid-og, dat. pi. natol (i. e. Tratdai) ; "Apaip, gen. "Apa6-og, dat. pi. "Apaifu (i. e. "Apa(3ui) ; rvTrslg, gen. rvnevr-og, dat. pi. rvneloi,, (i. e. rvnivroi) ; ureig, gen. Krev-og, dat. pi. /erect (i. e. ktevgl), &c. 1. When the ending <7t, on being added to the root, is preceded by a vowel, or, in other words, when the genitive ends in of pure, this vowel remains in the dative plural un- changed, as in the other oblique cases ; as, relxog, gen. reix&-og, dat. pi. tslx^oi ; dpvg, gen. dpv-6g, dat. pi. dpvoiv ; aXrjOrjg, gen. afa]6e-og, dat. pi. aXrfliai. When, however, the nominative singular has a diphthong, the dative plural takes it also ; as, (3amXevg, gen. (3aet,X£-G)g, dat. pi. fiaoiX- evGi, and the other nouns mentioned in the beginning of the previous paragraph. 2. Some nouns in rjp, gen. -epog, drop the e in the geni- tive and dative singular, and also in the dative plural, and then, in the latter case, insert after p the more sonorous a ; as, Trarrjp, " a father" gen. narp-og (from Trarep-og), dat. Trarpl (from Trarep-t), &c, dat. pi. ixarpdoi. So, also, p7- r?7p, yaarrjp, -dvydrrip, A7]jif]T7]p. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 1 . Nouns in r\g undergo contraction in every case, except in the nominative and vocative singular, and dative plural. Thus: r\ rpirjpTjg, " the trireme" Singular. Dual. Plural. N. 7] TpL7]p-7]g, G. rfjg rpLT/p-eog, -ovg, D. rrf rptrip-ei, -el, A. Tqv rptrjp-sa, -77, V. rpirjp-Eg. N. to, rpirip-ee, G. ralv Tptrjp-eoiv, -otv. D. ralv rpLvp-eoiv, -ocv, A. ra rpLrjp-ee, -7}, V. Tpirjp-ee, -tj. N. at Tpifjp-eeg, -eic, G. tuv Tptrjp-euVf-Qv, D. rate TpiTJp-eat, A. rag rpirip-eag, -eig, V. Tpiqp-seg, -eig. 2. Like rpir\pr\g are also declined the proper names end- ing in icXerjg ; as, 'Kpa/cXerjg, contracted 'HpafcXrjg • Qe/mg- roKXr\g, HepLKXrig, &c. In the dative they have a double contraction. Thus : CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 39 6 'Hpafckerjg, " Hercules," N. 6 'Hpa/cA-e?^, -rjg, G. rov 'HpaK?^eog, -ovg, D. t£) 'HpanTi-eec, -eel, -el, A. rov 'Hpa/cA-ea, -rj, V. 'HpdnX-eEg, -ELg. 3. Nouns in oc* are neuter, and make the nominative, ac- cusative, and vocative plural in ea, contracted 7], and the genitive in eojv, contracted wv. Thus : N. to relx-og, G. rov reix-eog, D. r

>> ' Me ecAo.' Dual. N. ra yx-&i G. ra?v %'-oZV, D. rau> 77^-oZv, A. ra vx-u, V. fa-u. Plural. N. at vx-oi, G. rwv 7)x-tiv, D. ratf vx-olg, A. rag WX~°ve, V. VX~ 01 " Singular. N. ^ ald-6g, G. rfjg ald-oog, - D. r?jj at(5-o£', • A. r^v alS-6a, - V. aW-o?. ^ aidug, " Me modesty." Dual. N. ra ald-6, G. raZv aid-olv, D. raZV aid-olv, A. ra aid-6, V. atd-t). Plural. N. at ald-oi, G. rfiv aiS-ibv, D. ra?f aid-olg, A. raf ald-ovg, V. ald-oi. 40 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 5. Nouns in ig and i have three contractions, namely, el of the dative into ei, eeg of the nominative and vocative plural into eig, and sag of the accusative plural into eig. Those in eg have also in the genitive singular, and the gen- itive and dative dual, the Attic terminations eojg and ecpv, instead of sog and eoiv. Thus : Singular. N. 7] TToTi-LQ, G. rfjQ iroX-sug, D. T7J 7T0?i,-eC, -I A. T7]V Tt6%-LV, Singular. N. TO GLV7J7T-1, G. rov GLvfjir-eog, D. to CLV7}ir-ei, -ei, A. to aivniT-i, V. civnTT-i. 7] TToXcg, " the city.' Dual. N. to, noise, G. TOW 7T6X-SUV, D. raiv 7r6A-£ov, A. TO, 7v6X-es, V. TToTi-EE. Plural. N. at nol-eeg, -etf, G. tcjv noX-icov, D. raXg 7t61-eci, A. Tag Tr6X-£ac, -eig, V. nol-ESQ) -eig. to OLV7J7U, " iAe mustard." Dual. N. to CLvrjTc-es, G. TOO> OIV7]TV-£OLV, D. roZV CLvnir-soiv, A. TO) GlVTjTT-ee, 1 V. GLvf]Tr-££. N. ra oivfjir-ea, G. tov atvv7r-eo)v f D. ro?f oLvrjTv-eai, A. ra GLvfjir-ea, I V. GLvrjTv-ea. 6. Nouns in uc, gen. wc, have two contractions, name- ly, vec of the nominative and vocative plural into vc, and vac of the accusative plural into vg. Thus : 6 Ixjdvg, " 2/*e ^A.' Singular. Dual. N. o ^-vf, N. rw IxO-ve, G. TO0 i^-tSof, G. roa> ixd-voiv D. to lxd-vi, D. roiv lxO-volv A. rov ixd-vv, A. TO ££#-!>£, V. ^0-v. V. IxO-ve. Plural. N. oi Ixd-veg, -vg 7 G. TOV ^-Va)!/, D. ro?f 2^^-vcri, A. roi>f i^^-vaf, -vf, V. ixO-veg, -vg. 7. Nouns in evg, and those in vg which make, like them the genitive in ecog, have four contractions, namely, el of the dative singular into ei, es of the dual into rj, eeg of the nominative and vocative plural into eeg, and sag of the ac- cusative plural into etg. But in the last case the uncon- tracted eag is the more usual form. Thus : CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 41 6 j3aatXevg, " the king" Singular. N. 6 (3a lap-t, 7] pi, &cc. 6 fieveojv, contr. ksvcov, " the belly " Singular. N. 6 neveuv, ttevtiv, G. tov Keve-uvog, tcev-fivog, D. TO) KEVS-£)Vl, tcev-tivi, &c, ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 1. That is called anomalous which is inconsistent with the prescribed laws of formation ; as, for example, when %apig, though formed from a root %api$, makes %apiTog in the genitive, not %api&og. 2. The greater part of the actual deviations from regular declension consist in the interchange of forms. In the more ancient language, it often happened that a word had two or more terminations and modes of inflection, with only one and the same signification. Only one of these forms was, for the most part, retained as the language became im- proved. The other was merely employed, now and then, when a more sonorous term was needed, especially in po- etry. Thus, ArjiirjTTjp, more seldom, I\.r\\xr\Tpa, "Ceres;" daupvov, older form ddtcpv, -vog, " a tear." 3. Sometimes the two forms remained more or less in common use by the side of each other ; as, vlog, " a son" genitive vlov ; and also vleog, from a nominative of the third declension in evg. y 4. Sometimes both forms originate from the same nom- inative, in which case the word is called a Heteroclite. Thus, Oldirtovg, genitive Oldcirodog, and OISittov. 5. When, however, one of the forms can be traced to an 44 ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. obsolete or unusual nominative, it is called Metaplasm ; as, dsvdpov, gen. -ov ; dative plural SevSpocg, and also devdpeo- iv, from a nominative to devdpog. 6. Most of the common and poetical anomalies that oc- cur in declension consist of heteroclites and metaplasms. 7. To the heteroclites belong certain words that are in- flected after both the first and third declensions. Some of these carry this double mode of inflexion throughout ; as, \ivnr\g, " a mushroom" genitive fivfcov and \ivar\rog, Slc. This is particularly the case with proper names in r\g ; as, Adprjg, genitive Adpov and Adprjrog. Others have it only in part ; as, 2,cofcpdT7]g, accusative ^ooupdrrj and XcoKpdr^v. 8. Nouns in cog sometimes make the genitive in oo and ooog. Thus, Mivoyg, gen. Mlva and Mlvcoog ; irdrpoog, " a paternal uncle" gen. ndrpo) and ndrpooog. 9. Nouns in cog, genitive oorog, sometimes drop the r ; as, Idpoog, " sweat," which has not only Idpoorc and Idptira in the dative and accusative, but also r£> Idpco and rbv Idpoo, the latter being Attic forms. 10. Nouns in Gig and cov have sometimes the anomaly still more apparent, since it shows itself even in the nom- inative. Thus, 6 ratigj gen. raco, " the peacock," and 6 ra~ cov, genitive raiovog. So, also, r) dXcog, gen. aXco, " the ihreshing-jloor" and dXcog, gen. aXoog. 11. The declension of vavg, a ship, is as follows : Attic. Sing. N. vavg, G. vecjg, D. V7]L, A. vavv, Y. vavc. Dual. N. vfje, G. veolv, D veolv, A vfje, V. vfje. PI. N. vrjeg, G. VEGJV, D. vavoi A. vavg, V. vff&c. rj vavg, " iAe ship" Epic and 7omc. *Smg\ N. vavg, G. v?;6f and vsog, D. i^i*, A. o^a and via, V. va£f . Dual. N. r>??s, G. VEOLV, D. VEOLV, A. ?^S, V. vfje. PL N. vrjeg and veef, G. VECOV, D. v?7V<7i' and veeool, A. ^a$- and veaf, _ V. vrjeg. Doric. Sing. N. vag, G. vcdf, D. vat, A. vaw and vdj>, V. vag . Dual. N. vae, G. vaolv, D. vaolv, A. vae, V. vae. PZ. N. vae^, G. VG6>V, D. vavoi, A. vaaf, V. rdef. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 45 12. The noun (3ovg, " an ox" makes (3o6g in the geni- tive, (3ovv in the accusative, and in the plural, nom. (36eg, contracted (3ovg, dative (3ovgl, accusative (36ag, contr. (3ovg. 13 The declension of Zevg is also peculiar. Thus, N. Zsvg, G. Zrjvog and Aiof, D. Zrivi and Aw, A. Zfjva and Ata, V. Zev. 14. Under the head of anomalies in declension may be ranked the very peculiar paragogic ending in (piv or (pt. This is of very common occurrence in epic poetry, and is used instead of the ordinary dative or genitive singular. The rules that control it are as follows : 1 . In the first de- clension, nouns in r\ throw away the g of the genitive ; as from evvrjg is formed evvr\c5c, ArjT&g, in the nominative, instead of 2a7r0c5, Atjtg). 3. The iEolians frequently employ the termination evg instead of r\g ; as, "Apevg for "Aprjg, and form the oblique cases as follows : gen. "Apevog ; dat. 'Apevc ; ace. "Apeva. The nominative in evg sometimes occurs also in Doric ; as, 'Evfj,r)6evg, Theocrit. 5. 134. 4. The iEolians and Dorians use in the genitive singular • the termination evg instead of eog ; as, -ddjibevg for tidfideog. So, also, evg for eog ; as, 'A%ikXevg for 'A^AAecoc. 5. The jEolians say Scatcpdrov in the genitive instead of Soupdrovg ; and in the vocative ^d)Kpare. Hence Pericle in Cicero, Off. 1. 40. 8. 6. The Dorians said, in the genitive plural, alydv for al- ytiv ; -&?]pav for $T]pGdv ; and, in the nominative, lioaeiddv for Hooeid&v. 7. The Dorians said v:oi\idv for Ttoi\ir\v, and so through- out. So, also, (ppaat. for (fypeoi, the dative plural of (f)prjv. 8. The Dorians used npr\g for upeag ; and voc, 'Afi- (piTpvovtddrjg. 7. Nouns in evg, which in Ionic have the genitive in yog, give rise to the patrymonic form rj'idd^g. Thus, from Utj- Xevg, gen. -770c, comes H7]X7]Ld67]g ; from ILepcrevg, gen. -7]og, ILepoijiddrjg. But since these have also the termina tion ewe in the genitive, which continued to be the prevail- ing one in the Attic and common dialects, hence arose, from Hepoevg, gen. Uepoecog, the patronymic form Uepaetdrjg ; from 'Arpevg, gen. 'Arpecjg, the form 'Arpecd^g. 8. The Female Patronymics have four terminations, namely, either tag, Ig, ivrj, or uovr). Thus, from Bpiaevg comes BpLOTjlg ; from "ArXag, 'ArXavrig ; from 'AdpTjorog, 'Adp7](7Ttv7] ; from 'Afcptocog, 'AitpLOLG)vr). It is to be re- marked, that the termination ivr\ arises when the primitive has a consonant before its own termination, and the termi- nation lo)V7] when the primitive has before its ending the vowel l or v. XXII. ADJECTIVES. 1. The declensions of adjectives are three. 2. The first declension of adjectives has three termina tions ; the second, two ; the third, one. 3. Adjectives of three terminations are the most numer- ous, and have the feminine always in r\, except when pre- ceded by a vowel or the letter p, in which cases it ends in a. Thus : deiXog, detXrj, detXov, " cowardly ;" KaXog, KaXf], kclXov, "handsome}" oology ootyr}, co-6v -rjv, -ov, A. Gocp-to, -a, -6, A. Gotp-ovg, -dg, -d, V. cotp-e, -rj, -ov. V. Gocp-u, -a, -to. lepog, " sacred" V. cotp-oi, -at, -a. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. lep-og, -a, -ov, N. lep-to, -a, -to, N. lep-oi, -ai, -a, G. lep-ov, -ag, -ov, G. lep-olv, -alv, -olv, G. lep-tov, -tov, -tbv t D. lep-C), -a, -CO, D. lep-olv, -alv, -olv, D. lep-olg, -alg, -olg, A. lep-ov, -dv, -ov, A. lep-to, -a, -to, A. lep-ovg, -dg, -d, V. tep-£, -d, -ov. V. lep-to, -a, -to. V. lep-oi, -ai, -d 2. Termination in eog. Adjectives in eog are contracted throughout. In the fem- inine, ea is contracted into a when a vowel or the letter p precedes the termination og ; but otherwise it is contracted into rj. In the neuter plural, however, ea is always con- tracted into a, whatever letter may precede og. Thus : 50 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. Xpvoeog, contr. 'xpvaovg, " golden " Singular. Dual. N XpVOrEOg, -ia, -EOV, N. x? va ■EC), -ia, -EG), ovg, V, OVV, CO, a, CO, G Xpvcr-iov, -iag, -EOV, G. XP VG ■EOCV, -iatv, -eoiv, ov, ye, OV, olv, alv, olv, D Xpva-icp, -ia, -EG), D. XP VG ■EOLV, -iaiv, -ioiv, C), V, G), olv, alv, olv, A Xpva-Eov, -iav, -EOV, A. xpva -EG), -ia, -ico, ovv, fjV, OVV, CO, a, CO, V Xpvo-ee, -ea, -EOV, V. XP VG EG), -ia, -ico, y, OVV. G), a, CO. Plural. N. XpVG-EOi, 01, -iai, at, -ea, a, G. Xpva-icov, cbv, -itOV, cbv, ■£G)V, cbv, D. Xpva-ioi.g, olg, -iaig, alg, -EOCC, OLQ, A. Xpvc-Eovg, ovg, -iag, ag, -Ea, a, V. Xpva-eoi, -ECU, -ea, 3. Termination in ooq. 1. Adjectives in 6og are contracted throughout like those in eog. In the feminine 6r\ is contracted into r\, and in the neuter plural 6a into a. 2. When the letter p precedes the termination, the fem- inine is in 6a contracted a. But the adjective adpooq, " crowded" is not contracted in the feminine ddpoa, to dis- tinguish it from the adjective aOpovg, " noiseless," which is of two terminations. arrXoog, contr. airXovg, " simple? Singular. Dual. N. drrTi-oog, -on, -6ov, N. dizT^-oco, -6a, -oco, G. ovg, dtt'k-dov, -ovg, ovv, -6ov, G. arcl-SoLv, a, -daw, 10, -OOLV, D. ov, CLTtX-OG), ye, -6y, ov, D. olv, dirTi-ooiv, alv, -datv, olv, -dotv, A. CO, dizTi-oov, -onv, -GOV, A. olv, diOwOG), alv, -da, olv, -OG), V ovv, dnX-de, OV, 7JV, *6n, y> OVV, -GOV, 0$V. V. dizX-oco, CO, a, -da, a, CO, -dco, CO. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 5i Plural. N dir%-6oi, -6ai, 01, at, G. drrl-ouv, -6o)v, uv, C>v, D. dizTi-ooig, -oacg, olg, aig, A. a7T?i-6ovg, -Sag, ovg, ag, V. dlzk-OOl, -oat, 01, at, 4. Termination in ag. 1. Adjectives in ag have aiva in the feminine, and av in the neuter ; but participles in ag have the feminine in aaa. 2. The adjective nag, " all" " every" is declined like a participle. N. fisX-ag, G. fikTi-avog, D. fj-sX-avi, A. fieX-ava, V. jusl-ag, \iiXag, " black" -aiva, -aivng, -aivn, -atvav, -acva, -avog, -avi, Dual. N. peX-ave, -aiva G. jLtel-dvocv, -aiva D. fieX-dvocv, -aiva: A. \iek-ave, -aiva V. [xeX-ave, -aiva N. [ikTi-aveg, G. /neX-dvuv D. \ii\-aai, A. fie?^-avag, V. /xE/x-zveg, Plural, -aivat, -acvcJv, -aivaig, -aivag, -atvai, -ava, -dvuv, -aai, -ava, -ava. rv^ag, " having struck" Singular. N. Tinp-ag, -aaa, G. Tvip-avrog, -dang, D. rvip-avTi, -dan, A. ruip-avTa, -aaav, V. rvip-ag, -aaa, -av, -avrog, -avri, Dual. N. rvip-avre, -daa, G. Tvifj-dvroiv, -daa. D. rvifj-avTOiv, -daa> A. TVIp-aVTE, -{' V. TVTJj-avre, Plural. N. rmp-avreg, -aaai, -avra, G. Tvxjj-dvrtjv, -aa&v, -dvrov, D. rmjj-aai, -daaig, -aac, A. Tvip-avrag, -daag, -avra, V. rvTp-avreg, -aaat, -avra. -ave, -aVOLV, -dvocv, -ave, -ave. -awe, -dvroiv, -awe, -avre. 52 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. nag, " all," " every. ' Singular. N. Traf, Truaa, tcuv, G. Traxrof, Trdung, Tvavrog, D. Tzavri, Tracy, ivavri, A. irdvTa, Tvaaav, TTO.V, V. 7raf, ivaaa, Tzav. Dual. N. irdvTE, irdaa, irdvTS, G. ndvTOiv, Trdaaiv, Trdvroiv, D. Txdvroiv, irdaaiv, iravroiv, A. rravre, Tzdaa, ttuvte, V. ttuvte, ndaa, irdvTE. Plural. N. Txavrsg, Ttaaac, irdvTa, G. TrdvTtov, rcaauv, TrdvTcov, J). Tract, Trdaatg, Tract, A. Trdvraq, irdaaq, Tzdvra, V. Trdvreg, Txduat, Txdvra. 5. Termination in eig. Adjectives in eig make the feminine in eaaa and the neuter in ev. Participles in ecg make the feminine in eiaa. %apiecg, " comely" Singular. Xapi-eiQ, -Ecoa, %api-£VToc, -eooris, Xapi-evTt, -soar/, Xapi-evra, -saaav, Xapi-ei, \ Or > -£(7(7(2, Xapi-ev, S -evrog, -tvri, Dual. Xapt-evre, -eaaa, -evTe, . x a P L '^ VTOlv i -EGcatv, -evroLv, D. x a P l -^ VTOlv i -scaatv, -evrocv, A. x a pi- evT£ > -iaca, -errs, V. x a p' l - evre > -EGca, -EVTE N. x a P' L ~ tvrz £i G. x a P L -& v T uv i D. x a P L ~ eai i A. x a P'-- £VTa C, V. x a pl- £VT£ C> -Eocai, -eggCjv, -sacatg, -saaag, -Eacai, rvcpdetg, " struck" Singular. Dual. N. TVtyd-Etg, -Eloa, -EV, N. TV -ELOaiV, -EVTOtV, D. Tvipd-svTL, -Elan, -EVTL, D. TV(f>d-EVTOtV, -Etaatv, -EVTOtV, A. rv(j)d-EVTa, -staav, -EV, A. TV(j)d-£VT£, -una, -EVTE, V. TVd-Evrag, -eiaag, -evra, Y. rvqd-evreg, -etaat, -evra. The termination qeig, belonging to this head, is often contracted. Thus, -r\Eig, -rjeoaa, -rjev, are contracted into -rjg, -rjGoa, fjv ; as, for example, N. rifi-yc, Tiji-rjaaa, rtfi-rjv, G. 7l\L-T\VT0g, Tl(Ji-7)(707]g, TLIl-TjVTOg, &,c. 6. Termination in tjv. Adjectives in t\v have the feminine in eiva and the neu- ter in ev. Of these, however, we find only one form exist- ing in Greek, namely, reprjv, repecva, repev. reprjv, " tender" S ngular. Dual. N. rsp-rjv, -eiva, -ev, N. rep- eve, -eiva, -eve, G. rep-evog, -eivqg -evog, G. rep-evotv -eivatv, -evotv, D. rep-evt, -eivrj, -evt, D. rep-evotv -eivatv, -evotv A. rep-eva, -ecvav , -ev, A. rep-eve, -eiva, -eve, Y. rep-ev, -eiva, N. G. D. A. V. -ev. Plu rep-ev eg, - rep-evuv, - rep- eat, rep-evag, - rep-eveg, - V. rep-ev e, ral. etvat, -eva, etvuv, -evuv, eivaig, -eat, eivag, -eva, Etvat, -eva. -eiva, -eve. 7. Termination in oetg, contracted ovg. Adjectives in oetg are contracted throughout, and form the feminine in oeooa, contr. ovcaa, and the neuter in oev, contr. ovv. E 2 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. fieXiroecg, contracted iieXirovg, " made of honey." Singular. Dual. N fieXir-oeig, -oeaaa, -6ev, N. jxeTitT -oevre, -oeaaa, -oevre, ovg, ovaaa, ovv, ovvre, ovaaa, ovvre, G fxelir-oevrog -oeaarjg, -oevrog, G. [xeTicr-oevTOtv, -Seaaaiv, -Sevron ovvrog ovaang, ovvrog, OVVTOLV, ovaaaiv, ovvron D fieXir-oevn, -oeaan, -oevri, D. \ie\ir-6evroiv, -Seaaaiv, -oevroii OVVTC, ovaan, OVVTl, OVVTOLV, ovaaaiv, ovvroii A fieXir-oevra, -oeaaav, -oev, A. jieTiLT-oevre, -oeaaa, -oevre, ovvra, ovaaav, ovv, ovvre, ovaaa, ovvre, V. fielir-oev, -oeaaa, -oev, V. fielir ■oevre, -oeaaa, -oevre, ovv, ovaaa, ovv. Flu ral. ovvre, ovaaa, ovvre. N. [LtklT -oevreg, ovvreg, oeaaai, ovaaai, -oevra, ovvra, G. ueXir oevrov, OVVTCOV, Seaaov, ovaaov, -oevrov ovvrov D. fiel.LT -oeai, ovai, Seaaaig, ovaaaig, -oeai, ovai, A. \xe\ir ■oevrag, ovvrag, Seaaag, ovaaag, -oevra, ovvra, V. fielir -Sevrec;, ovvreg, oeaaai, ovaaai, -oevra, ovvra. 8. Termination in ovg uncontr acted. This form belongs to participles, and makes the feminine in ovoa and the neuter in ov. dove., " having given. N. dovg, G. dSvr-og, D. dovr-i, A. dSvr-a, V. dovg, Singular, dova-a, 66v, dova-ng, dovr-og, dova-y, dovr-i, dova-av, 66v, dova-a, dSv. Dual. N. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e, G. dSvr-oiv, dova-aiv, dSvr-otv, D. dSvr-oiv, dova-aiv, dSvr-oiv, A. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e, V. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e. Plural. N. dovr-eg, dova-ai, dovr-a, G. dSvr-ov, dova-ov, dSvr-ov, D. dova-i, dova-aig, dova-i, A. dSvr-ag, dova-ag, dovr-a, V. dovr-eg, dova-ai, dovr-a. 9. Termination in vg. I. Adjectives in vg make the feminine in eta and the ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. 55 neuter in v. They also contract el into el, and eec and eag into elg. 2. Participles in vg make the feminine in vaa and the neuter in vv. rjdvg, " sweets Singular. Dual. N. G D 7]d-V£, qd-sog, Tjd-El, EC, -eta, -stag, -eta, -V, -£og, -ei, EL, N. G. D. r]8-£e, i]6-eoLv, ?)6-£OCV, -Eia, -Etatv, -eiaiv A. V. 7]6-VV, -elav, -eta, -V, -V. Ph A. V. ral. tjo-ee, rjd-ee, -Eta, -eia, N.i/d- G. G. ?7(5- isg, £ig, ECJV, -etat, -El&V, -£a, -EUV, D.r/6 A. r]6 tat, sag, •eiaig, -eiag, -EG l, -£a, V. qd-Esg, ^evyvvg, Singular. N. &vyv-vg, -vaa, -vv, G. ^EVyv-vvrog, -vang, -vvrog, D. &vyv-vvTi, -van, -vvn, A. ^Evyv-vvra, -vaav, -vv, V. frvyv-vg, -vaa, -vv. joining. Dual. N. ^EVyV-VVTE. G. &vyv-vvTO, D. ^EVyV-VVTO, A. ^EVyV-VVTE. V. ^EVyV-VVTE, ■vaa v, -vaa i vaa, ■v ra •i aa -wre, -vvroiv, -VVTOCV, -VVTB, -VVTE. Plural. N. ^Evyv-vvTEg, -vaai, G. ^Evyv-vvruv, -vativ, D. &vyv-vai, -vaacg, A. ^Evyv-vvrag, -vaag, V. ^Evyv-vvreg, -vaat, -vvra, -VVTOV, -vat, -vvra, -vvra. 10. Termination in cov. The termination in G)v makes ovaa in the feminine and ovin the neuter. ' There are but two adjectives of this ter- mination, namely, eitcov, with its compound aeiccov, con- tracted by the Attics into anuv. All the other forms in ov are participles, 56 ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. eic&v, " willing." Singular. Dual. N. ktc-uv, -ovaa, -ov, N ek-ovtb, -ovaa, -ovre, G. etC-OVTOg, -OVang, -OVTOg, G. ia-ovTOLv, -ovaaiv, -ovtolv, D. Ik-ovtl, -oven, -OVTL, D. la-ovTOiv, -ovcaw, -ovtolv, A. ka-ovra, -ovaav, -ov, A. fa-ovre, -ovaa, -owe, V. £k-uv, -ovaa, -ov. V. in-ovre, -ovaa, -owe. Plural. N. eK-ovreg, -ovaai, -ovra, G. ka-ovruv, -ovauv, -ovtuv, D. ia-ovac, -ovoaig, -oval, A. en-ovrag, -ovaag, -ovra, V. en-ovreg, -ovaaL, -ovra. tvtttgjv, " striking" Singular. Dual. N. tvttt-ov, -ovaa, -ov, G. TviTT-ovTog, -ovang, -ovrog, D. TVTTT-OVTL, -OVan, -OWL, A. TVTTT-ovra, -ovaav, -ov, V. tvttt-uv, -ovaa, -ov. rvKT-ovre. N. G. TVTfT-OVTOi D. TVKT-OVTO. A. TVTTT-OWe. V. TVTTT-OWe, -ovaa, -ovre, v, -ovaaiv, -ovtolv, ■ovaaiv, -ovtolv, ovaa, -ovre, ovaa, -ovTe. Plural. N. TVTTT-ovTeg, -ovaaL, -ovra, G. TVTTT-OVTUV, -OVaOJV, -OVTUV, D. TVTTT-OVai, -ovaaig, -ovaL, A. TVTTT-ovrac, -ovaag, -ovra, V. TVTTT-ovreg, -ovaaL, -ovTa. Some participles in cov, contracted from do)v, make the feminine in CJoa and the neuter in £)v. Thus : TLfidcdv, contracted tljigjv, " honouring" Singular. Dual. N. Ti\i-duv, -dovaa, -dov, N. TLfi-dovre, -dovaa, -dovrs, uv, uaa, uv, uvre, (baa, UVTS, G. TLji-aovTog, -dova?jg, -dovTog, G. TLjJL-aOVTOLV, -dovaaiv, -aOVTOLV, uvrog, dang, uvTog, UVTOLV, uaaiv, UVTOLV, D. Tlfi-doVTL, -dovan, -UOVTL, D. TLjJL-doVTOLV, -dovaaLV, -aOVTOLV, UVTL, (bay, UVTL, CiVTOLV, uaaiv, UVTOLV, A. Tifi-dovra, -dovaav, -dov, A. TLjl-aOVTe, -dovaa, -dovre, uvra, uaav, uv, uvre, uaa, uvre, V. TL[l-6tOV, -dovaa, -dov, V. TLfl-doVTE, -dovaa, -dovrs, uv, uaa, Cn>. uvre, uaa, UVTS. ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. 57 Plural N rtfi-dovreg, -aOVGCU, -dovra, uvreg, tiuai, iovra, G. rcfc-dovTuv, -aovGcov, -aovrcov, GJVTOV, (jiC&V, G)VTG)V, D. rifc-dovat, -dovcacg, -dovai, uci, tiaatg, £hji, A. rcfx-dovrag, -dovaag, -dovra, tivrag, uaag, Ctvra, V. TLji-dovreg, -dovoac, -dovra, uvreg, tiaat, dvra. 1 1 . Termination in we. This termination also belongs to participles. The fem- inine is in via and the neuter in 6g. T£~V(j)Gjg, " having struck" Singular. N. rervQ-wg, G. ~ETV(j)-6rog, D. rervty-ori, A. rervip-ora, V. rerv(p-6g, -via, -og, -viag, -brog, -via, -on, -vlav, -6g, -via, -6g. Dual. N. rerv-6r£, -via, -ore, G. rervcp-orocv, -vcaiv, -brotv, D. rervty-oroLv, -viatv, -brow, A. Terv(j)-6r£, -via, -ore, V. rervtp-ore, -via, -ore. Plural. N. rervcp-oTsg, -viae, -bra, G. rervip-brcov, -vttiv, -bruv, D. rervty-oGi, -viatg, -bcu, A. rerv(j)-6rag, -viag, -or a, V. rervep-oreg, -vlai, -bra. The syncopated forms of the perfect participle active, however, make the feminine in (baa and the neuter in tig. Thus : £<7rc5c, " having stood" Sir gular. B ual. N. kor-iog, -fica, ~6g, N. tar-tire, -6aa, -core, G. lor-urog, -uovg, -drag, G. Eor-uroiv, -tiaacv, -uroiv, D. kar-un, -UGtJ, -uri,, D. icr-uroLv, -tiaaiv, -tiroiv, A. iar-ura, -uaav, -6g, A. tar-tire, -daa, -(ore, V. lor-ug, -uoa, ■d>g. V. icr-tire, -uaa, -UTS. 58 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. Plural. N. iar-tirEg, -uaai, -tJra, G. kcT-uTov, -uauv, -utcjv, D. iar-cJaL, -(doaig, -uai, A. iar-urag, -ucag, -ura, V. icT-UTEg, -boat, -dra. 2. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 1. Termination in oq. evdoi-og, " glorious" Singular. N. Ev6o^-og, -og, G. kv86^-ov, -ov, D. kvdoij-C}), -a, A. lv6o^-ov, -ov, V. lvdo^-e, -e, Dual. N. evdoZ-o, -co, G. evdot;-OLV, -oiv, -oiv, D. evSoij-oiv, -OIV, -OLV, A. ev6o^-o), -0), -co, V. Evdog-O), -G), -6>. 2. Termination in ag. decvag, "perpetual" Plural. N. Evdog-oi, -oi, -a, G. kvdo^-tov, -(OV, -av, D. kvdotj-otg, -oig, -oig, A. kvdotj-ovg, -ovg, -a, V. ev6o^-oc, -oc, -a. Singular. N. aslv-ag, -ag, G. asiv-avTog, -avrog, D. aslv-avTi, -avn, A. aslv-avra, -avra, V. dsiv-av, -av, Dual N. UELV-aVTE, G. asiv-uvToiv. D. uELV-dvTOLv, -avroiv, -avrocv, A. uEtv-avTE, -avTE, -avre, V. aziv-avTE, -avrs, -avrs. aVTE, -aVTE, dvroLV, -avrocv, Plural. N. CCELV-aVTEg, -avTEg, -avra, G. ascv-avTov, -aVTUV, -dvruv, D. dslv-acrc, -act, -act, A. aELv-avrag, -avrag, -avra, V. asiv-avrsg, -avrsg, -avra. 3. Termination in t\v. app7]v, " male." Singular. N. ap'p'-Tjv, -rjv, G. dpfi-svog, -svog, D. Up'p'-EVl, -EVC, A. ufijS-Eva, -Eva, V. ufifi-sv, -sv, Dual. N. apfr-Eve, -eve, -eve, G. Clpp-SVOlV, -EVOIV, -evolv, D. app-evoiv, -ivow, -evolv, A. ufa-EVE, -EVE, -EVE, V. U^-EVE, -EVE t -EVE. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 59 Plural. N. afifi-eveg, -EVEg, -eva, G. cipp'-svcov, -evuv, -evuv, D. app'-Eoi, -eat, -eat, A. app'-evag, -Evag, -eva, V. u.pp'-EVEg, -eveg, -eva. 4. Termination in rjg. Adjectives in rjg of two terminations undergo contrac- tion, changing eog into ovg ; el into el ; ea and ee into r\, &c. aXr\Qi\g, " true" Singular. Dual. N. ciknd-rjg, -vg, -&, N. aln6-£s, -EE, -EE, G. d?i7]6-Eog, -tog, -Eog, V, G. aknd-Eoiv, -EOIV, -EOIV, D. ovg, ovg, -EL, ovg, -El, olv, D. aknd-EOiv, olv, -EOIV, olv, -EOIV, el, eZ, El, olv, olv, olv, A. akrjd-ea, -m, -&, A. aknQ-EE, -EE, -EE, V. V, alvd-ig, V, -sg. V, V. alnd-is, V, -EE, V, -EE, V, y, y> Phi ral. N. akrfi eeg, -eeg, -ea, G. alvd elg, ■eav uv Eig, -ECJV €)V, V, -EUV, &V, D. bXrfi- ea, -EGl, -£ai, A. aknd ear, -eag, -£a, V. aknd eig, eeg, eig, eig, -EEg, Eig, V, -sa, V- 5. Termination in ig. ev^aptg, " acceptable? Singular. N. Evxap-tg, G. Ev%ap-irog, D. Evxap-iTi, A. Evxdp-ira. or -IV, V. evxap-t, -irog, -it i, -ira, ) -irog, Dual. N. Evxap-iTS, -ire, -ire, G. Evxap-irotv, -irow, -ITOIV, D. Evxap-iroiv, -iroiv, -iroiv, A. EVXap-lTE, -ITE, -ITS, V EVXdp-LTE, -ire, -ire. 60 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. Plural. N. EVXap-LTEQ, -tree, -ira, G. evxap-iTov, -CTUV, -tTO)V, D. evxdp-ioi, -IOL, -ICL, A. evxdp-nag, -crag, -ira, V. evxdp-treg, -creg, -ira. 6. Termination in ovg. Adjectives in ovg of two terminations have the accu- sative singular in -oda or -ovv, and the vocative in -ovg or -ov. diirovg, " two-footed" Singular. Dual. N d'm-ovg, -ovg, -ovv, N. din-ode, -ode, -ode, G. den-odog, -odog, -odog, G. dnr-6dow, -bdotv, -odocv, D. diTZ-odl, -odi, -ode, D. dnr-odow, -bdoiv, -bdoiv, A. din-oda, \ -oda, \ or [ or > -ovv, A. din-ode, -ode, -ode, -ovv, ) -ovv, ) V, din-ovg, ) -ovg, i or i or > -ovv. V. din-ode, -ode, -ode. -ov, ) -ov, ) Plu N. diff-odeg, G. dt7r-66o)v, D. dlTT-OGL, A. diiz-odag, V. dirc-odeg, ral. -oSsg, -oSa, -oduv, -66uv, -oai, -oat, -odag, -oda, -odeg, -oda. 7. Termination in vg. Adjectives in vg of two terminations contract vsg and vag into vg. adaicpvg, " tearless." Singular. N. adanp-vg, -vg, -v, G. addap-vog, -vog, -vog D. adanp-vl, -v'i, -vl, A. adanp-vv, -vv, -v, V. adanp-v, -v, -v. Dual. N. dddfep-ve, -ve, -ve, G. ddanp-vow, -vow, -vow, D. ddanp-vow, -vow, -vow, A. addnp-ve, -ve, -ve, V. add/cp-ve, -ve, -ve. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 61 'Plural. N. ctddicp-veg, -veg, -va, vg, vg, G. ada/tp-vuv, -vov, -vov, D. addnp-vat, -vat, -vat, A. addicp-vag, -vag, -va, V.&& >veg, -veg, -va. 8. Termination in (ov. <7(x)(/)pG)v, " discreet." Singular. N. aup-ovt, -ovt, A. ao<\>p-ova, -ova, V. aofp-ov, -ov, Dual. N. a6(j>p-c G. aaipp-ovo D. ao A. ad^p-ove, V. adp-ove, Plural. N. adcpp-oveg, -oveg, -ova, G. aotyp-ovov, -bvov, -bvov, D. adtyp-oat, -oat, -oat, A. adp-ovag, -ovag, -ova V. adxpp-oveg, -oveg, -ova. -ove, -ovt, v, -ovotv, -ovotv, -ovotv, -ovotv, -ove, -ove, -ove, -ove. Under this same head fall comparatives in ov, which are declined like cticppcov, except that they are syncopated and contracted in the accusative singular, and in the nom- inative, accusative, and vocative plural. Thus : [lelfav, "greater." Singular Di ial. N. fiei^-ov, -ov, -ov, N. (zei^-ove, -ove, -ove, G. fiei^-ovog, -ovog, -ovog, G. /xe tC,- ovotv, -ovotv, -ovotv, D. fiei^-ovt, -ovt, -ovt, D. fiet^-ovotv, -ovotv, -ovotv, A. ftet^-ova, \ -ova, \ -ov, -oa syncope, > -oa, > A. fiei^-ove, -ove, -ove, -o crasis, ) -O, ) V. fiei£-ov, -ov, -ov. V. {/.ei^-ove, -ove, -ove. 62 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. Plural N. fiEt£-ovsg, ) -ovEg, \ -ova, -OEg, syncope, > -oeg, £ -oa, { -ovg, crasis, J -ovg, ) -co, [ G. flEtC^-OVCOV, -ovcov, -ovcov, D. [lEt^-OGt, -oat, -oat, A. fiEt^-ovag, -\ -ovag, \ -ova, -oag, syncope^ -oag, £ -oa, -ovg, crasis, h ) -ovg, ) -co, < V. ft£t£-ov£g, ' -\ -ovEg, J -osg, i -ova, -osg, syncope, > -oa, -ovg, crasis, ) -ovg, ) -CO. [ 9. Termination in G)p. fieyaXTjTCdp, " magnanimous." Singular. N. (isyaTirjT-cop, -cop G. ftsyal^T-opog. D. fiEya\r]T-opt, A. jiEyaTiTjT-opa, V. jXEydlvT-op, -opog, -opt, -opa, -op, -op, -opog, -opt, -op, -op. Dual, N. iiEyaXrjT-opE, G. fiEyaTirjT-opotv, D. (jtEydXrjT-opotv, A. [iEya7tf)T-op£, V. iiEyaTi-fjT-opE, -ope, -ope, -opotv, -opotv, -Spotv, -opotv, -ops, -ops, -ope, -ope. Plural. N. fiEya'XrjT-opEg, -opeg, -opa, G. \iEya"knr-6pcov, -opcov, -opcov, D. iisya'krjT-opo't, -opai, -opat, A. HEyalrjT-opag, -opag, -opa, V. [.teyaTirjT-opEg, -opsg, -opa. 10. Termination in wg. svyeuc;, "fertile." Singular, N. evys-cog, -cog, G. Evye-co, -co, D. evys-cp, -u, A. Evys-cov, -cov, V. Evye-cog, -cog, -cov, -cov. Dual. N. EvyE-co, -co, -to, G. evys-cov, -cov, -cov, D. Evys-cov, -cov, -cov. A. evye-co, -co, -co, V. evye-co, -co, -co. Plural. N. evye-co, G. evye-cov, D. evye-cpg, A. evye-cog, V. evye-y, -9, -cov, -9f» ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 63 3. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. Adjectives of one termination, namely, which express the masculine, feminine, and neuter by one and the same ending, are the cardinal numbers from nevrs, "Jive" to etcarov, " a hundred" both inclusive. Others have indeed only one termination, but for the masculine and feminine merely, since they are not used with substantives of the neuter gender, at least in the nom- inative and accusative singular and plural. They are properly of the common gender, wanting the neuter. 1 Such are, 1. Adjectives compounded of substantives which remain unchanged ; as, [iafcp6%eip, avroxeip, evptv, {latcpaiov, fia- tcpav%7jv, from %&ip, ptv, al&v, and av^v, except those compounded of Trovg and noXtg, which have two termina- tions. 2. Adjectives in cop, which are partly derived from irarrip and \Li]Tr\p\ 3,s,ajrdTG)p, d^rcjp, diioiirjrcjp ; and partly from verbs; as, TTaiSoXercop, bfioyeveTup, fudGrcop. 3. Adjectives in ?]g, genitive -qrog, and in 0)g, genitive -ctrog; as, ddjjirjg, 7]\xiQvf\g, ay vug, c5/zo6pc5c. 4. Adjectives in nrjg and rr\g, according to the first de- clension; as, evcJnrjg, edeXovrrjg. 5. Adjectives in £ and if), as, r{Xi%, vydg, dvaXfag. ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 1. Originally some adjectives had two forms, of both of which certain cases have been retained in use, so that the 1. Some of these, however, are also used as neuters, but only in the genitive and dative singular and plural ; as, a/j,alog, " one who is at the heady Some, however, denote merely a quality ; as, oeXrjvalog, " moon-shaped ;" elprjvalog, "peaceable" 2. Adjectives in -dXeog mostly express a fulness ; as, -dappdXeog, "full of confidence ;" SsifidXeog, "full of fear." 3. Adjectives in -avog mostly signify the possession of the quality expressed by the primitive ; as, Trsvicedavog, " bitter ;" piyedavog, " that which causes shuddering." 4. Adjectives in -eiog commonly express an origin or source ; as, n /f] vuo ^i fioetog, InireLog, fiijXetog, &-C," consist- ing of" or, " derived from, geese, cattle, horses, sheep," &c. Others denote rather an agreement with, or resemblance to, a thing ; as, dvdpelog, " becoming a man ;" yvvamelog, " ef- feminate," or, " becoming a woman." 5. Adjectives in -eog, contracted ovg, express the mate- rial ; as, xpvGsog, -ovg, " made of gold ;" Xivsog, -ovg, " made of linen" &c. 6. Adjectives in -epog and -rjpog signify quality general- ly ; as, doXepcg, " crafty ;" otaepog, " shady," &c. Some express a propensity ; as, olvnpog, " given to wine ;" na- \iaT7\pog, " laborious" "prone to labour." Others, again, have an active signification ; as, voaepog, or voorjpog, " cau- sing sickness " o^Xripog, " causing disquiet ;" vyir\pog, " con- tributing to health." 7. Adjectives in -r\Eig signify fulness ; as, devdprjetg, "full of trees ;" Troirjeig, "full of grass;" vXrjscg, "full of wood." ■ 8. Adjectives in -r\Xog signify a propensity to, and capa- bility or fitness for, anything ; as, dnar^Xog, "prone to de- F2 66 REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. ceit ;" imvrjXog, "prone to sleep " To this the idea of ful- ness is nearly allied ; as, vdprjXog, " watery." 9. Adjectives in -tnog most commonly denote fitness or capability for anything ; as, rjyefiovLKog, "Jit for command ;" fcvdepvrjTCKog, "Jit for piloting" &c. Other meanings are, 1. belonging to anything; as, owfiariKOc, "corporeal ;" ipv- \inog, "spiritual;" 2. coming from anything; as, narpt- tog, " derived from forefathers ," " hereditary ;" (3oln6g, "made of ox's hide." 10. Adjectives in -ip,og are of two classes, one derived from nouns and the other from verbs. Those from verbs have sometimes an active, sometimes a passive significa- tion , as, (pvl-ifiog, " one who fees ;" dX&oi\Log, "pertaining to capture ,*" dpG)aijxog, " arable ;" (3p(ooi[iog, " edible." Other adjectives in -Lfiog, however, express merely a quality ; as, TTEvGcfiog, '* mournjul ;" dotctfiog, " celebrated" &c. 11. A ujectives in -ivog and -etvog signify, 1. a material of which anything is made ; as, yrjivog, " made of earth ;" KaXdficvog, ' ' made of reeds ;" irXivdivog, " made of tiles" &c. ; 2. a quality which arises from the magnitude or quan- tity of the iliing expressed by the derivation ; as, iredivog, "level;" opsivog, "mountainous;" onoreivog, "dark," Sic. 12. Adjectives in -tog express a quality generally ; as, eOTTepwg, "pertaining to evening'" ftaXdooiog, "marine " CG)T7]piog, " saving." If two adjectives are derived from one substantive, one in Log and the other in og, the latter expresses a quality generally ; the former denotes a prone- ness or tendency to that quality; as, nadapog, "pure;" Kaddpiog, " loving purity." 13. Adjectives in -oetg and -coecg signify a fulness ; as, p/nrioeig, "full of prudent counsels ;" dpmzXoEig, "full of vines." The termination tieig is used when the penult is long ; as, K,r}T&ug, G)ro)etg, &c. 14. Adjectives in -udrjg express, 1. a fulness ; as, iroi- (odrjg, "grassy ;" dvdefiu)67jg, "fiowery ;" 2. a resemblance ; as, changes into cc (Attic rr). Thus, ra%vg (old form 6ax- vg), comparative rax^v, changed to -ddoauv, Attic $dr- tgjv. So, also, eXaxvg, comparative eXax^v, changed to eXdooo)v, Attic eXdrrojv. In the same manner, also, must the comparative [idcoodv, of fiaKpog, be explained. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. I. The comparative and superlative remain in several adjectives, whose positive has grown into disuse. These are noted most easily in connexion with some extant posi- tive, to which they approximate the nearest in respect of signification. Hence the following list : Great, [teyag, Z ti-S, ' a/jt,SLVG)V, dpeicjv, apiorog. (3eXrco)v, peXriOTog* (3eXrepog, (3eXrdrog. Kpecooov, } Good, dyadog, « fCp£LTTG)V, > Kappw, ) KpdrtOTog. Xcdicov, Xcjiarog. X&orog. (peprarog. (psprspog, > (pepiorog. ) (pSpTLOTOg. ' icaKCjrepogj Kancorarog, Bad. KaKog, < nafciojv, KaiuoTog. Xspeioiv, XSpiorog. ^xupuy, Xetpiarog. Long, fiattpog, i fiaKporepog, 1 fidaaov, [xaKpordrog. firjuarog. fieyiOTog. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 71 [jUKporepog, J fieidrepog, Small, [iittpog, ^ fieto)v, (eXaxvg), eXdoaw, \_TI " ( TTAElOdV, ) Easy, padwg, paw, fieiorog. kXdxiorog. 7\Kiarog. nXelarog. paarog. 1. That these various forms were not used in exactly the same signification is certain ; but it is also equally cer- tain that no settled distinction between them was universal- ly observed. 2. The proper comparative and superlative of dyadog, namely, ayadurepog and dyadcorarog, occur only in later writers, and such as are not Attic ; as, for example, in Di- odorus Siculus, 16. 86. II. Some comparatives and superlatives are evidently de- ived from substantives, adverbs, and prepositions. Thus : Compar. Superl. nporepog, npoJTog, from npo. vrreprepog, vneprarog, VTTEp. avcorepog, dvuTarog, avo. varepog, vararog, V7TO. fcXeTTTioraTog, KXeTTTTjg. eratporarog, kralpog. dovXorepog, dovXog fiaoiXevrepog, fiaoiXevg. To these may be added the following comparisons of ad- verbs. Thus : aw. dvOJTEpG), dvcjrdro), Kara KaTCJTEpO), KaruraTG), e&, egurepG), Ei;G)TdTG), £<76), eacjrepcj, eaordrcjf 7rdjopo), TTopfxorepG), noppcjTdro). III. A few instances occur, where, to express a still 72 NUMERALS. higher gradation of an idea, a degree of comparison be- comes the positive to a new formation ; as, eoxarog, " last" eaxarcJTspog, kaxaroyrarog, " last of all '" Trp&rog, "first" Trpo)TC(7Tog, "first of all" " the very first" IV. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, the formation of a comparative and superlative from the root of the positive was not usual, but the gradation of idea was expressed by adding the adverbs fidXXov ("more") and p&Xiora (" most"). Thus, rpcjrog, " vulnerable" rpo)- rog fiaXXov, " more vulnerable ;" tivTjTog, " mortal," tivTyrog uaXXov, "more mortal;" drjXog, "evident" [iciXXov 6r\Xog, " more evident" drjXog {idXiara, " most evident" XXIII. NUMERALS. 1. Numerals are either Cardinal or Ordinal. 2. The cardinal numbers answer to the question, " how many ?" as, elg, " one ;" dvo, " two ;" rpelg, " three" &c. 3. The ordinal numbers answer to the question, " which in order ?" as, rrpajrog, "first;" devrepog, " second;" rplrog, " third," &c. 4. For marks of number the Greeks employ the letters of their alphabet ; but, to make the number complete, they insert therein a $■ after e, called enloTjfiov, or Fav, 1 and an- swering to our 6 ; and they also adopt two Oriental char- acters, namely, Koppa, C^ for 90 ; and Sampi, 2> for 900. 2 7. When the letters are employed to denote numbers, a mark resembling an accent is placed over them ; but to des- ignate the thousands the same mark is placed below. Thus, 1. The appellation criyfia is also sometimes given to this character. The name Fav refers to the circumstance of its occupying the place of . the digamma in the alphabetic order. 2. The original mark for the icoinra was whence comes the Latin Q. The 2a//7r? is no doubt to be traced back in name to the old name for the letter c, namely cav, and appears to have been formed from the union of this letter with a tt, the early form of the Greek S having been C. Buttman thinks that the earlier name of the numeral in question was 2d^, and that 2a//T? came in as an appellation at a later period. NUMERALS. 73 d is one, but a one thousand. So #' is twenty, but ^/e twenty thousand. 8. These marks above and below the letters are not ex- pressed in the case of every letter, when we have several letters placed side by side, and indicating a series of num- bers, but only over or below the last of each series. Thus we write vy%$' for 53,602 ; and acjXrj for 1838. 9. The following combinations may serve as examples of the Greek system of notation. avis, 1415. '#ff£e, 9265. 'y07r0', 3589. &X6', 7832. y yo)[ig% 3846. \a express the other numbers above 5. IIII, 4, ) II, 5, is the initial of ILevre. A, 10, " Ae/ea, H, 100, " HeKarov, the old form for ettarov. X, 1000, " xaioc. M, 10,000, " Mvpiot. The numbers between these are denoted partly by the combination of the above marks ; as, All for 12 ; A A for 20 ; AA AIIIIII for 39 ; and partly by the multiplication of A, H, X, M, into five II, these marks being placed within the II ; as, J3 for TTevraiiig detta, five times ten, or 50 ; E[A for 60 ; M for 500 ; M for 5000 ; XMHHHAAAIIIII for 1838. This manner of notation is particularly to be marked, G 74 REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. since it has been preserved in many and important Attic in- scriptions. 1 DECLENSION OF THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. Singular. Dual. elg, " one. » dvo, " two" N. dg, juta, G. kvoq, /u&c, D. EVi, [lid, A. $va, ficav, hog ivt, Iv. N. G. D. A. dvo and dvo, dvolv and dvelv, dvolv, dvo. Plural. N. G. D. A. dvuv, dvci, Plural. rpelg, " three. 91 N. rpelg, rpelg, Tpia, G. rptuv, rptuv, rpiGsw, D. Tpiai, rptai, rpiai, A. rpelg, rpelg, Tpia. Plural, reocapeg, "four." N. reaaapeg, reaaapsg, riaaapa, G. reooupov, recoupuv, reoaupuv, D. TEcaapaL, reaaapai, riaaapoi, A. riaaapag, riaaapag, reaaapa. REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. Elg. 1. In the epic writers the form la is found for pta ; and only once lib for evl. (II. 6. 422.) 2. From the composition of this numeral with ovde and [irjde arise the negative adjectives ovdelg and [irjdelg, which are declined in the same manner ; as, nom. ovdelg, ovde- uta, ovdev ; genitive ovdevog, ovdefiidg, ovdevog, &c. The later Greek writers make it ovdelg and \it]Qelg, from ovre and \Lrpe, which, however, is not considered genuine Attic. 3. Ovdelg and [xrjdelg are often separated, and written ovde elg, and \i7\de elg, &c, and this separation increases the negative signification. Thus, ovde elg, " not even one " ovd' v(p' evog, " not even by one" &c. 4. The numeral elg, from its very nature, can have no plural, but ovdelg and firjdelg have ovdeveg and [i7jdeveg, in the sense of " insignificant," " of no value." 1 . For an account of the arithmetic of the Greeks, consult Delambre, Histoire d$ V Astronomie Ancienne, vol. ii., p. 3, seq. SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 75 Avo. 1. Avo is the Attic mode of writing. In Homer and Herodotus it is often indeclinable. Avecv is of more rare occurrence than dvolv, and is only used in the genitive. Avc5v is sometimes written dvcov, and regarded as Ionic for dvolv. But dvcjv is preferable as a genitive plural. 1 2. Avo) appears to have been, in fact, the dual number of the old form 6v6g. "AjMpoj accords in great measure with dvo). In the old poets it is frequently indeclinable. Oth- erwise aficpolv is used in the genitive and dative. Tiooapsg. 1. Instead of reoaapeg the Ionic dialect has rsoaepeg, the iEolo-Doric rerropeg. Hesychius gives neoovpeg as an iEolic form. 2. For reaaapoi or rerrapat in the dative, the form rer» pact, occurs in the poets. SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. Cardinal. Ordinal. 1 a' eIc, 1st Tcpurog, 2 P dvo, 2d dEvrspoc, 3 y rpelc, 3d rplrog, 4 6' Tecoapec, 4th rkraproq, 5 e' 7TEVTE, 5th TTEflTTTOC, 6 r' If, , 6th £ktoc, 7 c iiTTa, 7th 'iBdofzoc, 8 rf OKTU, 8th oydooc, 9 v kvvia, 9th Evvaroc, 10 L 6ma, 10th dsKarog, 11 ta ivdeKCi, 11th kydsnarog, 12 lp SuSena, 12th dudeicaToc, 13 L Y TpioKaidena, 13th TpiGnaifiEKaToc, 14 id- Teco-apeGKaideica, 14th TEcoapaKaLdiKaTog, 15 is' 7revTenaideKa, 15th TTEVTEKaidEKaTOg, 16 L~' itcicatdeKa, 16th EKKaidEKarog, 17 tC ETiTaKaideKa, 17th EizTanaidEnaTog, 13 m' btcTuKaidena, 13th OKTUKaidsKaTOC, 19 t& evveanaideica, 19th EWEaKatdEKaTos, 20 k' eiKoat, 20th ElKGGTOg, 21 Ka eikoglv elg, 21st ELKOGTOS TZpUTOS , 22 Kf>' elkogl dvo, &.C., 22d ElKOGTOS dEVTEpOS, 30 X rpuiKovra, 30th TpiaKOGTOq, 1. Fassow, Lex. s. v. 76 SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 31 u 40 ft' 50 v' 60 t 70 o' 80 it' 90 ^ 100 p' 200 c' 300 r 400 V' 500 ¥ 600 X' 700 % 800 900 lb* 1000 a 2000 ft 3000 y, 4000 6 / 5000 e / 6000 r, 7000 C 8000 V, 9000 &, 10,000 L / 20,000 K, 100,000 P, rpiaKOvra tig, 31st TptaKOGTOe 7rpCJTO£, reaaapaKOvra, 40th TEGGapatiOGTOC, TTEVTTJKOVTa, 50th 7T£VTT)KOGt6c, k^rjKovra, 60th E^KOGTOg, £6dofiT/K,ovTa, 70th i66o/J,7}KOGTOg, bydorjKovTa, 80th oydorjKOGTog, evevrjKOVTa, 90th EVEVTJKOGTOg, knarov, 100th huaroGTog, 6lerep~og, -a, -ov, theif, VG)irsp-og, -a, -ov, of us both, G(pG)trep-og, -a, -ov, of you both PRONOUNS. 79 3. Definite Pronoun, for the nearer and stronger distinc- tion of one object from another ; as, avrog, avrrj, avro, " he himself" " she herself" M itself'' 4. Reflexive Pronouns, for the more accurate indication and separation of a person ; as, epiavrov, e\Lavrr\g, of myself ueavrov, aavrrjg, of thyself aavrov, eavrov, avTTJg, avrov, of himself r ov, ) ov, ) rov, ) | \ ovrog, aVTT], rovro, ode, rjde, rode, eicelv-og, -n> -0, 5. Demonstrative Pronouns, which distinctly point out the object of which we are discoursing, with the accessory idea of place. These are, this. 6. Relative Pronouns, which refer to an object already mentioned, and give it a nearer definition ; as, og, t\, o, who, bang, rjrcg, on, whoever. 7. Indefinite Pronouns, which merely indicate an object generally, without farther definition ; as, rig (encliti delva, :<=), rig, delva, n, delva, any, some one. 8. Interrogative Pronoun ; as j rig, rig, ri, who? what ? 9. Reciprocal Pronoun, which designates the mutual ac- tion of different persons upon each other; as, aXkr\koiv, dual; aXXrjXov, plural, " of each other." 80 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 1. Personal. 'Eyw, /. Singular. Dual. N. kyu G. EflOV D. kfiol A. tye or fiov or fioi or fie . . J, of me, to me, me. N. vat, G. vuiv, D. vuiv, A. vcji, contr vu, we two, vuv, of us two, v&v, to us two, vu, us two. Plural. N. rjfielg G. ^//wv . A. jy/zag' . . of us, . to us, . KS. 2v, thou. Singular. N. ov thou, G. gov of thee, D. gol to thee, A. Ge thee. Dual. N. ov, of you two, D. Gw, yow /wo. N. i)/*e2£ . G. vuuv D. tJ/MV A. fytaf Plural. you, of you, to you, you. Ov, of him. Singular. N. Wanting. G. o£ . . . of him, D. ol ... to Aim, A. £ ... Aim. N. G& . they two, G. Gtpuiv . of them two, D. G^utv . to /Aem too, A. Gelg avroi), G. kavr&v or avruv, D. iavrolg or avrolg, A. iavrovf or avrovg, f ~EavTOv, of himself Singular, (avrif), iavrrjg or avrrjg, iavry or avr77, iavrfjv or avrrjv, Plural, (otyelg avrai), kavr&v or avrtiv, kavralg or avraig, kavrdg or avrdf, (avrd), eavrov or avrov, iavrC) or avrG)trepog occurs only once [II. 1, 216). Nutrepog is found only in the Ionic poets. 3. Pronoun Definite. This has already been considered in the remarks under the personal pronouns, § 5, &c. H 86 REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 4. Reflexives. 1. The reflexive pronouns are formed by the union of the genitives kfieo, Geo, eo, with the pronoun avrog, in all the cases except the nominative. 2. Strictly speaking, efiavrov and Geavrov have no plu- ral. A form for this number, however, is generally substi- tuted, consisting of rjfielg avroi and v[ielg avroi, declined eparately. 3. The pronoun eavrov is declined throughout the plural «.« one word ; yet we also find G for &tlvl. The full form is very rare in the Attic poets. 2. Instead of the plural ariva, Homer and Herodotus have aaoa, from the Doric od for rtvd. The Attics, instead of this, say arret. 7. Indefinite. 1. The Ionians said for rivog, nvi, &c, reo and rew. The Attics contracted rov, rw, in all the genders, for rivog and nvi. 2. Instead of the neuter plural rtvd, the Attics said, in certain combinations, particularly with adjectives, drra ; as, &XX* drra ; rotavr' drra. 88 XXV. VERB. 1. Greek verbs are of two kinds, those ending in cj and those in fit. 2. Verbs in G) are of two classes : 1. Those that hare a consonant before 6) ; as, rvnro), " i" strike ,*" Xeyu, " I say ;" and, 2. Those which have a vowel, a, e, o, before it ; as, TL[id(t), " I honour ;" fakeo, " I love ;" %pvo6(d, " / gild." 3. Verbs in o), with a consonant preceding the termina- tion, are called Barytone Verbs, because, as they have the acute accent on the penult of the present, the grave accent ((3apvg rovog) necessarily falls on the last syllable. 4. Verbs in w, preceded by a vowel, are called Contract- ed Verbs, because the 0) is contracted by the Attics, to- gether with the preceding vowel, into one vowel ; and as, after this contraction, a circumflex is placed over the o>, they are also styled by some Circumflex Verbs. 5. These contracted verbs, however, are not at all differ- ent from the barytones, since it is only necessary to con- tract them in the present and imperfect. PARTS OF THE VERB. 1. The Greek verb has three voices, Active, Passive, and Middle ; and five moods, the Indicative, Imperative, Optative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive. 2. The tenses are nine in number, namely, the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First and Second Future, First and Second Aorist, and, in the passive, the Third Future, or, as it is less correctly styled, the Paulo-post' futurum. 3. The numbers are three, Singular, Dual, and Plurah 89 The Verb 'Ei/u, to be. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Sing, eIui, I am, Dual. Plur. kc/iiv, we are etc or el, thou art, karov, you two are, , here, ye are, Imperfect, tjv, I was. kari, he is. karov, they two are. eloi, they are. S. 7jV, D. P. TjUEV, T/TOV, rjre, Future, laouai, I will be. 7] or TjV, 7JTTJV, rjaav. S. laouai, D. ecoueBov, P. kcousda, ecei, ececOov, ecscOe, lazrai, iaec6ov t iaovrai. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present and Imperfect, lade, be thou. D. P. ladi or lao t earn, karov, karov, fare, karuaav. OPTATIVE MOOD. Present and Imperfect, elrjv, may I be. S. eItjv, elrjc, e"v, D. P. eitj/xev, slr/rov, elr]TE, EifjTr}v % £L7]aav or elev. Future, kcot/ir}v, may I be about to be. S. D. P. haoifxrjv, kaoiuEdov, kooipeda, ECOIO, kaoiadov, ego tade, kcOLTO, kaoiadrjv, kaoevro. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present and Imperfect, u, I may be. S. u, vc, f' D. TjTOV, 7]T0V t P. UflEV, 7JTE, uau H2 90 VERB. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present and Imperfect. elvai, to be. Future. lazcBai, to be about to be. PARTICIPLES. Present. N. &v, ovaa, 6v, G. ovtoc, ovarjg, ovto£, &c. Future. N. kao/j-evoc, haojjiivrj, kcofievov, G. kao/xevov, kcofievqg, kao/xivov, &c VERBS IN a. 1. There are four conjugations of verbs in o, distin- guished from each other by the termination of the first fu- ture active. 1 Thus : The First Conjugation makes the future in ijjgj ; as, TVTTTG), TVIpG) ; XsiTTG), XellpG) l pdnrG), pdlpG). The Second Conjugation makes the future in |iw ; as, Xeyo), Xei-G) ; rddooj, rdt-G) ; dpx^), api;G). The Third Conjugation makes the future in ao ; as, rto), tlcfg) ; Treido), ttslgo) ; OKevd^G), oicevdoG). The Fourth Conjugation has a liquid before 6) in the termination of the future ; as, ipdXXb), iftaXC) ; oird- p6), GTTEpG) ; fieVG), flSVO). 2. When the first person plural ends in fiev, the first person of the dual is wanting. In other words, the first person dual is wanting throughout the whole of the active form, and in the aorists of the passive. 2 1. We have followed, for convenience' sake, the common arrange- ment, by which verbs in a are divided into four conjugations. The simplest and truest plan, however, is to divide all Greek verbs into merely two conjugations, namely, verbs in ETV7VT-0V, > Imperfect, TVTZT-E, -01(11, -0), -ECV, -OV, First Future, TVlp-O), -Ol/Ltl, -ELV, -UV, First Aorist, ETVtp-a, TVTp-OV, -aifiL, -u, -at, -GC, Perfect, TETVty-a, ) krervep-eev, ) Pluperfect, T£TV(j)-E, -01(11, -10, -Evai, -Of, Second Aorist, ETV7T-0V, TVTT-E, -OLflL, -G), -ELV, -uv, Second Future, TV7T-0J, -OCflL, -ELV, -Civ. however, the dual is the same in form with the plural, in the tenses re- ferred to ; for the dual itself is only an ancient plural. 1. This is called conjugating, namely, giving the present, first future, and perfect of a verb ; or, in place of the perfect, the first aorist. 92 Numbers and Persons, INDICATIVE MOOD. Present, I strike. Sing Dual Plur. TV7TT-U, TVKT-ouev, TVTZT-EIC, TV7TT-ETOV, TVTCT-ETE, TVTVT-El, TVTtT-ETOV, TVTZT-OVOl. Imperfect, J was striking S. D. P. Ztvtzt-ov, krVKT-OflEV) ervrvT-ec, ETVTTT-eTOV, ervTzr-ere, ETVKT-E, etvttt-et7jv, Itvkt-ov. First Future, I shall or will strike. S. D. P. tvtJj-u, Tvip-ofiev, Tvip-eic, Tvip-erov, TVlp-ETE, TVtp-EC, TVlp-ETOV, TVTJJ-OVGL. First Aorist, I (once) struck. S. D. P. £TV1p-a, krvip-afiev, irvip-ac, krvip-arov, ETVlp-aTE, Perfect, I have struck. ETVlp-E, ETVlp-a,T7]V t frvip-av. S. D. P. T£TV-a, T£TV-afiev, T£TV(j)-aC f TETv^-arov, TETVf-aTE, T£TV-aOl. Pluperfect, I had struck S. D. P. ETETV^-ELV, kT£Tv-EtC, £T£TV-ECT7JV ETETVQ-EiaaV Second Aorist, I (once) struck. S. D. P. Itvk-ov, hrvn-ofiev. ETVT-EC, £TV1Z-£T0V f kTV7T-£T£ } £TVTV-ET7]V f krvTz-ov. Second Future, I shall or will strike. S. D. P. TV7T-W, Tvn-oi}fiev, TVTC-Eie, Tvir-eiTov, TV-ir-slTe, TVTT-el, TV1T-etTOV t Tvvr-ovau VERB. 93 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present, he striking. S. TVITT-e, TVTTT-ETO, D. TVTTT-ETOV, TV7TT-ETUV, P. TVTTT-ETe, TVKT-ETUGaV. First Aorist, strike. S. rvip-ov, rvip-aTO, D. Tvip-arov, Tvip-druv, P. TVip-are, rvip-dTuuav. Perfect, have struck. S. T£TV(f)-E, TETVCJt-ETO), D. T£TV(j)-£TOV, TETVQ-ETUV, P. T£TV<$>-£T£, TSTV-STUCraV. Second Aorist, strike. S. TW7T-e, TV7T-ETG, D. TV7T-ETOV, TVIT-ETUV, P. TVTZ-ETE, TVTZ-ETUaaV. OPTATIVE MOOD.i Present, may I be striking. S. TVTTT-Olfll, TVTTT-OLC, TVTTT-Ol, D. TVTTT-OLTOV, TV7TT-01T7]V, P. TV7TT-OlfI£V, rVKT-OCTE, TV7TT-OLEV. First Future, may I hereafter strike. S. TXTlp-OLlXl, TVIp-OlC, TV1p-Ol, D. TVXJJ-OITOV, Tvifj-OITTJV^ P. TVIp-OLfiEV, TVlp-OLTE, TVIp-OLEV. First Aorist, may I have struck. S. rvip-aifii, rvip-atc, rvip-ai, D. TVTp-atTOV, TV^-aiT1]V t P. TVIp-aifiEV, TVIp-aCTE, TVl[)-aiEV. JEolic First Aorist. S. rvifj-sia, rvTp-ELac, Twjj-eie, D. Tvip-siarov, Tvip-Eiarrjv P. TVip-stafiEv, Tvip-EcarE, rvrp-eiav. 1. We have here given to the optative its genuine meaning, as indi- cating a wish. The other meanings, " might" " could" " would" &c, are only attached to it when connected with the particle av, &c. 94 Perfect, may I have struck. S. T£TV(j)-Olfll f T£TV-0l, D. T£TV(p-0lT0V t T£TV(j)-0lTnV, P. T£TV-OlTE, T£TV-U[l£V, TETV-£vai, to have been striking. Second Aorist, tvtt-eiv, to have struck. Second Future, tvk-eZv, to be going to strike. 95 PARTICIPLES. N. TVTTT-av, Hmr-ovoa, TVTCT-OV, G. rvm-ovrog, TVTTT-ovcqg, Tvnr-ovrog, &c. First Future, going to strike. N. TVIp-UV, G. TVTp-OVTOC, rvf-ovcra, Tvip-OVGTJC, TVtp-OV, TVTp-OVTOg. First Aorist, having struck. N. rvip-ag, rvip-aaa, rvip-av, G. Tvip-avroc, rvip-dang, rvijj-avTog. Perfect, who has been striking. N. Terv(j>-6g, TETvfy-via, TErv-6g f G. T£TV eTETV/j./j.nv, ) TETV-tpO, -fJ.fJ.EVOg, ELTjV, -fjfiEVog, -6aL, -fjucvog, 1st Aorist, eTvtydrjv, TV(p~d7)Tl, -Belvv, -0<3, -6fjvai, -6eig, 1st Future, TVtyQrjO-OfjaL, -oifjnv, -Ecdai, -ofisvog, 2d Aorist, ETVTTTjV, TVTT-ndl, -eiTjv, -«, ■vvai, -etc, 2d Future, Tvirnc-Ofiai, •OlflTJV, -ecdai, -outvog t 3d Future, TE-rinp-OfiaL, -OlfMTjV, -eodai, -ofiEvog. 96 VERB. Numbers and Persons. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present, I am struck. S. TVKT-Ofiai, TVTTT-ei, 1 TVTTT-eTat, D. TvrrT-ouedov, TvnT-eadov, rviTT-eodov, P. rvKT-ofieda, Tv-rrr-eode, rbiKT-ovrai. Imperfect, I was in the act of being struck. S. ETVTTT-OflTJV, ETVTZT-OV, ETVTTT-STO, D. krvKT-ofiedov, krvrtT-ecdov, ETVTVT-eadTjv^ P. kTVTXT-ofieda, eTVTZT-ecde, etvttt-ovto. Perfect, I have been struck. S. TETVfl-fiat, T£TV1p-ai, T£TV7ZT-at, D. T£TVfJ,-fJ.£0OV, T£TV-0OV, T£TV-6oV, P. T£TV/J.-/J.£da, TETV(j>-d£, T£TVjl-[l£VOt, ELOl. Pluperfect, I had been struck. S. ETETVfl-flTJV, ETETVtp-O, ETETVKT-O, D. ETSTV/I-flEdoV, £T£TV(j)-d0V, £T£TV-67}C, ETV^&n, D. £TV(f>-6r]Tov, ETV^-OrjTrjv, P. £TV-6t}geg8ov, P. rvQ-drjoofiEda, Tvfy-driGEodE, rvty-dfjaovTai. Second Aorist, I was struck. S. ETV7T-1JV, ETV7T-7JC, ETVTT-7J, D. ETVIT-VTOV, ETV7r-7}T7JV, P. ETV7T-7}fl£V, ETV7T-7JTE, ETV7T-7]CraV . Second Future, J shall be struck. S. TviT-7Jaofiac, tvk-tjgel, rvK-riaerai, D. TVK-TJOOflEdoV, TVK-TjCEodoV, TVTT-Tja£a6oV t P. TVTZ-Tiao^eda, rvK-^CEade, rvK-rjaovrai. 1. We have given in this, and the other second persons, the Attic ter- mination in si, as more correct than the common termination in y. 97 Third Future, I shall continue to le struck. S. Tervip-o/iai, rerinp-ei, TErinp-eTai, D. Tervip-o/uedov, Tervip-eodov, rerv^-Ecdov, P. Termp-Sfieda, rerinp-eade, rsTxnp-ovTai. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present, le struck. s. D. P. TVTTT-OV, TVTCT-ECdo, rvirr-ecdov, rvnT-icdav, TVIZT-EgOe, TVKT-EOdidOaV. Perfect, have been struck. S. D. P. TETVTp-O, TETV-dov, TETV-6uV, TETv-8ei7}c, tv^-6ectj, J). TV-d£l11TOV, TV(f>-dsi7}TnV, P. TV^-BeirjiiEv, rvf-dsinTE, ro, yg, 77, D. TETV/J.-fJ.£VO), 7JTOV, 7/TOV, P. TETV/J.-{X£VOC £>[X£V, 7JTE, UGL. First Aorist, 1 may have been struck. S. TV-6n(jo[j.£V7], rvQ-dnuouevov, G. rvip-dnaofj-ivov, Tv krerviT-eiv, > Pluperfect. TervTr-e, -Olfil, -CJ, -evat, -cog, 1st Future, rvip-0/j.at, -OtUTJV, -eodai, -ofzevog, 1st Aorist, krvip-dfiriv, Tvip-ai, -at/j.7}v, -ufxac, -aodai, -dfievog. 2d Aorist, kTVTT-6/J.TJV, TVTT-OV, -oturjv. -ufiac. -Ecdai, -6/j.evog, 2d Future, TV7T-OVfJ.ai, \-OLfl7]V, -eiadai, -ovfievog. Numbers and Persons. The only tenses of the middle voice that differ from those of the active and passive of verbs in G) are the first aorists of the indicative, imperative, and optative, and the gecond future of the indicative. INDICATIVE MOOD. First Aorist, I struck myself. S. ervip-dfj-rjv, ervip-o, krvip-aro, D. ervip-dfiedov, krvip-aadov, krvip-dadrjVy P. krvip-dfieda, £Tvip-aode, ervip-avTO. Second Future, I shall or will strike myself. S. rviT-ov{j,ai, rv7r-£t, Tvir-eirai, D. TVK-ovjiedov, Tvir-eladov, rv7r-eta6ov, P. rvir-ovfieda, TVK-elode, tvk-ovvto.1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. First Aorist, strike thyself. S. rvip-ai, rvip-dcdo), D. rvxp-aadov, rv-ifj-daduv, P. Tinp-acQe, Tvip-dcducav. OPTATIVE MOOD. First Aorist, may I have struck myself. S. Tvip-atfir/v, rv'ip-aio, rthp-airo, D. Tv-ip-aiuedov, Tvip-aiadov, rmp~ata6ijv t P. Tvip-aifieda, rvip-acode, rvip-aiVTO. 101 PARTICIPLES. First Aorist, having struck myself. N. rwj)-afj.Evog, Tvip-a.fi.ev7}, rvty-afiivov , G. Tvijj-a.fj.evov, rvip-afthng, Tvip-afievov. First Future, being about to strike myself. N. Tvty-ofievog, Tvip-o/zevn, rvty-ofievov, G. TVTp-OflEVOV, TVrp-0fXeV7}Cy TVIp-OfXEVOV. Second Future, being about to strike myself N. TVK-OVflZVOQ, TVK-OVfiivT], TVK-OVfieVOV , G. TVK-ovfievov, TVK-ovfievrjg, rvTi-ovfievov. The Greek verb, of the class in «, will now be consid- ered under the following heads : 1. Augment. 2. Formation of the Tenses. 3. Force of the Tenses. 4. Middle Voice. 5. Force of the Moods. 1. AUGMENT. 1. The Augments are two in number, the Syllabic and Temporal. 2. The syllabic augment belongs to verbs that begin with a consonant, and is so called because it adds a sylla- ble to the verb. 3. The temporal augment belongs to verbs that begin with a vowel, and is so called because it increases the time or quantity of the initial vowel. 4. Three of the tenses have an augment, which is con- tinued through all the moods, viz., the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum. 5. Three receive an augment in the indicative only, viz., the Imperfect and the two Aorists. 6. Three receive no augment, viz., the Present and the First and Second Futures* 12 102 RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 7. The true use of the augment is to mark an action which is either completely or partially past. Hence it will appear why the present and the first and second futures have no augment ; why the imperfect and two aorists have an augment only in the indicative ; and why the perfect, pluperfect, and third future, all three of which refer to a con- tinued action, have an augment continued throughout all the moods of the verb. 8. The augment originally was the same in the case of all verbs, namely, an e was prefixed, whether the verb be- gan with a vowel or a consonant. Traces of this old aug- ment are found in the early Ionic poets, and occasionally in Ionic prose ; as, edcpOr) for 7\ ^ c -i from dycj, " J carry?' 1 2. In kaXuna, kdX(o; eoifca, eoXna, sopya, in which the characteristic of the perfect middle (ol and o) could not be effaced. 3. In verbs which begin with a vowel not capable of being lengthened ; as, euOovv, from (bdeo) ; eoxjfiai, from the same ; ecdvoviirjv, from (bveofiaL ; tovpovv, from ovpecj. RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 1. The augment of the imperfect and the two aorists, in verbs beginning with a consonant, is formed by merely prefixing e ; as, ervrrrov, ervipa, ervnov. If, however, the verb begin with p, the p is doubled after the augment ; as, kppurrov, from plirro) ; eppeov, from peU), perfect earaX/ca. To this rule, however, there are the following exceptions: 1. The syncopated forms which be- gin with 7tt ; as, Trerrraiiai (for TreireraiiaL) ; but not so the other verbs in 7rr ; as, TrrepoG), e-rrrepcj- kol ; TTTfjGGG), eirrqxa. 2 . The verb fcrdoficu, of which the perfect fcefcrrjfiai is more used by the Attics, and e/crrifiai by the Ionians and older At- tics. (©.) If the verb begins with a mute and liquid, the reduplication appears in some cases, but in others is omitted. Mvdo) always makes \ii\iV7]\Lai ; and verbs whose second initial consonant is p receive the reduplication regularly ; as, dpefiG), perfect ds- dpdfiTjfca ; &pavG), perfect redpavica ; rpscpcj, per- fect T£Tpo(pa. On the other hand, it is generally 104 RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. wanting in verbs whose second initial consonant is X ; as, yXvnrG), perfect eyXvcpa. 4. The augment of the pluperfect is formed by prefixing e to the reduplication of the perfect ; as, rervcpa, pluperfect erervcpetv. 5. The third future passive, being formed from the per- fect of the same voice, has, like that tense, the reduplica- tion ; as, rerviponaL. RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 1. By the contraction of the augment e with the initial vowel of the verb, the following results are obtained : becomes n\ as, afcovcj, imp. TJfCOVOV. a n\ " eyetpG), " 7\yEipOV. it l; " IfCaVG), tt l/cavov. " w; " dvofj,d£G), a tdvoiia^ov. " v; " v6pi%G), it vbpi^ov. it VI " alpo), tt §pov. a 7\V\ " avi-dvoj, tt ijvi-avov. tt 7)v; " evxo[MU,, " T)VX0{17]V. a v; " oIkl^oj, it &kl£ov. 2. In some verbs, however, e becomes u ; as, e%a), el- Xpv ; edo), eltiv ; eAw, elXov, &c. 3. When a verb or verbal form begins with eo, the sec- ond vowel takes the augment ; as, eoprd^G), ecjpra^ov. So, also, in the pluperfects formed from the three perfects eoi- Ka, eoXttcl, and eopya, namely, e&neiv, ecoXneiv, and eti3/> yew. 4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a becomes rj, as already mentioned ; but the others, 7), co, I, v, are wholly incapable of being augmented ; as, i\TTdo\iai % imperfect rjrrcDfiTjv^ perfect fjTT7] into a ; as, rv\pG), ervipa. 1. These apparent anomalies admit of a very easy explanation. The old form of tyo* was e^cj, which was changed to exu, because two suc- cessive syllables cannot well have each an aspiration. But in the future the aspirate reappears, in consequence of the x being removed, in order to make way for the termination of the future, fw. In like manner, the old presents of Tpe and -&v(j>o), changed to rpecpu, &c, in order that two successive syllables might not each begin with an aspirate -, while in the future the first as- pirate reappears, the latter having been changed. £* P p eijjrjXa. E(pr\va. earetXa. KplVG), eitpZva. rjfivva. FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 109 In verbs of the fourth conjugation, namely, those ending in Xg), fj,G), vg), po), the short vowel of the penult is again made long by changing a into 7\\ as, ipaXXcj, a " 7] ; " (JMZivo), e " el; " gteXXgj, X " *■-> " tcptvG), v " -D ; " dfjLVVGd, But verbs in -pcuvoy and -taivG) have only a long a in the penult of the first aorist, without changing it into r\ ; as, nEpaivo), TTEpavG), Enspdva ; maivG), mdvoj, snidva. Later writers form also many others with long a, where, according to the general rule, the r\ should be employed ; as, Ear\\idva, from Gr\\iaivG) ; srcoiXdva, from KotXatvG). Some verbs, which have a in the future, lose it in the first aorist ; as, %eg), xevog), E%£va ; gevg), gevggj, egevo, ; (Ca£(x), KCLVGG), EfCTja. The Perfect is formed from the first future by prefixing the continued augment, and changing, in the First conjugation, ipo) into (f>a ; as, rvif)(o, r£rv*; !y; y; fidXXo), edaXov. TVTTTCJ, &TVTTOV. tcpvTTTG), etcpvdov. pdnrG), $ppd. The Attic Future is formed by throwing out a in -daa), -£, and -Sou, of the future, and then contracting the vowels thus brought into contact ; as, e^eXCd for e^eXaGG) ; eXw for IXaGG) ; dia- gkeSco for diaonedaoG) ; KaXd) for tcaXeoG) ; b\iov\iai for 6{i6aojj,ai ; fiaxelodat, for [lax^sodai, &c. REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 1. Future. 1 . The old future of all verbs ended originally in egg), and we still find oXegg) from oXg), and dpeao) from ap<*). 2. This primitive form in -egg) was changed by the iEo- lians into gg) by dropping the £ ; as, apo), apacj ; opo), op- gg); Kvpo), Kvpoo). The Ionians, on the other hand, changed the old form into eg) by rejecting a ; as, &Xeg), dpeoj, fevpecj, &c, while the Attics contracted this form into C) ; as, [ievg), p,£v£j ; gteXXg), gteXgj, Sic. 3. Thus, from the original form of the future in ego, which remained only in some verbs, two new forms arose, one in gg), and the other in eg), contracted w. 4. The future in w was chiefly used in verbs whose characteristic was X, jjl, v, p, that is, which ended in Xg), flu, vg), poj ; the future in ggj was, with a few exceptions, employed in the rest. 112 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 5. This future in gcj is generally denominated the first future, and the future in c5 is also a first future in verbs which end in /Uj, fio, vo, and po), but in other verbs it is called the second future. 6. In strictness, therefore, the second future is only a dialect variation from the first, and does not exist at all in verbs ending in Aw, jj,gj, vu, and po). 7. In changing the termination -egg) into ao), the conso- nants immediately preceding it are also changed according to the ordinary rules of euphony. Thus : (A.) The consonants 6, 6, r, £, are omitted before a, and the remaining consonants, n, j3, 0, k, y, %, are united with the a that follows into the double consonants if) and £ ; as, Kpimro), upvirreoo), apv- ipc) ; ayo), ayeou, ai-G) ; ttXekg), ttXekegg), ttXe^g). (B.) Double y makes y| ; as, Atyyw, hiyyeoo), XLy- (C.) If v precede r?, 0, r, £, it is thrown out ; but, in order that the syllable may remain long, an i is in- serted after £ ; as, cnevdcj, G7T£lgg). (D.) In other cases, however, particularly when the verb ends in £. (B.) Some verbs in eg) have egg) and tjgg) ; as, na- Xeg), KaXr\GG), Attic kciXegg) ; alveo, alvfjGG), Attic alveGO). Here two forms of the present appear to have been originally in use, one in w, making egg) in the future, and another in eo, making tjgg). (C.) Verbs in ao, whose final syllable is preceded by e or i, or by the consonants X and p, have the future in aGG). And this future is long if a vowel or the letter p precede ao) in the present, but oth- erwise it is short. Thus, edo), eclgg) ; dpdo, dpa- gg) ; but yeXdo), ysXaGO). (D.) But the following verbs in aw make tjgg) in the future, namely, GvXdo) and %pdo). Verbs which have o before the final do) have also generally rjGG) ; as, j3odo), ftorjGG). (E.) The termination 6g) makes ogg) in verbs which are not derivative ; as, oiwg), ojiogg) ; dpoo, apo-> GO), &c. 9. The verbs tcato and aXaiG), in Attic redo) and tcXdo), make the future in -clvgg) ; as, ftavGO), tcXavGG). 10. Verbs in Xo), [jlg), vg), pG), shorten the penult when forming the future ; as, dfivvG), dfivvti ; npivG), Kplvti. This arises from the circumstance of the tone in the future rest- ing on the last syllable. 11. Many barytone verbs are frequently formed by the Attics and Ionians, like contracted verbs, by changing o into r]G(x) ; as, fidXXc*), (3aXXrjGG) ; (36gkg), (3oGicr)GG) ; tvtttg), TVTTTTIGG). K2 114 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 2. Perfect. 1. Verbs in ficj and vo) presuppose a future in rjao) ; as, vefiG), veve/jLTjica ; fievcj, \Lt\iEvr\Ka. In these perfects the fu- tures vefifjOG), fievijoo) are presupposed, which, however, were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present vefieo, fieveo, &c. 2. Generally, r\ and e in the future and perfect are fre- quently interchanged. Thus deo) has 6r]O0) in the future, and dedeica in the perfect. On the other hand, Kakeo) has commonly in the future kclXzog), but in the perfect KetcXrjiia by syncope for K£Ka?i7]Ka. 3. Some verbs take 6) before k instead of r\ ; as. \is\i- 6Xo)fca for \LE\Lo\r\iia, where (3 is put between \l and A, as in fj,e<77]ii6pt.a. So olxwica. from olxofiai, instead of 0L%7]Ka ; and nen-ofca, from ttetg) or ttltztcj, instead of nenr^Ka. 3. Second Aorist. 1. As a short penult is required in the second aorist, it frequently happens that, when two consonants come together which lengthen the vowel, they are transposed ; as, depiccj, edpanov ; irepdo), enpadov ; where the original forms were edapKOV and enapOov. 2. Verbs pure have no second aorist, and the forms which do occur come from barytone verbs. Thus, ecrepov comes from arepo), not orepso) ; edovnov from dovno), not dovneo). 3. If the second aorist would only have been distinguished from the imperfect by a short penult, or if it would have differed in no respect, as to form and quantity, from that tense, the verb has no second aorist active. It may have, however, a second aorist passive. Thus, ypdcpcj has no second aorist active, but it has eypdcprjv in the passive. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 115 2. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. The Present is formed from the present active by changing 0) into Oficu ; aS, TVTTTb), TVTTTOfiai. The Imperfect is formed from the imperfect active by changing ov into 6\ir\v ; as, ervTTTOV, krvnr6\i7\v. The Perfect is formed from the perfect active by changing, in the First conjugation, \ J° P ure ™ to W ac ' *f ' ri J v ^ ™W<»- J & I a impure " fiat ; " TsTcpQa, Terepfiai. Second conjugation, % a " Jftac ; " /leAo^a, teheyfiai. Third conjugation, tea " c/mi ; " Tzefypana, ni(f>pa<7f£at. Fourth conjugation, /ca " ^ai ; " EipaTina, eipafyicu. In verbs of the third conjugation, however, na is changed into \iai when a long vowel or pa precedes the final sylla- ble ; as, cneipdo), cneipdoG), eGiretpafca, £cmeLpd[iai ; dpdo, dpdod), dsdpafta, dedpafiai ; (piXeo, (piXr\GG), nefiiXrjKa, irscpL- ?i7][Mll, &LC. But there are exceptions to this rule in the case of some verbs, which have a diphthong before the final a) of the ac- tive, since diphthongs have arisen from the short vowel made long; as, dtcovo), r\novG\Lai\ nraid), eirraiafiai; -&pavo), redpavojiac, &c. Verbs in acvo), which make -yita in the perfect active, make, after rejecting y, the termination of the perfect pas- sive in Glial ; as, (palvo), Trecpayrca, Tt£$aG\Lai. In some verbs the quantity is changed ; as, TrenGifca, ne- TTOfiat, from ttlvg) ; and dedojtca, dedofiac, from Scdofic. The vowel o in the perfect active, which was derived from e of the present, is again changed to e in the perfect passive ; as, kXstttoj, icefchocpa, KiitkE\i\iai ; 7T£[nro), TrinojJi- £XPV G ^1 V 5 eppurai, kpp&a6r\v ; 1. This is done from a principle of euphony, since TervTrvrai would be too harsh for the ear. The same remark applies to the pluperfect, and to the optative and subjunctive moods. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 117 TrenXTjrac, ETrXrjodrjv. On the contrary, asooxyrai makes EGGjdTjV. Some which have 7] in the perfect passive receive an e in the first aorist ; as, evprjrai,, evpedrjv ; errqvTjTai, eiryv- iBr\v ; d(\>^pr\rai, d^pid^v . From elprjrac the aorist is kp- pr\Qr\v and eppedrjv. Verbs which change e of the future into o of the perfect active, and into a in the perfect passive, take £ again in the first aorist ; as, earpanraL, EGTpi§Qr\v ; TerpaTrrac, erpecp- Br\v ; TsdpanTai, edpicpdrjv. The First Future is formed from the first aorist by dropping the augment, and changing Qr\v into Qi\ao\Lai ; as, erixpdrjv, rvcpdrjoofiat. The Second Aorist is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into 7}V ; as, ervnov, etvtttjv. No second aorist passive occurs in dqv, -&tjv, tt\v ; or from verbs in cj pure, except Efcdrjv, sddrjv, eppvrjv, k$vr\v. The Second Future is formed from the second aorist by dropping the augment, and changing r\v into 7\ao\iai ; as, Ervnrjv, Tvnr\ao\iai. The Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum, is formed from the second person singular of the perfect by changing at into o\iai ; as, tetv- IpCU, T£TV1pO[iat. 3. FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. The Present and Imperfect are the same in form as those of the passive voice, and are similarly formed. 118 FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. The Perfect is formed from the second aorist active by prefixing the reduplication, and changing ov into a ; as, etvttov, rervna. If the second aorist has a or e in the penult, the perfect middle changes this into o ; as, cmeipG), eanapov, eonopa ; eyeipG), rjyspov, rjyopa. But if the a in the penult of the second aorist comes from at or r\ in the present, or is long there by position, the perfect changes it into r\ ; as, [laivofiat., efidvrjv, p,i\n)- va ; nXrjooix), EnXayov, irETcXriya ; -&dXX(x>, eOclXov, TsdTjXa ; tcXd^G), EicXayov, KEK,Xr\ya. The exceptions to this rule are the following : repaid), etcpayov, KSKpaya ; rrpdaao), enpayov, Trenpaya ; cppd^cj, ecppadov, necppdda ; ado, edda ; aycj, " to break," sdya. If the second aorist has i in the penult from a present in ££, the perfect middle changes it into 01 ; as, ttelOcj, etu- Oov, TTenotda ; Xelttg), eXlttov, XiXonta ; elSg), l6ov, olda. But if i be already in the present, the perfect merely lengthens it after having been short in the second aorist ; as, rpi^o), Erpiyov, TETplya. In some verbs the penult of the perfect middle remains short ; as, dfcfjKoa, from dfcovo) ; sXrjXvda, from eXevOoj. On the other hand, we have nscpEvya, from (pEvyoj ; kekevBo, from KEvdu) ; rsrEv^a, from tevx^. The verb prjooo) makes Eppuya ; so, also, we have eoX- rra, from eXttcj ; sopya, from spyu) ; elojOo,, from eOo). Some perfects appear to be formed immediately from the present by changing o) into a, and prefixing the reduplica- tion ; as, dovrro), dEdovna ; 6lo), didta ; and so, also, avuya, for jjvuya. The Pluperfect is formed from the perfect by prefixing e, and changing a into elv ; as, TErvna, etetvttecv. REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES, 119 The First Aorist is formed from the first aorist active by adding \lt\v ; as, ervipa, ervipdfiTjv. The First Future is formed from the first future active by changing 6) into o\iai ; as, rvipoj, rvipo^ac, In verbs of the fourth conjugation w is changed into ov- jiai ; as, ipakti, ijjaXovfiat, The Secofid Aorist is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into o\iT\v ; as, ervniov, ETVix%6\ir\v . The Second Future is formed from the second future active by changing w into ov\iai ; as, tvttCj, rvv:ov\iai. REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 1. Present. 1. The true Attic termination 1 of the second person sin- gular is el. And this form is employed also to distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative. The termination in 37 for the second person of the present indicative belongs to the common dialect. 2. The old form of the second person was in -eoai, from which the Ionians made -eat, and the Attics -el. Thus, TVTTTeoac ; Ion. tvtttecli ; Att. tvtttei ; common dialect. 3. The old form in cat for the second person continued in use, I. In some contracted verbs ; as, ddvvdo^at, 66v- vdEoai ; fcavxdofiaL, Kav%deoai. II. In verbs in fit ; is, 1. The old rule used to be, that only three verbs retained this ec in the second person, namely, (3ov2,o/j.cu, oTrro/j-ai, and olofiai, making re- spectively (3ov2.ei, otpei, and olet. But the best editions now restore ec to the second persons of all verbs. Compare Porson, Prof, ad Hec. p. iv. 120 FORCE OF THE TENSES. lorafjuu, laraaai, &c. II [. In the perfect and pluperfect passive of all verbs ; the e, however, before the o, being dropped, and the double consonant brought in ; as, rervipai for reTvnsaat ; sTervipo for erer-Oneou. IV. In some ir- regular futures ; as, edopac, kdeoat ; (payopm, (pdyeaai. 2. Imperfect. The old form of the second person singular of this tense was ervrrreao, from which the lonians made ervTrreo, and the Attics krvixrov. 3. First Future. The second person singular of this tense ended original- ly in eocu, whence the lonians formed eat, and the Attics et. The form y belongs to the common dialect. 3. FORCE OF THE TENSES. General Remarks. 1. The time in which an action can take place is either present, past, or future. There are thus in Greek, as in ev- ery language, three principal tenses, the Present (6 evsa- rc5c), the Preterit, and the Future (6 fieXXoyv). 2. Of the present there is only one simple form in Greek, but for the preterit there are more than in any other lan- guage. 3. An action, for instance, is represented as either in itself and absolutely past, or as relatively past in respect to an- other time expressed or conceived. The aorist serves to denote the time entirely past ; the imperfect, the perfect, and the pluperfect, the relative time. 4. The imperfect (6 napdranicog) represents a past ac- tion as continuing during another past action, and accom- panying it ; the perfect (xpovoc rcapaneiiievoe tg> Trapovri) and pluperfect (6 VTrepovvreXutoc} designate an action com- pleted, but continuing in its immediate consequences to an- other time ; the perfect to the present, the pluperfect to a time past. # 5. In the same way the future is conceived under three modifications ; either as simply future, without reference to another action, as in the first and second futures active FORCE OF THE TENSES. 121 and future middle ; or as future and complete, as in the ■first and second futures passive ; or as future and wiih refer- ence to an action to take place in a still more remote futu- rity, as in the third future passive. Special Remarks. 1. According to what has just been remarked, the pres- ent, as in all languages, designates an action present and still incomplete ; while, of the three tenses of past time, the aorist marks a past action in itself, without any refer- ence to another action at the same or a different time. 2. The perfect, on the contrary, expresses an action which has taken place, indeed, at a previous time, but is connected, either in itself or its consequences, or its ac- companying circumstances, with the present time. Thus, eypaipa, "I wrote," signifies, indeed, the completion of the action ; but it does not determine whether the consequen- ces of it, namely, the writing which I have written, be still existing or not. On the contrary, yeypacpa, " I have writ- ten," besides indicating the fact of my having written, shows also the continued existence of the writing. In the same manner, yeydfirjtca, " I am married ;" on the contrary, eydfirjoa, " I married." Hence Kenrrjfiai signifies, " I pos- sess," properly, " I have acquired unto myself, and the ac- quisition is still mine." 3. The perfect retains its reference to a continued action through all the moods. Thus, 6 p,ev Xr\arr\g ovrog eg rbv TlvpupXeyeOovTa ejji6e6Xrjado), " Let this robber be cast into Pyriphlegelhon, and remain there.'"' And again, e^iovreg, elnov rr\v -dvpav tteKkeloQai, " On going out, they gave di- rections that the door should be shut, and kept so." 4. The imperfect expresses, 1. An action continuing du- ring another action which is past. It differs from the aorist in this, that the aorist marks an action past, but transient ; the imperfect an action past, but at that time continuing. Thus, rovg TreXraardg ede^avro (an immediate action) ol (3dp6apoL nal ep,dxovro (continued action) enel d' eyyvg fjoav (continued) ol bfrXlrai erpdirovTO (immediate); nal ol uev TreXraarai evdvg elttovto (continued). " The barbari- ans received the targeteers and fought ; but when the heavy armed men were near they turned away in flight, and the targeteers immediately pursued them." 122 FORCE OF THE TENSES. 5. The imperfect also expresses, 2. An action continued by being frequently repeated ; as, rbv gltov tov kv ry x<*>- pa dietydeipers Kal tt\v yiyv erefivere. " You destroyed, from time to time, the grain throughout the country, and you ravaged the land." 6. This same tense also expresses, on some occasions, an action begun or contemplated, but not completed ; or, in other words, an attempt not brought to a successful conclu- sion. As, EfiLodovTO, "he wished to hire" [Herod. 1. 68) ; and again, rdfi' eOvrjarce re/tva, " my children were on the point of losing their lives." 7! The third future passive refers to an action which will be permanent or continued in future time ; and it there- fore bears the same relation to the other futures as, among the tenses of the past time, the perfect does to the aorist. It is sometimes, therefore, in consequence of this, styled the Perfect's Future. Thus, ejioi de XeXscipsraL dXyea Xvypd, " while mournful woes shall continue to remain unto me." And again, 6 ttoXlttjc: ev KaraXoyco ovdeic fiSTsyypacprjoerat., aXX\ ticmep r\v to rrpoJrov, eyyeypdifjerat. " No citizen shall become enrolled in another class, but shall remain en- rolled in that in which he was at first." 8. Hence, of those verbs whose present marks only the beginning of an action, but the perfect the complete action, the third future is used in order to show that the perfect action is to happen in future ; as, Krdoficu, " / acquire ;" K£fCT7]/iat, "I possess;" KEKTrjao/iaL, "/ shall possess." Whereas KTrjaojiaL means merely, " / shall acquire for my- self." 9. The third future is therefore often used to express the rapidity of an action by taking, not the beginning of it, but its completion and the state resulting from it ; as, ttett- avaerai, " he shall instantly cease ;" TTETrpd^erai, " it shall be immediately done." It is this meaning which has ob- tained for it the less correct name of Paulo-post-futurum, namely, what will take place soon, or a little after the present. 10. Besides the simple forms of the future, there is also a periphrastic future, made up of jieXXg) and the infinitive of the present, the aorist, or the future, and corresponding with the Latin periphrastic future of the participle in urus and the verb sum. It answers to the English, " being about to do anything;" " intending to do a thing" &c. FORCE OF THE TENSES. 123 11. The aorist not only refers to instantaneous action, but is also frequently employed with the meaning, " to be wont." Thus, 7Jv rig tovtojv ri napadaivy tyr\\iiav ETxiQe- aav, " If any person transgress any one of these, they inflict punishment upon him" 12. The second aorist differs from the first in form alone, not in meaning. Two modes of forming the past or his- torical tense got early into use in Greece ;' the one gave that which we call the first aorist, the other that which we call the second aorist. The former, from its origin, was truly a distinct tense, having a system of terminations alto- gether peculiar to itself ; but the latter is little else than a slight modification of the imperfect. Usage early declared itself in favour of the former ; and, at the period when Greek literature began, the second form obtained only in a limited number of the more primitive verbs ; while every verb of more recent and derivative formation exhibited the first ex- clusively. In a very few words only are both forms to be found ; and even in these, the duplicates, for the most part, belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. In import, these two forms of the aorist never differed. 13. A satisfactory illustration of the principle which has just been stated in relation to the second aorist may be found in our own language. In English, also, there are two originally distinct modes of forming the common past tense : the first by adding the syllable ed, as in I killed ; the other chiefly by certain changes in the vowels ; as in / wrote, I saw, I knew, I ran, &c. Let the student call the former and regular form the first aorist, and the latter the second, and he will have a correct idea of the amount of the distinction between those tenses in Greek. The form ervipa in Greek is what / killed is in English ; that is, the regular form of the past tense, which obtains in a vast ma- jority of verbs : the form sXa6ov, on the contrary, is alto- gether analogous to / took, or / saw, acknowledged by all grammarians not as a second or distinct preterit, but as an instance of irregular variety of formation obtaining in certain verbs. 14. It may be objected to this view of the subject, that there are verbs in Greek in which both forms of the aorist occur. A careful examination, however, will prove that 1. Philological Museum, No. iv.,p. 197. Cambridge, 1832. 124 voices. the number of such verbs is extremely small compared with that of those which have only the one or the other aorist. But even here the analogy is supported by the English verb, since we meet with many instances in which English verbs retain both forms of the preterit. Thus, for exam- ple, / hanged, or / hung ; I spit, or / spat ; I awaked, or / awoke ; I cleft, I clave, or I clove. Such duplicates in Greek verbs are extremely rare ; probably there is not one Greek verb in live hundred in which they can be met with. The form called the second aorist is, indeed, common enough ; but, then, where it exists, that of the first aorist is almost always wanting. We have evpov, eXa6ov, eidov, TJyayov, eXlttov, edpafiov ; but the regular form is as much a nonentity in these verbs as it is in the English verbs / found, I took, I saw, I led, I left, I ran, &c. The first aorist in these would be sheer vulgarity ; it would be par* allel to I fnded, I taked, I seed. 15. In strictness, therefore, the Greek verb has but one aorist active ; that aorist, when regular, following the model of ervipa, but being sometimes formed less regularly, in another manner, like eXadov. JNow and then, in the variety of dialects and styles, two forms appear in the same verb, as in eneiGa and emdov ; one of these, however, as in this instance enetaa, being that in ordinary use, the other rare, anomalous, and nearly obsolete. 16. The second future, also, has only, in strictness, an existence in name, and the same principle may be applied to it as in the case of the second aorist. Verbs in Xo), fio, vg), po, have no second future ; in other verbs the second future is only a dialect modification of the first. 4. VOICES. The active and passive voices of the Greek verb have nothing very peculiar in their signification when compared with the corresponding voices of the Latin verb. We shall therefore confine our remarks to The Middle Voice. 1. The Middle Voice has been so called by grammarians, as having a middle signification between the active and passive, implying neither action nor passion simply, but a union in some degree of both. voices. 125 2. The principal usages of the middle voice are five in number. The first four may be called usages of reflexive, the fifth the usage of reciprocal signification. 1 I. Where A does the act on himself, or on what belongs to himself ; or, in other words, is the ob- ject of his own action ; as, dv:r\y^aro, " he hung himself;" KE&aXryv efcoiparo, " he wounded his own head" II. Where A does the act on some other object M, relatively to himself, and not for another person ; as, Karearpeif>aro rbv M.r\6ov, " he made the Median subject to himself." III. Where A gets an act done for himself, or for those belonging to him, by B. Thus of Chryses it is said, in the Iliad, that he came to the Grecian camp, Xvobfievoc tivyarpa, " to get his daughter released by Agamemnon, on the payment of a ran- som " that is, briefly, " to ransom his daughter." Whereas, of Agamemnon it is said, ovd' aneXvce tivyarpa, " he did not release her" namely, to Chryses. Under this same head may be ranked the following instances : dtdd^aodat rbv vlbv, " to get one's son instructed ;" Savsi^d), " to lend ,•" davsl^ojiac, " to get a loan for one's self" " to bor- row." IV. Where, in such verbs as Konroiiac, " to mourn;" cevo\iai, " to urge one's self on" the direct action is done by A on himself, but an accusative or other case follows of B, whom that action farther regards. Thus, snoipavro avrbv, " they mourned for him ;" i. e., they cut or lacerated themselves for him. ^evovrat avrbv, " they stir themselves in pursuit of him." 'JZriXXeodrjv avrbv, " they tore their hair in mourning for him." So, also, t v %pr\o~p,&v , " As often as he came into the presence of the king he mentioned some of the oracles." 2. With the remaining particles of time, which do not determine a space of time during which an action takes FORCE OF THE MOODS. 133 place, but a point of time before or until which something takes place, as, ewe , ear', av, irptv, pexpig °^-> tne optative is used, for the most part, in the same cases as with Iva and bg, " whilst? " as long as" has only the in dicative. 3. Optative after conditional particles. 1 The optative is used after conditional particles when the reference is to something that is merely possible or contingent. In this construction the optative is employed with av in the apodosis, or second clause of the sentence, to show that a case is adduced which is merely problemat- ical, while in the protasis, or leading clause, the optative is used with el, without av, as the condition itself is also only problematical. Thus, el rig rovg tcparovvrag rov nXrjdovg en' dperrrv nporpeipeiev, dfifiorepovg av (hcpeXrjae- lev, " If one would urge on to virtue those who control the multitude, he would benefit both." 2. But when the condition contains a determinately ex- pressed case, ei is used with the indicative in the leading clause. Thus, Soph. Antig. 925, dXX', el pev ovv rad' eariv ev deolg evtvxolev, nal rraldag nal yvvalnag, ktelvov- reg, " Slaying all, whomsoever they might meet, both children and. women" 2. From these, however, are to be distinguished those passages in which the optative is put after the relatives, in the sense which it usually has in independent proposi- tions. Here it regularly takes av, and is found even when a present action is spoken of. Thus, ovk eon rovrov ba- Tig av tcaranrdvoi, " There is no one who might slay this person." And again, ov yap eart, irepl orov ovrc av md- avejrepov elttol 6 pTjropiKog rj dXXog ootlgovv, " For there is nothing about which the rhetorician would not speak in a more persuasive manner than any other person whatsoever." 5. Optative in the " oratio obliqua." 1. When anything that has been said or thought by an- other is quoted as such, not as an idea or sentiment of the writer himself, and yet, not in the words of the speaker, but in narration (i. e., in oratione obliqua), the optative is frequently used and without av. Thus, ol 'A%apV7Jg end- ki^ov tov UeputXsa, on orparrrybg &v ovk ene^dyoi, " The Acharnians reviled Pericles, because, being commander, he did not lead forth against the foe." And again, Ticroa- £pv7)g fisv wfioGev ' 'AyrjaiXdoy , el OTxtioavro, eo)g eXOoiev, ovg ite/i^sle repbg fiaoiXsa dyyiXovg, " Tissaphernes took an oath unto Agesilaus, that, if the latter will make a truce with him until the messengers should return, whom he had sent to the king" &c. Here nefitpEie is used to indicate a mere assertion on the part of Tissaphernes, for the truth of which the writer does not mean to vouch. 2. In particular, the optative is put in this case after on or we, whether the action belongs to the present, past, or future time. Thus, ry 6s vorEpaia t\kev dyysXog Xsycov, on XeXotncbg eiTf Iivevveaig rd dfcpa, " On the following day, however a messenger came with the intelligence that FORCE OF THE MOODS. 135 Syennesis had left the heights ;" i. e., had left (XeXoincjg eci]) the heights, as the messenger said. And again, ay- yeZXcLL, bri (pdpfiatcov mcjv dnoddvoi, " To announce that, having drunk poison, he had died." Subjunctive. The general distinction between the optative and sub- junctive has already been given, but may here be stated again. These two moods both represent an action, not as something real, but rather as something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, however, is either something merely possible, probable, desirable, and, consequently, un- certain, or something which, as it depends on external cir- cumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the subjunctive. 1. Subjunctive in independent propositions. 1. The subjunctive is used without dv or ke in exhorta- tions in the first person plural ; as, lg){j,ev, " let us go ;" \iax^eOa, " let us fight." It indicates, therefore, that something ought to take place.* But in the second and third persons the optative is used, as implying more of un- certainty, when the speaker refers not to himself along with others, but to others merely. Thus, eX6o)[iev dvd da- rv, Kal gv yivoC dv ov ica/cog, " Let us go throughout the city, and do thou become not cowardly " The first person singular of the subjunctive is often found in exhortations in Homer ; as, ld(x)\iai, " let me see ;" Xla^u^ dvepa rovrov, " let me supplicate this man." 2. The subjunctive is employed in questions of indecis- ion and doubt, when a person asks himself or another what he is to do. In these cases it occurs, as in the pre- vious instances, without dv, and with or without an inter- rogative particle. Thus, av6t [ievg) fierd toZol, tjs Seg) us- rd a' avrtg, " Shall I wait there with these, or shall I run back again unto thee . ? " And again, rl , -Xdai, -ypsvoc, 1st Aorist M. kSe^dfirjv, de^-ac, -aiprjv, -oijirjv, -upac, -aadai, -apsvoc, 1st Future M. detj-ofiai, -EcQac, -opEVOC, 1st Aorist P. edexdrjv, 6ex6-7]Tt, -E17]V, -u, -7jvac, -EIC, 1st Future P. dsxdrjG-opai, -oifir/v, -oiurjv, -Eadat, •OpEVOC, 3d Future P. dedsg-0/j.ai, -Eadai, -OflEVOC 5. A few of these verbs have a second aorist middle ; as, irvvOdvopat, eTrvddfirjv. CONTRACTED VERBS. 139 CONTRACTED VERBS. 1. Verbs in aw, ew, and 6iXse, (piXec ; v, e^g, ££7. So, also, newx/v, dtiprjv, xPXl a Qa> 1 , XPV rat - 7. Dissyllables in so) are contracted in the imperative and infinitive only. Thus we say, nXio), TtXeofiev, aad not 7tXgj } nXov[i£V. 140 CONTRACTED VERBS. J § § » x e *§> vo s -a ^ ^o s; ' • : * i— •3 c o '3 © © Q g o~ o v 2 v ©\g* q -a^vo © *? ? *<3 H •S < Q s 5 e © fc o 7 v w 5» o o !• t> g H (5 § fa s < q c;,s?,Sf ,« c; o; c; | -Si J «3* »3 '3 ill & 3 3~ s ? 131 Ml xJi CONTRACTED VERBS. 141 •S'S'S^ *3<3«3 ,i'|'| ~ ,. . ~ . ~ Q3V>^trt ? v ? ^ ' ? - III *s S S O 2 jf *5\S? g vB vgj vo § V Q v w v o 4— s — - S > - gig w& H t- •©» *< S - - ■ B E << g r^§ '3- © S g" . i . w P <3 S to to «3 o o Ph I § § •3- © © *3 '3 '3 3. € i~ . ~ s" SS^? s 33 v ? i 142 CONTRACTED VERBS. J.IJ N 3 o o ^ ^ ^ V §; i: i-r: *3 "o o . „ v cT NO VO "=» « V 6 CONTRACTED VERBS. 143 <£'S »§ «a"V<3~ ' ■ ' .3 8~ ft* 2 o V S •3- © o vS .? vS §■ s? ? I- S o «.3^3 ^3* ; V S ^S v 3 ^3~ v 3~ v3"TS v o S3^3 S3 o « fc y t o £-©->< I- "©-X pi. , ; I || •■3 o o H T- *| SL !> ^ 8. a_^o- 8 8-S •8 'S o H .3" '3 »3 144 REMARKS ON VERBS. REMARKS ON VERBS IN (o. Active Voice. 1. In the third person plural of the imperative, in Attic, the termination -ovrcov is more usual than -eroxrav. The former occurs even in the Ionic writers ; as, //. 8, 517, ayyeXXovTtdv ; Od. 1, 340, mvovrcdv. The form -erooav, however, is found in the older Attics occasionally ; as, Thucyd. 1, 34, iiadiroaav ; Plat. Leg. 6, p. 759, D., (bepi- TGHJaV. 2. The form in ovtcjv was also used by the Dorians. Some Doric tribes omitted the v ; as, ttolovvtg), a-nooreiXav- t(o ; whence the Latin imperative in the third person plural, amantOy docento. 3. The optative in oifit, particularly in the contracted verbs, has also in Attic the termination -oir\v ; as, ttoloit^v, (f)tXoi7]v, diepo)TG)7]v, &c. This form oltjv is also found in Ionic and Doric writers. The termination in -oltjv oc- curs less frequently in the barytone verbs than in the con- tracted ones ; yet still we have, in Attic, dia6aXotr)v, a- voirjv, ttsttolOoltj, &c. 4. In some perfects in -r\K,a the Ionians rejected the let- ters 7]K in the dual and plural, not, however, in the singu- lar ; as, redvarov, redva/iev, teOvclte, redvdai. Besides Tedvrjica and earrjfca, the form (3s6r}fca is also syncopated in this way by the Attic writers ; as, (3e6afiev, fiebaoi, &c. 5. The primitive form of the pluperfect, which occurs in Homer and Herodotus, was -ea, in the third person -ee - T as, eyeyovse, a7ro6E6r]K££. Hence arose, on the one hand, the Doric form -Eta ; as, ovvayayoxeia, and, on the other, by contraction, the Attic form -r\ in the first person ; as, $(%. 0. Instead of the termination -eigclv for the pluperfect, the form egclv is almost universal in Ionic and Attic ; as, aKTfKOECfav, kyEyovEoav. 7. Instead of the fonn -ocfit, in the first aorist of the op- tative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive JEolic form -cm, -stag, -ele, after the example of the Ionians and Dorians, but only in the second and third persons singular and third person plural. REMARKS ON VERBS. 145 Passive Voice. 1. In the perfect optative the i is subscribed under the r\ or G) ; as, TETL/i'dixTjv, rerifiijo, TSTLfirJTo, &c. Instead of Heiiv%iii7}v, rcsiCTifjijirjv, &c, there was another form with oj. It seems, therefore, as if to the roots fiefivrj-, kektt]-, the form of the optative present had been appended, \le\ivt\oito, kekttjoito, whence came fMEfiviuTO and kektemto, con- tracted [is/jlvg)to. So {i£{ivow (fxsfivtio) is found in Xen. Anab. I, 7, 5. 2. The perfect subjunctive is exactly like the present of the same mood, -GJ[iai, -%j, -rjrai ; as, 7T££A and (ov in etc, because they formed the verbs in eg) and do) in 7]\ii ; thus they said, opstg, OT0i%Eig, from OpTjfM, OTOLXqiM' 248 DIALECTS OF VERBS. 15. The termination of the first aorist active, ag, aaa, av, was, in Doric, acg, aioa ; as, ravvoaic;, plipaig, reXe- oaig, &lc. 16. Instead of oxrav in the third person plural of the im- perative, the termination ov was very much used in Ionic, Doric, and particularly Attic ; as, e7reo6u)v, XegdoOov, fia- XeoOov, &c. 1. In verbs pure an e is inserted before sat, which the Ionic prose writers preserve unchanged ; as, diatpeecu, 7\\ii from (pad). 6. Verbs in \u have only three tenses of that form, name- ly, the present, imperfect, and second aorist. They take the other tenses from verbs in w. Thus, dldojpi makes <5g3- (70) and deSoica from doo. 7. Verbs in v\ii have no second aorist, nor the optative or subjunctive mood. When these moods are needed they are borrowed from forms in vg). 8. Verbs in \ii have no second future, second aorist pas sive, nor perfect middle. 1. Old form didr/fiL, changed to Tidrjfii, in order to prevent an aspi* rate from beginning two successive syllables. N2 150 ACTIVE VOICE. Moods and Tenses. Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. Jnfin. Part. rid-rifii, did-ofii, Seikv-vui, -adt, -ETl, -06l, -vdi, -avqv, -siqv, -OlTjV, -c5, -Q, -dvai, -svai, -ovai, -vvat, -ag, -tig, -ovg, -vg. 'iGTTJV, krWrjv, kdlduv, hdeinvw, > The rest like the present. £OT7jV, E07JV, eSuv, gttjQi, | crairiv, ■&££, -&EL7JV, dog, 1 doirjv, GT&, ■&&, do, GTijvat, "&£ivai, dovvai, crag, ■&sig, dovg. Present, Imperfect, 2d Aorist, The other tenses are regularly formed from verbs in -e, -Olfll, -Olfll, -Olfll, -Olfll, -aifii, -aifii, -Olfll, -Olfll, -Olfll, -Olfll, -«, -w, -u, -u, -Id, -u, -ElV, -ElV, -ElV, •ElV, -at, -at, -ivai, -evai, -ivat, -hai, -UV, -idV, -UV, -(OV. -ag, -ag. -6g, -ug, -6g, -6g. Pluperfect. Igttjkeiv or EiGrriKEiv, eteOeikeiv, e6e66keiv, kdeSelxeiv. Numbers and Persons. Present. Singular Dual. Plural. Igt-vui, vg, 7JGI, arov, arov, afiev, are, aai, nd-vfii, yg, 7JGI, ETOv, erov, EflEV, ETE, tiai, SiS-ofii, ug, UOl, otov, orov, OflEV, OTE, OVGl, duKV-Vfii, vg, VOL vrov, vrov. v/iev, VT£, VOL 151 lor-nv, krW-nv, kdid-ov, kdeiKV-vv, Singular. lar-nv, e6-7jv, id-uv, CJf, Imperfect. Dual, arov, aTTjv, etov, ettjv, OTOV, 0T7]V, vtov, vt7jv, Second Aorist. Dual. 7JT0V, 7]T7]V, erov, errjv, otov, orrjv, Plural, afiev, are, affav, EfiEv, ets, ecav, ofisv, ore, ocavj v[iev, vte, vaav. Plural. TjjJLEV, 7JTE, 7]cav t Efiev, ete, eoav, o/iEv, ore, ocav. Singular, lard-di, > rids-ri, f 6ido-0i, C rcJ} 6eIkvv-6l, J IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual. TOV, TG)V, Plural. TS, TQOCIV. GT7J-6t, GTTjTOy 6e<;, 6eto), 66c, dorcd, Second Aorist. Dual. ct7jt0v, gtijtov, Oetov, 6etov, Sotov, dortov, Plural. CT7JTE, GTfjTUOaV, Oete, Qkrucav, Sore, doTuoav. Singular, larai-nv, \ Tidsi-nv, > 7]£, Tf dtdoi-flv, ) Singular, arai-nv, i 6ec-7]v, > 7jg } ijj ioi-nvy ) OPTATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual. Plural. npev, vte, ncav, and Second Aorist. Dual. Plural, qfiev, Tjre, Tjcav, and 152 Singular, lar-ti, yg, y, rid-ti, yg, y, 6i8-£), dg, rov, rjrov, fjrov, tirov, Plural. &fiev, 7}re y (iai t tifiEv, rjre, tiac t tifiev, wre, €>ai. Plural, Second Aorist. Dual. arrjrov, arrjrov, I arti/iEV, arf)rs, aru>oi t drjrov, drjrov, d&fiEV, dfjrs, 6&ai, d&rov, durov, \ dtifxev, dure, dual. lardvai. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Tcdevai. didovai. SecKvvvat. Second Aorist. cravat. ■&eivai. Sovvai. PARTICIPLES. Present. Second Aorist. lar-dg, rid-dq, did-ovg, deinv-vg, aaa, elaa, ovaa, vaa, dv, ardg t ev, &eig, 6v, dovg, vv. 1 PASSIVE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. ardaa, ardv, ■&siaa, tier, dovaa, 66v. Present. Imperfect, 4 Indie. Imp. | Opt. Subj. Inf. Part. lar-a/xai, rld-Efiai, did-o/j,ai, > deiKV-vfiai, -aao, -EGO, -oao, -vao, -at,fj,r]v, -Eifir/v, -oifzrjv, -ufxai, -Qjuai, -u>/uai, -aadai, -sodai, -oadai, -vadai, -ajuevog, -EfJLEVOg, -6/j.Evog, -vfisvog. lard/irjv, kride/urjv, k6t.66fi.7jv, k6eiK.VUfJ.7JV, \ The rest like the present. 153 Tenses formed from Verbs in G). Perfect, Plup., 3d Fut. ■I 1st Fut. Indie. Imp. Opt. 1 Subj. Iafin. Part. 'iGT-auai, red-etfiai, Ssd-ofiac, 6e6-etyjiai, -aao, -eiao, -ogo, -aifinv, -eijjLTjv, -0L[M7]V, -UGdai, -eiGOac, -6g8cu, -elxOcLt, -afiEvog, -ElfXEVOg, -Ojievog, -£CJfl£V0g. eara[j,7jv, kreQel[ir]v, £6e66/27]V, £deSeljfj.T}v, \ The rest like the perfect. earcKJ-ofiat, Tedei(j-Ofj.cu, dedoG-Oftcu, EGrddnv, kredriv, kdodrjv, kSeixOvv, -oifcrjv, -0i/J,7jV, -oifirjv, -ecdat, -£G0at, -EGdat, -6/u.evog, -OflEVOg, -6/u.Evog. Grdd-7]Ti, teQ-wtl, 666-rjTL, -eirjv, -£L7]V, -eirjv, -7JVO.L, -fjvai, deixQ-ijvaL, -£tg, -£ig, -eig, -£cg. aradrja-Ofiat, redr/c-ofiac, Sodrjo-ojiaL, 6eLx67JG-ofiai, -OLfllJV, -oifcrjv, -0i/J,7]V, -£G0ai, -ecdai, -£G0ai, -£G0at, -o/iEvog, -oftsvog, -ofi£vog, -ofi£vog. Singular, lora- UKVV- ride- ( dido- C ' Sukvv- J Numbers and Persons. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual. :6ov, odov, cdov, - ( kdeiKVV- / kdido- Imperfect. Dual. finv, go, to, [ieBov, gQov, oBnv, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. iora- 6l6o- deinvv- g6u, cdov, gOuv, Plural, fieda, c6e, vtch. Plural, fieda, ode, vto. Plural, ode, cduaav, 154 OPTATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual, larai- ) ridei- > finv, o, to, jxeOov, cdov, advv, didol- ) J j Plural, fjeda, ode, VTO. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present. Singular, lar-ufjac, ?j, yrai, Tid-tifiat, ri, yTCu, did-tifiat, &, or at, Dual. 6/xeOov, jjodov, fjaOov, 1 oiieQov, ijadov, jjadov, 6)[xe6ov, ogOov, uadov, \ Plural. G)/j.eda, fjads, uusda, ijade, ujiEda, ucOe, iovraif tivrai, tivrai. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. loTaodai, rideadaL, didoadai, deinvvcdai. Present. IcrdfJEV-oc, x tiQeijev-oc, f dt66/j.Ev-oc, I 6elkvvuev-oc, y ov. MIDDLE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. The present and imperfect are the same as in the pas- sive. The Second Aorist. ? Indie ] Imp. Opt. Subj. taTu.fj.nv, 1 crdoo, kd£/J.T]V, -&ECO, kddfinv, j doco, OTaifivv, ■&£LfJT]V, doifiTjv, GTOfjat, ■d-ti/Liai, dufiai, 1st Future, GTaaQai, ■&Eo6ai, docdai, Tenses formed from Verbs in 0). Earnaufirjv, kdnKufirjv, kdoKa.fj.7jv, kdEL^UfJTjV, GTJ]G-Ofiai, ■&T](T-0fiai, dua-ouai, deitj-oixai, arufisvoc, ■&EUEVOC, 66/JEVOC. arfia-ai, -alfirjv, -ofiat, -aadac, -a.fj.EVOC, dti^-ai, :: :i -aifvnv, * -oifivv, -U/J.CU, -acdat, -Ecdat, -aflEVOQ. -Ofuevog, VERB. 155 Numbers and Persons.^ INDICATIVE MOOD. Second Aokist. kara- m- k66- Singular r > [IT)V, GO, TO, Dual, [isdov, gOov, gOvv, Plural, fieda, g8s, vto. IMPERATIVE MOOD Second Aorist. Singular. Dual. Plural. ord' 66- £ go, g8o), g6ov, g6uv, OPTATIVE MOOD. Second Aorist. g6e, gOogov, Singular. Dual. Plural. OTCU- ■&ei- 6oi- > unv, o, to, jiedov, cdov, cdrjv, [ieda, g6e, vto. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Second Aorist. Singular. Plural. GT-u(iai, 7}, yTai, 1 o)/j,e8ov, fjodov, rjadov, \ 6ue6a, 7jg6e, uvrai, &-wuai, rf, rjTat, 6ue6iv, tjgOov, 7)g6ov, 6ueda, 7]gQe, uvTat, 6-fiuat, G>, C)Tai, \ 6fie6ov } cogOov, ugOov, j uiieda, ugOe, uvTai. INFINITIVE MOOD. Second Aorist. OTUodai, ■&eGdai, doodai. 66- PARTICIPLE. Second Aorist. /xEvog, fiivn, fisvov. 156 REMARKS ON VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. ACTIVE VOICE. The Imperfect is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and changing \ii into v ; as, rld?]fii, kridr\v. The Second Aorist is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; as, sridrjv, sdrjv ; or by changing the improper reduplication into the augment ; as, cgttjv, eottjv. PASSIVE VOICE. The Present is formed from the present active by shortening the penult and changing \ii into \iai ; as, loTTjfU, iord[iac. The Imperfect is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and changing \iai into \ur\v ; as, rldejiai, etlQe\i7\v. MIDDLE VOICE. The Second Aorist is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; as, ende^irjv, edefirjv ; lard[i7]v, k,Grd\x7\v, REMARKS ON VERBS IN \u. 1 . The number of verbs in \ii, in the Attic and common dialects, is very small, and among these few are only four which have a complete conjugation peculiar to themselves, namely, tl6?]jil, lr\\ii, lgttjiil, and dcdofii. 2. These verbs were chiefly used in the iEolo-Doric dialect ; and in the writers of that dialect verbs very fre- quently occur in the form f.u, which in other dialects termi- nate in da), eg) ; as, vifCTjfii, (poprjfic, for vlkug), (popid). 3. These forms in [u are to be regarded as among the REMARKS ON VERBS. 157 oldest in the language, and occur frequently in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. After the dialects arose, the Ionic and Attic retained some of these verbs, namely, those above given (§ 1) and those in v(ii, instead of which they very seldom use the forms in vo). The iEolic, however, which retained the most of the ancient language, continued to use the greater part of them. 4. Historically considered, then, the verb in \li must have been at least as old as those in co, and of more extensive use than appears in the works which have come down to us. 5. The first aorists in ica, of verbs in fit, are thought to have been originally perfects, and to have been subsequent- ly used as aorists, when a peculiar form was introduced for the perfect. 6. The aorists in rca have not the rest of the moods after the indicative ; and, therefore, in giving the moods and tenses, we cannot say ed^aa, -&rjicov, tirjitaLiii, &lc, but must pass to the second aorist ; as, edrjfca, $£c, -&ei7]v, &c. 7. In Ionic and Doric the forms eo), aw, 6(o, often occur in the present and imperfect singular, with the reduplication ; as, rcOeig, eiUTidelg, dtdolg, edidovg, &c. 8. In the third person plural the form act is used by the Attics, which occurs also frequently in Ionic, and hence is called Ionic ; as, rtdedGL, didoaot, &c. 9. The first aorist in tea occurs in good writers almost exclusively in the singular and in the third person plural. In the rest of the persons the second aorist is more used, which, again, hardly ever occurs in the singular. 10. The optative present and second aorist, as in the aorist passive of verbs in o), have in the plural, in the poets as well as prose writers, more commonly elfxsv, sire, fXev ; alfiev, aire, alsv ; olfxev, olre, olev ; instead of elrjfiev, elrjre, &c. 11. In the verb iGr^fic, the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- ond aorist have an intransitive meaning, " to stand ;" the rest of the tenses a transitive one, " to place." Thus, ea- rrjfca signifies " / stand ;" elorrjfceiv, " / was standing." But earrjv, " J stood" as a transient action. 12. The form tar ana, which is found in the common grammars, occurs in later writers only, and in a transitive sense, " / have placed." The Doric form eardfea^ with the long penult, is distinct from this. O 158 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN fit may be divided into three classes, each containing three verbs. I . From eo) are derived el\ii, to be ; ti\ii and lr\\ii, to go. II. From £G) are derived lt][u, to send ; r\\iai, to sit ; elficu, to clothe one's self. III. Kelpai, to lie down ; lor\\ii, to know ; (})7j[il, to say. CLASS I. 1. "Eifii, to be, has been before conjugated, as it is used in some of its tenses as an auxiliary to the passive voice of verbs in G). 2. Efyii, to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural, ei/ii, elg or el, elai. itov, itov. ifiev, ire, ecai, mji ox laai. Imperfect. qeiv, Tjeig, fiei. J tjeItov, qeirnv. J tfeifiev, tjeite, fjEioav. Future, elau. . First Aorist, ilea. Perfect, shea. Pluperfect. IK-EIV, Eig, El. | EITOV, EIT7JV. J El\lEV, SITE, ELCaV. Second Aorist. 10V, iff, IE. LETOV, UtTJV. j lOflEV, IETS, COV, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. id i or eI, Ira. J lrov,~ Itov. Its, Iraaav. Second Aorist. le, Ietq. I lerov, Utov. hre, leroaav IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 159 OPTATIVE MOOD. Second Aorist. Singular. Dual. Plural. loi/U, lOig, LOL. j COLTOVy LOLTTJV. \ lOLflSV, lOLTS, LOLSV. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Second Aorist. lo), lye, lij. | Itjtov, It]tov. | lufiev, tyre, loot. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Second Aorist. levai. iuv, iovaa, lov. REMARKS. 1. The Attics regularly use the present tense of u\u in a future sense, " / will go." This usage occurs also in Ionic. The form eioojiai, occurs in Attic only as the future of olda. 2. The form si is more used in Attic than elg. Homer has also slada, II. 10, 450, &c. 3. In the imperative, the form 18 1 is more used than el. For LTGioav we have occasionally, in Attic, ltcjv. 4. The imperfect jjeiv is nothing more than the form elv with 7] as a prefix, analogous to which are the forms rjet- deiv and r\iov. The form rj'ia, Attic §a, also occurs, and is erroneously regarded by some as the perfect middle, just as r\ELv is sometimes miscalled the pluperfect middle. The best grammarians regard rj'ia as merely an Ionic form for ijeiv ; just as in ridrjfii, the Ionic eridea is the same as eridrjv ; and in el\ii, I am, the Ionic rja is the same as r\v. 5. The form rja never has the signification of the perfect, and rjecv never that of the pluperfect ; but both forms agree in this respect, and designate generally a time past, either absolutely, or with reference to another time ; that is, they stand for the aorist and imperfect. 6. From what has "been said respecting rjeiv, it will be seen at once how erroneous it is to subscribe the i under the r\. This mistake arose from the tense in question being regarded as a pluperfect, and deduced from r^a. In 160 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. %ia the subscript i is correct, since this form is contracted from ijia. 7. We have called Icjv the second aorist participle, since it follows the analogy of the aorist participle in hav- ing the accent on the ending. Others make it a present participle. 3. "lrj[jLi, to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. Ijjfii, lrj£, Irja. hrov, lerov. J lefiev, iere, hlci. Imperfect. ■ lecav. OPTATIVE MOOD. Present. lecTj. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Present. Uvai. lets, Uvtoq. MIDDLE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. Xe-fiai^ cat, rai. \ [xsdov, cBov, cBov. \ [ieBa, cBe, vrat. Imperfect. ie-finv, oo, to. | /xedov, cdov, cBtjv. \ peSa, cde } vio. IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Present. hco, lecBa. iipev-oe, q, ov. INFINITIVE. Ucdai. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 161 CLASS II. 1. "lr^i, to send. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Inpi, Ing, Itjgi. Dual, lerov, Ibtov. Imperfect. Plural, lefiev, lere, ielai. Inv, Ing, In. J lerov, lernv. \ First Future. le/xev, lere, leaav, $<7-w, eig, el. erov, erov. o/zev, ere, ova. First Aorist. Perfect. Pluperfect. qua. ElKd. Second Aorist. eltcetv. ijv, t)g, 7}. erov, ernv. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. e"/iev, Ire, iaav. Ie9i, leru. lerov, lercov. Second Aorist. lere, leruaav. Ig, tru. erov, IridV. OPTATIVE MOOD. Present. ere, eruaav. Ui-nv, ng, n. nrov, jjrnv. npev, rjre, noav. First Future. Perfect. %COl{J,l. 1 Second Aorist. ElKOlflL. el-nv, ng, n. nrov, 7]rnv. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present. nfiev, nre, naav. lu, lys, ly- J ifirov, Ifjrov. J 02 lujiev, Itjte, luau 162 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. Singular. bIk-u, 7?f, 77. fa Perfect. Dual. tjtov, tjtov. Second Aorist. tjtov, tjtov. Plural. UflEV, TJTE, lets, Present. Isvai, Perfect. e'tKsvai. Present. ulca, Perfect. I TjTOV, TjTOV. I UflEV, TJTE, INFINITIVE MOOD. First Future. TJCEIV. Second Aorist. elvai. PARTICIPLES. First Future. fjcov, rjcovca, rjcov. Second Aorist. elca, hv. eltcoe, eltcvia, etKog. eZc, PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual. iv, cdov, cdov. J Singular, le-fiat, cat, Tat. J Plural. 6a, cde, ie-pijv. i-fiat, TO. J CO, l-fl7]Vu P. P. Future. eIcojiou TO, Imperfect. sdov, cdov, cdrjv. J jusda, cde, vto. Perfect. edov, cdov, cdov. \ fieda, cde, vrai. Pluperfect. edov, cdov, cdtjv. J fisda, cde, vto. First Aorist. First Future. edrjv and eldrjv. [ idqcoficu. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 163 MIDDLE VOICE. Present and imperfect like the Passive. 1 First Aorist. Dual. Singular. jjK-afinv, u, aro. \ %o-oftai, el, erai. \ i(l7]V, 1(70, Iro. First Future. ', eoBov, eodov. Second Aorist. 'ifcedov, eoQov, eodrjv. etoo, elado. lao and ov, iodu. IMPERATIVE MOOD, Perfect. [ eladov, eIo6qv. Second Aorist. I 'ioQov, eadcov. 7]GOC-/I7]V, el-urjv, (DfUU, OPTATIVE MOOD. First Future. to. \ fiedov, odov, cdrjv. TO, Second Aorist. fiedov, odov, oOjjv. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, Second Aorist. r/Tai. [ uLiedov, rjodov, tjoOov. Plural, d/usda, aods, avro. SfiEda, sode, ovrai. £/j,eda, Sods, Ivto. slode, slodaoav. fade, fodaoav. fieda, ode, vto. fieda, ode, vto. tifieda, qode, uvrat. INFINITIVE MOOD. First Future. Second Aorist. fjOEodai. lodai. PARTICIPLES. First Future. Second Aorist. TjOOflEV-OQ, TJ, OV. i[lEV-OQ, 7], OV. 1. The middle form le/uai is used in the sense of " to hasten; 1 " lit- erally, 'to send one's self on." Hence arises the kindred meaning of " to desire ;" i. e., to send one's self after anything, in which sense it is the root of ifiepor, " desire" 164 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 2. r Rficu, to sit. 1 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. 7}/iac } rjaai 7 rjrai. \ q/isdov, %cdcy, yodov. j rjfieda, tjcOe, %vtcu.* Imperfect. fjflTjVy TjCO, 7jTO. J riflEdoV, Tjodov, 7}v. J fjcOe, qadaaav. INFINITIVE. Present. ijcdai. PARTICIPLE. Present. T][IEV-OSj 7], 01 3. Efyzcw, to clothe one's self. Singular, elfiai, eluat, elrat, and Elarai. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual I I Pluperfect. elfinv, elao, and 'iaco, ] elro, eIoto, Zeoto, and foro. kaa- kELC- First Aorist. > afirjv, «, aro. j dfiEdov, aadov, dcQnv. Plural. — elvrat. elvro. afiEda, acds, avro. 1. This verb is considered, by many grammarians, as a perfect pas- sive from 'io, I set, being for elfiai, slaai, &c. The compound Kddrjfxat is more common than the simple verb. 2. For rjvrai the Ionians used 'iarai, and for rjvro, in the pluperfect, faro ; for which the poets said Elarai and daro. 3. The accent is on the antepenult, on account of the present signifi- cation. The true accentuation, if rjnevor be regarded as a perfect par- ticiple, is on the penult, ypivos. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 PARTICIPLES. Present and Perfect. First Aorist. elfievog. iaadftevoc. CLASS III. 1. Kelpac, to lie down. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. KeT-fiat, cat, rat. \ fiedov, adov, adov. \ fieda, ode, vrai. Imperfect. kitei-firfv, ao, to. \ fiedov, adov, adi]v. | fieda, ads, vro. First Future. Keia-o/iat, ec, erai. | ofiedov, eadov, eadov. \ Sueda, eade, ovrai. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. ksXco, Keiadu. | Keladov, neiodcov. I nelcde, tcetoducav. OPTATIVE MOOD. Present. Keoi-firjv, o, to. j fiedov, adov, cdrjv. j fieda, ade t vto. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. First Aorist. Keufiai. netoofiai. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Present. Keladai. I nelfiev-oc, jj, ov. 166 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 2. "Igtj/jh., to know. 1 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. . I ausv, are, and > ■> la-tyu, rjc, yci. arov, arov. r ' an( J ^ J aoL? Imperfect. , l I auev, are, aaav, and iG-qv, vg 7j. arov, arnv. I ~ ' ' ' IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. la-adt and 6i, dru and J arov and tov, arov 1 are and re, arcoacw, to. and tov. \ ruaav, and tuv. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Present. iadvai. laa-g, ca, v. MIDDLE VOICE. 3 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Singular. Dual. Plural. laa-fiai, cat, rat. J [zedov, cdov, adov. J fieOa, cde, vrat. Imperfect. icd-firjv, ca, to. J fzedov, adov, cdrjv. j fieda, cde, vto, INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Present. Present. Icacdai. icdfisv-og, 7], ov. 1. The verb Icrjfxt. occurs in the singular only in Doric writers ; &% laafii, Theocrit. 5, 119. According to the grammarians, olda/nev, the first person plural of olda, was changed by the Ionic writers into Id/nev, which the Attics softened into iausv, and from this last was formed a new present, namely, the verb la^fzc. i 2. In common use, the dual and plural of the present tense alone oc- cur. For the singular olda is employed. Thus, olda, olada, olds ; dual, Ictov, iotov ; plural, Ic/iev, lore, icaci. 3. The passive loauai is not in use. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 167 Singular, ty-TJV, &TU. al-7]v t > 0??» 3. $r]fJ>i } to say. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Dual, (parov, (parov. Imperfect. arov, &tt]v. Plural. ' ' ' | //ev, re, ev. First Aorist. atrov, aifqv. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. | tyrjrov, fjTov> | aijxevy aire, aiev. iouev, 'TjrSf uai, INFINITIVE. Present. dvac. First Aorist. (pjjoau PARTICIPLES. Present. 0af, a-{i7]V } CO, TO. tyao-u, do. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. j 6ov, 6uv. fieda, ode, v fzeda, ode, i 6e, daoav. INFINITIVE. Present. (p&odai,. PARTICIPLE. Present. , &c, ; second aorist, rjyayov \ infinitive IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 of the second aorist, dyayetv ; second aorist middle, Tjyayojirjv (all these three with the Attic reduplication) ; perfect, rix a i Doric hyrjoxa. *AEipu, " I raise up," used only in the participle, decpov ; participle passive, decpo/ievoc ; participle of the first aorist active, deipae ; of the first aorist middle, dsipafievog ; of the first aorist passive, depdeic ; and in the third person singular of the first aorist passive, depBrj ; the third person plural of the same tense, uepdev ; the third person singular of the pluperfect passive, aopro. All its remaining forms are deduced from alpu. *'AES2, infinitive, arjvat or a7}fi£vcu, " to blow," retains the long char- acteristic vowel also in the dual and plural, as well as in the passive. Present passive, urjfiaL ; first aorist active, deaa ; first aorist infinitive active, aeaai, " to sleep." Alveo, " J praise," future, alvica, &c. ; perfect passive, yvrjfiai ; but first aorist passive, yved^v. Alpeu, " / take," future, alprjaa ; perfect, f/prjica, Ionic, upaiprjua ; perfect passive, yprjfiaL ; first aorist passive, ypidrjv. The second aorist is borrowed from the obsolete root 'EA12, and makes z'ikov, infinitive iXety, for the active ; and ei?i6/j.7]v, infinitive iteadai, for the middle. Alpu, " / raise," future, apfi, &c. Aladdvofxac, " I feel " future, aladijaofiai, &c. ; second aorist, yado- fXTjv ; perfect, yadrjixai. *AKax[tevoc t " pointed," perfect participle passive, from an unusual root, which may be 'AKAZS2 or 'AK(2, according as a reduplication is assumed or not in aK.axfJ.evog. *'AKAXG, " J afflict," second aorist, rjnaxov ; first aorist, ijKaxrioa or a/cd^ca ; second aorist middle, i]Kaxofirjv or aKaxojirjv ; perfect passive, aKuxtipcu and aK7Jx £ f J ' ac j third person plural perfect passive, a,K7]xedarai for aKTjxtvrai ; third person plural pluperfect passive, anax- eiaro for dudxrivTO. *'A7ie£lvg), " i" avoid," to which the epic forms of the first aorist mid- dle are, rfkzvaro or dlevaro ; participle, dTievdftevog ; infinitive, akiaa- 6ai and akevaadat, deduced from a root 'AAE without a. 'AAefw, " I avert," future, discoid ; and, from 'AAEKQ, the first ao- rist middle infinitive, a"kel-aodai. From the syncopated form 'AAKJ2, and by reduplication, are formed the epic second aorist infinitive, aka'k- keIv, &c. 'AXdatvo, " I heal," future, d?Srjau ; second aorist middle, *dW6u7]v y with an intransitive signification. 'AXiaKOfiat, " I am caught," from 'AAOS2, future, dluaofiai ; second aorist active (with a passive signification, " i" was caught"), rfkuv, Attic idXuv ; second aorist infinitive, dTiiovai ; second aorist subjunctive, d/US, 172 CATALOGUE OF dAwc, &c. ; second aorist optative, dTioinv ; participle of second aorist, a?iov<; ; perfect, rjTiuna, Attic taXoica (in a passive signification, " I have been caught"). *'A2,iTalva), " I sin," future, akiTrjoa ; second aorist, rfkirov ; second aorist middle, rfkiroiinv. Also dhiTrjfievog, as present participle middle, from an accessory form, akirrifii. "Allofiat, " I spring" future, akovjiai ; first aorist, foafinv ; second aorist middle, rfkoiinv ; epic, in the second and third persons, syncopated and without aspiration, akao, akro. *'AJiv<7ko), " I shun," future, akv^u ; first aorist, rfkv^a. 'Ajj-apTavo, "I err," future, djiapTrjaofiai ; perfect, fjfidpTnita, ; second aorist, rjfiaprov, epic rj^porov. 'AfiBlicnto, " I miscarry," future, dfiSTioao, &c, from 'AMBAOG. 'KfiiTEX^ and afimaxvov/xaL, see under v E^w. ^kfiTcTiaKLGKa, " I err" or " miss," future, dfnrlaKrjau ; second ao- rist, riinzkanov ; second aorist infinitive, ainrlanelv. 'Afj.(j)t,evvvfit, " I dress," 'AM^IEG, future, dfifisoo, Attic, afKpiu ; first aorist, Tjfxfyieaa ; perfect passive, riii§iEO[iai, dfupielfiai. 'AvaliGKo, " I consume" or "spend," forms from ava\6u> the future, ovc^lcjo-w ; first aorist, dvd?Mca ; perfect, avdloKa, both unaugmented with the Attics ; but in Ionic with tbe augment rjvaktjua or avifkuKa. : 'Avddvu, " I please," imperfect, rjvdavov, an&eavdavov epic, also £^v- davov ; second aorist, eaoov epic, and also adov, besides the third per- son, evade ; second aorist infinitive, ddetv ; perfect, 'idda and edda ; fu- ture, ddrjau. *'Avr]vo8ev, third person singular of the perfect middle, to denote a finished action, " gushes forth," " rises up ;" to be derived from 'AN0G, allied to dvdeu, " I flower." 'Avoiyo or hvoiyvvy:i, see Olyu. *"Avuya, an old perfect form of uncertain derivation, and with a pres- ent meaning, " I command" or " commission." First person plural in a syncopated form, avoyfiev ; imperative, dvuxdc, besides rjvuyea as a plu- perfect. Hence a new present, dvuyu ; imperfect, fjvuyov and rjvuyeov ; future, dvutjo ; first aorist, rjvul-a. *'ATznvpcjv, as first person singular and third person plural of the im- perfect, with also an aorist signification, " I took away ;" second person, OTrvvpac ; third person, drrnvpa, from an assumed radical form, uiravpaw, of which, however, nothing occurs besides the forms just enumerated. To it a-novpaq belongs as a participle, although their connexion does not admit of being clearly pointed out. *'A7ra0/c7cw, " I deceive," second aorist, fjirafyov ; second aorist infin- itives aTrafelv ; future, aTva&rjoo. \ IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 'ATrexOavofiac, " I am hated," future, dnexQy ao l iaL > perfect, aiziJxOn- [icu ; second aorist, dTTT]x66jj,r]v. 'ApaptGKG), " I Jit," second aorist, rjpapov ; future, apau ; first aorist, ■qpca ; first aorist middle, rjpadfirjv. The perfect middle, updpa or dpnpa, has an intransitive signification, as also the perfect passive, upTJpe/iai. 'kpeonu, " / make favourable" or "pleasing," also intransitive "7 please," future, apeou, &c. ; perfect passive, r}pea\iai ; first aorist pas- sive, jjpsodnv. 'APfl, radical form to dpapicKo and iipicnu ; also to alpu. Av^dvu, " I increase," second aorist, rjvl-ov ; future, av^au ; first aorist, r/vgrjua ; perfect passive, nvtjrjfiai ; first aorist passive, nv^rjdrjv ; first future middle, av^?JGOfj,ac, as future passive, " I shall grow" i. e., be increased. 'Axdo/xart, " I am vexed," future, uxdiaofiat ; first aorist passive, r/X" rdni, *'AX£2, radical form to uxvvfiai and 'AKAXS2. Batvu, " I go," primitive form BAQ, by reduplication Bt,j3do, j3i6t]/j,i, or, by the insertion of ok, [Suoiccj ; future, /3^aofiat, ; perfect, (3s6nKa ; second aorist, Itrjv ; second aorist subjunctive, (3ti ; second aorist op- tative, fiainv ; imperative, j3^6t ; infinitive, firivai ; participle, /3ac. Some compounds take a transitive signification, and therefore form also the passive forms, perfect, PeCa/uat ; first aorist, kBdarjv. In the Ionic dialect the simple verb is also used in the transitive sense, " to lead," " to bring," and the future /3^ao and first aorist e6naa stand ex- clusively in this signification. The following accessory forms, from the dialects, must also be observed. 1. Of the third person present, /3c6d, participle, /3l6uv, formed from (3t6da, and {3i6dc from (3i6n/u.i. 2. Of the second aorist, third person dual, fSurnv, besides j3t)tt]v ; third person plural, t6av, besides I6naav ; subjunctive, /3cj, lengthened into 6so and Beicj, plural, fisLOfiEv. 3. The syncopated accessory forms of the perfect, first person plural, f3e6a/jev, third person plural, (3e6daai ; third person plural of the pluperfect, fiefjacav ; participle of the perfect, f3e6auc, j3e6- avla, contracted (3e66c, (3e6C)aa, &c. All these forms belong to the poets, and particularly to the epic poets, with whom an aorist middle, ftrjaero, and an imperative, (SrjdEo, also occur. BuAAcj, " I throw," future, (3o,a£), Ionic and with later writers, ftaXTirj* Gio ; second aorist, sdaXov ; perfect, (3i6?.nKa ; perfect passive, (3e62,v/j.ai ; first*aorfst passive, kdArjdrjv ; second aorist middle, e6aAo/j.7jv. There are also formed in epic, from an assumed form BAHMI, a third person dual, (i^TTiv, either of the imperfect o* second aorist ; and a third per- P2 174 CATALOGUE OP son singular of the second aorist middle, e62,nTo, with a passive signifi- cation ; besides the infinitive, fiXfjcdai ; participle, (S^fievog ; optative, pieifiqv, [SXeco. Epic writers also form (3e6o7i^aTo, as a third person singular of the pluperfect passive ; and 6e6o"krjjJ.ivog, as a perfect parti- ciple passive, from an accessory form BOAEfl. *BAPE£2, usual present, ftapvvu, " I load ;" from the old radical form comes the epic perfect participle (3e6aprj6g. Baardfa, " J bear," future, (3aaTdau, &c. ; adopts in the passive the other mode of formation, according to the characteristic y ; as, first ao- rist passive, k6aardxdr]v. BddKco, BA£2, BIBHMI, see Baivu. Bi(3ptJCKo, " / eat" from BPOfl, future, j3pd)oco and fipucroficu, &c. ; second aorist, e6pov. Biau, " Hive" future, fituaoficu ; first aorist, hSiuaa, besides the sec- ond aorist, kBiov, of which the remaining moods are chiefly used ; as, subjunctive, fiiti, (3iu>g, &c. ; optative, j3i6vv ; imperative, (3iu6c ; infin- itive, Biuvac ; participle, (Siovg. BTiaardvo), " / sprout," future, (3Xaar^ao}, &c. ; second aorist, e6- haarov. BAHMI and BOAEQ, see (3dXla. Bogku, " I feed," future, fioanriGu, &c. BovTiOftai, " I will," imperfect, k6ov\5[n]v and 7}6ov2,6{inv ; future, ftovktjGoiiai ; perfect, f3e6ovX7iftat ; first aorist, k6ovX?j6i]v and ri&ov7J]Qr\v . BPOG, see BiBptocrtcG). Yafiio, " I marry," future, yafieco, Attic, ya/zti, also yafiTjco ; per- fect, yeydjj.r]Ka ; first aorist, syrjfia ; first aorist infinitive, yijfxai ; future middle, yafzov/nat ; first aorist middle, eyrjfidfiiiv, from the root TAMS2. *Teyo)va, a form for the perfect, similar to dvaya, used also in the signification of the imperfect and aorist, " I cried aloud;" participle, ye- yo>v6g ; infinitive, yeyovelv and yeyuvifiev. Also a new imperfect, kyeyuvevv, contracted from kyeyuveov. TEN12, the obsolete root of yeivofiat (a purely poetic form) and yivo- fiai or yiyvofiat, which transitively signifies, " / beget ;" intransitively, " I am born," "arise," "become." The transitive signification, how- ever, belongs only to the aorist eyeLvdprjv, " I begat." All the remain- ing forms in use, namely, future, yev7]GO[iai ; second aorist, eyev4/j.i]v ; perfect, yiyova and ysyevr^iai, have the intransitive signification akpne. In epic, and with the poets, perfect, yeyaa ; third person plural, yeydaai ; first person plural, yiyafiev ; infinitive, yeydfisv ; participle, yeyowf, ye- IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 yavla, contracted yeyug, yeyuaa; which forms are all to be deduced from the simple root TE, and by change of sound TA. TnOeo, " I rejoice," future, yrjOijao), <&c. ; perfect middle, yiynda, in the signification of the present. TiyvucKO) (Attic, besides ytvuoKO)), " I know," root, PNOS2, future, yvuao/xat ; perfect, eyvcoica ; perfect passive, eyvaofiai ; first aorist pas- sive, kyvuadnv. The second aorist, formed according to the conjuga- tion in [u, is iyvuv ; plural, syvufiev, &c. ; infinitive, yvuvat ; impera- tive, yvudi, yvurco, &c. ; optative, yvoinv ; participle, yvovc. A. Aafjvai, see AAft. Adtcvo, " I bite," from AHKG, future, drjijopai ; perfect, dediixa, &c. ; second aorist, sdattov. Aafidw, " Z fame" or " subdue," simple root, AAMS2, whence second aorist, eddfiov ; subjunctive, daftu, lengthened into dafiiu and dafieico ; perfect, didp-vKa ; perfect passive, 8e6p.7]iiat ; first aorist passive, idjiridnv. Aapddvo, " I sleep," future, dapdrjaofiai ; perfect, deddpdrjua ; second aorist, eSapQov, by transposition, edpadov ; and, with a passive form but an active signification, hddpdrjv. *AA£2, primitive to SiddaKo, " I teach," from which, with an active signification only, second aorist, sSaov or dsdaov. The most usual forms are, the second aorist passive, eddnv, " I was taught ;" infinitive, daijvai ; subjunctive, daeto (by an epic prolongation for 6au) ; future, darjoofiai. The passive signification belongs also to the perfect, deddnKa, dedaa, deSd-nfj.cn. Of the middle, the epic infinitive, deddacdai, (( to become ac- quainted with," "inquire into" is alone extant. Aei, see Aew. Aeidu, see Aid. AsiKvvfii, " I show," future, dei^o, &c. The Ionians make the de- rivative forms without i, thus, Se^cj, edet-a, &c. The epic form of the perfect passive, deideypai, is irregular. Ae/icj, "I build," first aorist, edetfia; perfect, ded/inica ; to be distin- guished from the like forms of the verb da/xdcj. Aep/cw, usually SepKOfiat, " J see," perfect, dedopica, with a present signification ; second aorist, edpanov (by transposition from edapnov'), also edpdKTjv and kdepxQnv, all with an active signification. ^ato^u" I receive," future, di^o/xat, &c. The epic forms of the ^£ttfl| Bjk without a connective vowel, edey/nr/v, third person singu- VHHn^d edcKTo ; imperative, detjo ; infinitive, dexOcu ; participle, diyp-evog, are to be observed. Aew, " J bina\" future, dqou ; first aorist, Ztyoa \ perfect, dedena ; 176 CATALOGUE OP peifect passive, dedefiat ; first aorist passive, Edednv. The third future passive, dedrjcofiai, has the signification of the simple future passive. Aew, " I want" " am deficient" passive, diojiat, " I have need of," " beg ;" future, defou, &c. In general, the active occurs only as an im- personal ; present, Set ; subjunctive, den ; optative, Sioi ; infinitive, delv ; participle, deov ; imperfect, edei ; first aorist, kdir/ae ; future, derjaec. AHKS2, see Aa/cvw. AidacKcj, " J teach,'''' future, (Jidafw ; first aorist, kdidat-a ; perfect, deoYda^a, &c. Aidpucntc), " I run away," usually occurring only in compounds, bor- rows, from the root APAS2, the future, 6pdaop.at ; perfect, dedpana ; sec- ond aorist, edpav, ac, a ; subjunctive, dpd, dpac, 6pa, &c. ; optative, dpairjv ; imperative, dpadi ; infinitive, dpavai ; participle, Spue, all formed according to the conjugation in fit. Al&fit, " I seek," retains the long characteristic vowel in the passive form, contrary to the analogy of the conjugation in fit. Aco), " I fear," "fly ;" dlo/nai,, " / scare," '* terrify," both in use only with epic writers. Hence are deduced the perfect, dedia, "I fear," in epic also deidta ; plural, without a connecting vowel, Seidtfisv, dndtrs, dsidlaci ; imperative, deiSidi ; infinitive, detdtevat, epic deidifiev ; parti- ciple, deidiug, genitive, -oroc and -uroc ; third person plural of the imper- fect, edelSiaav. The common language has the present, deidu ; future, deioofiai ; first aorist, edetcra, epic eddetaa ; perfect, dedoiica, with a present signification. Aokeo), " I appear," " seem," from AOKfl, future, do^u, &c. ; per- fect, with a passive form, deSoyfiai, " / have appeared." The regular formation, do/cr/co, &c, is more rare. APAS2, see AidpacnG). Avvafiat, " J am aWe," second person, dvvacai (not (5wt?) ; imperfect, ijdvvd^rjv, conjugated like lora/nat ; future, dvv7joo{j.ai ; first aorist, edw- 5?07?v and kdvvaodnv ; perfect, dedvvr}/iai. Avu, " J cover," future, ducrw ; first aorist, eSvoa ; first aorist passive, eSvdnv. The perfect, dediiica, and the second aorist, eSvv; infinitive, dvvat, epic dvfievat ; participle, 6v$-, have, like the middle, whose forms are regular, the signification, " to immerse one's self," " to inwrap one's self" E. 'Eyetpw, " I wake" or " arouse," regular in most of its i kyrj-yepua (with the Attic reduplication). The middle, awake," syncopates the second aorist, ^ypo/nnv (for ^yspo/inv) ; Trfflnfrve, kypeodac To- this middle the perfect eypijyopa {fox kyijyopa) belongs env) ; lrrrmitive, IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 in signification, besides the epic accessory forms kypriyopBe and eypnyop- Qaai (as the second and third persons plural), and the infinitive, kypq- ydpdac. "E&j, " I eat," used in this form only with the epic writers and Ioni- ans, besides the perfect, edrjda (with the Attic reduplication), and the future, edofiat (for kdovfiai). Prose writers make use of kadio as a pres- ent, and attach to it forms from sdo, EAEG : perfect, kdridona {rjdEna, by change of vowel Tjdona, with the Attic reduplication kdrjdoica) ; per- fect passive, kd^Seafiai ; first aorist passive, Tjdiadnv. As second a> rist active, £ayecv. *~Efa{iat, " I sit," future, kdovfiac. 'E6e?m and tfeAw, " I am willing," future, ede^r/co and delrjcu, &c. "E0o>, " I am wont" only with epic writers, together with the perfect middle elaOa, Ionic soda, in the same signification. EIAft, an obsolete form with the signification " I see," " perceive," in epic yet used as a passive, eldopat, " / am seen," " appear," " seem," besides the aorist shafinv or keLcafirjv. The primitive form is IA£2 ; second aorist, eldov, epic also without augment, ISov ; subjunctive, I6u ; optative, Idoi/it ; imperative, Ids ; infinitive, Ideiv ; participle, I66v ; second aorist middle, eldojivv, ISSfinv, in the same signification. The perfect olda ("I have perceived" or " seen into," i. e., " I know"), which belongs thereto, is anomalous in formation and conjugation (vid. page 166) ; second aorist subjunctive, eldo ; optative, eideiijv ; imperative, lodi ; infinitive, eldivcu, epic, Ionic ISfievat ; participle, el66c, via, 6c, &c. ; pluperfect, ydecv, epic ydea, Attic rjdi] (formed from the root eid with an augment) ; second person, ydeic and ydetada, also ydnada ; third person, ySet, epic r/dee and ydeev ; dual, ydecrov or ycrov ; third person, TjdeiTTjv or qornv ; plural, ydsL/xsv or ycfiev ; ydeire or yore ; ydeaav or #6), " I boil," future, iipijoo, &c. ", verbal adjective, eo. Qpexo), see Tpexo. QpvTTTo, " I bruise," future, d-pvipu, &c. ; second aorist passive, krpv- *Qp6aK0), (i I spring," forms, from GOPG, second aorist, edopov ; future, ftopov/iai. eY$£2, see Tityo. Qvu, " I sacrifice," future, -&vao), &c. • first aorist passive, krvdnv. 1 TAG, see EHu, *I£b, Kadi^a, "I seat," "make to sit," future, l^ao), KadL^ca, or KaOcu (for Kadiau) ; first aorist, kuddcaa. 'iKvhfiaL, more rarelv 'Iko, " I come," future, %%u ; usual, Igoficu ; first aorist, l£a ; usual, first aorist, l§ov ; second aorist middle, lno- ftrjv ; perfect, lyfiat. In prose, the compound apxpiKveofiai is alone used. 'IXaoKOfiaL, (i I propitiate ," " appease," future, Vkdaofiat, epic 'Ckaaoo- jml (from the root i/Xdoiiat or IXafiat,, which are still used in single forms with the epic writers) ; first aorist, tXaadfinv. Of the active, IXdu and iXvfii, " / am propitious," an imperative, IXndi ; and of the perfect a subjunctive, IXtjkc) ; optative, IXijicoifu ; occur with the epic writers. "I7rra/j,ai, see izeTOiiai.. K. *KAAG, a primitive for the derivation of several verbal forms : 1. for Katvvfiai, " I am distinguished," " excel" perfect, KeKaa\iai ; pluperfect, kKEndoiinv : 2. for icfjdo, " I" trouble," future, Ketia&rjoo ; second aorist 182 CATALOGUE OF infinitive, KenaSeXv ; participle, KEicaduv. Middle, Krjdofiat, "lam troub- led" future, KEKaS^aofiac ; perfect, usiirjda, with a present signification. 3. For X"& or X^°f J ' a h " I gi ve way," second aorist, Kenadopnv, be- sides the regular kxaadfirjv or kxaaGdfirjv. Kade&fiai, Kadevdo), nadrifiai, Kadi^u, see 'i^ojiai, evSco, qfiai, Ifa. Kaivvpat, see KAAQ. Kaio, " I burn," Attic /caw, with long a, and without contraction ; future, navcu ; first aorist, enavca ; perfect, Ksnavica ; perfect passive, KSKavfiai ; first aorist passive, EKavdrjv ; second aorist passive, ekclvv. Besides the given form of the first aorist, must be observed the double epic form enrja and siesta, and the Attic sKsa, all formed without a ; sub- junctive, Krju ; optative, Kyatfit ; imperative, nslov ; infinitive, KijaL ; participle, Ksiag. Also in epic Enndfirjv and knsidfiriv occur in the mid- dle form. Ka/lew, " I call" future, tcaMao, Attic nalti ; first aorist, sKa?,zca ; perfect, /ce/c/t^/ca ; first aorist passive, sK?irjdr]v ; perfect passive, hskXtj- fiai, " i" am named," " am called ;" optative, ksk?i^tjv, kekXvo, &c. ; future passive, nhrjdrjoofiai. ; third future passive, KSKkrjao\iai. Middle, in the same signification with the active, future, Ka?iov/j,ai (for naXsao- fiat) ; first aorist, endXsGuuriv. Kdfivu, " I grow weary" from KAM£2 ; second aorist, lKa\iov ; fu- ture, nafiovfiai ; perfect, KEK/j,7jica ; participle, kek/j,1]k6c, epic KSKfifjuc. Kslfiat, " I lie" second person, Kscoat, &c. ; subjunctive, tcsufiat, Ksy, &c. ; optative, Keoijinv ; imperative, kslgo ; infinitive, KslaQai ; participle, kel/ievoc ; imperfect, sKsifxrjv, ekslgo, &c. ; future, tceico/xat ; epic and Ionic collateral forms of the third person plural present are kel- arat and /tsarac for KeTvrac. In composition with prepositions, the ac- cent recedes in the indicative to the preposition ; but in the infinitive it remains on the root ; as, KardKeifiat, but naTaKEXadat. Kspdvvvfu, " I mingle," from Kepdo, which is still found in the epic language ; future, Kspacru, Attic Kspti ; first aorist, Eaepdaa, epic /cep- aaaa, also Enprjca ; perfect, KEKpana ; perfect passive, KEKpdfiai and KEKspao-fiat ; first aorist passive, EKpaQiqv and EKEpdGdrjv, Kepdaivo, " I gain," future, tcepdavti and Kspdijau ; first aorist, e/cep- dnva, Etcepddva, and huepdrjoa. Kfidu, see KAA£2. Kipvrjfu, an epic collateral form of KEpdvvv/u, which see. Kt^avw, " I reach," " overtake," subjunctive, /a^w, epic Ktxsiu ; op- tative, Ktxeir]v ; infinitive, Kixvvat, ; participle, Ktxeie ; third person dual of the imperfect, KtxvrTjv, all formed from KIXHMI ; future, /c^- cru and KLXV^ofJ-ai ; second aorist, etaxov. KixPWh see Xp'do. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 K/la£o>, " I sound," future, KAdygu ; first aorist, etcAayga ; perfect middle, KenAnya ; second aorist, 'inAayov. KAaia, "I weep," Attic kMcj, with long a, and without contraction,* future, Klavoo[j.ai or nAavcovjiai ; first aorist, luAavaa ; perfect, kek- Aavita. The future k?mi?jog) or KAa^ao is more rare. *K/lvw, " I hear," imperative, nAvdi and kekAvOi. Kopevvv/u, " 7 satisfy," future, /copeco ; first aorist, eKopeaa ; per- fect, KEKopvKa ; perfect passive, KEKopeafiai, Ionic and epic /ce/cop^ai. *Kopvo8nv, perfect passive AiAa/nfiai, first aorist middle k/M^ipdunv. Aavddvu, more rarely Arjda, " I am concealed," future, Atjou ; second aorist, eAadov ; perfect middle, AeAnda. Middle, ?,av6dvo/j.at, more rarely Aqdofiai, " 7 forget," future, ArjoofjiaL ; second aorist, kAado/zrjv ; perfect passive, AeAna/mc. 184 CATALOGUE OF Acinic) or Aac/co), "I resound, 1 ' second aorist, ekaaov ; future, haKJj- oouai ; perfect, M'AdKa and XiXijua. Aiyo) : 1. "J say," forms no perfect active in this signification, but uses instead of it ElprjKa (see elpo), otherwise wholly regular ; future, 2,e^u ; first aorist, sTietja ; perfect passive, "keleyjxat ; first aorist passive, k?Jx6vv. 2. " / gather," future, M&, &c. ; perfect, elloxa ; perfect passive, sllEyjiai ; second aorist passive, EkLynv ; second future passive, Tieyrjaojiat,. 3. Middle, " / lay myself down," future, ke^ojxaL ; first aorist, eXe^u^v ; third person singular, second aorist, Mkto, without a connecting vowel. Aca?ieyofiai,, "I converse," perfect, disLkeyjiaL ; first aorist, dielsx^v- Hence it unites in itself the forms given under 1 and 2. AHB&, see Aa/n6dvoi. AtjOg), see Aavddvu. AHXS2, see Aayx&vo. Aovo), " / wash." In this verb the Attics almost invariably contract the connecting vowel of the termination with the ov ; as, eXov, third person singular of the imperfect ; elovpev, first person plural. Present passive, Xov/xai, &c. ; infinitive, lovcdai. *Mmofiat, see MAft. MAKfl, " I bleat," From this obsolete primitive form there remain only the second aorist EftaKov, and the perfect fie^ica, participle /uep- uKvla, which are associated with the common present firjKdofiat. MavddvG), " I learn," from MA0£2, second aorist, spadov ; future, uadrjaofjiai ; perfect, jj,Ep,d8rjKa. *Mdpva/j.ai,, " I fight," usual only in the present and imperfect ; op- tative, fj.apvoijjirjv. Mdxofiac, " I fight," future, fiaxEOOjiai and fzaxfoopat,, Attic fiaxov- pai ; first aorist, e/Ltaxeadp:?]v ; perfect, /us/iaxec/Liac and [iefidxrjfjuii. *MA£2, an obsolete primitive form, signifying, 1. " I desire," " strive," and has in this signification only the perfect, fie/uaa ; first person plural, fte/xafiev ; participle, [lEfiaue ; genitive, -otoc and uroc ; third person plural pluperfect, pEfxaoav. 2. "I taste" "feel," in which the present fialofiai is usual ; future, fidaofxai ; first aorist, k/uacdjunv. *Mstpofj,ai, " I obtain," from the root MEPfi, perfect middle, s/xfiopa; perfect passive, El^ap\iai. Hence elfiaprai, " it is ordained by fate." MeAAw, " I am about," "am to come," imperfect, tjjxeTJ.ov, with the temporal augment ; future, jXETiXfjao, &c. MeAq, " I concern," "give concern to," " lie at the heart of," is mostly used in the active form only, as an impersonal, \ieKu ; future, fieA^aei, IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERES. 185 &c. ; perfect epic, fiEfiTjls ; middle, /xeTiofiai, " I am concerned;" future, iukriaojiai ; first aorist, EfisTirjdvv . Mefj.6?MKa, see MOAS2. Mevu, " I remain," perfect, fisfisvyica. ; perfect middle, fzsfiova. MiyvvfiL, also /xlcryu, " I mix," future, pfcj ; first aorist, efii^a ; per- fect passive, fiEfuy/nai ; first aorist passive, e/j,lx6i?v ; second aorist pas sive, k/xlynv. M.i{iv7Jcnca), " J remind," from MNAfi, future, [ivrjao, &c. Middle, fit/Livr/aKo/xai, " I remember," " mention;" first aorist, kfivqcrdrjv ; future, livnadrjcoiiat ; perfect, fie/ivn/iai, " J am mindful of," " think of" "re- member ;" subjunctive, fiefivcdfiai ; optative, fxe/nvy/Linv and fiEfivuy-rjv ; to which is joined the third future passive, fiefivrjaoficu, " I shall ever bear in mind." *MOA£2, " I go," future, fio2,ov/j.ai ; second aorist, efioXov ; perfect, fiifiSTiCJKa (formed from MOAS2 by a transposition of the radical letters, therefore properly pefiXoica, and by the insertion of (3). The usual pres- ent thereto is (SXugkcj. *MvKuofiai, " i" bellow," second aorist, ejivkov ; perfect, jie^vna ; from MYKft. N. *Nai«, " J dwell," future, vaaaofiai ; first aorist middle, evaffcdfiijv \ first aorist passive, evdaOnv ; perfect passive, vevaapat. The first ao- rist active, evaeaa, has the transitive signification, " I bring into a dwelling." Nacrcrw, " / stuff," future, vd^u ; first aorist, evat-a ; perfect passive, VEvacjiaL. 'Ne/xu, " I distribute," future, vefiu and vEfi?jac) ; first aorist, eveifia \ perfect, vevEfinna ; first aorist passive, evEfirjdnv and eve/xeOvv. New, " I swim," future, vEvaoLiat and VEvaovfiai ; first aorist, Evevoa, &c. Ni£w, " J wash," borrows its tenses from vltttu, future, viipu, &c. O. r O£w, " I smell" " emit an odour," future, b&co ; perfect middle, 56u6a, with the reduplication, and a present meaning. Olyo) and olyvvfii, usually dvoiyvviii, " I open," imperfect, dviuyov ; first aorist, dveu^a ; infinitive, dvott-ai ; perfect, dv£0)x a 5 perfect mid- dle, dvsuya. with an intransitive signification, " J stand open." Epic writers generally use only the temporal, not the syllabic, augment, and o) is then changed into ul ; thus, first aorist, &'i%a t Olda) see Etdv. Q2 186 CATALOGUE OP Olofiat or oifiat., " I think" second person, olei ; imperfect, obfinv also 6/nnv ; future, olrJGOfiat, ; first aorist, urjOvv ; infinitive, olndijvai. Epic writers lengthen the diphthong, and say btofiac, or, with an active form, btcj, and form the remaining tenses to it regularly ; as, first aorist middle, tocGa/nnv ; first aorist passive, utcdnv. OlxofJ-ai, " I depart" or " am gone" future, olxv^ofiat ; perfect, &XW- fiat ; or, in an active form with w, olxcjaa. OIQ, see oto/xat and ; first ao- rist, ukeca ; perfect, blulsna. Middle, 61Xv/nac, " i" perish ;" future, olovftac ; second aorist, ulo/ivv. The perfect middle o/lw2a has the reduplication. "Oftvvfti, " J swear," future, bfiovfiat ; first aorist, ufiooa ; perfect, bfxu/iona ; perfect passive, bfiupocfiat, but in the third person also 6^6- y«ora£. 'OjibpyvvfiL, " i" wipe q/f," future, bfiSp^a, &c. 'Ovivvfj-L, " J am of use," forms the present and imperfect like cgtv/ic, but the remaining tenses from the primitive ONAS2 ; future, bvrjou ; first aorist, uvnGa. Middle, bviva/Ltat,, " J have advantage ;" second aorist, avd/nnv, epic and Ionic tovrj/unv ; optative, bvai/x7]v ; infinitive, ovacdac. *"Ovo[iab, " I revile," present and imperfect like dido/nai, the rest from QNO£2 ; future, bvoaojxai ; first aorist, cjvoad/xnv ; first aorist passive, ovoadrjv. 'OIIS2, "I see" perfect, oiroTra ; future, bipofiai ; first aorist passive, hfydnv (with an active as well as a passive signification) ; perfect passive, u/ifiai ; future, b(j>6ijG0fj.ac. 'Opdo, " I see," imperfect, eupcov, Ionic tipov ; perfect, kupana ; per- fect passive, supaftac ; first aorist passive, iupddnv. All the remaining forms are wanting to this verb, and are supplied by those given under Oil £2 and eldo. "Opvvju, " I excite," from OP£2, future, opcru ; first aorist, wpcra ; second aorist, upopov, with the reduplication. Middle, opvvpai, " I arise ;" second aorist, upbfinv, or, by rejecting the connecting vowel, &p[inv ; second person, upcro ; imperative, bpaeo or bpao ; perfect, bpu- pefiai ; perfect middle, opupa. ■ 'Oa(ppaivo[iai, " I smell" future, ba^prjaojiai ; second aorist, 6)Gp6- p.nv, also ba(f>pdfi,7]v. '0w, &c. ; second aorist passive, kppitynv. Tvew, see Tew. 'Puvvvfic, " / strengthen," future, p~uou, &c. ; perfect passive, ep^wa- fiai ; imperative, k'pp'uco, "farewell ;" first aorist passive, k^ucOnv. 2. 'ZaXirifa, " I sound a trumpet," future, aaliriy^u, &c. 2l3evvvfj.t, " I extinguish," future, cdeau, &c. ; perfect passive, e, see "E^w. 2w£b> " I save," future, gugcj ; perfect passive, GeGUG/iaL ; but first aorist passive, eGudnv. T. Taldo, " I endure," used only in the first aorist, hrdXaGa, epic erdl- aGGa. The perfect, tetIvkci (in the plural, by syncope, rerXa^ev) ; im- perative, rerladc ; infinitive, tetIuvcu, epic rerXdfiev ; future, t%t)go- jiai, and second aorist, er^v (according to the conjugation in fie) ; in- finitive, r'krjvai ; imperative, t>1^0a ; optative, rlainv ; participle, t?m£. TA<5£2, see Qdizru. TAG, see Tm>6). Teivo), " J stretch," future, revti ; first aorist, eretva. From the rad- ical form TE come the perfect Tirana, perfect passive rera/iac, first ao- rist passive bradr/v, future Tad?]GO/j,ai. TEKS2, seeTkrw. Ttyvu, " I cut," forms from TEMS2 the future re/zd>, second aorist Itb\lov, perfect Ter/inKa, perfect passive Terfiri/xai, first aorist passive IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 191 krfi^dnv. In Ionic this verb is rdfivc), from which comes the second aorist sra^ov, a form used also with the Attics. *Terayuv, " reaching" " seizing," a second aorist participle, from the same root with retvu. Tet^w. In this form two kindred verbs must be accurately distin- 1. Tevxu, " I make," "fabricate," regular future, revijo) ; first aorist, erevtja ; perfect, rirevxa ; perfect passive, rsrvyfiai ; first aorist passive, krvxonv. Epic forms of the second aorist are tztvkov, active, and tctvk6(ivv, middle, both by redupli- cation. 2. Tvyxavo, "I happen," "acquire," future, rev^ofcac ; second aorist, ervxov ; perfect, rzrvxnKa. Tlktg), " I bring forth," from TEKS2, future, ref« ; future middle, re^ofxat ; second aorist, ctekov ; perfect, tstoko,. Tirpdo, "I bore," from TPAO, future, Tpfjoo, &c. An accessory form more usual with the Attics is Ttrpaivo), to which belong the future Ttrpavti and the first aorist krirpnva. The perfect always from the rad- ical form, TeTpnua ; perfect passive, rerpvpiaL. TiTpcoaKo, " I wound," epic rpuu, future, rpioau, &c. ; perfect pas- sive, rerpouac ; first aorist passive, krpudnv ; future, rpudrjcroficu, and also rp^ao/xat, with the form of the middle, but the signification of the passive. Tco), " / honour," is merely poetical, and forms regularly the future, Ticro, &c. ; perfect passive, rental. At the same time, however, it furnishes the derivative tenses also to Tivco, " I pay," " atone for," future, tlgo ; perfect passive, t£t~ iGfiai ; first aorist passive, kriadnv. The middle rivojiat, fu- ture ricro/icu, first aorist hrLodjivv, has the signification, " to re- venge" "punish." TAHMI, radical form assumed for the formation of some tenses of ra/lacj, which see. Tpfyo, " I nourish," future, -frpifu ; perfect middle, rerpo^a ; per- fect passive, redpafifiaL ; infinitive, redpdQdcu ; second aorist passive, krpdipnv ; more rarely, first aorist passive, kdpiQdnv. Tpe^cj, " I run," future, ■&pet;u ; future middle, dpegofiai ; first ao- rist active, edpe^a. More usually, from APEMft, second aorist, etJpa- fiov ; future, Spafiovfzat ; perfect active, deSpdfinna ; perfect middle, Tp6yo, " I eat," future, rput-oficu ; Second aorist, frpayov, from tpatq. Tvyxdvo, see Tet^w. 192 CATALOGUE OF Tvttto), " I strike," has commonly, with the Attics, future, tvkttjgu ; second aorist passive, krvirvv. Tv(j>o), " I fumigate," " burn," future, dvipo) ; second aorist passive, STVipnv. T. ^YTTiaxveofiat, see under "E^cj. $dya, see "Ecu. Qaivo, " J ctzttse fo appear," future, 0ax>w ; first aorist, eiprjva ; sec- ond aorist, efyavov ; perfect middle, irefyrjva ; perfect passive, iri^ac/nac ; first aorist passive, stydvdnv ; second aorist passive, kcpdvnv ; second fu- ture passive, (pavqco/iai. The passive has an intransitive signification, " I appear," which properly belongs to the middle. Qeido/zai, " I spare," future, eioo[/,cu, &c. Epic forms are, perfect, •KE$idv[iai, usual form irEtpECGfiai. ; third future, neid7}GO{icu, in the sig- nification of the simple future ; second aorist, ■7reep«, " I bear," imperfect, eepov ; present passive, fepopai ; imper- fect, kEp6p.?]v. All the other tenses are formed partly from OI£2, partly torn ENErK£2. Thus, future, oIgu ; first aorist, rjveyKa (Ionic ?jv- eiKa) ; second aorist, r/vsytcov ; perfect, bvfjvoxa ; perfect passive, evtjv- eyfiai (Ionic evrjveiy/iai) ; first aorist passive, ijvExdnv (Ionic qvEixOnv) ; future, kvexOvcofiac and oiodrjcofiai ; future middle, olaofiai ; first aorist middle, qveyfcdfAnv. In epic, several other forms are derived from Olfi, besides these adduced ; as, imperative of the aorist, oIge, o'cgeto, &c. ; subjunctive of the aorist, third person singular, oIgij. $6dvo), " I am beforehand," " anticipate," forms from $6A£2, future, & epic also KexaprjGO) and KExapr]GOfj,aL ; second aorist, kxdpnv (according to the conjugation in /«) ; subjunctive, ;£ perfect middle, KexoSa. Xeu, " 1 ■pour," future, x £ vgu ; first aorist, e^ea, epic £%Eva (formed without the characteristic of the tense, by merely annexing the termina- tion) ; infinitive of the first aorist, x^ aL '■> imperative, %zov, ^ecrw, &c. ; perfect, Kexvica ; perfect passive, nexvucu ; first aorist passive, exvdrjv, &c. Xpdu. Of this verb must be distinguished five different forms of in- flection, with their significations. 1. Xpdo, " i" give a response," proceeds regularly ; infinitive, XP$v; future, xPV au i & c - 5 first aorist passive, hxprjodnv. 2. Kixpvfu, " / lend," proceeds like ccrn/it (yet without a sec- ond aorist) ; future, xpfou '■> fi rst aorist, l£p?/<7a, &c. ; middle, Kixpafiai, " I borrow ;" future, ^p^cro^a*. '■> fi rst aorist, hxptj- adfj-vv. 3. Xpdouac, " I use," takes rj instead of a in contraction ; sec- ond person, xPVi & c - > infinitive, xPV a ^aL > future, xp^ ^ - 1 - '•> first aorist, kxpvvdfinv ; perfect, Kexpv^i (usually in the sig- nification, " I want"). It is remarkable that the Ionians, when they contract, take a here as the mingled sound ; thus, infini- tive, Ionic xpdodat. Generally, however, instead of xpdofiac, they use the form XP^ ! 10 - 1 ^ which is regularly conjugated throughout ; they also change o after e into o ; as, xP^vtcli. 4. Xptj, " it is incumbent," " one ought," &c, infinitive, xPV vai » optative, xP eL7 1 > subjunctive, XPV '■> participle, XP^ CJV > imper- fect, expf/v or XPV V > never expv ; future, x?^ Gtl - 5. 'Attoxpv, "it i s sufficient," third person plural, aTvoxpuac ; in- finitive, aTToxprjv ; participle, diroxptiv, daa, tiv ; imperfect, aTrixpv ; future, aTZoxprjoei. Here also the Ionians usually take a instead of rj ; as, imperfect, cnrsxpa. Xpuvvvfzc, " I colour," future, XP&™i &c. ; perfect passive, nixpuG- fiat ; first aorist passive, kxpuodnv. Xuvvvai, " I heap up," " dam." The radical form ^6w is usual as a present with the older writers. To this belong the infinitive, x°vv ; fu- ture, x^ acj i & c - > P ei "f ect passive, KexcoGfiat ; first aorist passive, ££w<7 £2. 'Qdeo), " I push," imperfect, eudovv ; future, lodrjaa and &oto ; first aorist, iuaa ; perfect, ew/ca ; perfect passive, ecjofiat ; first aorist pas- sive, tuoBnv ; all from the radical form '00 fi. R 194 PARTICLES. XXVI. PARTICLES. The Particles are Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Preposi- tions, the Interjections being ranked in Greek under Ad- verbs. ADVERBS. 1 . The most usual termination of an adverb is in wr. 2. If the adjective from which the adverb is derived be one that ends in og, the adverb is formed by merely ap- pending the termination og to the root as indicated by the nominative. Thus, from oo(p6g (root oocp), we have oocptig ; from naXog (root tcaX), ftaXtig ; from icaipiog (root Kaipi), KatpiG)£, &c. 3. In the case of other adjectives the root will be rec- ognised most clearly in the genitive ; and to the root thus found the termination og is in like manner annexed. Thus, from \iiyag (root fieyaX), we have fieydXog ; from %apizig (root x a P ieVT ), %api£vTog ; from aXrjdrjg (root dXr}de), dXr\- decog, contracted dXrjdog, &c. 4. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but is expressed by some part of an adjective. Thus : 1. The neuter of the adjective, singular and plural, is used for an adverb chiefly by the poets ; as, Ka- Xbv detdeiv, " to sing beautifully ;" (Spa^ea dieX- 6elv, " to recount briefly" 2. In like manner, also, the dative singular femi- nine occurs instead of an adverb ; as, &r\[iooia, " publicly ;" Id la, "privately;" fcoiv^j, "in com- mon ;" 7T£^7, " on foot ;" ravr'q, " thus" " in this manner" &c. But, strictly speaking, in such con- structions a substantive is always to be supplied, usually odo. 5. Adverbs are also formed from substantives, and that in various ways. Thus : ADVERBS. 195 1. Certain forms of substantives are used in the signification of adverbs ; as, apxrjv (in the begin- ning), " entirely ;" aK\ir\v (at the point), " scarce ,*" KOfiidq (with diligence), " very much ;" arrovd'-q (with zeal or pains), " with trouble or difficulty" "scarce," "hardly" In all these, and others of the kind, there is an ellipsis of a preposition. 2. Some substantives furnish an adverbial sense when combined into one word with prepositions. Thus, napaxp^l^a (with the thing), " immediately ;" npovpyov (irpb epyov, for the thing, to the pur- pose), " serving the purpose,"" " serviceable" u re- quisite" " useful ;" enrrodcjv (from before the feet), " out of the way" " aside " e[i7Todu)V, " in the way" " impeding." 3. Adverbs are derived from substantives by annex- ing certain syllables. Thus, the terminations 6a, 6i, oi, gi, %r\, and %ov, signify " in a place ;" the terminations 6e and 6ev, "from a place ;" and de, ere, ^e, 1 " to a place ;" as, evravda ........ here. ovpavodi in heaven. oIkol at home. 'A6fjV7]Gi, at Athens. ™ v ™ X r, > everywhere. navraxov S aXkaxpv elsewhere, ovpavodev ) r , , r \ from heaven. ovpavode > OL/codev from home. 1. The termination £e is nothing more than ads, the double letter be- ing put for the c<5. This change, however, occurs merely in some names of places, and in a few other words ; such as, -&vpa£e, for tivpaode, " to the door" " out." 196 ADVERBS. ovpavovSs ) ' i , r } to heaven. ovpavoae S Qr]6a£e . to Thebes. Adfjva^e to Athens. 4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives by an nexing the syllables 66v and ioti, and those thus produced express comparison ; as, (3orpv66v, " clus- ter-wise ;" icvv7]66v, " after the manner of dogs ;" 'EXX^vcarl, " after the manner of the Greeks ;" dvdpiori, " after the manner of men.'''' 5. Adverbs derived from substantives sometimes end in dSrjv, and then denote that something takes place by the application of the idea which is con- tained in the substantive ; as, XoydSrjv (from X6- yog), " by selection ;" d[^6oXd67]v (from dva6oXrj) y " by delay" 6. Adverbs are also formed from verbs, and have the ter- mination in 6?]v, which termination is annexed immediate- ly to the root. A preceding soft or aspirate, however, must change at the same time into the corresponding middle let- ter. Thus we have ftpv6d7)V, from Kpimro) (root Kpv6), " se- cretly ;" TcXeyd7]v, from rcXercG) (root ttXek), " in. a twisted manner or form ;" ovXXr)6drjv , from ovXXafi6dvG) (root cvX- Xr)6), " taken together." - 7. Lastly, from some prepositions, also, adverbs are formed, which serve to denote place, and which all termi- nate in 0) ; as, dvo) (from dvd), " above ;" tcaro), " below >" e^o), " without ;" slao), " within ;" npoao), " onward." This 6) belongs also to some other adverbs ; as, d(pvd), " sudden- ly ;" o#tg), " zAms ;" ottlgg), " behind ;" Troppd), "far." 8. Besides these there are yet many adverbs whose der- ivation does not admit of being accurately pointed out, and which are partly obsolete adjective forms; as, ttXtjgiov, "near;" arjfxepov, " to-day ;" avpiov, " to-morrow ;" dyxov, NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 197 " near ;" b\iov, " at the same time ,*" elfcij, " ira uam ,*" <%?/, " in a twofold manner ;" and partly genuine adverbs, with the terminations a, ag, t, ei, 01, ov, re ; as, Kapra, " very ;" TreXag, " wear ;" fieyaXoyorL, " greatly ;" e/set, " £Aer6a\iov ovdeic, " No one anywhere did this." And in the same manner, to the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the parts ; as, ov dvvarai ovt' ev Xeyeiv, ovt' ev noielv Tovg (ptXovg, " He can neither speak well of nor do good to, his friends" 200 NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 9. In some phrases both the particles ov and \lt] are united ; as,ov p/ and \ir\ ov. In this combination, as in all other cases, ov denies objectively and \i.r\ subjectively. Hence oi) \ii\ implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained that a thing will take place ; p) ov, on the contrary, the idea of an apprehension being entertained that a thing will not take place. Hence are derived the following observa- tions : 1. Ov [j,rj is an intensive and emphatical negation, and indicates the imagination of a thing which should not and must not take place ; as, ov pi) dvopevrjg eay (piXoiq, " That thou wilt not (I expect) be ill-inclined towards thy friends ;" that is, " be not ill-inclined towards thy friends." And again, aXX* ovttot' e£ epov ye pi) padyg rode, " Yet never (must thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this from me ;" that is, ' ; yet never shouldst thou learn this from me" 2. Mrj ov, in dependant propositions, when the verb of the principal proposition is either accompanied by a negation or contains a negative idea in itself, destroy each other, and are often to be translated by " that." Thus, ovtc apvovpai pr\ ov yeveadat, " J do not deny that it has taken place ;" and again, , neiQo\iai yap oi) roaovrov ovdev (bore \ir\ ov tcaXtig ■&avelv, " For I am persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but that I shall die nobly." 3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, \ir\ ov is used in combination with the subjunctive to express negative assertions with less positiveness and strength, and is to be translated by " indeed not" "perhaps not" and explained by the addition of an omitted verb, as opa, or the like. Thus, dA- Xa fii) ovk xf Sidatcrdv 7] dperrj, " But virtue may, perhaps, be a thing not to be taught." Literally, " But see whether virtue may not be" &c, the verb opa being supplied. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 201 10. Besides the case of p) ov mentioned above, two neg- atives also destroy each other when they belong to differ- ent verbs ; as, ovdsv sariv on ovk vtteoxsto, " He promised everything •" literally, " There is nothing that he did not promise." 11. As compounded with the negation ovk, the particle ovkovv may also find a place here. This particle, used by the Greeks both in questions and in direct propositions, ad- mits of different translations, and is also differently accent- ed, being sometimes written ovkovv and sometimes ovkovv. The following is to be remarked as essential concerning it. 1. In interrogative propositions, when the particle signifies not therefore ? is it not so ? not 1 it is al- , ways to be accented ovkovv, because ovk must here be significantly and emphatically heightened. Thus, ovkovv ysXog rjdiorog elg eftdpovg yeXav ; " Is it not, then, the sweetest laughter to laugh at one's enemies ?" 2. In direct propositions ovkovv is either to be trans- lated " therefore not," " yet not" or else it stands at the beginning of the proposition as a mere em- pl?.atical expression for the simple ovv, and is to be translated by " therefore" " consequently ,*" as, Gi) rovro enoLTjcag, ovkovv eywye, " thou hast done this, therefore not I." In this case the accentua- tion is generally given as ovkovv. Strictly con- sidered, however, the idea of negation does not vanish in ovkovv even where it is to be translated by therefore, but the particle is there, also, proper- ly an interrogative one. Thus the following sen- tence, ovkovv, orav drj firj odevh), Trenavaofxai, " Therefore, when I am unable, I shall desist," is equivalent to " Is it not so ? when I am unable, J shall desist ?" 202 CONJUNCTIONS. CONJUNCTIONS, &c. AAAA. 1. 'Alia is an adversative conjunction, and answers generally to the English " but." From this meaning arise others, however, such as, "well, then,' 1 '' "therefore" in which case alia is generally elliptical. Thus, all' icdi, ore stjei rovd' ovrog- "Well, then, know that this will be so." Supply ovk avTiOTrjao), or the like ; "I will not oppose, but, on the contrary, know,'''' &c. So, in the following passage of Xenophon, it occurs in four different senses, all of which may be traced by means of ellipses to the primitive meaning oi " but." 'A1?m fia At', en, p.6vov virodexov. 'All' vrroSe^ofiai ae, e(j>n- hav firj rtg tpilurepa gov evdov y. " ' Nay, indeed,' replied Socrates, ' I do not wish to be dragged unto you, but you, to come to me.' ' Well, then,' said The- odota, ' I will come ; do you only receive me.' ' Why, I will receive you,'' replied Socrates, ' if there be not some one dearer than you within.' " 2. 'Alia yap. In this combination yap introduces a reason for the opposition, &c, expressed by alia. Thus, al?M yap Kpeovra levaGO), navGu rove Tzapearurag loyovg. " But I will check what I am at pres- ent saying, for I see Creon." Sometimes, however, the reference is more latent, and a clause is to be supplied between alia and yap from what precedes. Thus, in Plato, Rep. 2, p. 336, we have, alia yap ev q.dov dinnv duaopev, where we must repeat from the previous clause, ovk a^fjfxioi aTtallu^opiev. " But we shall not escape unharmed, for we shall render atonement in Hades." In many instances the reference in alia yap is to be supplied by some general remark, such as, " but this was not at all surprising, for ;" " but this was impossible, for," &c. 3. 'All' ovv ye. These particles are often joined together, inasmuch as, along with the opposition, a consequence of what has preceded is also expressed. Thus, all' ovv tovtov ye rbv xpovov 7/ttov a.7jdijg eao- fiac. " Yet (alia) I will, for this reason (ovv), now at least (ye) be less disagreeable." 4. When joined with oi&e it strengthens the sense ; as, all' ovSe t:eipaaopai, " Nay, I will not even try." Frequently, in this construc- tion, ov [lovov ov is to be supplied in what precedes ; as, in the present instance, we may say, " I will not only not do so, but I will not even try." 5. In alia rot the particle rot strengthens the force of alia ; " but, indeed," " why, that, indeed" " why, as for that," &c. Thus, all* ijdv rot, i( Why % that is a pleasant thing enough" CONJUNCTIONS. 203 AN. 1. The particle dv, for which the epic writers use k6 or nev, cannot well be expressed by any corresponding particle in English, but only gives to a sentence an air of uncertainty and mere possibility. It is em- ployed, therefore, to modify or strengthen the subjunctive and optative ; and is also employed with the indicative, in order to impart to it more or less of uncertainty. 2. This particle commonly stands after one or more words in a clause, and is thus distinguished from the dv which is formed by contraction from kdv. This latter particle dv usually begins a clause, and has the meaning of " if" &c. The Attic prose writers usually change it into fjv, the Attic poets always. 3. The particle kdv, " if" is compounded of the conditional el and the av mentioned in the first paragraph. 4. The av first mentioned is frequently put twice, sometimes even thrice, in a clause or sentence. In some cases, where the dv occurs twice, one of these particles attaches itself to a finite verb and the other to a participle or infinitive ; as, optivreg av kxp^oavro av " If they had, seen they would have used." Many cases occur, however, where this explanation will not answer, and where the second or repeated dv must be regarded as brought in merely to indicate more plainly the idea of uncertainty intended to be expressed. Thus, aXka Kdv ev^aivro dv ye- viadat- " But they might, perhaps, have wished it to happen." APA. 1. The primary power of dpa is that of deducing consequences from premises, and hence it has usually the signification of " therefore." It is regularly employed, therefore, in the conclusion of syllogisms ; as, el yap elat f3wfioi, elal nal deoi- dXkd [irjv eiai fiu[Aoi- eialv dpa nal -&eoL " For if there are altars, there are also gods. But there certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too." When joined with el, el p}], or 'kdv, it signifies " if, then," " if, indeed," or, more probably, " conse- quently." Hence it serves for an emphatic asseveration, as if founded on an inference. 2. Different from this is the adverb dpa, which is an interrogative par- ticle, like the Latin num or utrum. Thus, dpa tiardbrfkov b (3ovXo[ii- pecv xpV T& T£ datfiovia avaynaiue rd re anb ru>v TXo\ep,iwv dvdpetug. " We must bear the dispensations of the gods as a matter of necessity, and the inflictions of our foes with a spirit of manly resistance." With Homer, however, frequently, and with the Attic poets rarely, re—re are used in the union of kindred ideas. If more than two ideas are con- nected, Homer proceeds with the repetition of re ; as, in 11. 1, 177, alel yap roc eptg re §ikn, ttoXe/xol re, fidxai re ; or, after having several times repeated re, then uses /cat ; as, Od. 3, 413, seq., 'E^e^puv re, Srparlog re, Hepoevg r', 'Apnrog re, ml avrideoc Qpaav[ifj6rjg ; or in- terchangeably re, nai, re. 3. The particles re nai connect more closely than the simple nai, and are chiefly used when ideas are to be represented as united in one sup- position. Hence this kind of combination is also chiefly used, when op- posite ideas are to be assigned as closely connected ; as, xpnGrol re Kal -Kovnpoi. — dyadd re teal nana. For this reason we say a?\2,cog re nai (both in other respects and also), " particularly also," " especially," be- cause a)\Xoc already expresses a natural and strong antithesis to that which follows. 4. The combination nai — nai, " as well — as" " both — and," can only be adopted when the combined ideas are of different kinds, but never in those which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives can always be connected by nai — nai ; as, arceKretvav nai TvalSac nai yvvaticac. But, in the case of adjectives, only those which contain no- thing homogeneous in their idea ; as, avdpunovc evp^aetg nai ayadove, Kal KaKovc, or nai rrevnrac Kal nlovaiovg, and the like ; not 7r6Atc nai ueyakn nai rtoTivdvdpwKog, but fieyaXn re Kal ■Ko'kvdvdpwKog. IIEP. Hep is an enclitic, and in signification closely allied to ye. It denotes, conformably to its derivation from rcepi, comprehension or inclusion, and hence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single ideas. It very fre- quently enters into combination with relative pronouns, as also with tem- poral, causal, and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. The sense of this particle is generally, as in the case of ye, indicated in English merely by a stronger intonation of the word, although it may frequently also be translated by " very" " ever." In combination with a participle we often translate it by " although" or " how much soever." Thus, Tieyet, airep ?Jyei, diitaca rcdvra, "he says all, whatever he does say, justly ;" fx^re cv rovS', dyadoc 7zsp euv, dizoaipeo Kovpnv, " Nor do thou, excellent though thou art, deprive him of the virgin;" i. e., be thou never so excellent, however excellent thou art ; evdvg Tcopeverac Tzpo,$ 208 CONJUNCTIONS. Kvpov ynsp elxev, " He proceeds straightway unto Cyrus, just as he was." ims. 1. The particle nog, when circumflexed, is interrogative, and signi- fies " how ?" The combination nog yap is employed as an emphatic neg- ative, "not at all." Thus, nog yap notrjoo, u I will not do it at all" literally, " for how shall I do it ?" In the same way nal nog is used ; as, nal nog aiond ; " I cannot be silent," literally, " and how am I to be silent 1" 2. As an enclitic, nog signifies " somehow," " in some degree," &c. ; as, oX>mc nog, " in some other way ;" ode nog, " somehow thus" &c. '02. 1. The particle dg is sometimes used for Iva, to denote a purpose ; as, dg dei^ouev, " in order that we may show." Occasionally, as in the case of Iva, the word is omitted, the purpose of which is to be expressed ; as, 6g d' akvOij Myo, Kiikei fiot rovg udprvpag. " But that thou mayst see that I speak the truth, call for me the loitnesses." 2. It is also used for otl, with the meaning of " that ;" as, Myovreg, og kfceivog ye ov TroXefiel ry 7r6Xei. " Saying, that he does not make war upon the city." 3. It is also used with the meaning of " as," which is its more ordi- nary acceptation. Sometimes the tragic writers repeat the word that precedes 6g when signifying " as," and this is done when the speaker, from unpleasant recollections, does not choose to be more precise. Thus, oloTiev og ololev, "He has perished as he has perished;" i. e., he has perished ; no matter how. 4. With the acute accent, it is used in the sense of ovrog, and then stands at the beginning of propositions. This usage is very frequent in Homer ; as, dg eItcov. We must be careful, however, not to confound og for ovrog, with og changed to og because followed by an enclitic, nor with og placed after a word on which it depends, and receiving in con- sequence the tone or accent ; as, -&ebg dg, " as a god." 5. It is often used in exclamations, with the signification of " how ;" as, dg ae fianapi^ofiev ! " How happy we deem you !" j3porolg eporeg dg nanbv [ley a ! " How great an evil is love to mortals !" On this is found- ed the use of dg with optatives, in the sense of the Latin utinam, " 1 wish ;" as, dg \£ ofel' "E/crwp KTzlvai ! " Would that Hector had slain me /" literally, " how Hector ought to have slain me /" • 6. It is put, like otl, before superlative adjectives and adverbs, and strengthens the meaning as, dg rdxtara, " as quickly as possible." CONJUNCTIONS. 209 7. In many cases ug came to be regarded as nothing more than a mere strengthening particle, and hence we have the idioms, ug d/ir/dug, "tru- ly ;" ug arexvfig, " entirely," &c. 8. It is often used in limiting propositions with the infinitive ; as, ug eitcaaat, " as far as one may conjecture ;" ug efxocye donelv, " as far as appears to me at least ;" ug ecKacat, " as far as one may conjecture ;" ug e't7reiv, " so to speak." 9. It is frequently found in this same sense with prepositions follow- ing ; as, ug aif bfi/idruv, " to judge by the eye ;" ug em to ito2,v, "for the most part." Hence it is often used in comparisons ; as, utugtov to 7r?i,7jdog Aeyerai dizoXiaQai, ug rrpbg to fieyedog Trjg TroXeug. " An in- credible number are said to have perished, in proportion to the size of the city." 10. It is elegantly joined to participles in the genitive absolute, and the participle must then be rendered, in English, by a tense of the verb ; as, ug TavTTjg Tr\g x^pag kxvpuTarng ovong- " Because this place was the most secure." Sometimes, also, it is connected with the accusative or dative of the participle. In these constructions with the participle, whether in the genitive, dative, or accusative, it has the force of as, since, because, inasmuch as, as if, &c. 11. It also has the meaning of " when," as a particle of past time ; as, ug 6e rfkQe, " but when he came." And sometimes, also, the force of " while." 12. With numerals it signifies " about ;" as, ug TEoaapanovTa, " about forty ;" ug rpia rj rirrapa arddia, " about three or four stadia." 13. It is sometimes put, especially by Attic writers, instead of the preposition elg, ffpbg, or ettc. In truth, however, the preposition in such instances must always be regarded as understood, while ug retains in translation nothing of its original meaning. It must be remarked, how- ever, that ug, when put for elg, npog, or errt, is generally found with per- sons, and seldom with inanimate things. The primitive meaning of ug Trpog, ug elg, &c, is " as towards," "as to," and the particle serves to indicate that the preposition must not be taken in a strict and definite sense. Hence, when ug alone appears, with the preposition understood, it always implies that the approach is made with some degree of timidity or reverence. Thus, ug rovg ■&eovg, " unto the gods ;" ug tov (iaacMa, " to the king." In this lies the reason why ug is seldom ever construed in this way with the names of places or things, but generally with ani- mate objects. S2 210 PREPOSITIONS. PREPOSITIONS. I. Prepositions, in Greek, govern the genitive, dative, or accusative. Some govern only one case, others two cases and others, again, three ; as follows : Genitive only. 'Avti, 'And, 'Fiic or 'E£, and Upo. Dative only. 'Ev and Svv. Accusative only. Elg or 'Ec. Genitive and Accusative. Aid, Kara, and 'Tnep. Dative and Accusative. 'Avd. Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. *AfJL' "ltcttuv, "from on horseback." II. The relation of time ; as, yevia- 6at airb deiirvov, " to have done supper" (to be from supper) ; mvEiv arcb tov cctlov, " to drink just after eating" (to drink from eating). IIL> The assigning of the origin or cause ; as, dirb duiatoavvng, "from a love of justice ;" izetyvev aif dpyvpioto j3colo, " he slew him by means of a silver how;" oi airo rrjg aroag, "the Stoics" (the philosophers from the porch) ; oi airb TiXdruvog, " the Platonics," &c. 2. It must be borne in mind, that, when citto refers to place, it denotes the place at or near which any one was ; whereas the place within is ex- pressed by ek. 'E« or 'E£ 1. 'E/c (before a vowel ef) has for its leading signification " out of," "from," and serves to indicate a choice out of several objects, or to de- note a whole consisting of many parts. It may be viewed, like arco, under the three relations of place, time, and the assigning of origin and cause. I. The relation oi place ; as, ek rfiq 7r61eoc, " out of the city," which presupposes that one has been in the city, whereas airb rrjg tco- Aewc merely implies that one has been near the city. II. The relation of time ; as, e/c t'lvoc %povov, " since a certain time ;" k% ov, " since" (supply xpbvov). III. The origin or cause ; as, to, ek narpbg Ttpoarax- divra, " the things commanded ly a father ;" ef kfiio, " through me" (by my means or authority). 2. The following examples, falling under some one or other of the 212 * PREPOSITIONS. three relations to which we have just referred, deserve to be noticed i ek d-a^drrng, " on the side towards the sea ;" ef eo, " at dawn ;" ef ijfjLe- pag, " since z£ became day ;" e/c rov £o<7T7/po)v tyopelv id2,ag, " to carry cwp suspended to the girdles 11 (the point of suspension commencing with or arising om£ o/ - the girdles) ; e/c roii 7rodoc Kpe/ndaat rwd, " to ^awg" one by the foot ;" e/c onrjizTpuv ddotTcopElv, " to iraveZ by means of staves ;" Xap-fidveLv ittttov e/c r^c ovpdg, " to to£e a Aorse by the tail ;" ye/lav e/c rwv irpoadev daicpvaVy " to Zawg-A a/tor Zears ;" e/c ro£ e^a- ycwc, "openly;" e/c rov acfnivovg, "unawares;" e£ dirpoadoK^rov, u uiu expectedly." Upo. 1. The primitive meaning of 7rpo is " before" and it may be consid- ered under the three relations of place, time, and preference. I. The relation of place ; as, rrpb aXlov, " before others ;" rcpb 7t61eg)c, " before the city." II. The relation of time ; as, ravra itpb rfjg UeccncrpdTOV rfkiKiaq hyhero. " TAese things happened before Pisistratus came of age." III. The relation of preference ; as, ovdslc ovrcog dvonrog earcv, oar eg rroTieftov rrpb elpqvng alpeirai, u No one is so foolish as to prefer war to peace" (literally, " who makes choice to himself of war before peace) ; irpb -koXKov KOLelGdcu, " to value highly" (to value before much), &c. 2. Hence arise the following examples : /Ltdxecdat, Trpo rivog, " to fight for one," because he who fights for one places himself before him. So vav/xaxiecv repb rfjg Tie?uO'!rovv7jaov, " to fight a naval battle for the Pel- oponnesus ;" ddhcveiv Tzpb dvanTog diizikixov, " to toil on account of a cruel king." II. Prepositions governing the Dative. 1. The fundamental idea of the dative is directly opposed to that of the genitive, since in the dative the idea of ap- proach lies at the basis ; or, in other words, it serves to in- dicate the more remote object. 2. This general idea of approach branches off into the kindred ideas, 1. of union or coming together ; 2. of like- ness ; 3. of advantage or disadvantage. 3. The dative also denotes, as consequences of the same general idea, 1. the instrument or means for effecting any- PREPOSITIONS. 213 tiling ; 2. the manner ; 3. the cause ; 4. a, particular or def- inite time. 'Ev. The primary meaning of this preposition is " in" as indicative of place ; as, ev rale 'Adrjvatc, " in Athens ;" ev 'Popy, " m Rome." From this primary use in definitions of places, the following construc- tions are derived, which accord in part with the English or Latin idiom ■ I. To denote the person or thing on which, as its substratum, the ac- tion is performed ; as, eTiideinvvadai ev tlvi, " to shoto in the case of a certain one" II. Among several ; as, ev 'Apyeioic, " among the Ar- gives ;" ev adavaroic, " among the immortals." III. ev (f>66o) elvac, "to be in fear ;" ev bpyrj elvac, "to he in a rage with any one;" ev acaxvvacc extcv, " t° ^ e ashamed;" ev eXacjtpti itocelaQac, "to make light of." IV. Referring to clothing, array, &c. ; as, ev p"iv£) "keovroc, " in the skin of a lion;" ev TzeXracc, ctnovrcocc, to^occ dcayovi&adac, " to contend, equipped with shields, spears, bows ;" ev aretyavoce, " adorned with chaplets." V. Denoting a means or cause on which something depends ; as, ra [lev Trporepov npaxdevTa ev uTCkacc izoTikacg ETZLaroXalc lore, " Ye know the things previously done through many other letters ;" ev vofioderacg fieadac vSfcov, " to enact a law by means of the nomothetcE," &c. "Zvv. 1. The primary meaning of this preposition is "with," denoting ac companiment ; as, iroTfiu avv evdac/xovc, " with a happy lot ;" avv tlvi elvac, " to be in company with any one ;" avv rocg "EXknat jiaXXov rj avv tu /3ap6dpG) elvac, "to be on the side of the Greeks rather than of the barbarian ;" avv rib era) ayadij, " to thy advantage ;" avv r

elg AiyvTzroto (supply poov) ; elg dtdaoKaTiuv (supply 66/u.aTa). This is especially the case with the names of deities ; as, elg 'Aprefiidog, " to Diana's" (supply lepbv). So in Latin, ventum est ad Cereris, scil. tem- plum. PREPOSITIONS. 215 IV. Prepositions governing the Genitive and Accusative. Aid. 1. The primitive meaning of did is " through." With the genitive this meaning may be considered under two relations : I. Of space and time ; II. Of cause and means. 2, I. The -relation of space and time ; as, to eyx°C fflOe did tov i?w- paaog, " the spear went through the corslet ;" dC bXiyov elvai, "to be within a little distance of;" iroraubg did ttevts cradiuv dvacpaivofievoCy "a river appearing jive stadia off;" did {latcpov xpovov, "after a long time ;" di' evdefcdrov ereoc, " eleven years after." But frequently, with ordinals, it expresses the recurrence of an action after a certain period of time ; as, did rpirov ereoc, " every third year ;" di' kvdrov ereoc, " every ninth year." ■ 3. II. The relation of cause and means ; as, dC kavrov, " by his own means ;" di' dyyeXuv leyeiv, " to announce by means of messengers ;" did tuv bi rcTisvpalg fiaaxa?uaTripac (3d2,e, "fling the broad bands of iron around his sides ;" I6p6aei [iev rev reTiauuv a/icpl arr/deaaiv, " the strap shall be moist with perspiration around the breast of each one." 4. Sometimes the case which is governed by the preposition does not express the thing about which something else is, but that which is about the latter ; as, dju.(j)l irvpl arijaai rpinoda, " to set the tripod on the fire, so that the latter blazes around it ;" afupl nlddoig efrodat, " to sit sur- rounded with boughs." Hence, when a place is only generally expressed ; as, fypLKS 6' dfif' avrQ), " he fell beside him ;" dfupl rpairs^acg icpea 6tedd- aavTo, "they divided the flesh around the table," i. e., the table where several sat, consequently in different places ; a/ic derate Evpcnov, " newt the eddies of the Euripus." PREPOSITIONS. 219 5. It has also with the dative the signification of " concerning,'''' whence are deduced the kindred meanings, " on account of" " about" " through" &c. Thus, rovg fiev 'Arpecdtiv Kara, rovg S' dfj.l Kparepbv, " Craterus ;" and again, Mlian, V. H. 1, 16, ol dfityl rbv Kplrova nal 2,tfip,iav Kal Qaidova, " Crito, and Simmias, and Phczdv." This usage occurs particularly in the later grammarians. III. Sometimes the phrase denotes- principally the companions or followers of the person indicated by the proper name, the latter being merely mentioned in order to express the former more definitely. Thus, Xen. Hist. Gr. 7, 5, 12, ol rrepl 'Ap- %ida/j,ov, " the companions of Archidamus." 'Em. 1. The primitive meaning of em is " upon," whence various kindred meanings arise. 2. With the Genitive it signifies "on," "at," "in," or "near;" as, km ruv kolvuv rrig mSXeug j3o)ftuv, "upon the public altars of the city ;" em Kparbc ?iCfj.evog, " at the head of the haven;" iareureg em rtiv 220 PREPOSITIONS. dvpiov, u standing near the door. 11 Hence the phrase km t&v rofztuv b/xvvvai, " to stand near and swear by the entrails." 3. It is also used in answer to the question " whither ?" as, irlelv km 1,dfxov, " to sail towards Samos" (i. e., literally, " to sail upon Samos") ; km I,dp6eo)v fyevyeiv, " to flee towards Sardis." Hence 66bc ij km Ka- pinc (jjspovoa, " the road that leads to Caria." 4. In definitions of time km has the meaning of " during" " under," &c. ; as, km KeKponoc, " during the time of Cecrops" (i. e., resting upon this period as a species of base) ; krf elpiivnc, " in time of peace ;" km rCiv ij/Lcerepuv npoyovuv, " in the days of our forefathers." 5. It has frequently also the force of the Latin de, and denotes " of" " concerning" &c. ; as, oizep km rtiv dovlov k"keyo[iev, " what we were remarking concerning the slaves" (literally, " were speaking upon the subject of the slaves"). 6. With the verbs "to name," "to be named," &c, it has the mean- ing of " after" "from ;" as, ovofidfcadai km tlvoc, "to be named after one" (literally, " to be named upon one"). 7. It often expresses a connexion, accompaniment, provision, &c, either with things or with persons ; as, km GfiLKpwv "koyov, " with a few words ;" Kadrjaro KdS/uov labc damSo>v cm, " the people of Cadmus had sat down arrayed with shields ;" km izpoaTc6?\.ov fuac x^P^^t " t° go accompanied by a single maid-servant." Hence is deduced the mean- ing of " before ;" as, km fiaprvpuv, " before witnesses ;" kTru/xoaavro km ruv crparnydv, " they swore in the presence of the generals," &c. 8. In this way the following phrases appear to have originated : k' iavrov, " by himself," "peculiarly ;" km cfibv avrdv, " by themselves," "unmixed with others" &e. Hence kv, "four deep;" kft hoc r} KaTafiaoLg tjv, " the descent was by one at a time." 10. With the Dative km denotes, in particular, subordination, the being in the power of any one, &c. Thus, ruv ovrcov rd ph> karlv if' 7] fj.lv, rd 6' ovk k' rjfiiv, " of the things that are, some are in our power (under our control), others are not in our power ;" km jiavreaiv elvai, " to be dependant upon soothsayers ;" ivocetv ri km tlvl, " to sub- mit a thing to any one's judgment ;" to krf kptoi, " as far as depends upon me." 11. With the dative km also denotes condition, especially in the phrase ev rd kirtrndevfiaTa avrtiv eyyvdev irapd rd tC)V dTJkuv, " seeing their objects of pursuit from near at hand in com- parison with those of the rest;" 'iv Trap' eaTibv Txrjjxara ovvdvo daiovrac (iporolc dddvaroi, "for one piece of good fortune the gods bestow upon mortals a pair of evils ;" irapd rd d%%a &a, " in comparison with the other animals" (Xen. Mem. 1, 4, 14). 7. From the primitive meaning " by the side of" are derived the fol- lowing phrases : irapd fxiapov, "almost" (by the side of little) ; 7rapa iroXv, "by far" (by the side of much), &c. 8. It has also the meaning of " along," which results directly from the meaning "by the side of;" as, irapd ■&lva ^aTidaanc, "along the shore of the sea ;" irapd vijac levat, " to go alongside the ships" (Eunp. 224 PREPOSITIONS. Bacch. 17), not, as elsewhere, " to go towards the ships." Hence also of time, "during" "throughout;''' as, Trap' o?mv tov (3'lov, "through one's whole life." Especially when a definite point of time is expressed ; as, Tzapa rrjv ttoglv, "in drinking;" Trap' avra ra aStn^fxara, "at the very moment of the unjust transaction." 9. It has also the meaning of " against" " contrary to" " otherwise than ;" as, itapa 66%av, " contrary to opinion ;" napa tyvoiv, " contrary to nature," &c. TLepL 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is " about" " around" from which are deduced various other significations. 2. With the Genitive it answers most nearly to the Latin de, and denotes " of," " concerning," &c. ; as, 'Kepi rtvoc Myecv, " to speak concerning any one." The most universal sense, however, is " with re- spect to," "as regards," " in point of," &c. Thus, nepl /iev drj (3p6- ceac. teal Trocrsoc, " as regards, then, eating and drinking ;" ovdelc av- rtjv TcXr/deog Trepi a^ioc ov/u.6?i?]dfjvai hart, " no one of them is worthy of being compared with it in point of size." 3. The following phrases serve to express value; as, Tzoieladat n •xepl tzoTiTiov, " to value a thing highly," i. e., in respect of much ; rjyela- 6ac re Tiepi t:\ugtov, " to regard a thing as of the greatest value" i. e., in respect of very much. So, also, Troieladac re irepi jiiKpov, " to set little value upon a thing ;" rjyzlaQai tl rcepi ovdevoc, " to regard a thing as of no value." 4« In Homer irepi often carries with it the meaning of superiority, and has the meaning of " above," &c. ; as, edeXec Tvepl tt&vtov efifievai aXKijiv, " he wishes to be above all others ;" ol wept p,ev fiovTifyv Aavauv, Kept 6' tare fidxeadaL, " ye who are superior to the rest of the Greeks in council, and superior in the fight." Here (Sov"krjv is governed, not by 7VEpl, but by Kara understood. 5. With the Dative it signifies "about," "around," "on," in an- swer to the question "where?" as, irepl ry x El P^ XP vao ^ v danrvTiiov tpepeiv, " to wear a golden ring on the hand :" often when something surrounds that which is in the dative ; as, Tvepl Sovpl rjarcaipei, " he pant- ed around his lance," i. e., on his lance ; ireTtTcJra rude irepl vEopfiuvTO) %l(j>EL, " having fallen on this sword fresh sprinkled with blood." So in the general designation of a place ; rzepl ^Kaiyai TrvAnoi, " in the neigh- bourhood of the Sccean gate." Hence probably in Herodotus (9, 101), ut] Ttepl Mapdovlo) 7ZTaioy i] 'E/l/lac, " lest Greece strike on Mardonius, as on a shoal." 6. With the poets nepc with the dative signifies also "for" answer- PREPOSITIONS. 225 ing to the Latin pro, ; as, rrepl o6ela8aL rrpog ri, "to be afraid on any account" (Soph. Trach. 1211); -&av[/.a&iv rrpog tl, "to wonder on any account" (Id. (Ed. C. 1] 19) ; 7rpoc ovdsv, " on no account ;" rrpbg ravra, " on this account," &c. 9. It has also, with the accusative, the meaning of "for," "with re- spect to;" as, KaTibg irpbc dpo/iov, "fair for running ;" rsTisog rrpbg ap- ET7]v, " matured for virtue." Hence it is particularly used in compari- sons ; as, utugtov rrXfjdog (bg 7rpbg to p.sys6og rfjg TroTisug, " an incred- ible number for the size of the city," literally, "in comparison with;" rrepl rrjv aotyiav (pavlovg rrpbg vfidg, " unfit for wisdom in comparison with you." 10. It also signifies "according to," "conformable to," "after;" as, Trpoc ra tov BaBvXuviov prjfMaTa, " according to the words of the Baby- lonian;" rrpbg Tavrnv rrjv (prj/xnv, " in accordance with this prediction ;" ov rrpbg Tovg v/neripovg 2,6yovg, " not taking your words for a pattern." 11. The idea of direction towards some particular object is the ground- work also of the following phrases : G§u%ai rrpbg bpdbv x&tf 'Axi^stov T&cpov, "to immolate, turning towards the lofty mound of Achilles'' tomb ;" dunpidncav rrpbg re 'A6?]vaiovg mal AaKsdaifj.ovi.ovg ol "E/M^vec, "the Greeks separated, and went over, some to the Athenians, others to the Lacedaemonians." 12. It has also, with the accusative, an adverbial sense ; as, 7rpoc to deivov, " cruelly ;" rrpbg to naprspov, " violently ;" 7rpoc svas6stav, "piously;" rrpbg fiiav, "perforce;" rrpbg i]6ovrjv, "willingly." 13. With numerals it denotes "about," "nearly ;" as, 7rpoc TSTpann- oiovg, " about four hundred;" rrpbg saarbv, "nearly one ) PREPOSITIONS. 227 'Ttto. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "under" a significa- tion which it often has with the genitive ; as, vtto yfjc, " under the earth ;" and often it signifies "from under ;" as, vtto x^ovbc t)ke tyoua- 6e, " he sent it from beneath the earth into the light.'''' 2. Like the Latin sub, it sometimes expresses proximity with a higher place ; as, vfi apfiaroQ, " near the chariot" where the reference is to one who is standing on the ground, with the chariot erect by his side. Hence, figuratively, " below the chariot." 3. From the meaning of " under" is deduced that of " by" especially with passive verbs, the reference being to something under the influence of which a certain act is performed or result brought about. Thus, facacvetcdcu vtto tlvoc, " to be praised by any one ;" c^ayele vtt' Klyia- 6ov, "immolated by Mgisthus ;" cnrodavetv vtto tlvoc, "to die by the hands of one;" vtt > dyyeTu^v TTopsvsaOac, " to go by reason of messen- gers ;" ae?i?ia vtto Spovrijc Trarpbg Aioc elat ireSovde, " the tempest, by the thunder of father Jove, descends to the plain;" vtto tuv TpidnovTa Kuveiov TTLovrec, " having drunk hemlock by command of the thirty." 4. From the two meanings of " under" and " by" combined seem to have arisen such phrases as the following : vtto (popjiiyyuv xopsvecv, " to dance to the music of harps ;" vtt' avliov nofia&iv, " to revel to the flute." For here the preposition with its case appears to express, on the one hand, a kind of subordination, inasmuch as the subject of the action con- forms itself to the substantive which is governed by the preposition ; and, on the other hand, the action is effected, or at least defined, by the sub- stantive in the genitive, as in the construction of the passive with vtto and the genitive. 5. With the Dative it has often the same signification as with the genitive, as, for example, with passives* in the sense of a or ab. Thus, a VTTtaxvov aTrorerekearaL aoi f)dv, " what you promised have been noio done by you ;" ttpoottoTiolc (pvXdaaerai, " he is guarded by his attend- ants." So, also, as with the genitive, vtto 6ap6tTG) xopevecv, " to dance to the lyre," &c. 6. It often, in particular, when joined with this case, signifies " under," with the idea of subordination ; as, vtto tlvl elvai, " to be under one," l. e., obedient to one ; ttoisZv rt vtto tlvl, "to submit anything to any one" &c. 7. With the Accusative it signifies " under," " at," analogous to the Latin sub, in answer to the question " ivhither?" as, vtto "YXlov ?}/l- 6ev, " he came beneath Ilium," i. e., under the walls of Troy. It is likewise employed with this case in definitions of time ; as, vtto rovg avrovg XP° V0V C> " about the same time." 228 PREPOSITIONS. 8. Sometimes it is found with the accusative, in answer to the ques- tion " where ?" as, ovre vitegtl olK^fiara virb yfjv, " nor are there any chambers under ground'''' {Herod. 2, 127) ; el rivac ayaivTO rtiv v eTryvEL, Tovg S' eaoXa^ev, " the former he praised, but the latter he punished."* THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 1. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and per- son ; as, ey£) Xeyo), " / say ;" tovtcj to) avdpe rjyrjododrjv, " these two men thought ;" ol -deol noXd^ovai, " the gods punish" 2. A neuter plural, however, is generally joined with a singular verb ; 4 as, daTpa (patveTai., " stars appear ;" TavTa EOT iv ay add, " these things are good" ,. 3. But when the neuter plural refers to living persons, the verb is often put in the plural also, because persons are for the most part considered separately by the mind, but things as forming a class. 5 Thus, tcL tsXtj vttsuxovto, 1 . When a substantive is omitted, they supply the place of substan- tives ; as, i] avpiov, " the morrow," supply rjfispa ; and again, ol ttXij- oiov, " neighbours," supply avdpoTTOt. 2. Sometimes the article is joined to an entire clause ; as, kav tovto (3e6atG)£ imap^y, tote nal rcepl tov riva Tifzopr/OErai tic knelvov rpoirov k^earac okottelv, " if this be firmly established, then ivill it be allowed us also to consider in what manner one shall punish that monarch." 3. So in the neuter, to, \lev — ra 6e, "partly — partly " &c. 4. This usage is more observed by the Attics than by the older wri- ters in the Ionic and Doric dialects, and is frequently neglected by the Attics themselves. 5. Sometimes we find even a singular verb following a masculine or feminine plural ; as, vfivot T£?X£Tai, " hymns arise" Pind. Ol. 11,4; o^trrai 6/j,(pal fisTieuv, " the voices of song resound," Id. fragm. In the Attic writers, however, this takes place only where the verb precedes, 232 THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. " the magistrates promised ;" roadds fzev fierd 'AdrjvaLCJV edvr] earpdrsvov, " so many nations served along with the Athenians" 4. When the subject consists of several persons or things singly specified, and which follow the verb, the latter often stands in the singular ; as, eon nal kv dXXaio. ttoXeglv ap- %ovtsc re nal drjfioc, " there are in other cities also both ma- gistrates and a commons." Here, if dpxovrsc stood alone, the verb would necessarily be elal. 5. Collective nouns, on the contrary, that is, nouns sin- gular which express multitude or number, have often their verb in the plural ; x as, to orparonedov avex&povv, " the army retired ,*" ttoXv ysvog dvdpdjirov xp&vrat rovro), " a large class of men use this" 6. A dual nominative is sometimes joined with a plural verb ; 2 as, ra 6s Ta%' eyyvdsv rjXdov, " they two quickly drew near ;" dficpG) Xeyovci, " both say" 7. The nominative is often omitted when the verb itself expresses the customary action of the subject ; as, oaXrd&i, " the trumpeter sounds his trumpet," where 6 oaXmitTrjg is implied ; eicrjpvt-e, " the herald made proclamation," where 6 fcrjpvi; is implied. 8. When two or more substantives are connected by a conjunction, the verb which belongs to all, instead of being in the plural, is sometimes found to agree with one of these substantives, and usually with that one which is nearest to it, and the most important in the sentence ; as, aol yap ed- in which case probably the author had the whole in his mind, and ex- plained or defined it afterward by the substantive in the plural. Thus, dsdotiTCLL vyai, "exiles are decreed,'''' Eurip. Bacch. 1340. 1. This construction occurs even in the genitive absolute; as, rov orolov rrTieovTcjv, Demosth. in Mid. 45. 2. Sometimes, on the other hand, the dual of the verb is put with the plural nominative, even when more than two persons are signified. This occurs chiefly in the earlier epic poets, and is not found in the tragedians and prose writers. Many scholars consider the passages in question corrupt, or think that they must be explained otherwise. The whole difficulty is removed, however, by regarding the dual as originally an old form of the plural, -limited subsequently to the expression of two. THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 233 gjks vinr\v Zevg Kpovidrjg nal 'AttoXXojv, "for unto thee has Jove, the son of Saturn, given victory, and Apollo." 9. Sometimes a nominative is put without a verb follow- ing, and is then called the nominative absolute ; as, eicelvoi 6e elaeXdovreg, elnsv 6 Kpiriag, " they having entered, Crit- ias said." THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 1. An adjective is often put in the neuter gender, with- out regard to the gender of the substantive which stands with it in the sentence, XPW a Dem g understood, and re- mains in the singular even when the substantive is in the plural j 1 as, ova ayadbv r\ ixoXvuoipavia, " the government of the many is not a good thing ;" fiera6oXal elot Xvnrjpov, " changes are a sad thing." 2. An adjective of the masculine gender is often found with a feminine noun of the dual number, and under this rule are also included the pronoun, participle, and article f as, apxpcb tovtg) to) rroXee, " both these cities ;" 6vo yvvalns epi^ovre, " two women quarrelling ;." rw %£?pe, " the two hands." 3. An adjective is often put in a different gender from the substantive with which it stands, as referring to the person or persons implied by that substantive ; 3 as, cpiXe rsicvov, " dear child" {II. 22, 84), spoken of Hector ; retcog drpvrcjvr], " indefatigable offspring" (II. 2, 157), spoken of Minerva. 4. Hence a collective noun in the singular number, and of the feminine or neuter gender, is often accompanied by the adjective in the plural and masculine; as, exofiev rr\v 1. In all such constructions as these, the substantive is regarded by the mind as representing merely some general class of things, and hence the adjective is put in the neuter gender. 2. Hence it has been inferred that the dual of the adjective, pronoun, participle, and article had originally only one form, namely, the mascu- line. 3. Grammarians call this synesis {ovvegis), i. e., an understanding of the person implied by the substantive. £34 PRONOUNS. dXXrjV vTrrjpealav nXeiovg feat dfietvovg, " we have the rest of the crews more numerous and skilful." 5. Among the tragic writers, when a woman speaks of herself in the plural number, she uses the masculine ; and the masculine is also employed when a chorus of women are speaking of themselves. Thus, ol 7rpoOvf]oKOvreg (Eurip.), where Alcestis speaks of herself ; cpfCTetp' dnovoag (Eurip. Androm.), " / pitied, on having heard," where the chorus speak. 6. A substantive is often used as an adjective j 1 as, y/U5<7- aav 'EXXdda edida%£, " he taught the Greek tongue" 7. The substantive is often changed into a genitive plu- ral ; 2 as, ol xprjOTol rtiv dv6pa)7T0)v, " the worthy ones among men," for ol xprjOToi avdponoi, " worthy men." 8. This construction takes place also in the singular, es- pecially in Attic ; as, rrjv irXeiOTTjv rr\g orpariac (Thucyd.), " the greatest part of the army ;" rov ttoXvv tov -^povov, " a great part of the time" 9. An adjective in the neuter gender, without a substan- tive, governs the genitive ; as, yJaov r\\iipag, " the middle of the day " rooov bfiiXov, " so great a throng." 10. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter singular and plural, with and without an article, for adverbs ; as, nptirov, " in the first place;" to npcorov, " at first ;" Kpv- e rr\q rjfiepac, " late in the day." 8. Time when, that is, part of time, is put in the genitive ; as, tispovc; rs not y(£i\i&voq, " in both summer and winter" 9. The material of which anything is made is put in the genitive, the thing made being a single object, but the sub- joined definition denoting an entire class or kind of materi- als, part of which go to compose that object ; as, rbv di(p- pov eiroir}Gsv Xa^vpCyv I-vXcjv, " he made the chariot of strong wood." 10. The superlative degree is also followed by a geni- tive, this genitive marking the entire class, of which the superlative indicates the most prominent as a part or parts ; as, e%0Leleiv with the dative is rare, and confined to the poets ; as, Soph. Antig. 558, uare Tolg fiavovciv utye- felv. 244 ACCUSATIVE. na/cd noXXd sopys TpcJag, " he has done many evils to the Trojans ;" ay add elnev avrovg, " he said good things of them ;" etpero anavrag rov nalda, " he asked all about his son ;" rovg \iaQr\rdg edida^e ao)(f)poavv7jv, " he taught his disciples continence. ," 6. Verbs governing two accusatives in the active retain one in trie passive, namely, the accusative of the thing ; as, GK/rynrpov Ti\idg re aTTOOvXarai, " he is despoiled of his scep- tre and honours ;" eTraidevOr] \iovoikt\v nal prjTopiicqv, " he was taught music and rhetoric^ 7. When, in addition to the whole object, which receives the action of the verb, particular specification is also made of a part, in which this action is principally shown, both the whole and part stand, especially with the poets, as proximate objects in the accusative ; as, \iiv lovra (3aXs crrjdog, " he wounded him, as he came on, in the breast ;" rpo- fiog vixrjXde yvla eKaorov, " trembling came upon each one in his limbs beneath."" 8. Since the accusative serves always to designate the object upon which an action immediately passes, it fre- quently stands also with intransitive verbs and adjectives containing a general expression, and indicates the part or more definite object to which this expression must be prin- cipally referred. This is called the accusative of nearer definition, and is to be expressed in English by different prepositions, especially by in, as to, with respect to. 1 Thus, rbv ddfcrvXov dXyoJ rovrov, " I feel a pain in this finger ;' Trodag (bavg 'AxtXXevg, "Achilles swift as to his feet ;" 2i>- pog xjv ttjv Trarptda, " he was a Syrian as to his native country •" rb dsvdpov Trevrrjicovra nodtiv eotl to vipog, " the tree is fifty feet in height^ 9. Time how long is put in the accusative ; as, boov %po- vov av iroXefiog %, "for as long a time as there may be war;" 1. It is generally assumed that Kara, or some other preposition, is un- derstood in such constructions, but this is not correct. VERBS PASSIVE. 245 Kal %#ec 6e aal rpirrp) rjfiepav to avrb rovro enparrov, " they did this same thing during both yesterday and the day previous" 10. Distance and space are put in the accusative ; as, arrexei drcrcb rjjiepcov odov diro Ba6vXC)vog, " it is distant a journey of eight days from Babylon." VERBS PASSIVE. 1. Verbs of a passive signification are followed in Greek by a genitive, governed by imo, and, etc, rrapd, or ixpoq ; as, 6 vovg vnb olvov StacpdeLperat, " the understanding is impaired by wine ;" dXXai yvoj/iac dcp' kfcdorcov eXsyovro, " other opinions were expressed by each." 2. The dative, however, is sometimes employed by the poets instead of the genitive ; as, '' 'AxlXXtjI kdd\ir\, " he was subdued by Achilles." 3. The dative is very frequently put with the perfect passive of verbs, whose perfect active is not much used ; as, ravra XeXeKrat rjpilv, " these things have been said by us" for XeXox® ravra. INFINITIVE. 1. The infinitive mood is used to express the cause or end of an action ; as, -&eXo) adetv, " / wish to sing." 2. The infinitive, with the neuter of the article prefixed, is used as a species of verbal noun ; and very frequently the article is thus appended to an entire clause, of which the infinitive forms a part; as, to Xvelv, " the loosening ;" to sxeiv %pr]p,aTa, " the having money." 3. The infinitive in Greek is governed by adjectives, and denotes the respect in which the idea of the adjective is to be applied j 1 as, luavol repnsLV (paCvovrai, " they ap- pear calculated to delight " oh deivog tart Xeyeiv, dXX' dd- 1. This is imitated in Latin by the poets ; as, idoneus delectare, utilis facere. In prose, however, the gerund with a preposition must be em- ployed ; as, idoneus ad delectandum, &c. X2 246 INFINITIVE. vvarog atyav, " he is not able in speaking, but unable to keep silent" 4. The infinitive is used with &ote, more rarely with a>c, to express the consequence of an event indicated by the leading verb ; as, ^tXoTt\i6rarog tjv o Kvpog, &ore Trdvra vnojielvac rov enatvelodat evena, " Cyrus was very ambi- tious, so as to endure all things for the sake of being praised." 5. The infinitive is frequently used, in short intermediate propositions, sometimes with, sometimes without wc, to in- dicate an aim, or else to qualify what precedes ; as, wc enog elnslv, "so to speak;" airXCx; elnelv, " to speak plain- ly ;" boov efts eldevat, " as far as I know;" ejiot doicetv, " as appears to me." 6. The nominative, and not the accusative, is put with the infinitive whenever the reference is to the same per- son that forms the subject of the leading verb ; l as, ecpaa- ksv elvat Aide vlog, " he said he was the son of Jupiter ;" enetaa avrovg elvat deog, u I persuaded them that I was a god." 7. The genitive and dative sometimes follow the infini- tive by a species of attraction ; as, edeovro avrov elvat npodvfiov, " they besought him to be zealous ;" dog fiot (pav- rjvat d^tcp, " grant unto me to appear worthy." 8. The infinitive elvat, with and without an article, is put absolutely with adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, with their case ; as, ercibv elvat, " willingly ;" to ovfiriav elvat, "generally ;" rb fiev Tr\\iepov elvat, " to-day at least " to Kara tovto elvat, " with respect to this." 9. The infinitive is frequently put for the imperative, particularly in the poets ; 2 as, tiapocov vvv, Atoprjdeg, eni Tp&eoot \id%eoQat, " taking courage, now, oh Diomede, fight 1. The accusative, however, is joined with such infinitives whenever emphasis is required ; as, TLpolaog £v6/j,i& eovtov elvai iravruv b"k6c6- tcitov, " Croesus thought that he himself was the happiest of all men!'' {Herod. 1, 34). 2. Some understand, but without any necessity, an ellipsis of some verb, such as bpa or dog, in such constructions. PARTICIPLE. 247 against the Trojans " (pdctfceiv Mvtcrjvac opav, " say that thou seest Mycenm." 10. The infinitive of the present, future, and aorists, but more particularly of the future, when preceded by the verb jwe/lAa), expresses the future, and answers to the future par- ticiple active in Latin with the verb sum ; as, [leXXco ypd- (peiv f " I am about to write" (scripturus sum) ; fieXXrjoG) ypdcpetv, " / will be about to write' 1 '' {scripturus ero) ; e^eA- Xr\oa ypddeiv, " i" was about to write" (scripturus jut). PARTICIPLE. 1. The participle is put after a verb, and in the nomina- tive case, when the reference is to some state as existing at the time on the part of the subject, or to some action as being performed by it. 1 Thus, olda ^V7]rog gjv, " / know that I am a mortal ;" (patverai 6 vdfiog 7\\idc (3Xdnro)v, " the law appears to be injuring us ;" navoaode ddiKOvvrsg, iC cease acting wrongfully." 2. If, however, the subject belonging to the participle stands with the principal verb as a proximate object in the accusative, the participle also stands in the accusative ; as, ol 'Ad7]vaZoL eiravoav avrbv arparr]yovvra, " the Athenians caused him to cease being a commander ;" ovg dv bp& rd dyadd rrotovvrag, " whomsoever I may see doing the things that are good" 3. If the subject belonging to the participle stands with the principal verb as the remote object in the genitive or dative, the participle, in like manner, takes the genitive or dative ; 2 as, ^adofirjv avrcov olojievo)v elvat ao(pO)rdrG)v, u I perceived that they fancied themselves very wise " ovSsitots 1. This again is a species of attraction, and proceeds, as in other cases, from the circumstance of a dependant proposition having no sub- ject of its own. 2. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, the participle can be put in either of two cases, according as it is referred to the subject contained in the verb or pronoun ; as, avvoida kfiavTci) ootybc &v, " I am conscious to myself of being wise ;" aavrti cvvridsiq adinovvrc, " you were conscious to yourself of acting wrongfully" 248 PARTICIPLE. ueTefjbsXrjGe pot oiyrjaavri, " I never repented of having been silent" 4. The verb " to be ashamed" takes the participle when the action of which one is ashamed is performed ; the in- finitive when the action is declined through shame ; as, al(j%vvo[iai, notrjaag, " / am ashamed to have done it ;" ala- %vvo\iai epeaOat, " jF am ashamed to ask" 5. The verbs " to commence" li to begin" take the parti- ciple when the assigned state has already begun to take place ; the infinitive when it is just about to take place ; as, 6 %eifi(ov 7]p%aro yevoiievoc, " the winter was come on " 6 X£C[iG)v TJpxsro ytyveadat, " the winter was beginning to come on" (i. e., it approached, but was not yet arrived). 6. The verbs " to hear" and " to learn" take the parti- ciple when a fact is adduced which we perceive with our own ears ; the infinitive when something is assigned which we hear from the narration of others ; as, rptovaa rbv Atj- fioodsvj] Xeyovra, " / heard Demosthenes speak ;" drcovG) rbv Ar][M)od£V7) Xsyuv, " / hear (i. e., I am told) that Demosthe- nes says" 7. The verb (paivsodai takes the participle in the signi- fication " to be evident" " to be manifest " but the infinitive in the signification " £o seem" " to have the appearance" as, e8dvo),prce. The primitive meaning of Qddvo is " to get be- forehand,'''' " to get the start of." The verb rvyxdvo is often used in the manner indicated by the rule, when it is impossible to be expressed in translation. For the Greeks, in order to designate the absence of hu- man intention and will, very frequently join it with those verbs also which, without it, express a mere occurrence of nature or of chance ; as, eri^e davuv, " he was dead;" rvyx&vovaLV e%ovTiQ, " they have." 2. If a longer historical period is to be assigned by this genitive, the preposition errt is usually added ; as, errl Kvpov fiaaikzvovroq, " under the reign of Cyrus" i. e., as long as Cyrus reigned. 25U PARTICIPLE. as, ekslvov ehrovrog, irdvreg eoiyov, " he having spoken, all were silent." 13. As the dative also is frequently used in Greek for definitions of time, and to assign the cause, datives absolute also occur, though much more rarely than the genitive f as, Tvepuovri, ro> evmvrcp, tl as the year came to a close ;" elpyop,svoig avrolg rr\g ftaXaoorig, " they being cut off from the sea." 14. Accusatives absolute stand in Greek only in those cases where, in relating another's actions, the narrator as- signs by conjecture the motive which influenced the agent. The participle is then accompanied by the particles tig, are, tjorrep, or (bg av, and the use of the accusative must be explained elliptically, as dependant upon a verb " to suppose" " to believe" " to imagine" which is indicated in the particles wc, &e. ; as, ^v^sto rcpbg rovg tieovg dirXoJg rdyadd dcdovai, d)g rovg tieovg KaXkicra eldorag, onola dyaOd eortv, " he prayed the gods simply to give him the things that were good, since (in his belief) the gods know best what things are good." 15. If in an intermediate proposition one of the relations, which are otherwise designated by genitives absolute, is to be expressed by the participle of an impersonal verb, this participle then stands in its absolute form, as a nominative absolute. 2 Thus, did tl fieveig, e^bv dntevaL ; " why do you remain, when it is allowed you to depart ?" 6 d' e/ibg iraXg (3aXo)v, ovdsv dsov, Kara6dXXet rbv dpurov, " but my son, having thrown, what ought not to have been done, strikes down the boar." 1. Care must, however, be taken not to consider passages of ancient authors as proofs of this usage, where the dative can by any means be explained in a dependant sense. 2. The nominative absolute is also used in impersonal phrases formed with ecrrc and a neuter adjective, where a participial construction enters ; as, dUcuov bv, '• it being just ;" advvarov 6v, " as it is impossible." 251 PROSODY. 1 1. Prosody (jrpoocddia), in its common acceptation at the present day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time occupied in pronouncing them. 2. In the ancient grammarians, irpoocpSca applies also to accent and breathings. 3. The vowels e and o are short by nature ; 7] and (*) are long by nature ; and a, i, v, are termed doubtful. 4. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the mean- ing is, that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being equivalent merely to one short time. On the other hand, a vowel long by nature is long by its natural pronunciation, being equal to two short times. Thus i] is equivalent to ee, and o) to oo. 5. Hence it follows, that the short vowel e has r\ for its corresponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like manner, has G) for its long. But in the case of a, i, v, there is no distinct mark or letter by which the eye can tell at the instant whether these vowels are long or short, and hence they are called doubtful. 6. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by actual usage, every syllable in any particular case always has a definite quantity, either long or short ; and that, when we speak of doubtful syllables, we do not mean that they have anything doubtful in their nature, or wavering between long and short as regards the same word ; but only that they have no corresponding long or short marks by which the eye can detect their quantity at a glance. 1. For a more enlarged view of this subject, consult the author's larger work on Greek Prosody. 252 position. 7. The quantity of syllables is determined by various methods : I. POSITION. 1. A short or doubtful vowel before two consonants or a double letter is almost always long ; as, oreXXo, o\i\ia, av- rdyo), rpdrre^a, d\id^a, dlipa. 2. These two consonants may belong to the same word with the vowel ; as, eonepog, or one of them may belong to the same word, and the other to the succeeding word ; as, tg)v dfiodev ye, tied ftvyarep Acog, or both may be found at the beginning of the following word ; as, avdpa $V7]tov eovra. 3. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following excep- tions to this rule of position must be carefully noted. I. A short vowel before a soft mute (tt, k, t), or an as- pirate ((f), %, 6) followed by a liquid, is much rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. II. A short vowel before a middle mute (fi, y, 6), followed by p, is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is mostly long. III. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by any liquid except p, is almost always long. In Eurip- ides such syllables are always long ; but in iEschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are sometimes short. IV. The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short before the two liquids fiv. 4. The epic writers, such as Homer, &c, mostly avoid the shortening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and employ it chiefly when the word cannot in any other man- ner be adapted to the measure. Thus, in the case of such forms as Zdfcvvdog, ZeXeia, Stcdfiavdpog, Giceizapvov, &c, a preceding short vowel in another word remains short, not- withstanding the double consonant Z and the two mutes gk, following immediately after. ONE VOWEL PEFORE ANOTHER. 253 II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 1. One vowel before another or before a diphthong is generally short, unless lengthened by poetic license or some other peculiar cause ; as, ayXaog, rjepcog. 2. But the Greek poets, especially the epic, often lengthen vowels, even when another follows, by the aid of the arsis ; and this takes place not only in doubtful vowels, but also in those which are naturally short. 3. By arsis, which is called by some ccesura, is meant the stress of the voice that is brought to bear upon a particular syllable in each foot during the reciting of a line. In the dactyl it falls on the first syllable ; in the iambus on the last ; and in the trochee again on the first ; its place being regulated by the long syllable. 4. The spondee leaves the place of the arsis undeter- mined ; and this becomes settled only by the nature of the verse in which the spondee is employed. Thus, in dactylic and trochaic measure, the arsis falls on the first syllable of the spondee ; but in iambic on the last. 5. The following are instances of lengthening by arsis. Thus, oieg (Od. 9, 425) ; /card Xi7rdp7]v (II, 6, 64) ; 6s pe- Xi7]v (11. 20, 322), &c. 6. In the epic writers, long vowels and diphthongs are mostly short at the end of words when the next word be- gins with a vowel; 1 as, iyievr} ev ftevdeacnv (II. 1, 358) afupti dfitig (lb. 23) ; dexQal anocva (lb. 57). 7. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural 1. The principle on which this depends is easily explained. The ij in T/fif.vrj, for example, is equal to ee, and one of these epsilons being supposed to be elided before the initial vowel of the following word, the other epsilon remains, of course, short by nature. In other words, the &utl vowel of r}fxsv7] loses, as it were, a portion of its natural length by the sinking of the voice and by the vowel immediately following it. So the u in autbu is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which it loses be- fore the following vowel, while the other remains short. In like man- ner, the diphthong ai in de%dcu is supposed to lose a vowel. 254 DIALECT. measure when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The follow- ing Homeric verse contains examples of both kinds. 1 'Hfierepti kvl ot/ccj, kv "ApjE'c, rrfkoQi -Karpriq. (II. 1, 30.) III. CONTRACTION. 1. All contracted syllables are long ; as, Ipog for lepog ; bcplg for bcpteg, &c. 2. Two vowels forming two syllables are frequently con- tracted into one in poetry ; as in %pvaiu> (11. 1, 15), where ew forms a single syllable. This is frequent in the dra- matic writers, where the syllables are in different words, and is called synizesis ; as, \lt\ eldevat (Hippol. 1331), where the 7] and et are to be pronounced as one syllable ; r) ev- yeveiav (Eurip. Electr. 1104). IV. DIALECT. 1 . The Doric a is long ; 'as, (f)d{j,d, yvvd, Alvsid. And so is the a in the uncontracted form ao of the genitive ; as, y A.rpeiddo. 2. The iEolic a is short ; as, vv[i(pd, ttoltJto,, KOfxrjrd. 3. In the Ionic dialect a is generally short in the penult of the perfect tenses, such as yeyda ; and always short in the third person plural of the passive in drat and dro ; as, edrai, 6e6jj,r]dTO. 4. The Ionic third person plural in act is always long ; as, sdac, ridedai. 5. The Ionic writers double the a and some other con- sonants at pleasure ; a license which the Attic poets never 1. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to be elided, and a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in the arsis of the foot, receives the stress of the voice, and becomes long again. Thvis, in the foot p(f) evi, the syllable pcj is in the arsis, and hence, though one of the omicrons composing the omega is supposed to be cut off before the ini- tial vowel of kvl, and only a single omicron remains, that omicron is nev- ertheless lengthened by the stress of the voice falling upon it. On the other hand, in the foot o'lku ev, the omega is not in the arsis, and hence, after this vowel has lost one of its component omicrons before the next word, there is no stress of the voice upon the other omicron, and there- fore it remains short. COMPOSITION. 255 used, either in tragedy or comedy. Thus, in Homer, we have orrjdeooiv for arrjOeoiv ; oTmorepog for onorepog, &c. V. DERIVATION. 1. Derivatives for the most part follow the quantity of the words from which they are derived ; as, vikclg) from vlkt] ; Tl/jido) from rl\ir\. 2. But many derivatives from verbs differ in quantity from the present tenses of these verbs, as being immediate- ly formed from the perfect passive, with a short penult. Thus, fcpLTTjg and Kplaig, though the verb be uplvo, because they are immediately formed from ninpirat, ftenpiGai. 1 VI. COMPOSITION. 1 . Compound words generally follow the quantity of their primitives ; as, arlpog from rl\ir\ ; p,v(mapG)v from [ivg, gen. \tvog and rrdpcov. 2. The privative a is commonly short ; as, aepyog, deKGjv, adv/iog, but dddvarog and aKa\iarog are excepted, and, on account of the number of short syllables that follow, and which would make the words otherwise difficult to employ in verse, have the initial a always long. 3. The particles 6a, £a, apt, epi, and Svg, are short ; as, 6d^>oiv6g, %adeog, apTdettceTog, epLnvdrjg, 6voai\q. VII. INCREASE OF NOUNS. 1. A in the increment of nouns is generally short; as, au)fia, arog ; itpeag, arog ; vetcrap, apog ; \iiXav, dvog, Sic. Exceptions. 1. All increments in avog are long except rdXavog and fieXavog ; as, Tirdv, avog ; TLdv, dvog. 1. In the same way, StarpiBa, from SisrpiSov, the second aorist of 8ia,Tpi6o ; and irapafvx^ fr° m napfyvxov, the second aorist of napa- fv X Q. 256 INCREASE OF NOUNS. 2. All increments in anog, from nominatives in a^pure, are long; as, ola%, anog ; pvat;, dicog ; , ftlvog ; Ig, Ivog ; Xlg, Xlrog ; excepting, however, rig, rlvog ; and Alg, Alog. 5. I is also long in nouns in ug, Idog ; Lip, Inog ; i%, lyog ; and i%, Ittog ; as, bpvig, Idog ; t£ttl%, lyog ; fidan^, lyog ( " a lash") ; (poivi%, lnog. Homer, however, has Oprjlfcsg always short. 6. But i is generally short in nouns in Lip, l6og ; and l£, l%og ; as, ^epwi/), l6og ; #pt£, rplxog ; fidoTit;, Ixog, " a gum" 7. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in vc, vog ; as, dpvg, dpvog ; fivg, fivog. 8. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ; as, ddfcpv, vog ; and in the increment of masculines and femi- nines in vg and vp ; as, viavg, vog ; IXvg, iXvog ; £%#vc, l%Qvog ; and also in the neuter noun nvp, irvpog. But 6a- 6vg, vdog and K}ivg, vOog, must be excepted. 9. T is generally short in the increment of nouns in vi- and vip ; as, bvvt;, vxog ; XdXvip, vdog ; except doidv%, VKog ; KOKttvi;, vyog ; K.r\pv%, vnog ; ktjv!-, vicog ; yvip, vnog ; ypvip, vnog ; while Be6pvi- has either VKog or VKog. INCREASE OF VERBS. 257 10. Nouns of two terminations, in vg and vv, have v long I in the increment ; as, $6pitvg, or Qopicvv, vvog, VIII. INCREASE OF VERBS. 1. The quantity of the penult in the present and imper- fect remains the same through all the voices and moods ; as, tcplvo), 'iftpZvov, tcplve, tcpZvoLpii, npZvu), KpZveiv, fcpZvuv, rcpZ- VOflCU, £KpZv6fl7]V, KpZvOV, &C. 2. Most tenses have the same quantity in the penult as those from which they are formed ; as, erimov, tvttCj, erv- 7T7JV, TV1T7]O0[iat, TeTVTCa, ETSTVTTSIV. 3. Verbs in d^o), i£g), and v£o), are made short in the fu- ture ; as, aprrd^G), dacj ; vofiL^G), low ; kXv£g>, kXvgg). 4. Verbs in aw, where aw is preceded by a vowel, and all verbs in paw, have the penult of the future long ; as, eda), mod) ; opdo), aoG) ; Spdo), doo). 5. Verbs in do, when preceded by a consonant other than p, have the penult of the future short ; as, ando), doo ; yeXdo), dacj. 6. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Xg), fio, vo, pw, shorten the penult of the future, but in the first aorist active they invariably take either a long vowel or a diphthong ; as, iM/lAw, -&dXCJ, Wr\Xa; reXXo), reXti, eretXa-, (patvo), (pavoj, ecpTjva ; Sapdvvo), SapOvvcJ, eddpdvva. 7. Verbs in «•), not proceeding from roots in £g>, are made long in the future ; as, kvXZg), Zgg) ; kovZg), Zau). But eaOio) has the i everywhere short. 8. Dissyllabic verbs in vg) are for the most part long in the future and aorists ; as, 6vo), dvao), edvoa ; rpixo, rpvao), erpvaa. Except tttvco, tttvog), enrvaa ; icvo, kvog), envaa ; and one or two others. 9. Polysyllabic verbs in vo), in the same manner, are for the most part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as, ioXVG), iaftvou), ioxvoa ; daitpvG), dafcpvao), edatcpvaa. Y2 258 INCREASE OF VERBS. 10. But polysyllables in voj are for the most part short ; as, dvvco, dvvGO) ; dpvo), dpvao) ; dcpvo), dcpvoo). 11. Verbs in vco, which have lengthened forms in v{il, for the most part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as, deiitvvb), edeiKvvov ; fityvvo), efilyvvov. The verbs (f>vo) and dixo are not exceptions to this rule, since they do not furnish complete forms in v\ii, but only in the second aorist. 12. Polysyllables in v\ii have the v everywhere short, except in the singular number of the present tense active, and the third person plural of the same tense and voice ; as, £evyvv[M, QvyvvoL ; but ^evyvvjxev, &vyvvre, ^evyvvvai, &c. 13. On the other hand, dissyllables in v\ii have the v everywhere long ; as, dvdi, dvvai, edvre, &c. 14. The penult of the second future and second aorist is always short ; as, da-fiti, Aa#w, upvtd, XircC) ; eda/iov, ehadov, eupvbov, eXirrov. With the single exception of the verb ttXtjggg), which, in the epic dialect, retains the long vowel in the penult ; as, enXrjyov, ETcXrjyriv. 15. The third person plural in aai, and the feminine par- ticiple in aaa, are always long ; as, XeXoinaoL, nercpixpaoi, lardoi ; Tvipaea, ypdipdoa, &c. 16. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v or c, consists merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of course, the initial syllable of the historical tenses long ; as, lkstsvo), Zfcerevov, iKerevoa. 17. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect ac- tive strictly follows the measure of the root in the present. Hence the middle syllable is short in most forms which have a in the present ; as, ypdcpG), yeypacpa ; but it fluctu- ates in those with t and v ; as, Tpl6o), Terplcpa, but plnrG), epplv, 'H.etlg)v, Olvomcov, gen. Oivoniajvog. 3. Comparatives in lov have the i long in Attic, but short elsewhere ; as, yXvfcloiv, ftaiclcjv, &c. 4. I is long in the penult of verbs in lcj, not proceeding from roots in £<*> > as > pvGog, Kap,6vorjg, &c. Except verbals in votg ; as, Xvatg, avvotg, &c. 8. X is long in derivatives in vrr]p, vrrjg, and vrtg ; as, p,r]VVTrjp, p,rjvvTr]g, npeo6vT7]g, irpeobvTic 262 FINAL SYLLABLES. 9. T is long in adjectives in vrog derived from long verbal roots in vo) ; as, dSdfcpvrog, TToXvddupvrog, ar- pvrog, Sic. 10. T is long in verbs in v%ia ; as, (3pvx^i rpvx^, and their compounds. 11. T is long in the following words ; ipv^r], ipv^og, £[iipvxog, naraipvx^, &c. X. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULTIMATE. The doubtful vowels before the penultimate are generally short. The exceptions to this rule are, however, many in number, and are best learned from a prosodial lexicon. 1 XL FINAL SYLLABLES. I. Final a, av, ap, and ag. I. Final a is short ; as, rpdire^d, tvd, InTrord, r£rv(pd. Exceptions. 1. But a pure is long; as, 'Adfjvad, (jaXid, OLKva; ex- cept verbals in rpia ; as, ^aXrpid ; and derivatives from adjectives in r\g ; as, d\i]Bud ; and also Upeid, K&deid, fiaoLXeid (" a queen") ; but (3aatXeid (" a King- dom") and fiaoiXeid (adj. fern. " royal") have the final vowel long. 2. The Doric a for tj is long ; as, dopd, irsTTOpd. 5. Words ending in pa, with a consonant preceding ; as, 1. They are given in full in the larger Prosody. FINAL SYLLABLES. 263 ay pa, rrsTpa, afceorpd ; except acbodpd, anoXoTiivdpd, 'Tavdypd. 6. All feminines adjectives from masculines in og , as, dittaid ; except did, norvid, Id, and \ild. 7. Duals in a, as \10vad ; and vocatives from nouns in ag ; as, Alvetd ; or poetical vocatives of the third de- clension ; as, Aaoddfjid, JloXvdd^d. 8. The accusative in ea, from the genitive (third declen- sion) in ecog ; as, ILrjXed, from UrjXeug ; ftaoiXid, from fiaotXeug ; but, in Homeric Greek, UrjXrjd, from II77- Xrjog ; fiaotXrid, from (3aoiX?iog. 9. Nouns in eta, from verbs in evoj ; as, npo(p7jT£ta, dov- Xeid. II. Final av is short ; as, dv, rcdpmdv, Aldv, ueXdv, nocq- odv, ervxpdv. Exceptions. 1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Tcrav, nacdv. 2. The neuter adjective ndv ; and hence the Attics ap- pear to have taken occasion to lengthen here and there the forms compounded with it ; as, airdv, eniTrdv, Trap- dndv. But Trdundv and irpondv are probably every- where decidedly short. • 3. Adverbs in av ; as, Xidv, aydv, irepdv. On the con- trary, brdv and birordv follow the quantity of the sim- ple av. 4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom- inative ; as, (piXtdv, from (piXLd ; Alveidv, from Alvelag. But the accusative in av from a short nominative is short. ; as, norvidv, from noTvla ; rpdne^av, from rpd- TTE^d. 5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in . av, formed by contraction, is likewise always long ; as, fxeXtav, vvficpdv, for \lzXi&v, vvp^dv. So, also, 264 FINAL SYLLABLES. the Doric forms derived from those in 77, or produced by contraction ; as, rrot[idv, Uooeiddv, 'AXfcpdv. III. Final ap is short ; as, ovap, vsttrap, \id\idp. Exceptions. 1. Monosyllables in ap are long ; as, Kdp, ipdp. 2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and similar words it very often occurs long in epic lan- guage, through the force of the following breathing. IV. Final ag is long ; as, Alvetag, nag, lp,dg, (piXidg, tv- i})dg, rjfiag. Exceptions. 1. Words of the third declension, not forming the genitive in avrog ; as, fisXag, \iiydg, Xdfinag, oeXdg, fcepag, &c But rdXdg has the final syllable long. 2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the third declension ; as, Tirdvag, rv-nrovrag, noip,£vag, (ppevdg, &c. (but fiaoiXsdg, from fiaoiXsd). The accu- sative plural of the first declension, on the other hand, is always long. 3. Adverbs in ag are short ; as, ireXdg, drpefidg, dyicag. 4. Ac is short in the second person of the different tenses which terminate therein ; as, erey^ag, rey^eidg, olSdg, XeXoinag, necpvicdg. 5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in ag, other- wise long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too, even in accusatives plural of the first declension ; \iolpdg (Theocrit. 2, 160); avrag (Id. 3, 2); vv/j,(pag (Id. 4, 29). II. Final i, iv, and ig. I. Final i is short ; as, Itpil, orl, fisXl, tvtttovgT, tc6 &c. FINAL SYLLABLES. 265 Exceptions. 1 . But the abridged form upl (for tcpidr)) is long, together with the names of letters in i ; as, £-1, m, &c. 2. The paragogic i, added by the Attic comic poets and orators to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise long ; as, ovrool, wvl, ovtojol, &c. So the similar i in the words 66Z, ravrl, SsvpZ, &c. 3. Adverbs ending in i, and formed from nouns, have the i either long or short, but more commonly short ; such as a/ioxdl, dfiax^rl, Travdrjfii, iravopiXl, &7tovt]tl, &c. But those which refer to nations have the i always short j as, SkvOlotX, 'KpyoXiarl, Bap6apt<7rT, &c. II. Final iv is short ; as, tvixtovolv, eplv, ndXiv, ttoXZv, nptv, VLV, G(plV. Exceptions. 1. Final iv, making Ivoc in the genitive, is long ; as, pr\y- filv, IktZv. 2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, SeXcpZv (otherwise 6eX(pZg), d/trZv, plv, Zv, Xiv. 3. The datives plural r\\iZv and v[iZv, though in several instances Sophocles makes rjfiTv and vfiiv, and the epic dialect has also d\i\dv, v\ipXv. III. Final ig is short ; as, dig, rpig, noXTg, rvpavvtg, &c. Exceptions. 1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two ter- minations for the nominative ; as, Zg, XZg, pZg, nZg, SeX- t?ie \ fivdfj \ adadal. 3. A short syllable in the beginning of a foot is often made long in epic poetry. The reason is, that, as the first syllable of the foot was pro- nounced with the rising inflection of the voice in heroic verse, so by pro nouncing it, when short, with a sharper tone, it was brought nearer in sound to a long syllable, by which the deficiency in time was scarcely perceived. The following examples show a short csesural syllable made long at the beginning of a foot : vavXoxov \ ec Xl[iev \ a Kal | tic dsbg \ fjyE/io | vevev. 6vv' axog \ arXri \ rbv 6 6' dp \ a Tpu | civ [ieve | aivov. II. PENTAMETER. 1. This species of verse consists of two equal portions, each contain- ing two feet followed by a long syllable. 2. The first two feet may be either dactyls or spondees, then comes a long syllable, to which succeed two dactyls, followed by another long syllable. Thus, epirvTJi | oc ksZt \at\\ rale eTCC \ nuvTa \ al. TdTifiu | ev 6' Epta j al \\ gkutcec a \ fjdovt \ civ. 3. The pause always takes place after the long syllable in the middle of the verse, marked by the double line in the two examples just given. 4. Another, but less correct 1 mode of scanning pentameters is as fol- lows : the first and second feet either a dactyl or spondee, the third al- ways a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests ; as, ovre nod \ uv dpsr J fig ov | te irukalc \ fiocvvrjc. j 5. A dactylic hexameter and pentameter, alternately succeeding each other, form what is called elegiac verse. Thus, Kpfjval | al 2,16a | dig, ti 7re | (pEvydre ; | ttov tooov j v8up ; rig , d. 2. The meaning of this tradition evidently is, that the Phoenician al- phabet was introduced into different parts of Greece in a more or less perfect shape ; that some tribes received all the letters, while others were content with sixteen ; that these last-mentioned tribes, however, gradually increased the number of alphabetical characters, by borrowing, at two different epochs, certain letters previously used in the more per- fect systems of other Grecian communities. 3. The old sixteen, or primitive Cadmean letters, are supposed to have been the following, the v being assigned to its true place as the representative of the digamma, and being indicated by the old sign of the digamma, namely, F. ABTAEFIKAMNOnPST. 4. A change, however, subsequently took place as regarded the in- troduction of T, which was formed from the Fav, or digamma, by split- ting its upper part. This new letter was then placed after the T, while the F itself was omitted. 5. The Ionians first adopted all the twenty-four letters, and of them first the Samians, from whom they were received by the Athenians ; but it was not till after the Peloponnesian War, in the archonship of Eucli- des (B.C. 403), that they were used in public acts. Hence the twenty- four letters are called 'Iuviku ypdfj.fj.aTa, and the old sixteen 'Attiko. /pufifiaTa. 6. In the most ancient times, according to Pausanias (5, 25), the Greeks, like the Orientals, wrote from right to left. They soon began, however, to write the first line from the left to the right, in the second from the right to the left, and so on alternately. This was called pov- 274 APPENDIX. crpo(j>7]d6v, from its resembling the mode in which the ox turns with the plough. So the laws of Solon were written. But, as early as the time of Herodotus, it was the established custom to write from left to right. EXCURSUS B. DIGAMMA. 1 1. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the following remark- able fact. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, especially the pronoun ov, ol, e, and also sldo, eoina, e'nveZv, aval;, T/Uoc, olvog, olnog, gpyov, laog, e/iacTog, with their derivatives, have in Homer the hiatus so often before them, that, leaving these words out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, and, in most of the remaining cases, can be easily and naturally accounted for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, an apos- trophe very seldom before them ; and, moreover, the immediately prece- ding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short than before other words. 2. From an attentive examination of the subject, the illustrious Bent- ley was led to conclude, that the words before which these deviations from the usual rules of prosody took place, although beginning with a vowel, must have been pronounced at least, if not written, as if begin- ning with a consonant. He recollected that some ancient grammarians mentioned a letter as more particularly used by the JEolians or most an- cient Greeks ; and that its existence might be traced in the changes which some Latin words, derived from the ^Eolic Greek, had undergone ; as, olvog, vinum ; Ig, vis ; olicog, vicus ; rjp, ver. The letter alluded to, which, from its form, has the name of digamma or double gamma (F), is yet to be seen in some ancient inscriptions and on coins ; and it supplies the data for resolving the cases of metrical difficulty, where the length- ening of a short syllable uniformly takes place before particular words. 3. Let us examine some of the instances which are found at the very opening of the Iliad. 'Arpeifyg re uvat; avdpuv (v. 7) ; ' kyajj.sjj.vovi. rjvdavE -&V/J.U) (v. 24) ; 'Att6?i?mvc uvaKTi (v. 36) ; 6 6' f/ie vvktI koinug {v. 47) ; d-apor/aag p.ala, eiize (v. 85). In all these cases, according to the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the short vowel ou°"ht to have been elided before uvat;, fyvdave, &c. But if we write Tavat;, Yrjvdave, &c, or fancy the words pronounced wavaf, wyvdave, wswoiKwg, w££7re, &c, the difficulty will in a great degree disappear. 1. Buttmann, Ausf. G : Sprachl. p 2~.— BuUmaniL's Larger Gr. Gr. p 28, Rob- insorc's irand. — Maltby's Greek Gradus, p. xi., seq. APPENDIX. 275 EXCURSUS C. ACCENTS. 1. In every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to be regarded as the fundamental or radical syllable, or, in other words, that which contains the principal idea of the word. The rest, on the contrary, which are prefixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in the formation of words, are, in respect to the idea, of less weight. 2. The ascendant importance of the fundamental syllable of a word is, in every independent language, indicated by a sharpened elevation of the voice in its pronunciation ; as, for example, du in duty, or set in beset. 3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing one syllable of a word is called the tone or accent {jcpooudia, accentus), which can occur only once in each word, and of itself is one and the same in all words, namely, the acute or elevated accent (7rpoa(p6ia b^ela, accentus acutus). As a sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to left (') ; as, for exam- ple, loyoc. 4. In comparison with the accented or elevated syllable, all syllables of a word which are not accented must be spoken with a depressed or unelevated accent (Tzpooudia fiapela, accentus gravis). This depressed or grave accent is represented by an opposite sign, namely, a stroke from left to right f) ; so that \6yoc was in fact \6ybc. But, because every syllable of a word which has not the acute accent is necessarily to be spoken with the depressed tone, the sign for the grave is not used, but these syllables remain unmarked. 5. As an indication of the proper grave, therefore, is unnecessary, its sign is used for another purpose, namely, to mark what is called the softened acute at the final syllable of words in a continued discourse, and of which mention will presently be made. 6. If two vowels, the first of which has the acute, the second the grave, are united into one sound, this long sound receives a sign, which is formed by the union of those two, namely, (' s ) or O ; for which, how- ever, a twisted line (~) is more conveniently used, 1 indicating that the accent is to be lengthened in the pronunciation (izpoocpdia Trepicirofievr), accentus circumflexus) ; as, for example, df/Xoc for SesXoc, cu[ia for abb/ia. Position of the Accents. In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, it is necessary, 1. to determine the syllable on which the- accent rests; and, 2. to know the sign by which, according to the nature of that and the remaining sylla- 1. In the Porsonian type a semicircular mark is employed ; as, \ia. 276 APPENDIX. bles of the word, the accent is to be indicated. Concerning these two points, we shall here briefly assign what admits of accurate definition. I. Determination of the accented syllable. 1. A Greek word can have its tone or accent only on one of the last three syllables. 2. In simple radical words (that is, those which are formed with a definite termination from an existing root, and not derived from a word already formed) the accent rests on the radical syllable ; thus, root "key, whence Myio, " I say ;" "ket-tg, "expression;" koyog, "speech." 3. In words which are derived from others, either by a prefix or an appended termination, the accent usually rests on the supplemental part (because this, as the sign of distinction from the radical word, defines the idea) ; thus, from koyog is derived akoyog, " speechless ;" from /cap- nog, "fruit," come a/cap7roc, "fruitless " and evuapirog, "fruitful;" from Xeyu are derived kenrog, "said" and ke/creog, " to be said;" from &r)p, " an animal," is derived tinpiov, " a wild beast." 4. The nature of the final syllable has a decisive influence on the po- sition of the accent ; namely, if the final syllable of a word be long by nature, the accent cannot lie farther towards the beginning of the word than on the penultimate syllable. For a long syllable being equal to two short ones, if the accent were placed on the antepenult when the last syllable is long by nature, it would be placed, in fact, four places back from the end, whereas it can never go farther back than three. The following cases, however, are to be noted as exceptions from this last rule. 1. The 6) which the Attic and Ionic dialects make use of in declen- sion for the o of the other dialects has no iu luence on the posi- tion of the accent. It is right, therefore, to accentuate virepTtke- ug (Attic and Ionic for virepTrXeog) ; pivotcepiog, " a rhinoceros ;" dwdjieog, " of power ;" 'A.TpEidsu f " of Atrides." 2. The same exception holds good of the syllables at and oc, as ter- minations in declension and conjugation. Hence we properly accentuate rpdne^ai, " tables ;" Myerai, " it is said ;" ekafoc, "stags." The termination of the third person singular of the optative, however, again forms an exception to this, and, being the result of contraction, is long as regards the accent. We are therefore to accentuate tutyepoi, not enfyepoi, from £Kepo) ; vlkjj- rrai, not vinnoai, as the optative of viicda). 1 1. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions are found in Greek, wnich are best learned from actual reading and a good lexicon. APPENDIX. 277 5. Some small words are so unimportant of themselves, that, in dis- course, they almost unite their sound with the following word, and, there- fore, remain unaccented. These are the forms 6, rj, ol, at, of the article, besides the prepositions elg or eg, ev or elv, en or ef ; the conjunctions el, &?, and the negative ov, ovk, ovx- These are called urova, " tone- less," or 7rpoK?iiTiKu, '* proclitic." Some of them, on a change of signi- fication or position, receive the acute, namely, 1. the adduced forms of the article, when used as pronouns ; 2. &g, when it either stands for ov- To>g, " thus,'''' " so," or in the signification " as" or " like" is placed after the chief word ; as, nanol tog, " as cowards" or " coward-like ; 3. ov or ovk, when it directly denies, without an additional word, like the Eng- lish " no," or is placed after the word which it negatives. II. Sign of the accent according to the nature of the syllables-. If the syllable on which the tone rests is known, the question then is, with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the following rules obtain : 1. The acute can stand on each of the last three syllables ; as, rca/cog, "bad;" iroXig, "a city;" uvdpvrzog, "a man." But it can stand on the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is short by na- ture ; thus, av0p6irov, avdpuKG), avOpuvcoig, although the nominative is marked uvdpuirog.* 2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable long by nature, and only on the final or penultimate syllable, but never on the penultimate unless the final syllable is short by nature ; thus, TlepcK^g , " Pericles ;" KaKov, "of evil;" X&P 0C i "space;" 2,eiize, "leave." On the contrary, 'Kti'Ketv, " to leave ;" yet Xelrpcu, x&poi, according to rule 2, § 4 of the previous head. J ' 3. The mark properly belonging to the grave accent appears only on the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as a sign of the softened tone of the acute. Thus, avrjp, " a man ;" ayadog, "brave ;" but in connected discourse, avrjp ayadog ov (pevyec, " a brave man fleeth not aviay." 4. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would be interrupted by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final syllable of a word, alone renders necessary the transition of the acute into the grave. This change, therefore, must not take place before one of the greater signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, when it indicates a really distinct member of a proposition. But we 1. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepenult Ip case only of a short final syllable, see rule 2, $4 of the previous head. Aa 278 APPENDIX. also use the comma in assigning nearer definitions, and predicates, before relatives and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently the internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted, and in this case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on the final syllable before the comma. Thus, it is proper to write, Tide, r/v XPW a - ra no?ika sxv rig ; and. in like manner, ol jllsv ayadoi, ol 6e kclkol, be- cause here is a perceptible caesura in the discourse ; but irarr/p, og idutce, and eXsye tto1?m, d>g, k. t. 2,., because here no abrupt separation of the single members of the proposition occurs. 5. If the third syllable from the end is accented, it always possesses the acute. 6. If the final syllable is accented, it always bears the acute (or, in continued discourse, the grave), except when it arises by contraction, or forms the genitive and dative of the first two declensions, or belongs, as the termination, to adverbs in ug. Thus, fiaailevg, " a king," but /?a- oiTlei (contracted from (SaacXel) ; natcog, naur}, kclkov, kclkovq, but naKov, Kauris, KdKov, kuk€), Kaicy, ttantiv, KanoZg (as genitive and dative of the first two declensions) ; tcatc&g, an adverb. 7. Every dissyllabic word whose penult is long by nature, and followed by a short final syllable, is marked with a circumflex on the penult ; as, XPW&, xtip°?i T£ tX°C > Ksiadat. 8. Words have denominations according to the position of the accent. If the final syllable bears the acute, the word is called an oxytone (btjv- rovov), as, for example, /ca/cof ; if the circumflex, a perispome (TrepiaTru- fievov), as, tcoieZv ; if the final syllable is unaccented, the word is a bar- yton ((3apvTOvov). If the accent rests on the penult as an acute, the word is paroxyton (rrapotjvTovov), as, vbjiog ; if as a circumflex, proper- ispome (TTpoTCEptOTTUjiEvov), as, ofi/na ; and, lastly, if the acute stands on the third syllable from the end, the word is proparoxytone {np(mapot;v- rovov), as, uvdpoirog. III. Change of Accents. 1. If a word possessing an accent experiences such a change, by de- clension, or conjugation, or composition, that either the number or meas- ure of its syllables is increased, the accent also is usually changed. These changes of the accent are of a threefold kind, namely : 1. The accent remains on the syllable on which it stands, but is itself altered, and becomes, (A.) An acute from a circumflex ; as, Gufiarog, from otjfia ; %6pov f from x6>P°C '■> KELfisda, from KEladat. (B.) A circumflex from an acute ; as, (pevyE, from (psvycj. APPENDIX. 279 2. The accent advances towards the end of a word, (A.) If the word is increased by the annexation of syllables, so that the original accented syllable has more than two syllables between it and the end of the word ; as, avdpuiroiGi, from avdpoiroc ; (3e- Xeeggl, from /3e/loc ; tuvovtuv, from ttIvcj ; kareXXeadi]v, from gtekKu. (B.) If the word receives a termination which always or usually has the accent ; as, rsrvfuc, rervtyevai, rvrcelc, TeTV/xjievog, all formed from tvttto) ; &7]p6c, from i9?7p ; ttioc, from nig, &c. (C.) If, in the change of a word, the final syllable, which was be- fore short, becomes long ; as, avdpuirov, from avdpu7rog ; erepov, from srspoc ; Trpay/j-druv, from irpay/Lta. 3. The accent is drawn back towards the beginning of a word. This takes place, (A.) If the word receives additions at the beginning, or if the cause is removed which held the accent on the penult ; as, etvktov, etvttte, from tvtttcj ; iraidsvs, from 7ratSsvo) ; d(pt?iog, from tylXoc ; cvvodoc, from 6S6c. (B.) If, in dissyllabic words, the final syllable, which should bear the accent, is dropped on account of a succeeding vowel ; as, 7/(i' eyu for rj/j,l ; and TtoTCk 1 ewadov for itoKka ; delv' er2,nv for Secvd. But prepositions and particles, when the accented final vowel is dropped, remain unaccented ; as, £71^ avrov for eirl ; nap' ejxol for napa, ; aXk' eyu for aXka ; ov6' okiyov for ovds. IV. Recession of the accent to a preceding word. 1. Several small words unite themselves so closely, in respect to sense, with the preceding word, that they must be blended with it, as it were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw back their accent on the preceding word, and hence derive the name of enclitics (fiopca ey/cXiTiKu). 2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun tic, tI, through all the cases ; the oblique cases of the personal pronouns, /uov or fj.ev, [ioi, fie, gov or gev, goI, ge, ov or £0, and eQev, ol, e, fj.lv, vlv, G(pe, ccpoe, gcjhjIv, G(J)euv, G(f>LGt or G(j>LGtv, and Gfylv, Vfeac, Gea ; together with the pres- ent indicative of etui and (prj/il (except the second person singular sic or el, "thou art;" frjc, " thou sayst) ;" and, lastly, the adverbs end parti- cles 7TCJC, 7T(5, TTOl, irfj, 7T0V, TCodl, TToOeV, TCOTE, TE, T0C, ye, KE (OX KEv), •&fjv, vv (or vvv), nEp, pa. 3. All these words throw back their accent, as acute, on the last syl 280 APPENDIX. lable of the preceding word ; but the accentuation of that preceding word decides whether this accent must be expressed or not. Concerning this point the following rules must be observed : (A.) If the preceding word is accented on the last syllable, or is marked with the acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its accent without farther change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident that the grave becomes an acute, because, properly, the enclitic unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the accent syllable is therefore no longer to be considered as standing at the end of a word. Thus, we write avrjp rig (as if it were avrjprig) ; ayadog re Krikog re ; ftXu ae ; fiadnruv tlvcjv, uvdpa re, ty'Ckog [10V. But, in the last case, when the preceding word has an acute on the penult, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper accent ; as, fjv A6- yog rrore evavriog atyiaiv. (B.) If the preceding word is accented with a circumflex on the pe- nult, or an acute on the antepenult, the accent, thrown back, from the enclitic, stands as an acute on the final syllable ; as, uvdpcjTrSg earc "d-vrjTog ; 6 Kpolaog ttote eke^ev. If several enclitics follow one another, the preceding always takes the accent of the succeeding, and the last only remains unac- cented ; as, el rig riva (prjai [iol Trapelvai. (C.) The enclitic retains its accent (1.) in personal pronouns after a preposition ; as, nspl gov, rrapa aoi, Trpog ae ; and, in this case, the longer forms of the pronoun of the first person, e/iov, e/noi, kfie, must always be used ; as, ef euov (not e/c jiov) ; hv kfioi (not iv iio'C). (2.) In the verb eari (which then draws back its accent to the root), when it is used in the emphatic signification " there, is" " there exists" " it is situated," or else stands followed by an infinitive, for e^ean, u it is possible ," " it is permitted," "one can ;" as, for example, Qebg eartv, " there is a God ;" ecriv ov- rcog, " it is so situated ;" earcv ISelv, " one can see." 4. From the enclitics adduced under § 2 must yet be distinguished the particles 6e and #e or -&ev, which entirely lose their independence, and become incorporated with the preceding word. Strictly considered, in annexing these particles to a word, the given rules of inclination ought also to be observed. On the contrary, -&e or -&ev is usually regarded as any other appended termination ; and thus we write olnodev, not olnodev (from uinog). In the particle 6e, however, two cases are to be distin- guished ; thus, if it is annexed to forms of nouns, it has the same influ- ence as every other enclitic, and hence we write olicovde (from olnog), APPENDIX. 281 'Aldose (from "Aig), do/uovde (from do/iog). But if it is annexed to de- monstrative pronouns, the accent of the principal word advances towards that of the particle, and passes into the syllable immediately before <5e ; as, togogSe (from roGog), tologSe (from rolog). And this accent thus retains itself regularly through all the cases and forms ; consequently we write TOG?jde, roGoide, roGovgde ; but togovSe, toguSs, TOGyde, roGotgde. EXCURSUS D. DIALECTS. 1. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most traces are left to us in their epic poems, the oldest monuments of the language of this people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in these is called the epic dialect. Its basis formed the old national language of the Greeks, which the poet, however, for his own purpose, variously modified and enriched. Its principal characteristic is a rhythmical harmony and a powerful fulness of tone. 2. The epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in a perfect form in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The rest formed themselves ac- cording to the model of these two, particularly of Homer. The most eminent of them are, Theognis and the other gnomic poets, Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the poems extant under the names of Orpheus, Quintus Smyrnaeus, and Nonnus. 3. Since the epic language was derived from the stores of the general national language, and variously enriched by the poet himself; since, moreover, the dialect found in the oldest epic remained in after times appropriated to this species of poetry, and thus was continually advanced in civilization and culture by new admixtures ; it is natural, therefore, that it should not appear as a complete and finished whole, but should betray in its single parts many deviations and irregularities. 4. If the basis of the epic is the old primitive language of the Greeks, and the primitive contains all the germes of the subsequent development of a language, we may easily conceive how this dialect should evince divers traces of all the peculiarities whieh afterward were individually cultivated and retained in the single dialects. Thus, in epic occur JEo- lisms, Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as fundamental peculiarities of the Greek language. But it is erroneous to regard the epic language, on that account, as a mixture of all the dialects ; as, on the other hand, it is wrong to confound it with the Ionic, from the circumstance of its having many fundamental peculiarities in common with that dialect Aa2 282 APPENDIX. The same obtains of iEolisms, Dorisms, Ionisms, and Atticisms in all cases where reference is made to them by grammarians and commenta- tors. 5. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace into the country after- ward called Hellas, were divided into several tribes, whereof two, the Dorians and lonians, chiefly extended themselves. Each of these tribes cultivated an independent and peculiar character in language, as well as in manners and mode of life, and after their names we denominate the two principal dialects the Doric and Ionic. 6. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, preserved their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in Hellas proper and the colonies, pure from foreign intermixture, but did little for the particular advancement of their language. Hence the Do- ric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, and a flat- ness of tone from the frequent use of the dull sound A, a peculiarity termed in Greek rc'kareiaGiioc. Besides this dialect, the Molic also was formed according to the model of antiquity, and had many peculiarities in common with the Doric, whence it was considered as a refined col- lateral form of the same, cultivated particularly for the use of the poets. 7. The Doric and .'Eolic dialects became and continued to be the lan- guage of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is most purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcaeus, Sappho, and Corinna exhibit rather the iEolic mode. The Doric is purer in the Idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an ap- proach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric prose. 8. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the peo- ple as individual varieties of the generally-diffused Doric dialect. But their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from insulated expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in historians and comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of them are the Laco- nian, Boeotian, and Thessalian dialects, and, next, to these, the Sicilian. 9. The lonians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, betook themselves principally to Attica, and, when that barren country was un- able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite coast of Asia. Under the mild climate of Lesser Asia, the form of their language became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the epic. Thus was devel- oped the Ionic dialect, the principal characteristic of which is a softness of expression, acquired from the frequency of vowels and the solution of harsh syllables by interposed sounds. Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in this dialect. 10. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the epic APPENDIX. 283 dialect have occasioned the latter also to be denominated Ionic ; although with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is given to the epic, but to the Ionic that of New Ionic. 11. The language of the Ionians who remained behind in Attica pro- ceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the Attic, which observed an intermediate course between the Doric harsh- ness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The political con- sequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture to which Athens ar- rived, gave a wide circulation to this dialect, and the considerable num- ber of eminent writings which are composed in it, and have been pre- served, determine it for the groundwork in the study of the Greek lan- guage. 12. The most celebrated works written in the flourishing period of the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thucydides, the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the philosophical books of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes, JEschines, Lysias, Isocrates, &c, besides the tragedies of JEschylus, Sophocles, and Eu- ripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 13. That peculiarity which the single Grecian states had preserved in language and manners disappeared with the general decline of their freedom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the chief seat of liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most widely diffused, became the court language of the now ruling Macedonians, and, by degrees, the general language of writing and the people. Hence it necessarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was sacrificed, and many innovations were introduced in expression and in- flexion. This language, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is comprehended under the name of the common dialect. The authors of this period, however, endeavoured to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and uncorrupted, according to the early models, although many peculiarities of more modern times are interspersed throughout their writings. Hence their style has received the appellation of the later Attic. 14. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Hali- carnassus, T jMM OT, j ^Ghan^ Arrian, &c. 15. In Macedonia the Greek language was mingled with much for- eign alloy ; arm, thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the extension of the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence arose what may be denominated the Macedonic dialect. 16. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the Mace- donian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled together, and 284 APPENDIX. made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dia- lect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style also fell short of the ancient models. But the Greek language underwent a pe- culiar reformation by the translators of the Old and the authors of the New Testament, who designated by Greek expressions things of orien- tal conception and application. As this style occurs only in the Scrip- tures and some Christian writers, it has been called the ecclesiastical di- alect, while others have preferred the epithet of Hellenistic. 1 17. By degrees, the old Greek language, under the influence of various causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and was deformed by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise to the new Greek, which has almost entirely exchanged the primitive character of the old for that of the more modern tongues, and still continues, in ancient Greece, as the language of the country. 1. From the Greek kWrjvi^uv, whence conies iXXrivurdjs, as referring to one who speaks after the Greek manner, and, in the present case, to an Oriental trying to speak Greek. THE END. 71* | * ^ V : ^ vV *b o S Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proceft . Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: July 2006 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION ; 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranbeny Township. PA 16066 A (724)779-2111 \v : *$>