GV 835 
 .M3 
 Copy 1 
 
 er Boat 
 xd Book^ 
 
 »^^^ii.. :, :&^^^^* 
 
 The Rudder Publishing Co. 
 
 New York 
 
<J 
 
Power Boat 
 Hand Book 
 
 By Capt. Paul C. Warde 
 
 Price $1.00 
 
 ^ 
 
 Copyright 1920 
 
 BY 
 
 The Rudder Publishing Co., 
 
 9 Murray St., 
 
 New York 
 
Ql^%^ 
 
 CONTENTS : 
 
 W3 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The First Run 5 
 
 Anchoring 9 
 
 Anchors 1 1 
 
 Ground Tackle 13 
 
 Chains for Larger Vessels 15 
 
 Breaking the Hold of an Anchor 15 
 
 Rope '. 16 
 
 Knots 18 
 
 Short Cruises 20 
 
 Extended Cruising 22 
 
 Small Boats Landing Through a Surf 26 
 
 Points on Boat Handling 27 
 
 Twin Screw 28 
 
 System of Buoyage in United States Waters 28 
 
 Buoys, Colors, Numbers and Shapes 33 
 
 Piloting 35 
 
 How to Use and Read Charts 42 
 
 Lights 51 
 
 Compass 60 
 
 Ranges Taken from Shore y^) 
 
 Finding Distance of Fixed Object 76 
 
 Fog Signals 79 
 
 Submarine Bells 83 
 
 Velocity of Sound 84 
 
 Tides 85 
 
 Gulf Stream 86 
 
 High and Low Water 86 
 
 Mark a Lead Line 91 
 
 Sounding 92 
 
 Lead Line 92 
 
 Wind and Waves 93 
 
 Wind Classification 94 
 
 Size of Oceans 95 
 
 Oil on Water 96 
 
 ^'^'^W-l ... 
 
 ^VvJ I 
 
r e f a c e 
 
 The average beginner, or the new boat owner, usually has 
 many doubts and fears as to his ability to operate and navigate 
 his first power boat. When confronted with the many rules, 
 regulations and requirements of boating, he often thinks the 
 game is more than he bargained for, and unless he is, or has 
 been, a boat and water lover from boyhood days, he is apt to 
 join the rocking chair fleet of the near-by club and watch his 
 newly acquired ship swinging at anchor. On the other hand, 
 the real boat and water lover starts in, no matter what comes, 
 and the outcome usually is a mastery of the first rules and 
 men are not made in a day — in fact, some are never made, 
 possibly because they start in where the good boatmen leave off; 
 that old proverb, 'Tools rush in where angels fear to tread" 
 should be styled 'Tools sail where boatmen quail". 
 
 To answer a question that is often put to many boat opera- 
 tors by a prospective beginner — "What should I know to properly 
 run my own boat?" — the first answer should always be "horse 
 sense" and its general use. Most anyone has at some time or 
 another driven a horse, usually with a great deal of pleasure to 
 himself and not much harm to the horse. If the new boat driver 
 would use the same amount of care with his new boat as he 
 did, or would with the horse, it would be easy sailing for every- 
 one, but he won't, so here goes. The beginner should not 
 attempt to start in with anything larger than the average 30- 
 footer. Up to this size, the draught is light, usually about 2^ 
 to 3 feet, upkeep low, and with average power economical to 
 
own; besides, a boat of this size is easily handled, and the 
 beginner offers less danger to himself and others by placing 
 this as his limit. Such a boat, when arranged for cruising, will 
 make extended trips possible, but before so doing, the operator 
 should first have a few things under his hat. 
 rudiments for small-boat navigation, and a general loss of time, 
 temper and friendship, not to overlook the paint. Good boat- 
 First of all, some understanding of the power plant, the 
 general way to start the engine, its adjustment for all speeds, 
 such as spark retard and advance, throttle control, its oiling 
 device, etc. Assuming this is understood, the next move is to 
 know what way the steering gear is rigged. Whether the boat 
 will turn the way the steering wheel turns, or whether the 
 opposite way; this is really the most important thing to know 
 before casting off your rope. Of course, practice makes perfect, 
 but a know^ledge of the steering gear should be had, before a 
 start is made. Becoming familiar with its action, also the 
 action of the clutch, we will start the engine, of course, 
 that it is properly oiled, etc., according to the book of directions, 
 issued by the engine builder. If none is to be had, call in a 
 good engine man, and have a thorough lesson on running your 
 engine before going any further. Now we have the engine 
 running, and we know what to expect when we turn the steer- 
 ing wheel, and we know which way to operate the clutch, but, 
 how about the water, is it all plain sailing, no rocks, mud fiats 
 or sand bars? Usually one or more of the above are to be had 
 before running very far in most waters. Having no chart 
 aboard on the first run, we are informed by the man who knows 
 that we steer for the black buoy, lying off the reef at the harbor 
 entrance, and head out. We also learn we must pass this black 
 buoy to starboard, which is the right-hand side of our boat; so 
 we cast off. 
 
THE FIRST RUN 
 
 Our engine, since starting, has been well throttled down, 
 as there is really no use having it race away, wearing itself out 
 for nothing, besides the shake and jar on the boat. Before 
 putting in the clutch we speed up just a little; just enough not 
 to stall the motor and then press in the clutch. Don't jam it 
 in. Just press it up to the point where a little more effort will 
 make it take hold and lock. 
 
 We carefully steer out between the other boats and head 
 for our black buoy, just in time to meet another boat coming in. 
 We get one whistle from this incoming boat which we answer 
 with one whistle and turn our boat to the right, enough to allow 
 a safe distance between us and the incoming boat, which has 
 also turned somewhat to the right to give us part of the channel. 
 We pass the black buoy to starboard (our right side; as buoys 
 have no port nor starboard, we must learn that the term pass to 
 starboard, or pass to port, refers to the boat's side and not the 
 buoy's) and head full speed for the lighthouse some couple of 
 miles away. 
 
 Now if we only had a chart aboard we could learn just how 
 near that light we could go, whether the bottom was soft or 
 rocky, whether the light was a white light or a red light. The 
 paint on a lighthouse of course does not tell us the color of the 
 light, but nevertheless if we had the Government book aboard 
 called the "Light List" we would find this lighthouse is described 
 with many other lights for this district. So on our return we 
 had better make out a list of things we really should have. We 
 hold well off the light not knowing what else to do, and keep 
 on until we come to another black buoy. Should this also be 
 
 5 
 
passed on the starboard? Now this is when and where we 
 need a chart. Our good friend at the club is some miles away, 
 but if we had a chart of the locality we would be independent. 
 We therefore decide to turn back, receiving two sharp blasts 
 from a large steamer which turned somewhat up to the left 
 and passed close to us on our right hand or starboard side. We 
 thereby learn that it is necessary for us to know what these 
 whistles mean, and when and how they are to be used and given. 
 Before we reach our club anchorage, we cut down our speed 
 about half, as it is bad form to go rushing through a fleet of 
 boats or narrow channels full speed. As we near our mooring 
 we give it a wide berth as we pass, then turn about, head our 
 boat up against the tide and straight for our "pickup" buoy. 
 Throwing out the clutch and slowly coming up in reach of the 
 buoy we pick up our line (with the boat hook, which we keep well 
 forward and ready for this purpose) and make the line fast 
 to the deck cleat. 
 
 To properly make fast requires some knowledge of ropes 
 and knots, and thus our first short run has taught us several 
 things we lack, and each succeeding run will do likewise. 
 Therefore, the following may help out the beginner and will 
 be classified as : "Knowledge and Requirements for Short 
 Runs;'' "Knowledge and Requirements for Short Cruises;" 
 "Knowledge and Requirements for Extended Cruises". 
 
 Knowledge and Requirements for Short Runs 
 
 The operator should know how to start and stop the engine, 
 have a thorough understanding of the oiling device, know how 
 to adjust and regulate the carbureter, understand the adjust- 
 ments of spark coil and timer — the general action of the clutch 
 and its adjustments, also a thorough understanding of the 
 steering gear and its action. 
 
The operator should have a chart of the waters on which 
 he intends saihng, and should make a careful study of all 
 marks, buoys, lights, etc., and become familiar with the character 
 of the local waters and the use of dividers. A chart is really 
 a very interesting sheet if once you get the "key of it", and yet 
 little attention is given to a chart by the majority of small-boat 
 owners, who seem to prefer to run blindly about, endangering 
 and damaging their craft, rather than spend 50 cents, and make 
 a little study of the waters they use. 
 
 The Government has gone to unlimited trouble and expense 
 to produce these sea maps, so why not avail yourself of the 
 opportunity to understand and use them?. 
 
 The boat should comply with all Government requirements 
 and carry lights, life-preservers, bell, whistle, fire extinguisher, 
 etc., according to its size and class, and not overlook two copies 
 of the Pilot Rules, which every power boat is required to have 
 aboard. The operator must take these Pilot Rules and make 
 himself thoroughly familiar with all the required signals. The 
 different situations should be practiced by using two toy boats, 
 or a couple of small sticks will answer the purpose. When 
 the occasion presents itself for the use of these signals you 
 have no time to "present the book'*. The use and location of 
 the lights should be understood. Seventy percent of the small 
 boats running at night do not place or carry their lights cor- 
 rectly, yet all requirements are plainly given in the Government 
 rules. 
 
 A Light List, which not only describes the character of all 
 lights, but also gives a full description of the lighthouse, color, 
 type or structure, etc., should be aboard every boat. This book 
 is free, to be had at any custom house, and its value and practical 
 use is proven when you come to, or pass a light the character of 
 which is unknown to you. 
 
A great many boat operators seem to think the only thing 
 necessary to know about buoys, is the general rule of passing : 
 Red to starboard, Black to port on entering a port or harbor, 
 and the reverse on leaving. This, of course, is all very well, 
 but there are times when it is necessary to know whether the 
 buoy you are approaching is a buoy placed to mark a local 
 entrance or whether placed to mark an obstruction in the main 
 waters. 
 
 A party, cruising for the first time, wanted to put in at the 
 Thimble Islands (Long Island Sound). They had their chart 
 marked to correctly enter, but on approaching the outer island 
 they passed a red buoy to starboard and just missed a bad reef 
 by so doing. The buoy was a mark for entering the Sound and 
 not a mark for entering the Thimble Islands — such is the value 
 of using and understanding a chart. Become familiar with the 
 different types of buoys; how they are placed by the Govern- 
 ment to mark obstructions, or to lead to the best waters. When 
 so understood, the passing is easy, as you will then know why 
 buoys are there at all. Going down the inside route to Florida 
 several sounds are crossed and many boats, making the trip for 
 the first time, get into difficulty at the junction of the diff'erent 
 rivers. The outer sand-spit is usually marked by a red and 
 black buoy; as each river has a channel, this buoy marks the 
 divide. The pilot, therefore, cannot pass this buoy on either side 
 as in ordinary cases, but must know its marking (as shown on 
 the chart), and allow for the same accordingly. 'To make 
 short runs," know your water, pilot rules, what whistles mean, 
 lights, and how placed, power plant, and the boafs action on 
 different motions of the steering wheel. 
 
 Here are a few points on handling, termed as minor, but 
 still important. 
 
 Always get well clear of a dock, fleet or float, before run- 
 ning full speed. 
 
 8 
 
Always slow clown when coming in. The clutch should be 
 neutral, and the boat just moving as you draw up alongside of 
 a dock, boat, or float, the boat coming up to such a position 
 should head against the tide or wind. If tide and wind are in 
 opposite directions, head up against the stronger of the two. 
 Such a decision should be made before turning and the boat 
 brought up parallel to the position wanted. The headway should 
 be checked by reversing the engine and a line then put out 
 from the bow followed by one from the stern. Never head 
 straight in, always round off. A boat coming in, and intending 
 to tie up alongside another boat, should provide proper fenders 
 and have them ready for use. 
 
 ANCHORING 
 
 When anchoring a boat, knowledge of the water or bottom 
 should be had before deciding on the spot. The best selection 
 should be made for protection against wind and tide, especially 
 if this anchorage is to be for several hours, or over night. By 
 consulting the chart, you can get all necessary information, 
 such as, character of bottom, rise and fall of tide, etc., and 
 thus select an anchorage where the bottom is good for holding, 
 where the water is deep enough and free from obstructions. 
 You must consider the size of the water in selecting the harbor, 
 and try to get protection from the shore, breakwater, or dock, 
 and from every point possible. Having made the selection, you 
 round up, with the boat's head against the wind, or tide, throw 
 out the clutch, and get the anchor clear and ready to let go. 
 You now check the boat's headway, then as it starts to back, 
 let go the anchor and pay out just enough line or chain to reach 
 the bottom taking note of about how much line is used. As 
 the boat backs continue to pay out until about six or seven 
 
times as much line is paid out as the water is deep. The hold- 
 ing quality of the bottom, size of anchor used, strength of wind 
 and tide being the ruling factors. 
 
 When an anchorage is selected for over night, it is a good 
 plan to get a bearing from objects on shore, such as two promi- 
 nent trees, or a tree and a house, taking the range from the 
 bow when possible, as the bow moves much less than the stern 
 when swinging at anchor. This range will show if the boat 
 drags. Of course, a range so taken will open up as the boat 
 swings on the anchor and may seem to be dragging, but a care- 
 ful watch as the boat hauls up will decide the matter. 
 
 When anchoring in a fleet of boats, the headway is checked 
 as before. Select a place where you will have room to swing; 
 round up against the wind or tide, the other boats showing the 
 direction of one or both, reverse the motion of the boat and 
 as she backs, let go. Never crowd in w^here the anchorage is 
 taken — "first come, first choice". Never anchor over a set moor- 
 ing; if you do, it's up to you to move on the return of the 
 other boat. Always comply with the light rules when anchored 
 at night. In riding out a gale, give out all the line possible. 
 If in doubt of the tackle, have a second anchor ready, then as 
 the boat swings to port or starboard, watch your chance, and as 
 she brings up and is about to swing the opposite direction, let 
 go the second anchor and pay out until the anchors and the 
 boat form a triangle. When it is rough, this is the best way to 
 have anchors down, as the boat swings far less when so ar- 
 ranged. The longer the scope the better the anchor holds. Two 
 anchors put out tandem are very efficient, if you are sure of 
 your line or chain, but they require lots of space. The first 
 is let go and the line paid out until near its end, the end is 
 then bent (fastened) to the cable of the second anchor a few 
 feet above this anchor, the second anchor is then let go and 
 
 10 
 
its line paid out and finally made fast to a cleat, capstan or 
 riding bitts. 
 
 When anchoring in a river where the tide changes or where 
 the space to swing is limited, anchors can be put down, one 
 upstream and one downstream. This is called mooring. By 
 this arrangement the bow of the boat moves very little up or 
 down stream; the heading, of course, is against the tide, provid- 
 ing the wind isn't the strongest. First put down one anchor 
 as usual, pay out and back the boat to where you wish the 
 opposite anchor to go, have this ready and let go when the boat 
 is twice as far away from the first anchor as its position will 
 be when you haul in half the cable of the first and pay out 
 enough scope to make the second anchor hold. You will then 
 have one upstream and one down, with the boat between. On 
 small boats where the anchors are easily handled, sometimes it 
 is easier to put down one and set the second by using the dink 
 or rowboat. 
 
 At times when at anchor the tide runs against the wind 
 and the small boat has a habit of nestling up to the large boat 
 like an old cow with a calf. This is annoying, if nothing more, 
 as the dink usually practices the "Morse Code'* on the side of 
 the boat; and if it is night, sleep is quite impossible; by sub- 
 merging a water pail and fastening it with a short line to the 
 stern of the dink the small boat is held well off from the large 
 one. Try it. 
 
 ANCHORS 
 
 Of the several types of anchors now on the market, the old- 
 fashioned anchor and the double-fluked stockless types are most 
 in use. Anchors resembling the double-fluke type were proposed 
 as early as 1850, but not until about 1875 did they come into 
 anything like general use. Each has advantages not found in 
 the other. 
 
 11 
 
The old-fashioned anchor usually strikes the bottom crown 
 first, falls over on the end of the stock, the arms or flukes lying- 
 horizontal. From this position the drag of the chain capsizes or 
 cants it, pulling the stock parallel to the bottom and pointing 
 one fluke in a position to dig or hook. As the chain straightens 
 out and the drag is increased the fluke is forced into the bottom. 
 In good holding ground this type frequently buries itself. The 
 tendency of the old-fashioned anchor to rock into the bottom 
 under a pull is one of its most valuable characteristics. For this 
 reason it is important to give plenty of chain or cable; a long 
 scope is necessary no matter what type of anchor is used. 
 
 The holding power of an anchor is not due entirely to the 
 size or area of the palm. A large palm at times may be a dis- 
 advantage when an anchor drags, as it usually does slightly 
 when taking hold; an excessively large palm breaks up the 
 bottom and carries the soil along, leaving a furrow behind 
 through which the arms and crown move without resistance. A 
 large palm has a great disadvantage on a hard, sandy bottom, 
 and in such places a sharp-pointed fluke with hardlv any palm 
 takes hold the best. 
 
 When a boat swings around her anchor, the cable or chain 
 leads off to one side and comes up with a pull upon the ring, 
 which has a tendency to roll the anchor over and so break 
 out the fluke. The stock on the old-fashioned anchor prevents 
 the rolling over, at the same time the fluke is worked deeper 
 at the bottom by the boat's action. Experience teaches that the 
 old-fashioned anchor holds best for that reason and especially 
 when the bottom is weedy then this type has it *'all over" the 
 stockless double-fluke type. 
 
 The patent double-fluke anchor also has its good points, 
 particularly the great advantage of handling and stowage, and 
 if carried on the bow it is more easily and quickly catted and 
 
 12 
 
nshed. The modern boat usually hoists, and draws the shank 
 into the hawse-pipe. On some boats the hawse-pipe is large 
 enough to take in the whole anchor. Both of these arrange- 
 ments do away with catting and fishing. Moreover, this anchor 
 is always ready to let go. It can be dropped from the hawse- 
 pipe, without the sudden jerk which usually starts the chain 
 running out too fast. The advantage of this anchor over the 
 old-fashioned type, and one that must be given great considera- 
 tion, is its freedom from fouling. As it lies on the bottom, too, 
 it presents no projections like the old-fashioned anchor which 
 may endanger the boat grounding on the top fluke with a change 
 of wind or tide. 
 
 The patent anchor always requires more scope of cable 
 or chain, to make it hold, than the old-fashioned type. This is 
 because a pull upward on this type has a tendency to break 
 out the flukes, whereas in the kedke type the fluke is forced in. 
 
 The mushroom anchor is generally used as a mooring anchor 
 and is seldom carried aboard small cruisers. For a permanent 
 anchor they surpass all other types, as they grip and bury in 
 most all ground bottoms, besides, they are non-fouling and for 
 that reason should be used as anchors for moorings. 
 
 GROUND TACKLE 
 
 What size anchor and what size of rope shall I use? is a 
 common query of small-boat sailors. The answer is : Re- 
 member that most lines fail through chafing and not lack of 
 strength. A new ^-inch rope is much stronger than an old 
 i54-ij^ch, and so on. 
 
 How often have we seen a little 30-foot power cruiser come 
 chugging into a harbor for a night and watched the owner bend 
 a ^^-inch.line into a 40-lt)^ anchor, tumble it over and after 
 taking a turn on a few fathoms of line, go below to turn in 
 
 13 
 
for a snooze. No boat large enough to own an anchor should 
 have a line less than s/^ of an inch in diameter. Remember 
 that It IS not so much a question of length of a boat as the 
 weight of the boat and area of surface exposed to the wind 
 that determines the drag on the hook. A little suggestion to 
 help in choosing ground tackle for small power boats is given 
 in the following table: 
 
 The Right Size Anchor 
 Boats from 15 to 25 feet— One 30-lb anchor and a 5^-inch line 
 
 " 50-rt) '' 
 25 to 40 feet— *' 35-lt) 
 
 " 75-ft) " 
 " 90-tb *' 
 " 40 to 60 feet— " 50-tb 
 90-ft) 
 
 " " 135-lt) " 
 
 (The sizes of lines are given in diameter.) 
 
 All cruisers should have at least one anchor line of at 
 least 20-fathom.s' length, in addition to the other lines. 
 
 Anchors of less than 50-lb weight should preferably be of 
 admiralty or kedge type, not stockless. Personally, I would not 
 use a stockless weighing less than 40 tb for anything but a row- 
 boat, but there may be cases where this criticism would be 
 unjust. 
 
 Many figure the weight of a light anchor at i^^ tb for 
 vach foot of length, and the heavy anchor at 2% tb for each 
 foot of length. Some boatmen may consider this excessive, but 
 too much is better than too little when it comes to anchors. 
 Type of boats, and waters where used, are the important fac- 
 tors, and must be considered. 
 
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 14 
 
CHAINS FOR LARGER VESSELS 
 
 Boats above 45 feet should have chain for the stream anchor. 
 Chain is better — it does not chafe and is much easier on a boat 
 in a seaway. The weight of the chain acts as a spring and is 
 less liable to drag the anchor for that same reason, as it will not 
 bring up with a jerk. This size boat is always equipped with a 
 windlass or capstan, which makes it possible to use chain. 
 Using chain where there is no windlass or capstan is not recom- 
 mended. A swivel should be used between the anchor ring 
 and chain, and should be at least as heavy, or as large a diameter 
 as the chain. A size larger is still better. 
 
 If you use a line and are anchoring for the night, or when 
 anchored in a seaway, parcel the line with a piece of canvas 
 where it leads through the chock, to guard against chafing. 
 
 Good ground tackle is good insurance if properly used. A 
 man who begrudges a proper outfit of ground tackle is a menace 
 to himself and all yachtsmen. 
 
 A boat should have one of the stockless type anchors and 
 use chain, when possible. This anchor should be used in every 
 case where a lengthy stop is to be made. Its non-fouling quali- 
 ties make it more desirable: as the kedge or old-style anchor is 
 quite apt to foul on the change of wind or tide. 
 
 BREAKING THE HOLD OF AN 
 ANCHOR 
 
 Many times it so happens that an anchor becomes well 
 bedded in the bottom and boats, when not equipped with a 
 capstan, find it some job to get up the hook, when such is the 
 case. The slack of the line should be entirely hauled in until 
 the boat is right over the anchor, and a turn or so made around 
 the cleat or sampson post, then by putting on power at slow 
 speed the boat usually will break the hold, If the anchor has 
 
 IS 
 
worked under a rock or ledge, the slack or scope should be 
 taken about two-thirds in, and the boat steered to run around the 
 spot where the anchor lies in a circle. This method usually will 
 unhook an anchor when it is rock bound; running back and forth 
 only works it still farther under the rock. 
 
 ROPE 
 
 Ropes are made of organic material such as cotton, hemp 
 manila, grass, and of metals such as iron, steel, bronze and some- 
 times aluminum. 
 
 The class of organic materials is classified as to the material 
 and the manner in which they are made up. Grass, manila and 
 henip are spun into rope, while cotton is spun, braided and 
 knitted. Braided and knitted ropes have the distinctive quality 
 of being able to transmit torsional stresses such as a flexible 
 shaft and are used for this purpose in the patent log-line Thev 
 also are free from turns which make them valuable as signal 
 halyards, though by the use of small swivels this bad feature 
 of spun rope has been overcome for this use as signal halyard. 
 When you do use cotton, remember it shrinks. Therefore do 
 not haul your halyards taut in dry weather and wonder whv 
 they parted m the first rain-squall. 
 
 Ropes are made by twisting several yarns together into 
 strands, each strand containing an equal number of yarns then 
 laying them up in a spiral form, so that each separate yarn 'bears 
 an equal strain. The strength of any single rope is the com- 
 bined strength of each separate yarn, and unless these yarns 
 are very carefully twisted together, so as to bring an equal strain 
 upon each part, the rope is imperfect and untrustworthy In 
 choosing rope, care should be taken that the strands are smoothly 
 evenly, and closely laid. 
 
 Spun ropes are three-stranded and four-stranded A three- 
 stranded rope is more flexible than a four, but a four has 
 
 16 
 
greater surface area for the same strength and weight and 
 therefore wears longer. 
 
 Hemp rope is harder and less flexible than manila and is 
 used for standing rigging, while manila rope is used for running 
 rigging. 
 
 Grass or coir ropes are used where the rope is submerged 
 often, as they do not rot when damp and can be stowed while 
 wet. They are very elastic and are specially used for towing 
 light weights. 
 
 Just a few hints about this general class of organic ropes : 
 
 Always dry these ropes before stowing them to prevent 
 rotting. 
 
 Projtect them from chafing by use of chafing gear or revers- 
 ing end for end to bring the wear in difl^erent places. 
 
 Always coil down right-handed or with the sun. 
 
 The greater the surface the less the wear on any one 
 strand, so use four-stranded for ropes whose particular wear is 
 from chafing, such as anchor warps, for small boats, and boat 
 falls. A small size rope would often be strong enough but would 
 chafe through quicker. 
 
 Metallic or wire ropes are generally either iron, steel, bronze, 
 or combinations of metal strands spun with hemp or manila 
 strands. 
 
 Bronze rope is used for tiller ropes because it is non-magnetic 
 and it will not rust. This is important as tiller ropes are often 
 in inaccessible places. If it does not pass near your compass 
 and it is where it can be easily examined and cared for to 
 prevent rusting, a flexible steel tiller rope is cheaper and stronger 
 for the same weight and also wears longer. 
 
 Galvanized iron wire is used for standing rigging and the 
 rusting in places where turns have broken the surface coating, 
 such as around thimbles of an eye-splice, should be carefully 
 
 17 
 
looked for. Most sailors think it wiser not to paint wire rope 
 except for decorative purposes. If it is painted, be sure to 
 remove all grease and water from the surface. 
 
 Steel rope is used for running rigging because of its flexi- 
 bility and lightness, but the majority of yachtsmen have little use 
 for it as these boats are too small to make its use advisable. 
 
 A combination of alternate strands of wire and hemp is made 
 into rope known as a durable rope, and is used particularly for 
 cargo falls as it is more flexible and easier to handle. 
 
 A cable-laid rope is composed of three hawser-laid ropes, 
 twisted the contrary way, so that it is in fact a nine-strand rope. 
 
 A shroud-laid rope is a four-strand rope, twisted right- 
 handed, in the same direction as Lht- course of the sun. 
 
 A hawser-laid rope is composed of three strands of yarn, 
 right-handed, with the sun. 
 
 KNOTS 
 
 Reference has been made to bending and making fast, etc. 
 When it comes to knots, the average beginner is limited to tying 
 his necktie, so some space is devoted to knots and splices. 
 
 To make the overhand the right end is crossed over the left 
 and the left tucked under; the end that is now right is crossed 
 by the left and that tucked or put through the loop; this makes 
 the square or reef knot, which is simple and most useful, but 
 should not be used to fasten two ropes together. In making 
 this knot care must be taken, at the start, not to cross the right 
 end with the left — the outcome will be the Granny, which does 
 not hold well and is hard to untie. 
 
 A good knot to know how to tie and which is much used in 
 docking is the bowline; when given slack, it's easy and quick 
 to cast off and at times this is important. 
 
 Hold the end of the rope in the right hand, and the standing 
 
 18 
 
part of rope in the left. Lay the end you hold in your right 
 hand over the standing part, turn the bight of the standing part 
 (which is held in the left hand) over the end, so that it forms 
 a loop with the end through. Lead the end around the stand- 
 ing part above the loop so made, and bring it down. 
 
 Bowline on a Bight.— Fvocecd as for a single bowline, the 
 bight in the right hand, the standing part in the left. Now take 
 the bight around the standing part, and pass it over the larger 
 bight and haul taut. 
 
 Running B ozvl in e.—Mdikt a bowline, then draw the standing 
 part of rope through the loop formed in the bowline. 
 
 Clove Hitch, which is easily made from the illustration and 
 is a gOJDd knot to use when tying to a spile or making the dink 
 fast to a rail, or when making fast to a running rope ; this knot 
 unties easily but when it is to be used for some length of time the 
 end should be brought around and a half-hitch made. 
 
 A good knot to use in making a line fast to an anchor is 
 the fisherman s bend; but where separate lines are to be used for 
 their respective anchors an eye-splice and a thimble should be 
 used, as it's much neater and far cleaner. The fisherman's 
 bend is easily made. When making the line fast to the boat, 
 if a cleat is used, take two turns around, then one over and 
 around the forward end of the cleat, back the same way, 
 and. around the back end of the cleat, and fasten with) a 
 blackwall hitch. The size of the cleat and the size of rope 
 must be considered so when making the hitch the cleat has 
 not been all used up by the turns, etc. When anchoring 
 it is well not to use or pay out all the line; making fast with 
 some to spare is the safest way. Where a sampson post is used, 
 the turns around, and blackwall hitch are generally used. Unless 
 a couple of turns are first made before using the blackwall hitch, 
 it's almost impossible to break a line loose without first reliev- 
 ing the strain on the line. 
 
 19 
 
To fasten two ends of a line together a sheet or becket 
 bend is simple. When the strain will be heavy, put in a small 
 but strong stick in the knot, called a toggle — there are several 
 knots used to bend two ropes together. Boat operators should 
 learn and practice these knots. The art of splicing also should 
 be acquired. So many seem to think this is not necessary, 
 nevertheless it is something every boatman should know. 
 
 SHORT CRUISES 
 
 The operator or owner should now be thoroughly posted on 
 the requirements previously given for ''Short Trips", and before 
 going cruising several items should be added to the boat's 
 equipment which the Government Rules do not call for, or 
 require. 
 
 In order to leave the shore-line and sail a direct course 
 from point to point a good reliable compass should be properly 
 installed; the compass is, without doubt, the most useful in- 
 strument used in navigation. In selecting a compass, the New 
 Dial, showing all points on the inside, and the 360 degrees on 
 the outside rim, should be preferred; this dial is now used by 
 the Navy, and the courses given in the Government Pilot Books 
 are given true, by degrees. A lead and line properly marked, 
 a set of Parallel Rulers (or a modern course Protractor is 
 usually preferred) should be aboard, and the operator should 
 practice their use. In using either, the final course should be 
 decided on, after allowing for the compass errors, called Varia- 
 tion and Deviation. When the compass is once understood, a 
 great feeling of certainty comes over the small-boat sailor, and 
 whether near or far from land, the feeling of reliability and 
 security is a revelation. The lead, if properly used, is of great 
 
 20 
 
service when running in a fog, and for sailing in waters that are 
 uncertain. It will tell yoiT whether the bottom is soft, hard, or 
 rocky irrespective of the chart. The chart of course being made 
 more or less ^from the use of the lead and line. When anchor- 
 ing in strange waters, it is a good habit to first take a sounding 
 of the bottom, before throwing the hook. The necessity for this 
 is often shown when you see some cruiser high and dry on low 
 water. In making these soundings for an anchorage, make 
 several, and allow for a shift of wind and a turn of the tide, 
 lor the boat swings a difference of 200 feet when you have only 
 100 feet of scope. 
 
 When starting on a cruise, lay out the route you are likely 
 to take, make a careful study of the chart for the waters you 
 will cover, sail by courses, even if you can see the point desired, 
 you will then get experience and practice, so when the time comes 
 when you can't see the point desired, you will be proficient in 
 its use. 
 
 Steering by Compass. — Beginners are apt to run a boat in 
 circles when steering by compass, as they usually glue their 
 eyes to the dial and mechanically work the wheel first one way 
 then another, the result being a zigzag course. By looking ahead 
 a certain sense of direction is obtained from the water directly 
 ahead of the bow, the waves or light ripples showing direction, 
 and the operator can then glance at his compass and correct 
 the course of the boat accordingly. When in a sea the compass 
 on small boats certainly behaves badly, as it is never still, but 
 keeps a constant movement to the right or left ; the operator 
 in such cases must note the swing of the dial, and take the 
 center of the swing, as his point of direction. When running 
 at night and the going is rough, a star can be used if one is 
 prominent and in line with the boat's course. When sailing 
 on a light, always keep your eye on that light, and not allow 
 
 21 
 
your sight to wander around, especially if several other lights 
 can be seen in the same general direction. The waves are not 
 always the same size or height, and when rounding a windward 
 point almost a direct course can be held, by watching the waves 
 and only heading up when about to get a large one. 
 
 Practice makes perfect, but the way some boats are steered, 
 one would be led to believe it didn't. Acquaint yourself with the 
 lights and buoys you will pass, and know what character the 
 harbor lights are, where you intend to put in for over night. You 
 may figure on arriving long before darkness comes on, but some 
 unforeseen delay may take place, and if it does you will be in 
 poor shape to make a study of the lights. The sailing, and all 
 other lights should be ready for use before starting. You may 
 start in calm weather and end up on rough, and to fool around 
 filling lamps when a boat is dancing around is no pleasant job. 
 When entering a strange harbor, or waters, and you become 
 confused by a light, or doubtful of your locality, throw out the 
 clutch and let her drift while a careful study is made of all 
 things visible. How they bear from your present position, etc., 
 and then calculate your position accordingly. Don't lose your 
 head and go "slam-banging" in, not knowing where you are. 
 Experience is a great teacher but a certain amount of knowledge 
 before the experience is to the advantage of any sailor. ' 
 
 EXTENDED CRUISING 
 
 The boat for such trips should be of the A-No.-i class in 
 every detail, having full accommodation for those intending to 
 take the trip. Full capacity of water and gasoline must be 
 considered, the size of the boat not being the main factor; 
 but what the boat is, and can do under certain conditions, should 
 rule. A good 30-footer will stand and go where a 60-footer 
 would be unable to pull through. This has been proven more 
 
 22 
 
than once. Have everything right before starting. If you have 
 your doubts as to the condition the steering gear is in, or the 
 reverse gear, the engine, magneto, or electrical equipment, don't 
 start until it is inade right. The boat for extended cruising 
 should have, besides the equipment required for "short trips or 
 cruises*', a bearing finder. Several instruments are devised for 
 this purpose, one being the pelorus ; this instrument is used in 
 connection u^ith the boat's compass to ascertain the correct 
 bearings of visible objects. It consists of a circular dial, 
 graduated with the points and degrees like a compass card, but 
 has no needle. A movable sighting bar admits of measuring the 
 angle betv^een the boat's heading and any object sighted. The 
 pelorus Js movable and bearings of objects may be taken, v^hich 
 cannot be seen from the compass. This instrument may, there- 
 fore, be used to determine the bearings of any object; the boat's 
 heading from the compass, and the bearing of the object by 
 pelorus, being noted simultaneously. The latest type of pelorus 
 used by the Navy carries a small range finder, which admits 
 of determining the bearing and distance of an object. 
 
 Small boats as a rule are not equipped with a pelorus, but 
 where expense isn't considered, should be so found. The 
 Patent Log, which is now generally used, should be included 
 in the equipment of boats for extended cruises. The speed 
 of modern ships is measured by the Patent Log; which is 
 mechanically operated by a Rotator towed some distance 
 behind the boat. A line connecting this rotator (which 
 has blades somewhat like a propeller) revolves, receiving its 
 power or motion from the action of the water as it passes 
 through the blades. Fastened to this is a series of gears and 
 dials to which the motion of the rotator is transmitted by the 
 cord, which is geared in such a manner as to register the dis- 
 tance the rotator has been dragged through the water, thus 
 
 23 
 
d 
 
 fegistering the distance the boat has traveled through the water. 
 The harpoon type of log requires hauHng in for reading, as 
 the registering mechanism is towed with the rotator astern. The 
 old chip log looked like a piece of pie with one edge weighted 
 with lead. Three lines forming a triple span are led from its 
 corners to a toggle and socket, and if the chip or piece of pie 
 is thrown overboard it stands vertically in the water, and so 
 long as no considerable pull is put upon the line, a fixed point 
 from which to measure is to be had. This type of log is very 
 rarely used on modern boats. 
 
 The operator should be a good reader of charts; should 
 understand all requirements previously given for boat handling; 
 should be able to take a bearing, fit a position, correct compass 
 error, and of course, be proficient in the use of Parallel Rules, 
 and course Protractor. For extended offshore cruising, a power 
 boat when rigged with a sail has many advantages. A search- 
 light should also be found on this class of boat, or any boat run- 
 ning much at night should be so equipped; deciding on buoys, 
 picking up moorings and making docks are cases where a search- 
 light comes to good use. While running in open water it is 
 madness on the part of the operator to play the searchlight when 
 not necessary, as it only blinds one and makes night sight 
 limited. 
 
 Rtmning in Shallow Water. — The operator should go slow 
 and use the lead continuously unless sure of the water. A boat 
 always drags when the water is shallow and this usually gives 
 ample time to cut down the speed. A great many power boats 
 will hunt for water, that is, they have a tendency to turn to 
 where the water is deepest, especially in a narrow channel. 
 
 The ebb tide usually makes the channel in tide waters, so if 
 you follow or keep in the flow of the ebb, when navigating in 
 shallow rivers, inlets or bays, the best water is found. When 
 
 24 
 
running down a river the channel is made by the current, and 
 by following the bends the navigator is sure to find the best 
 water. 
 
 Very few Northern boatmen have occasion to use an inlet, 
 such as are found on the Jersey, and coast waters of Florida 
 and the Carolinas, but the following may help you if ever you 
 do : The Jersey inlets are most all buoyed by the Government 
 and several are kept open by having sand-suckers constantly 
 working, but farther down the coast very little, if any, is done 
 to improve these breaks in the beach, so it takes great care and 
 sometimes iron nerve to get in or out. 
 
 Inlets are best at high tide and slack water. The less wind 
 the better. The channels are made by the run of the ebb tide. 
 It is easier to go out than to come in. When inside wishing to 
 go out, the channel will show plainly by the break of water, or 
 rip on the shores. Take soundings from a small boat if in 
 doubt. A rowboat well handled can go close to the first line of 
 breakers if the job is done at slack water. The channels usually 
 run about North and South, but sometimes have turns requiring 
 a boat to run parallel with the beach or sea; when rough, these 
 inlets are dangerous. When outside wishing to get in, come in 
 close but keep outside the first line of breakers ; one man to 
 steer, and a man to look over prospects is best. Skirt the breakers 
 (running parallel with the beach in most cases) and a line of 
 fair water will be found leading in, usually with breakers, on 
 each side and overlapping at some inlets. A short distance out 
 this overlap makes the inlet look as if there were no space to 
 enter; and sometirnes this is the case, so never go heading slam- 
 bang in until you run up and down a few times to make sure. 
 When it's very rough, keep out. You have a chance in deep 
 water, but very little trying to get in if the inlet is breaking 
 clear across, unless you know the place and use land as well as 
 water marks. 
 
 25 
 
SMALL BOATS LANDING THROUGH 
 A SURF 
 
 Boats employed where it is frequently necessary to beach 
 them when the sea is breaking heavy, are constructed specially 
 for the purpose to meet conditions peculiar to a particular 
 locality. They are manned by crews who are not only expert 
 surfmen, but who have a thorough knowledge of the best land- 
 ing places, dangers and other local conditions. For them, land- 
 ing through a surf is a matter attended with little or no diffi- 
 culty. 
 
 To safely land boats through a heavy surf is not only very 
 difficult, but dangerous, and should never be attempted unless 
 absolutely necessary. 
 
 Along most beaches there are many sunken wrecks, and for 
 a small boat to come in contact with such obstructions, in a 
 heavy sea, would probably result in the loss cf all hands. Sound- 
 ings, as given on a chart, very close to the beach cannot be 
 relied on, as frequently a shore-line is moved in or off shore 
 during violent storms and often causes small shoals, over which 
 a small boat cannot pass. 
 
 When making for a beach in a heavy surf, it is impossible 
 for those in the boat to select the place most advantageous for 
 landing, but those on the beach can easily see the best landing. 
 Therefore, keep a sharp lookout for persons on the beach, and 
 follow their directions if possible. 
 
 A boat cannot be landed through a surf under sail, and all 
 sail must be taken in before entering broken water. 
 
 A boat cannot be handled in a heavy sea or broken water 
 with a rudder, and this never must be attempted. To steer the 
 boat, a long oar is used and the becket must be of good material. 
 An oarlock cannot be used in place of a becket. 
 
 26 
 
With a double-end boat, it is best to pull in to the beach 
 head on, taking care not to allow her to broach-to (swing around 
 broad side), and that every sea breaks either ahead or astern 
 of her. This may be effected by either pulling the boat ahead 
 or checking her way, according as her position may require. 
 When the boat goes up on the beach on the last sea, all hands 
 should jump out and hold on to her by the gunwales to prevent 
 her being carried off again in the undertow. In some cases it 
 may be advisable to use a small anchor to assist in holding the 
 boat on the beach. An anchor can also be used off the stern to 
 check the headway as you are coming in. 
 
 With a square stern boat the method of landing is about 
 the same as for a double-end boat, except that before entering 
 the broken water she must be brought ahead to the sea and 
 landed stern first. 
 
 While the value of oil in landing during a heavy surf is 
 not very great, its use is not to be discouraged altogether, as 
 it will certainly diminish the danger rather than increase it. 
 
 POINTS ON BOAT HANDLING 
 
 The helm should never be put hard over when the boat is 
 running full speed unless it is absolutely necessary. This puts 
 an enormous and unnecessary strain on the shoe and rudder. 
 The strain varies with the speed of the boat and the way the 
 gear is rigged. 
 
 When a boat starts from an anchorage or a dock, full speed 
 should not be expected at once, because the engines must be 
 warmed up before driving full speed and only a novice or 
 "show-off" opens up when close to a dock. 
 
 When it is intended to stop, slow the boat as when entering 
 port, or coming to an anchor, and when the boat must go 
 through shoal water, the engineer should have notice if possible 
 as such information is of value to him. 
 
 27 
 
Engines working ahead, throw the stern to starboard ; and 
 when working astern, throw the stern to port. A boat with a 
 right-hand propeller turns sharper to port than it will to star- 
 board. 
 
 To bring a boat to a full stop when running full speed ahead, 
 put the rudder hard to port and at the same time reverse the 
 engine to full speed astern; but never expect the boat to work 
 astern as fast as forward. 
 
 When coming to a dock on the port side, the reverse motion 
 of a right-hand propeller draws the stern in to the dock. 
 
 In making a dock on the starboard side the propeller reversed 
 draws the stern out from the dock. 
 
 TWIN SCREW 
 
 In a twin-screw boat it is seldom necessary to work the 
 engines full speed and in opposite directions. This should never 
 be done unless absolutely necessary, as it subjects the machinery 
 and hull to an unusually great strain and generally does more 
 or less damage. The boat can be handled by working one engine 
 at a time. 
 
 The starboard propeller has the same effect as in a single- 
 screw ship, and the port one has the opposite. 
 
 SYSTEM OF BUOYAGE IN UNITED 
 STATES WATERS 
 
 Buoys are, as a rule, employed to mark shoals or other 
 obstructions, to indicate the approaches to and limits of channels 
 or the fairway passage through a channel, and in some cases to 
 define anchorage grounds. Buoys originally were either solid 
 wooden spars or built up in various shapes of wooden staves, 
 
 28 
 
like barrels. Wooden spars are still extensively used, particularly 
 in inside waters ; but built-up buoys are now constructed of iron 
 or steel plates. 
 
 In order to give the proper distinctiveness, buoys are given 
 certain characteristic colors and numbers ; and following the 
 uniform practice of maritime nations generally, Congress, by 
 the Act of September 28, 1850, prescribed that all buoys along the 
 coast or in bays, harbors, sounds, or channels, shall be colored 
 and numbered, so that passing or entering the bay, harbor or 
 channel, red buoys with even numbers shall be passed on the 
 starboard, or right hand; black buoys with odd numbers on the 
 port, or left hand; buoys with red and black horizontal stripes 
 without numbers shall be passed on either hand, and indicate 
 rocks, shoals, or other obstructions, with channels on either 
 side of them; and buoys in channel ways shall be colored with 
 black and white perpendicular stripes, without numbers, and 
 may be passed close-to, indicating mid-channels. Buoys to mark 
 abrupt turning points in channels or obstructions requiring un- 
 usual prominence, are fitted with perches or staves surrnounted 
 by balls, cages or other distinctive marks. 
 
 Buoys marking light-vessel stations are placed in close prox- 
 imity to the light vessel, are colored in a similar manner, and 
 bear the letters LV., with the initials of the station they mark. 
 Buoys defining anchorage grounds are painted white, except 
 those used for such purposes at a quarantine station, in which 
 case they are painted yellow. 
 
 To assist further in distinguishing buoys, the ordinary un- 
 lighted types are made in two principal shapes in the portion 
 showing above the water-line. Nun buoys are conical and red 
 and Can buoys are black. The difference in the shape of these 
 two types makes it possible to decide which side they should 
 be passed long before the color or number is discernible. The 
 
 29 
 
numbers and letters placed on all buoys are formed by standard 
 stencils, to insure uniformity, and the largest size practicable is 
 used, so that these may show as prominently as possible. White 
 characters are painted on black buoys and black characters on 
 red buoys. 
 
 Buoys are anchored in their positions by various types of 
 moorings, depending on the character of the bottom and the 
 size and importance of the buoy. 
 
 Buoys may be divided broadly into two general classes, 
 lighted and unlighted, of which the latter are in the great ma- 
 jority. Unlighted buoys comprise spars, both wooden and iron, 
 can, nun, bell j. and whistling buoys, with a few other types for 
 special purposes. Lighted buoys are provided with some form 
 of gas apparatus and a lantern ; frequently a bell or whistle is 
 also attached, in which case they are known as combination 
 buoys. 
 
 Wooden spar buoys are usually cedar, juniper, or spruce 
 logs, trimmed, shaped and provided with an iron strap and band 
 at the lower end for attaching the mooring, which is as a rule 
 a heavy stone or concrete block, or iron sinker, sometimes 
 shackled directly to the buoy, or to a short piece of chain, as re- 
 quired by the depth. Such buoys are among the most economical 
 and generally used of all aids, and are particularly employed in 
 rivers and harbors. Four sizes or classes are in use, varying in 
 length from 50 to 20 feet over all to conform properly to the 
 depth of water at the position of the buoy. The weights of 
 such buoys vary from 1,500 to 350 tb each. 
 
 Iron spar buoys are built up of iron or steel plates in 
 the form of wooden spars, and are particularly valuable where 
 severe ice conditions exist, or where the teredo is unusually 
 active. They are made in three classes, in lengths of from 
 50 to 30 feet over all, weighing from 4,000 to 2,000 tb, 
 respectively. 
 
 30 
 
Cans and nuns are built of iron or steel plates, the former, 
 showing a cylindrical and the latter a conical top, and are the 
 most extensively used of metal buoys. The interior of the buoy 
 is divided into two or more compartments by bulkheads or 
 diaphragms, to prevent sinking when damaged. Each kind is 
 built in three classes or sizes, and in addition two general types 
 are in use, the ordinary type and the tall type, or channel buoys; 
 the latter being a modern development of a larger and more 
 prominent buoy for use in deeper water. These buoys weigh 
 from 8,300 to 700 tb each, according to size, and are generally 
 moored by means of a stone or concrete block, or a specially 
 designed hemispherical cast-iron sinker, shackled on a length of 
 chain about two or three times the depth of water in which the 
 buoy is placed. 
 
 Bell buoys have a hemispherical-shaped hull, built of steel 
 plates, with flat deck, and carry a structural-steel superstructure 
 which supports a bronze bell and usually four iron clappers. 
 The motion of the buoy in the sea causes these clappers to strike 
 the bell, so that the action is entirely automatic. Although the 
 'buoy is quite sensitive and responds to even a very slight 
 motion of the waves, the sound may be faint or absent in un- 
 usual calms. This type of buoy is especially efficient in harbors 
 or inside waters for marking points where a sound signal is 
 desired. Bell buoys weigh about 6,900 tb each. 
 
 i Whistling buoys are built of steel plates, and consist of a 
 pear-shaped body with the smaller end uppermost, with a long 
 fOpen tube on the lower end. This tube extends throughout the 
 .length of the buoy, and is closed at the upper end by a head- 
 ^ plate on which is mounted a check valve and a whistle on the 
 f, superstructure of the buoy. The sound is produced by the air 
 in the upper portion of the tube, being compressed by the falling 
 
 31 
 
of the buoy in the waves, its means of escape being through the 
 whistle. A fresh supply of air is drawn through the check 
 valve as the buoy rises again. Like the bell buoy, the sound 
 is automatic, depending solely on the motion of the waves, and 
 therefore the whistle may be silent when the sea is very smooth. 
 The whistling buoy is most efficient in rough outside waters, 
 where a ground swell exists, and is employed for important 
 points where a sound signal is considered desirable. The weight 
 of the buoy is about 6,500 lb. 
 
 Lighted buoys are a modern invention, having come into 
 use within about the last thirty years, and are considered by 
 mariners generally as among the most valuable of recent develop- 
 ments in coast lighting. The first buoy of this kind was a gas 
 buoy established experimentally by its manufacturer in 1881 
 near Scotland Lightship, entrance to New York Bay; it was 
 officially taken over by the Lighthouse Service in April, 1884. 
 Electric buoys, operated by a cable from shore, were established 
 in Gedney Channel, New York Bay, in November, 1888, and were 
 discontinued in 1903, after many mishaps, due chiefly to break- 
 ing of the cable. All of the lighted buoys in service use com- 
 pressed gas, either oil gas or acteylene. 
 
 In the types now in use, the gas, at a pressure of about 12 
 atmospheres, is contained either directly in the body of the 
 buoy or in tanks fitted into compartments of the body, and is 
 piped to the lantern at the top of the superstructure. If the 
 light is flashing, as is commonly the case, a small pilot-light 
 burns continuously and ignites the main burner as gas is ad- 
 mitted from the flashing chamber, which is a regulating com- 
 partment in the base of the lantern provided with a flexible 
 diaphragm and valves for cutting off and opening the flow of 
 gas at intervals, the operation being due to the pressure of the 
 gas in the reservoirs. The length of the light and dark periods 
 
 2,2 
 
may be adjusted to produce the desired characteristic, such as 
 five seconds light, five seconds dark, etc. Some types burn 
 the gas as an ordinary flame, while others make use of an in- 
 candescent mantle, which is, however, not wholly satisfactory in 
 rough water on account of breakage. 
 
 Gas buoys are made in a number of different sizes, weighing 
 from 2,800 to 34,500 tb each, depending on the importance of the 
 location, and burn continuously by night and day for intervals 
 of a month to a year without recharging. Gas buoys furnish 
 valuable marks for approaching entrances, defining ■ channels, 
 and marking dangers, and at times may obviate the necessity for 
 light vessels or lighthouses on submerged sites, either of which 
 would be many times more expensive. There is a constant 
 more brilliant lights. 
 
 Many gas buoys are provided with some automatic form 
 of sound-producing device, such as a bell or whistle, and in a 
 few cases have both a whistle and a submarine bell. These 
 operate in the manner heretofore described and are of especial 
 demand among mariners for more gas buoys and for buoys with 
 value in fog or thick weather, or in case of accidental extinguish- 
 ment of the light. 
 
 BUOY COLORS, NUMBERS, AND 
 SHAPES 
 
 Red Buoys, — (All types) — In approaching a channel from 
 seaward, entering a harbor, or running up a river. 
 
 Red Buoys, with even numbers, will be found on the star- 
 board side of the channel and must be left on the starboard 
 hand in passing. 
 
 Black Buoys (all types) will be found on the port side of 
 the channel and must be left on the port hand in passing. 
 
 33 
 
(Remember buoys have no port or starboard, but the boat 
 has.) 
 
 Red and Black Horizontal Striped Buoys will be found on 
 obstructions, with channel-ways on either side of them, and 
 may be left on either hand in passing. 
 
 Caution. — When the above buoy is used to mark the begin- 
 ning, or the end of a long shoal, care must be taken when 
 passing, as the channel on either side will run parallel with the 
 shoal; a knowledge of the direction of the shoal is, therefore, 
 necessary and the chart should be studied. 
 
 White and Black Perpendicular Striped Buoys will be found 
 in mid-channel, and must be passed close-to to avoid danger. 
 
 All other distinguishing marks to buoys will be in addition 
 to the foregoing, and may be employed to mark particular spots. 
 
 Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on buoys, 
 be at turning-points, the color and number indicating on what 
 side they shall be passed. 
 
 Different channels in the same bay, sound, river or harbor, 
 will be marked, as far as practicable, by different descriptions 
 of buoys. Principal channels will be marked by Nun and Can 
 buoys; the secondary and minor channels by spar buoys. 
 
 Nun Buoys are red with even numbers, and are usually 
 placed on the starboard side of channel and are left on the star- 
 board hand in passing in. 
 
 Can Buoys are black with odd numbers, are placed on the 
 port side of channels and must be left on the port hand in 
 passing in. 
 
 The Nun and Can buoys are used along the coast and at 
 times are referred to as sea buoys. 
 
 When buoys are lighted, those with red lights are to be 
 left on the starboard hand, and those with white lights on the 
 port hand when entering a harbor or channel. 
 
 34 
 
Day Beacons, stakes and spindles, when placed on sides of 
 channels, are colored like buoys, and they are to be left the 
 same as buoys. They are usually constructed and distinguished 
 with special reference to each locality ; and particularly in regard 
 to the background upon which they are projected. 
 
 Bell and whistling buoys are usually placed to mark certain 
 points, and their use is explained in the buoy book for the 
 district. 
 
 White Buoys are usually employed to mark anchorages, 
 dumping grounds, etc., and, as a rule, are explained in the 
 United States Coast Pilot. 
 
 Yellow Buoys are sometimes employed by the quarantine 
 authorities to mark a station. 
 
 Caution Regarding Buoys. — Buoys are liable to be carried 
 away, shifted, capsized, sunk, etc. ; lighted buoys may be ex- 
 tinguished, or whistling or bell buoys may not sound, as the 
 result of damage by storm, the accumulation of ice, running 
 ice, or other natural causes, or collision, or other accidents. 
 
 Whistling and Bell Buoys are sounded only by the action 
 of the sea; therefore, in calm weather they are less effective and 
 may not be heard. 
 
 A spindle is generally on a rock or shoal which is sub- 
 merged. It consists of an iron shaft surmounted by a cask, a 
 cone inverted, a double cone, a square cage, or other distinguish- 
 ing mark, and is colored. 
 
 Beacons are built on shoals or prominent landmarks, some- 
 times of wood, steel, or stone. Sometimes they are surmounted 
 by a spindle. They also have distinguishing colors. 
 
 PILOTING 
 
 Piloting in the sense given the word by modern and popular 
 usage, is the art of conducting a vessel in channels and harbors 
 
 35 
 
and along coasts where landmarks and aids to navigation are 
 available for fixing the position, and where the depth of water 
 and dangers to navigation are such as to require a constant 
 watch to be kept upon the vessel's course and frequent changes 
 to be made therein. 
 
 The pilot should be provided with the best available chart 
 of the locality to be traversed, together with the sailing direc- 
 tion and descriptions of aids to navigation, and all of these 
 should be corrected from the latest information published in 
 ^'Notices to Mariners". 
 
 The lead lines should be correctly marked and be at hand. 
 As shoal water is entered a man should be stationed and ready 
 to throw the lead, or sound. 
 
 This isn't the easiest thing on a boat to do, and should be 
 practiced at the proper time, and not wait until close to 
 difficulty. 
 
 The compass should be reliable, and must be properly placed. 
 Too much care can not be taken in placing a compass. The 
 beginner who has no idea of installing a compass had better 
 call in someone who has and see how it is done; it is absolutely 
 necessary to have the compass correctly placed with the fore- 
 and-aft line of the boat, or, in other words, parallel with the 
 keel. I knew of a boat bound for Florida, where the owner 
 considered it necessary to take on an experienced pilot to make 
 an outside run down the coast. Departing from Beaufort Bar 
 Buoy about midnight a course was set for Cape Fear Slue, 89 
 miles down the coast. At the break of day the pilot found 
 himself and boat headed as straight as possible for Bear Inlet, 
 about 25 miles West of departure. The compass was found to 
 be worthless, owing to poor installation. 
 
 Don't take your compass under your arm, as I knew one 
 
 36 
 
boat owner to do, and carry it away to have it adjusted. The 
 compass has to be properly set and adjusted on the boat where 
 it is to be used. Its deviation should be known and a table 
 showing the deviation on each heading should be at hand. 
 
 The pilot, in making his plan for entering a strange port, 
 should give careful previous study to the chart and should 
 select what appears to be the most suitable marks on the chart 
 for use. He also should select substitutes for use in case those 
 first selected should prove unreliable in not being recognized 
 \7ith certainty. Buoys seen at a distance, in approaching a 
 channel, are often difficult to place or identify, because all may 
 appear equally distant, though in reality far apart. 
 
 Ranges should be noted, if possible, and the lines drawn, 
 both for' leading through the best water in channels and also 
 for guarding against particular dangers, as rocks, wrecks, etc. 
 For the latter purpose, safety bearings should be laid down 
 where no suitable ranges can be seen. The courses to be steered, 
 in entering, should be laid 'down and distances marked thereon. 
 The danger circle should be plotted and regular courses planned, 
 instead of running haphazard when trouble may be experienced 
 through wild steering at critical points. 
 
 Great care must be taken when entering a port or running 
 up a river or channel where Government ranges are placed, 
 as these channels are always narrow, and if the two lights, or 
 the two structures are allowed to break or open, the margin of 
 safe or good water is extremely limited. Such ranges are not 
 used, when the waterways are wide and deep. Keeping dead 
 on ranges is like looking over a gun barrel and taking a sight 
 at a rabbit, only just imagine yourself the rabbit and the two 
 sights on the gun are the ranges, lights or structures. 
 
 The chart should be at hand in readiness for reference or 
 use in plotting positions. 
 
 11 
 
The vessel's position should not be allowed to be in doubt 
 at any time, even in entering ports considered safe and easy of 
 access, and should be constantly checked, continuing to use for 
 this purpose those marks concerning v^hich there can be no 
 doubt until others gradually and unmistakably declare them- 
 selves. 
 
 The vessel should ordinarily steer exact courses and follow 
 an exact line, as planned from the chart, changing course at 
 precise points, and, where the distances are considerable, her 
 position on the line should be checked at frequent intervals, 
 with recordings of time. This is desirable even where it may 
 seem unnecessary for safety, because if running by the eye alone 
 and the vessel's exact position be suddenly required, as in a 
 sudden fog or squall, fixing at that particular moment may be 
 attended with difficulty. 
 
 The habit of running exact courses with precise changes 
 of course will be found useful when it is desired to enter port 
 or pass through inclosed waters during fog by means of the 
 buoys. Here safety demands that the buoys be made succes- 
 sively, to do which requires, if the fog be dense, very accurate 
 courses and careful attention to the times, the patent log, and 
 the set of the current. Failure to make a buoy as expected 
 leaves, as a rule, no safe alternative but to anchor at once, with 
 perhaps a consequent serious loss of time. 
 
 It is a useful point to remember that in passing between 
 dangers where there are no suitable leading marks, as, for 
 instance, between two islands or an island and the main shore, 
 with dangers extending from both, a mid-channel course may be 
 steered by the eye alone with great accuracy, as the eye is able 
 to estimate very closely the direction midway between visible 
 objects. 
 
 38 
 
In piloting among coral reefs or banks a time should be 
 chosen when the sun will be astern, conning the vessel from 
 aloft or from an elevated position forward. The line between 
 the deep water and the edges of the shoals generally shows 
 'with surprising clearness. This method is of frequent application 
 in the numerous passages of the Florida Keys. 
 
 Changes of course should in general be made in exact 
 amounts, naming the new course or the amount of the change 
 desired rather than by ordering the helm to be put over and 
 t-ien steadying when on the desired heading, with the possibility 
 of the attention being diverted and so of forgetting m the mean- 
 time as may happen, that the ship is still swinging. The helms- 
 man! knowing just what is desired and the amount of the change 
 to be made, is thus enabled to act more intelligently and to avoid 
 wild steering, which in narrow channels is a very positive source 
 of danger. 
 
 Coast piloting involves the same principles and requires that 
 the vessel's position be continuously determined or checked as 
 the landmarks are passed. On well-surveyed coasts there is a 
 crreat advantage in keeping near the land, thus holding on to the 
 marks and the soundings, and thereby knowmg at all times the 
 position, rather than keeping offshore and losing the marks, 
 with the necessity of again making the land from vague posi- 
 ' tions and perhaps the added inconvenience of fog or bad weather, 
 involving a serious loss of time and fuel. 
 
 The route should be planned for normal conditions of 
 
 ■ weather with suitable variation where necessary in case of fog 
 
 ■ or bad weather, or making points at night. The courses and 
 ■■ distances, in case of regular runs over the same route being 
 ' entered in a notebook for ready reference, as well as laid down 
 ' on the chart. A continuous record of the progress of the boat 
 
 39 
 
should be kept; the time of all dangers, and of all bearhigs, 
 especially the two and four-point bearing, with distance of 
 object when abeam. The boat's reckoning is thus continuously 
 cared for. The value of thus keeping the reckoning will be 
 especiaMy appreciated in case of sudden fog or when making 
 points at night. 
 
 Where a coastwise trip is being made and against a strong 
 head wind, with trustworthy charts, the shore can be skirted in 
 order to avoid the heavier seas and adverse currents that prevail 
 farther out. 
 
 To find the course, draw a straight line connecting the point 
 of departure and the point of destination ; transfer the direc- 
 tion of this line to the center of the nearest compass rose by 
 using the parallel ruler, and read the angle that this line (shown 
 by the ruler) makes with the true meridian upon the division of 
 the compass rose. The course to be steered by the boat's com- 
 pass is found by applying to the true course (taken from the 
 outer circle of the rose printed on the chart) the value of the 
 variation of the compass as found from the lines of equal 
 variation given on the chart, and then the value of the devia- 
 tion of the compass which is due to the iron, etc., aboard the 
 boat, is different for different directions of the boat's heading. 
 The use of parallel rulers is being displaced by the modern 
 course protractor, which does not require any shuffling about 
 the chart, with chances of falling off the direct line before 
 reaching a compass ros.e. 
 
 The necessary instruments to have aboard a boat to cor- 
 rectly plot a position or to find a course are the following: 
 
 Dividers — This instrument consists of two legs with a move- 
 able joint which permits the extremities to be set at any re- 
 quired distance from each other, and is used to transfer dis- 
 tances which have been taken from the scale of the chart. 
 
 40 
 
On some charts the scale given is in Statute miles, with 
 Nautical miles included, while some show only Nautical miles 
 (3^^ of a degree of a great circle of the earth, or 6,080 feet). 
 On sailing charts the scale is that of the latitude scale, found 
 on the side edge of the chart. 
 
 Parallel rulers are used to transfer the line of direction, 
 such as a course or bearings, by placing the edge of the rule 
 so that it cuts both places, then slide first one rule and then the 
 other to the nearest compass rose printed on the chart. Care 
 must be taken while shuffling the rule to hold one down firmly 
 so as to retain the direction till the edge cuts the center and 
 circumference of the rose. The edge, if the direction has been 
 preserved, will indicate the line of direction. When the course 
 has been taken from the inside circle, which is magnetic, no 
 allowance for variation has to be made, if the course is to be 
 magnetic; but if the course is taken from the outside or degree 
 circle, an allowance of the variation will have to be made, as 
 this circle on all new charts is true North. 
 
 The Course Protractor is an instrument used for measuring 
 angles on charts. There are several types on the market 
 which range in price from fifty cents up to several dollars, and 
 are now generally used and preferred to parallel rulers. When 
 using the protractor the meridians marked on the disk are placed, 
 or made to line with the meridians on the chart which indicate 
 true North, so allowance has to be made to the boat's compass 
 for the variation of the locality, which is shown on the com- 
 pass rose printed on the chart. If a true course is to be used, 
 by shifting the disk of the protractor East or West (according to 
 the deviation) on the meridian lines of the chart before swing- 
 ing the arm or string, a magnetic course or bearing is given and 
 
 41 
 
no allowance is necessary to sail a magnetic course. Some pro- 
 tractors have more than, one arm, but the one arm instrument 
 is usually found on small boats. 
 
 Allowance for deviation has always to be made, whether a 
 protractor or parallel rulers are used. Instructions for using 
 the course protractor are issued by the manufacturer of the 
 instrument, but the general directions are to line the meridians 
 on the protractor with those found on the chart and swing 
 the arm to the point or object wanted. 
 
 HOW TO USE AND READ CHARTS 
 
 The charts in general use by navigators are constructed on 
 the Mercator projection. All the meridians are parallel straight 
 lines, and the degrees of longitude are all equal. The parallels 
 of latitude are at right angles to the meridians, and the degrees 
 of latitude increase in length from the lowest to the highest 
 parallel in the same proportion as the degrees of longitude de- 
 crease on the globe. The property which makes it so useful for 
 purposes of navigation is that the track of a ship, as long as 
 she steers the same true course, appears upon the chart as a 
 straight line. 
 
 Charts bear three dates which should be understood by 
 persons using them: (i) The date (month and year) of the 
 edition, printed on the late charts below the border in a central 
 position, and on the older ones on the face of the chart; (2) 
 the date of the latest correction to the chart plate, printed in the 
 lower left-hand corner below the border; (3) the date of issue, 
 stamped below the border and just to the left of the subtitle. 
 
 Charts show all necessary corrections as to lights, beacons, 
 buoys, and dangers, which have been received to the date of 
 issue, being hand corrected since the latest date printed in the 
 lower left-hand corner. All small but important corrections 
 
 42 
 
Occurring subsequent to the date of issue of the chart are pub- 
 hshed in Notices to Mariners, and should be appHed by hand to 
 the chart immediately after the receipt of the notices. 
 
 The date of the edition of the chart remains unchanged 
 until an extensive correction is made on the plate from which 
 the chart is printed. The date is then changed and the issue 
 is known as a new edition. 
 
 When a correction, not of sufficient importance to require a 
 new edition, is made to a chart plate the year, month, and day 
 are noted in the lower left-hand corner. 
 
 All the notes on a chart should be read carefully, as in some 
 cases they relate to the aids to navigation or to dangers that 
 can not be clearly charted. 
 
 The charts are various in character, according to the objects 
 to which they are designed to subserve. The most important 
 distinctions are the following: 
 
 1. Sailing charts, mostly on a scale of approximately 
 
 which exhibit the approaches to a large extent of 
 coast, give the offshore soundings, and enable the navigator to 
 identify his position as he approaches from the open sea. 
 
 2. General charts of the coast, on scales of and 
 
 , intended especially for coastwise navigation. 
 
 3. Coast charts, on a scale of , by means of which 
 the navigator is enabled to avail himself of the channels for 
 entering the larger bays and harbors. 
 
 4. Harbor charts, on larger scales, intended to meet the 
 needs of local navigation. 
 
 General ocean charts, as the name implies, cover a large 
 territory, and are principally for the use of navigators in the 
 open sea, as in making long voyages. This class of chart is 
 necessarily upon a small scale, and represents not only the 
 
 43 
 
character of the ocean bed as thus far delineated by deep-sea 
 soundings obtained by vessels of the principal maritime nations, 
 but also the shore lines with the most prominent topographical 
 features, the principal seaports, the lighthouses which are of 
 use in offshore navigation, all dangers in the nature of shoals, 
 reefs, and rocks, and the lines of equal magnetic declination 
 or variation; compass stars, showing both true and magnetic 
 directions in degrees and quarter points, are placed where it is 
 thought they will be of the greatest use. On this chart the 
 navigator plots his geographical positions as often as they are 
 determined, and thus is able to keep as nearly as possible a 
 direct course to his port of destination. This chart is kept in 
 use until the vessel gets within the limits of the coast chart, 
 when it is replaced by the latter. 
 
 Coast charts, both general and special, delineate the coasts 
 of all countries, and for each coast are consecutive and take in 
 such sections of the coast as will permit of the use of a com- 
 paratively large scale. The coast line is accurately delineated, 
 as are also the principal topographical features which can be 
 used in navigation ; all the lighthouses, with their peculiar charac- 
 teristics ; the life-saving stations, and all the features which in 
 any way can enable an observer by bearings, or otherwise, to 
 determine his position. The soundings are frequent and, in 
 general, are run out to the loo-fathom curve. With the aid 
 of this coast chart, the navigator pilots his ship along shore 
 until within the limits of the chart of the harbor to which he 
 is bound, when that replaces it. 
 
 The harbor chart is on a larger scale than the others and 
 in greater detail. Every object on shore that can be used in 
 piloting the ship in or out of the harbor is delineated in its 
 correct position. Where possible, ranges to guide vessels in and 
 
 44 
 
out are determined and plotted upon the chart; Hghthouses, 
 range lights, buoys, beacons, and all daymarks are plotted; the 
 positions of landing places, custom-houses, and public buildings 
 of which the navigator may have occasion to know are plotted, 
 where possible; curves of certain equal depths of water, quaran- 
 tine stations and quarantine grounds, men-of-war and merchant 
 ships' anchorages are also clearly indicated; the magnetic dec- 
 lination or variation is noted on one or more compass roses, 
 and in addition the chart contains all necessary data as to the 
 date of publication, the date of the latest correction, the charac- 
 ter of the soundings, heights, signs, and abbreviations, and all 
 necessary tidal information. On these charts, as on coast charts, 
 the shore lines are made especially conspicuous, and the topo- 
 graphical features represented are such as will be of actual 
 value as aids to navigation. 
 
 The general topography is indicated by hachures, contours, 
 or sketch-contours. Hachures and sketch-contours indicate 
 approximately the relative position of summits and valleys and 
 degree of connecting slopes. Whenever the contours are based 
 upon an accurate survey of altitudes, a note stating their value 
 — contour interval — is found under the title of the chart. 
 
 Symbols denoting vegetation have been designed to present 
 pictorially the characteristics of the various kinds of growth. 
 For example : The mangrove symbol consists of irregular ribs 
 connected with each other and studded with leaves, because the 
 mangrove branches take root upon touching the ground and thus 
 form a chain of growth. 
 
 The nature of the shore is indicated by various symbols, 
 rows of fine dots denoting sandy beach ; small circles denote 
 gravel ; irregular shapes denote bowlders. 
 
 Cliffs are indicated by bands of irregular hachures. The 
 
 45 
 
tl 
 
 symbol is not a ''plan view", but rather a "side elevation", and 
 its extent is in proportion to the height of the cliff, not to the 
 plan. For example : A perpendicular cliff of lOO feet will be 
 shown by a hachured band much wider than one representing 
 a cliff of 15 feet with slope. According to principles of "plan" 
 drawing the perpendicular cliff could be shown by one line only 
 and could not be distinguished from the ordinary shore line. 
 
 Houses, roads, railroads, trails, etc., are shown by symbols, 
 and are frequently lettered by descriptive text or proper names. 
 
 Numbers upon the land express the height, above high water, 
 in feet. 
 
 Hydrography. — Soundings or depths are not under the rule 
 of lettering; they might be found vertical, leaning, or both upon 
 one chart so as to distinguish the data furnished by different 
 authorities. The U. S. Hydrographic Office shows the soundings 
 by means of vertical block figures, considered the clearest type. 
 These figures denote fathoms or feet, always stated in the title 
 of the chart. 
 
 The extent of fairway and water areas restricting navigation 
 to limited draft, is indicated by a system of Hues, called "fathom 
 lines". They are lines connecting equal depths, generally show- 
 ing the limits of areas of depth of i fathom, 2, 3, 5, 10, and 
 multiples of 10 fathoms. With respect to a well-surveyed coast 
 only a fractional part of the soundings obtained is shown on 
 the chart, a sufffcient number being selected to clearly indicate 
 the contour of the bottom. When the bottom is uneven the 
 soundings will be found grouped closely together, and when the 
 slopes are gradual fewer soundings are given. Each sounding 
 represents an actual measure of depth and location at the time 
 the survey was made. 
 
 Isolated soundings shoaler than surrounding depth should 
 
 46 
 
be avoided, as there is always the possibility that the shodiest 
 spot may not have been found. 
 
 Shores and shoals where sand and mud prevail, and especially 
 bar harbors and the entrances of bays and rivers exposed to 
 strong tidal currents and a heavy sea, are subject to continual 
 change of a greater or less extent, and important ones may 
 have taken place since the date of the last survey. In locali- 
 ties which are noted for frequent and radical changes, such as 
 the entrance to a number of estuaries on the Atlantic, Gulf, 
 and Pacific coasts, notes are printed on the charts calling atten- 
 tion to the fact. 
 
 Notes on charts should always be read with care, as they 
 may give important information that can not be graphically 
 represented. 
 
 It should also be remembered that in coral regions and 
 where rocks abound it is always possible that a survey with 
 lead and line, however detailed, may have failed to find every 
 small obstruction. For these reasons when navigating such 
 waters the customary sailing lines and channels should be fol- 
 lowed, and those areas avoided where the irregular and sudden 
 changes in depth indicate conditions which are associated with 
 pinnacle rocks or coral heads. 
 
 Dredged Channels.— These are generally shown on the 
 chart by two broken lines to represent the side limits of the 
 improvement. Before completion of the project the depth given 
 is that shown by the latest survey received from the engineer 
 in charge. After completion the depth given is the one pro- 
 posed to be maintained by redredging when necessary. 
 
 The actual depth of a completed channel may be greater 
 than the charted depth shortly after dredging, and less when 
 shoaling occurs as a result of storms or other causes. These 
 
 47 
 
changes are of too frequent occurrence and uncertain duration 
 to chart. Therefore when a vessel's draft approximates the 
 charted depth of a dredged channel, the latest information should 
 be obtained before entering. 
 
 Danger Curves.— The curves of depth will be found useful 
 in giving greater prominence to outlying dangers. It is a good 
 plan to trace out with a colored pencil the curve next greater 
 than the draft of the vessel using the chart, and regard this as 
 a "danger curve", which is not to be crossed without precaution. 
 
 The nature of the bottom is indicated by abbreviations, ex- 
 plained under the title of the chart; the depths are given for 
 the time of low water and the least depth of all obtained are 
 selected, so that the hydrography is represented in its most un- 
 favorable condition. Increases of depth at the various stages 
 of tide can be ascertained from the tide book and added to the 
 figures upon the chart. (See Tides.) 
 
 Reefs, ledges, sunken rocks, rocks awash and foul ground 
 are marked by symbols. Discolored water, ripples, currents, and 
 weeds are noted by symbols or lettering. Aids to navigation 
 are shown by symbols, and by abbreviations, or by as much 
 description text as the scale of the chart will admit. The chart 
 on the largest scale should always be used on account of the 
 greater detail and the greater accuracy with which a position 
 may be plotted on it. The value of a chart depends upon the 
 character and accuracy of the survey on which it is based, and 
 the larger the scale of the chart the more important do these 
 become. 
 
 The compass Rose printed on new Government charts 
 shows 360 degrees on the outside circle, which is true North. 
 
 The inside is marked in quarter and half points, which are 
 magnetic for the locality. Note the variation and date, also 
 annual increase. 
 
 48 
 
Caution in Using Small- Scale Charts. — It is obvious that 
 dangers to navigation can not be shown with the same amount 
 of detail on small-scale charts as on those of larger scale, there- 
 fore in approaching the land or dangerous banks regard should 
 be had to the scale of the chart used. A small error in laying 
 down a position means only yards on a large-scale chart, 
 whereas on a small scale the same amount of displacement 
 means large fractions of a mile. 
 
 For the same reason, bearings to near objects should be used 
 in preference to objects farther off, although the latter may be 
 more prominent, as a small error in bearing or in laying it down 
 on the chart has a greater effect in misplacing the position the 
 longer the line to be drawn. 
 
 Distortion of Printed Charts.- — The paper on which charts 
 are printed has to be dampened. On drying, distortion takes 
 place from the inequalities of the paper, which varies with the 
 paper and the amount of the original dampening; but it is not 
 sufficient to affect ordinary navigation. 
 
 Ranges are shown by lines of dashes and by continuous 
 lines, the latter are only shown as far as a ship may follow the 
 range in safety. The bearings are given as "true" and are ex- 
 pressed, upon later charts, in degrees of a protractor divided 
 into 360, starting at North and following the hands of a clock. 
 Older charts, still giving bearings by easterly or westerly devia- 
 tions from North or South, are being corrected in this respect 
 as rapidly as the facilities of the Hydrographic Office permit. 
 For example: "N. 15° E." becomes simply "15°/' ^'S. 15° E." 
 becomes "165°/' "S. 15° W." becomes "195°/' etc. 
 
 The compasses upon the charts are divided in accord with 
 this new system. The outer rose, divided into degrees, is the 
 "true" compass, the inner rose, divided into quarter points, is 
 
 49 
 
the "magnetic", and set upon the variation for the epoch statea 
 in the central legend. 
 
 The gradual change in the variation must not be forgotten 
 when laying down courses on the chart, or when taking a posi- 
 tion by compass bearings. The magnetic compasses -placed on 
 the charts become in time in error. On the other hand, the 
 true compass rose (outer degree circle) chart is always correct 
 and the mariner can always depend upon it. Magnetic bearmgs 
 and magnetic courses that are frequently engraved on charts 
 also become incorrect as time passes. If they are given as 
 true, they never change. 
 
 The date of the variation and the annual changes as given 
 on the compass rose, facilitate corrections when the change has 
 been considerable. The geographical change in the variation is, 
 in some parts of the world, so rapid as to need careful con- 
 sideration, requiring a frequent change of the courses. Foij 
 instance, in approaching Halifax from Newfoundland the 
 variation changes io° in less than 500 miles, and from Buffalo 
 to Duluth the variation changes from 6° West to about 9 
 East, or a total change of 15°. 
 
 Buoys. — The lights shown by gas buoys and other unwatched 
 lights can not be implicitly relied upon; the light may be 
 altogether extinguished, or, if intermittent, the apparatus may 
 get out of order. 
 
 The buoy symbol is shown "open" in outline for buoys of 
 any color other than black; black buoys are shown by solid shapes. 
 If the buoy system shown upon the chart consists of black and 
 one other color only, the explanation under the title will 
 ascribe such color to the "open'' symbol. Thus, upon one chart 
 it may be found to denote "red buoy" while upon another chart 
 it may be stated as "white". The meaning of the "open" 
 
 50 
 
symbol varies; the meaning of the "solid" symbol is always 
 the same — "black". ' 
 
 Upon any chart containing buoys of various colors be- 
 sides black, the color will be found stated by abbreviations or 
 in full alongside each symbol. 
 
 The buoy symbol, surmounted by a small dot, surrounded 
 by rays, denotes a "light'* buoy ; when surmounted by a crescent 
 (points downward) denotes a "whistling" buoy; when sur- 
 mounted by a half-disk with dots above the same denotes a 
 "bell" buoy. 
 
 A line drawn between the upper and lower points of the 
 diamond-shape (longer axis) denotes "vertical stripes" or a 
 channel buoy; a line drawn between the side points (shorter 
 axis) denotes "a horizontal" striped buoy; both lines used 
 denotes a "checked" buoy. 
 
 LIGHTS 
 
 Lights are shown on the chart by heavy solid dots, and 
 their characters, or distinctive features, are stated in full or 
 abbreviated form; in the latter case an explanation of the 
 abbreviations is given under the title of the chart. 
 
 Before coming within range of a light the navigator should 
 acquaint himself with the characteristics, so that when the light 
 is sighted it will be recognized. The charts, sailing directions, 
 and light lists give information as to the color, character, and 
 range of visibility of the various lights. Care should be taken 
 to note all of these and compare them when the light is seen. 
 If the light is of the flashing, revolving, or intermittent variety, 
 the duration of its period should be noted to identify it. If 
 a fixed light, a method that may be employed to make sure 
 that it is not a vessel's light is to descend several feet im- 
 mediately after sighting it and observe if it disappears from 
 
 51 
 
view. A navigation light will usually do so, while a vessel's 
 light will not. The reason for this is that navigation lights 
 are, as a rule, sufficiently powerful to be seen at the farthest 
 point to which the ray can reach without being interrupted by 
 the earth's curvature; they are therefore seen the moment 
 the ray reaches the observer's eye on deck, but are cut off if 
 the light is lowered. A vessel's light, on the other hand, is of 
 limited intensity and does not carry beyond a point within 
 which it is visible at all heights. 
 
 Care must be taken to avoid being deceived on first sight- 
 ing a light. The glare of a powerful light is often seen beyond 
 the distance of visibility of its direct rays by the reflection 
 downward from particles of mist in the air. The same mist 
 may cause a white light to have a reddish tinge, or it may 
 obscure a light except within short distances. A fixed light 
 when first picked up may appear flashing, as it is seen on the 
 crest of a wave and lost in the hollow. 
 
 When looking for a light, the fact must not be forgotten 
 that aloft the range of vision is increased. By noting a star 
 immediately over the light a bearing may be obtained from the 
 compass. All the distances given in the Light Lists, and on 
 the charts for visibility of lights, are calculated at a height of 
 15 feet for the observer's eye. 
 
 The intrinsic power of a light should always be considered 
 when expecting to make it in thick weather. A weak light is 
 easily obscured by haze and no dependence can be placed on 
 its being seen. 
 
 In approaching a light of varying intensity, such as fixed 
 varied by flashes, or alternating white and red, due allowance 
 must be made for the inferior brightness of the less powerful 
 part of the light. The first-named light may, on account of 
 
 52 
 
distance or haze, show flashes only, and the true characteristic 
 will not be observed until the observer comes within the range 
 of the fixed light; similarly, the second named may show as 
 occulting white until the observer comes within the range of 
 the red light. Also, where there are two fixed lights, one 
 white and one red, the latter may be obscured and the station 
 may appear to show only a fixed white light. 
 
 At short distances and in clear weather flashing lights may 
 show a faint continuous light. 
 
 Period of a flashing or occulting light is the time required 
 to go through the full set of changes in the light. This total 
 time and the details are stated in the column ''General remarks" 
 of the Light List. 
 
 The durations of light and darkness given are those for 
 which the apparatus is designed, and may vary slightly with 
 irregularities in the working of the apparatus or because the 
 apparent duration of a flash may be reduced by great distance 
 or haze. 
 
 Visibility of Lights. — The distances given in the text of 
 the Light List at which lights may be seen in clear weather 
 are computed in nautical miles for a height of the observer's 
 eye of 15 feet above the water level. These distances may at 
 times be increased by abnormal atmospheric refraction; and, 
 of course, may be greatly lessened by unfavorable weather con- 
 ditions, due to fog, rain, haze, or smoke. Weak lights and 
 colored lights are easily obscured by such conditions. 
 
 Under certain atmospheric conditions, especially with the 
 more powerful lights, the glare of the light may be visible 
 beyond the computed geographic range of the light. When 
 approaching a light, it evidently may be seen earlier from aloft. 
 
 The table below gives the approxinia^te geographic ranges 
 
 53 ^"^^^ 
 
of visibility for an object which may be seen by an observer 
 whose eye is at sea level; in practice, therefore, it is necessary 
 to add to these, a distance of visibility corresponding to the 
 height of the observer's eye above sea level. In some instances 
 the actual or luminous range given in the Light List may be 
 less, because the light is not of sufficient power to be seen to 
 the limit of the geographic range. 
 
 Distances of Visibility for Objects of Various Elevations 
 Above Sea Level 
 
 Example. — Sandy Hook Light seen just at the horizon, 
 what, under ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, is its dis- 
 tance from the observer? 
 Height (according to Light List), 90 feet, 
 
 distance visible (according to table). 10.84 nautical miles. 
 Add distance corresponding to height of 
 
 observer's eye above sea level, 15 feet.= 4.43 " " 
 
 Distance of light 15.27 " " 
 
 Example. — Fowey Rocks Light seen just at the horizon, 
 what, under ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, is its dis- 
 tance from the observer? 
 Height (according to Light List Book), 
 
 no feet distance visible (according to 
 
 table.) 11.99 nautical miles. 
 
 Add distance corresponding to height of 
 
 observer's eye above sea level, 15 feet.= 4.43 ** " 
 
 Distance of light will then be 16.42 " " 
 
 Character of Lights 
 In order to avoid the likelihood of confusion between lights 
 endeavor is made to give the lights distinct characteristics. The 
 
 54 
 
characteristics of the Hghts are indicated on charts and in the 
 Light List by abbreviations as follows : 
 
 F.=:: Fixed ^ A continuous steady light Alt. = Alternating. 
 
 Fl.=:F'lashing ... (a) Showing a single flash at regular Alt. Fl.rrAlternat- 
 
 intervals ing flashing. 
 
 F. Fl. = Fixed (h) A steady light with total eclipses. Alt. F. Fl.=Alter- 
 
 and flashing ... A fixed light varied at regular inter- nating fixed and 
 
 Gp. Fl.r= Group vals by a single flash of greater flashing. 
 
 flashing brilliancy. The flash is_ preceded Alt. Gp. F1.=:A1- 
 
 Occ.= Occulting. . . and followed by a diminution of ternating group 
 
 Gp. Occ. = Group light or an eclipse flashing. 
 
 occulting Showing at regular intervals groups Alt. Occ.=:Alter- 
 
 of flashes nating occult- 
 
 A steady light suddenly and totally ing. 
 
 eclipsed at regular intervals 
 
 A steady light suddenly and totally 
 eclipsed by a group of two or more 
 eclipses 
 
 A flash is always shorter than the duration of an eclipse. 
 
 An occultation is shorter than or equal to the duration of 
 light. 
 
 Lights are characterized as flashing or occulting solely 
 according to the relative durations of light and darkness and 
 without reference to the type of illuminating apparatus em- 
 ployed or relative brilliancy. 
 
 Sector Lights 
 
 Some lights are made to show different colors in different 
 sectors within their range. In such lights one color is generally 
 used on bearings whence the approach is clear and another 
 covers areas where dangers are to be found. By consulting 
 the chart or Light List the explanation of the color of the ray 
 in which you find yourself is found. 
 
 When running at night the value and aid of the light sec- 
 tors should not be overlooked by the mariner. The chart 
 always shows the range and bearings, and positions are to be 
 had very quickly by using the sector's. But in some conditions 
 of the atmosphere, white lights may have a reddish hue, there- 
 
 55 
 
fore, the mariner should not trust solely to color where sec- 
 tors are used, but should verify the position by taking a bearing 
 of a light. On either side of the line of demarkation between 
 white and red there is always a small sector of uncertain color. 
 It should also be remembered that the edges of a sector can 
 not be cut off sharply, and, instead of a sudden disappearance, 
 the light fades gradually away. 
 
 The plane of reference, for soundings on Hydrographic 
 Office Charts, made from United States Government surveys, 
 and on Coast and Geodetic Surveys, and on Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey charts of the Atlantic Coast of the United States, is 
 mean low water. (On the Pacific Coast of the United States 
 as far as the Strait of Fuca it is the mean of the lower low 
 water; and from Puget Sound to Alaska, the Survey has 
 adopted the harmonic or Indian tide plane, which is, roughly, 
 that of the lowest low waters observed.) 
 
 Whichever plane of reference may be used for a chart, 
 it must be remembered that there are times when the tide falls 
 below it. Low water is lower than mean low water about half 
 the time, and when a new or full moon occurs at perigee the^ 
 low water is lower than the average low water of springs. 
 
 High wind may at times cause the water to fall below the 
 plane of reference. 
 
 In Hydrographic Office charts of the Great Lakes, the 
 plane of reference is the mean level of the lake in 1847, which 
 is 4.7 feet lower than the high water of 1838, the highest water 
 recorded; a plane sufficiently low to insure the safe navigation 
 of a vessel of less draft than the soundings shown over that 
 locality. 
 
 In Lake Survey charts the soundings are referred to a 
 plane of refere^^ce which is the mean elevation of the lake 
 
 56 
 
above mean tide of New York (adjusted levels of 1903). 
 
 Care must be taken to study the notes on the charts and 
 compare them with the monthly bulletins issued, which give 
 the mean elevation of the lake at the time of issue and the 
 state of the water in the lake during the past month and its 
 probable state for the coming month, in order that corrections 
 can be properly applied to find the proper depth. 
 
 The Sailing Directions can properly be designated as nau- 
 tical guide books. The coasts of the world are divided up into 
 numerous sections, for each one of which a book of sailing direc- 
 tions is prepared. 
 
 These seamen's guide books, when complete and used in 
 connection with the corresponding navigational charts, are in- 
 tended to give the mariner all the information that he may 
 require for safely navigating the part of the world considered, 
 and for entering and leaving each harbor or anchorage therein. 
 When corrected to date, they give him, in as much detail as 
 possible, a knowledge of the prevailing winds and weather for 
 each season; of the tides, currents, buoys, lights, and other day 
 and night marks, and of proper anchorages. In addition, 
 where possible, ranges to be used in entering and leaving ports, 
 both by day and night, are described; prominent landmarks and 
 other topographical features are noted in detail, and everything 
 in the way of an aid to navigation is entered therein. They 
 even go so far as to give him information in regard to port 
 dues, local regulations of foreign governments, diplomatic 
 customs of the local and state authorities, the facilities for 
 obtaining provisions, water, and other supplies, and also as 
 to making necessary repairs. 
 
 It is impracticable to indicate these important facts on the 
 chart, but they are, so far as possible, duly set forth in the Sail-, 
 ing Directions.. — ^ 
 
 57 
 
It often happens that the chart shows several channels 
 leading to the same anchorage or through the same strait, all 
 of which are apparently safe; but it may be that, owing to 
 local peculiarities of tides, or some other similar reason, one 
 particular channel is to be preferred; when known, this is ex- 
 plained in the Sailing Directions, and the reason given much 
 more clearly than could be done graphically on the chart. 
 
 In some localities, for example, in Magellan Strait, an- 
 chorages, apparently secure, may be rendered unsafe, in certain 
 winds, by "williwaws" caused by the configuration of the sur- 
 rounding land ; a knowledge of this fact can not be gained from 
 the chart, and yet the safety of the ship may depend upon it. 
 
 Ranges are often mentioned in the Sailing Directions which 
 would otherwise not be noticed; cautionary remarks warn the 
 navigator of dangerous indrafts, and numerous other examples 
 might be given showing the great importance of this publica- 
 tion as a navigational instrument. 
 
 In addition to the purely navigational features, the Sailing 
 Directions pay particular attention to information in the nature 
 of Port Facilities. It is desirable before reaching a port to 
 know where pilots can be picked up, the quantity and quality 
 of coal, water, and other supplies that can be obtained; what 
 repairs can be made ; what harbor regulations are in force, and 
 what signals are shown. This information, and much more of 
 a like nature, is furnished by the Sailing Directions in descrip- 
 tions of ports of any importance. 
 
 Even in those features of the chart to which nothing can 
 be added by written description, the latter makes "assurance 
 doubly sure" by calling attention to dangers which might be 
 overlooked by the navigator, thus diminishing the element of 
 chance due to ^^^^ ''personal equation". 
 
 58 
 
Lights and fog signals are, of course, indicated on the 
 charts and described in the Sailing Directions, but this fact in 
 no way lessens the value of the Light List as an adjunct to 
 those publications. The Light List not only describes the 
 characteristics of lights and fog signals, the type and appearance 
 of light structures, etc., in much greater detail than the chart 
 can usually express, but this information is presented in a 
 condensed and tabulated form very convenient for reference. 
 It thus materially aids the navigator in identifying unfamiliar 
 lights or light stations either by night or day. The Light List 
 is revised annually, after comparison with the Light Lists of 
 other maritime nations, and is consequently the latest and best 
 authority on the subject of lights and fog signals, besides being 
 a check on the accuracy of the chart in this respect. 
 
 In order that charts, Sailing Directions, and Light Lists 
 may be accurate, it is necessary that they should be kept cor- 
 rected up to date from the very latest information obtainable. 
 
 Notices to Mariners 
 The Notices to Mariners, which particularly affect the charts 
 and sailing directions, are of the highest value to shipping. 
 These notices consist of a collection of statements pertaining 
 to safe navigation, made up in pamphlet form. They are issued 
 weekly by the Hydrographic Office. The statements are notices 
 themselves pertaining to every matter which is of importance 
 to the seaman and navigator. When a new rock, shoal, or 
 other danger is discovered and reported to the Hydrographic 
 Office, the information is immediately published, the source 
 and its nature being clearly set forth. The same is true of 
 the installation of new lights, cWnges in lights, alterations or 
 changes in buoyage and other daymaikq in any part of the 
 world, wrecks, and all subjects, a knowledge nf which would 
 
 59 
 

 tend to lessen the dangers of navigation. These notices an 
 issued in a convenient form for cutting out. When received, 
 the immediate duty of the navigator or master is to enter the 
 corrections by hand on the charts affected (these charts being 
 designated in the notices), and, in addition, to cut out each 
 notice and insert it in its proper place in the Sailing Directions. 
 The Light List is corrected in the same manner from the 
 Notices to Mariners, and a new edition of this book is issued 
 annually. 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 The compass is said to have been invented in the early 
 part of the fourteenth century by Flavio Goiza. 
 
 Although the early Chinese are credited with using a load- 
 stone as a compass, by floating it in water supported on a 
 piece of cork, and there are records of it being brought from 
 China to Italy by Marco Polo about 1295, there is evidence of 
 the compass having been used in Norway previous to 1266, and 
 in France and Syria about the year 11 50, so without question 
 the compass was an early instrument of navigation which made 
 possible the many early discoveries. 
 
 The compass now used by the United States Navy and 
 found on most of the modern ships has a card marked with 
 32 points and 360 degrees. The card is fixed on a piece of 
 steel called the needle, which has been touched by a loadstone 
 (magnetic iron ore) and acquires the property, when resting 
 on a pivot fixed vertically, of pointing to the North; the other 
 points on the dial will, of course, point to their respective parts 
 of the horizon. 
 
 This compass card and needle are mounted on a pivot in 
 a bowl. The bowl is ^^^ed with alcohol or a special oil, which 
 will not freeze '^nd this fluid keeps the card from wabbling 
 or movi«6 too quickly. 
 
 60 
 
On the inside rim of the howl, or card chamher, is a verti- 
 cal mark called the luhhcr line, which, on installing the compass, 
 is to he carefnlly adjusted to the fore-and-aft line of the ship. 
 And, in steering, this mark is held with whatever point wanted 
 on the card, as it indicates the course of the ship. 
 
 The circumference of a circle, large or small, is divided 
 into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and all angles are measured 
 by these degrees. The dial of the compass, therefore, is divided 
 into 360 degrees. 
 
 The modern compass dial is marked on the outer circle in 
 degrees. The inside of the degree circle is marked off in points. 
 There are 32 points on a compass and the space between these 
 points is divided into half points on small compasses, and 
 usually compasses of 4-inch diameter and larger have quarter 
 points marked on the dial. This size is much preferred, as a 
 small boat does a lot of dancing around at the best, and a com- 
 pass having a dial with less than a 4-inch diameter should 
 not be used on any boat. 
 
 If j^ou divide the 360 degrees of the compass card by four 
 you have a result of 90, so each quarter of the dial is 90 
 degrees, such as North to East, East to South, South to West, 
 West to North. These points are called the cardinal points. 
 There are 90 degrees between each of these cardinal points, 
 equal to 8 points, each point being equal to iij4 degrees. The 
 modern method is to circle the degrees always to the right, like 
 the travel of the hands of a clock, which has an advantage when 
 applying compass en or. You add when it is Easterly, and sub- 
 tract from the degrees when Westerly, and forget the idea 
 of standing in the center of a compass ^^rd, which of course 
 can not be done. 
 
 61 
 
I 
 
 Midway between each cardinal and intercardinal point ai 
 degrees, or 4 points, are the intercardinal points, named accord- 
 ing to their positions, thus : Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, 
 Northwest. 
 
 Midway between each cardinal and intercardinal points at 
 an angular distance of 22^2. degrees or 2 points, is a point 
 whose name is made up of a combination of that of the cardinal 
 and the intercardinal point — North-Northeast, East-Northeast, 
 East-Southeast, South-Southeast, South-Southwest, West-South- 
 west, West-Northwest, North-Northwest. 
 
 At an angular distance of i point, or 11^ degrees from 
 each cardinal and intercardinal point (and therefore midway 
 between it and the 22^ degrees division last described), is a 
 point which bears the name of that cardinal or intercardinal 
 point, joined by the word "by" to that of the cardinal, in the 
 direction of which it lies : North by East, Northeast by North, 
 Northeast by East, etc. 
 
 In naming the quarter points, it is evident that each divi- 
 sion may be referred to by either of the whole points to which 
 it is adjacent, for instance. Northeast by East, ^ North, and 
 North-Northeast y^ East would describe the same division. It 
 is the custom of ^e United States Navy to name the quarter 
 points from North and South, towards East and West, excepting 
 the divisions adjacent to a cardinal or intercardinal are always 
 referred to as those points, as N. Yz E., N. by E. ^ E., North 
 Northeast ^ East, Northeast Vz N. There are, in other words, 
 eight points on the dial without any quarter points, and in 
 naming quarter points by the new or Navy method these points 
 are NE. by N., E ^y N., E. by S., SE. by S., SW. by S., 
 W. by S., ^^' ^y N' ai^d NW. by N. 
 
 62 
 
Boxing the compass is to name the 32 points in rotation, 
 with the sun, or clockwise. 
 
 The Thirty-Two Points of the Compass 
 
 North 
 
 North by East 
 
 North, North-East 
 
 North-East by North 
 
 North-East 
 
 North-East by East 
 
 East, North-East 
 
 East by North 
 
 East 
 
 East by South 
 
 East, South-East 
 
 South-East by East 
 
 South-East 
 
 South-East by South 
 
 South, South-East 
 
 Sohth by East 
 
 South 
 
 South by West 
 
 South, South-West 
 
 South- West by South 
 
 South-West 
 
 South-West by West 
 
 West, South-West 
 West by South 
 West 
 
 West by North 
 West, North-West 
 North-West by West 
 North-West 
 North-West by North 
 North, North-West 
 North by West 
 
 Compass Variation 
 
 The needle of the compass points right at the magnetic 
 North pole when not influenced by other attractions, but tnis 
 magnetic pole is not the North end of the earth's axis; this axis, 
 or geographical pole, being several hundred miles North of the 
 magnetic North pole. 
 
 A freely suspended magnetic needle, after coming to rest, 
 does not everywhere point to the true North, and the saying 
 *'true as the needle to the pole" needs some qualification. There 
 is in each hemisphere a magnetic pole, and these poles do not 
 coincide in position with the geographical poles. The North 
 magnetic pole is in about latitude 70° N., longitude 96° W., and 
 the South magnetic pole in about latitude y2>° S., longitude 147° 
 E. The directional force of the magnetic needle is influenced 
 principally by these magnetic poles, and thus it is that the direc- 
 tion assumed by the needle varies at different positions on the 
 earth's surface. The direct cause of this variation is not yet 
 conclusively established. Man> and various theories have been 
 advanced regarding it, some authorities -Qcribing it to influences 
 wholly within the earth, others to influences ox^cide the earth, 
 while others yet ascribe it to a combination of both, tu^ ^j^^ 
 
 63 
 
generally held is that the earth may be regarded as a "huge 
 mrignet",*to which magnetic condition in combination with other 
 influences, within or without, is due the phenomenon known as 
 the variation of the needle. Now, at any position on the earth's 
 surface the angular difference between the direction assumed by 
 the needle, after coming to rest, and the meridian passing 
 through the position is termed the variation of the needle for 
 that particular position. If, for example, there should be an 
 angle of 5° between the direction in which the needle points 
 and the true North and South line or meridian, the variation 
 would be 5° East or West according as the needle points to the 
 right or left of true North. 
 
 This situation varies, at different parts of the world; also 
 some lines or places have no variation. 
 
 Having no variation at these places, the magnetic compass 
 points to the true or geographical North pole. The variation 
 of the compass is not constant, but has an annual change. In 
 navigating by compass, it is necessary to know what this varia- 
 tion is at different parts ; the charts of the locality show this 
 variation, whether Easterly or Westerly, also the yearly increase 
 or decrease. Also United States Coast Pilot Book gives varia- 
 tions for waters covered. On new Government charts will be 
 found a diagram compass, or compass Rose the outside circle 
 marked in degrees from o to 360 — this is true North. The inside 
 division showing points and quarter points, this circle is mag- 
 netic, the inside needle pointing to the magnetic North for 
 that locality. The degrees found between the magnetic needle 
 and true North of the outer, o^ degree circle, are the degrees 
 of variation for the lo'>^^fty, Easterly or Westerly, whichever 
 it may be. 
 
 A. previously stated the compass needle always points to 
 
 64 
 
the magnetic North unless influenced by other attractions. This 
 other attraction must receive consideration when using a com- 
 pass aboard a boat. This error is called 
 
 Deviation 
 
 Another important factor which the navigator has to con- 
 tend with is the deviation found on every ship or boat. This 
 compass error is caused by the iron, steel and other magnetic 
 elements, such as the iron rails, stanchions, stays, etc. ; elec- 
 trical equipment, the engine or parts of the cargo. Keep all 
 of the above as far away from the compass as possible. This 
 error is not found alike on different courses, because the 
 compass card does not turn with the boat. The attraction 
 does turn, and assumes new relations on different courses. 
 This makes the problem arising from deviation extremely 
 troublesome, as it is necessary to ascertain the amount of error 
 on each course in order to know what to allow. Placing 
 magnets at different points about the compass overcomes this 
 attraction, and is called compass adjusting, but a certain amount 
 of error always remains. Compass adjusting is a profession in 
 itself, and the boatman or boat owner who finds his compass 
 off will find money well spent, by calling in the services of a 
 professional adjuster. Deviation is also referred to as. East- 
 erly or Westerly. 
 
 Leeway 
 
 Leeway is not a compass error, but may be caused by the 
 wind being either starboard or port. A vessel sailing with the 
 wind abeam will slide off to leeward more or less, and her 
 actual course will not be that steered by the boat's compass. 
 A good plan to use when possible is to heave the log, then 
 bring the line to the center of the compass, and its angle to 
 the boat's course will show the amount of leeway. Leeway to 
 
 65 
 
starboard is the same as Westerly Variation; leeway to port the 
 same as Easterly Variation, and the rules for correction are 
 made likewise. On power boats leeway as a rule is not con- 
 sidered, and the operator can forget this problem of navigation. 
 
 Across the Current 
 An allowance has to be made; as an example, a boat mak- 
 mg 10 miles an hour, crossing a stream having a 3-mile current 
 on the starboard beam, would have to allow a drift to port of 
 three miles for every hour run. Providing, of course, there 
 was no wmd to port to offset some of the drift. In laying 
 down the course, figure as near as possible the time likely to 
 make the run; say, 10 hours. 10x3=30, so allow 30 miles to 
 the right or left of your point, against the drift or tide. Tide 
 or current must be taken into consideration in making runs. 
 A 2-mile current means twelve with tide, or about eight against, 
 of course taking wind into account. 
 
 Note 
 There is only one North Magnetic Pole. Observations have 
 mdicated that it is located Northwesterly from Hudson Bay 
 on the Western side of the Peninsula of Boothia, in the region 
 of the intersection of the parallel of 70° North latitude with 
 the meridian of longitude 97° West of Greenwich. There is 
 also a South Magnetic Pole, or region over which the South 
 end of the magnetic needle points vertically downward. A 
 point of this region was located in 1908 by the Antarctic Ex- 
 pedition under Lieutenant Shackelton. It is on the Antarctic 
 Continent, to the southward of Tasmania, in latitude 72° 25' 
 South and longitude 155° 16' East of Greenwich. It has been 
 surmised that the magnetic poles of the earth have a progres- 
 sive movement with the course of time, but this has not been 
 proved. 
 
 66 
 
Applying Compass Error 
 
 The New Style compass rose (printed on all new charts), 
 marked in degrees from o to 360, has been adopted for its 
 clearness, simplicity and the precision with which compass errors 
 can be applied. When it is used there is no occasion for the 
 mariner to imagine himself at the center of the compass card 
 and apply his correction differently in each quadrant. There 
 is only one rule and, if followed, there need be no further 
 thought given the matter, for there will be no mistakes made. 
 
 Rule.— If the compass error is E. or + (plus) the true 
 course is greater than the compass course; if it is W. or — 
 (minus) the true course is less than the compass course. In 
 other words, you add to the needle for Easterly and subtract 
 from the needle when Westerly. 
 
 To Make a Compass Course a True Course 
 Examples. — (i) Compass error 8° E., compass course 70°; 
 the true course is 78°. 
 
 (2) Compass error 6° E., compass course 230° ; the true 
 course is 236°. 
 
 To Make a True Course a Compass Course 
 
 (3) Compass error 11° E., the true course 135°; compass 
 course 124°. 
 
 (4) Compass error 17° E., true course 6° ; compass course 
 6° — 17° equals — 11° equals 349°. 
 
 When Error is Westerly 
 
 (5) Compass error g° W., compass course 325°; true course 
 
 316°. 
 
 (6) Compass error 13° W., true course 142°; compass 
 
 course 155°. 
 
 This compass error is made up of two things, variation and 
 
 67 
 
deviation. Broadly speaking variation is the effect of the earth's 
 magnetic force upon the compass needle, while deviation is the 
 effect upon that same needle of iron built into the ship or 
 carried as cargo. 
 
 When the conditions are favorable the most accurate way of 
 obtaining the compas error is by observation with the compass 
 itself upon the course that is being steered. When this is done 
 the true course is obtained by the one operation of applying the 
 compass error. When this can not be done the compass error 
 is obtained by combining the deviation, obtained from a calculated 
 table of deviations, with the local variation of the place. The 
 local variation is shown on the chart used. 
 
 At times the variation may be Westerly and the deviation 
 Easterly; in that case, subtract the smaller from the greater and 
 apply. iVt times the errors counteract one another, one being 5 
 degrees Easterly and one 5 degrees Westerly. Then again you 
 may have 5 degrees of Westerly variation and 5 degrees West- 
 erly deviation and will have to allow for a total of 10 degrees 
 Westerly attraction. 
 
 The navigator must not forget when taking, or making up, 
 his own courses that if he uses the inside circle of the rose 
 (or compass dial printed on the chart) that this inside circle 
 is magnetic, and no allowance is necessary for variation; also 
 when courses are given as magnetic. 
 
 Finding the Compass Deviation 
 
 A knowledge of the compass only is necessary. Finding the 
 compass error by range bearings is much easier than by azimuths 
 of the sun or stars. It is customary, if the error is found to be 
 small, to make up a steering card and keep it at hand. If the 
 error is found to be great, you will feel more comfortable to 
 
 68 
 
have a competent man adjust it and make up a card for any 
 small errors that remain. 
 
 Before swinging the boat, see that the lubber line on the 
 compass is exactly fore and aft and that she is on an even 
 keel. Then remove all metal from the vicinity of the compass 
 that does not belong there permanently. Awnings and other 
 things must -be remembered. One kind of iron at 6 feet will 
 affect the compass as much, perhaps, as another kind at 5 feet. 
 It is pretty sure that anything at 7 or 8 feet is harmless. All 
 this having been attended to, select the best range available, 
 that is, choose two permanently fixed objects as far apart as 
 possible ; a beacon and a lighthouse, or tower, that is marked ac- 
 curately on the chart. I would not be so willing to trust two 
 buoys unless they were known to be accurate, like a buoy 
 marking a danger, or a bell on the edge of a shoal. Large sea- 
 ports will always have the buoys right, unless some unusual 
 accident has shifted them. Little shallow harbors and those 
 with shifting sandbars can not be trusted. Two range lights, 
 such as are placed by the Government as channel ranges, are 
 sure to be accurate and should be used if possible. 
 
 Having decided on a range, . any point of the compass will 
 do, but I think we would all prefer North or South. Get out 
 your chart and rule a line through the two marks and with your 
 parallel rule find the exact magnetic range. Then prepare your 
 card with the whole points of the compass. In one column, 
 write over the top, "Ship's Head," next to that "Range Bearing," 
 then "Deviation," and the last column "Course Made Good," 
 being careful to keep each on its proper line. When using it, 
 look in the Made Good column for the course you want, and 
 then look in the Ship's Head column for the course to steer to 
 make that course. 
 
 69 
 
How you will turn the boat will depend on the weather and 
 the conveniences at hand. On a calm day, in a good harbor, you 
 can pull her around with a dinghy or a small launch. If there 
 is a current, you may be able to anchor across tide and pay out 
 chain until she rides to a stern kedge anchor. Then haul in 
 the chain and pay out on the kedge until she rides to her 
 chain, bow on. She would need a kedge out in any case to 
 check her on each point, long enough to allow the compass to 
 settle and record the bearing. If you swing her from, say. 
 North to South with no deviation, you need not bother any 
 more, for there is none. 
 
 It must be understood that deviation is always for the ship^s 
 head. Be sure to be far enough from the mark you take aim 
 over that the diameter of the circle she swings in will not change 
 the range bearing. Get as far away as you can — a mile is little 
 enough if convenient, two miles is better unless the boat is 
 quite small.. In any case swing in as small a circle as you can. 
 In the case of a power boat you can sail over the line on all 
 courses, and take the range bearings as you cross. 
 
 We will suppose your range turned out to be N.E. magnetic. 
 We will begin by placing the boat directly on that point, bringing 
 the bow and the two marks on one line. If the range bears 
 N.E. by the boat's compass, there is no error on that point. 
 Now put her on the next point, and so on around the com- 
 pass. If the range still remains N.E. by the compass on 
 all points, there is no error. When determining the error, 
 it is easy to make a mistake; it is so natural, if the range 
 changes to the Eastward, to think the deviation is Easterly, 
 when the reverse is the fact. If you will think a moment, 
 the range itself can not alter. If the range becomes East- 
 erly, it is bacause the compass needle has been forced 
 WESTERLY, leaving the range to the Eastward of the correct 
 
 70 
 
magnetic bearing. Therefore, if your point moves to the right 
 of the range, the deviation is Easterly; if to left, Westerly. 
 Or to reverse : if the range changes to the Westward or left of 
 N.E., deviation Easterly; to right, deviation Westerly. Study 
 diagrams. 
 
 When the boat is placed on N.E., if you find the range to 
 be N.E. ^ E., you have ^ point of Westerly deviation. The 
 course made good will be N.E. ^^ N. Each time you check 
 the boat, write the range bearing on the card on the same 
 line next to the Ship's Head column. Also on the same line, 
 the Deviation and Course Made Good, which are to be worked 
 out after all the rest is finished. 
 
 N.E. 
 
 N.E.J4E. 
 
 ^ pt. W. 
 
 N.E. by N. 2° N. 
 
 N.E. by N. 
 
 N.E.2°E. 
 
 N.byW. 
 
 N.N.E. 
 
 N.N.E. 
 
 N.E. 
 
 N.N.W. 
 
 N. by E. 
 
 N. by E. 
 
 N.E. 
 
 N.W. by N. 
 
 2° N. North 
 
 North 
 
 N.E. 
 
 N.W.I/4N. 
 
 2° W. 
 
 N. by W. 
 
 N.E 
 
 W.^N. 
 
 
 
 N.N.W. 
 
 N.E. 
 
 2°E. 
 
 
 
 N.W. by N. 
 
 N.E.2°N. 
 
 V4 pt. E. 
 
 
 
 N.W. 
 
 N.E.I/4N. 
 
 V2 pt. E. 
 
 
 
 West 
 
 N.E.i/^N. 
 
 N.E.^^N. 
 
 
 Fixing a Position 
 
 The most accurate method available to the navigator of fix- 
 ing a position relative to the shore is by plotting with a pro- 
 tractor sextant angles between well-defined objects on the chart; 
 this method is based on the *'three-point problem'* of geometry. 
 
 For its successful employment it is necessary: First, that 
 the three objects be well chosen; and, second, that the observer 
 be skilful and rapid in his use of the sextant. The latter is 
 only a matter of practice. 
 
 71 
 
I 
 
 The three-arm protractor consists of a graduated circle 
 with one fixed and two movable radial arms. The zero of the 
 graduation is at the fixed arm and by turning the movable arms 
 each one can be set at any desired angle with reference to the 
 fixed arm. 
 
 To plot a position, the two angles observed between the 
 three selected objects are set on the instrument, which is then 
 moved over the chart until the three beveled edges in case of 
 a metal instrument, or the radial lines in the case of a trans- 
 parent or celluloid instrument, pass respectively and simultane- 
 ously through the three objects. The center of the instrument 
 will then mark the ship's position, which may be pricked on the 
 chart or marked with a pencil point through the center hole. 
 
 This method gives the m.ost accurate results of any and, 
 because of its precision, is largely employed in surveying. It 
 is especially valuable in navigation, particularly when the objects 
 are very far distant, because it is not subject to errors arising 
 from imperfect knowledge of the compass error, improper 
 logging, or the effects of currents. In war time, when the com- 
 pass may be knocked away or rifle fire make it undesirable to 
 expose the person more than necessary, a sextant offers great 
 advantages, as angles can be obtained at any point where the 
 objects are visible. This contingency makes it especially desira- 
 ble that all officers on board our fighting ships should become 
 expert in this method of fixing a ship's position. In many 
 narrow waters, also, where the objects may yet be at some dis- 
 tance, as in coral harbors or narrow passages among mud banks, 
 navigation by. sextant and protractor is invaluable, as a true 
 position can, in general, be obtained only by its means. 
 
 Fixing a -Position by Cross Bearings and Other Methods 
 A navigator in sight of land whose position is shown upon 
 
the chart may also locate the boat's position by several methods, 
 without the use of a sextant. 
 
 The best method to locate the boat's position when sailing 
 within sight of known points of land or lights, is that of cross 
 bearings. 
 
 Cross bearings require two objects, and there ought to 
 be from 45 degrees to 130 degrees between these objects to get 
 a correct position; First, note course being steered, then take 
 the bearings of points or lights selected, correct the bearings for 
 deviation, then with parallel rules carry the bearing of one 
 object from the compass rose (printed on chart) to the object 
 itself; draw a pencil line on the chart according to the bearing. 
 Do the same from the second light (point or object) and the 
 point where the lines cross will be the position of the ship. 
 
 When possible, a third object should be also used, and its 
 bearings taken, as it affords a valuable check-up, as the three 
 lines should intersect at the same point, or the position; if 
 they don*t intersect, the error is in the observation, or the 
 compass, or the plotting. All compass bearings are, of course, 
 dependent upon the accuracy of the compass, also upon the 
 correctness -and use of the local variation. 
 
 RANGES TAKEN FROM SHORE 
 
 A most accurate and valuable line of position is obtained 
 coming in line with a lighthouse or some known point; such a 
 range, of course, is free from all compass errors, and should 
 be used whenever there is an opportunity. 
 
 by noting, when possible, two known and well-situated objects 
 which can be brought to range, that is, one back of the 
 other in a line of sight from the boat. For instance, a church 
 spire, stack, or water tower which is shown on the chart, 
 
 When sailing in sight of land a boat's position can be 
 
 :3 
 
nxed by using angle bearings. There are many methods more 
 or less confusmg and somewhat complicated. The commonest 
 form of th,s problem and the one most used is called the Four 
 pomt or Bow and Beam Bearing. The first bearing is taken 
 when the object is broad on the bow, which is 4 points or 45 
 degrees from ahead. The second bearing is taken when the 
 object xs abeam, which is 8 points or 90 degrees from ahead. 
 The distance at the second bearing and the distance of the 
 object abeam are the same, and are equal to the run between 
 he beanngs tlius taken. The method of obtaining position by 
 two beanngs of the same object is one of great value, by reason 
 of the fact that it , is frequently necessary to locate the boat 
 when there is but one landmark in sight. Careful navigators 
 seldom, If ever, miss the opportunity for a bow and beam bear- 
 ing m passing a lighthouse or other well-plotted object It 
 mvolves little or no trouble and always gives a feeling of added 
 security, however little the position may be in doubt. 
 
 The objection to using the above when passing a dangerous 
 point IS that you are abeam of your object before you learn the 
 distance off. 
 
 Two AND Four Point Rule 
 By taking the first bearing when the object is 2 points off 
 the bow (or 221^ degrees), and a second bearing taken when 
 the object is 4 points off the bow (or 45 degrees), seven-tenths 
 of the run between these two bearings will be the distance from 
 the object being passed. This is called "doubling the angle on 
 Oie bow , two and four point" or the "seven-tenths" rule 
 There is an advantage in using the "two and four point bearings" 
 over the "bow and beam bearings", as you find the probable 
 distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam. 
 
 74 
 
Still a better method is to take the first bearing at 26y2 degrees 
 from ahead and the second at 45 degrees. 
 
 When the first bearing is taken at 26^ degrees from ahead 
 and the second 45 degrees, the distance at which the object will 
 be passed abeam will equal the run between bearings. 
 
 If about to pass an object, abreast of which there is a danger, 
 a familiar example of which is when a lighthouse marks a point 
 ofif which are rocks or shoals, a good assurance of clearness 
 should be obtained before bringing it abeam, either by doubling 
 the angle on the bow, or by using the 26^ degrees — ^45 degrees 
 bearing. The latter has the advantage over the former if the 
 object is sighted in time to permit of its use, as it may be 
 assumed that the 45 degrees (bow) bearing will always be ob- 
 served in any event, and this gives the distance abeam directly. 
 
 It must be remembered that, however convenient, the fix 
 obtained by two bearings of the same object will be in error 
 unless the course and distance are correctly estimated, the course 
 made good and the distance over the ground being required. 
 Difficulty will occur in estimating the exact course when there is 
 bad steering, a cross current, or when a boat is making leeway. 
 Errors in the allowed run will arise when she is being set back 
 or ahead by a current or when the logging is inaccurate. 
 
 Boats not equipped with a patent log must estimate the 
 distance covered, by the usual speed of the boat, allowing, of 
 course, for head winds, tide, etc. 
 
 Easy Rule. — By taking a bearing of any known fixed object, 
 the boat's position is found by taking a bearing at 2-^ or 4 
 points off the course, then take another when the first has 
 doubled on the object. The distance the boat has traveled will 
 be her distance from the object at the second bearing. 
 
 75 
 
FINDING DISTANCE OF ANY 
 FIXED OBIECT 
 
 When a light is made at night, it is important that the dis- 
 stance off be known as soon as possible. Too frequently the 
 distance is judged or more properly guessed, and sometimes 
 leads to disaster. It is often of equal importance to get the 
 distance off of a lighthouse, point or other object during the day. 
 
 The method called the "four point bearing", is generally 
 known to seamen and it has only one objection, that is, it gives 
 the distance off when nearest the danger. However, there are 
 many opportunities for its use when the boat is known to be 
 outside the danger. 
 
 As an example, suppose the course is N. by E. and a light 
 is made bearing N.N.W. which is 3 points on the port bow. 
 How far off will the boat pass the light? In the Light List 
 book, it is found that the light is visible 19 miles on a clear 
 night. Enter the table shown in this work with 19 miles and 
 3 points and it will be found that the boat will be 10.6 miles 
 off when the light is abeam. Because of the continuous and 
 uncertain changes of the atmosphere, this method can only be 
 considered approximate; but will serve as a precaution. If the 
 weather is such that the light is visible less than 19 miles, the 
 boat will pass nearer the light, while if the distance the light 
 is seen is more than 19 miles, the boat will pass the light at a 
 greater distance. Continuing this course, note the reading of 
 the log when the light bears N.W. by N., which will be four 
 points on the bow. When the light is abeam note the reading 
 of the log again. In this case it is found that the boat ran 
 10.6 miles, which was the distance off when the light was 
 abeam. When the hght was abeam, a sounding should be 
 obtained and the depth compared with that on the chart. This 
 
 76 
 
fixes the position of the boat with absolute certainty. Con- 
 tinuing on this course, note the log when the light bears S.W. 
 by W., or four points abaft the beam. If the distance then run 
 is less than 10.6 miles it is evident that a current, change in the 
 deviation, or some other influence is setting the boat to port 
 of her course. On the other hand, if the distance run is 
 greater than 10.6 miles, she is being set to starboard of her 
 course. 
 
 The only object in taking the bearing abaft the beam is 
 to learn if the boat is making her course good, and if she is 
 the distance must be 10.6 miles or very close to it. When the 
 distances off of lights are obtained, it must be remembered that 
 sometimes lighthouses are well inland and the position of the 
 light on the chart should be noticed. Also the least distance 
 the boat can pass the light in safety. 
 
 Sometimes a light is made unexpectedly and it is not certain 
 that the boat can stand on that course without danger. The 
 light can be brought abeam and kept there until the original 
 course is reached, when she will have circled part way around 
 the light and clear any possible danger. 
 
 As an example, suppose the course to be N. >^ W. and 
 Cape Canaveral Light is made bearing N.N.W. The chart 
 shows that the boat is standing into danger, and if the light is 
 brought abeam or a little abaft it at once, the boat will be 
 standing offshore and out of danger. The course is altered as 
 often as necessary to keep the light nearly abeam until she has 
 the light abeam and heading N. ^ W. when she will be out of 
 danger and may continue on her course. If in a case of this 
 kind it is desired to know the distance of the light at once, 
 bring it abeam, note the course and keep it until the bearing has 
 changed to one point abaft the beam. The distance off at the 
 time of the second bearing will be five times the distance run. 
 
 11 
 
In this case, say the boat ran 34 miles (changing the bearing one 
 point), 3.4x5 = 17.0 miles, the distance off at time of second 
 bearing, which according to the chart is a safe distance. 
 
 When sailing along high land, the heights of certain peaks 
 are given on the chart, and the distance off may be accurately 
 determined with the sextant without any great amount of labor. 
 
 Practical Table for Finding the Distance Off a Vessel Will 
 Pass Any Light 
 
 Example : A light is visible 17 miles, and is made 3 points 
 on the bow. How far oft* will she pass the light, if course is 
 not changed? Under 3 points and opposite 17 miles is the dis- 
 tance — 9.4 miles. 
 
 Table of Elevations with Their Distances of Visibility 
 
 5 
 
 2'.55 
 
 70 
 
 9'.56 
 
 10 
 
 3.61 
 
 75 
 
 9.90 
 
 15 
 
 4.43 
 
 80 
 
 10.22 
 
 20 
 
 5. II 
 
 85 
 
 10.54 
 
 25 
 
 5.71 
 
 90 
 
 10.84 
 
 30 
 
 6.26 
 
 95 
 
 II .14 
 
 35 
 
 6.76 
 
 100 
 
 II 43 
 
 40 
 
 7 -^^ 
 
 no 
 
 11.99 
 
 45 
 
 7 -(^7 
 
 120 
 
 12.52 
 
 50 
 
 8.08 
 
 130 
 
 13.03 
 
 55 
 
 8.48 
 
 140 
 
 13.52 
 
 60 
 
 8.85 
 
 150 
 
 14.00 
 
 65 
 
 9.21 
 
 160 
 
 14.46 
 
 Example: Sandy Hook light, height 90 feet, just visible. 
 Height of eye aboard the boat 20 feet. 
 
 78 
 
Tabular number for 90 feet 10' .84 
 
 " 20 " + 5. II 
 
 Distance off the light = 15-95 
 
 This table gives the approximate distance a boat may be 
 away from a light or object, in clear weather. 
 
 FOG SIGNALS 
 
 When running in a fog the mariner should acquaint himself 
 with the characteristics of fog signals for the locality he may 
 be in, whether a bell, horn or siren. A bell is always struck at 
 timed intervals, and a distinction as to the light is made by 
 knowing the intervals and character of the strokes. This also 
 applies when the light is equipped with a horn or siren which 
 are all timed as to their sounds, the Light List for the locality 
 giving full particulars. When running in shallow water and 
 where there are no fog signals, soundings taken by the hand 
 lead should be made every few yards, and of course the boat's 
 speed should be at its slowest. Soundings when taken in suc- 
 cession for a short period of time and set down on paper as 
 they are taken, are of great service to fix a position if the paper 
 with the marks is placed on the chart and shifted until sound- 
 ings of about the same depth are located on the chart. ^ The 
 boat's heading, of course, must be considered when shifting 
 the paper about, in order to move the paper in the same direc- 
 tion as the boat is sailing. The lead is really the best guide 
 the mariner has in a fog, as it is always true, while sound 
 signals have many freaks and whims and can not altogether be 
 relied upon. 
 
 Sound is conveyed in a very capricious way through the 
 atmosphere. Apart from the influence of the wind large areas 
 of silence have been found in different directions and at dif- 
 
 79 
 
ferent distances from the origin of sound, even in clear weather, 
 therefore, too much confidence should not be felt as to hearing 
 a fog signal. The apparatus, moreover, for sounding the 
 signal often requires some time before it is in readiness to act. 
 A fog often creeps imperceptibly toward the land and is not 
 observed by the lighthouse people until upon them; a ship may 
 have been for many hours in it and approaching the land in 
 confidence, depending on the signal which is not sounded. 
 When sound travels against the wind it may be thrown upward ; 
 a man aloft might hear it, though inaudible on deck. 
 
 Taken together these facts should induce the utmost cau- 
 tion in approaching the land in fogs. The lead is generally the 
 only safe guide and should be faithfully used. Therefore, the 
 mariner should not assume — 
 
 First. That he is out of ordinary hearing distance because 
 he fails to hear the sound. 
 
 Second. That because he hears a fog signal faintly, that he 
 is at a great distance from it. 
 
 Third. That he is near it because he hears the sound 
 plainly. 
 
 Fourth. That the distance from and the intensity of the 
 sound on any one occasion is a guide to him for any future 
 occasion. 
 
 Fifth. That the fog signal has ceased sounding because he 
 does not hear it even when in close proximity. 
 
 That sound waves do not travel as far or as fast during 
 foggy weather as they do when fine and clear, is due to the 
 greater density of the atmosphere during thick weather, and is 
 a fact that no seaman is in ignorance of. 
 
 Supposing the weather to be thick, but dead calm, there are 
 reasonable distances at which the sound of certain fog signal 
 
 80 
 
apparatus would be expected to reach the ear; but no sound 
 is heard. However, another vessel may be a half-mile or even 
 a mile farther off and those on board hear the sound distinctly, 
 a circumstance that is not at all uncommon. In running for 
 a point that is directly ahead, the sound of the fog signal will 
 be heard and then lost, and afterwards again heard and so on, 
 and during the time the signal will be in proper operation. And 
 in running so as to pass the signal station a certain distance 
 off, the sound is often heard when the station is three or four 
 points on the bow and not heard when the station is abeam 
 the point to which the passing ship approaches nearest to it; 
 but heard again some time after passing the station. 
 
 Every seaman knows that the direction from which the 
 sound of a fog signal comes can not be located with any degree 
 of certainty unless the sound-producing device is quite close. 
 In fact, there are times when the sound apparently comes from 
 points of the compass directly opposite to each other. It seems 
 reasonable, in this case, to suppose one of these sounds to be 
 an echo of the original, but then there comes the difficulty of 
 determining the original. Then again, instead of one of the 
 sounds being an echo, they may be the fog signals of two dif- 
 ferent ships. 
 
 While navigators are quite familiar with the above phe- 
 nomena, no theory has ever been advanced and accepted as a 
 proper explanation. 
 
 A great number of descriptions and diagrams of sound waves 
 have been examined, and as none can be found to satisfy the 
 above conditions for explanatory purposes, it indicates that this 
 very important branch of the subject has escaped the notice of 
 those eminent scientists who investigate matters of this nature, 
 which well deserves their attention. The only theory that seems 
 
 81 
 
to account for these so-called mysteries of sound, is that the 
 sound waves increase in size as the distance from the source 
 becomes greater until they become huge waves and pass over 
 a ship that happens to be in that unfortunate position and 
 descend so that those on board the ship at the greater distance 
 would hear the sound. 
 
 It then appears that a ship running for a fog signal station 
 that is directly ahead must pick up and lose the sound, as the 
 signal can not be heard when the sound waves are passing over 
 the ship. 
 
 The same theory may be applied to the case of a ship having 
 the fog signal station on her bow and passing it not at a great 
 distance. 
 
 It has been noticed that as soon as a fog signal is heard 
 sufficiently distinct to determine the interval of the blast and 
 silence, and to locate the direction from which the sound comes, 
 the source of the sound is not far off. 
 
 The only way to distinguish an echo from a fog signal 
 is not to sound the signal with a uniform blast. Blow a very 
 long or short blast occasionally. If a long blast is given and 
 a short one is heard, or a short one is given and a long one 
 heard, it is quite evident that the sound is not an echo. How- 
 ever, as a matter of safety and precaution, these sounds should 
 not be considered as echoes at any time, as there are too many 
 opportunities for fatal error. An echo will be heard all the 
 time the same, while a fog signal will seem nearer or farther 
 away at each blast. 
 
 It then follows that no dependence can be placed in fog 
 signals so far as hearing their sounds any great distance, and 
 when heard, it is not known whether they are near or not 
 and the direction from which the sound comes can not be de- 
 termined by the ear. 
 
 82 
 
Caution Regarding Fog Signals 
 Mariners are cautioned that, while every endeavor will be 
 made to start fog signals as soon as possible after signs of fog 
 have been observed they should not, when approaching the land 
 in a fog, rely implicity upon these fog signals, but should 
 always use the lead, which in most cases will give sufficient 
 warning. A fog often creeps imperceptibly toward the land 
 and a vessel may have been in it some time before it is observed 
 at a lighthouse. As sound is conveyed irregularly through the 
 atmosphere, mariners are strongly cautioned that they must not 
 place dependence on judging their distance from a fog signal 
 by the power of the sound. Under certain conditions of the 
 atmosphere the sound may be lost a short distance from the 
 station, as there may be silent areas or zones, or the sound 
 may carry much farther in one direction than in another, and 
 these conditions may vary in the same locality within short 
 intervals of time. Mariners must never assume that the fog 
 signal is not in operation because they do not hear it even when 
 in close proximity. The above applies particularly to fog signals 
 sounded in air, as steam or air whistles, sirens, horns, or 
 ordinary bells. Attention should be given to observing a fog 
 signal in positions where the noises of the ship are least likely 
 to interfere with the hearing, as experience shows that though 
 such a signal may not be heard from the deck or bridge when 
 the engines are running it may be heard when the ship is 
 stopped or from a quiet position; it may sometimes be heard 
 from aloft, though not on deck. 
 
 SUBMARINE BELLS 
 
 Submarine Bells have an effective range of audibility greater 
 than signals sounded in air, and a vessel equipped with receiv- 
 ing apparatus can determine the approximate bearing of the 
 
 83 
 
signal. These signals can be heard also on vessels not equipp 
 with receiving apparatus by observers below the water-line, but 
 a bearing of the signal can not then be readily determined, 
 
 VELOCITY OF SOUND 
 
 I 
 
 Til miles for intervals from one to twenty seconds, at average 
 Summer temperature 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 .21 
 
 .42 
 ^63 
 .85 
 1.06 
 1.27 
 1.48 
 1.70 
 I.9I 
 2.12 
 
 II 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 2.33 
 2.54 
 2.75 
 2.96 
 3.18 
 3.40 
 3.61 
 3.82 
 
 4.03 
 4.24 
 
 In feet per second at different temperatures, enabling to find 
 
 distance by sound 
 
 o 1084 .60 
 
 10 1089 70 
 
 20 1094 80 
 
 30 1099 90 
 
 40 I 104 100 
 
 50 I 109 212 
 
 This table will be found accurate for calm weather, and 
 
 useful in determining distance by the time intervals between 
 
 visible phenomena, such as flash of a gun or vapor from a 
 
 whistle, etc., and the audible report or blast. The table can 
 
 also be used to find the distance of storms. 
 
 THE TIDES 
 
 In obedience to the laws of gravitation the sun and the moon 
 
 1 1 14 
 I119 
 1 124 
 1 129 
 
 1134 
 Boiling Pt. 
 
 84 
 
each exert an attractive influence upon the earth. Although the 
 sun's mass is so very much greater than that of the moon — 
 being twenty-eight million times as great — yet the effect of the 
 tide attraction of the sun is only seven-sixteenths "that of the 
 moon. One reason for this is that the sun is nearly 400 times 
 further off than the moon. The effect of this attraction is seen 
 in the ocean tides. The v^^ater is drawn, or pulled out, as it 
 were, towards the attracting bodies. When the sun and moon 
 are acting on the same side of the earth, the combined attrac- 
 tion produces the greatest possible rise of water, known as 
 spring tides. When the sun and moon are pulling in opposite 
 directions, neap tides are produced. Owning to the revolution of 
 the earth on its axis in 24 hours, the tidal wave travels once 
 around the earth in that time. And since the tidal wave is 
 double — there being two points of high water — each seacoast has 
 high tide twice a day. But as the moon revolves around the 
 earth it takes 54 minutes longer for a particular place to be 
 brought opposite the moon again. Hence the tides are 54 
 minutes later every day. 
 
 Along the Atlantic Coast the rise and fall has several 
 ranges. As an example Key West, Fla., has about 14 inches 
 between high and low water, some of the Florida Keys about 
 3^ feet rise. Fernandina, Fla., has a rise of 5 feet 9 inches. 
 Port Royal Sound, Ga., has a rise and fall of about 7 feet. At 
 Charleston, S. C, the rise and fall is about 5 feet. Cape Hat- 
 teras has about 3^^ feet rise and fall. Sandy Hook, about 45^ feet 
 while at Montauk Point the range of tide is only about 2 feet. 
 The Bay of Fundy has the biggest ranges of tides along the 
 Atlantic Coast, some places having a mean rise of 44 feet 2 inches 
 and a spring tide of over 50 feet. A careful study of the 
 Government Tide Book is really surprising with the tide ranges 
 for different points. 
 
 85 
 
in addition to the forward and back movement of the water 
 in wind or tidal waves, each ocean is traversed by a system of 
 currents, or continuous movement of the water in the same 
 direction. Several causes combine to produce these continuous 
 currents; the principal cause, however, is the inequality in the 
 density of the water in different parts of the sea, arising from 
 different temperature and saltness. 
 
 GULF STREAM 
 
 The direction in which ocean currents flow is greatly modi- 
 fied by the rotation of the earth, the configuration of the coast 
 and sea bottom and by prevailing winds. The great current 
 known as the Gulf Stream has a wonderful influence upon the 
 climate and commerce of America and Europe. The waters 
 of this current have a high temperature, through having per- 
 formed a long tropical journey across the Atlantic and along 
 the coasts of South and Central America. In the Straits of 
 Florida the Gulf Stream is 32 miles wide and has a velocity of 
 four miles an hour. The temperature here is 82°. The Gulf 
 Stream flows Northeast, but is separated from the coast of the 
 United States by a colder current from the North. 
 
 HIGH AND LOW WATER 
 
 A knowledge of the times of high and low water and of 
 the amount of vertical rise and fall of the tide is of great 
 importance in the case of vessels entering or leaving port, 
 especially when the channel depths are less than or near. their 
 draft. Such knowledge is also useful at times to vessels run- 
 ning close along a coast in enabling them to anticipate the effect 
 of the tidal currents in setting them on or off shore. This is 
 especially important in fog or thick weather. 
 
 Tidal Streams. — In navigating coasts where the tidal range 
 
 86 
 
is considerable, especial caution is necessary. It should be re- 
 membered that there are indrafts to all bays and bights, although 
 the general run of the stream may be parallel with the shore. 
 
 The turn of the tidal stream offshore is seldom coincident 
 with the time of high and low water on the shore. In some 
 channels the tidal stream may overrun the turn of the vertical 
 movement of the tide by three hours, forming what is usually 
 known as tide and half tide, the effect of which is that at high 
 and low water by the shore the stream is running at its greatest 
 velocity. 
 
 The effect of the tidal wave in causing currents may be 
 illustrated by two simple cases : 
 
 (i) Where there is a small tidal basin connected with the 
 sea by a large opening. 
 
 (2) Where there is a large tidal basin connected with the 
 sea by a small opening. 
 
 In the first case the velocity of the current in the opening 
 will have its maximum value when the height of the tide within 
 is changing most rapidly, i. e., at a time about midway between 
 high and low water. The water in the basin keeps at approxi- 
 mately the same level as the water outside. The flood stream 
 corresponds with the rising and the ebb with the falling of the 
 tide. 
 
 In the second case the velocity of the current in the opening 
 will have its maximum value when it is high water or low water 
 "vithout, for then there is the greatest head of water for pro 
 ducing motion. The flood stream begins about three hours 
 after low water, and the ebb stream about three hours after 
 high water, slack water thus occurring about midway between 
 the tides. 
 
 Along most shores not much affected by bays, tidal rivers, 
 
 87 
 
etc., the curreiit usually turns soon after high water and low 
 water. 
 
 The swiftest current in straight portions of tidal rivers is 
 usually in the middle of the stream, but in curved portions the 
 most rapid current is toward the outer edge of the curve, and 
 here the water will be deepest. The pilot rule for best water 
 is to follow the ebb-tide reaches. 
 
 Countercurrents . and eddies may occur near the shores of 
 straits, especially in bights and near points. A knowledge of 
 them is useful in order that they may be taken advantage of or 
 avoided. 
 
 A swift current often occurs in the narrow passage con- 
 necting two large bodies of water, owing to their considerable 
 difference of level at the same instant. The several passages 
 between Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay are cases in point. 
 In the Woods Hole passage the maximum strength of the tidal 
 streams occur near high and low water. 
 
 Tide Rips and Swirls occur in places where strong currents 
 occur, caused by a change in the direction of the current, and 
 especially over shoals or in places where the bottom is uneven. 
 Such places should be avoided if exposed also to a heavy sea, 
 especially with the wind opposing the current ; when these condi- 
 tions are at their worst the water is broken into heavy choppy 
 seas from all directions, which board the vessel, and also make it 
 difficult to keep control, owing to the baring of the propeller 
 and rudder. 
 
 When planning a few days* cruise one must not overlook 
 the opportunity to take advantage of the tides. A current of 
 2 miles means a lot to a lo-mile boat as it either adds or takes 
 away 2 miles from her speed an hour. The current in most of 
 the large and long reaches, such as St. Johns River, Fla., Dela- 
 
ware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Hudson River, etc., usually does not 
 turn and run up stream until nearly flood high at the mouth, and 
 in order to take advantage of the current a careful study of the 
 tide table for v^ater about to be used is worth while. 
 
 As an example, a vessel leaving Cape Henlopen on a day 
 when high water at Philadelphia occurs at ih. iim. a. m., and 
 low water at 8h. i8m. a. m., desires to carry a favorable current 
 water at iih. 20m. p. m. Her speed being 12 knots, at what 
 time should she get underway and what will be the state of the 
 tide? 
 
 The Government Tide Book shows that the most favorable 
 time for leaving Cape Henlopen is about three hours before 
 low water at Philadelphia, which is given as occurring at 8h. 
 i8m. a. m. ; hence, if the vessel leaves Cape Henlopen about 
 5 a. m. on that day, and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will 
 carry a favorable current averaging about 1.9 knots, with a 
 rising tide all the way. 
 
 A vessel leaving Philadelphia and running 12 knots can 
 carry a favorable current only about one-half the way. The 
 most favorable time to leave is about the time of low water at 
 Philadelphia. She will then have an unfavorable current averag- 
 ing about I knot as far as Stony Point and carry a favorable 
 current averaging about 1.3 knots the remaining distance. As 
 far as Fort Delaware the tide will be rising; from Fort Dela- 
 ware to Cape Henlopen the tide will be falling. 
 
 A vessel at anchor in New York Harbor desires to pass 
 through the East River in the afternoon of a day when high 
 water at Governors Island occurs at 5h. 04m. p. m. and low 
 water at iih. 20m. p. m. Heh speed being 12 knots, at what 
 time should she get underway so as to carry a favorable current 
 all the way, and what will be the state of the tide? 
 
 89 
 
I 
 
 The Government Tide Book shows that the most favorable 
 time for going out from Governors Island is about three hours 
 before high water, which is given as occurring at sh. 04m. p. m. ; 
 hence, if the vessel is abreast of Governors Island at 2 p. m. on 
 that day and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will carry a 
 favorable current averaging about 1.6 knots all the way. If 
 she is abreast of Governors Island at 5 p. m., or the approximate 
 time of high water, and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will 
 carry a favorable current through Hell Gate, but will meet a 
 contrary current near College Point. In both cases the tide will 
 be rising throughout the course to Execution Rocks. 
 
 Or supposing a vessel leaving the Navy Yard desires to 
 pass out of Boston Harbor on the morning of a day when low 
 water at the Navy Yard occurs at ih. 03m. a. m. and high water 
 at 7h. 07m. a. m. Her speed being 10 knots, at what time should 
 she get underway so as to carry a favorable current all the way 
 to Boston Lightship, and what will be the state of the tide? 
 
 The most favorable time for leaving the Navy Yard is 
 about three hours after high water, which is given as occurring 
 at 7h. 07m. a. m. ; hence, if the vessel leaves the Navy Yard 
 about 10 a. m. on that day she will have a favorable current 
 averaging about 1.6 knots and a falling tide all the way to the 
 Lightship. 
 
 A vessel entering the harbor and passing Boston Lightship 
 about three hours before high water at the Navy Yard will 
 have a favorable current averaging about 1.6 knots and a rising 
 tide all the way to the Navy Yard. 
 
 A Government Tide Table with its tables and diagrams will 
 save many a gallon of gasolene if used, and the advantage of 
 the currents considered. 
 
 90 
 
TO MARK A LEAD LINE 
 
 The hand-lead has nine marks and eleven deeps, and is 
 marked to 20 fathoms, as follows : 
 
 2 fathoms, two srtips of leather. 
 
 3 fathoms, three strips of leather. 
 5 fathoms, white cotton rag. 
 
 7 fathoms, red woolen rag. 
 
 10 fathoms, a piece of leather with one round hole. 
 13 fathoms, same as for 3. 
 15 fathoms, same as for 5. 
 17 fathoms, same as for 7. 
 20 fathoms, with two knots. 
 The deep-sea lead is marked the same as the hand-lead up 
 to 20 fathoms and from there it is marked : 
 For 25 fathoms, one knot. 
 For 30 fathoms, three knots. 
 For 35 fathoms, one knot. 
 For 40 fathoms, four knots. 
 These are known as the ''marks." The numbers omitted, 
 as I, 4, 6, 8, etc., are called the "deeps," and they are spoken of 
 together as the "marks and deeps of the lead-line." 
 
 Soundings by the hand-lead are taken while the vessel has 
 headway on, the leadsman throwing the lead forward and 
 getting the depth as the vessel passes, while the line is nearly 
 perpendicular. 
 
 A hand-lead used for moderate depths may weigh up to 
 14 tb and a good leadsman will get soundings in depths up to 
 5 fathoms with a boat making 8 knots. The sounding machine 
 takes soundings at much greater speed, the depths, etc., being 
 the main factors. There are several types of sounding machines, 
 but small boats are equipped with only the hand-lead, 
 
 91 
 
nds 
 
 I 
 
 SOUNDING 
 
 To Take a Sounding with the hand-lead, the leadsman stands 
 forward and gives the lead a swing in order to throw it ahead, 
 so that the lead will be on the bottom by the time he gets over 
 the spot, and the line is straight up and down. The deeper 
 the water and the faster the boat is moving, the farther ahead 
 the lead will have to be heaved. The instant the lead reaches 
 bottom the slack of the line must be hauled in, so that it will 
 not be hanging in a bight when the leadsman gets over the 
 lead. 
 
 He communicates the soundings obtained thus : 
 If the depth corresponds with either of the above marks 
 he says, **By the mark 5 or 7!' If the mark is a little below 
 the surface, he says, ''Mark under water 5 or 7!' If the depth 
 is greater or one-half more than any of the marks, he says, 
 ''And a quarter',' or "And a half 5 or 7." If the depth is a 
 quarter less, he says, "Quarter less 5 or 7." If he judges by 
 the distance between any two of the marks that the depth of 
 water is 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, or 21 fathoms, he says, 
 '^By the deep, 4, d," etc. 
 
 THE LEAD LINE 
 
 The lead line should be of some material that will not 
 stretch or shrink excessively, and the line should be wet when 
 being marked. Braided line is usually used, and some marks 
 are woolen rags and some cotton, that they may be distinguished 
 at night either by feeling or by putting the mark in the mouth. 
 A boat frequenting shallow waters should have a mark at 3 feet 
 in case her draught is about that depth. The ordinary bamboo 
 fish-pole is very handy to have aboard a boat to take soundings 
 and can be either painted red, white and blue for the first few 
 feet, or marked with a piece of cotton string at 3 feet, and 
 another at 6 feet or one fathom. 
 
 92 
 
WIND AND WAVES 
 
 Wind in air in motion. The direction of the wind is desig- 
 nated by the point of the compass from which it blows. All 
 winds are caused directly or indirectly by changes of tempera- 
 ture. If two neighboring regions become very unequal in tem- 
 perature from any cause, the air of the warmer region, being- 
 lighter than the other, will ascend and be poured over it from 
 above, while the heavier air of the colder region will flow in 
 below to supply its place. The rotation of the earth alone pro- 
 duces no permanent wind, because the atmosphere has the same 
 velocity of rotation as that of the portion of the earth upon 
 which it rests, but the earth's rotation materially modifies the 
 operation of other disturbing causes. 
 
 Sea waves are the direct effect of the friction caused by the 
 wind passing over the water, and calms are due to the absence 
 i0f such friction. 
 
 The terms wave and swell are not infrequently confounded 
 by inexperienced persons ; but seldom or never by a seaman. 
 However, a sea can be formed on a very heavy swell, and at 
 the same time be distinct from the swell. The term used in 
 describing this condition would be — a sea and a swell; but if 
 the velocity of the wind should remain constant or increase, 
 the swell will finally become a part of the sea. 
 
 The theory advanced by some that waves have a progressive 
 motion, is erroneous. In the most violent gales a surface drift 
 is experienced and rarely exceeds one mile per hour, except in 
 rotary storms, where this drift sometimes reaches to about five 
 miles per hour; but the body of water which extends above the 
 surface remains in the same position. 
 
 An interesting experiment may be made to prove this by 
 
 93 
 
throwing overboard a piece of wood when a ship is anchored in 
 an open roadstead during a heavy sea. The sea will appear 
 to run by the ship very rapidly, which is evidently responsible 
 for the turn — a sea is running, and for the theory that waves 
 travel. However, the piece of wood will drift no faster than 
 the current, which is also a result of the friction of the wind 
 passing over the water. 
 
 A short chop, cross or lumpy sea does not have the appear- 
 ance of running by the ship, as one sea apparently rises from 
 the trough of another. 
 
 It is a common practice among navigators to allow for a 
 heave of the sea, which is the effect of the sea breaking on or 
 very near the ship. 
 
 A very heavy swell is often experienced hundreds of miles 
 from the center of disturbance, and is nothing more than the 
 subsiding sea seeking its proper level. If increasing, it indicates 
 coming wind, usually strong; but if decreasing, the disturbance 
 is not approaching. Sometimes a swell is due to some volcanic 
 disturbance, or to the luna-tidal wave. Beyond any doubt, the 
 former is more or less responsible for the long, easy, almost 
 constant swell of the Pacific. 
 
 -The North Atlantic seems to be quite free from volcanic 
 disturbances from the fact that during the summer months it is 
 often smooth as a mill-pond. 
 
 Frequently from a change of wind, a cross sea will be ex- 
 perienced, and is sometimes described as lumpy; but so long as 
 the wind continues steady, the new sea will cut down the old 
 and become more regular; but if the wind should be frequently 
 changing, the sea will become more lumpy. 
 
 The greatest height of waves so far recorded is 42 feet 
 from the trough to the crest, and uncommon to seamen. 
 
 94 
 
SIZE OF OCEANS 
 
 The Pacific Ocean contains an area of 80,000,000 square < 
 miles, Atlantic 40,000,000, Indian 20,000,000, Southern about 10,- ' 
 000,000, Arctic 5,000,000. 
 
 The oceans occupy three-fourths of the surface of the earth. 
 A mile down in the sea the water has a pressure of a ton to 
 every square inch. If a box 6 feet deep was filled with sea 
 water which was then allowed to evaporate, there would be 
 2 inches of salt left in the bottom of the box. Taking the 
 average depth of the ocean to be 3 miles, there would be a 
 layer of salt 440 feet thick covering the bottom, in case all the 
 water should evaporate. In many places, especially in the far 
 North, the water freezes from the bottom upward. 
 
 Waves are deceptive things. To look at them one would 
 gather the impression that the whole water traveled. This, 
 however, is not so. The water stays in the same place, but 
 the motion goes on. In great storms waves are sometimes 40 
 feet high, and their crests travel 50 miles an hour. The base of 
 a wave (the distance from valley to valley) is usually con- 
 sidered as being fifteen times the height of the wave. There- 
 fore, a wave 25 feet high would have a base extending 375 feet. 
 The force of waves breaking on the shore is 17 tons to the 
 : square inch. 
 
 The depth in fathoms is as follows: 
 
 Atlantic 2,013 3,875 
 
 ! Pacific 2,126 4,655 
 
 [ Indian 1,829 3,020 
 
 ^ Arctic 845 2,650 
 
 Antarctic 1,500 1,975 
 
 J Mediterranean . . 738 1,430 
 Irish 120 355 
 
 95 
 
English Channel. 55 150 
 
 German 48 * 
 
 Levant 36 
 
 Adriatic 22.5 
 
 Baltic , 21.5 
 
 The Southern Ocean below Cape Horn reaches a depth of 
 2,275 fathoms, and ofif Cape of Good Hope, 2,850 fathoms. 
 The average depth of the Bay of Biscay is 600 fathoms. 
 
 OIL ON WATER 
 
 In using oil for modifying the sea, the one great difficulty 
 is to have the oil reach the water far enough to windward to 
 give the boat the benefit of its effect. 
 
 The simplest method of distributing oil is by means of 
 canvas bags about i foot long, filled with oakum and oil, pierced 
 with holes by means of a coarse sail needle, and held by a 
 lanyard. The waste pipes forward are also very useful for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Thick and heavy oils are the best. Mineral oils are not so 
 effective as animal or vegetable oils. Raw petroleum has given 
 favorable results, but not so good when it is refined. Certain 
 oils, like cocoanut oil and some kinds of fish oil, congeal in 
 cold weather, and therefore are useless, but may be mixed with 
 mineral oils to advantage. 
 
 When running before a gale, distribute oil from the bow by 
 means of oil-bags or through waste pipes. It will thus spread 
 aft and give protection both from quartering and following 
 seas. 
 
 If only distributed astern, there will be no protection from 
 the quartering sea. 
 
 Running before a gale, yawing badly, and threatening to 
 broach-to, oil should be distributed from the bow and from 
 both sides, abaft the beam. 
 
 96 i\ 
 
Where it is only distributed at the bow, the weather quarter 
 is left unprotected when the ship yaws. 
 
 However, with oil-bags abaft the beam as well as forward, 
 the quarter is protected. 
 
 A vessel can be brought closer to the wind by using one or 
 two oil-bags forward, to windward. With a high beam sea, 
 use oil-bags along the weather side at intervals of 40 or 50 
 feet. 
 
 In a heavy cross sea, as in the center of a hurricane, or 
 after the center has passed, oil-bags should be hung out at 
 regular intervals along both sides. 
 
 Drifting in the trough of a heavy sea, use oil from waste 
 pipes forward and bags on weather side. 
 
 These answer the purpose very much better than one bag at 
 weather bow and one at lee quarter, although this has been 
 tried with some success. 
 
 Heading into a head sea, use oil through forward closet 
 pipes. Oil-bags would be tossed back on deck. 
 
 Crossing a bar with a Hood-tide, to pour oil overboard and 
 allow it to float in ahead of the boat, which would follow with a 
 bag towing astern, would appear to be the best plan. As before 
 remarked, under these circumstances the effect can no<" be so 
 much trusted. 
 
 On a bar, with the ebb-tide running, it would seem to be 
 useless to try oil for the purpose of entering. 
 
 For hoarding a wreck, it is recommended to pour oil over- 
 board to windward of her before going alongside. The effect 
 in this case must greatly depend upon the set of the current and 
 the circumstances of the depth of water. 
 
 For a boat riding in bad zveather from a sea anchor, it is 
 recommended to fasten the bag to an endless line rove through 
 
 97 
 
a block on the sea anchor, by which means the oil can be 
 diffused well ahead of the boat and the bag readily hauled on 
 board for refilling, if necessary. 
 
 A vessel hove to for a pilot, should distribute oil from the 
 weather side and lee quarter. The pilot boat runs up to wind- 
 ward and lowers a boat, which pulls down to leeward and 
 around the vessel's stern. The pilot boat runs down to leeward, 
 gets out oil-bags to windward and on her lee quarter, and the 
 boat pulls back around her stern, protected by the oil. The 
 vessels drift to leewa*-d and leave an oil-slick to windward 
 between the two. 
 
 Towing another vessel in a heavy sea, oil is of the greatest 
 service, and may prevent the hawser from breaking. Distribute 
 oil from the towing vessel forward and on both sides. If only 
 used aft, the tow alone gets the benefit. 
 
 At anchor in an open roadstead use oil in bags from jibboom, 
 or haul them out ahead of the vessel by means of an endless 
 rope rove through a tail-block secured to the anchor chain. 
 
 In addition to the above*, there are other cases where oil 
 may be used to advantage, such as lowering and hoisting boats, 
 riding to a sea anchor, crossing rollers or surf on a bar, and 
 from lifeboats and stranded vessels. 
 
 DISTRESS SIGNALS 
 When a vessel is in distress, and requires assistance from 
 other vessels, or from the shore, the following shall be signals 
 to be used or displayed by her, either together or separately. 
 In the Day Time 
 A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
 a minute. 
 
 The International Code signal of distress indicated by N. C. 
 The distant signal, consisting of a square flag, having either 
 above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 
 
 98 
 
The distant signal consisting of a cone, point upwards, having 
 either above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 
 A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 
 
 At Night 
 
 A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
 a minute. 
 
 Flames on the vessel, as from a burning tar-barrel, oil-barrel, 
 etc. 
 
 Rockets or shells throwing stars of any color or description, 
 fired one at a time, at short intervals. 
 
 A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 
 
 SIGNALS FOR A PILOT 
 
 Day Time 
 Jack at the fore; International Code Signal P T; Inter- 
 national Code flag S, with or without the code pennant over it; 
 the distant signal, consisting of a cone point upward, having 
 above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. 
 
 At Night 
 
 Pyrotechnic light, commonly known as a blue light, every 
 fifteen minutes; a bright white light flashed or shown at short 
 or frequent intervals just above the bulwarks for about a minute 
 at a time. 
 
 U. S. WEATHER SIGNALS 
 
 Storm Warning (a red flag, eight feet square, with black 
 center, 3 feet square), indicates that a storm of marked violence 
 is expected. This flag is never used alone. 
 
 Red Pennant (8 feet hoist and 15 feet fly) displayed with 
 the flags, indicates Easterly winds, that is, from the Northeast 
 to South, mglusiye, and that the storm center is approaching. 
 
 99 
 
White Pennant (8 feet hoist and 15 feet fly) displayed with 
 tlie flags, indicates Westerly winds, that is, from North to South- 
 west, inclusive, and that the storm center has passed. 
 
 Red Pennant if hoisted above the Storm Warning, winds are 
 expected from the Northeast Quadrant; when below, from, the 
 Southeast Quadrant. 
 
 White Pennant if hoisted above the Storm Warning, winds 
 are expected from the Northwest Quadrant ; when below, from 
 the Southwest Quadrant. 
 
 Night Storm Warnings. — By night a red light will indicate 
 Easterly winds ; a white above a red light will indicate Westerly 
 winds. 
 
 Hurricane Warning (two storm warning flags, red and black 
 centers, displayed one above the other) indicates the expected 
 approach of a tropical hurricane or an extremely severe and 
 dangerous storm. 
 
 No Night Hurricane Warnings are displayed. 
 
 A yellow flag with white center is a cautionary signal. 
 
 Signals should be read from the top of the staff downward. 
 These signals indicate the other forecasts for the twenty-four 
 hours commencing at 8 o'clock a. m. 
 
 General Barometer Indications 
 
 A stationary barometer indicates a continuance of existing 
 conditions, but a slight tap on the barometer face will likely 
 move the hand a trifle, indicating the tendency to rise or fall. 
 
 Rising. A gradual but steady rise of the barometer, indi- 
 cates settled fair weather. 
 
 A rapid rise indicates clear weather with high winds. 
 
 Falling. A very slow fall from a high point is usually 
 connected with wet and unpleasant weather without much wind. 
 
 A rapid fall indicates stormy weather, 
 
 100 
 
A rapid fall or a rapid rise intimates that a strong wind is 
 about to bow, and that this wind will bring with it a change of 
 weather. What the precise nature of the change is to be must, 
 in the main, depend upon the direction from which the wind 
 blows. If an observer stands with the wind blowing on his 
 back, the locality of low barometric pressure will be at his left 
 and that of high barometric pressure at his right. With low 
 pressure in the West and high pressure in the East, the wind will 
 be from South ; but with low pressure in the East and high 
 pressure in the West the wind will be from the North. 
 
 The barometer rises for Northerly wind (including from 
 Northwest, by the North, to Eastward) for dry or less wet 
 weather, for less wind, or for more than one of these changes — 
 except on a few occasions when rain, hail or snow comes from 
 the Northward with strong wind. 
 
 The barometer falls for Southerly wind (including from 
 Southeast, by the South, to Westward) for wet weather, for 
 stronger winds or for more than one of these changes — except 
 on a few occasions when moderate wind with rain (or snowO 
 comes from the Northward. 
 
 The above applies to readings in the Northern hemisphere. 
 The readings in the Southern hemisphere are practically the 
 reverse of these. 
 
 A single observation of the barometer without reference to 
 the conditions prevailing at definite intervals is liable to be mis- 
 leading. The important thing to know is, has the rise or fall 
 been a gradual one or has it been rapid? If the barometer is 
 stationary, how long has this condition existed? Whether prog- 
 nostications from barometer observations are based on a knowl- 
 edge of all these conditions, and never from a single observation. 
 
 To obtain advantageous results from the use of a barometer, 
 
 101 
 
its reading should be recorded at regular intervals. At the 
 same time a record of the temperature and the direction of 
 the wind should be made. During very bad or unsettled 
 weather, and at times when such weather is expected, the obser- 
 vations should be as frequent as may be convenient. 
 
 During fine or settled weather, the barometer will stand 
 highest at loh a. m. and loh p. m., and lowest at 4h a. m. and 
 4h p. m. This oscillation amounts to about .05 of an inch. It 
 then follows that if the reading of the instrument is the same 
 at loh in the morning as it was two or three hours earlier, it is 
 equivalent to a fall of .05 of an inch. The other hours of high 
 and low must be considered when the observations are of any 
 importance. 
 
 Weather Indications 
 
 The mariner or seaman usually becomes a good weather 
 prophet, regardless of the barometer and its general use. And 
 a little attention and study of the natural weather indication, 
 such as sunrise, sunset, clouds, etc., not only becomes interesting 
 but can be used to real value by any layman who will take the 
 trouble to observe such. It is an erroneous idea, which many 
 people still possess, that the moon has some influence upon the 
 weather, but comparisons made in many parts of the world 
 have proved that it is only an accidental coincidence. When we 
 take into consideration the fact that there are only seven days 
 between the lunar phases, it stands to reason that there must 
 come some atmospherical changes within these periods, but not 
 necessarily with any regularity. Observations of the sunrise 
 and sunset are most essential. The moon also has characteristics 
 which foretell good and bad weather, but a study of the sunrise 
 and sunset is most valuable, especially along the middle coast. 
 
 A gray sky at sunrise indicates fine weather, 
 
 102 
 
A red sky at sunrise usually indicates bad weather with 
 strong winds and probably rain. (A sailor's lingo: Red at night, 
 sailor's delight; Red in the morning, sailors take warning.) 
 
 A sunrise appearing high and streaks of light showing 
 through banks of clouds instead of at the horizon, indicate 
 wind, or more of it. 
 
 A sunrise appearing low on the horizon with no cloud for- 
 mation, indicates a fine d^y. 
 
 A yellow or brassy-looking sunset, or the sun going down 
 in a bank of dark clouds, and shooting out rays above the bank, 
 are all sure signs of bad weather, probably within twelve hours. 
 A red or coppery sunset, although clouded at the horizon, fore- 
 tells fine weather. The seaman's proverb is, "When the sunset 
 is clear, an Easterly wind you need not fear/* 
 
 Cirrus clouds, white, wavy lines, or curled whisps called 
 mares' tails, and ciro-cumulus clouds, small rounded, fleecy 
 clouds, giving the sky a mottled appearance and commonly called 
 mackerel scales, floating four or five miles above sea level, 
 are indications of bad weather within twenty-four hours and 
 likely resulting in very strong winds. 
 
 After a period of fine weather, the first indications of a 
 change is the appearance of mackerel scales and mares' tails, 
 followed by a general overcasting, which grows into cloudiness, 
 and is a sure sign of wind and rain. The higher and more 
 distant the clouds appear, the longer and more extensive the 
 coming bad weather will generally prove to be. 
 
 Hard-edged, oily-looking clouds indicate strong winds or 
 rain, and when they are rolled or ragged, the stronger the 
 coming wind will prove to be. High, upper clouds, crossing 
 the sky in a different direction from the lower clouds, indicate a 
 change in wind to the direction in which the upper strata are 
 moving. 
 
 103 
 
To sum up cloud indications in general; the light, soft 
 clouds with delicate coloring and undefined forms denote fine 
 weather and light breezes, while the heavy, oily, ragged, black 
 clouds with hard, definite forms and unusual coloring are sure 
 signs of bad weather. Small, irregular, black clouds, sometimes 
 called "Little Devils," when to windward, with the wind North or 
 Northwest, denote strong, puffy winds from that quarter. 
 
 A dark, gloomy sky denotes wind, while a light blue sky 
 denotes light breezes. 
 
 Thunder-storms which occur in the early evening are said 
 to be a sure sign of a clear day following. 
 
 When the atmosphere is exceptionally clear ,so that distant 
 objects stand out more plainly than usual and sound carries 
 further than ordinary, bad weather, probably rain in Summer, 
 will follow within twenty-four hours. 
 
 If, after a spell of bad weather from N.E. to S.E., the 
 wind veers to some point between N.W. and S.W., through the 
 Northerly quadrant, or, as we say, *'backs around,'' the resulting 
 fair weather will be of short duration, but if the wind works 
 around in the same direction that the hands of a clock move, 
 then the period of fair weather will be longer. 
 
 When the wind comes up with the sun it is likely to go 
 down with it, but when it rises as the sun sets, it is likely to 
 blow hard all night and probably the next day. 
 
 A heavy ground swell at sea, or a heavy surf on the beach, 
 foretell a hard blow coming or one nearby. This indication is 
 a sure one for most all fishermen along the coast. 
 
 The Moon 
 
 A clear moon indicates frost. 
 A dull-looking moon means rain. 
 
 104 
 
A halo around the moon indicates a storm. 
 
 If the moon looks high, cold weather may be expected. 
 
 If the moon looks low down, warm weather is promised. 
 
 The new moon on her back always denotes wet weather. 
 
 A double halo around the moon means very boisterous 
 weather. 
 
 If the moon changes with the wind in the East, then shall 
 we have bad weather. 
 
 If the moon be bright and clear when three days old, fine 
 weather is promised. 
 
 When the moon is visible in the daytime, then may we look 
 forward to cool days. 
 
 When the points of the crescent of the new moon are very 
 clearly visible, frost may be looked for. 
 
 If the new moon appears with its points upward, then will 
 the moon be dry, but should the points be downward more or 
 less rain must be expected during the next three weeks. 
 
 Rule for Finding a Vessel's Speed 
 Frequently it is of some importance to know the exact 
 speed of a vessel at such times when the only opportunity to 
 obtain it is from a short run. The following method is avail- 
 able for any run, no matter how short: 
 
 Rule — Note the interval of time and the distance run. Then 
 multiply the distance run by the number of minutes in one hour 
 and divide the product by the number of minutes in which the 
 run was made. The result will be the speed per hour. 
 
 105 
 
TIME AND KNOT SPEED TABLE. 
 
 When the mtnutes and seconds of time are known in which a vessel passes over 
 the measured mile,' this table will give her rate of speed in knots per hour. 
 
 60.000 
 
 58.064 
 57-143 
 56.250 
 55-384 
 54-545 
 53-73' 
 52.941 
 52.174 
 51.428 
 50.704 
 50.000 
 49-315 
 48.648 
 48.000 
 47-368 
 46.753 
 46.154. 
 45-570 
 45.000 
 44.444 
 43.902 
 43-373 
 42.857 
 42.353 
 41.860 
 41-379 
 40.909 
 40.450 
 40.000 
 39-561 
 39- '30 
 38.710 
 38.298 
 37.895 
 37.500 
 37."3 
 
 36-364 
 36.000 
 35-644 
 35-294 
 34-95' 
 34.615 
 34.286 
 33-962 
 33.644 
 33-333 
 33.028 
 32.727 
 32-432 
 32-143 
 3',858 
 31-579 
 3 '.'304 
 31.034 
 30.769 
 30.568 
 30.202 
 
 30.000 
 29.752 
 29.508 
 29.268 
 29.032 
 28.800 
 28.571 
 28.346 
 28,125 
 27.907 
 27.692 
 27.481 
 27.273 
 27.068 
 26.866 
 26.667 
 26.471 
 26.277 
 26.087 
 25.899 
 25-714 
 25-532 
 25-352 
 25-175 
 25.600 
 24.828 
 24.658 
 24.490 
 24.324 
 24.161 
 24.000 
 23.841 
 23.684 
 23.529 
 23-377 
 23.226 
 23-077 
 22.930 
 22.785 
 22.642 
 22.500 
 22.360 
 22.2^2 
 22.086 
 21-951 
 21.818 
 21.687 
 21.557 
 21.429 
 21.302 
 ii.176 
 21.-053 
 20.930 
 20.809 
 .20.690 
 20.571 
 20.455 
 20.339 
 
 20.000 
 19.890 
 19.780 
 19.672 
 I9-565 
 19.459 
 '9-355 
 19.251 
 19149 
 19.048 
 18.947 
 18.848 
 1.8.750 
 18.653 
 18.557 
 18.461 
 18.367 
 18.274 
 18.182 
 18.090 
 18.000 
 17.910 
 17.822 
 17-734 
 17.647 
 17.561 
 17,476 
 1-7.39' 
 17.308 
 17.225 
 17.143 
 17.062 
 16.981 
 16.901 
 16.822 
 16.744 
 16.667 
 16.590 
 16.514 
 16.438 
 16.364 
 
 l6.2dO 
 
 16.216 
 16.143 
 
 16.071 
 16.000 
 
 I5-, . 
 ■I 5-859 
 15.789 
 15.721 
 15.652 
 15.584 
 
 15.S'7 
 » 5.451 
 15.38S 
 15-319 
 15-254 
 16.190 
 
 !0.225 15.126 
 15-063 
 
 5.000 
 4-938 
 4.876 
 4.815 
 
 4-754 
 4.694 
 4-634 
 4-575 
 4.516 
 4458 
 4.400 
 4-343 
 4.286 
 4.229 
 4-173 
 4<ii8 
 4.062 
 4.0081 
 3-.9S3 
 3-900 
 3-846 
 3-793 
 3-740 
 3.688 
 3-636 
 3-585 
 3-534 
 3-483 
 3-433 
 3-383 
 3.333 
 3.284 
 3.235 
 3-187 
 3-139 
 3.091 
 3.043 
 2.996 
 ■2.950 
 2.903 
 2.857 
 
 2.gl 
 
 2.766 
 2.72: 
 2.676 
 2.632 
 2.587 
 2.544 
 2.500 
 2.457 
 2.414 
 2.371 
 2.329 
 2.287 
 2.245 
 2.203 
 '2.162 
 2.121 
 2.081 
 2.040 
 
 2.000 
 1.960 
 1.921 
 1.881 
 1.842 
 1.803 
 1.765 
 1.726 
 1.688 
 1.650 
 1.613 
 1.576 
 1-538 
 1.502 
 1.465 
 1.429 
 1.392 
 1-356 
 1.321 
 1.28s 
 1-250 
 1.215 
 1.180 
 1.146 
 I. Ill 
 1.077 
 1.043 
 1.009 
 0.976 
 [0.942 
 0.909 
 0:876 
 0.843 
 0.811 
 0.778 
 :o.746 
 ;o.7i4 
 [ 0.682 
 0.651 
 0.619 
 0.588 
 O.SS7 
 0.526 
 0.496 
 0.465 
 :0.43s 
 :0.40s 
 0.375 
 0.345 
 
 ;o.3is 
 ro.286 
 0.256 
 
 o.i27 
 0.198 
 0.169 
 0.141 
 
 O.IJ2 
 0.084 
 p.056 
 0.028 
 
 10.000 
 
 9.972 
 
 9-945 
 9-91.7 
 9.890 
 9.863 
 9.836 
 9.809 
 9-783 
 9-756 
 9-730 
 9-704 
 9.677 
 9.651 
 9.626 
 9.600 
 9-574 
 9-549 
 9.524 
 9.499 
 9-474 
 9-449 
 9-424 
 9-399 
 9-375 
 9-35' 
 9.326 
 9.302 
 9.278 
 9.254 
 9.231 
 9.207 
 9.184 
 9.160 
 9-137 
 9.114 
 9.091 
 9.068 
 9-045 
 9.023 
 9.000 
 8.978 
 8-955 
 8.933 
 8.911 
 8.889 
 8.867 
 8.84s 
 8.824 
 8.802 
 8.780 
 
 ?-"9 
 8738 
 8.717 
 8.696 
 8.67s 
 8.654 
 8.633 
 8.61; 
 8-592 
 
 8.57' 
 8.551 
 
 8-53' 
 8.511 
 8.491 
 8.47' 
 8.451 
 8.431 
 8.411 
 8.392 
 8.372 
 8.363 
 8.333 
 8.314 
 8.295 
 8.276 
 8.257 
 8.238 
 8.219 
 8.200 
 8.182 
 8.163 
 8.145 
 8.126 
 8.108 
 8.090 
 8.072 
 8.054 
 8.036 
 8.018 
 8.000 
 7.982 
 7.965 
 7-947 
 7-930 
 7.912 
 7-895 
 7.877 
 7.860 
 7^843 
 7.826 
 7.809 
 7.792 
 7.775 
 7.759 
 7.742 
 7.725 
 7.709 
 
 ^•Pl 
 7.676 
 
 7.660 
 
 7.643 
 
 7,627 
 
 7.6U 
 
 7.595 
 7.579 
 7.563 
 7-547 
 7-531 
 7-5'6 
 
 7.500 
 
 6.667 
 
 7.484 
 
 6.654 
 
 7-469 
 
 6.642 
 
 7-453 
 
 6.630 
 
 7-4^8 
 
 6.618 
 
 7-423 
 
 6.606 
 
 .7.407 
 
 6-593 
 
 7-392 
 
 6.581 
 
 7-377 
 
 6.sb9 
 
 7.362 
 
 6-557 
 
 7-347 
 
 6-545 
 
 7.332 
 
 6-534 
 
 7.317 
 
 6522 
 
 7.302 
 
 6510 
 
 7.287 
 
 6.498 
 
 7.273 
 
 6.486 
 
 7-2S8 
 
 6.475 
 
 7-243 
 
 6.463 
 
 7.229 
 
 6.452 
 
 7-214 
 
 6.440 
 
 7.200 
 
 6.429 
 
 7.186 
 
 6.4 '7 
 
 7.171 
 
 6.406 
 
 7-«57 
 
 6.394 
 
 7-143 
 
 6.383 
 
 7.129 
 
 6.372 • 
 
 7-"5 
 
 6.360 
 
 7.101 
 
 6.349 
 
 7.087 
 
 6-338 
 
 7-073 
 
 t-^'l 
 
 7-059 
 
 6.316 
 
 7-045 
 
 6.305 
 
 7-03' 
 
 6.294 
 
 7.018 
 
 6.283 
 
 7.004 
 
 6.272 
 
 6.990 
 
 6.261 
 
 6.977 
 
 6.250 
 
 6.96^ 
 
 6.239 
 
 6.950 
 
 6,228 
 
 6.936 
 
 6.218 
 
 6.923 
 
 6.207 
 
 6.910 
 
 6.ic,6 
 
 6.8Q7 
 
 6.186 
 
 6.883 
 
 6.175 
 
 6.870 
 
 6.164 
 
 6.8S7 
 
 6.154 
 
 6.844 
 
 6.143 
 
 6.831 
 
 6='33 
 
 6.818 
 
 6.122 
 
 6.805 
 
 6.112 
 
 6.792 
 
 6.102 
 
 6.780 
 
 6.091 
 
 6.767 
 
 6.081' 
 
 6.754 
 
 6.071 
 
 6.74i 
 
 6.061 
 
 6.729 
 
 6.050 
 
 6.716 
 
 6.040 
 
 6.704 
 
 6.030 
 
 6.691 
 
 6.020 
 
 6.679 
 
 6.010 
 
 6.000 
 
 5.990 
 5-980 
 s-970 
 5.960 
 5-950 
 
 5-94' 
 5-93' 
 5-921 
 5-9" 
 5.902 
 S.892 
 S.882 
 
 5-863 
 
 5-854 
 
 5-844 
 
 5-835 
 
 5-825 
 
 5.816 
 
 5.806 
 
 5-797 
 
 5.788 
 
 5-778 
 
 5.769 
 
 5.760 
 
 5-75 
 
 5-742 
 
 5-732 
 
 5-723 
 
 5-7'4 
 
 5-7'o5 
 
 5.696 
 
 5.687 
 
 S-678 
 
 ^iP 
 
 5.660 
 5-6s' 
 5.643 
 5-634 
 
 5.616 
 5-607 
 5-599 
 5-590 
 5.58- 
 
 5-573 
 5-564 
 5-556 
 S.:547 
 5.538 
 5-530 
 5-53 1 
 5.513 
 S-50S 
 5.496 
 5.488 
 ■ 5-479 
 5-47' 
 S-463 
 
 5-455 
 
 5.446 . 
 
 5-438 
 
 5-430 
 
 5-422 
 
 5-414 
 
 5.405 
 
 5-397 
 
 5-389 
 
 5-381 
 
 5-373 
 
 5-365 
 
 ■5-357 
 
 5-349 
 
 5-34' 
 
 5-333 
 
 5-325 
 
 5-3 '8 
 
 5-3io 
 
 5-302- 
 
 5-294 
 
 5.286 
 
 S-278 
 
 5.270 
 
 5-263 
 
 5-255 
 
 5.248 
 
 5-240 
 
 5-233 
 
 5-225 
 
 5-2*7 
 
 5.210 
 
 5.202 
 
 5-'95 
 
 5- '87 
 
 5.180 
 
 5-172 
 
 5.165 
 
 S-'58 
 
 5. '50 
 
 5-143 
 
 S.136 
 
 5.128 
 
 5.121 
 
 5.106 
 s-099 
 5.092 
 5-0^5 
 5.078 
 5.070 
 5.063 
 5.056 
 5.049 
 5.042 
 5-035 
 5.028 
 5.021 
 5-014 
 • s-007 
 
BOOKS FOR A NAUTICAL LIBRARY 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 Navigation Simplified. By McArthur $1.25 
 
 Handy Jack Book of Navigation Tables .paper .75 
 
 Book of Sights Taken in Actual Practice at Sea 1.00 
 
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 Modern Navigation. Vy Hastings. .75 
 
 American Practical Navigator. By Bowditch $2.25; by mail 2.50 
 
 Simple Rules and Problems in Navigation. By Engle 3.50 
 
 American Nantical Almanac 30 
 
 Navigation — A Short Course. By Hasting 75 
 
 Navigaticn. By G. L. Hosmer 1.25 
 
 Elements of Navigation. By Henderson 1.50 
 
 Epitome of Navigation. By Norie 2 Vols. 15.00 
 
 Navigation. By Jacobi 2.50 
 
 Navigators' Pocket Book. By Capt. Howard Patterson 2.00 
 
 Practical Aid to the Navigator. By Sturdy 2.00 
 
 Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. By Lecky. by mail 5.00 
 
 Brown' s Star Atlas 2.00 
 
 Deviation and Deviascope 2.00 
 
 Manual on Rules of the Road at Sea 3.25 
 
 Self-Instructor in Navigation 3.00 
 
 Pocket Course Book Chesapeake Bay 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Long Island Sound 25 
 
 Pocket Course Bcok New England Waters 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Portland to Halifax 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Race Rock to Boston Light 25 
 
 Questions and Answers on the Rules of the Road 25 
 
 SEAMANSHIP 
 
 Seamanship. By Doane 1.25 
 
 Fore-aud-Aft Seamanship 50 
 
 Modern Seamanship. By Knight $3.00; by mail 3.25 
 
 Reed's Seamanship 3.00 
 
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 Notes on Stowage. By Hillcoat 3.75 
 
 Practical Seamanship. Todd & Whale 10.00 
 
 SIGNALLING 
 
 International Signals — A Few Ways to Use the Code 25 
 
 Nautical Telegraph Code. By D. H. Bernard 1.25 
 
 Signalling — International Code Signals 1.00 
 
 Signalling Made P'asy. By Capt. Bernard 75 
 
 Signal Reminder. By D. H. Bernard 50 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING 
 
 Elements of Mechanism. By Schwamb 2.50 
 
 New Marine Engineers' Guide 5.00 
 
 Marine Propellers. By Barnaby 3.00 
 
 Marine Steam Turbine. By J. W. Sothern. 3d Edition 15.00 
 
 Mechanics' and Engineers' Pocketbook. By Charles H. Haswell. . 5.00 
 
 Practical Marine Engineering. By Capt. C. W. Dyson, U. S. N 6.00 
 
 Liberty Advisor for Marine Engineers. By Brennan 2.00 
 
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 YACHT AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 
 
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 Handbook of Ship Calculations, Construction and Operation 5.25 
 
 Laying down and Taking Off. By Desmond 2.00 
 
 Machinery's Handbook 6.00 
 
 Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing and Yacht Architecture. Kemp 15.00 
 
 Naval Architects' Pocket Book. By MacKrow 6.00 
 
 Naval Architecture. A Manual of Laying-Off. By Watson 12.00 
 
 Naval Architecture. By Peabody 7.50 
 
 Naval Constructor. By Simpson 5.00 
 
 Practical Shipbuilding. By A. C. Holms. 3d Edition 20.00 
 
 Speed and Power of Ships. 2 Vols. By Taylor 7.50 
 
 Tables for Constructing Ships' Lines. By Hogg 1.00 
 
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 BOAT HANDLING, ETC. 
 
 Flags, Their Origin and Use. By A. F. Aldridge 25 
 
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 Art and Science of Sailmaking. By S. B. Sadler 6.00 
 
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 Boating Book for Boys 1.50 
 
 Handbook of American Yacht Racing Rules 2.00 
 
 The Helmsman's Handbook. By B. Heckstall Smith 4.00 
 
 Kedge Anchor. By Patterson 1.00 
 
 Knots and Splices. By Capt. Jutsum 75 
 
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 Know Your Own Ship 3.00 
 
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 Motor Boats, Construction and Operation 1.25 
 
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 Small Yacht. By R. A. Boardman $2.50; by mail 2.63 
 
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 Awnings and Tents, Construction and Design. By Chandler 5.00 
 
 ELECTRICAL 
 
 Dry Batteries. By a Dry Battery Expert 35 
 
 Electrical Circuits and Diagrams. By N. H. Schneider 35 
 
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 Modern Primary Batteries 35 
 
 Practical Electrics 35 
 
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 Study of Electricity. By Schneider 35 
 
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