s./y[cuyk^c£r^ Our Chosen Land. A ROMANTIC STORY OF AMERICA FROM THE TIME OF ITS DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT DAY. AN INTERESTING ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF OUR COUNTRY. WRITTEN ESPECIALLY FOR YOUNG FOLKS. THE MOST PICTURESQUE INCIDENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY TOLD IN SIMPLE LANGUAGE. Iprofuscl^ IFUustrateb INCLL'OINC. A Magnificent Collection of Engravings of American Battleships. WABASH PUBLISHING HOUSE, v\ CHICAGO, ILL. 1896. Entered accurJing to Act of Congress, in the year 1896, By ROBERT O. UAW, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. TABLE OF CONTENTS. LIST OF PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. Chapter. I. Mastodons and Mystery. Earliest Inhabitants — Mound-Builders — American Indians. II. The Legendary Century. The first Discoverers of America — Myths, Legends and Traditions — Journey of the Norsemen, III, The Dreamer of Genoa, Columbus and His Voyages — Amerigo Vespucci — The Cabots, IV. Across the Dark Water. Ponce De Leon — The Fountain of Youth — The Discovery of the South Sea by Balboa — De Soto — His Death. V. The Lilies of France. France: Her Explorers and Settlements — The Fight Be- tween French and Spanish Colonies. VI. A Lodge in the Wilderness. The English — Their Search for the Northwest Passage — Frobisher's Explorations — Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Set- tlement — The Colony of Sir Walter Raleigh — Gosnold's Failure. VII. Founding the Old Dominion. The London and Plymouth Companies — The Virginian Settlement — Captain John Smith and His Wonderful Ad- ventures — Pocahontas — The New Charter — The Wreck of the "Sea Adventure." VIII. Through Death to Victory. From the Bermudas to Virginia — The Starving Times — The Arrival of Lord De la Warre — Help from England — The Beginning of Slavery — The First Blow at Intem- perance. IX. Norumbega, the Beautiful, The Settlement of Maine — The Voyage of the English — Champlain and Vermont — The Settlement of Mt. Desert. Tabic of Con toils. Chapter. X. Conquest of the Wilderness. Nova Scotia and the English Despoliation — The Settlement of New Hampshire — The Mode of Northern Colonial Government. XL The Dutchmen of New Netherland. The Settlement of New York— The Dutch: Their Explora- tions and Settlements — Their Dealings with the In- dians — Their Success. XII. The Mayflower. The Puritans — Their Trials and Wanderings — The Landing at Plymouth Rock — The First Winter. XIII. The Daily Round. The Next Three Years — The Order, Civil, Martial and Re- ligious, which they Maintained — The Manner of their Daily Living, etc. XIV. The Reward of Treachery. The Massacre at Jamestown — Lord Baltimore and the Set- tlement of Maryland — The Liberal Laws of the Baltimore Settlement. XV. The Peace-Keepers. Prosperity of the Maryland Settlement — Conspiracies Against Them — The Triumph of Virginia Over Them, and the Persecution of the Catholics — Calvert's Success and the Return of the Jesuits. XVI. A Brief Authority. New Jersey — The Settlement Under Peter Minuet — Oppo- sition of the Dutch — The Triumphs of the Dutch Under Peter Stuyvesant — End of Swedish Independence in America. XVII. Old Wine in New Bottles. The "Patroons" of New Netherland — The Settlement at Manhattan — The Manners and Customs of the Dutch — Ji^stablishment of Popular Land Laws. XVIII. Knickerbocker Days. The Government of William the Test}- — Trouble with the Indians — The Night Attack on Pavonia — Revenge of the Indians — Dismissal of Kieft and Arrival of Peter Stuy- vesant, Table of Con/rtifs. 9 Chaptek. XIX. The Old Bay Settlement. The Massachusetts Bay Company — The Trials of the First Year — Arrival of Roger Williams — John Eliot — Perse- cution of Williams — His Settlement at Providence. XX. The Ravages of Civilization. The American Indian — The Destruction of the Block Island Indians — The Extinction of the Pequot Tribe— The Federation of the English Colonies. XXI, The Pride of the Righteous. The Religious Law of Boston — Gorton and His Beliefs — The Settlement at Shewanet — Persecution of the Gor- tonites — Persecution of the Baptists — The Obtaining of a Royal Charter for Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations. XXII. Through Pain to Peace. The Quakers — Their Persecution — George Fox and His Friends — Mary Fisher and Ann Austin — The Quaker Children. XXIII. The Royalist Colony of Virginia. Governor Berkeley and His Reign — More Trouble with the Indians — The Puritans Ap-ain Victorious — The Re- turn of the Stuarts to Power. XXIV. "Hey, for St. Mary's!" The Colony of Virginia — The Indians — The Uprising of Bacon and His Friends — Restriction of the Governor's Rights — Return of Berkeley — Desertion of Jamestown — Death of Bacon — Breaking up of Bacon's Party. XXV. Each for Himself. The Carolinas— The Proprietors and Their "Grand Model" — The Albemarle Settlement — The Removal of Charleston — The Spanish Buccaneers — Seth Sothell — Quaker Rule. XXVI. Man's Inhumanity to Man. Attack of Indians on New Netherland — Destruction of Pavonia — Persecution of Lutherans and Quakers at New Amsterdam — Slavery Among the Dutch — English Encroachments — Surrender of New Netherland — Settle- of New Jersey. lO Table of Contents. Chapter. XXVIL Our Country, Right or Wrong. Political Policy of Massachusetts — Efforts of England to Recover the Charter — Edward Randolph — Coin of the Colony — Sir Edmund Andros — ^The Episode of the Connecticut Charter — Arrest of Andros and Election of Phips — Death of Phips. XXVIII. Days of Dread. King Philip's War— Fight at Brookfield— Fight at' Had- ley — Fight at Deerfield. XXIX. A Passing Madness. How the Witchcraft Hallucination Started — Samuel Par- ris and His Witch-craft Library — ^The Trial and Death of Giles Corey and Other Victims of this Hallucination. XXX. A Gentleman. William Penn — The Settlement of Pennsylvania — Re- markable Growth of the Colony — Change of Govern- ment — Restoration of Penn — His Death — The Slavery Question — Benjamin Franklin. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. The Dutchman's Fireside. The Rule of Lovelace at New York — ^The Dutch Retake the City — It Again Reverts to the English by Patent—" Governor Andros and His Unpopular Rule — Leisler Assumes Control — Trouble with New France. Frontenac the Fighter. Frontenac's Attack Upon New York — The Massacre at Schenectady — New York is Fortified by Leisler — Slough ter is Sent to Supersede Him — Leisler' s Defense Gets Him Into Trouble — The Governor's Dastardly Taking Off. The Pest of the Pirates. The Rule of Governor Fletcher — Fletcher Succeeded by the Earl of Bellomont — The Commission of Captain Kidd, and How it was Carried Out — Lord Cornbury Becomes Governor — The Expeditions Against Port Royal and Quebec. Table of Cofttents. II Chapter. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVIL XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. The Holy Voyageurs. The French and the Discoveries in the Northwest — Fathers Joliet and Marquette Discover the Source of the Mississippi and Sail Down the River — Death of Marquette — The Expedition of La Salle and Henne- pin — I^ouisiana Discovered and Named. The Chevalier La Salle. La Salle Lands on the Shore of Texas— He is Mur- dered—The Hut in the Wilderness— The Expedition . of d' Iberville — The Settlement of New Orleans, and the Mississippi — Scheme of John Law — The Massacre of Chopart— Bienville's Ill-fated Expedition Against the Chickasaws. The Land of Gold. California— Spanish Explorers— The Journey of Sir Francis Drake — The Coast Indians — Expedition of ;gspejo — Overthrow of the Jesuits — Onate and His Labors— The Missions at the South— The Decline of Spain and Her Colonies. The Carolinas. Sir Nathaniel Johnson in Carolina— Strategy at Fort Johnson — Religious Differences — Massacre of 171 1 — Uprising in South Carolina — The Yemassees — The Buccaneers — Rebellion Against the Proprietors. From Alleys and By-ways. How Georgia Came to be Settled— The Emigrants— The Wesleys and Whitefield— The March of the Slaves— The Spanish Attack— Georgia as a Royal Province. The Cavaliers of Virginia. Culpepper in Virginia — Governor Efiingham — Nicholson and Andros— The Growth of Industries— Maryland— The Clergymen of Virginia. A Reign of Terror. The First Trial for Libel in America— The Negro Plot in 1 741— The Burning of Quack and the Hanging of Ury— The Mingling of Dutch and English in New York — The Government of Lieutenant-Governor Clark. 12 Table of Contents. Cbapter. xu. XUI. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XI.VI. XLrVIL The Cl,ash of Arms and Ideas. Lord Bellomont's Riile Over New York, New Hampshire and Massaclnisetts — Dudley's Rule — The French and English War of 1702 — Taking of Port Royal — The Lumberers' Difficulties in Maine and New Hampshire. "Americans Are Born Rebels." Expedition of Maine and New Hampshire Against the Norridgewocks — The Command of Captain John Eov- ell — ^William Drummer in Massachusetts — Whitefield's Revival and Shirley's Administration — Eouisburg — The Surrender, "They Nurse Treason With Their Milk." The Growing Spirit of Independence — The First Expe- dition Against Fort Du Quesne — The Colonists for Aggression and Offense — Braddock's Ill-fated Expedi- tion — George Washington's First Appearance — Brad- dock's Defeat and Death. Desolated Acadia. French and English Settlements in Nova Scotia — The Rivalry Between the Settlements — Colonel Winslow Drives Out the Acadians — The Pathetic Exodus — Per- secution of the Exiles. The Lion or the Lilies. Operations Against the French in the North — The Battle at Bloody Pond — The French Take Forts Oswego and William Henry — The English Retake Louisburg — The Battle of Carillon — The English Retake Oswego and Capture Frontenac and Du Quesne. The Paths of Glory. The Expedition Against Quebec — The Night Attack and the Fight on the Plains of Abraham — The Death of Montcalm and Wolfe — New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley Given to Spain. A Blow for Liberty. Pontiac, Chief of the Ottawas — Arrival of Rogers' Men at Detroit — Pontiac' s Conspiracy — Beginning of War— The Siege of Detroit— The Battle of Bloody Bridge, Tabic of Coiitciiis. 13 'Chapter. XLVIII. C^SAR Had His Brutus. The Stamp Act — Condition of the Colonies — The Oppo- sition to Taxation — Repeal of the Stamp Act — Refusal of the Assembly to Provide for the Troops Sent Over by England. XLIX. The Boston Tea-Drinkers. Trouble in Boston — "The Boston Massacre" — The Tea Tax — Attitude of Governor Hutchinson — The Boston "Tea Party"— The Boston Port Bill. Iv. The Blood of Patriots. The First Blood of the Revolution— The Men of Bille- rica — Fight at Concord and Lexington — The Siege of Boston — The Battle of Bunker Hill. IvL Liberty or Death. Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys — Surrender of Ticonderoga — Washington Chosen Commander-in- Chief — The Lack of Powder — Recall of General Gage — Small Naval Conquests. IvHo The Plains of Abraham. The Designs for the American Conquest of Canada — Montgomery's Move Against Montreal — Arnold's Fail- ure at Quebec — The Union of the Forces — The Second Defeat at Montreal — The Americans Fall Back L^pon Ticonderoga and Crown Point. UIL The Palmetto Logs. The Feeling in England — The Hiring of the Hessians — Attitude of New York — The Conflict with the South- ern Colonies — The Defense of Fort Moultrie. LIV. The Sons of Liberty. The Growth of a Desire for Independence — The Declara- tion of Independence — The Forming of State Consti- tutions. LV. The Continentals. Washington at New York — Arrival of Thirty-two Thou- sand British Troops — Overtures for Peace b}- the British— Battle of Long Island— The Battle of Harlem Heights — Destruction of New York — Battle of White Plains. 14 Table of Cojitenis. Chapter. LVI. Battle Field and Bivouac. The Jersey Campaign— The Battle of Trenton— The Battle of Princeton — Winter Encampment of Washington at Morristown. LVII. The Year of the Three Gallows. State of the American Army — The Pennsylvania Cam- paign — The Battle of Brandy wine — The "Paoli Massa- cre" — The British at Philadelphia — The Battle at Ger- mantown — Washington Winters at Valley Forge. LVIII. Tattered Conquerors. Washington's Camp at Valley Forge — Neglect of Congress — The Conway Cabal — General Steuben — Burgoyne in the North — The Siege of Ticonderoga — The Battle of Oris- kany. LIX. "Elbow Room." The Raid on Bennington — General Gates Given Command at the North — The Battle of Freeman's Farm — Battle of Bemus Heights — Surrender of Burgoyne. LX. Sabre and Musket. Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British — The Battle of Monmouth Court House — Firing of Bedford and Fair- haven — The Wyoming Massacre — Warfare in the West. LXI. The "Bon Homme Richard." British Reduction of Georgia — The Destruction of New Haven — The Americans Capture Stony Point — The Great Naval Engagement of John Paul Jones. LXII. The Six Nations. Expedition Against the Six Nations — The Civilization of the Indians — Humiliation of the Six Nations — Expedi- tion up the Mississippi from Louisiana — Triumph of Clinton in the South. LXni. "Whom Can We Trust Now?" Plans of the Two Armies — Siege of Charleston by th( English — Capture of the American Army at the South — The Burning of Connecticut Farms — Arrival of Rocham- beau — Treason of General Arnold. Chapter. I.XIV. ivXV. LXVL IrXVII. tXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. LXXIL I/XXIU. Ta6/e of Contents. i - "I Have Sent You a General." Cornwallis and Gates at the South— The Command of the Southern Force Given to General Green— The Battle of King's Mountain— Battle of Guilford Court House. The United States of America. Arnold's Expedition— Battle Between Cornwallis and Lafayette— The Siege of Yorktown and Surrender of Cornwallis— The Sacking of New London by Arnold. The Plowshare Versus the Sword. Condition of the Country at the Close of the Revolution- John Adams Made Minister to England— The Disband- ing of the Army— The Call for Delegates to Construct a Constitution. "First in War, First in Peace." The Forming of the Constitution— Washington Elected President. Starting the Wheels of Progress. Hamilton's Policy as the First Secretary of State— In- crease of American Commerce— The Question of Slavery — Frontier Troubles at the West. The Courtly Times of Washington. Death of Franklin— The Humor of Washington's Time— The Policy of Hamilton— The Pennsylvania Whisky Riots. A Democracy. The Political Parties of the Young Nation— The Jay Treaty — Election of John Adams to the Presidency Alien and Sedition Laws — Trouble with France. A Modern Lucifer. The Fries Insurrection— Selection of the National Capi- tal — Death of Washington — Louisiana — Aaron Burr. Decatur's Tribune. The Piracy of the Barbary States— War with Tripoli- Exploits of our Naval Heroes— Triumph of America. "Jeffersonian Simplicity." Exploration of the Northwest— Introduction of the Steam- boat—Passage of a Law Forbidding the African Slave Trade — The Jeffersonian Policy— Maritime Troubles. i6 Tabic of Contents. CH M'TKR. LXXIV. LXXV. LXXVI. LXXVII. LXXVIII. LXXIX. LXXX. LXXXI. War Again. Administration of James Madison — The Southern War Party — Declaration of War and Popular Protest — The Troubles on the Western Frontier — The Chicago Mas- sacre — Surrender of Hull. "Never Give Up the Ship.' War of 1812 — The Niagara Campaign — The Battle o.t Queenstown — Naval Operations — The Six Triumphs of the Americans — Affairs in the West — The Conflict on the Lakes — Perry's Victory. "Blue Lights." The War with the Creeks — Jackson's Campaign — Affairs on the Sea-board — "Yankee Strategy" — The Treaty of Peace. A Country Without a Capital. Jackson's Campaign Among the Creeks — Discourage- ments on the Northern Frontier — The Battle of Lundy's Lane — The War on the Sea-coast for 1814 — The Capture and Destruction of the City of Washing- ton — Vicissitudes at the South — The Battle of New- Orleans. A Transient Amiability. The Era of Good Feeling — War with Algiers — Finan- cial Condition of the Country — The First Seminole War — The Missouri Compromise. The Second Adams. ]\Ionroe's Administration — Election to the Presidency of John Quincy Adams — The Assertion of State Su- premacy in Georgia — Tariff Disputes — Andrew Jack- son Elected President — The Financial Crisis of 1837. Fiction and Truth. The Literary History of the Last Fifty Years — The Abolitionists. A House Divided Against Itself. Second Seminole War — Election of Van Buren — Finan- cial Depression — Election of William Henry Har- rison — The Dorr Rebellion — The Mormons — Annex- ation of Texas. ('H MTKK. LXXXII. Tabic of Contents, 17 The Sad Plain of Monterey. The Administration of Polk, and the War with Mexico — Various Severe Battles — Conquest of California and New Mexico — Occupation of the City of Mexico — Treaty of Peace — Birth of the F"ree Soil Party and Election of Taylor. LXXXIII. Gold and Ikon Chains. Death of Taylor, and Administration of Millard Fill- more — Discovery of Gold in California — Slavery Agitation — The Trouble in Kansas. LXXXIV. The Truth Goes Marching On. Sacking of Lawrence — John Brown and the Destruction of Ossawottomie— Election of Buchanan — Assault on Sumner — The Mormons — Election of Lincoln. LXXXV. " We are Coming, Father Abraham." Secession — The Southern Confederacy — Attack on Fort Sumter — The First Call for Troops — The Three Years' Enlistment — The Battle of Bull Run. LXXXVL The Union Forever. Attitude of Foreign Powers— Bombardment of Forts at Hatteras Inlet — Conquest of Charleston Harbor — The Campaign West of the Alleghanies — Grant at Forts Henry and Donelson— The War in Missouri. LXXXVn. With Shot and Shell. The Capture of New Orleans — Fight Between the "Monitor" and the " Merrimac." LXXXVTII. " F"orward by the Left Flank." Grant Given Absolute Command — The Battle of the Wilderness^" Forward by the Left Flank " — Second Battle of Cold Harbor. Chapter. LXXXIX. Table of Co?ite?its. The Confederate Cruisers. The Confederate Privateers — Fight Between the "Kear- sarge" and "Alabama" — The International Court of Arbitration — Sherman and the Western Campaign. XC. "After You, Pilot !" Sherman's March to Atlanta — The Bombardment of Mobile — Destruction of the "Albemarle." XCI. From Atlanta to the Sea. The March from Atlanta to the Sea — The Entrance to Savannah — The Siege of Richmond — Burnside's Blunder — The Burning of Chambersburg. XCII. Whirling Through Winchester. Sheridan and the Shenandoah Campaign — Sherman's March Northward from Savannah — The Burning of Columbia. XCIII. "Oh, Captain ! My Captain !" Closing of the Virginia Campaign — The Evacuation of Richmond — Surrender of Lee at Appomattox Court House — Assassination of President Lincoln. XCIV. " Ye Cannot Se^ve Two Masters." Administration of Andrew Johnson — Capture of Jefferson Davis — Reconstruction — Impeachment of President Johnson — Purchase of Alaska — Returning Prosperity to the Union. XCV. A Hundred Years of Liberty. Administration of Grant — The Ku-Klux Klan — The Chicago Fire — The Custer Massacre — The Panic of 1873 — The Centennial Exposition — Administration of President Hayes — Railroad Riots of 1877. Table of Contents. 19 Chapteb. XCVI. The Old Haymarket. Election and Death of President James A. Garfield — Ad- ministration of Arthur — The Anarchists of Chicago. XCVII. Civil Service Reform. President Cleveland's Administration — Civil Service Reform and Pension Bills — Many Noted Union Generals Pass Away — Death of General Grant — Prominent Events of I Four Years of Democratic Power. XCVIII. Through One Administration. The Four Years of President Harrison's Term — Complica- tions with Italy and Great Britain — Reciprocity and the Pan-American Congress — Second Election of Cleveland. XCIX. The Crowning Glory of the Century. The World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago — Our Country's History 400 Years Old — The Magnificent Site and Buildings — Objects of Interest. C. President or Governor? Administration of President Cleveland — The New Tariff — The Income Tax — The Coal Strike — The Coxey Move- ment — The Pullman Boycott — The Silver Question. CI, The United States Navy. Its Old Ascendency — The Invention of the Monitor — The Deterioration of the Navy, After the Civil War — Appoint- ment of the Advisory Board — The New Navy — Improve- I ments in Naval Artillery — Organization of the Navy De- partment — Sketch of John Ericsson — Uses of the Navy. WASHINGTON TAKING COMMAND OF THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Abraham Lincoln Frontispiece George Washington Taking Command 20 Viking Boat 34 Columbus and his Son 35 Portrait of Columbus 39 Amerigo Vespucci 40 Sebastian Cabot at Labrador.. 44 Spanish Soldier 50 Burial of DeSoto 51 Spanish Armor 51 Wolpi 52 Columbus Frightens the Indians 60 Meeting between DeSoto and the Indian Chieftainess 77 Puritan Type 92 Miles Standish and the Rattlesnake Skin 98 Mary Dyer Going to Execution 147 Charles 1 152 Oliver Cromwell 155 Last Vo3'age of Henry Hudson 161 Queen Elizabeth 176 William Penn's Residence 203 Peter Stuyvesant Defiant 229 Benjamin Franklin 244 Cavalier of Virginia 252 Moravian Settlement 256 Signing the Declaration of Independence. 261 Frozen in 265 George Washington in his Youth 273 Washington Crossing the Delaware 277 Quebec 287 Escape of Benedict Arnold 292 George III 295 Patrick Henry 299 ILL USTRA TIONS— Cotithmcd. Page. Building where Tea Plot was Hatched 307 George Washington 308 Bunker Hill Monument 315 Spouting Geyser 317 Death of Montgomery 326 The San Francisco 342 Old Liberty Bell 344 House in which Declaration was Signed 345 Independence Hall 348 Washington on the Hudson 356 The Yorktown 361 LaFayette . « 362 Von Steuben 366 The Brooklyn 377 Assault on Stony Point . 382 Red Jacket 388 The Maine 393 The Vesuvius 411 Washington's Treasure Chest » 422 Franklin's Grave 427 The Charleston 429 Washington's Grave 437 Duel between Burr and Hamilton 439 The Puritan o 445 The White House 447 Naval Engagement in 181 2 453 Brock's Monument 457 The Iowa 459 Indian Burial 469 The Fort at Pensacola 472 The Monterey 475 Fall of Table Rock 482 The Newark 491 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 494 Attack upon Fort King 503 The Miantonomoh 505 Salt Lake 506 ILL USTRA TIONS— Continued. Page. Oldest House in the United States , 513 Catching Wild Horses 516 Henry Clay 519 The Petrel 521 Salt Lake City 525 Capture of John Brown 531 Jefferson Davis 535 Confederate Flag 538 The Baltimore 539 Stonewall Jackson 540 Birthplace of General Grant o . . . 545 Federal Iron Clad 547 Admiral Farragut and his Squadron . 551 Admiral Farragut , . . . 552 The New York 553 Benjamin Butler o . . . . , 553 General W. T. Sherman 562 Picking Cotton » 564 Lieut. Cushing's Attack , . 570 Sheridan's Ride 576 Sheridan's Attack , 581 View of Salt Lake City = 590 General U. S. Grant 592 Merrimac and Cumberland .... 595 Massacre of Custer 59^ Denver 597 Maid of the Mist 598 James A. Garfield 602 Grover Cleveland 605 Haymarket Riot 606 Bird's-eye View of the United States 617 Benjamin Harrison 618 On the St. Lawrence River 622 The Chicago 625 William McKinley . « 632 Battle Ships 644 The Oregon 646 THE RIVER TIME. BENJAMIX F. TAYLOR. Oh! a wonderful stream is the river Time, As it runs through the realm of tears, With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme And a broader sweep and a surge sublime, As it blends in the ocean of years! How the winters are drifting, like flakes of snow. And the summers, like birds, between, And the years in the sheaf, how they come and go On the river's breast, with its ebb and its flow, As it glides in the shadow and sheen! There's a magical isle up the river Time, Where the softest of winds are playing; There's a cloudless sky and a tropical clime, And a song as sweet as a vesper chime. And the Junes with the roses are straying. And the name of this isle is the "Long Ago," And we bury our treasures there; There are brows of beauty, and bosoms of snow, There are heaps of dust— oh! we loved them so — There are trinkets and tresses of hair. There are fragments of songs that nobody sings, There are parts of an infant's prayer; There's a lute unswept, and a harp without strings. There are broken vows and pieces of rings. And the dresses that ske used to wear! There are hands that are waved when the fairy shore By the fitful mirage is lifted in air, And we sometimes hear, through the turbulent roar, Sweet voices we heard in the days gone before, When the wind down the river was fair. Oh! remembered for aye be that blessed isle, All the day of our life until night; And when evening glows with its beautiful smile, And our eyes are closing in slumbers awhile, May the Greenwood of soul be in sight. LIST OF PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. No. Presidkjjt. Tern of Office. 1 George Washington, Two terms, 1789-97. 2 Jclin Adams, One term, 1 797-1801. 3 Thomas Jefferson, Two terms, 1801-09. 4 James Madison, Two terms, 1809-17. 5 James Monroe, Two terms, 1817-25. 6 John Q. Adams, - One term, 1825-29. 7 Andrew Jackson, - Two terms, 1829-37. 8 Martin Van Buren, - One term, 1837-41. 9 William H. Harrison, - One month, 1841. 10 John Tyler, ... Three years and 11 months, 1841-45. 11 James K. Polk, - - - Tennessee. One term, 1845-49. 12 Zachary Taylor, - - - Louisiana. - One year and 4 months, 1849-50. 13 Millard Fillmore, - - New York. Two years and 8 months, 1850-53. 14 Franklin Pierce, - - - New Hampshire. One term, 1853-57. .15 James Buchanan, - - Pennsylvania. One term, 1857-61. State. Vice-President. - Virginia. - John Adams. Massachusetts. Thomas JefFersou. Virginia. - Virginia. - Virginia. - Aaron Burr. George Clinton. George Clinton. Elbridge Gerry. Daniel D. Tompkina Massachusetts. John C. Calhoun. - Tennessee. New York. - John C. Calhoun. Martin Van Buren. Richard M. Johnson. Ohio. - - - John Tyler. Virsfinia. George M. Dallas. Millard Fillmore. William R. King. J. C. Breckinridge. 26 THE STORY OF AMERICA. No. President. Term of Office. State. Illinois. l6 Abraham Ivincoln, One term and i month. L'] Andrew Johnson, - - Tennessee. Three years and 1 1 months. 1 8 Ulysses S. Grant, Two terms, 1869-77. 19 Rutherford B. Hayes, One term, 1877-81. 20 James A. Garfield, Six and a half months, i 21 Chester A. Arthur, Illinois. Ohio. - Ohio. 58i. New York. VlCE-PkESIDBNT. Hannibal Hamlin. Andrew Johnson. Schuyler Colfax. Henry Wilson. William A. Wheeler, Chester A. Arthur. Three years, 5 and a half months, 1881-85. 22 Grover Cleveland, - - New York. One term, 1885-89. 23 Benjamin Harrison, - - Indiana. - 1889-93. 24 Grover Cleveland, - New York. 1893- Thos. A. Hendricka - Levi P. Morton. Adlai E. Stevenson. CHAPTER I. EARLIEST INHABITANTS — THE MOUND-BUILDERS — THE AMERICA?^ INDIANS. ^HE plans of God are vety wide. No 1^^ nation may have the right to say, "We ^'^''^^'^'''^^Z^^^^^''-' -•■*«^^^ ~^y-<' ^^^ ^^^ people, and wisdom shall die with us." Traces are left of so many great and perished nations, that we are constantly reminded that a thousand years is but as a day in His sight, and that the work and progress we are so proud of may disappear and leave but little hint of us by which the coming race may guess what we were like. In the skeletons of the huge animals called the Mastodons and Mammotns, which once roved this country, and which have ceased to exist for so many thousand years, there are found flint arrow-heads, which must have been made by men who lived in that time, and by which these wild and terrible creatures were slain. Besides the many animals which belonged entirely to that age, and which there is nothing like now, there were many then upon this continent which we read of now only in foreign countries. The monkey was here in what we call United States, and the camel and rhinoceros. What the character was of the people who lived at that time it is impossible to guess. The first race which has left any distinct traces of itself was the Mound-builders, and it hardly seems as if they could have lived at the time of the Mastodon, for they made pictures of all the things about them, and among those pictures there is nothing which resembles these huge animals. This race of men was not savage, in one sense of the word. They worked hard, a thing which the savage seldom does. They had skill, and loved the beautiful. They are called the Mound- builders, because they have left behind them thousands of immense mounds; some curved, some square, some in the shape of a snake. Sometimes these earthworks have from fourteen to sixteen miles of embankment. Some look as if they may have been the dwelling-places 32 THE .STORY Oi' A.MKRICA. of their kings. Others seem as if they may have protected temples or altars where they worshiped. This people understood the smelting of ores, and mining. Their potten' w^as far fro.a rude, and their implements of warfare ver)' serviceable. They buried their great men under huge pyramids of dirt, but the common people, to judge from the great stack of bones which had been found in parts of the country, were doubtless thrown together and left in tlie open air. At the time they lived, this country must have been Liickly populated. It must have taken millions of men to do what they did. No one can guess what became of them, or why they left the possessions upon which they had spent so much time and labor. They disappeared many years before the American Indians roamed through our forests. The American Indians, as the European discoverers of this country found them, were not the race that we know. They were said to be well formed, winning, gentle and trustful. They were gracious in their speech and friendly in their manner, with soft, brown bodies, and delicate movements. They had little strength for work, but great endurance in running. Here they lived, free as birds, without need of much work, with no cares, no sorrows except natural ones, until the civilized -warriors drove them west, and ever west, setting an example of treachery and cruelty which the Indians were not slow to follow. FOR FURTHER READING. History -Squire and Davis' "Ancient Monuments." Baldwin's "Ancient America." Foster's "Prehistoric Races of America." Drake's "Aboriginal Races of North America." Jones' "Mound Builders of Tennessee." Shaler's "Time of the Mammoths." "American Naturalist," iv: 148. Fiction— Matthew's "Behemoth: A Legend of the Mound-Builders." CHAPTER II. >\t Jfagankr^ iBnlurij. THE FIRST DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA— MYTHS, LEGENDS AXD TRAD|. TIONS— JOURNEY OF THE NORSEMEN. ITTlvE children, standing on the shores of Europe and looking toward the west, could make no guess at what lay beyond the water. They were told it was the "dark water," from which all the spirits and goblins came, things unknown and unnamable. The winds seemed always to blow toward the west. Even the mariners believed that it did so. If, by any chance, a sailor drifted out of his course toward the west, he was filled with alarm. It seemed possible to him that the waters might run off, somewhere, into a terrible nothingness. It is hard to tell which of the nations first found men courageous enough to cross these unknown waters. There are tradi- tions that the Chinese did so, and that these Buddhists wandered down to the California shore, and went deep into the country that we now know as Mexico. There are traditions, too, that the Breton fishermen cast their lines upon the Newfoundland coast. It is certainly true that North American Indians have been met with whose .^?.nguages were mixed with French. The Welshmen also claim that a number of their countrymen came to North America and settled there. The traditions concerning this are peculiarly romantic. Two brothers, David and jMedoc, quarreled for the throne of Wales. The younger gave up his right, and, fitting out a ship, sailed west. The next year he returned, and said that he had found a fruitful country. He called upon his friends to follow him, and filled ten ships with men, women and children. They sailed away, and were never heard of again. Five times in American writings there are references to them. They are described as a race of white Indians^ 34 THE STORY OF AMERICA. using many Welsh words, and having a manuscript copy of the Bible, in the Welsh language, with them. The last reference to them speaks of their living among the upper courses of the Missouri. But the journeys of the Northmen to America are well known. These Northmen were splendid seamen, and splendid fighters. They had been all over the known world. They had frightened even the great emperor, Charlemagne, in France, and had put their horses in his palace. Wherever they went they seemed to conquer, until at last they were driven from Scotland. Then, on the melancholy island of Iceland, they made their republic. Two-thirds of the year they lived in twilight. Books were their consolation, the sea their play-ground. It was no wonder that they went this way and that, wherever their fancy prompted, and wherever they felt they could fight with weaker men. They discovered Green- land, and settled a village there; then in strange, strong, if not fleet ships, went coasting further south. It was Bjarne Herjulfsen, with his crew, who first coasted — driven by adverse winds — along the coast of Nar- ragansett Bay, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. He went back to Iceland with the tales of what he had seen. "What," cried Erik the Red, a wild Norseman, who had been banished from his native country for murder, "you saw a new country like that, with green fields and trees, and never put a foot on it?" He talked so much, and so long and loud on the subject, that his son, Leif Erikson, made up his mind to find out what kind of lands these were which were so much talked about. He bought Bjarne's ship from him, took thirty-five good seamen, and went far away to the southwest. They landed in Newfoundland, which they called Helluland, and in Nova Scotia, which they termed Markland, They looked about these countries a little, gave them names, and sailed away, and were two days at sea before they saw land again. Then they sailed into a sound. It was a beautiful place. There were larger salmon there than they had ever seen, and grass, which looked wonderful to these men from a barren country. They found luscious grapes growing wild, grapes from which wine could be made with wonderful ease, and a German among them named it Vinland. We have changed the name very little. We call it Martha's Vinyard now. This was in the year looo. A VIKING BOAT, FOUND IN DENMARK. COLUMBUS AND HIS SON BEGGING. THE LKORNDARY CENTURY. 37 When Leif Erikson reached home, his brother made the complamt that he had brought home much too little news. "You may go in my ship, brother, to Vinland, if you like," said Leif, and thus Thorbald, in 1002, went to Vinland, and stayed there three years. It is thought that the skeleton in armor, found near Fall River, in Massachusetts, in 1 83 1, was that of Thorbald, who was killed by a poisoned arrow from Indians. Skraellings, the Norsemen called the Indians, because they were so scrawny, compared to themselves; and, indeed, there are tradi- tions, among the eastern Indians, of the great, fair giants, who had come to the eastern shore, which shows that there must have been a great difference in the stature of the Norsemen and the red men. In 1005, the last son of Erik the Red started to Vinland, to try and fetch the body of his brother Thorbald. His ship was blown out of its course, and he never reached his destination. Then came Thorfinn Karlsfenn, with his handsome wife, Gudrid, and with them one hundred and fifty-one men and seven women. For three years they lived at Vinland, and, perhaps, built the tower that still stands in Newport, and wrote the inscriptions on the blocks near the Taunton river. The con- stant fights with the Indians decided them at last to leave their beauti- ful bay and go back to Iceland. They carried with them little Snorre, the first child of European blood born in America. Snorre was three years old when they took him back to Iceland, a little blue-eyed boy with golden hair. There are stories of other journeys by the Norse- men, in the years loii and 1121, and accounts of their going as far south, along the Atlantic coast, as to what we now call Florida. It is believed that the Welshmen came later than this, in 1 1 70. The tower which stands at Newport, which is the only substantial monument that the Norsemen left of their visits, is low and round. It has two windows and a fire-place, and the cement with which the stones are put together is still strong, and but for the fact that the roof is gone, it could liardly be called a ruin. It is covered with ivy now, and serves the purpose of amusing the chance tourist. Longfellow has made this tower the subject of his poem, "The Skeleton in iVrmor. " Perhaps it was Thorfinn Karlsfenn who was his hero, and the "viking wild." FOR FURTHER READING. History — Leland's "Fusang, Discovery of America by Chinese." "America not Discovered by Columbus." Bowen's "America Discovered by the Welsh." Anderson's ''Discovery of America by Norsemen." Beal's "Buddhist Records of the Western World." Fiction — Ballantyne's "Norsemen of the West." Poetry — Whittier's "Norsemen." I.ongfellow's "Skeleton in Armor." Montgomery's "Vinland." CHAPTER III. >]^0 ^rsamar of §mtxn. C?OLUMBUS AND HIS VOYAGES — AMERIGO VESPUCCI — THE CABOTS. EAVING cloth or combing wool patiently in Genoa, there lived iu the fifteenth century an Italian by the name of Columbo. In the year 1435 his son was born, whom he named CriGtoforo. Perhaps the comber of wool in his dull shop used to dream of the sea, and the delights and freedom of it. There could have been little other reason for his sending the little Columbus to school, at ten, to study naviga- tion. At fourteen, this restless Italian boy went to sea, and from that time till he died, he never left it, unless, indeed, it was to draw charts for other seamen. He loved books, too, and read much. He read the books of great scholars, and it is more than possible that some of these planted in his mind the idea that the world was round — an idea which was to double Christian civilization. Christopher went on numerous voyages with the celebrated admiral of his time, who bore the same family name, Columbo, and it is thought he may have traveled with a certain wild corsair, named Colon. The years between 1470 and 1484 Christopher spent in Portugal. Everyone was talking about the dis- cover}^ of new lands. The Portuguese seamen were going down the African coast. Prince Henry was making presents of islands to his navigators, and he gave the island of Porto Santo, of the Madeira group, to a man named Prestrello. Columbus married the ddUghter of this man, and on the island of Porto Santo was bom Columbus' son, Diego. It w^as not the children alone who wondered about the great, dark water. The Spanish seamen were vastly curious. It seemed to them that the earth was a flat surface, with this great river of water running THE DREAMER OF GENOA. 39 around the land. Like the children, they were terrified by the thought of what might be on the other side. A few scholars thought that it might be a sphere, but they never dreamed that it could be large enough for more than one continent; so it seemed quite simple to them, that if it was a sphere, it would be possible, by sailing westward, to reach Asia — the land from which the luxurious merchants of Spain and Portugal brought their richest wares ; the land from which the spices came, the silks and the inlaid work, the gold and jewels. COLUMBUS. The Yanez portrait, Madrid Library. Certain of these learned men, among them Toscanelli, the Italian, corresponded with Columbus. They drew up charts with his help, and laid out the plan by which one might cross into India, and Tartary, and Cathay. Columbus was a great dreamer, and these plans filled him with wild visions. He thought of nothing and talked of nothing else. He talked with sailors who had found pine trees washed upon the Madeira coast, where no pine trees grew, and those who had seen tropical cane 40 THE STORY OF AMERICA, Stalks upon the European beaches. He was restless and excited ; he could never keep still. He even went to Iceland, and it is possible that he talked there with the descendants of the men who had been at Vineland, Gudrid, too, had been at Rome, and it may be that she left traditions there of the three years which she had spent in the beautiful country across the water. Though Columbus could interest many people with AISri'.RlGO VICSPUCCI. tales of all he fancied, and all he hoped, it was difficult to win the hearing of those who could give him help. It is said that he went, or sent, to King Henry VII, of England, with the hope of gaining his assistance. It is almost certain that he tried to get the help of the King of Portugal, and it is possible that he sought the aid of THE DREAMER OF GENOA. aj some of the cities of his own country, Italy. At last his wife died. He took his boy, Diego, and seems to have wandered about, in a desolate way, for a year. One day he went with Diego to the Franciscan con- vent of Santa Maria de la Rabida, asking for bread. He interested the prior, and the prior in turn interested a gentleman of importance, Mar- tin Alonzo Pinzon, and he carried letters of credit with him from these persons to Cordova, where the king and queen were. But King Ferdi- nand was bus)', and it w^as a long time before he could listen to Colum- bus. For seven years, or at the very least live, Columbus hung around the Spanish court. The courtiers laughed at him, and Isabella and Ferdinand seemed to have little confidence in his plans. At last, a day came when Columbus was treated with such contempt that he burst into a sudden fit of rage, flung himself out of the court, and, taking to his horse, rode toward France. Isabella, fearing both that the kingdom might have lost a good thing, and that Columbus' feelings were severely hurt, sent after him. He was brought back, and in three months an expedition was ready to sail, part of which was fitted out at the credit of Isabella's own kingdom, Castile. It was not very strange that the sailors were afraid to go. How could they tell what they were running into? They had to be driven to their task by force; but at last Columbus left with three ships — the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. The Santa Maria was ninety-six feet long and carried sixty-six seamen. It was decked all over, and had four masts — two with square sails and two with lateen sails. Tlie other vessels were smaller and without decks. They all carried provisions for a year, and Columbus had with him an agreement sigiied by Ferdinand and Isabella, by which he was made High x\dmiral and Viceroy in these lands, and given one-eighth of the possible profits in return for the eighth of the costs which he advanced. Columbus hardly knew how to show his happiness. He vowed that if there were any profits, they should be used to free the Holy Sepulchre from the Moslems; so, with much hope, and many prayers, he left with his discontented sailors, leaving his son in care of the royal household. It was on the third of August, 1492, that Columbus and his men sailed from Palos. In a month they had reached the Canary Islands. After that they passed many desolate days on the water, with the sailors discontented at day and weeping at night. It took all of the tact that Columbus had at his command to quiet them. Once the sailors plotted to throw Columbus overboard, but he was keen and watchful, and, above all, a man of prayer, and his stern dignity of character held them in 42 THE STORY OF AMERICA. check. At length, however, he was obliged to tell them that he would turn back if they saw no land within three days. The anxiety which he felt can be imagined. Was it possible that he would be forced to give up his long-nursed hopes and forego the glory of discovery, and all because of a handful of fearful and ignorant sailors ? But the out- come was as strange as a miracle. In the morning of the third day, a sailor, standing aloft with his seaman's glass, espied land. The joy-guns were fired, to let the men upon the other vessels know of this wondrous fact. They sailed all day toward land. Anchor was cast over night, and the following morning they rowed Columbus to the shore, with music and waving banners, and, highest of all, the great flag of Spain, all red and gold. With him came his captains, with green flags, which bore the cross upon them. The island he called Guanahani. It is thought it may have been the island we call San Salvador, but this is not cer- tain. It was a flat island, with a shallow lake in the centre, and not especially inviting, so the men sailed on and visited Cuba, Hayti and other of the West India islands. He did not doubt but that he had found the eastern extremity of Cathay. He was not a little proud when he went back to Spain, and the rea- son that he stopped at Portugal may have been to let the king know all that he had lost, in not giving him a chance to find these new dominions for him. In Spain, he was received with much honor, and, when he started back for the new land, he had seventeen vessels and 1,500 men. On this journey he discovered the Windward Islands, part of Jamaica and Porto Rico, and founded his colony in Hayti. Hayti he called Little Spain, or Hispanola. In the winter of 1497-98, Amerigo Vespucci, a friend of Columbus, succeeded in some manner in obtain- ing ships, by which he reached the mainland of the new continent. Everyone was going to the "New Spain" who could possibly get there. All of the men who had laughed at Columbus before, seemed now to be trying to get as much of his territory and honor away from him as possible. Those who had sneered, "Look at the Admiral of Mosquito- land," and who had made light of Columbus' discovery because he brought home so little treasure, were, nevertheless, glad to start out to find what they could. If Amerigo made this voyage, as he said he did, he touched upon the mainland before any other Spaniard. In the same year John Cabot, a merchant, born at Venice, but living in England, also went to America, and touched upon the coast of Labrador. Sebastian Cabot, a son of John, a year later (1498) sailed with two ships and three hundred men. In his second voyage, he became persuaded SEBASTIAN CABOT AT LABRADOR. THE DREAMER OF GENOA. 45 that the land which they had found was not Asia. He discovered Hudson's Bay upon his third voyage. He loved the sea always, and lived upon it as long as he had strength. Meanwhile, Columbus, his- mind still filled with visions, and believing that he was inspired of God^ went upon his third journey. With his six ships, he reached the main- land of South America. Touching at his colony of Hispanola, he found his people quarrelling bitterly, and much dissatisfied with his- government as admiral. He was arrested by Bobadilla, a Spanish com- missioner, and carried on board ship in chains. These he wore till he reached Spain, although his captors woul(J willingly have taken them off. The chains had the effect which he had expected; the monarchs were ashamed, the people horrified. He was released. He wished then to keep his vow, to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the infidels, but Ferdinand and Isabella would not permit him to do so. Then he asked to go once more to America. He was given four vessels, and took with' him his brother, and his younger son, Fernando. By the time they had reached the American coast, Columbus was ill. He lay upon the deck, and watched the land as the ship sailed around by Honduras, for they had passed beyond the islands. He tried several times to found a colony, but the Indians were shy and crafty, and very naturally resented! the invasion of their land. Two of his ships were lost. His crew- mutinied, and no one would send him any relief. At last he went back- to Spain, only to find his friend, Isabella, dead. He died on May 20,. 1506, with the chains he had worn upon his return to Spain hung by his, bed-side. They were put in his coffin, and he was buried with the monu- ment: ' 'To Castile and Leon, Columbus gave a new world. ' ' About twa- centuries after that his remains were carried to the cathedral of Havana,, that they might lie in the soil of the new world which he had found. It was better for his peace of mind that he never knew that the land he reached after so much suffering of mind and body, was to bear the name of another man. But, after all, justice will always be done in the- Lord's good time, and, in the minds of everyone, America is the monu- ment of Columbus, and not of Amerigo Vespucci. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico." Biography — W. Irving's "Columbus." \V. Irving's "Companions of Columbus." Dexter's "Letters of Columbus and Vespucci." Travels — Hakluyt's "Voyages." Kohl's "Discoverers of the East Coast of America." Fiction — Bird's "Calavar" and "Infidel." Wallace's "Fair God." Poetry — Barlow's "Colombiad." Lowell's "Columbus." Rogers' "Columbus." Sir Aubrey De Vere's "Sonnets on Columbus." CHAPTER IV. PONCE DE IvEON — THE FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH — THE DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH SEA BY BALBOA — DE SOTO — HIS DEATH. HE islands of the Atlantic became rapidly peo- pled with Spaniards. "Everyone," complained Columbus, before his death, "even the very tailors, are bent upon discovery," and, as the islands filled with Europeans, the Indians were crowded out. The manner in which they were killed, and the awful sufferings they endured at the hands of men who called themselves Christians, is told most pathetically in the chronicles of Las Casas, one of the few friends which these unhappy people had. They were carried to Spain as slaves, or worked with cruelty upon the new possessions in the Atlantic. The tender-hearted old man, I^as Casas, made the mis- take, in his firm defence of the Indians, of advising the young king, who then reigned over Spain, to let each resident in Hispanola bring a dozen negro slaves from the African coast; and it was thus, in about 1518, that negro slavery was first introduced in America. Juan Ponce De Leon, a gay and courteous cavalier, who had been with Columbus on his second voyage, had made up his mind to go to the countries of the new world upon his own account. It was in 1513 that he set sail, with three caravels well fitted with men. He had been a brave soldier and a very active man, and hated, as all such men must do, the thought of growing old. His ambition was to maintain his youth, and he was filled with the pleasant stories of some luscious fountain of clear water in the new world, from which all men might ACROSS THE DARK WATER. 49 drink and become eternally young. He was made Governor of the island of Porto Rico, but even this honor would not tempt him to rest. He pushed on westward in search of the wonderful fountain, and at last, on Easter Sunday, he saw land. The Spaniards called Easter Sunday the day of flowers, and Ponce De Leon named the new land Florida. He landed near what is now St. Augustine, and, with his men, went about the woods and coasts there for many weeks. Five years later he came back again, and was wounded with a poisoned arrow, and went sadly back to his country to die. He had escaped old age, but not by drinking from the fountain of youth. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, an adventurous Spaniard, was the first to cross the isthmus which divides North and South America. Looking down from a mountain, he saw the ^^^reat western ocean stretching before him. He called it the South Sea, and took possession of it in the name of his Christian Majesty, the King of Spain. Meanwhile, Cortez was exploring in Yucatan and Mexico. By this time the King of Portugal deeply regretted that he had not. accepted the services of Columbus when they were first offered to him. He grew envious of the rich pos- sessions of Spain, and fitted out ships in 15 19, under the leadership of Magellan, a sailor of wide experience, and a man whom the king counted among the greatest of his realm. Magellan passed the Indies and bore southward, sailing entirely around South America, marveling at the "mountain of fire," and rejoicing over the placid world of water which rolled in peaceful majesty before them. He named it the Pacific Ocean, because of its tranquility. The unhappy relations betv/een the Indians and the Europeans grew worse, instead of better. The white man gave the Indian lessons in treachery, which he was not slow to profit by. A party of gentle St. Dominican Brothers, who had come to America to make a "conquest of peace' ' among the savages, were captured, upon their landing, and brutally murdered. It was too late for kindness to be understood — too late for the word of the white man to be believed. In 1519, a planter named D'AUyon, a man of wealth and high family, came to the American coast in search of slaves. He landed where South Carolina now is, and, kidnapping natives there, put them in the Spanish slave markets. His adventurous nature would have made him of much value to his country, but he fell a victim to his own evil works. On his second voyage he was murdered by the angry Indians. Eight years after this, an expedition in quest of gold was led out from the West Indies by Pamphilo de Narvaez. He and hin 50 THE STORY OF AMERICA. companions landed near Tampa Bay, and went westward along the Gulf of Mexico. The sufferings of Narvaez' men were very great. Their number rapidly decreased. They were restless with the spirit of adventure, and were not willing to settle down and wrench a living from the soil. Cuba put forward every effort to find the men, but was not successful. All but four of them died. These four were made slaves by the Indians, and wandered from tribe to tribe for six years. They came out at last near the Gulf of California. But it was a long time before they were heard from. A SPANISH SOLDIER. Hernando De Soto held a grant of the province of Florida from the crown of Spain, and landed not far from the spot where his fated predecessors had in Tampa Bay. This was on May 30, 1537. He was very ambitious, and wished to found a great empire, over which he should rule. Blinded with ambition, he had no pity for any one. In all that he did he was fierce and shamefully cruel. Following him was 52 THE STORY OF AMERICA. seen. They told of stately cities, in which there were buildings of stone and a great quantity of jewels, besides silver and gold in plenty. In a short time an expedition was sent to explore this country, going up the coast of California, and exploring part of the Colorado river. They found the well-built cities, but the gold, silver and jewels were in small quantities. Later, a Spanish explorer name Cabrillo, went up the Pacific coast as far as Oregon. Following him came Sir Francis Drake, the celebrated English voyager. The history of his exploits is not full, but it is known that he was received pleasantly by the natives, and, after a brief exploration, crossed the ocean to the East Indies. England, however, never claimed California on the score of Drake's discovery. In the year 1580, an expedition of travelers followed up the river Del Norte, and made a settlement upon the site of the present city of Santa Fe. This expedition was under Onate. That city, with one exception (St. Augustine), is the oldest in the United States. FOR FURTHER READING. History— Parkman's "Pioneers of France." Parkman's "France and England in North America." ♦ Reynold's "Old St. Augustine." Baird's "Huguenot Emigration to America." Jones' "De Soto and His March Through Georg:ia." Fiction— Simm's "Damsel of Darien," "Vasconselas" and "The L,ily and the Totem." Drama— Mrs. L. S. McCord's "De Soto." Poetry — Butterworth's "Dream of Ponce de Leon." WOLPI. CHAPTER V. )\t yfilm nl l^rHiitB. FRANCE: HER EXPLORERS AND SETTLEMENTS — THE FIGHT BETWEEN FRENCH AND SPANISH COLONIES. ONG before this time, France was growing im- patient to have a foothold in the new world; so she sent westward a mariner, named Verazzano, with a single ship. He reached the shore of North Carolina, and followed it southward for a '\^ time, trading with the Indians as he went. He carried home full accounts of what he saw, and a de- scription of the Indians and their ways, and said that ' ' these new countries were not altogether destitute of the ' drugs and spiceries, pearls and gold, ' for which ever}'one was looking." It was he who first gave an accurate idea of the true size of the globe, and of the western continent. France rested content with this triumph for some time, and it was ten years later before she sent out Jacques Cartier, who set up the '^^dss of France in New- foundland, where the people, so he said, were the poorest in the world. In 1535 he made another journey, carr^'ing the lilies of France up the St. Lawrence, and to the mouth of the stream which he named the St. Croix. The Indians received him as some great spirit, who could heal the sick and perform miracles, but he, like the Spaniards, seemed to forget that he belonged to a Christian countr}', and though the Indians treated him with much civility, made a treacherous return. When he set sail for his own land he seized a friendly chief and nine of his tribe^ and, amid the wailing of the amazed Indians on the shore, carried them away across the sea. It was little wonder that the Indians remembered these things against the invaders, and that when the French returned, in 1540, and set up a colony near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, they found the Indians hostile. It was in vain that the Ivino- Frenchmen 54 THE STORY OF AMERICA. told them that the Indians they had carried over seas with them had been made into great men in the land, and lived in palaces of marble. The Indians had learned that one would expect nothing but lies from men with white faces; and the truth was that all of those proud-spirited Indians nad died of broken hearts, except one poor lonely little maiden, whose duty it was to show herself at fetes for the curious French ladies to wonder at and exclaim over. Two forts were built to protect the new colony, one at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the other at the mouth of the St. Croix. France also started a colony far south. At the head of this was John Ribault, and with him a band of soldiers, seamen and gentlemen. This was in the midst of the great religious reformation of Europe, when the Huguenots had been driven in large numbers from France to Holland. These oppressed people decided to set up their reformed protestant church in the wilderness, and for the first time made the new world the shelter of the scorned and the outcast. So, with a sword in one hand and a cross in the other, staunch John Ribault led his band of faithful worshipers into a land where they hoped to find peace. But it was not to be. When the King of Spain became aware that the French had planted a colony upon this territory, he sent Menendez, one of his most formidable generals, to oust them. Rene Laudonriere was tempo- rarily in charge of the fort at Port Royal, where the Huguenots were, and John Ribault was hurrying over seas with supplies and additions to the settlement. The fleets of Ribault and Menendez had some thrilling adventures at sea, in which the Spanish general was outwitted. He re- tired to the coast and founded the city of St. Augustine, the oldest city within the present boundary of the United States, older even than Santa Fe. Here men, women and children were settled. Amid music and the thundering of guns Menendez landed, and kneeling to kiss the cross took possession in the name of Philip II, King of Spain. A few days after this, while Ribault was still at sea, a terrible storm broke over the country, which seriously disabled his fleet. Menendez guessed that Ribault would not have had time to reach Port Royal, and saw that a safe opportunity for attack had come. Hurrying overland he fell upon the French in the fort. The surprise was complete. The French were put to. the sword. One hundred and thirty-two were killed that night, and in the morning ten of the fugitives were captured and banged. Over these Menendez hung the label, "I do not this to Frenchmen, but to heretics." Among the number who escaped were the younger Ribault and Rene Laudonriere. THE ULIES OF FRANCE. cc Ribault did not know that Port Royal had been taken. He had been wrecked on the coast with his three hundred and fifty men. He begged JMenendez to spare them, and even offered a heavy ransom, but Menendez refused. Such as laid down their arms and surrendered to Menendez were butchered. Among these was Ribault. A few went southward, preferring to try the perils of the wilderness, in a few days the fort at Port Royal, which the Spaniards had re-named San Mateo, caught fire, and burned to the ground. Three years later, the French sent over another expedition, under the command of De Gourgues. His purpose was to be revenged upon the Spaniards. He made friends with the Indians, who were ready to join in any enterprise which would be likely to make the Spanish suffer. De Gourgues fell upon the Spaniards exactly as Menendez had on Fort Caroline, and left only fifteen of the Spanish garrison living. The soldiers upon the other side of the river were also massacred. The party went on to San Mateo, which the Spaniards still held, and killed nearly all of the soldiers there. Those that were captured were hung, and De Gourgues put on the trees, "I do not this as unto Spaniards,' but as unto traitors, robbers and murderers." St Augustine was finally burned by Sir Francis Drake. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Jeffery's "French Dominions in America" Jones' "Antiquities of Southern Indians." LasCasas' "Narrative and Critical History of America" in 2 vols Parkman s "Jesuits in America." xfrr^^rr... Schoolcraft's "History and Condition of the Indian Tribes." MICTION— Chateaubriand s "Atala. Poetry— I,evi Bishop's "Jesuit Missionary'." CHAPTER VI. THE ENGLISH — THEIR SEARCH FOR THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE- FROBISHER'S EXPLORATIONS — SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT'S SETTLEMENT — THE COLONY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH — GOSNOLD'S FAILURE. TOP.vCCd EXfoiAjMo^ y T was the glowing stories which the Huguenots told in the flight which some of them made from Florida to England, after the massacres, that induced the English navigators to secure that land. They tried to find the northwest passage, for which Cabot had looked, and in 1578, Sir Francis Drake sailed up the Pacific coast, plundering, in the wicked fashion of those days, Spanish settlements as he went. He went as far as Washington Territory. But no slight failure could discourage the English. The land for which they looked wore such a dazzling aspect to them that neither the loss of men or money could stop them in their search for the way to Cathay. Pictures of the wonderful country of Kublai Khan filled them with dreams. Here, so they had heard, were twelve thousand cities, all near together. The estate of the king, spreading over ten miles, was a luxurious gar- den, watered with clear rivers and filled with the music of fountains, There were marble palaces, summer houses indescribably beautiful and airy, wonderful armies of trained soldiers, and magnificent fortresses. From here all the finest silks, the brightest gold and the richest spices came. And yet, for all their attempts, more than one hundred years passed from the time of the landing of the Cabots before an English colony A LODGK IN THE WILDERNESS, cy was planted on American soil. It was in 1527 that one of the futile attempts was made. Two fine ships set sail from I^ondon and went toward the northeast, but encountering a sea of ice there, turned back. Only one of the ships reached England. In 1536 the determined English sought once more for the mysteri- ous passage, but so ill provided was the expedition, that when the men reached Newfoundland they were reduced to killing each other that all might not starve. The captain, who had thought at first that the loss of his men was due to wild beasts, or to Indians, finally discovered the truth, and set forth their sin in the strongest words of which he was master. The miserable men stopped murdering each other, but it was not long before hunger drove them to cast lots for the choice of one who should die to save the rest. Fortunately for them a French ship, with plenty of food on board, arrived that night. The desperate Englishmen managed to get possession of the boat and put to sea, leaving the Frenchmen their empty vessel. However, the Frenchmen finally reached England, and were recompensed by the king for their losses. It was in 1553 that Sir Hugh Willoughby, a most valiant gentle- man, well born, renowned for singular skill in the service of war, started out with four vessels. They were well built and well provided, and one of them was considered quite a marvel of skill and strength. No expedition which left England went with more display. The whole court came to Greenwich, and the noblemen came running out to see the ships. The windows were crowded, and people looked down from the tops of towers. The shore was black with sight-seers. Sailors crowded the ships in the harbor. The American-bound vessels set sail amid salute after salute from the royal guns, but the cruel northern seas wrecked them as they have so many since. Two of them were found years later by some Russian fishermen, and in the cabin of one sat Sir Hugh Willoughby, with a pen in his frozen fingers. Scattered about both ships lay the bodies of the perished crew, every man of them frozen to death. The sailors tried to take the ships back to England, but they foundered at sea. But, though this expedition was so tragic, it was not absolutely useless, for some of the crew in one of the other ships reached Archangel^ and traveled overland to Moscow, and com- merce between England and Russia was opened. This was of great value to England. England could not quiet her enthusiasm on the subject of the new world, and in 1576 Martin Frobisher set sail with his three small vessels. Queen Mary, leaning from her windows, condescended to wave her 58 THE STORY OF AMERICA. hands to the passing ships as a farewell token of her good wishes. The first journey of Frobisher brought few results; one of them was some- what humorous. . He brought with him a few black stones, which he had picked up on the island of Cumberland. These he gave his wife as a souvenir of his journey. She put them into the fire, and when they were taken out, they proved to be gold. This filled Frobisher with impatience to return. He started with fifteen ships, all of which were to come back laden with ore, and so they did, but the ore had in it no gold. Frobisher found the strait into Hudson's Bay which bears his name, and which he supposed was a passage into the sea of Suez. Just what these ship-loads of black stones cost England, it would be difficult to guess. In time, however, even the most saving forgot about that unfortunate waste., and another northern expedition was planned in 1585, under the charge of John Davis. Davis' Strait is all that serv^es to keep alive this voyage. Then came the scheme of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a very distinguished gentleman, as full of ideas as he was of bravery. He sailed in 1583, with a fleet of five ships, and with a com- pany of two hundred and sixty men, among whom were refiners of minerals and mechanics of all trades. They settled, for a time, near the mouth of the St. Johns rirer, in Newfoundland, and set up a pillar, with the arms of England carved upon it. Indeed, there was more display than work, with the usual unhappy results. Many of Sir Humphrey's men deserted, and some died. At the colony at St. Johns, a conspiracy was started to seize the vessels while the admiral and captains were on shore. Gilbert, therefore, found necessary to send home as many of the sick and insubordinate as could be spared. Soon after this, those remaining resumed their voyage. One of the ships was lost, but Sir Humphrey was still in a comparatively happy frame of mind. Had he not found ore which the assayer said held silver? But the mines, or what he thought were the mines, proved to yield nothing after all. On the way to England, the Golden Hind foundered. Gilbert himself was on the ship. It was the smallest of the fleet, but Gilbert refused to let any of his men stand a peril that he did not share. In the midst of the terrible storm, in which the boat sank, Sir Humphrey sat quietly in the stern wnth a book in his hand, and called out cheerfully, when the companion boat offered help: "We are as near Heaven by sea as by land." When Sir Gilbert died, his ambi- tious projects were taken up by Sir Walter Raleigh, his half-brother. No more charming figure than he ever figured in American histor}'. He was a soldier, a sailor, a statesman, and a most polished gentleman, A LODGE IN THE WILDERNESS. 6 1 a graceful poet, a historian and a thinker. He had sent numerous ships to America at his own expense, being very eager for England's glory, but the men on them offended the Indians by their bad conduct, and were always forced to return to England. Finally, he sent out a colony which he felt sure would succeed. It had as a governor a respected Englishman by the name of John White; with him was his family, many friends, and a corps of mechanics and farmers. John White established his company on Roanoke Island, and having settled them as well as possible, left for England to obtain more supplies. Before he left. White's daughter, the wife of Ananias Dare, gave birth to a daughter — the first little English girl born on American soil. White was gone a long time — a strangely long time, considering everything. When he returned the colony had entirely disappeared. It is true that they found the word "Croatoan" carved upon one of the trees. This was the name of one of the islands not far distant, and it had been agreed upon by the colonists, at the time of the departure of their governor, that, should they see fit to leave for any reason, they would write the name of their destination where it could be found. But John White was onl_, a passenger upon the vessel which visited the spot where the colony had been, and he was taken 'to the far south. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out ship after ship to search for the lost colony, but every captain found excuses for not obeying his commands, and the unfortunate people were never definitely heard from. After the gallant Sir Raleigh was impris- oned in the Tower of London, no one thought more about the matter. They were probably killed by Powhatan. Sir Raleigh has the distinction, among greater ones, of having made the use of tobacco fashionable in England, as well as having introduced potatoes to English tables. He himself never visited the North American colony which had cost him so much money and anxiety. The two trips which he made to America were to the mouth of the Orinoco river, in South America. The next colonial failure was in charge of Bartholomew Gosnold. He, also, started for the great extent of territor>^ which Raleigh had named Virginia after the virgin Queen Elizabeth, and which included all the region lying between Canada and Florida. Gosnold' s colony was attempted on Cutty hunk Island, but he and his company only stayed there a few months. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Buchanan's "History, Manners and Customs of North American Indians." Biography— Oldys' "Life of Raleigh." Southey's "Life of Raleigh." Fiction— "First Settlers of Virginia." Poetry— Longfellow's "Sir Humphrey Gilbert." CHAPTER VII. '/HE LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES — THE VIRGINIAN SETTLE' MENT — CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND HIS WONDERFUL AD- VENTURES — POCAHONTAS — THE NEW CHARTER— THE WRECK OF THE ' 'SEA ADVENTURE. ' ' HE English king saw that it was necessary to take fresh measures if he ever wished to establish a successful colony in America. He therefore formed two large compa- nies, one of which he called the London Company, and the other the Plymouth Company. The first of these was to go to the south, and the other to the north, and they were to build no dwell- ings nearer to each other than one hundred miles. It was evident that the king understood the quarrelsome nature of his sub- jects. Each of these colonies was to be governed by thirteen men, who were appointed by the king; and should any of them die, or resign their positions, they were at liberty to choose a man to fill the place themselves, provided that the man was not a clergyman. The king, it will be remembered, was James I, a man of much learning, though not of so much wisdom, for his learning was not of a sort which taught him kindness. In the summer of 1606, two ships belonging to the Plymouth Company sailed away from England. One of these ships was taken by the Spaniards, but the other one coasted off Maine and made a hasty return. The general report of the captain pleased Chief Justice Popham, who made up his mind, on the following year, to send his brother, George Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, a son of Sir Humphrey, FOUNDING THE OLD DOMINION. 63 to settle a colony; but they made no permanent settlement, and it remained for the London Company to make the first permanent village. In this there were one hundred and five men, and no women. Among them were mechanics, soldiers and servants, and, if the truth must be told, rather too many gentlemen. Their ships were the "Sarah Constant," the "Godspeed" and the "Discovery," and Captain Christopher Newport was their commander. They were foolish enough to go by the old route of the West Indies, stopping along by the way in the pleasant towns of the Spaniards, and wasting both food and time. There were too many proud men among them for such a thing to be advisable, for they were certain to get into quarrels. The London Council had told them not to break the seals of their letters of instruction until they had landed on the shores of Virginia, so no man know which was greatest, and all tried to exercise authority. One of the most disagreeable among them was John Smith. This young man was always energetic and nervous. He wanted to do a great many things, and do them in his own peculiar way, and had very little patience with slower and duller persons, so he very naturally fretted at the wasteful way in which matters were being conducted, and, as a consequence, found himself suddenly arrested. It was in the lovely month of April when they sailed into the Chesapeake Bay, and giving names to Cape Henry and Cape Charles, went eagerly to work. The sealed box was opened, and the names of the council were heard. They were Bartholomew Gosnold, John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport, John Ratcliflf, John Martin and George Kendall. They spent half a month in looking for a suitable place for their colony, and fixed at length on the spot where Jamestown still stands, and which they named in honor of their king. All of the council, except Smith, who was still in disfavor, were sworn into office. Then work began seriously. Try to imagine how they cut the trees and pitched their tents, how they split the logs for boards and made gardens, planting the seeds they had brought with them, and braided nets from twine. Imagine, too, how heartily they must have talked, laughed, sung and quarreled. They had been instructed by the council to see if an opening could be found by some river or lake from Virginia to the South Sea, and Captain Newport fitted out a shallop, and went with quite a number of men up the James river, toward the Appalachian mountains. The Indians received them with kindness, and fed them with the best that they had. The best was not bad. It consisted of venison, turkey, maize, strawberries, mulberries, dried nuts and tobacco. 64 THE STORY OF AMERICA. The returns which Newport's men gave for these dainties was princi- pally beads and whisky. It seems as if always the invading Christian was the first to do a wrong thing. One of the remarkable characters they met upon this voyage was a strong, manlike queen, who refused to be scared at the sound of a gun, although her braves were so. New- port and his men went on till they came to a great waterfall, and then turned back, noticing, with some fear as they did so, a change in the manner of the Indians. When they got back to the camp they found that several men had been wounded and one boy killed. A fort was built for further protection, and in a short time Newport set sail for England. While he was gone, those remaining at the settlement quar- reled frightfully. For one thing, they were suffering from hunger. It seemed as if they never had enough to eat. With game in the woods and fish in the rivers, why this should be so, it is difficult to guess. Disease broke out among them, occurring principally from the want of food and proper shelter. For, instead of building substantial houses of logs, they crowded into one miserable, insecure building. Each man had for his daily allowance but half a pint of boiled wheat, and another of barley, infested with worms. At last it became necessary for the president, Wingfield, to set aside such sack and vinegar as was left, to use in case of extreme sickness, and for the communion table. It was this action largely which caused the hungry and selfish men of the colony to find fault with Wingfield, and to depose him from his position as president. John Smith, Ratcliff" and Martin were the men who took the principal part in this, and from that time on, John Smith seems to have been the moving spirit of the colony, although many of its best actions were suggested by Gosnold, a man very wise and pious. That any of the colony lived over that dreadful summer was owing largely to the kindness of the Indians, who brought them provisions. In the autumn, things went more peacefully, as the game became more plenti- ful and the harvests were gathered. Smith then went upon one of his journeys into the interior, where he came very near losing his life at the hands of some strange Indians. It is said that he tied his guide to his own body with his garters, and as his guide was an Indian, his foes would not shoot at him. At length, however, he was obliged to surren- der, and was taken before the king of the tribe. Then he displayed all of that matchless ingenuity which made him so interesting to all. He showed the Indians his round compass made of ivory, and explained to them the movements of the sun, moon and stars, the shape of the earth, the comparative differences of the land and sea, and told them of all the FOUNDING OF THE OLD DOMINION. 65 sorts of men about which he knew anything. But notwithstanding this entertainment, tlie Indians tied him to a tree and were about to shoot him with arrows, when the king, suddenh' concluding that he would like to save a man who knew so many curious things, released him. They fed him so well that Smith became alarmed. He was quite sure they were fattening him before they killed him. Finally they promised him his liberty, and even offered to give him some land and women, if he would help them attack Jamestown. But he told them of the great guns which the English had, and frightened them into giving up the plan. Then he capped the climax of their wonder by writing to the fort for a quantity of presents for the Indians, who were unable to imagine how paper could speak. At last he was taken to the greatest king of all, Powhatan, who received him with much state, with a young Indian girl upon each side of him, and rows of men and women, much decorated, around about. He was treated with great ceremony and distinction, which, however, according to Smith's account, ended in rather a peculiar way. He was dragged to a great stone, upon which his head was laid, and by which stood men with clubs ready to beat out his brains, but at this very dreadful moment, Pocahontas, the king's dearest daughter, threw her arms about his head and laid her face across his, to prevent them from touching him. His life was spared. The story is so romantic that there is a reluctance to doubt it, especially when it is remembered that Pocahontas was only twelve years old at this time. The little princess, Pocahontas, figured largely in the history- of the colony. She shocked the decorous gentlemen exceedingly by turning somersaults about the fort, but conciliated them by frequently bringing them food, and by warning them of attacks from the Indians. Years afterward she was baptized and re-named Lad}' Rebecca, which was a much more respectable name than Pocahontas, which means "Little Wanton," and was given to her because she was noticeably wild, even among the Indian maidens. In course of time she married John Rolfe, an English gentleman, who took her to England, where she was pre- sented to the Queen by Lord and Lady de la Ware. She sickened with small-pox just before taking the ship to return to America, and died at the age of twenty- two. No woman of those days has so extended a reputation; no other one has been so much written about. She is the subject of many novels and poems, and even the dullest historian has not been able to pass her by without some mention of her kindness of heart, her wayward impulsiveness, and her beauty. It was not strange 66 THE STORY OF AMERICA. that Joim Smith wished to publish the fact that she showed some interest in him. Her father, Powhatan, has also been much written about. Ke was the most powerful of all the Indian chiefs of Virginia; perhaps the most wily of them as well. He is described as being very stalwart and well-shaped of limb, and with a sad countenance and thin grey hair. So proud was he that he could not be made to kneel when the council saw fit to crown him after the English manner. King James, of Eng- land, sent robes and a crown that the ceremony might be carried out in a king-like manner, but neither threats nor coaxing could make the disdainful old savage bend a knee, and it became necessary for two of the noblemen to press heavily upon his shoulders, so that his head was sufficiently bowed to suit popular prejudice. Meanwhile, Smith was having a most melancholy time. Several times he was taken captive. Once he was condemned to death by his own colony, because two Englishmen lost their lives fighting the Indians, under his command. But upon the very day when he was to be killed, Captain Newport fortunately returned from England, where he had been for supplies, and interceded for Smith's life. Smith was also stung by a poisonous fish when he was wading the creek, and was so severely poisoned that his friends had no doubt of his near death, and hastened to dig a grave for him, but this redoubtable hero unexpectedly brought himself to, and helped eat the fish that came so near ending him. By this time, what with malaria, lack of food and exposure, the colony had been reduced in nine months to about forty persons, but Newport's ship brought one hundred and twenty men, besides a stock of provisions, farming implements, and of seeds. It seemed, however, as if good fortune was never to be theirs. Hardly had they got in better mood from Newport's help, than the fort was almost destroyed by fire. Worse still, the company became wildly excited over some hills of yellow mica, which they supposed to be gold, and this fever of happy excitement had its re-action, which left them more miserable and despondent than before. Smith spent the summer in sailing upon the waters of Virginia, along the bays and rivers, and in beconiing acquainted with the different tribes of Indians. On the return from the last expedition, Smith was made president of the colony, a position which he had always desired. About the same time, Newport arrived again from England with a second supply of men and provisions, and with him the two first women of the colony. Mistress Forrest and her maid, Ann Burras. It is unnecessary to say that it was not many weeks before Ann Burras was married. FOUNDING OF THE OLD DOMINION. 67 Upon this occasion, Newport had orders from the London Council to bring home a lump of gold, to discover the passage to the South Sea, and to find the survivors of the Roanoke colony. It goes without saying that he was able to do none of these things. All of his ingenuity was bent upon keeping the friendship of Powhatan, and he was aided in this, to a certain extent, by John Savage, an English lad, who, for thirteen years, lived with Powhatan, acting as an interpreter between the English and the Indians. History says little about his youth, and, indeed, his name is the only thing remembered of him, but he must have led a very wild and exciting life — indeed there must have been an uncertainty about his life which, of itself, made existence interesting. John Smith had difficulty in keeping the colony from starving. He relied chiefly upon the Indians for food, for the colonists were too lazy to protect the stores brought from England, but allowed them to decay and to become infested with the rats, which came in the ships, and which, like themselves, found a settlement on the shores of the new world. Smith's greatest trial was in trying to persuade the gentlemen about him that they were able to work, for they would neither plant, fish, nor hunt, and would shirk, like schoolboys, each task given them. It is said that two of them did go to work felling trees, and worked so hard that the president wrote that forty of them would be worth a hundred common men, but they failed to keep up their labor. At length, the entire council of the colony, with the exception of Smith, was drowned. Smith then became more necessary to the company, and more important in his own esteem than ever. The way in which he slew Indian chiefs of gigantic size, and, alone, routed great armies of savages, is more like the history of some modern Jack the Giant-Killer, than of any ordinary man. The colony was in very bad humor. Sometimes members of it mutinied, and two Dutchmen fled to the Indians, and inspired a conspiracy with Powhatan for the entire destruction of Jamestown. Smith learned of their plans, how- ever, and brought even Powhatan into a state of humility. But for all of his bravery, the colony was steadily failing. The cost by which it had been maintained was great, and, in 1609, the king found it nec- essary to form a new corporation to sustain it. This was composed of the most distinguished and wealthy men of England, and a fleet of nine ships, carrying five hundred people, left England in the month of May — a month when England is most beautiful — for the tragic shores of America. Seven of these reached the settlement in August, but one of them foundered at sea, and another, the Sea Adventure^ on board 68 THE STORY OF AMERICA. which was the admiral, Gates, Captain Newport, William Strachey and Summers, also failed to appear. This vessel was wrecked ofif the Bermudas, in a storm so terrible that the description which William Strachey afterwards gave of it served to inspire Shakespere's descrip- tion of the storm in the first act of "The Tempest." "Such was the tumult of the elements that the sea dashed above the clouds, and gave battle unto Heaven. It could not be said to be rain. The waters, like whole rivers, did flood into the air. Winds and seas were as mad as fury and rage could make them." They passed three days and four nights in this dreadful strait, and, on the last night of their struggle, were cheered with a strange, fantastic light, that trembled up among the shrouds and stayed there till the morning watch. When morning really came, they found the boat lodged between two rocks, in still waters. The passengers and crew of the Sea Adventitre spent their winter on the island. The climate was delightful. There was hunting and fishing, as well as plenty of berries and wild fruits. A few persons died, others married, and there were two births. One of the little children born there, in the midst of the Atlantic ocean, was named Bermuda; the other, a boy, Bermudas. In May, a year from the time when they had left England, they started once more for the Virginian colony. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Smith's "True Relation of Virginia." Campbell's "Virginia." Doyle's "English Colonies in America." Fiction — Hopkins' "The Youth of the Old Dominion.'" Moseby's "Pocahontas." Poetry — Hillar's "Pocahontas." Seba Smith's "Powhatan." Mrs. Heman's "Pocahontas." Mrs. Sigourney's "Pocahontas." Dkama — Owen's "Pocahontas." Seagull's "Eastward, Ho!" Shakespere's "Tempest"— ist act. CHAPTER VIII. FROM THE BERMUDAS TO VIRGINIA — THE STARVING TIMES — THE ARRIVAL OF LORD DE LA WARE — HELP FROM ENGLAND — THE BEGINNING OF SLAVERY — THE FIRST BLOW AT INTEMPERANCE. sHEN Sir Thomas Gates and his men arrived at the Virginian colony, they found things in a most distressing condition. Once more the people were without food, and were begging from the Indians. For one reason and another the Indians were becoming sullen, and were more inclined to fight than to give favors. Various smaller settle- ments were started around about, and John Smith, in visiting one of these, met with a serious accident by the explosion of gunpowder, which made it necessary for him to go to England. Percy became president in the place of Smith, but he was a character of a very different sort. It needed Smith's overbearing deter- mination to control the men of the colony. Smith had been able to make the colonists work a little. Percy was not able to do this. What with hard drink and idleness, and all of its various conse- quences, the men were reduced in health and in courage. They had killed the domestic animals and eaten up all the supplies which Smith -had seen to the storing of. That horrible winter is known as the starving time, a name which is remarkably appropriate, for at the time of Gates' arrival only sixty out of five hundred were alive. These were hardly alive, and a few of them came crawling out to welcome Gates when he arrived. This was in May, 1610. No scene more disorderly and desolate could be imagined. The very houses had been torn down for firewood, because the colonists had been afraid to venture into the woods. Gates thought it best not to live in a place so associated yo THE vSTORY OP AMERICA. with terror and death. There were two vessels in port, and Gates was possessed of two which his men had built on the Bermudas. They boarded these and were about riding out of the harbor when word was brought them from Lord de la Ware that he was coming to their help with men and provisions. Lord de la Ware was chief of the London Company, although up to this time he had not himself visited the colony. It had been with much care that Commander Gates saved the block-house, where the people had huddled that terrible winter, from being burned, for the colonists, like a set of crazy schoolboys, were much fonder of destroying than building up, and if they could have had their way, would have set fire to everything in Jamestown. They had reason to be very thankful that Gates' wiser advice had been followed, and that upon the command of Lord de la Ware to return, they had a place to go into. Whatever these gentlemen of the old time did, they did with ceremony. They may have been very ragged and very worthless, but they were always dignified and pretentious. The landing of Lord de la Ware was a matter for much ceremony. It began, as did all their demonstrations, with prayer. Though Lord de la Ware was so successful and brilliant a nobleman and governor, he bore always a spirit of true and sincere humility. He was, above all things, deeply reverential, and though he could be severe, he could also be gentle. It was the time now to be severe, and he determined there should be no more idleness, no more hard drinking, and much less playing of games among the wayward colonists. He began trading with the Indians for corn, built two substantial forts, and started various schemes, some of which were not successful. In a year the malaria, which had affected so many of the colonists, overpowered him, and it was necessary for him to return to England. Shortly after his leaving Virginia, Thomas Gates and another commander. Sir Thomas Dale, arrived from England with fresh expedi- tions. They had not only men, but what was actually more important at that time, victuals and domestic animals. Sir Thomas seems to have understood, better than any who had preceded him, the economy by which a young nation should preserve itself. To each man he gave three acres of ground, which should belong to him absolutely. He no longer allowed them to live upon the public stores. It became necessary for them to make their living, or starve. He insisted upon their building houses for themselves, and checked the disease which had spread so rapidly when they persisted upon crowding into one poorly ventilated shed. New settlements were made about this time, and though they were under the same local government, it extended the cultivation of land. THROUGH DEATH TO VICTORY. 7 1 For the first time streets were laid out, and the plantations had definite boundaries. This progress was slow, but under theae two determined leaders, it was sure. Stories of the wildness and drunkenness of the men of Virginia had been carried back to England, and the dignified members of the London corporation there determined to uproot these evils by a set of laws. They must have imagined that the natures of Englishmen were very much changed by crossing the Atlantic, for it is certain that no Englishman living in their native island ever obeyed such laws as these. There was a penalty of death for wilfully pulling up a flower, a root or an herb when set to weeding. He who uttered an oath had a bodkin thrust through his tongue at the second offense, and at the third offense suffered death. If he was absent from the place of public worship, he was deprived of a week's allowance for the first offense, publicly whipped for the second, and killed for the third. No one was allowed to kill any domestic animal, not even a chicken or a dog, though it might belong to the person who killed it. A tradesman who neglected his business was sent to the galleys for four years if he persisted in the offense. It was evident that the great waste of money, time, oppor- tunity and supplies of which the colony had been guilty had irritated the London Company into making these ridiculous regulations. Still more severe than these were the martial rules, which each private citizen was expected to know and obey. For the first time the colony began to make some money. It came from the sale of tobacco, and, for the raising of this plant, the cultiva- tion of corn was neglected. It was through the taxation of tobacco in England that the colony came to open its first trading with Holland, and the indirect outcome of it was the first quarrel with England. A set- tlement was finally made, but not for several years. From the extreme of idleness the colonists went to the extreme of industry, as soon as their love for money prompted it, and those who owned no land did not hesi- tate to plant tobacco in the very streets of Jamestown, England began to see that the wealth of Virginia did not lie in gold, nor its advantages in a passage to the southern seas. Tobacco charmed them, as the prospects of Cathay had bewitched them before. Men were sent over in ship-loads, and most of these men were criminals, who had been con- demned to serve out a term of years. Others were paupers, who sold themselves into this voluntary slavery for a given period of time, with the understanding that at the end of that time they were to become free citizens. Worse, still, so valuable did men become, that in 1619 a 72 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Dutch ship came to Jamestown with a cargo of negroes, from the coast of Guinea. And thus the negro was brought under the American- English government for the first time. It was the beginning of slavery in the colonies of the new world. Perhaps it is hardly worthy of mention — of such slight importance were things of this nature — that Captain Argall, who was for a time governor of the colony, saw fit to destroy a little colony of French, at Port Royal, in the Bay of Fundy. The destruction of a few men in those days mattered but little, and even the historian would only think this worthy of mention, because it was one of the first outbreaks between the French and the English. Governor Argall set the example of greediness. He and his colony gave themselves up to a near-sighted plan of money-making, neglecting all those things which were neces- sary for the real comfort of their homes, and for the better mode of living. The distinguished Lord de la Ware was sent out to displace him, but he died on his way. Sir George Yeardley was made President of Virginia, which now numbered about six hundred persons. Their reduction had come from the same old mismanagement. There was a scarcity of food. To put them in better position, Yeardley gave them the power of self-government, and on July 30, 1619, met the first legis- lative assembly in this country. It had twenty-two representatives, a governor, and the council. Here, the first blow was struck at intemperance. There was an enactment against drunkenness, making it a punishable offence. Three hundred members of the colony died the* next year. The king determined to replace these men. He sent one hundred felons from the jails of England, Sir Edward Sandys, one of the most thoughtful, courteous and cultivated men in Virginia, did what he could to turn this mistake into an advantage. He founded a university at Henricho, one of the smaller settlements, where both Indians and whites were accepted as pupils. About this University were ten thousand acres of land, and here, in less than two years, one hundred men were settled. Then, a fortunate thing happened. One hundred English maidens offered to come to the colony, as wives for the yoimg men. After this there were homes. Wherever there are homes, there is order. For the first time, it began to look as if there might be a new and prosperous England on the shores of America. Another thing that marked this year was the sending out of many poor boys and girls, from the overcrowded factories of England, to ierve as apprentices in America. These boys and girls, who, in the THROUGH DEATH TO VICTORY. 73 condition of England, might have been doomed to a life of constant drndgery, laid the foundation of some of the best and most distinguished families of this country. Within a year 1,261 persons came to this country, either through Sir Edward Sandys, who was treasurer of the company, or through private ventures. Sir Edward Sandys should be remembered by all who love books, and have enjoyed the blessing of a free-school instruction, as the founder of the first school in America, and the writer of the first book. This was a translation of Ovid, made in leisure hours, upon the banks of the James river. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia." Jefferson's "Old Churches of Virginia. " Biography— Spark's "American Biographies." Fiction— Thackeray's "Virginians." Cooke's "Virginia Comediaus." James' "Old Dominion." Defoe's "Jacques." CHAPTER IX. THE SETTLEMENT OF MAINE — THE VOYAGE OF THE ENGLISH — CHAM- PLAIN AND VERMONT — THE SETTLEMENT OF MT. DESERT. -EANWHIIvE, there were settlements far to the north. Maine was a most attractive country to the voyager. Its innumerable lakes and beautiful rivers, its magnificent coast, its hills and meadows, were all tempting. For three-fourths of a century, or nearly that, explorers had dallied about it. often stopping for a while and making insecure settlements. Not only had the English been enamored with it through all these years, but the French, as well, had loved to coast along its shores and explore its interior, and both nations had given names to its rivers and bays, its capes and islands. In nothing more than in this naming, was the different policy of the two nations shown. The English made the mistake of insisting upon the use of their own favorite names. The French used the Indian names, and seemed to bend to the customs and prejudices of the race whose country they were invading. This was a very sure way of winning and keeping friendship. The French went further. They dressed as the Indians did whenever it was possible for them to do so; they hunted afte/ the fashion of the Indians, and fished with Indian tackle. Imita- tion is the sincerest flatter}^, and it could not fail to have its effect even upon a race of savages. Innumerable voyages were made by both French and English to Norumbega, which was then the musical appellation of that country, but no one ventured to put a king's name upon the soil or to found a lasting colony. The first actual settlement made in Maine was led by De Monts, a governor of the province of Spain. With him came Samuel NORUMBEGA, THE BEAUTIFUL. 75 de Champlain. Both of these men had previously been to Maine upon expeditions, but this time they came with a charter from Henry IV. De Monts was created Lieutenant-General of Acadia, as the country was called, from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. De Monts was a Huguenot, one of the despised sect, but he had given such signal service to Henry IV that it was decided to trust him with this important venture; but while he was to follow his conscience in the matter of his own personal religion, it was agreed that the savages over which he had ruled were to be converted into Catholicism. The merchants of Rouen and Rochelle constituted the company which held the letters patent to the trade in furs and fish in Acadia. With De Monts came certain distinguished noblemen, Jean de Vincourt, the Baron de Pontrincourt, and Champlain. These gentlemen were anxious to find a quiet spot, to which they might bring their friends and families and live in peace, undisturbed by the politics of the Old World. It took the expedition two months to reach the eastern coast of Nova Scotia, and a month to explore the coast. They decided to settle their colony on a little island in the St. Croix river. Their history is similar to that of the colonies who settled farther south. There were the same hardships, the same carelessness and lack of forethought, and the same suifering. Champlain coasted far to the south, taking in the innu- merable points of the bewildering coast, and turning up the mouth of every river which he came to. The Indians were not inclined to be amiable. Doubtless they had had too many previous experiments with invaders. So wretched did the condition of the colony become, that it became necessary-, in the course of a few months, to move it to a harbor in Acadia, and here for several years it lived feebly. It will be remembered that the Virginian colony was sustained by a company which had its headquarters in London, and that this was one of two companies which the king granted patents to. The northern company sent out, in 1605, a fleet of ships, under the care of George Weymouth. The experiences of Weymouth and his sailors were not of the usual sort. They were delightful. They landed upon the pleas- antest of spots, and encountered beautiful weather. They found pearls in the shells on the beaches, and excellent clay for brickmaking, and trees whose gums smelled like frankincense. The Indians were friendly and hospitable, but the return made was that which could always be expected; Weymouth kidnaped five Indians, and carried them to England. The report which he brought to England hastened the action of the northern Virginia company in sending out that vain 76 THE STORY OF AMERICA. expedition of theirs, under the charge of Raleigh, Gilbert and George Popham., A few months, as has been said before, ended the existence of the settlement Then the French made a second attempt. This was in 1608. The expedition was under the leadership of Champlain, who sailed to where Quebec now stands, and founded that ancient city. He finished a fine, if primitive, fort there, saw that garden plots were laid out and planted, and then left the colony to its own industries, looking in on it from time to time in the midst of his many voyages. No more adventurous spirit than he ever lived. His story reads like a romance, and one of his adventures is too interesting to pass. He started up the great river St. Lawrence, with a few companions, giving names as he went to the tributaries. So appropriate were these names that they cling to this day. At the mouth of the Richelieu river he met, by appointment, a party of natives. These were on the war- path against the Iroquois. He went with these Indians, sending back all but two of his men. The light canoes were carried from water to water, and at last they reached the magnificent lake of Champlain, the only thing which this great voyager ever gave his name to. After several days they met their foes. All night they camped upon the banks of the river, taunting each other with wild cries, and in the morning the savages confronted each other. The two parties approached until they were within a few hundred feet of each other, then Cham- plain's party of Indians opened, and let the astonished Iroquois behold the spectacle of three white men. The well-aimed guns of the French wounded three Iroquois, and the entire party took to flight. After this battle, Champlain returned to Quebec, and lived there in some primitive state as governor. With one interruption, when the French yielded their possessions to England, he was governor until 1635. The little struggling colony in Maine, which had been planted by De Monts, had but a sorry-^ time. As might have been expected, De Monts' authority was finally taken from him, because of the prejudice existing against Hugue- nots. However, he managed to get over in 1606, just in time to keep the discouraged colonists from starting for France. About this time Pontrincourt returned from France, with orders to make the new settle- ment a central station for the conversion of the Indians, and brought with him a number of Jesuit missionaries. These, and the missionaries that succeeded them, have been very prominent in religious work of this continent. The patroness of these voyages was Madame la Marquise de Guercheville, who was a ver}^ devoted member of the Catholic Church, and who later held the grant, not only of Acadia, but the entire territory C/5 W < H l^ W u < 5 w X H c < o O CO W G W w W « O H W w NORUMBEGA, THE BEAUTIFUL. 77 covered by the United States. In 1630, she sent other ships, with two more Jesuits. These settled upon Mt. Desert, one of the loveliest places, every one will admit, on this continent, with mountains which reach down to the sea and lakes beyond the mountains, with valleys and grand meadows. Flowers of all sorts grew here, and berries, all up the green mountain sides, which reached two thousand feet above the sea. The Indians were friendly, and turned willing ears to the preaching of the priests. The settlement was comfortably established, when Argall came up from the Virginian colony. Without any warning, he opened a cruel warfare upon the peaceful people, stole the commission of their leader, and, under the pretense that they had settled without royal consent, arrested them. Many of them he took to Jamestown. Others were left to find their way in an open boat to Port Royal. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Williamson's "Maine." Lodge's "English Colonies in America." Voyages of Samuel de Champlain." Thompson's "Vermont." Fiction— D. p. Thompson's "Grant Gurley." Poetry — Whittier's "Norumbega." Whittier's "Bride of Pennacook." Whittier's "Mogg Megone." CHAPTER X. NOVA SCOTIA AND THE ENGLISH DESPOLIATION — THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE — THE MODE OF NORTHERN COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. N STEAD of disapproving of this cruel action, the Governor of Jamestown sent him back to the pleasant hamlet of Acadia, where the French had a settlement, so thoroughly national in all of its characteristics that it seemed like a little piece of France set down upon the shores of the new world. None of the other colonists, then or later, accepted all of the trials which they experienced in an uncul- tivated country, with more bravery and jocularity of spirit. They were fond of dancing and all sorts of merriments. They built their houses neatly, sustained their church, rever- enced their priest, and from the first encouraged home industries. They had herds of fine cattle and sheep, and well cared for fields. All of these possessions Argall destroyed. He burned the fort, drove away the cattle, and putting all the Acadians upon ships, with such of their worldly goods as he did not care to confiscate, sent them away from the home which they had, with the Frenchman's effusiveness, already learned to regard with so much affection. Long years after, when some of the Acadians were very old, they came sadly back to die near the spot which they had learned to love so warmly. In 1 614 Captain John Smith, who could not by any series of mis- fortunes be kept in England, came over to see what might be going on along the coast of Maine. He and his men were looking for gold, but as fishing seemed at that time to be as paying a business as gold mines, and CONQUEST OF THE WILDERNESS. 70 as fishing was a bird in the hand, while mining was still in the bush, he concluded to lade his ships with a cargo of the best fish to be found along the coast. He carried home, in addition to this, twenty-seven savages, seized by his shipmaster, who were taken to Spain and dis- posed of there at a profit. But these were rescued by some Spanish friars, and finally returned to their native home. After laying the mat- ter of cod fishing before the English king and lords, he made another attempt to reach America in 161 5, but was driven back to port by storms, and history tells little or nothing more of him. About this time Ferdinando Gorges, who was president of the Plymouth Company in England, determined to send out a settlement at his own expense, since none of the companies seemed to second him irt his aspiration to establish a successful fishery'. The man whom he chose to carry out his plan was Richard Vines. So many selfish and con- temptible characters figured in the early history of America, that it is a. relief to think of one man who was thoroughly good and noble in all that he did. Richard Vines was associated with no great discovery or conqest. He did not bring his nation any great wealth, but his life was one which everyone is glad to think of. He reached Sago Bay in 1617, and found that a terrible plague had broken out, which was rapidly thinning the Indian tribes. Vines could easily have left and gone back: to England, or to some other port, but he stayed among the plague- stricken Indians as a physician, and attended them constantly through all of their trials. Neither he nor his men were ever ill, although thev laid in cabins where the Indians were dying with the disease. His; work of exploration through this tedious winter was very careful. He made the coast more thoroughly known to the English, and ventured far into the interior. It is said that he was the first to describe the White Mountains, if not the first to venture among them. Another thing that distinguished him from other Englishmen, was the fact that he always opposed the giving of rum to the Indians. Gorges sent out other expeditions, which, for various reasons, had na satisfactory results, though one of his mariners discovered Long Island Sound. The Northern Company of Plymouth had much difficulty about its charter at this time, not being satisfied with the relations which they bore to the Virginian colony. The French here put in a claim that the London Company was encroaching on the south. The Dutch had begun to creep in the slip which was left between: the boundaries designated by the London and Plymouth grants. Just how all of this was finally divided up, it would be wearisome to 8o THE STORY OF AMERICA. write, and wearisome to read, and, since none of the grants were very enduring, it is perhaps best to pass over the geographical division. But one of these, the Laconia grant, given in 1623, should be especially mentioned, because from it came the settlement of New Hampshire. This was owned by Gorges and John Mason, and these two men sent over a ship-load of settlers, some of whom were fishermen, and others farmers, with a supply of food and tools. A part of this company settled at Strawberry Bank, which they named because of the beautiful wild strawberries growing rank over the fields. What was Strawberry Bank, is now Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The other party went up the river a few miles and settled the plantation of Dover, which was very near the place where the present city of Dover stands. About this time, the English trade on the American coast had so increased, that in one year fifty ships came into English ports, with cargoes of various sorts, from America. The settlement of the Maine coast went on slowly. Many expeditions were sent out, which promised, in the beginning, to be successful, but the Englishmen seem to have been afflicted with home-sickness, and were forever leaving their cabins on that stern coast and going back to their milder country. A certain merry captain, by the name of Levitt, started a plantation at the place he called York, which stands near the present city of York, and many other men built similar plantations, and fishers scattered huts along the beach, which protected them upon their fishing expeditions. At this time, all of the Plymouth company was under charge of the Governor, Robert Gorges, the son of Ferdinando. He visited America, but did not like the country, and only remained a few months. It was not until 1625 that the company from Bristol, under the patronage of Robert Aid worth and Giles Eldridge, came to Monhegan Island, which these two wealthy merchants had purchased. They also bought the Point of Pemaquid, and established there a vigorous colony. A little later, the towns of Biddeford and Saco were founded by Richard Vines and John Oldham. In 1631 Mason and Gorges divided their grant, drawing the boundary between Maine and New Hampshire, Mason taking New Hampshire, and Gorges such portion of Maine as belonged to him. Gorges offered to bring planters to his dominion, promising to give them land at a ver>^ low rate, and, if they would consent to form a city or town, to give them such laws and liberties as they had enjoyed in England, His system of law-giving had in it a touch of feudalism, although this arose from its simplicity, aud not from any desire of Gorges to play the tyrant. He did more than any other one CONQUEST OF THE WILDERNESS. 8 1 man in the Northern Company towards settling America, but his repu- tation had suffered, because he was thought to have prejudices against the Puritans, who by this time were clinging like barnacles to the stern rocks of Plymouth. More interesting to the present American than the details and dates- is the life of those early settlers. One likes to think about them living among these magnificent Maine woods, which already began to furnish the ships of the rich countries of the Old World with spars and masts. The colonists were poor, it is true, but their wants were few. People of all stations made their morning and evening meal of boiled corn and milk, or pork and beans, or pork and peas. They drank home-made beer and cider. Tea and coffee were not yet brought to this country'. Their bread was usually of rye and Indian meal. The)^ were not gay people like the French. They lived sternly, with rigid laws, and had a very high standard of morality. If vice was not punished with death, it was followed with such disgrace that the culprit had no longer any desire to live among his old friends. The laws here, however, were much milder than those of the other New England colonies, and people )ersecuted by the Puritans found that they could take refuge in Maine. On the other hand, there were disadvantages in being so close to Canada, for the French and Indians continually threatened tlie English colonies, and many Englishmen were carried captive up through that gap called Crawford's Notch, where the Sago river winds in creek-like narrowness, and which Richard Vines was the first white man to pass through. The traditions of Crawford's Notch are many and pathetic. The Indians had good cause to be bitter. There were acts of such wanton cruelty and contempt on the part of the settlers that the Indians would have been less than human had they not retaliated. At one time Massachusetts, fearing for the remote New Hampshire settle- ments, sent one hundred and thirty men to Dover to join the force of Major Waldron, who commanded there. He desired to punish the Indians for some massacres of which they had been guilty, and gave orders to his men to seize all of the Indians who had been guilty of murder. He invited the Indians, who were disposed for peace, to come lo him under flag of truce. This was in 1671. He then drew his men up in line of battle, and asked the Indians to take part in a mock training. Anything of this sort suited their nature well, and they went at the sport with enthusiasm. At the command to fire, their muskets were emptied into the air, and then the troops closed around them, and took them all prisoners at the point of the bayonet. It had been 82 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Major Waldron's intention to retain only those interested in the massacre referred to — which was not extensive, though very heart-rending in its details — but little care was taken to look into the personal character of the Indians, and two hundred were sent to Boston and sold as slaves. It is no wonder that such treachery was punished. Murders among the outlying farms became frequent, and in 1689 Major Waldron's mock training bore its fruit. He had sown the wind and reaped the whirlwind. At Dover, there were five garrison houses, secure and well built. With such protection Waldron thought the people safe, and allayed the suspicion of some, who noticed the unusual actions among the Indians, by telling them to go back to their pumpkin planting; that he could attend to the Indians. One fair June day, at every garrison house two squaws asked that they might be allowed to spend the night. The peo- ple let them in. At midnight the squaws arose, unbolted the gates and admitted the Indians. Old Major Waldron, now eighty years of age, was sleeping securely in his bed when the savages entered, fierce with a pent-up indignation of thirteen years. His determination and strength had not deserted him for all of his old age, and he drove the Indians from room to room by the soldierly method in which he handled his sword. But their number was too great for him. They seated them- selves at the table, on which they had placed Major Waldron in a chair. The women of the house they forced to serve them. After they had eaten, each of the Indians slit some part from the body of the Major. His nose, ears and right hand were cut off, and when, at last, he failed from loss of blood, they held a sword so that he might fall upon it. Everything of value was taken from the house, and it was set on fire. Throughout the settlement there was a general conflict. Twenty-three persons were killed, and twenty-nine were taken to Canada and sold to the French. But it was the stealing of women and children from the farm-houses, the terrible captivity, the long, marches, the strange and savage life, not unfrequently accompanied by torture, which held the people in the northern settlements in the greatest fear. The details of the various fights with the Indians are too sad to telL There was no time entirely free from hostility, and, in 1690, when the Governor of Canada organized expeditions of French and Indians against the colonists in New England and New York, and the northern settlements, of course, suffered intensely. Traditions of great heroism have come down from those times. The endurance of the people was wonderful, and it is difficult for us to believe how much they could undergo and live. CONQUEST OF THE WII.DERNESS. 83 The settlements of Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire have now- been touched upon. Their colonies grew very slowly. At one time New Hampshire was connected with Massachusetts in government, and at another time with New York, but finally, in 1741, it became a sepa- rate province, with a royal governor, who lived in great elegance at Portsmouth. Englishmen of great wealth and learning settled here, building substantial houses and furnishing them with massive and costly goods. The northern townships constantly filled with immi- grants from Scotland and Ireland, and, by the time of the American Revolution, New Hampshire was a very sturdy and independent colony. It was one hundred years from the time that Champlain first entered Vermont that the European settlers built there, and, until the time of the Revolution, it was not known as a separate colony, but was called New Hampshire grants. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Parkman's "The Old Reg-imein Canada." Beamish's "History of Nova Scotia." Belknap's "New Hampshire." CHAPTER XI. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK — THE DUTCH; THEIR EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS — THEIR DEALINGS WITH THE INDIANS — THEIR SUCCESS. N the beginning of the seventeenth century ther? were three European colonies established — none of them very strong. This was when the French were still in Acadia, the Spanish at St. Augus- tine, and the English on the James river. Spain had grown strong in Mexico and Peru, and in the conquest of those countries had gained enormous riches, but the other nations had received little return for the money and enterprise lavished upon the New World. Spain, puffed up with pride, here lost, by following a selfish policy in every direction. The Indians were being persecuted, the inquisitiou was in force and the Netherlands were being heavily oppressed. Great sums of money had been taken from the Netherlands, and a revenue drawn from them out of all proportion to their possessions. They were intelligent aud liberal people, but were not allowed to have institutions of the sort that they demanded, and were treated more like slaves than a nation of great merchants and farmers. A most brutal governor was placed over them, and out of his cruelty grew the long series of wars, which finally ended in a struggle for independence. At the close of it, the Netherlands became one of the most vigorous nations of Europe, and a refuge for all who were oppressed in other countries. Everyone knows how they seemed to snatch their lands from the very arms of the ocean. Their farms flourished with wonderful luxuriance. Their cities became leading commercial cities of the world, and their dykes barred the ocean from their possessions, only admitting it when it could aid them. The East India trade, which for so many years was one of the chief THE DUTCHMEN OF NEW NETHERLAND. 85 sources of income to Europe, was almost monopolized by tliem, and they had the sole right to send trading vessels around the Cape of Good Hope and through the Straits of Magellan. They also established a company for the purpose of trading at the West Indies, though for sometime this was not successful. As their interests were so associated with those of the East Indies, they, as well as other nations, had looked for that never-to-be-found northwest passage. The voyages which they sent out were many, but all of them failed. At last their little countrj^, which gave out such wonders of wealth, seemed to be cultivated almost to its last acre, and they began to turn their eyes toward the New World. They had watched the English voyages with much interest, and had heard of the skill of a certain navigator, Henry Hudson, who had been employed in one of these expeditions. For this man they sent, and signed a contract with him which was to give him a certain sum of gold for his family during, his absence, and to give his widow a sum of money in the event of his death, if he would search to the best of his ability for the pathway to India. On Saturday, the 4th of April, 1609, Hudson sailed from Amsterdam, on the Half Moon. His crew was composed of English and Dutch sailors — rather an unfortunate combina- tion. The Half Moon went up the Norway coast toward North Cape, and toward Nova Zembla; but so crowded was the sea with jangling bergs and floating cakes of ice, and so impatient was his crew, that he Was obliged to turn back. Acting upon their advice, he concluded to sail westward, and, reaching the American coast, to search for the possibility of an opening, by way of a river, to the desired Indian sea. He anchored in Penobscot Bay on July i8th, and remained there several days, while his crew repaired the vessel. They treated the Indians in a murderous way, and found it necessary to leave the bay in haste. He went close to the entrance of Chesapeake Bay, but did not visit his friends at Jamestown, perhaps because he did not wish to be seen in the service of another country. He turned northward again, ar.d coasted until the 2d of September, when he reached a most beautiful bay, and saw the hills of Neversink to the northward. The men were delighted with the wonderful harbor that lay before them, and passed be}-ond Sandy Hook, up into the Narrows. The small boats were put out to explore and fish, and on the 4th of August the first European stepped upon Coney Island. Finally the strait beyond the Narrows was explored, and grassy shores, pleasant flowers and goodly tiees were all examined. They had a disastrous encounter with the Indians, who killed one of the sailors and wounded two others., and 86 THE STORY OF AMERICA. then Hudson decided to push his boat up the great river which opened before him. It was in the midst of August, and oppressively hot, though clear. It can easily be imagined that the hills of Staten Island and all those wonderful woods of Long Island were at their best. The boat went up with the tide, anchoring at night. The Indians were much delighted with the novel sight, and crowded out to the ship, bringing com and tobacco with them. Nearly two centuries of civilization have not been able to spoil the Hudson, but one can guess that it must have been eveu more majestic then than now. So silent was it, so wild and rugged, that the sailors were awe-stricken as their boat turned slowly up the stream, and floated by the wooded hills and the Palisades to the High- lands. At length the stream got too narrow for the Half Moon to go farther, and Hudson was obliged to content himself by sending portions of his crew, in small boats, as far as the present site of Albany. With much regret, he was forced to believe that this was only a river running north, through which he could hope to find no opening to India. It was then that Hudson gave to certain Indian chiefs, with whom he had had pleasant trading, the banquet which lived in Indian tradition one hundred years, and which even the Dutch settlers along the banks of the Hudson have been glad to relate of Hendrick Hudson and his merry crew. The Indians saw him depart with much regret, for he had furnished them with a very novel excitement; but it seemed as if Euro- peans were never to visit this country without being guilty of some act of great injustice to the natives. Hudson's men did not leave the beautiful "River by the Mountains," as they called it, without brutally killing a couple of Indians. The affair led to a general fig] it. Hudson started for Holland, but stopped at Dartmouth harbor, in England, and was held there by the English government, which saw that it had made a mistake in letting a man of such ability pass into the employ of a foreign nation. He was retained in the service of the Moscovy Company, for which he had previously sailed, and in 1610, made that last fatal voyage to the northwest, when he discovered the bay which bears his name. There among that white and desolate waste his men mutinied, tied him hand and foot and threw him on board a boat, with his son and a few companions. No one ever heard of him afterwards, but the little children living up among the highlands on the Hudson river still say, when the thunder rolls, ' 'There are Hendrick Hudson and his crew playing nine-pins among the hills." Holland did not seem to be especially interested in Hudson's THE DUTCHMEN OF NEW NETHERLAND. 89 discoveries. It was not anxious, like Spain and England, for great territorial possessions. Since it could not have the northwest passage, i1 cared little about America and her virgin soil. But, though the governnient was indifferent to the matter, certain private merchants thought they saw a way to make much money, by exchanging trifles for costly furs. The experiment worked well, and, in a short time, a very brisk trade had sprung up between the Indians and the Dutch ; the funny little vessels of the Hollanders going along the coast and up the streams, visiting the Indian hamlets and giving a few beads, or some other such trumpery, in exchange for beautiful skins. A sort of fort and store-house was built on Manhattan Island, as a station for their wares. The Netherland merchants soon saw that they had struck a good thing, and began to push their territory north and south. Incidentally, they added some fresh discoveries to the few which their country had made. Among the captains distinguished in these discov- eries were Hendrick Christaensen, Adriaen Block and Cornells Jacob- sen May. Adriaen Block was the first European to pass through Hurl- gate. This was in 16 14. He, too, discovered and named the rocky little island which raises its head fifteen miles out of the New York harbor, and which bears his name to this day. He spent the winter of 161 3-14 on Manhattan Island, having lost his ship, the Tiger ^ by fire, and finding it necessary to build another. This he named the Onj'-ust^ meaning the restless. It was he who first traversed Long Island Sound and sailed up the Connecticut river. He went along the New England coast as far as Nahant, and called that the limit of New Netherland. He entered the blue Narragansett Bay, and saw there the red island, or Roode Island, as he called it, fro"£i which our State of Rhode Island takes its name. Cape May was named after Captain May. Hendrick Christaensen built the first great trading post up the Hudson river, on Castle Island, close by Albany. He was an excellent agent, of adventurous spirit, and was rapidly acquiring power and wealth, when he was killed by an Indian whom he had taken on a voyage to Holland, but had safely restored to his home. His position as Governor was taken by Jacob Eelkens. Out of the many Dutch navigators, these three men are especially remembered for their faithful services to Holland. The merchants who had first opened trade about Manhattan and the Hudson became alarmed at the number who had followed their example, and succeeded in getting an ordinance to protect themselves. In this charter the name of New Netherland was officially given to that strip 90 THE STORY OF AMERICA. of land '.vhicli lay between the 40tli and 45th degrees, and which had the London Company upon one side and the Plymouth Company on the other. This was four years from the time that Hendrick Hudson's men pushed the Half Moon into the Narrows. The merchants desired that this be given them for a term of three years, for they saw nothing in the venture except chances for successful trade. They were satisfied with their own, which, indeed, was the most advanced of the age, and, having no desire to settle on their new possessions, merely wished to get what wealth they could out of it. Their trading grounds extended widely, and their relations with the Indians were friendly. The shores of Delaware Bay and river were explored, and the trade for seal skins opened with the natives. They went as far south as the cape they named Henlopen, and wished to have a charter for the ground to this limit, but the Republic of Holland was afraid that it might be an encroach- ment upon the bounds of Virginia, and refused. The trading post on Castle Island was moved to a safer spot, where the snring freshets could not disturb it, and put in a more secure building, in 161 8, the charter for which the Holland merchants had asked expired, but they continued to trade with much the same freedom as before, and with so overbear- ing a policy that few ventured to trespass upon the ground which they claimed. So, in 162 1, the West India Company, which had never really done anything previous to this, secured a charter which gave it great power. Among other things, its authority over the Dutch territory in America was absolute. It had a right to appoint all of the governing officers, and to rule with what laws it chose. It was to build forts, and to insure the protection of its own possessions. It had a board of nineteen delegates in the brave little country at home, and these ruled the great stretch of land by the Hudson. Thirty-two ves- sels-of-war and eighteen armed yachts were at the service of the com- pany, in case it needed protection. The first ship which went over with settlers was in 1623. On her was a large company of Walloons. These Walloons were not Dutch- men, but Frenchmen, who had been driven from their home on account of their religion, to find a settlement in free Holland, for in France they had been treated in a most cruel and relentless manner. They were a class quite by themselves, and had kept, for many generations, their old French words and customs, so that they neither belonged to France of that day nor to any other country. They were quite distinguished for their mechanical cleverness, and for their saving industr/. It is easy to see how such people should have an ambition to THE DUTCHMEN OF NEW NETHERLAND. 9 1 enter a country which they could call their own, and the West India directors, hearing of this aspiration, made them offers which they accepted. They sailed under Captain Cornells Jacobsen May, and settled on the site of Albany. In a short time they had a group of comfortable bark houses, a goodly field of corn, and a pier, at which the round-prowed vessels of the Dutch could anchor. A part of the Walloons, and of the New Netherland passengers also, settled at Fort Orange. Some went to the north of the Connecticut river, and others to the western end of Long Island. A fort was built on the South river, and a trading establishment on Manhattan Island. So the Dutch now traded peaceably along the coast of the New Netherlands, and, being thrifty people, who were willing to treat the Indians with fair- ness, and with a love for buying and selling, they soon became quite prosperous. The Dutch settlements had three different governors during this period of its existence, the last of whom, Peter Minuet, succeeded, after a series of successes and mistakes, in making Man- hattan the central point of interest. The first pictures of this are very curious. They show groups of new buildings of wood and bark, and Fort Amsterdam, with its quadrangular stone walls, and a great, awkward Dutch wind-mill, which the ships in the harbor dwarfed to insignificant size. Under Peter Minuet, the colonists tried to come to an understanding with the Plymouth Company, but, though many courtesies were exchanged on both sides, the English frankly said that they considered the Dutch intruders. A great need was felt for some more substantial scheme of govern- ment. It was evident that the Dutch were not sufficiently interested in the country to which they had come, and that it was a mistake to take all of the products to Holland and bring so few in return. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Dunlap's "Historj' of New Netherlands." Barnes' "Early History of Albany." Clute's ".\nnals of Staten Island." Fiction — Irving^s "Knickerbocker History." Irving's "Legend of Sleepy Hollow." Mrs. H. F. Parker's "Constance Aylmer." CHAPTER XII. >\t ilH^Bam$r* IHE PURITANS — THEIR TRIALS AND WANDERINGS — ^THE LANDING AT PLYMOUTH ROCK — THE FIRST WINTER. NOVELIST feels at liberty to go from one place to another, thpt he may keep the reader advised as to what all his characters are doing, in different places, and under different circumstances. History, like fiction, forces the writer to constantly go back, and reach his Rome by another road. The Dutch had become well acquainted with what we call New York before the greatest of all the colonies was settled, that of Plymouth. No other colony has such a fascination for the American reader. No other seemed to hold in it, to such an extent, the elements which went to make up the best in our republic. These people, as well as the settlers of Manhattan, came from Holland, though they were Englishmen. For years the Puritans had been persecuted in England. The cause for their persecution was, that they objected to the ritual of the Church of England, and desired to have a simple gospel, with unpretentious teachings. They did not believe in what they called the Anti-Christian greatness and tyrannical power of the established church. This frame of mind was an ofishoot of the Reformation. James I had no patience with these Puritans. He boasted of having peppered them soundly, and was well pleased with any one of his magistrates, or sheriffs, who persecuted them. They were scattered throughout England, and existed in large numbers in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire. They were inspired by certain simple orators, who had a remarkable gift of eloquence. Almost all of the Puritans were yeomen, simple, sturdy THE MAYFLOWER, 93 folk, direct of speech, and strong of muscle. They were acquainted "with no luxuries, although they seemed to have had enough money to enable them to emigrate to another country, when they found that they could no longer live, in liberty, in their own. They were not without education, and one of their chief ambitions was to send their sons to the universities. Being educated, they were all the more determined to protect their rights, and to insist upon being allowed to worship after their own manner; therefore, when they were hunted and imprisoned, their houses beset with spies, and their means of livelihood taken from them, they decided to leave England. In this, Brewster, their leader, a man of much experience, who had been a successful courtier and an office- holder under the government, sustained them. But though the English did not wish them within their neighborhood, neither did they seem to ■wish them to leave. It may have been, merely, that they never allowed them to do anything they wanted to do. On several occasions, when the Puritans had secured means of reaching Holland, where they understood every one was allowed to follow his own faith, they were detained by mobs of people and brought back, to suffer the jeers and cruelties of the hard-hearted people about them. Imprisonment was the general punishment for any such attempt to escape. At length they engaged a Dutch ship to take them on board, at a quiet place between Hull and Grimsby. They gathered from various directions, with all of their goods which they could carry, and were waiting there when a mob of country people, armed with all sorts of rude weapons, rushed upon them. A boat load of Puritan men had been taken to the ship, and these had to witness the cruelty with which their wives and children and the small force of men left on shore were treated. The ship- master of the Dutch ship, frightened at what he saw, set sail, and carried the despairing men out to sea. The greater part of the unfortunate Puritans who were left on shore were arrested. After this their experiences were most pitiful. No magistrate seemed willing to decide upon their case, and they were driven from one place to another, until their money was exhausted, and all of their goods lost. Finally, some people of note and money were moved by their pathetic condition, and secured means by which they reached Holland, where they were united with their friends. In the midst of opulent Holland they succeeded, in spite of their simple ways and meagre experiences, in earning a living, and were always treated with kindness and consideration by the Dutch. But as time passed on, they felt it a pity that their English children should grow up in the midst of Dutch 94 THE STORY OF AMERICA. surroundings, learning a foreign language and strange, un-English ways. It is not strange that the reports of America delighted them. They believed it to be a land where they would have fewer difficulties to struggle with, and where they might find an Eldorado where gold was plenty and ease ensured. They corresponded, therefore, with some of the leading men of Jamestown, especially with Sir Edward Sandys, who had been a friend of Brewster years before. He probably advised them to obtain a patent, for they sent two of their most trusty men, Robert Cushman and John Carver, to England to see if the king would grant them one. After many delays and much evasion on the part of the king, they got one, although it was never used. It was a grant of land somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson river, and the Puritans, who were under obligations to the Dutch, probably did not feel as if they cared to infringe upon their trading ground. Holland offered them its protection, but this also was refused, being unwilling to vex their native countrymen, the English. It will be seen that they were very war>' and discreet people, anxious to be a( peace with everyone. In the month of July, 1620, at the Puritan Church in Leydeu; Holland, the good pastor, Robinson, held a day of prayer, singing many psalms and feasting. The last night they spent with their friends in a long, long talk, and in the morning departed very sorrowfully, with many tears, from the spot which had been their dwelling-place for twelve years. The two ships, the Speedzvell and Mayfloiver^ carried one hundred and twenty people from Southampton, on August 5th, but the Speedwell proved unseaworthy, and the Mayflozver finally went alone, carrying one hundred and two persons for the new colony, besides the crew. The ship was not strong, and half way across the ocean they were on the point of returning, but prayerfully decided to go on, and, on the 9th of November, saw Cape Cod. They cast anchor in the harbor, where they could be free from the winds, and a few of them went on shore, where they fell upon their knees and thanked God for the perils which they had escaped, and for the new life which was opening before them. More than a month was spent in looking for a spot where they might settle. During this time they made a compact of government, in which it was agreed that they should bind themselves into a civil body politic for their ordering and preservation, and should feel at liberty to enact laws from time to time for the good of the colony. All of the profits in trading, fishing, planting or anything else, were to go, for a period of seven years, into common stock, and at the end of THE MAYFLOWER. 95 chat time were to be equally divided among all who had contributed money to the enterprise, and those who had engaged in it personally. Every person over sixteen years of age was rated as owning a single share, or ten pounds, and if he provided his own outfit to the amount of ten pounds, he was entitled to two shares. This was according to the advice of Thomas Weston, who had helped to supply ships and money for the enterprise. The captain of the Mayflower was impatient to land his passengers and return to England, and, therefore, they landed at last upon this "stern and rock-bound coast." Many journeys were made to the mainland, and one place was found where there were corn- fields, and little brooks of running water. Here it w^as decided to build the colony, and on the 15th of December, the Mayiiozver\^i'i\i^x harbor at Cape Cod, and dropped her anchor half way between Plymouth and Clark's Island. Ten days later a shallop left the ship with the distinct purpose of landing the pilgrims upon the spot of their future home. Men, women and children went to look it over and say what they thought about it. The first shallop was filled with sailors, for the most part, but there were a few women aboard, and in the prow sat John Alden, the young scholar, and ]\Iary Chilton, a gay young girl, who was the first to spring upon the rock. It was not until the 21st of March that all of the company went on shore. Shelter was still insufficient, and provisions were poor and scanty. Disease began to spread among them, and when spring came, almost one-half of the little company was dead. Miles Standish, the stalwart captain, was a widower, and half a dozen of the most reliable men of the company were in the same unfortu- nate state. John Carver, the Governor, died in April. Mary Chilton, the light-hearted girl, was left an orphan. There was great fear from, the Indians, although they did not disturb them. One can see, in imagination, their poor little houses, built of logs, cemented with mortar, the low, thatched roofs, and the oil-paper which served as window glass. Side by side in the rooms stood the beds, as many as could be crowded into an apartment. There was a great shed for the public goods, and a melancholy little hospital for the sick. On the top of the church stood the four brass cannons, pointing toward the several directions, FOR FURTHER READING: History — Palfrey's and Elliott's "New England." Barry s "Massachusetts." Young's "Chronicles of Massachusetts." Fiction — L. M. Child's "Hobomoc." H. V. Cheney's "A Peep at the Pilgfrims." J. L. Motley's "Merry Mount." Poetry— Longfellow s "Courtship of Miles Standish." Mrs. Heman's "Landing of the Pilgrims." Rev. John Pierpont's "The Pilgrim Fathers." CHAPTER XIII. THE NEXT THREE YEARS — ^THE ORDER, CIVIL, MARTIAL AND RE- LIGIOUS, WHICH THEY MAINTAINED THE MANNER OF THEIR DAILY LIVING, ETC. XTHOUGH we now see fit to hold the Indians in such contempt, the early settlers realized that they owed much to them. Such knowledge as they had of planting corn and other indigenous productions, they had to thank the Indians for. The pilgrims at Plymouth had seen but little of the Indians through their tedious winter, but when March came, they were surprised one day by the sight of a naked Indian walking into their camp and looking around with unfeigned curiosity. This man's name was Samoset, and he gave them much knowledge of the country and of the Indians near them. Indeed, he opened friendly relation between them and the Indians round about, for he was able to speak the English tongue, having had dealings with certain explorers, whose settlements had been unsuccessful. Samoset introduced them to Massa- soit, the Sagamore of that region. These northern Indians seem to have lacked that dignity of carriage and grace of manner, which made the Indians of the islands in the West Indies so attractive. Samoset had an Indian friend who visited the colony much, and taught the colonists many things, for which they owed him a great debt of gratitude, and he, later, acted as guide for the ambassadors from the colony, when they made their treaty of peace with the surrounding Indians. The health of the people improved as the soft New England spring opened, and they gained courage from the very influence of the budding vegetation about them, and from the sea, which was always in sight. The ground was carefully cultivated, and fishing became a fine art, so that at last it THE DAILY ROUND. 97 became possible for them to make journeys into the country, and become acquainted with the region about them. They explored the cape, and went as far as Boston harbor, and were filled, it is said, with regret that they did not settle upon this pleasanter spot, which was so sheltered and secure, compared to the bold and barren place which they had selected in the dreary January weather. The summer passed, and in November, a ship came from England, It was the first news that they had heard from home, and the eagerness with which they read their letters, and received their share of the supplies, can better be imagined than described. The Forttme brought, also, a new patent, issued to John Pierce and associates by the Plymouth Company, and for the first time establishing the Puritans legally. The London adventurers had the hardihood to send a letter filled with reproaches that the Mayfiower had been sent to England without a cargo from America. They seemed to have no thought of the difiiculties which the colonists had had in merely preserving life and beginning their settlement. What they expected as a cargo they did not say. There could have been very little to send them at that time. Bradford was now Governor, and he returned a quiet letter, that so general had been the disease through the winter, that the living had scarcely been able to bury the dead, and the well not in any means sufficient to attend the sick. However, they succeeded in putting some lumber and peltry on the Fortune^ on her home voyage, only a part of which reached England, as she encountered a French ship, which overhauled her. The second winter passed calmly, and with much less suffering than the previous one. It was a very orderly community, not indulging in much pleasure, and yet not without quiet enjoyment. There were few books in the colony besides the Bible and hymn book, of which, indeed, there were very few copies. A little revelry was attempted on Christmas day, by some of the young men who had come over in the Fortune^ but this was promptly checked by Governor Bradford. The young men had said that it was against their conscience to work on Christmas day, and had, therefore, been excused from their tasks, but when the Governor returned at noon and found them playing at ball and pitching quoits in the street, he remarked that it was against his conscience to let others play while he worked. No doubt, however, there was good fellowship among the people, and many an hour of not unpleasant gossip in the twilight. The firm, religious faith of the people, and their sincere devotional exercises, were a great source of gladness and strength to them, and a help to that 98 THE STORY OF AMERICA. statesman-like order which made their little settlement so admirable. The Narragansett Indians at one time showed , hostile intentions. The best description of their dealings with the colonists can be found in Longfellow's "Courtship of Miles Standish." They sent a bundle of arrows, tied together with the skin of a rattlesnake. It was a challenge to war. Miles Standish, swelling with rage, stuffed the snake skin full of bullets and returned it. It was answer enough. The Narragan- setts left the colonists undisturbed, but it was thought best to palisade the town, and to keep the men in martial order, ready at any time for an attack. Toward spring, a fort was built on the spot called Burial Hill. MILES STANDISH FILLING THE RATTLESNAKE SKIN WITH BULLETS. In the summer of 1622, a number of men were sent to the colony, who were of a very vicious nature, and this occasioned the first actual difficulty with the Indians. They were a lazy, mischievous and dis- orderly set of men, whom it was a great burden for the colony to support. It became necessary to send them away, such an offense were they to the upright and moral founders of the community, and Plymouth rejoiced greatly when these unruly fellows set up a separate colony at Wessagusset, which we know as Weymouth. The manner in which these young men treated the Indians was shameful. Not only did they deal unfairly with them, but were guilty of actual crimes toward them, and toward their women, which made them most obnox- ious. Even an Indian is a judge of character, and they soon perceived THE DAILY ROUND. 99 that they had to do with a lot of bullies, who, like all people of their class, were lacking in true courage. One of the colonists stole corn from the Indians, and his fellows decided to hang him, to appease their wrath. They had some doubt, however, about the advisability of wasting a strong and vigorous man, as the culprit chanced to be, and it was proposed by an economical wag to hang an old and feeble man in his place, but fortunately for the old and feeble man, this was overruled. So offensive did this colony become that the Massachusetts Indians finally made up their minds to kill the whole of them off, and be well rid of them. They supposed that such an act would greatly offend the Plymouth colonists and call for active revenge, and, therefore, thought it best to kill all of the English. A very slight accident prevented the entire massacre of the colonists. Massasoit, the great Sagamore, fell ver>' sick, and two delegates from the Plymouth company were sent to his place to express sympathy, and give help, if possible. They found the chief very ill, but by careful nursing and some simple medicine, restored him to health. The gratitude of the Sagamore was great, and he revealed the plan against the colonists. Captain Standish started out with eight sturdy men, and visited their disorderly neighbors at Wessagusset. He foimd them in a bad state, physically and morally, and quite unwilling to do anything in their own defense. Standish, therefore, engaged in a hand-to-hand struggle with the chiefs of the hostile tribles, and succeeded in killing two of them. Afterward, there followed a skirmish in an open field, but without loss. The head of one of the chiefs was taken to Plymouth, and exposed as a warning to the natives. As for the Wessagusset men, part of them went up to the Maine colonies, and the rest joined the pilgrims at Plymouth. The peace-keeping Puritans over in Holland heard of this engagement with deep regret. They could not well understand how their old friends should have reached a point where they could shed blood. It was quite impossible for them to know anything about the conditions. A little later than this, another colony was started by Robert Gorges, who was now Governor of the entire territory known as Massachusetts, upon the very spot where the Wessagusset colony had been, but his people became discouraged in a short time and only a handful remained. So dissatisfied did the people become with their articles of agree- ment with the London adventurers, which called for so much work, and from which they personally reaped no benefit, that it became necessary to make some change. They followed the example of the lOO THE STORY OF AMERICA. Virginian colony, and gave to each man a certain quantity of land to work on his own account. As in Virginia, also, this was the beginning of prosperity. The colonists took a deeper interest in the land which they now could call their own. At another time they had a struggle to preserve their independence, because John Pierce, procuring a second patent, wished to make them his tenants. This would have started a land system like that in England, but, fortunately for the colonists. Pierce met with such losses in send- ing a ship to America that he was persuaded to return the grant. The Puritans still remaining in Holland were very anxious to join their friends in Plymouth, but the London Company objected to this, and wished to force upon the devout Puritans people of a different sort. To this end they sent over a minister, named Lyford. He had been in Plymouth but a short time when he tried to introduce the old service of the Church of England. The Puritans resented this with pride and fierceness, and finally sent the minister and his friends from the colony. He had drawn about him many discontented spirits, among them John Oldham, who was finally expelled, with much disgrace, at the butt ends of the muskets of the sturdy Puritans. The company in Eondon defended the action of Lyford, and finally refused to be responsible for the fate of the Puritans. This left the colonies without protection. They could no longer rely upon supplies from England, and were left to work out their own destiny. With such brave and stalwart men, nothing better could have happened. To be independent with them was to be success- ful. They sent for their friends in Leyden, but their dear old pastor, Robinson, whom they looked forward with so much pleasure to meet- ing, died, like Moses, in sight of the promised land. The colonists did not hear the last of Lyford for some time, for the London adventurers saw fit to send him over again to found a colony upon Cape Ann, a district which the pilgrims protested belonged to them, by right of a patent made out to Robert Cushman and Winslow. The choleric Miles Standish nearly got into an engagement with the Englishmen at Cape Ann, but finally made a compromise, by which they were to work together in the production of salt, and so lived amicably. But this colony came to little, though a company was formed at Dorchester, England, which sent out for three successive years men and cattle. The colonists went back to England, or scattered along the coast, and a few of them settled on the spot we now call Salem, Meanwhile, the Plymouth colonists had got some cattle, three heifers, and a great white bull. THE DAILY ROUND. lOI The days went on peacefully now. On Sundays, everyone who was not sick met at the little church. The men sat upon one side and the women on the other, with those of noble rank quite by themselves. The little boys, very impatient at the long service, were crowded on the pulpit stairs and guarded by constables. These constables each had a wand, with a hare's foot on one end, and a hare's tail on the other. They used this to keep the people from sleeping, A woman's forehead, if by any chance she nodded, was only touched with the tail, but if any naughty little boy went to sleep, he was promptly pounded with the hare's foot. The services were three or four hours long, and the sexton stood near the minister, turning over the great hour-glass as it emptied. It was not until 1836 that they got the Metrical Bay Psalm-Book, with its great black notes and rugged lettering. They knew less than a dozen tunes, and sung these over and over, year in and year out. The houses were scrupulously neat. Most of them were one story in height, built of logs, with very steep roofs. In course of time a few wood and brick houses were built, two stories high in front, and one behind. The windows had many panes, and opened on hinges like a casement, and the huge fire-places admitted logs which would burn for nearly the whole day. There were no clocks, only sun-dials, and many of the houses were built facing the south, so that the sun at noon would fall square on the floor, and tell them it was mid-day. The law allowed none of them to wear finery, unless he or she could prove that it could be afforded. All through the week the women wore home- spun, and on Sunday brought out from their chests the silk hoods or lace neckerchiefs which had been brought across the sea. Miles Standish kept the soldiers well drilled. They had match-lock muskets, fired by a slow match instead of a percussion cap. So heavy were these weapons that even these sturdy soldiers had to have a large iron fork stuck in the ground to hold them. They were belted with bando- liers, which contained a sword and a dozen tin cartridge-boxes. Steel helmets and iron breast-plates were not unknown, although many of the colonists wore padded overcoats to keep off" the arrows of the Indians. To be a voter, one must also be a church member. In everthing, religion ruled. The State had no existence without the Church. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Cheever's "Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth.'' Biography — Anderson's "Women of the Puritan Times." Fiction — H. M. Whiting's "Faith White's Letter-Book." E. N. Sears' "Pictures of the Olden Times." Mrs. J. B. Webb's "The Pilgrims of New England." Poetry — Whittier's "The Garrison of Cape Ann.*' CHAPTER XIV. >\$ \mnrh nf Iraa^r^. Tn'E MASSACRE AT JAMESTOWN — LORD BALTIMORE AND THE SKTTLH MENT OF MARYLAND — THE LIBERAL LAWS OF THE BALTIMORE SETTLEMENT. pBOUT the time that the little Plymouth colony Y became alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Indians, the colony in Jamestown, Virginia, suffered a great calamity. The condition of the colony was peculiar. In one way it did not lack prosperity. The raising of tobacco was continued to the exclu- 'iD sion of everything else, Laws were made to regulate this, but it is a well-known fact that a law is good for nothing unless the people will agree to enforce it, and the people of Virginia did not wish this law enforced. King James had begun to look upon the colony with some suspicion. He suspected treason, and not without reason, for it was quite true that they did not care to be dictated to by their governors at home. Sir Edward Sandys was thought to be a man of too much intellect to safely act as treasurer of a community which was so rapidly increasing in power, and the Earl of Southampton was appointed in his place. Sir George Yeardley retired from the governorship in 1622, giving place to Sir Francis Wyat. These were all men of sense, and they did what they could for Virginia. They tried to raise grapes for the purpose of making wine, but they do not seem to have understood the art very well, for the wine had a trick of souring before they got ready to drink it. Mulberry trees and silk worms were brought over to start the cultivation of silk, but for all of that, most of the colonists were dressed in rags. Workmen were brought from Italy and employed in the glass worlis, and about the same time iron works were started. The A nencan^ began making their own salt, and building their own ships. THE REWARD OF TREACHERY. 103 and saw-mills were put up by Dutchmen, but this work was very slow, and none of it really successful. They spent all their time, strength and money in the raising of tobacco, so that, fourteen years after the colony was started, there was next to no barley, oats or peas in the country, and even at this period they were frequently threatened with starvation. In the meantime, they treated the Indians with the same selfishness and lack of wisdom which they showed in all other matters. The Indians had, no doubt, long intended to take revenge. However that may be, suddenly, on the 2 2d of March, 1692, the Indians, loitering about the village, rushed upon the people in the fields and in the houses and slaughtered them. They did not even spare the little children, but killed all, regardless of the innocence of their victims. They went further than this, and hacked at the dead bodies with a wild cruelty of which only the American Indian is capable when he becomes imbruted by the sight of blood. The houses and barns of the people were burned and their animals killed. This did not occur in Jamestown, but in the little outlying villages and plantations. Jamestown would have suffered the same fate, but for the warning which one friendly Indian carried the night before. All who could, took refuge within the city, and took every possible means for defense. The panic was wide-spread. Some of the smaller places were entirely deserted, and it was many years before the plantations recovered from the harm which this did to them, for men were afraid to remain in isolated places. After this there was no mercy shown upon either side. The English were quite as cruel and remorseless as the Indians had been. The corn-fields, the fishing weirs, the villages of the natives, were entirely destroyed. Whenever a white man saw an Indian he shot him, and blood-hounds and mastiffs were trained to follow and tear them to pieces. The King seemed to blame the colonists for the present state of affairs. The company was still more dissatisfied than the King, and out of the various misunder- standings which grew from this, and the disregard the colony paid to the King's wishes, came the breaking up of the Virginia Company. The government of the colony was put into the hands of a commission, with Sir Thomas Smith at the head. The unhappy people of Virginia were long in recovering from their calamity. The people were crowded once more into close quarters, and there was a great deal of sickness, of discouragement, and of hunger. Their viciousness took another, and yet more dreadful form. It was turned from wantonness and selfishness to revenge. They prayed, with I04 THE STORY OF AMERICA. a show of devotion, that the Indians might fall into their hands to be murdered and bereft of all that they owned. There was no longer any show of Christian kindness. If the colonists were filled with revenge, they were none the less troubled with fear, and it was a long, long time before they dared venture back to the cultivation of their plantations. This great anxiety about home matters made them rather indifferent about the whims of the London Council, and they worried little because their j)atent was taken away from them. After King James died, very little attention was paid to them one way or the other, and if they received no benefit, neither did they receive any checks from across the ocean. Four colonial governors served in turn, but they were displaced for the first royal governor. Sir John Har\'ey, who was sent over by the English King to administer royal laws after the King's own views. How the people, who had so long been independent, detested this arrangement, can well be imagined. Shortly before the appointment of Harvey, Jamestown had had a distinguished visitor. It was Lord Baltimore, a Catholic English nobleman of much wealth and culture. Virginia was quite in excite- ment about the visit of so distinguished a gentleman, and the council grew so curious that they officially inquired why he had come, and how long he was going to stay. The Virginians were neither the Church of England people nor Puritans — the Puritans having come later — and they objected to a settlement of Catholics among them. They, there- fore, put the oath of allegiance to the colony to him, which was of such a nature that he could not take it, for religious reasons, and the colonists were glad of this excuse to ask him to return to England. Seeing that his visit was disagreeable, he courteously withdrew from the colony, but left his family behind him at Jamestown. One reason why he was disliked at the colony was because he was principal Secretary of the State to King James for the last five or six years of that monarch's life, and the difficulty between King James and the colony was naturally visited upon Lord Baltimore. He held a grant to some lands in the southeast part of Newfoundland, and had there a Protestant colony, which he had established. It was after visiting this, and finding the climate not to his liking or at all suited to his delicate health, that he came to Virginia. This was in the spring of 1629. Leaving Virginia, he visited Chesapeake Bay, was charmed with that region, and begged the King to give him a patent to it. Thi^the King willingly did, but before the patent was signed. Lord Baltimore died, and it was left for his son to carry out his plans. The new Lord Baltimore named the THE REWARD OF TREACHERY. 105 region Maryland, in honor of the Queen. The charter included all the country lying in the irregular triangle formed by the 40th degree of latitude, the Potomac river and Chesapeake Bay, as well as that part of the Peninusla between the ocean on the east, and Bay of Chesapeake on the west, with a line dividing it from the rest, drawn from the head- land, called Watkins Point. With very slight changes, this is the State to-day. The grant gave this property to the Lords of Maryland abso- lutely, as long as they were faithful in their allegiance to the King. Not even taxes were required. No gift could have been more complete. All the acknowledgment required of Lord Baltimore was that twice a year he was to send to the King two Indian arrows as a token of fealty. But the charter did not overlook the rights of the colonists. It gave the people the right to call themselves together to take part in framing the laws which were to govern them. No religious nor political distinctions were made, but Maryland was to be the home of all Englishmen who wished to move there. Lord Baltimore found himself unable to go with the first expedition, and sent his brother Leonard in his stead, and with him two friends, also cultivated and able gentlemen, Jerome Hawley and Thomas Cornwallis. The Catholics were being greatly persecuted at this time, and Maryland became a refuge for them. In addition to the many gentlemen of wealth and influence who resorted thither, were many mechanics and laborers, and two Jesuit priests, whose simple and tender lives have made a white page in history. These were Father Andrew White and Father John Althan. The fonner of these wrote the only narrative which was kept of the experiences of the colony, which was composed of about three hundred souls. They were borne to America on The Ark and The Dove^ starting November, 1633. They encountered many dangers on their passage from storms, pirates and war-like Spaniards, but at length reached Jamestown, where they were entertained for a week by Governor Harvey. The early part of March they sailed to their own possessions, and turning up the Potomac river, were enchanted with what they found. The groves of beneficent trees, the many inflowing streams and stately bluffs persuaded them that they could not have found a better place for a settlement. They landed first upon Blackstone Island, which then covered four hundred acres of land in the midst of the Potomac. It is now two centuries since, and nothing is left of these islands but sandy shoals. The 25th of March, the day of the landing, was the day of the annunciation of the most Holy Virgin, and they cele- brated mass upon the beach, at the close of which they planted a cross 106 THE STORY OF AMERICA. of wood upon the highest part of the island, taking possession of it for our Savior and for our Sovereign Lord, the King of England. They used much tact in their first dealing with the Indians, asking permission of them to settle upon their land. It was a piece of good- fortune for them that they chanced to meet with Captain Fleet, an Englishman, quietly trading in peltries upon his own account. He had been a prisoner for several years among the Indians, and was on. excellent terms with them. Through his influence the colonists were soon in friendly trade with the natives, and the danger of hostility was averted. Fleet guided them through the forests and up tne rivers, showing them the best points of the country, and advising them about the site of their first town; and at the end of the broad harbors on. the noble bluff they decided to build. Behind it lay the beautiful valley which the people of Baltimore know, with growths of nut trees and oak and springs of clear water. On the bluff stood a huge mulberry tree, and standing by this, Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, made his treaty with the Indians, who had a village upon that spot. The tribe was called Yaocomico, and for a certain payment in goods prized by the Indians, the strangers were to share their town with them until their harvest was gathered, after which the savages were to move elsewhere. The first village of Maryland was called St. Marys, and the expedition being managed by men of states- men-like quality, and having in it workmen of strength and common- sense, they immediately began building and planting. The Indians were of much help to them, teaching them not only how to plant native vegetables, but how to cook them in the best manner. Religious services were held from the first, and as soon as possible a neat little chapel was made. By the time the Indians had left them, quite a little town had been built, and some public buildings started on the bluff. Winter found them well provided, and already the liberality with which the government was conducted, began to invite the oppressed, not only from England, but from the Jamestown and Plymouth colonies as well, for in the Jamestown colonies Catholics were disapproved of, and in the Plymouth colonies the slightest deviation from the orthodox principles, as the Puritans held them, was promptly punished. Lord Baltimore's city was the first one in America where every man WJis allowed to worship God after his own conscience. FOR FURTHER READING: HiSTORT — McSherry's "Marylanu." t'.riffith's "Annals of Baltimore." Fiction — Paulding's "Konigsmark." Kennedy's "Rob of the Bowl." CHAPTER XV. '>\$ ytnu-^^tpv^. PROSPERITY OF THE MARYLAND SETTLEMENT — CONSPIRACIES AGAINST THEM — THE TRIUMPH OF VIRGINIA OVER THEM, AND THE PERSECUTION OF THE CATHOLICS — CALVERT'S SUCCESS AND THE RETURN OF THE JESUITS. j^IRGINIA disapproved of the new colony of Mary- land. There was, certainly, ground enough upon the Atlantic coast for both of those settlements, but whether there was policy enough, was quite another question. The Virginians, it will be remembered, had lost their royal charter, and the fact that Lord Baltimore's colony came with the royal grant, and with the royal encouragement, made them very envious. One man in the Virginian colony, especially, resented the settlement of Maryland. It was the secretary of the Virginian Council, William Clay- borne. He had taken possession of Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, and built a store-house there, for the beaver and other furs, in which he traded extensively. When Baltimore's people came. Clay borne said that he owned the island, and he refused in advance to leave it. The Viiginians had sent a protest to the King against the settlement of Maryland, but it had been decided in England that Baltimore's patent should not be destroyed, and both colonies were advised to be as amiable as possible. Amiability, however, was not in Clay borne' s line. He had worked hard upon the ground where the Marylanders now settled, and he felt that he had a right to it. Being a willful and strong- minded man, he took the worst methods for preserving that right. He incited the Indians against the colonists, who found it necessary to build a block-house for refuge, in case of attack; but as the Indians met with nothing but kindness from the settlers, they became persuaded at I08 THE STORY OF AMERICA. length that Clayborne had misinformed them. The Marylanders tried to capture Clayborne, but he knew the ways of the woods too well for them to succeed, and reached Jamestown, where he worked upon the promi- nent men, and won them to his side of the case. When the spring of 1635 came, and Clayborne wished to carry out his usual trading trip, he started for his island with a small vessel, called the Long Tail. The Marylanders met him with two armed pinnaces, under the command of Cornwallis. The Lo7ig Tail was seized after a vigorous fight, two of the Virginians being killed and one of Cornwallis' men. Then the people of Jamestown were in a great state of mind. They gathered in the streets, and talked and talked. They called an assembly and talked some more. No one had any sympathy with the Marylanders' defense of their property, except the royal Governor Harvey. So indignant did the people become with him that they sent him to England to be tried, but he was promptly sent back again by the King, with an inquiry as to what right they had to arrest a governor appointed by him. The people in Maryland, finding that they were to be protected, went on working busily. Their harvest was a great success. They stored away enough corn for the winter, and sent one thousand bushels up to Plymouth, asking for salt-fish in exchange. The cattle and poultry which they had purchased from Virginia had been so well managed by certain experienced breeders of stock, that it had greatly increased, not alone supplying them with eggs, but allowed them plenty to kill and eat. The people were not long satisfied with the rude build- ings which they had first built. They had met with sufiicient prosperity to be able to send to England for bricks and other building material, and the houses which they erected were firm, and to some degree elegant. A manor was built for Governor Calvert, and within two or three years an excellent State House, in the form of a cross, was built upon the bluff. In front of it stood the famous mulberry tree, under which the first treaty had been made with the Indians, and upon this were nailed all the notices and State papers which the Governor issued. Here the little armed force gathered for drill, and 'here the town punishments were made. A little further back stood the church, and about it the church-yard. Certain fashions were set in the building of those days which are noticeable now in the city of Baltimore. The ground floor and base- ments were made of red brick, or paved with square red tiles. Some of the houses were of red brick, ornamented here and there with black. THE PEACE-KEEPERS. L09 There were high, red brick walls, and stout chimneys built upon the outside, with the fire-places paved in red tile. Plantations began to be cultivated around the town, tobacco being the chief staple raised for exportation. In 1635, Lord Baltimore began to make grants of lands to settlers. To those who had come upon the first voyage extensive grants were made, so that the pioneers became, to an extent, lords of the property. Mills were built, both at St. Mary's and on the plantations, so that it became 'possible for them to make their own flour, and to start various other home industries. Under these fortunate conditions people crowded to the colony, and, in 1635, it was found necessary to make a new code of laws. The simple rules, which were at first sufficient to control the community, were no longer adapted to their growing and complex civilization. But Lord Baltimore did not approve of the laws, and refused assent to them. Two years later he made out a code, but the assembly of the people would not accept his laws any more than he accepted their' s. It was not because they objected to the laws that he made, but because they wished to govern themselves, and at last they had their way, though it was not for several years. The Indians who lived about St. Mary's were always friendly to the settlement, but the Susquehanna Indians were the enemies of the Yaocomicos, and, therefore, of all whom the tribe were friendly to. In 1642 the Susquehannas opened quite a warfare with the Mary landers, which lasted for two years, when treaties were made. The kindness which the Catholics of Maryland had shown to all people of other religions did not meet with a proper return. The Catholics were the friends of the King in England, but the Protestants preferred the Parliament, which, at this time, was having much difficulty in getting along with the King. So when the revolution came in England against the King, the people of Maryland were divided on this subject, and it put the Catholics against the Protestants in a way which made much trouble in the colony. Leonard Calvert became so troubled about the quarrels of the people he was trying to govern, that he sailed for England, to have a talk with his brother. Lord Balti- more, leaving Giles Brent to look after the colony. This was a splendid chance for Clayborne to have revenge upon the Mary landers. He went to St. Mary's and stirred up the Protestants, or the Parliament faction, against the government of Baltimore, and his plans were aided in an unexpected way. Brent ordered that a vessel belonging to the Parliament party should be seized when it got to St. IIO THE STORY OF AMERICA. Mary's, and its commander arrested on a charge of treason against the King. This made the Protestants very angry, and they allowed Clay borne to come in and take possession of his old island of Kent; so when Calvert returned he found everything in a very bad state, and he and his council and their friends were driven from the colony, and had to go to Virginia for safety. Captain Edward Hill, a Virginian, was made Governor, but everything was done about as Clayborne said. Though he was such a determined man, he did not understand how to govern, and while he remained, there was constant quarreling and dissatisfaction in the colony. The Jesuit priests had to leave St, Mary's. They built a mission on the Bay of St. Inigo, and here Governor Calvert erected a fort, with a mill inside and a few buildings about, besides a chapel. Calvert collected his friends on the Virginia border, and in April surprised St. Mar^^'s, and took it with but little trouble. The people seemed to have been glad to get back a man who would govern them with firmness and order. Captain Edward Hill was sent back to Virginia, and Clayborne escaped to Jamestown. Governor Calvert died in 1647, leaving Thomas Green to be his successor, and Mistress Margaret Brent the adminis- tratrix of his enormous possessions. She was a remarkable woman, with great strength of will, and a good understanding of business and government affairs, Maryland continued to be free to people of all religions, and the gentle Catholic missionaries continued their work. In many ways this was the most successful colony in its beginning upon the Atlantic coast. Its leaders were men of good blood and training, with a sincere rever- ence for God. and some experience in government. Their laws were suited to the time and the people, and Lord Baltimore's name is still held in high regard in the city which is called after him. FOR FURTHER REIADING: Biography — Spark's "Calvert." Mill's "Founders of Maryland." Fiction— Mathilda Douglas' "Black Beard." CHAPTER XVI. NEW JERSEY — THE SETTLEMENT UNDER PETER MINUET — OPPOSITION OF THE DUTCH — THE TRIUMPHS OF THE DUTCH UNDER PETER STUYVESANT — END OF SWEDISH INDEPENDENCE IN AMERICA. ;EW JERSEY was the only State settled by the Swedes. In 1614, when the first Dutch settled their fort on Manhattan Island, they built also a redoubt on what is now the New Jersey shore, and the whole of this region they called New Netherlands. But little attention was paid to this, and the ground was practically unoccupied. Ten years later, William Usselinex, of Antwerp, who had first succeeded in establishing the great Dutch West India Company, visited Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus was King of Sweden then, and before him, Usselinex laid the plan of founding a Swedish colony in America, telling him of the great profits which might arise from the trade there. The King was much impressed with the business-like eloquence of the Dutchman, and perhaps still more impressed with the idea that another Christian church might be built upon savage shores. He felt that Sweden had been behind the other nations, and it would greatly add to his power and reputation if he were to further such a scheme. The Diet of Sweden favored the King's project, and, therefore, when Gustavus Adolphus was killed, in 1632, on the battle-field, the plans which he had laid were carried out. It was several years, however, before the company was formed, calling itself the Sweden West India Company. Peter Minuet, who had been dis- charged from his post as Governor, asked to have charge of its first expedition. It was given him, on account of the experience he had had, and in the autumn of 1637, he set sail from Gottenburg, with two 112 THE STORY OF AMERICA.. vessels and fifty emigrants. These vessels entered Delawaie Bay and sailed up the river, which they named after their Queen, Christina. Minuet bought of the Indians all the land on the west side of South river, from Cape Henlopen to near where Trenton now stands. As usual in such purchases, the land was to run westward indefinitely. They built a fort near the present site of Wilmington. The Dutch promptly resented this intrusion upon their territory, and sent down a sounding proclamation, which warned Minuet, in the most serious terms, that he was trespassing upon their rights; but the Swedes were charmed with the countr}^ so in contrast to their bleak native land, and were in no mind to leave it. Minuet had said, in answer to the first question asked him by the Dutch, that he came for wood and water, but as the Swedes began gardening and building, he was forced to confess the truth. To the Dutch proclamation, however, he paid no heed, but went on working upon his fort and trading house and establishing commerce with the Indians. Twenty-four men were placed in possession, and vessels were sent home well laden, to return with more emigrants. Though the Dutch were very indignant, they hesitated to venture against the determined and well-armed Swedes, who took a very flourishing trade away from the Dutch West India Company. The first summer and winter passed pleasantly with them, but in the second winter their supplies became low, and they seriously thought, at one time, of going to the Dutch at Manhattan, or of finding a way for returning to their native home. In the spring, however, matters became better. Some trade was established in New Netherlands,- and further additions to the colony came from Sweden, bringing with them abundant supplies. They were an exceedingly industrious and saving people. Their selection for a settlement had been most happy; they lived at peace with each other and with the Indians, and in a short time their little towns began to wear a look of vigorous prosperity, especially in the autumn, when more colonists came, with tools and mechanics to use them. Three ships, at least, came in the autumn, and it is said that many were anxious to come, but had been unable to do so for want of ship-room. The following summer (1641) Minuet died in the fort which he had built. The Swedes were much attached to him, and mourned him deeply. A Swede — HoUeandare — became Gov- ernor in his place. The English pursued toward them the policy which has made them the greatest nation in the world. They were bent on conquest, and constantly interfered with their quiet neighbors. At length a number A BRIEF AUTHORITY. II3 of New England colonists, under the charge of Robert Cogswell, left Connecticut and came to the South river, having heard that that region was especially beautiful. William the Testy, Governor of the Dutch,, protested in his usual high-flown language, but the English quietly worked on, and before the end of the summer, had planted corn and built trading posts on Salem creek and on the Schuylkill. New Haven took these towns under her especial protection, and William the Testy knew that it would be useless to come in conflict with the New Eng- land confederation of colonies. The Swedes, as well as the Dutch, were vexed at this intrusion of the English, and in 1642, when the Dutch sent a commissar^' to force the intruders away, the people at Fort Christina gave them all Ihe help they could. The English were obliged to yield. They were taken prisoners to Manhattan, and then sent to their own homes. New Haven thought it best not to resent this insult to her dignity. About this time a fort was built twelve miles below where Philadel- phia now stands, and called the New Gottenburg. The building of this was superintended by John Printz, a cavalry lieutenant in the vSwedish service, who had been sent out to take the place of Holleandare as Governor. Near the fort, Printz built a manor house, magnificent for that time, which he called Printz Hall. The home government: appropriated a large sum of money for the support of the colony, and. promised to keep it supplied with soldiers. Printz was a very over- bearing and proud man, who, from first to last, managed the affairs of the colony with decision and dignity. Neither English nor Dutch; were allowed longer to take liberties with the Swedes. His fort of New Gottenburg compelled every vessel to show her colors as she passed, and no trade was allowed which did not pay tribute. The Dutch continued to send out fierce letters, but to these, a man like Printz was not likely to pay any attention. The English tried to trade on the rivers which the Swedes now claimed, but they were promptly arrested by order of the Governor, and the English learned that for once they were not to be allowed to have their own way. In 1645, t^^ rather amiable commissary at the Dutch fort, Nassau^ was removed by William the Testy, of New Amsterdam. The officer who took his place was more aggressive in his nature, and seized the first opportunity to put the authority of the Swedes to test. Disputes began between the governors of the colonies, and much diplomacy, and^ to tell the truth, no little deceit was used. When Hudde, the new Governor of the Dutch fort, tried to start a settlement on some land 114 '^^E STORY OF AMERICA. which he had bought near the present site of Philadelphia, Printz sent some men to stop it, and the Dutch arms were torn down and used in a manner which greatly outraged the feelings of the patriotic colonists. Letters of great stateliness and hostility were exchanged, but the choleric Governor Printz refused to listen to the sensible advice of Hudde. When the sergeant, by whom Hudde had sent his letter, reached Printz Hall, and had got through the army of servants around it to where the Governor stood upon the steps, the letter was snatched from him and thrown carelessly to a man in waiting. After standing about unnoticed for some time, the Dutch soldier begged for a reply. This request was met in a way peculiar to the plethoric Printz, who weighed about four hundred pounds, and was a man of extraordinary muscle. He picked up the unfortunate sergeant and threw him violently out of doors, taking a gim for the purpose of shooting him. After this there could be nothing but quarrels between the two nations. The Dutch trade was rapidly decreasing, for the Swedes kept both them and the English off the valuable lands which they occupied, and from which the Dutch had formerly made much money. Large companies of settlers continued to come to New Sweden, and these later settlers were of a much better class than those which had come at first. When New Netherland was at its most abject state, under the mismanagement of William the Testy, New Sweden wore an air of considerable prosperity. From the mouth of the Schuylkill to the Capes of Henlopen and May, Governor Printz held absolute control. It was one of the richest territories on the Atlantic coast, with sweeping hills and magnificent forests of trees. Not only did they claim the lovely waters of the Delaware, but many streams and winding creeks as well. Before them lay the bay, one hundred miles in length. When Peter Stuyvesant was appointed Governor of New Netherlands, the policy was somewhat changed. For several years Stuyvesant could do little but support Hudde in the position which he had taken, and to sustain, in a negative way, the title of the Dutch, but at length he found time to visit the Swedish territory, and, being an old soldier, saw immediately the cause of the Dutch failures. Fort Nassau, instead of being at the mouth of the Delaware, was far up the stream, and quite useless to «protect against invasion. The Swedes had taken possession of the mouth of the Schuylkill. At the confluence of these two rivers, trade even then found its center. Printz had seen that this must be the case, and had built his forts there and barred the approach to that point bv others further down the Delaware. Modem commerce has improved A BRIEF AUTHORITY. II5 the selection of Printz, by concentrating the shipping trade of Philadel- phia at exactly this point. Stuyvesant saw that Fort Nassau was useless, and ordered its destruction. He bought from the Indians all the land from Christina to Bombay Hook. Within this territory, about four miles below the mouth of the Christina, is the bold promontory, which commands a view of the Delaware both up and down. On this point, where the town of Newcastle now stands, they built Fort Casimir. Governor Printz was indignant, and said that this was an invasion on the soil of the Swedes, but Stuyvesant seems to have quieted him in some way, and the Swedes no longer commanded the Delaware. Their fort at the mouth of the Salem creek was abandoned as useless, but Printz was too proud to tell the real reason for its evacuation, and gave it out that the mosquitoes had been to bad for them to remain there longer. The Swedes and the Dutch were united about this time in a common fear. They dreaded the English much more than they did each other, and made a compact of mutual protection. It is certainly true that the English continued to cast envious eyes at the beautiful stretch of country with its genial climate and broad, noble hills. Besides, English- men do not like to be beaten, and will hardly admit defeat. They had not forgiven the Swedes and Dutch for uniting to drive them from this place a few years before, and, shortly after the compact between the two governors, sent a company of fifty persons from New Haven to make another attempt at an English settlement on the Delaware. They stopped at New Amsterdam to visit Governor Stuyvesant, and to tell him their purpose, but the independent Governor arrested them promptly, and only let them go when the}- promised to return to New Haven. Printz, however, had nothing of the diplomat in his composition, and could not abide the Dutch so near him, so he sent to Sweden for aid, but his impatience would not let him wait until he received an answer, and he sailed for Sweden himself, passing on his way John Rysingh, with a force of about three hundred men, who had been sent out to his relief The first act of this force was to demand the capture of Fort Casimir. The fort yielded without resistance, for they had no powder. The bark of the Dutch was apt to be much worse than their bite. Thus the Swedes were again in absolute possession of the South river, and all the Dutch in and about the fort were made to take the oath of allegiance to Sweden, or else forced, to leave that part of the country. Fort Casimir was called Fort Trinity, because it was taken II 6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. on Trinity Sunday. It can be imagined that the excitement in New Amsterdam was great, and that the indignation meetings among the hot-headed Dutchmen were many. Governor Stuyvesant felt, with some justice, that he had been unfairly treated, and seized every opportunity for retaliation. In this, the directors in Holland sustained him, but the winter passed and spring came before he was able to make prepa- rations for humbling the Swedes. At length a fleet of seven vessels, manned by a force of from six hundred to seven hundred men, sailed toward the South river. This was not until the loth of September. All the Swedes in the country did not number more than half the invading force. Resistance was absurd. The Swedes surrendered, and a part of them were made to take the oath of allegiance to the high and mighty lords and pratroons of this New Netherland province. Next, Fort Christina was taken, and after a siege of twelve days, a third fort surrendered. The invaders destroyed the little village of Christinaham, burning the houses and killing the cattle and seizing all the plunder they could. At length Rysing surrendered, conditionally. It was declared that the property belonging to the Swedes was to be unmolested, and that all who wished could have free passage to Europe. So ended Sweden's rule in America. Some Swedes still lived along the banks of the Delaware and cultivated their farms, doing much to develop early the best resources of that country. Stuyvesant appointed Johans Paul Jaquet as Governor over the southern territor>^ of the West India Company. The Swedish colony was now called New Anistel, and the burgomasters of Amsterdam became much interested in their new possessions, making great offers to those who would move thither. The following years, however, were full of discontent. Malaria, as in all new agricultural settlements, weakened and dispirited the colonists, and though the farms promised well, the harvests were not plentiful, for insects of various sorts nearly destroyed the crops. Death became very frequent,. especially among the children, and they came so near famine that they were obliged to use their seed corn for food. The Amsterdam Company no longer sent them sup- plies, as it had promised to do, and began to tax them. The colonists lost hope. Many moved to Virginia. Some returned to their own countries, and those who had contracted with the company to remain for a gi\ en length of time, escaped through the forest to the southern settlem-^.i.s- FOR FURTHER READING: History — Carpenter's "History of New Jersey." Smith's "History of the Colony of New Jersey." CHAPTER XVII. ITHE ''PATROONS" OF NEW NETHERLAND — THE SETTLEMENT AT MANHATTAN — THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE .DUTCH — ESTABLISHMENT OF POPULAR LAND LAWS. ^■^ T will be remembered that we left the Dutch in Y^ their settlements upon Long Island and the Hudson, just at the time when they were begin- ning to feel the need of a firmer government. None of the settlements had been prosperous until they were given an interest in the land they occupied. It was certain that this scheme must be used with the Dutch, for New Amsterdam settled but slowly, and it was seen that trading-posts were not the best means of establishing civilization. Only poor emigrants came for a long time, but after a while rich men from Holland were sent out, and given privileges by the Dutch West India Company. Each of these important gentlemen was allowed to found a colony of fifty persons, and to own a tract of land sixteen miles in length on any shores or streams not yet occupied. Westward there was no limit placed on his possessions, which were allowed to run into the interior as far as they might — to the Pacific coast, had he but known there was a Pacific coast. His colony was to be established within four years from the time the land was granted him, and he was required, by just provision not usually employed, to pay the Indians for his land. His estate was called a "manor," and it was quite independent of colonial government. He was actually a lord of the soil, and lived in much elegance and with a full sense of importance, such as the men of his time and nation were apt to feel. These "patroons" as they were called, were allowed all privileges, except the manufacture of woolen or cotton goods, which the West India Company wished to keep a monopcly of. The company IlS ' THE STORY OF AMERICA. supplied the manors with negro slaves, which they imported from Guinea, but after a time this feudal system began to give way. There seemed to be something in the air of the New World which was opposed to the pretentions of nobility. Even the stately patroons came to see, after awhile, that they - were regarded more as land-holders than as lords. It was so easy to see the injustice of giving a man such advantages over his fellows that the people would not patiently endure it. Nothing could more firmly prove that the plan of the government of Europe was, and is, false and wrong, since it fails to give men equal opportU' nities. It has existed so long in the Old World that it has almost come to seem right. Here, where it could be seen at its beginning, it was recognized as altogether wrong. The company had had a selfish reason for employing the feudal system in the New Netherlands. It believed that if it intrusted the care of immigration to the patroons it would be saved the expense of sustaining the government, and if each patroon protected his own property, with men established under him as serfs, there would be no need of any officers to do so. For, indeed, the people under these Dutch lords were little else than serfs. No "man or woman, son or daughter, man servant or maid servant," could leave a patroon' s service during the time he had agreed to remain, except by his written consent. On the other hand, the patroon was under no obligations to his people, but could do as he saw fit. It brought about evils almost as great as those of slavery. The right which was given to the patroons to settle upon any terri- tory not yet occupied, soon began to affect the great West India Company. They had wished to secure and retain a monopoly of trade, but by the short-sighted means employed they defeated this. A number of the Amsterdam directors availed themselves of this opportunity, and settled upon immense tracts of land, to which they gave high-sounding names. When it was too late the company perceived what it had done. The enterprising directors hastened to settle colonies upon their land, and so settlements were spread down to the South river, along the shores of what we now call Delaware Bay, and to the present town of Louiston, Delaware. One director went over to Cape May and bought a large tract of land there. One of the largest settlements was on Bear's Island, about twelve miles below Albany, to Smack's Island, and extended two days' journey inland. Afterward this estate was carried to the confluence of the Mohawk, and thus it was again extended. Another director acquired a vast quantity of land opposite Manhattan OLD WINE IN NEW BOTTLES. II 9 Island, and gave it the name of Hoboken — Hacking Island. This man afterward got the whole of Staten Island, and then the region where Jersey City now stands. Upon this estate the owner bestowed the name of Pavonia. The patroons were not satisfied to confine themselves to agriculture. They began a most profitable trading in peltries, so that the exports of Holland, in 1626, were valued at six thousand guilders. This, of course, was an infringement upon the rights of the Dutch Company, which drew up an order forbidding any one to deal in peltries, maize or wampum. The constant disputes which arose out of this greatly delayed the progress of New Netherland.. The colony founded in Delaware, where Louiston now stands, was called Swaanendael, or the Valley of Swans, and here a curious thing happened. A pillar had been set up bearing the arms of Holland, in token of possession. This an Indian chief saw, and thinking it would make delightful pipes, took it down and proceeded to make it up into them. But to this piece of symbolical tin the Dutch attached a great deal of importance, and the officer left in charge of the colony fretted and fumed, with many high-sounding Dutch words, until the Indians, thinking that their chief had committed a terrible crime, put him to death in hopes of regaining the friendship of the Dutch. The officer explained then that his wild gestures and oaths had simply meant that he wished to have the chief reproved. The Indians were naturally out of patience to find that the}' had made such a sacrifice to so little a purpose, and soon after, a party scattered themselves through the town in a friendly manner, and then fell upon and murdered every person at the post, leaving nothing but the ruins of the *>urned houses. Peter Minuet, returning from Europe at this time, mought best to make a treaty of peace with these Indians, ' and with the representatives of all other tribes which he met. He went to Jamestown instead of visiting the Dutch colony, which was at that time without a governor. A short time after this Wouter Van Twiller was sent over from Holland as Governor. He had married a niece of Van Rensselaer, the chief of the patroons, and came in much state and great finery'. He had just got settled in his manor at New Amsterdam when an English vessel came into the harbor. The officers of the vessel dined with Van Twiller and his ceremonious Dutch friends, and made a great show of courtesy, but they coolly announced their intention of going up the river to trade with the Indians. Of course, all the Dutchmen fell into a rage. They swore that the English should not trespass upon their I20 THE STORY OF AMERICA. grounds, and in a warlike fever caused the flag of Orange to be raised over the fort and saluted with three guns, while the English quietly sailed on their way up the stream. Van Twiller saw that more active measures would have to be taken, so he got all the people in the fort before his door and ordered a barrel of wine to be brought out. Upon this he mounted and set the example to his men of drinking glass after glass in defiance of the Englishmen. In the meantime the English had sailed out of sight. Several days after a force of soldiers did go after the scornful Englishmen and compelled them to return, but the Governor's reputation was gone. Though the settlement at Manhattan was twenty years old, it was still little more than a trading post. The company seemed to sap its strength. The interest was not so much in the soil as the money that could be got out of the country. Some new houses had been built which were firm and substantial, and three great wind-mills had been erected. About one hundred soldiers were well quartered. A good church had been built and shops established by various tradesmen. But it was lacking in that appearance of permanence and domesticity which characterized the New England colonies. Nothing could have been more crooked than the streets. The houses were of wood, with gable ends built of small black and yellow bricks, brought over from Holland. The doors and windows were many, and the date of the building of the house was put in iron letters in the gable; frequently the name of the builder was added. The Hollanders were noted for their cleanliness. Indeed, the people of Holland were scrupulously clean, at a time when the most cultivated people of England were walking on dirty rushes and had not yet learned to clean out their courts. The Dutch in the New Netherlands spun linen as they had done in the old country, and heaped up their closets with it. Their silver and brass-ware was kept perfectly polished. The floors were covered with white sand, on which figures were traced with a broom. Their stately furniture had claw-feet of metal. The time was told by hour-glasses and sun-dials, and neither of the time- pieces were allowed to keep the pompous Dutchmen in a rush. They ate plenty and drank plenty, knew how to tell a good story and how to laugh at it, and were forever having betrothal feasts, wedding banquets and gala days. Christmas, as we celebrate it, is a custom introduced by the Dutch. They taught us how to make and exchange colored eggs at Easter, and but for them, we should never have had the practice of New Year's calling. They loved to smoke and to drink, and thei»' OLD WINE IN NEW BOTTLES. 121 ■hospitality was very great. The reputation for this their descendants have never lost. Then, as now, the Dutch housekeepers were excellent cooks, and were especially noted for the delicious cakes and cookies which they made, and which everyone who went to their houses had to share with them. Though religion was not, as in Plymouth, the object of their lives, they went to church steadily and held their "dominies" in high esteem. There was a great deal of comfort, but little money, and wampum or beaver skins were frequently used in the place of money. The women dressed as they had done in Holland, with short, bright-colored, quilted petticoats, and knitted stockings of bright green, purple, or red. About their heads were white muslin caps, beneath which their hair was plastered down with pomatum. The portly Dutchman — and they were all portly — wore coats of linsey-woolsey, with wide skirts and large buttons of brass or silver. They sported several pairs of knee breeches, one over the other, with long, knitted stockings and immense buckles at their knees and on their shoes. One of their chief industries was ship building. They were very proud of their vessels, and gave them remarkable names, such as "77/^ Angel GabrieV^ and ''''King Solomon y Van Twiller became so ridiculous in his management of the New Netherlands that he was removed, and William Kieft, who afterward acquired the name of "William the Testy," was sent out. He found things in a very bad state. There had been altogether too much drinking, too much smoking of pipes and telling of stories. The walls of the fort were down, the houses in need of repairs, the work shops in a useless condition. William the Testy began to straighten out things at once, not as may be imagined in the most amiable way. The company had bought back Pavonia and the Valley of the Swans, and thus checked some of the abuses of the patroons' rule. Affairs reached a crisis, for the people were becoming impatient at having first one monopoly and then another over them, and, therefore, the council of nineteen, at Old Amsterdam, decided that each man should have as much land as he could properly cultivate, and the Dutchmen were given free passage to New Netherland. iVffairs began to improve imme- diately, not only along Staten Island, but away up to Albany. But with the English there had been many dijfficulties, and they were steadily encroaching upon the land claimed by the Dutch. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Davis' "History of New Amsterdam." Fiction — P. H. Myres' "The First of the Knickerbockers." P. H. Myres' "The Young Patroon." CHAPTER XVIIl. "^nttfeirlinrbr J)h^$* THE GOVERNMENT OF WILLIAM THE TESTY — TROUBLE WITH THE INDIANS — THE NIGHT ATTACK ON PAVONIA — REVENGE OF THE INDIANS — DISMISSAL OF KIEFT AND ^^ r\ ARRIVAL OF PETER STUYVESANT. WILLIAM THE TESTY was no wiser in his treatment of the Indians than in his government of the Dutch. The frauds of which the trades- men were constantly guilty were not checked by him, and the serious mistake was made of placing guns in their hands. The Mohawks were enabled to arm four hundred men. This made the other Indian tribes very envious, and even while the Mohawks remained friendly, the other tribes were gradually becoming hostile. When at last, in 1640, a a tax was laid upon the Indians, exacting corn, wampum, and furs from them, the injustice was enough to bring about an open war. The Raritan Indians destroyed the settlement on Staten Island, in revenge for which William the Testy offered a bounty for the head of every Raritan which should be brought to him. Later in the year — this was in 1 64 1 — a young Indian chief murdered a farmer in retaliation for the killing of his uncle. Another private murder was committed by an Indian, and these two crimes arouse' 1 the enmity of all of the Dutch settlements. At the same time, the people considered it wisest and best to use policy. Governor Kieft, however, had nothing politic in his nature. He wished to send out an armed force against the Indians, and would have done so immediately had the people not protested. The tribes at the lower part of the river were not a prey to the enmity of their white neighbors alone, but were constantly harassed by the powerful Mohawks. Man\' of them had to flee from the coast into KNICKERBOCKER DAYS. 123 those dark and interminable forests which stretch westward. Some of these unhappy Indians at last had to take refuge with the whites, so merciless were their Indian foes, and by some of the whites they were treated with great kindness. But certain of the twelve selectmen of New Amsterdam insisted upon attacking the Indians at Pavonia, across the river; and, though the wiser men of the community tried to dissuade them from this action, an armed force was sent to fight them in the dead of night. Perhaps one thousand Indians in the encamp- ment were sleeping quietly in their tents. So sudden was the onslaught that the unfortunate victims believed that it was the Indians from Fort Orange who had fallen upon them, and some of them actually fled to the Dutch settlement for protection, only to learn who their true enemies were. One hundred and twenty Indians were murdered that night, with horrible and indescribable tortures. The limbs and arms were hacked from the little children. They were bound to boards, then cut to pieces. Some of them were thrown into the river to make their parents go after them, where they were kept at bay, by the muskets of the Dutch, until they were drowned. Those who escaped, and came out in the morning to beg for food, were killed in cold blood. Some were drowned, and some burned to death. The troops, marching back to the fort in the morning, were received with many praises. Then, over all the colonies, broke a wave of war and outrage. Everywhere in New Netherland, farmers were killed and wives and children carried away into a terrible imprisonment. Now and then a sort of a half peace was made, only to be broken — first on one side, and then on the other. Late in the summer the tribes on the Hudson Highlands began an open warfare, and made it impossible for trading boats to come up the river. Ann Hutchinson, the witty woman preacher, was killed near New Rochelle. Savages crept into the very villages and murdered men in the twilight. The people had no longer any patience with Kieft. They felt that his terrible cruelty had been responsible for all this suffering. He appointed a council to help him decide upon this difficult matter; and, under this council, a large force of soldiers were armed and thoroughly drilled, with John. Underhill at their head. John Underbill was a Massachusetts captain. A petition was sent to the states general of Holland for help — a petition eloquent with fear and suffering. Through the winter which followed, they lived in a terrible state of anxiety, crowded together at the southern end of the island, and being afraid to venture beyond their 124 THE STORY OF AMERICA. own doors. Occasionally, the Dutch would sally out and succeed in making a small skirmish, which only added to the Indians' hatred. There was a little settlement called Hempstead, on Long Island, where a number of English families were settled. These had been exceed- ingly annoyed by the Indians near them, and prayed that they might be protected by the Dutch. Consequently, one hundred and twenty soldiers made an attack on two Indian villages, which they sacked, killing more than one hundred braves, and carrying some to Manhattan, where they were tortured. Later, the little army marched through the snow-covered forests upon the principal village of the Long Island Indians. This they fired, and furnished light to do a most murderous deed. Only sixty-eight of seven hundred Indians escaped. The Dutch had fifteen men wounded. After this, the proud spirit of the Indians was broken, and, when a fresh force of one hundred and thirty soldiers was sent to New Nether- land, the Indians sulkily retreated to their forests. These soldiers were a terrible burden to the poverty-stricken settle- ment, and Kieft made the great mistake of taxing beer for their sup- port. This was the one thing under the sun which the Dutchmen -would not have taxed, and they begged for Kieft' s dismissal. They liad to wait a whole year before their prayer was answered. In the meantime, the Indians lurked under the very palisades which they had built for their protection, and which stood on a line with the present Wall street, which, of course, took its name from that ancient foftifica- tion. The following spring the Indians signed a treaty of peace with the Dutch, and gathering upon the spot still known as the Battery, smoked the pipe of peace with them. In the wars of the last few years sixteen liundred of the Indians had been killed, and nearly all of the Dutch settlements had been destroyed. In all the province there were no more than three hundred men capable of bearing arms, and the settlers prayed for a new Governor, who should bring to them peace and quietness. In the Connecticut valley, the English had steadily crowded upward, until Dutch control was gone. Fort Nassau, however, was still retained by the Dutch, and established as an important Indian trading post. On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant, the new Governor of the New Netherlands, arrived. He was an old soldier of bravery and experience, and lost a leg in his country's service. He wore, in the place of that member, a wooden leg bound with silver. The solemn burghers met Jiim with uncovered heads, and he allowed them, it is said, to stand in. KNICKERBOCKER DAYS. 1 27 the sun for several hours in this way, and seated himself with great ceremony while they remained standing. These king-like airs were not well received, but, in a short time, the honest vigor of the man began to be felt in the colony, and his very tyranny was in happy contrast to the former governor's weakness. The men who had brought a complaint against Kieft were not sustained by Stuyvesant. He said it was treason to petition against magistrates, very wisely thinking that it would not do to allow such an example to pass unreproved, for he knew that he himself might soon meet with popular disfavor. The men who had complained of Kieft' s abuses were tried and condemned to suffer severe punishments The West India Company was no longer much interested in the colony, and left the severe and angry-natured Stuyvesant to do as he pleased. As for Kieft, he started to sail for Holland, but his ship was pounded to pieces on the Welsh rocks, and, at the last, he was seized with repentance for the murders which he had committed and the cruelty with which he had treated his friends. The two men who had been persecuted, because of their complaints against him to the Governor at Holland, were on the ship with him, and he called them to him, saying: "Friends, I have been unjust toward you; can you forgive me?" Governor Stuyvesant began to lay heavy taxes upon the people, and, though in many ways they lived safely and well under him, with a sense of security in his firmness and courage, they nevertheless felt that he was an unjust Governor. He was assisted in his affairs, by a board of nine men. These men were only allowed to advise the Governor. They could make no laws, and give no orders without his approval. One of the first things which Governor Stuyvesant tried to do, was to come to a pleasant understanding with the English; but though the English wrote polite letters, they were not inclined to remove their boundaries farther from the Dutch, and they even claimed that they held the first title to Long Island. Finally, a Dutch captain seized an English ship, and, against this high-handed act. Governor Eaton, of New Haven, protested vigorously. Henceforth, he and Governor Stuyvesant wrote hot and furious letters to each other, and the two Governors quarreled about things which school-boys might have been ashamed to get angry over. He got in disfavor with his own colonists at the same time, by putting a check upon their tradings with the Indians, for, in spite of his forbiddance, they sold the Indians arms and ammunition. It was through this cause that he got into his fierce 128 THE STORY OF AMERICA. quarrel with the young patroon, Van Rensselaer, for the old patroon of that name was now dead. He could not well control a lord owning such vast extent of territory, and used to exercising such power, without getting into trouble. When the young patroon defied Stuyvesant's authority, the Governor sent a squad of soldiers to enforce it. These he ordered to take stone and timber from the patroon' s land for the purpose of repairing the fortifications at Fort Orange, but the people of the village around about, who were loyal to the young lord, would not permit such intrusion, even from their great Governor, and, for once, Peter the Headstrong failed to have his way. So, with many jealousies and small envies, the next few years of the New Netherland colonies went on. Any one wishing to study the history of New York can find plenty, both amusing and instructive, in the pages of the old State chronicles, but, for one who wishes to take a broad and hasty view of national history, it is hardly worth while to linger over the foolish quarrels and pretensions of these Dutch burghers. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— Cooper's ' ' Water- Witch . ' ' J. H. Paulding's "The Dutchman's Fireside. "Woolfert's Roost" and "Rip Van Winkle," from Washington Irving's "Sketch Book." CHAPTER XIX. THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COMPANY — THE TRIALS OF THE FIRST YEAR- ARRIVAL OF ROGER WILLIAMS — JOHN ELIOT — PERSECU- TION OF WILLIAMS — HIS SETTLEMENT AT PROVIDENCE. ^NE of the most important colonies has not yet been spoken of, for, though it had much influence in forming the United States, it was not made until June, 1629, when the other settlements were well under way. Six vessels, with their crews, four hundred and six men, women and children, one hundred and forty head of cattle, forty goats, and a large quantity of provisions, tools, arms and building materials, left England, and arrived at Salem, Massa- chusetts. It will be remembered that a few rude buildings had been put here by people who, for one reason or another, saw fit to leave the colony at Plymouth. Like the Plymouth colony, this had a deep and dignified purpose, and for this reason it and the Plymouth colony are the best remembered and the most talked of to this day. These English wanderers did not come to make money. They came to worship God as they saw fit. They were Puritans. Not like the Puritans of Plymouth, pilgrims who had journeyed from one place to another, but people who had protested against the practices of the Established Church of England and who had found it necessary to seek the new land if they wished to live the life of their liking. They had come out under the royal patent of the Massachusetts Bay Company, which had been formed at Dorchester. John Endicott was made Governor. He was a stem man, who, having made up his mind that a certain thing was best to do, never yielded or gave way. He showed no 130 THE STORY OF AMERICA. mercy toward any one who broke his rules. He was very honorable ind straightforward, but he wished everyone to be of his way of thinking. This was shown by his treatment of the Reverend Ralph Smith, one of the several ministers who came over in the fleet. It is hard to find in what small particular Mr. Smith differed from his fellows, but he had some shade of belief which did not agree with their' s, and he was not suffered to stay in the colony, but was obliged to take his family and go to Nantasket, where he became so poor and underwent such hardships that the Plymouth people took pity on him and invited him to their settlement. Before the colony had been established six weeks, a day of fasting and prayer was held. One of the ministers who had come over to aid as counsel to Endicott was chosen pastor, and another teacher. A delegation was invited from Plymouth to witness the ceremony of establishing the government of the colony. The very life and conver- sation of men was to be subject to the rules laid down. The book of common prayer, belonging to the Church of England, was discarded, and a covenant was set up according to directions found in the New Testament. It was hard to get all of the ministers who came over as counsel, to agree. One of them went back to England, as he could not approve of the methods of the Reformed Church. Two of his followers, John and Samuel Brown, men of a good deal of importance, would have nothing to do with the new church, but called about them all who still had sympathy with the Church of England, and held separate meetings, worshiping after the Episcopalian method. Of course, Endicott would have none of this. He summoned the Browns before him. The Browns held, that if men had come to America to escape intolerance, they should not be persecuted because of their religion, but the ministers held that they had come because they wished to escape the sinful corruptions of the church, and the Browns were sent back to England. Thus the Massachusetts Bay colony showed at the first, why it was started, and how it intended to govern. It did not wish to be governed by the council in London, nor looked after by a corrupt church, and a still more corrupt court. They therefore begged for a transfer of government, and in the course of a few weeks they were allowed to become an independent colony. This showed great courage and force of character, for the protection of the King was thought by all but these men to be a great thing. Endicott and his friends had the pluck to take matters upon their own shoulders. It was necessary now to make new appointments, and THE OLD BAY SETTLEMENT. 13I John Winthrop was elected Governor, with six men as council. John Winthrop was a lawyer of good birth, with quite a fortune for that day. He had a gentle nature and great tenderness of heart, though he did not lack in firmness. He was in England at the time of his election, but sailed immediately for Salem. He found the colony had suffered from the experieaces which met most settlers during their first winter in America. Eighty of them had died, and they had many tales of woe to tell. Within a short time one thousand persons followed Winthrop to Salem. Settlements were made at many places along the coast, and quite a large one at Charlestown. Winthrop thought it best to strengthen his hold on the possessions of the colony by settling all along the coast. Some of them went up the Charles, and the beginnings of Dorchester, Medford, Watertown, Cambridge, Roxbury, Lynn and Charlestown were made. Boston Common was settled on because of the excellent spring of water there, and Ann Pollard, a merry young o;irl, was the first person, according to tradition, to leap ashore where Boston now stands. There was a great deal of sickness in all of these settlements — partly from want of proper shelter, partly from the malaria, which always comes with the clearing of ground, and more than all, from the want of a variety of wholesome food. In Salem, some had reached such a bad condition that a day of fasting and prayer was ordered. Their prayers seemed to meet with prompt answer, for Captain William Pierce, who had made so many journeys over the Atlantic, appeared at the right moment with a large supply of provisions. On that ship was a man named Roger Williams. Williams was a young man about thirty years of age. On all subjects he was thoroughly radical. The condi- tion of his mind then was like that of most Americans now. He believed that ever>^ man had a right to do a thing in his own way. He had no respect for anything simply because it was established and approved of by the majority. He must have been an attractive young fellow, with a good deal of personal magnetism. Governor Winthrop liked him very well, but he shocked the Governor by his out-spoken ways. He was invited to act as teacher of the Boston church, but upon examination it was found that he did not agree with their religious beliefs. That ended it, of course. He would not even join the church, because the members would not openly express their repentance for ever having communed with the Church of England. He held, too, that the magistrate had no right to punish a breach of the Sabbath, and that civil government and religious government should not be confounded. 132 THE STORY OF AMERICA. His eloquence was attractive, and he was chosen minister of the Bostoa church, in spite of these heresies. Endicott, down at Salem, heard of this, and gave them no peace until he was driven from the church and had taken refuge at Plymouth. Governor Bradford had no fault to find with him, and he did much active work in the course of the next year. Little by little the Massachusetts Bay colony grew into a common- wealth. It is true that it had enemies. There was one gay Sir Christopher Gardiner, who laid conspiracies against Winthrop, but he was finally arrested and sent back to England. Morton, of Merrimont, had never forgotten the time when Endicott had grimly marched over and pulled down his May-pole, around which he and his hard-drinking friends were dancing with a company of Indian girls. This was a little colony called Merriment, of which Morton was the leading spirit Captain Standish had been obliged to take this man prisoner for his disorderly conduct, and to send him over to England in the custody of John Oldham, who had worked himself into favor with the Puritans again. Sir Ferdinando Gorges also quarreled with the Massachusetts Bay Company about patents, and the Browns were still sulky, but none of these did the colony any great harm. The ministers largely con- trolled matters, and to be a good citizen, according to the status of the colony, was also to be religious. One of these reverend gentlemen, John Eliot, of Roxbury, was renowned for his saintliness of character, and the work he did among Indians. For years he studied the Indian dialects, and was finally able to preach to them in their own tongue. He made an entire translation of the Bible into the Indian tongue, one of the most important philo- logical works ever published in the United States. Copies of it are still extant, and sell at fabulous prices to collectors of Americana. He converted a whole tribe of Indians, who were known afterward as the praying Indians, and for whom the rest of the savages had a great contempt. Eliot's work was very difficult. The Indian was strangely lacking in moral sense, and it was necessary to teach him many things, which an European would know by instinct, about matters of right and wrong. Even the colonists seem not to have thought very well of the praying Indians. They preferred to have the native left in his savage state. Another minister of especial note was John Cotton, a man of such winning and triumphant eloquence that he influenced all who cime near him. After a time Roger Williams came back to Salem, and immediately got into trouble. Governor Bradford, his friend, was THE OLD BAY SETTLEMENT. 1 33 bound to admit that Roger had some very strange ways of thinking and acting, and he warned the church at Salem against him. But the. young man was so attractive that he overcame prejudices of this sort, and the Salem brethren took him into the church, where he beg-an prophecying. His prophecies were not liked by the Salem people, and they arrested him for a treatise which he had written while in Ply- mouth, relating to the Indian title to the country, for he did not believe in the expulsion of the Indians. Nothing could be proved to his harm, however, on that charge. But Mr. Williams could not keep quiet. He certainly had very peculiar ideas. He convinced all of the women that it was immodest for them to go out of their houses unless they were veiled. Ver}' naturally this was approved of neither by young men nor old men, and Mr. Cotton, the melting preacher, was called upon to persuade the wives and virgins that it was not necessary for them to hide their fair faces. Mr. Cotton went further, and repeated his sermon in the Boston lecture course, where Endicott fiercely got up and quarreled with him on the subject, and the debate got so hot that the Governor had to put a stop to it. Endicott was a fervid follower of Williams by this time. He went around looking everywhere for signs of anti-Christ, and actually cut St. George's cross out of the flag of England one time when he found it in Salem streets. The English soldiers very naturally refused to march after a flag which had been shorn of its sign of victory, and Endicott' s rash act made such a disturb- ance among the soldiers that he was dismissed from the council, and it was some time before he was readmitted. Williams and his friends asked the council for a grant of land at Marblehead, but it was not granted them. It was the first time that a church had been refused land to build on, and, of course, it only strengthened Roger Williams' following. Endicott' s protest was so wild that he was imprisoned until he was ready to apologize. Williams was accused of unheard-of heresies. He held that the State had no right to meddle with a man's conscience or religious opinions. He was right, but he was also disagreeable. He would not bend to the advice of the court, nor take the warnings of the other ministers, and he was finally banished, though he was allowed to remain in town until spring. There was an attempt to put him on board a ship and send him to England, but he escaped and fled to the woods. There he lived, on the best of terms with the Indians, for whom he had a great respect and aflfection. His dealings with them were upon a basis of equalityo Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, gave Williams a large tract of 134 'I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. land, but the generous minister kept little for himself, and he gave away his lands to all that he thought in want. The place where he lived he called Providence, in his gratitude to God for having escaped from his enemies. Many persons persecuted for their religious beliefs in the different colonies came to live with him. Among these was Ann Hutchinson, a woman with a high sense of humor and of independence, who had mimicked some of the dry old preachers in Boston, and had drawn about her a number of people fond of a more simple and straight forward doctrine. Ann Hutchinson, although she is almost forgotten, was one of the most remarkable women of the early history of this country. The new colony, after much trouble, obtained a charter under the name of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Never was there a more radical man than Roger Williams. The laws of his colony were based upon a plan of perfect religious toleration. He held that the most Paganish, Jewish, Turkish or anti- Christian conscience should be pro- tected in his colony. Such a thing was unheard of. It was new to the world. Thus was Rhode Island settled. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Arnold's "Rhode Island." Fiction — Miss Sedgwick's "Hope Leslie." Holland's "Bay Path." Longfellow's "Rhyme of Sir Christopher.'* CHAPTER XX. W^t \mn^n trf SmH^HHott* THE AMERICAN INDIAN — THE DESTRUCTION OF THE BLOCK ISLAND INDIANS — THE EXTINCTION OF THE PEQUOT TRIBE— THE FEDERATION OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES. white man's first business in America was to destroy the forests. Before he could build him a home he laid his axe at the foot of a tree. From the very first, he showed how he dififered from the Indian, for the Indian lived in the forest; he wished to preserve it. The game in it was his means of livelihood. The wilder the streams, the better the fishing, and the only sort of warfare which he knew had to be conducted in the solitudes and fastnesses of the woods. His superstition had made it holy to him; his loves had made it dear, and from the first, the most thoughtful of the Indians had looked with great dread upon the growing power of the white man, and wondered if it could be possible for two nations so different in everything to live together in harmony. In the begin- ning, although the Indian was subtile in his dealings with his enemies, he was true to his friends. He had the naturalness of a child. When he gave his word, he could be trusted. He could endure pain with a bravery only equaled by the old heroes of Sparta. In him was a love of liberty that centuries of injustice has not been able to crush, and in certain directions his mind was trained in a manner unequaled by any except the mystics of Asiatic India. He knew every sign of the forest, and the most timid animal had no match for his cunning. The soli- tudes were an open book to him, and the best power of his intellect was spent in evolving a philosophy from its pages. He held mental and moral qualities in high esteem, and was willing himself to do but little manual labor, leaving that for the women of his tribe. Few nation? in 136 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the world have been found so swift of foot, so keen of sight and hearing, and so clever in detecting signs which no others might see. He was not without imagination or poetry, and for him, mountains, woods, lakes and streams were filled with spirits, good and bad, who watched over his destiny, or thwarted him in his ambitions. His life satisfied him, and so did his religion. It is not strange that the religion which the Englishmen offered him in place of his own was received with coldness. The lives of the Puritans did not set a good example to the Indians, Crimes of a certain nature were very frequent among them, and it is certain that the Christians did not teach the Indians honesty. Too much theology and too little religion naturally confused the Indian as to what the Christian faith really was, so when they saw themselves being driven inland, mile after mile, they knew that it meant the extinction of their race. They were forced to leave behind them the places which they cherished with a love almost fierce in its nature. The places where their dead lay buried, the monuments to which, day by day, the children added a stone, must all be left behind. The sea was no longer theirs. They saw that in a short time there would be nothing for them to do but march toward the setting sun, leaving the beloved sea behind them. This brooding hatred and distrust had its results. Captain Oldham had once more been taken into the favor of the Puritans, and when his boat was found drifting at sea, with a band of Indians upon it and his dead body on the deck, the colonists made up their minds to revenge his death; so in August of 1636, nearly one hundred men, in five small vessels, sailed from Boston to Block Island — for it was the Block Island Indians who had murdered Oldham. In command of this expedition was John Endicott, the sternest Puritan of them all. To land at Block Island, even in fair weather, was a difficult thing. To do it in a heavy wind was a most dangerous one. Any seaman would shrink from it, but the Boston force did it in the midst of a shower of arrows from the Indians. The invaders stayed upon the island two days, laying waste the two hundred acres of land under cultivation, burning the maize already harvested, as well as the wigwams and all their furniture. Not one of the Englishmen was harmed, but such of the Indians as were left alive remained upon the island without shelter or food, or canoes in which to escape. Most of them perished wretchedly, but a few must have lived, because much later than this, the Indians of Block Island are referred to. Endicott took his men to the mainland near the mouth of what is THE RAVAGES OF CIVILIZATION. 137 now the Thames river. Proud of his victory over the Block Islanders, lie wished to take revenge upon the Pequot Indians, for their murder of a Puritan named Stone. He asked that the Pequot chief be brought to him, but the chief would not come, and the Englishmen and Indians had some engagements, in which the Indians suffered severely. After burning the Indian villages, Endicott's men coasted on up to the mouth of the Connecticut river, where there was a fort under the command of Captain Lion Gardiner, who was much distressed when Endicott stopped there. He had tried to keep on friendly terms with the Indians, and was much more afraid of starving to death than of being killed. Events show that Gardiner was right. The Indians were greatly irritated and were determined to be revenged for the injustice done to the Block Islanders. They came upon the English at all sorts of unexpected places, and destroyed a large part of the corn which Gardiner had planted. It was hardly safe for the men to venture without the fort, for the Indians lurked about it constantly — never seen, but frequently felt. Cattle were killed or stolen, and the settlements near were greatly harassed. Men went to church carrying their weapons in their hands, and were afraid to labor in their own yards. Both men and women were fallen upon in the fields and murdered or carried into captivity. Had the Indians wished, they might have exterminated the English. Roger Williams saw the great danger. No man knew better than he the strength and qualities of the people on both sides. His diplomacy alone prevented a concerted attack by all the Indian tribes upon the colonies. Governor Winthrop and the rest were very glad to receive help from the man whom they had driven out in the dead of night and of winter because of his daring to differ from them. The efforts of Williams secured the friendship of the Narragansetts, who had long been enemies of the Pequots. The Massachusetts General Court decided at their May meeting to go to the help of the people .in the Connecticut valley. They knew that the red cloud of war might sweep on to Massachusetts. Feeling that it was a common peril, the Bay people called upon Plymouth for help, but Plymouth held back. She had certain quarrels to pick with the Bay government. Both Massa- chusetts and Plymouth could take time to think. They were not — like the dwellers on the plantation of the Connecticut — being murdered in their beds, by their well-sweeps, and in their doorways* But in May, a force of ninety men, under the charge of Captain John Mason, sailed from Hartford for Fort Saybrook. Here they were joined by the friendly Uncas, the great Mohegan chief, with a body of 138 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Indians. Mason decided to attack the Pequots in the rear, although this was in disobedience to the orders of the general court. In pursuance of this plan, Mason left the fort and bore away for Narragansett Bay. The Pequots thought he was retreating, and late into the night they sang and boasted that their superior numbers had put the woman-hearted Englishmen to flight. But Mason landed near the entrance of Narra- gansett Bay, and marched eighteen or twenty miles distant on the Pequot frontier. The Narragansetts had a fort here, and Mason was anxious to make sure of their friendship. On the 25th of May the little army made the tedious march through the woods, with little to eat and less to drink, and encamped at night at the head of the Mystic river. Near that was the principal Pequot fort, crowded with men, women and children. Very early in the morning, when the east was first streaked with light. Mason awoke his men. Uncas, the IMohegan chief, guided them near to the palisaded village. There seemed to have been no sentinels about the fort, and, but for the barking of a dog, the Indians would not have known that the Englishmen were upon them. A part of Mason's men rushed in on one side, and the rest upon the other. The Indians could do but little, and, mad with terror, tried to rush for the woods, but there was little chance of escape. Mason was not satisfied with the raj^id work that guns and swords were doing, but cried, "we must burn them," and snatching a brand from one of the smouldering fires at which the evening meal had been prepared, thrust it among the dead leaves that carpeted the wigwams. Some of the Indians, rather than die at the hands of their hated enemies, ran with a pride past all taming into the flame? and perished there. Others, seeing that their wives and children could not escape, threw themselves upon the swords of the Englishmen, who stood in an unbroken circle around the village, and behind whom was a yet sterner and more cruel company of their own countrymen. It was hardly an hour from the time of the attack when the burned and bleeding bodies of nearly seven hundred Indians lay among their smoking wigwams. Only two of the English were killed. There was another Indian village belonging to the Pequots not many miles distant, and in this there were still three hundred and fifty warriors. A handful of men had escaped the morning massacre, and flying to this village, told their countrymen the particulars of the morning slaughter. Mad with sorrow and anger, these were soon upon the trail of the English, Mason's men, exhausted with the terrible fight, a third of them wounded, and all suffering from hunger and the intense thirst which THE RAVAGES OF CIVILIZATION. 139 follows such excitement, were in a very weakened condition, but they were able to repulse the Indians, and in the course of the day were met by a reinforcement of forty men from Boston. The Pequots were now the enemies of all the other tribes of Massa- chusetts and Connecticut, for the Narragansetts and Mohegans allied themselves with the stronger side. This the Indians always did in war- fare. So the Pequots were hunted mercilessly through the forests. They hid themselves in rocks, and caves, and bushes, and wherever they were found they were killed. The worst of it was that they were seldom killed immediately, but were tortured in the most terrible ways. Twenty young Englishmen sometimes pulled the legs and arms of an Indian from their sockets by sheer brutal force. Few of the women and children were killed, but were sent to the West India Islands as slaves. In July, the remnant of this tribe were ensnared in a swamp. Here they fought like wild beasts, with the ferocity of despair, but most of them were killed or taken prisoners, and such as were left met with a fate still more hateful to them. They were permitted to become either jMohegans or Narragansetts, and lost their individuality as a tribe. They were a brave race of warriors, and their pitiable downfall and overthrow cannot but touch the heart of any who admire courage and patriotism. A few who fled to the Mohawks -were treacherously killed, and their scalps sent to Governor Winthrop as a sign of Mohawk friend- ship. The Pequot war lasted five months. This great tribe, numbering over one thousand warriors, was extinguished by a force of two hun- dred Englishmen. It is true that the Narragansetts and Mohegans had helped them, but they were never to be relied upon. There is no more striking proof of the superiority of civilized warfare. After this, for many years, the Indians of Connecticut were subdued. They were sometimes annoying, but seldom dangerous, and while the Dutch were suffering all the terrors of Indian conflict, the New England settlements remained for forty years in a state of comparative peace. The heavy expense of this war had fallen upon the people of the Connecticut valley, and the colony was badly in debt. Its strongest and best men had been called to military service, leaving the women to look after the farms, and it seemed as if there might be a great lack of food for the coming winter. Active measures had to be taken to prevent this, ana every kernel of corn was carefully gathered and preserved. Companies of home soldiers were well drilled at every 140 THE STORY OF AMERICA. settlement, and the young colony had begun to feel its strengtiE and firmness so well now that within eighteen months from this time the new government adopted a constitution. This constitution was very simple and eloquent, and said that the people of Connecticut recognized no allegiance to any other power, not even that of England. It constituted a popular government, in which all the freemen were equal before the law, promising to maintain the liberty of the gospel of our Lord Jesus. For two hundred years this was the basis of the law of Connecticut John Haynes and Edward Hopkins served as Governors for many years^, sometimes one and sometimes the other holding the position. The life of every man and woman in the community was carefully watched by the magistrate, and no license of speech was permitted. No one was allowed to say what he or she thought about the minister's last sermon, or allowed to laugh at the peculiarities of his or her neighbors. From the very strictness of the laws, now and then some man or womam broke out into a strange frenzy of viciousness or crime, which would be seldom heard of in a less severe community, where light amusements and diversions are allowed. The stern monotony of life seemed to make the heart prey upon itself, and the people broke into vice t® supply the necessary excitement. In 1643 ^ confederation was made^ embracing Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven. Their distance from each other was so great that it was not practical ta have a single government for them all, but they had desired to link the English plantations together, that they might defend themselves against the people of several nations and strange languages who were settling around them. England, occupied with her own troubles, could pay little attention to her colonies, so they looked for no further help from the home country. The main object of this confederation was an offensive and defensive league in case of war. In all other things each colony held the right of self-government. This was the germ of the Federal Union, which has grown great among the nations as the United States of America. FOR FVRTHER READING: History — Penshallow's "Indian Wars in New England." Biography— Winthrop's "Life and Letters." Fiction— L,. M. Child's "First Settlers of New England." CHAPTER XXI. THE RELIGIOUS LAW OF BOSTON — GORTON AND HIS BELIEFS — THE SETTLEMENT AT SHEWANET — PERSECUTION OF THE GORTON- ITES — PERSECUTION OF THE BAPTISTS — THE OBTAINING OF A ROYAL CHARTER FOR RHODE ISLAND AND THE PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS. HE Boston people had come to America to worship God in what they believed to be the right way. If that was the right way, all other ways must be wrong, and they allowed no one to differ from them in the smallest shade of belief. When Ann Hutchinson was driven from among them, they had hoped that all these ' 'notable errors' ' of belief were done with, and that God would reward them with con- tinued peace for driving such heresies from their midst. Indeed, they believed that God devoted the most of His time and attention to them, and the mis- fortunes of all others were counted to their own glory. If any one who had opposed them or criticised them fell sick or met with misfortune, they believed it another sign of the Lord's care. To be a citizen, it was first necessary to be a member of the church, and the court ©f justice was little more than a religious examining seat. If any one made remarks upon the preached word or showed any contempt of the preacher, he was called a "Wanton Gospeller," and stood for two hours ©penly upon a block four feet high, on a lecture day, with a paper on Iiis breast with "A Wanton Gospeller" written thereon in capital letters. It was this firm belief in their own righteousness which caused file people of Boston to persecute so many people at different times on account of religious differences. One of the men who suffered most from this unforgiving spirit was 142 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Samuel Gorton. No one of a later day was able to tell just what this man believed, but it was certain that he believed something different from the people around him. He was one of the early settlers of Portsmouth, Rhode Island, and was given to advertising new theories, and to standing by them in a manner not so wise as it was detennined. He visited both Boston and Plymouth, and while at Plymouth got into ' his first fight with the authorities because he defended a servant of his own family who so far forgot herself as to smile in church, and who was therefore declared to be a heretic. At length he was driven out, and, very naturally, went to Acquidneck, Roger Williams' settlement, where everyone was welcomed. In the year 1641, Gorton bought land at Pawtuxet. This was where Cranston now stands, and was within the bounds of Providence. Of the people of Providence, Governor Winthrop had a very poor opinion. He said that some of them were against the baptizing of infants, and that others denied all magistracy, and claimed that Gorton was their captain. Roger Williams managed to keep them (the Gortonites) peaceful for a time, but at length arguments waxed so hot between them and their neighbors that blows followed. A man named Arnold, and a dozen others, appealed to Massachusetts for aid against Gorton and his friends, who seemed to have had certain socialistic ideas in regard to land, very offensive to people used to complicated government. Boston, however, refused to send help to the people of Pawtuxet, since they did not live under the government of Massachusetts, as both parties had found Boston so little to their liking that they had run away from it. They were not willing to submit themselves to its government again even to win their point, but at length the quarrels grew so hot that they sent again to Boston for help. This appeal was sent out by four men, of whom Arnold was one. These four men submitted themselves to Boston, with their lands and possessions, and as these were very desirable, Boston consented to give them help. Having got the lands in this cheap way, the Massachusetts magistrates gave the four men leave, if they had a just title to anything which Gorton and his friends possessed, to proceed against them in court. This they did immediately, the case being, of course, decided in favor of Arnold and his friends. By this very simple method, Massachusetts gained possession of that beautiful garden of the Narragansett. There were about twelve men of the Gorton party, and these imme- diately deserted their homes and gardens in Pawtuxet, and moved away in search of a new place. They settled about twelve miles south THE PRIDE OF THE RIGHTEOUS. 1 43 of Providence, calling their settlement Shewanet. Before going there Samuel Gorton sent a remarkable letter to the Boston magistrates, which set forth all of their religious beliefs. The magistrates seemed to know what it meant, for they found twenty-six blasphemous particulars in it, though no one since has been able to tell what Gorton's theology was. The land at Shewanet was bought of Miantonomo, the young sachem of the Narragansetts, and it was so far from the settlement of any one else that they hoped they might be left in peace, but Arnold was not the man to let a personal matter drop so quietly, and he induced the Indians to say that they had been forced to sign the deed giving title to Gorton's people, and two small sachems, who were hired to tell this lie, were received as subjects of the Massachusetts govern- ment. That these two new subjects might be properly protected, the twelve men of Shewanet were asked to appear before the general court at Boston. This, Gorton and his friends refused to do, and the colony sent back a threat which showed the Shewanet people that they were in danger of their lives. A band of soldiers and Indians charged upon the village, and the troops did not disdain to level their muskets upon women and children. Some of the people ran for the woods; others waded out into the river to reach a boat, which some Providence people, in pity for their condition, had brought to the place. Though none of them died at the time, a number died afterward from the exposure and suffering. The men had not supposed that the Boston troops would trouble their wives and children, and had fortified themselves in one of their log houses. They stood the siege for several days, but without firing a shot — for they did not believe in the shedding of blood. Their houses were pillaged, their cattle driven off, and their wives and children, who lurked in the woods near by, were fired at. At length the Gorton men promised they would yield, and go to Massachusetts to be tried, if they could go as free men, and not as prisoners. This the soldiers promised, but as soon as they got in the house, the arms were taken from the Gorton men and they were marched off as captives. In Boston, they were received as if they were the most dangerous and dreadful men. The clergy'men called the people together in the open streets to thank God for his goodness in giving them the victory, and Governor Winthrop went out and publicly blessed the soldiers. The trial lasted four days, and the elders declared that the oftense of these men was deserving of death, but the large body of the delegates would not permit this sentence. The men were imprisoned. The winter the]/ 144 THE STORY OF AMERICA. spent in jail did not, however, keep their doctrines from spreading, and and at length Governor Winthrop thought it best to set them free. Within three days, however, they were told to depart out of the town before noon. They had nothing to do once more but to take to the wilderness, where they lived among the Indians. In time they succeeded in getting from King Charles a document which let them pass safely through any town of New England, and which gave them an order for the grounds at Shewanet, from which they had been evicted by Arnold and his friends. Of course, they had much trouble in carr}-ing this into effect. The Earl of Warwick was the president of the Board of Commissioners who had seen to the rights of the Gorton party, and in gratitude Shewanet was named Warwick. Warwick became a part of Providence plantation under a charter got by Roger Williams, in 1644. This charter Williams carried to Boston and made them recognize its power, but they treated him with no more friendliness there than they did before. He did not need to mind, however, when he was received at home with so much love. When the people heard that he was returning, the river was crowded with canoes, and the people gathered upon the banks to welcome him. This charter gave to the people of the Providence plantations full power and authority to govern and rule themselves, and all others who came within their boundaries. It was the first colonial charter of the sort that had ever been given. When the first general assembly met under it at Portsmouth, they declared that the form of government established in Providence plantations was democratic; that is to say, a government held by the free and voluntary consent of all, or the greater part of the free inhabitants. It granted to every one absolute freedom of conscience. Ey this time political parties had begun to be felt in America. Men who had been Whigs and Tories in England, were Whigs and Tories here, and this declaration of democracy greatly offended the roy- alist party, who thought it an insult to the King. Some of these asked to be united to Massachusetts, but were refused unless they would allow that their land came within the Plymouth patent. This, of course, they would not do. It came about in time that a royal charter was obtained from Charles II, after he was restored to the throne, which united Rhode Island and the Providence plantations. The events which led to this are interesting, and form another chapter in that marvelous book of religious persecutions which go to make up so great a part in colonial history. The Reverend John Clark was one of the most popular citizens of THE PRIDE OF THE RIGHTEOUS. ^45 Hhode Island, and the pastor of the Baptist Church at Newport. The Baptists were one of the exiled sects who had come within the protec- tion of Roger Williams' strong arm. Holmes and Crandall were also Baptist ministers, and these three went together to Lynn, in Massa- chusetts, to visit one of their faith who was old, sick and blind, and had desired to see them. While they were visiting this old man they held divine service in his house, and were arrested by constables for daring to preach the despised religion on Massachusetts territory. They were sent to the Boston jail until the court set, and, after ten days' confinement there, were found guilty of being Baptists. They were sentenced either to be whipped or pay a fine, and when they asked what they had been guilty of, Endicott replied that they denied infant baptism, and John Wilson, the pastor of the Boston Church, so lost his temper that he struck Holmes. Friends paid the fine of Clark and Crandall, but Holmes' conscience would not allow him to be released that he might escape a painful punishment, so he was led out of the prison into the presence of the people to be whipped. The coat which he had put on with much neatness, that he might look worthy of the Lord, was taken from him, and he was given thirty strokes with a three-corded whip. When the sheriff had finished, and even the hardest-hearted of the bystanders turned sick at the sight of his bleeding back, he turned smilingly to the magistrates by, and said: "You have struck me as with roses." The political quarrels of the different towns of the Providence plantations had weakened their government, but the manner in which these Providence preachers had been treated determined them to see to ^heir rights in the future, that they might be able to retaliate with proper force should Massachusetts interfere in this way again. Clark was sent to England to obtain the royal charter, which he did after working and waiting for several years. FOR FURTHER READING: Biography— Spark's "Gorton." Fiction— J. Banvard's "Priscilla." Hawthorne's "Scarlet l^etter" CHAPTER XXII. •the quakers — their persecution — george eox and his friends -mary fisher and ann austin — ^the -nQuaker children. Ti^HE Boston church seemed to feel for a while that it had done its duty, but after a time some strange people were found in their midst, who were called Quakers. Once more the church .was up in arms. It wanted to know who the Quakers were. They found that they were the followers of George Fox, a man who mingled much poetic mysticism with the stern and self-denying religion. It is said that he had the power of perceiving evil thoughts in others, and could not pass by a wicked person without stopping to point out the path of reform. His own life was beautifully pure and sanctified, and it was certain that he could read minds and influence people as it is given to only a few to do in this world. The doctrine of the Friends, as the followers of Fox were called, was to be at peace with all the world, to put aside vanities and show, to trust to the guidance of the inner spirit, and to put scholarship and holiness above gain in all cases. They used no titles, and would not permit steeples on their churches, and dressed in plain garb of uniform color, in protest against all the gay ruffling and slashing which they saw in the streets of England, where Fox was born. Plainness of speech, as well as plainness of dress, was held to. Fox dressed in a suit of leather, but it may not have been so much to be different from other men as for the convenience of having one durable suit to wear upon his long journeys, and to keep out the damp and cold of the many dungeons in which he was placed. One of the things which most irritated the magistrates was the habit which the Quakers had of continually wearing their hats, believing that they should pay no more honor to one person than THROUGH PAIN TO PEACE. I49 another, and that it was a waste of time and sense to keep up so foolish a ceremony. The Friends insisted upon speaking in the churches, and interrupting the ministers when they overheard a remark to which they could not give their support. They believed that they had a call to bear their ' 'message' ' into the very strongholds of their adversaries, and sometimes launched speeches against them so fiercely that it is little wonder that the Puritan ministers were irritated, especially as the Quakers objected to their receiving any money for their services. The fight they made against "hireling religion" was very bitter. The personal life of the Quakers was thoroughly pure. Indeed, to such a high strain did their minds grow, that it is difficult for any one in this busy and more commonplace age, to appreciate the fervor and beauty of their visions, their sacrifices, and their prophesies. The Friends were first called Quakers by Justice Bennett, of Derby, in 1650, because the people trembled or quaked when they listened to the powerful words of Fox. Fox even had the courage when he was taken to London, in 1654, as a prisoner, and lodged in the old Mermaid Tavern, which Shakspeare and his friends made famous, to write to Cromwell, protesting against the drawing of the sword of war. The English had grown to fear the Quakers, even before they came to America. In July, 1656, the first Quakers came to Boston. These were Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, who were imprisoned upon their arrival and sent back to the Barbadoes, from whence they had come. Mary Fisher had traveled, not alone over Europe, but in parts of Asia, preaching the word, and in the autumn of 1653, three years before her imprison- ment at Boston, she had preached to the Cambridge students. Endicott was absent, when the ' 'Swallow' ' arrived, with Mary Fisher and Ann Austin on board, but the deputy governor had their baggage searched, and all of their books and tracts taken, and an order was issued, which was the first act of Massachusetts against the Quakers, in which the women were called preachers of corrupt, heretical, and blasphemous doctrines. While they were at Boston they were confined in the jail, with the windows boarded up. No one was allowed to speak to them, or render them any assistance. They were stripped, and examined for signs of witchcraft, but as they fortunately had no moles or freckles upon them, they were cleared of that charge. The people were even cautioned not to feed them, but Nicolas Upshall, an old gentleman of Boston, who held very grave ideas of justice, gave the jailor money to provide for them. He was arrested and thrown in jail, and upon release, was exiled. They would not receive him at Plymouth, and he went to live 150 THE STORY OF AMERICA. among the Indians, wlio had a friendly feeling for any who, like them selves, had the Puritan religion so obnoxiously thrust at them. The Swallow was barely out of sight, when a vessel from London arrived with eight Friends on board. Their boxes and chests were immediately searched for "hellish pamphlets," and, after many questions, they were sent to jail. They were ordered to return on the vessel which brought them, and when the master refused to take them at his own expense, he was imprisoned until he yielded. The people became dissatisfied with measures which could not be sustained by the laws of the colony, and on October 14th a law was passed which made every ship-master bringing Quakers to New England subject to a payment of one hundred pounds, or imprisonment until the money was forthcoming. Any Quakers who arrived should be put in the house of correction, severely whipped, kept at constant labor, and forbidden to talk with any one. There were also fines for bringing or sending Quaker tracts to the colony. Four of the federate colonies adopted this, but Rhode Island refused, and very cleverly held that the Quakers would not care to come to Rhode Island if they were not persecuted for doing so. Not that the Quakers had any desire to become notorious, or wished a vain martyr- dom, but they naturally insisted upon trying to reform and soften the people who most reviled them. It is not necessary to repeat the particulars of each of their abuses of these gentle Friends. They were all much alike in cruelty, and it became common to whip them from town to town and to keep them for many days in jail without food, with not even a bunch of straw to lie upon. The instrument used for whipping them was a three-corded knout, with knots tied in it. But the more the people suffered, the more converts they made. No one was allowed to entertain a Quaker without punishment, but for all of that, plenty of kind hearts were found who were willing to shelter them. Women were stripped naked and whipped, and one of them was whipped with a little babe only a few days old clinging to her breast. Even the little children did not escape. Lawrence and Cassandra Southwick were banished from the colony under penalty of death, leaving behind them their poor little boy and girl in extreme poverty. They were fined for not attending regular worship, and having no money to pay the fine, were to be sold as slaves. It was hoped that they might bring ten pounds each, and so the treasury got the money which it ached for, but not a sea captain in the port of Boston would take them away, and the magistrates had no choice but to let them stay. THROUGH PAIN TO PEACK. I51 Another little child, Mary Wright, fourteen years of age, whose sister had been banished from Massachusetts, found her way from Long Island to Boston, that she might protest against the cruelty they were showing to these innocent people. Her words were so simple that even the hardened men about her were moved, and the secretary cried: "What! shall we be battled by such a one as this? Come, let us drink a dram." Sweet Mary Dyer, hearing of some friends in prison, visited them, and was arrested for it and put under the same roof She was banished, but returned to Boston to again visit the persecuted Friends, bringing with her linen to wrap the dead bodies of those who were to suffer. With her came a party of Friends, four of whom w^ere women. They had guessed right; some were to suffer death, and ]\Iary Dyer was one of them. The 27th of August she and two men were led to the Boston Common, with a great force of soldiers about them, and the drums beating. Mary Dyer walked as if to some great victory, with a smile upon her face. The two men were hung, and just as they had tied Mar\' Dyer's clothes about her feet a cry came ringing across the Common announcing a reprieve, which her young son had got for her. She was banished, but in a few months returned again to Boston. It was required of her, she said, to take her message there. Her husband wrote a letter begging that she might be spared, but Endicott would show no mercy, and the tender appeal for Friend Dyer's "most dearly beloved wife" only irritated him, so on a certain sad day, with a strong body of soldiers about her, for fear of the people who were moved to much pity in her case, she was led to the Common and hung there, for •others to take example by, so her judges said. The last man to be hung on Boston Common was William Leddra, who had dared to return after having been banished. He came into the court dragging a log behind him to which he was bound with chains, and answered all questions put to him with a fearlessness which all of his sect showed. But by this time the severity of the judges began to defeat itself. The people could not stand such cruelty, and they were frightened by the wild prophecies of Wenlock Christison. He was whipped through Boston, Roxbury and Dedham, and cast into the wilderness, but his prophecies remained behind him to frighten and subdue the people, for oddly enough many of them came true. At length the King of England put a stop to the cruelty with which the Quakers were being treated, and the order was placed in the hands of Samuel Shattock, a Quaker, who had been banished from Boston tinder penalty of death. When Shattock walked before Endicott, with 152 THE STORY OP AMERICA. his hat upon his head, he was met with the usual brutal questions, but when he showed his order. Governor Endicott, overcome with mortifica- tion, yet not forgetting his courtesy to an embassy from his sovereign, replaced the hat which he had snatched from Shattock's head and removed his own. The King ordered that all prisoners should be sent to England. This, it goes without saying, Endicott and his friends would not dare permit. They settled the question by dismissing the prisoners. However, the cruelties against the Quakers were revived later, and men and women were frequently tied to the end of a cart and whipped from town to town. The last time a Quaker was imprisoned was at the time of Endicott' s burial. An old woman, sixty-five years of age, made some remarks, true but not savory, about the dead magistrate. These persecutions lasted ten years in all, until again the King interfered, sending to Massa- chusetts and Connecticut orders that all persons of civil lives would fully enjoy the liberty of their conscience. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Mather's "Magnalia." Poetry — Whittier's "Cassandra Southwick." Longfellow's "John Endicott." CHARLES I, OF ENGLAND. (From the painting by Anton van Dyck.) ■\ CHAPTER XXIII. ^rr^a!J$i iobn^ nl TirjtntH. GOVERNOR BERKELEY AND HIS REIGN — MORE TROUBLE WITH THE INDIANS — ^THE PURITANS AGAIN VICTORIOUS — THE RETURN OF THE STUARTS I TO POWER. f^gpTER King Charles I had been beheaded, and j z' Cromwell, the great dictator, ruled, many of those I'^M who had stood by the King, and were now in dis- ''^- favor and poverty, hastened to the Virginian colony. This was the only one of all the colonies which had steadfastly believed in the cause of the King. So the disappointed royalists of England were glad to come by hundreds to the only spot in the New World in which all that they loved was respected — where they could have the church service which they wished, and where no one reviled the dead King. They brought with them their old ways. Used to the life of court and camp, they lived carelessly, spending their money without thought of its value, and caring little for the rights of those poorer or less powerful than themselves. They were a merry and elegant set, and even when their clothes were worn to rags, they were still wonderfully polite and lordly in their manners. One of the pleasantest chronicles of colonial life has been left by one of the men who came over in the way described. This was Colonel Norwood, a young man of much bravery and originality, who was wrecked with his company on an island near Virginia. They starved there for ten days, and were taken to the mainland by a party of Indians who chanced to pass. Among the Indians they were treated with much kindness, and finally were guided from plantation to plantation through the hospitable Virginian colony until they reached the settlement. In these careless and genial old days, hospitality was not alone a matter of 154 '^^^ STORY OF AMERICA. impulse. There was a law ordering that any stranger coming to the house should be cared for as a guest, unless an agreement in writing was made with him before he entered. It can easily be imagined that not one person in a thousand would do such a thing, especially in an age where inhospitality was considered the worst of crimes. After Governor Harvey had been sent back by the King to govern Virginia, the troubles between Maryland and Virginia continued to grow worse. In course of time he was succeeded by Sir Francis Wyat, and he, in time, by Sir William Berkeley, the best known of the James- town governors. He came to Jamestown early in 1642, amid the enthusiasm of the people. Nothing was so dear to him as his King, and he followed the royal commands in everything. Under his rule the colony prospered. QBut the colony took some very ill-advised measures, and in 1643 enacted law^s which broke up the Puritan churches. When, a little later, there was a sudden rising among the Indians, and a great number of Virginian planters were killed, the Puritans saw in it a meting out of God's justice to their persecutors. The Indians were treated as enemies, and it was declared that there should be no peace between them and the whites, and that a savage might be shot whenever he was seen. The Indians planned a cunning revenge, and killed from three hundred to five hundred of the English in return for this cruel law. But for some reason which has never been explained, they drew off and retreated to the woods, instead of con- tinuing their slaughter, as they might easily have done. This was twenty-two years after the Virginian massacre, which had so nearly extinguished the colony. But now the province was of more than thirty years' standing, with good rulers and well-organized means of defence. All the forces of the colony were turned upon the Indians, and they were driven from one point to another, many of them taken prisoners, and, finally, the great chief who ruled over all of those lands where Powhatan had once been King, was taken and brought to Jamestown. This chief's name was Opechancanough. He was nearly one hundred years old, and so crippled with paralysis that he could not even open his eyes to look at his victors, who crowded about him as he lay dying in prison. It had been the intention to take him to England to show the people there a man who had kept the colony in a state of terror for years, but he was cruelly shot by one of his guards, and so had the good fortune to die in his own country which he had loved deeply and fought for with extraordinary fierceness. During all the time of the great Revolution in England, the Virginian OLIVER CROMWELL. Cut on wood, in imitation of the mezzotint of I. Faber, 1740. Painting by P. Lelv, 1653, THE ROYALIST COLONY OF VIRGINIA. 157 colony was in a state of unusual prosperity. Tobacco was the chief export, and even in the midst of the war, men would not stop using tobacco; therefore, their income did not decrease. In England, there was no time to attend to colonial affairs, and Virginia grew stronger under home rule. There was plenty of skilled labor among the fifteen thousand Englishmen who made up the colony, and smelting works, hemp and flax culture, vine-raising, indigo-making, and the manufacture of bricks succeeded well. The plantations grew, and in the midst of them were built those hospitable, porch-surrounded mansions which we still associate with the colonial period. More than thirty vessels brought out English goods every year, and took back cargoes of native productions. Virginia had had the courage to openly denounce the execution of King Charles I, and had made a law calling it treason for any one to speak against him, so in 1650 the Parliament in England said that there should be no more trade with these uncompliant colonies, and sent over commissioners to force allegiance to Cromwell. With these commis- sioners came a regiment of soldiers and one hundred and fifty prisoners of war, who were to be sold as ser\^ants in Virginia. They demanded the surrender of Jamestown, and it was found necessary to yield. The Puritans were more than a religious party at this time. They were a political party as well, both in England and America, and Cromwell's men who came to demand the surrender of the Virginian colonies represented the Puritans. The terms of the surrender were not unkind, and even gave consent that the common prayer book should be used for the next year. Consideration was shown Governor Berkeley and his ofi&cers, and they were given liberty to sell their estates, if they wished to leave the colony. A government was established, with William Clayborne and Richard Bennett at its head. They were men highly esteemed and very generous in their government. Clayborne, although he had had such quarrelsome experiences with Maryland, was a very sensible and clever gentleman, from one of the best families of England, and was one of the strongest upholders of the Protestant faith. Though ie did not forget his old troubles with Maryland, and the serious grievance he had against Lord Baltimore, he was, nevertheless, con- siderate at first in his government of Maryland, now that it was partly in his power. Governor Stone, now at the head of the Maryland colony, was the second Governor since Leonard Calvert. The few months that followed the triumph of Cromwell were very bewildering to Governor Stone. 158 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Now he would have a message from the Long Parliament, saying that he must proclaim to his subjects the supremacy of the Dictator and give an oath of fidelity, and again would receive indignant letters from Lord Baltimore, saying that he owed allegiance to him. Several times he issued different manifestoes, until finally Bennett and Clayborne them- selves made a proclamation saying that Maryland belonged to the Protector, and removing the Catholic ofiicers, they appointed a Board of Puritan Commissioners. So at length the Puritans, who had been so much abused, began to be the stronger party in both countries. They were men of determined characters, who believed that God led them in everything. Lord Baltimore protested against the easy way in which Stone had yielded to the Puritan will, and under his influence Stone gathered his forces and seized the State archives and all the arms and ammunition he could find. Then he took his force of two hundred men and embarked on twelve boats, which went up Chesapeake Bay to Severn, opposite Kent Island, where the Puritans were settled. Stone intended to enforce their submission. In the Severn was a large ship, the Golden Lion^ which sent out shots among the advancing fleet as they came into the harbor, and Stone hurried his vessels farther up the creek and took his men on shore, with a good deal of noise and bluster. But while they were gone, the Puritans took possession of all their vessels, sending a detachment by land to force the Catholics up the peninsula. While they were retreating, they suddenly met one hundred and twenty men who had come out from Providence to meet them. With enemies on both sides it was necessary to fight, so cr>'ing, "Hey for St. Marys," they rushed at the enemy. But the Puritans cried, "In the name of God, fall on; God is our strength," and elated with that stern frenzy which carried them through such awful trials, they killed and wounded fifty of the Catholics and took all but four or five prisoners. Only four of the Puritans died in consequence of the engagement. Four of the leaders were killed, and Governor Stone was sentenced to death, but some of the Puritans begged for his life and he was spared. And now a letter came from the Protector, forbidding the Virginians to have anything to do with the affairs of Maryland until the bound- aries could be settled. Lord Baltimore was permitted to send out a deputy governor to keep his colony quiet, but it was two years before matters were settled, and the liberal laws of Maryland ratified by the English government. For several years all went well in Virginia. Bennett resigned his office in favor of Edward Diggs, who was followed, THE roya::^ist colony of Virginia. 159 in turn, by Governor Matliews. There were still two distinct political parties in Virginia, but their interests were too closely allied for them to keep quarreling with each other, and in these peaceful }'ears many laws were passed which were of great value to the colonists. After Cromwell died, the Puritans began to lose strength in Virginia, aud when King Charles II was put on the throne of his father in England, the old royalist party of Virginia once more became the ruling ' power, and Sir William Berkeley was elected Governor. He sent a glad letter to the King telling how happy he was to serve the ro\-al family again, and a day was set apart to the memory of King Charles I, to be kept alive by yearly feast on the 13th of January. Berkeley did not put the distinguished Puritans out of office, but let them continue under him. The House of Representatives was not to meet unless there was positive need for it, so it chanced that for fifteen years there was no popular election. Tobacco currency was the money used in paying the State officers, and the salary of the Governor was equal to the whole annual expenditure of the colou)^ of Connecticut. The slavery of negroes was steadily increasing, and a law was made condemning all children of mixed blood to serve as slaves for life. There were a great many white slaves, also, brought from the jails and slums of England, and these were much lower than the blacks, for they were vicious, while the negroes were only ignorant. The Church of England once more became the established church of the colony, but the Puritans were not persecuted, although they were held in check and not allowed to preach, even in private. In 1662 a fine was imposed upon all persons who would not subscribe to the orthodox religion. The Quakers here, as elsewhere, were held in disfavor, and many of them were driven into North Carolina. Penalties were still imposed for the purpose of making the colonists raise more corn and less tobacco, for the supply of tobacco was greater than the demand for it. The English made an effort to confine all the foreign trade to them- selves, but this they found it very difficult to do. In 1663 a plot was discovered to overthrow the government. This may have been the outcome of the discontent which the people felt at having these trade laws enforced. The plot was discovered and four of the ring-leaders hung. After this a day was set for thanksgiving for the defeat of the conspiracy, on the 13th of September. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— W. A. Carruthers' "The Cavaliers of Virginia." CHAPTER XXIV. u far 11 f iff THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA — THE INDIANS — THE UPRISING OF BACON AND HIS FRIENDS — RESTRICTION OF THE GOVERNOR'S RIGHTS — BACON USURPS THE GOVERNMENT — RETURN OF BERKELEY — DESERTION OF JAMESTOWN — DEATH OF BACON BREAKING UP OF bacon's party. JRGINIA was founded upon a wrong basis. In 1670 there were forty thousand people under the Virginian government. The militia of the province mustered eight thousand men. Of these forty thousand, two thousand were negro slaves and six thousand were white servants bound for a term of years. Many of these were soldiers who had risked their lives for liberty in England, and failing, had been brought as prisoners of war to the colonies. Every year fifteen hundred white servants were brought over, and the reason that the colony was not much greater was that four-fifths of them, when put upon the new planta- tions, died. They had but little clothing and but poor shelter, for money was not plenty. In England, the price of tobacco had been reduced, and the price of goods which the tobacco was sent in exchange for had been raised to extravagant prices. The Virginia planter, therefore, got but little, and as they all took it upon themselves to maintain large mansions and generously entertain great numbers of guests, they economized at the expense of their slaves. The colony was not a religious one at any time, and though Mary- land and Virginia did quarrel upon religious grounds, this was but a cover for politics. It is true that there were forty-eight parishes in the colony, but most of these were illy provided with ministers. Nearly all of them were sixty or seventy miles in extent, and could not have .tj?'* "hey, for ST. Mary's!" i6i been well attended to even by the most zealous ministers, which the Virginian clergymen were not. They liked the free living of the colony as well as did their flocks, and were not held in much awe. There were no free schools in the colon}-, nor was there any printing, for which Governor Berkeley was sincerely thankful. The taxes grew worse from ^-ear to year, and the officers of the government more purse- proud and arrogant. The people had no voice in the government at all. Finally, in 1673, the whole colony was given as a present by the King to two of his favorites. Lord Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington. This meant more taxes, and the people became thoroughly discon- tented. The Indians, also, were a great source of annoyance and anxiety to them, and the colonists wished to organize an armed force for protection, but Governor Berkeley was afraid of injuring the Indian trade, from which he drew a large revenue, and would not permit the people to organize for defense But when a quiet farmer was found murdered at his own door, the colonists determined to take revenge, regardless of what the government might say. Two forces, one under Captain Brent and the other under Colonel Mason, started out. They invaded two wigwams, killing at least twenty-four Indians. This was the signal for a general Indian war. Four great Indian tribes united to take revenge — the Susquehannocks, Doegs, Senecas and Piscataways. Both in Maryland and Virginia the planters were badly alarmed, and they united in an expedition, sending out one thousand men, with Colonel John Washington and Major Thomas Truman, of Mar}iand. They surrounded the fort where the Susquehannocks had taken refuge, and were cruel enough to kill five of the chiefs who came out to peace- fully parley with them. Such a dishonorable act, opposed as it was to all rules of w^arfare, brought a severe reproof from the Governor and Council. But the Indians entered upon a systematic revenge. Before spring came, sixty of the colonists had been killed upon their larms, and the Indians were forever lurking in the shadow of the bushes, and under the river banks. No one felt safe. The people crowded together in the strongest houses, and at night barricaded their windows, and slept with their arms beside them. The colonists begged the Governor to give them some protection, but that rich old gentleman, rapidly making money for himself, and contented with his own fine living, paid no attention to their appeals. The young men, especially, became indignant at his selfish- ness and carelessness, and made up their minds that if he did not come to their aid, they would give open war on their own account. Among 1 62 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the young men was Nathaniel Bacon, who lived upon an estate called "Curies," not far from Richmond, where Bacon Quarter Branch still stands. He had a plantation, and it chanced that his overseer upon this place was one of the unfortunates on whom the Indians chose to take their revenge. Bacon was much attached to his overseer and he swore that these outrages must be stopped. Though he was not yet thirty, he was such a daring and independent young man that all of his neighbors looked to him as their leader, and when he had sent again to the Governor, asking him for a commission against the Indians, and been met with silence, he determined to march out against the savages, regardless of consequences. A large force of men gathered about him ; but even after that. Bacon sent once more to the Governor asking for a commission. As it did not come, they started on their march. They had gone but a little way when they were overtaken by a messenger from the Governor calling them all rebels, and forbidding them to proceed in any warlike action. The question was, then, whether any of them dare disobey the government of the colony. Fifty-seven of them had the courage, and went on with Bacon into the forest, but some of them feared that their property would be confiscated, and deserted him. In a short time they had annihilated the tribe of the Susquehannocks and returned to their farms. The Governor had sent a troop of horses after the "rebels," as he called them, and while the capital was thus deserted a revolt broke out among the planters at the south of Jamestown, so that when the Governor returned he found everything in such a turbulent condition that he had to yield to some of the demands of the citizen:*. They asked that they might no longer be taxed for the several useless forts which their hard-earned money had to support, and also that the assembly, which had not been changed for fifteen years, might be dissolved, and the people allowed to elect their officers. It showed how well the people thought of Bacon that he was one of the new members elected. Bacon, confident and proud, came promptly to Jamestown, notwithstanding the fact that the title of "rebel" still hung over him. Governor Berkeley met him in great state. ' 'Mr. Bacon, ' ' said he, "have you forgotten how to be a gentleman?" "No, may it please your honor," the young man replied. "Then I will take your parole," said the Governor. Later, in the presence of all the assembly. Bacon delivered a written apology to the Governor for his independent and headstrong actions. The Governor seemed to be really attached to him — and indeed few could help admiring his courage and brilliancy. But "hey, for ST. Mary's!" 163 Bacon did not trust the Governor, and thought he was trying to deceive him, and he ran away from Jamestown to rejoin his neighbors. Some people say that he was afraid he would be arrested again, and that he had to flee for his life. Perhaps he did think so, but it is hardly possible that the stern old Governor would have dared to treat a young man of high family so, although he was careless enough of the lives of the poor. In a few days. Bacon came marching back to James- town, with an army of five hundred men. The Governor tried to gather the militia about him, but their sympathies were with Bacon, and in a short time the insurgents were in the capital, camped upon the green near the State House, and holding all the streets. The assembly was called together, and Bacon stood by the corner of the State House, guarded by a double file of soldiers. Berkeley came out on the steps, while the assembly hung out of the windows and cried to Bacon to shoot him, but the young rebel swore that he would not hurt a hair of his head nor any other man's, but that he wanted a commission to save the lives of his neighbors from the Indians, and reminded the Governor that he had often promised to give it to him and had broken his word. When the Governor turned and walked away, followed by the council, and Bacon saw that no attention was to be paid to his command, he grew furious, and swearing that he would kill Governor, council and assembly, and himself last, told his men to point their fusils at the windows. All the people shouted for the commission, and finally a handkerchief was waived from the window in sign of peace. The soldiers were sent away, and Bacon went alone to the assembly room, giving them some of his hot eloquence. But every one was afraid to act, and the Governor would do nothing. By morning the Governor changed his mind. He probably saw that there was nothing to do but to yield. Bacon got his commission, and immediately began organizing one thousand men to start a campaign against the Indians. After the Governor had yielded one point, he was forced by the people to yield many. The Governor's fees were restricted, and he was no longer allowed to have a monopoly of the foreign trade. Taxes were regulated upon a certain system; so hot and furious did the members of the assembly grow in talking over these matters that many feuds were started in Virginia families, which continued over one hundred years. As soon as Bacon's back was turned, the Governor once more declared him to be a rebel, but when he ventured to say this before twelve hundred men whom he had collected about him for the purpose of 164 THE STORY OF AMERICA. forming a militia, they turned tlieir backs upon him and deserted, and let the fields ring with their cries of "Bacon!" "Bacon!" As soon as Bacon learned that he was once more proclaimed an outlaw, he promptly marched to meet the Governor, who fled hurriedly across the Chesapeake, leaving the province of Virginia to the will of his vigorous young opponent. Practically, Bacon was now Governor, and he began reorganizing immediately, calling a convention for the purpose of revising the laws. The matter was a very grave one, and the men who stood about Bacon knew that at any time they might be defeated and suffer the penalties of rebellion. The national revolution itself did not call for sterner constancy. One of the best inspiratic^s of these men was a lady, Mrs, Drummond the wife of one of Bacon's closest councilors. Her advice was followed in many matters, for she was a woman of great spirit and eloquence, and seemed to influence all who came near her. But Berkeley was not without friends, and succeeded, through the treacher}^ of some of Bacon's men, in getting possession of an armed fleet. As soon as the royalists through the country saw that there was a show of success for the Governor's arms, they came flocking to him, and in a short time he was in possession of a very large force. He took Jamestown on September 17th, and at once re-established the old form of government and reinstated his friends in their places. Bacon had dealt some terrible blows to the Indians, and thinking that there was no need of keeping his men from their plantations, had allowed his army to dissolve. He called them together again and hurried across the country to the capital. Throwing up some rude breastworks on a hill, he awaited the attack of the Governor. It is said that he captured certain Virginian ladies from Jamestown, and taking them to his camp, sent word that he would hold them as hostages, and that they were to be placed before his men, in case the people of the town should make a sally upon them. If this was the case, it was no wonder that the men of Jamestown could not make a respectable defence. The gentle- women, be it said, w^ere safely returned in course of time. Berkeley and his friends fled from Jamestown, getting upon their boats in the night and taking away their household goods, and everything, either of private or state nature, belonging to them. When Bacon entered the town in the morning, he found a deserted city, in which there was not even victuals for his men. He determined that the wasteful and arrogant cavaliers should never return, and ordered his army to set fire to the city. Every house in Jamestown was burned to the ground. "hey, for ST. Mary's!" 165 Thus perished the oldest English settlement in America. Bacon settled at Gloucester Point, and from there continued his raids upon the Indians, but in the midst of his victories he sickened and died. To this day the people of Virginia have not ceased to quarrel about the character of Bacon. A man so brilliant and determined could not but have warm friends and warmer foes. His party did not live long after his death. As soon as Berkeley heard what had happened, he sent out a force which captured several of the leading rebels. A proclamation of peace was made from which Bacon's friends were excepted. At length theit stronghold at West Point was lost. Drummond, Bacon's dear friend, was taken. The old cavalier Governor met him with much ceremony, and said, with a show of courtliness, "Mr. Drummond, you are more than welcome. I am more glad to see you than any other man in Virginia. Mr. Drummond, you shall be hanged within half an hour.'* Worse, his accomplisheii wife and hei five little children were driven out from the town into the forest. Many of the rebels were killed, and the bones of Bacon were everywhere looked for, that they might be hung in chains upon the gibbet, but to this day the place of his burial has never been discovered. Affairs became so serious after a time, what with imprisonment, banishment, confiscation of property and many sorts of tortuous punish- ments, that the King sent some trusted men from England to inquire into the state of affairs. Berkeley was taken to England, where he died without having had a chance to defend his conduct to the King whose approval he had always been so anxious for. It is said that he died of a broken heart, because the King disapproved of his conduct, and called him an old fool. Bacon had shown the people how strong they were, and planted in the colony a stern determination to preserve legislative rights. When the time of the national revolution came, Virginia was one of the strongest pillars of the new edifice. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— Carruther's "The Cavalier of Virginia." Carruther's "The Knights of the Horseshoe." CHAPTER XXV. THE CAROLINAS — THE PROPRIETORS AND THEIR "GRAND MODEL' THE AI.BEMARLE SETTLEMENT — REMOVAL OF CHARLES- TON THE SPANISH BUCCANEERS SETH SOTHELL — QUAKER RULE. *'^ ' T is odd that the beautiful stretch of coast lyinj-* between Florida and Virginia should so long have escaped permanent settlement. Possibly there were many unknown settlements of a quiet nature upon it, and that many a coaster had landed upon its fruitful shores and strayed among its silken grasses. It is known that one Quaker, by the name of George Durant, who was fond of solitude, built a cabin on the Chowan river, and paddled his canoe about between the banks of moss-hung trees. A company of New England men had also purchased land at the mouth of Cape Fear river, but for some mysterious reason left the settlement and their herds of cattle behind them^ returning to New England with a very bad report of the spot they had visited. But it is q-uite possible that they were too indo- lent to undergo the hardships of new colonization, or that their treat- ment of the Indians obliged them to leave. They left a paper hidden in a post, warning everyone who landed there against the country. This paper was found by a company of men from Barbadoes, but they were not dissuaded from settling there, the country "lying commo- diously by the river's side" being more eloquent than the written words of the men from New England. These settled about twenty or thirty miles up Cape Fear river. A very short time after this, settlement under a king's charter was made in this country. The King gave to certain gentlemen all the ter- ritory, which included the present States of North and South Carolina EACH FOR HIMSELF. 167 and Georgia, with the usual indefinite western boundary. The pro- prietors to whom the King gave this present were nine noble lords, one of them being Clarendon, Lord Chancellor of England, another being Duke of Albemarle, who was the leader in the restoration of the King- to the throne. Besides these were Lord Berkeley and the Earl of Shaftesbury. These men laid great plans for their colony. It was to be the model settlement of the world. The constitution was prepared by John Locke, the great philosopher and statesman. So carefully pre- pared was this fundamental constitution that the colonies had already been established three years before they were finished. It is really worth while to quote from this "Grand Model." Eight proprietors were to be constituted lords, the eldest to be Palatine of the province, and upon his death the eldest of the survivors to succeed him. Seven other offices, of admiral, chamberlain, chancellor, constable, chief justice, high steward and treasurer, were to be divided among the others — the eldest always to have choice of a vacant place. All the rights of property were hereditary in the male line; in lack of direct male heirs, male descendants through the female line succeeded, and after them, heirs general. There were orders of hereditary nobility called land- graves and cassiques. The domains of the proprietors were called seigniories. Every seignior}^, barony and colony contained twelve thousand acres; each county four hundred and eighty thousand acres, of w^iich three-fifths were to be owned by the people and two-fifths by the hereditary nobility. There was an absolute prohibition against the entrance of any common people into the titled class, and the highest dignity to which a common man might attain was to become lord of the manor, which manor must consist of not less than three thousand or more than twelve thousand acres. There was another small honor to be gained under the jurisdiction of the lords of the seigniory. The men who attained to this dignity were called Leetmen. There were eight supreme courts and very elaborate laws for a parliament. The ver}' amusements of the children were arranged, as well as the fashions of the women's gowns. All entertainments and decorations, marriages, burials, and every other circumstance and happening of home-life, was arranged for as accurately as if men were dices upon a chess-board. In the three years that Locke spent preparing this remarkable and elaborate system of government, two colonies had become very well established in Carolina, as the proprietors called their new possession. On May 29, 1664, Sir John Yeamans brought over the first expedition. The province of which Yeamans was appointed Governor extended l6S THE STORY OF AMERICA. from Cape Fear to the St. Johns, in Florida. Sir William Berkeley, of Virginia, was asked by the proprietors to establish a government on the Chowan. At the head of this he placed William Drummond, the man who afterwards was Bacon's faithful friend in the Virginian revolution. This settlement was called Albemarle, and here, while this wonderful piece of law-making for their benefit was going on over in England, the busy people of the settlement had made practical and simple laws quite sufficient for their needs. The fact that they could never be more than leetmen or lords of manors, was not troubling them at all. They were building houses and canoes, clearing land and planting fields, quite unconscious of the fact that a great, imaginary population of landgraves and cassiques was going to watch over them. The New England people began to come down and settle along the coast, and a company of Bermuda people had taken up lands by the Pasquotank river. Inducements were offered by the settlement at Albemarle to English maidens and widows, promising them honest and stalwart hus- bands if they were only civil and under fifty years of age. The colony had also the appearance of offering a refuge to runaway debtors, for it had a law which permitted no debt contracted outside of Albemarle to be sued for within five years. As a consequence, the reckless spend- thrifts of London found this a very convenient place of abode. Marriage was a civil contract, probably because there were so few ministers in the colony. There was no wish to discourage colonial lovers by making their wedding difficult. As for the great fundamental constitution, no one paid any attention to it, and though some men rejoiced in the title of landgraves and cassiques, their inferiors gave them little added respect on this account, and the "Great Model" was finally rejected by the assembly of South Carolina in 1698. In July, 1669, Captain William Sayle was sent over with the first expedition which the proprietors had directly made. Sayle was com- missioned Governor of that part of Carolina lying south and west of Cape Carteret, or Cape Romain, as it is now called. Sayle and Joseph West reached Port Royal in January of 1670, and finally chose a place for settlement on Ashley river. This they named Charleston, which still bears the name that they then gave it. This colony did not succeed very well, for the proprietors kept a heavy drain upon their treasury. Most of the hard labor was done by negro slaves. There were too few industrious and worthy men in the country, and far too many of the dissipated and vicious class of English criminals. Sir EACH FOR HIMSELF. 1 69 John Yeaman's management had been extendea over these people with whom he was unpopular, and when he retired he had a large fortune, wrenched from the people and the Indians. Joseph West was appointed Governor in his place. West was immensely popular, and affairs, under his administration, began to improve immediately. Meanwhile, the people of Albemarle had begun to express open discontent, and sent an address to the proprietors asking for a Governor who could understand their necessities. Many plans were tried, and a great deal of money spent on these people, who seemed unreasonably hard to manage. Governor after Governor was tried, but none proved efScient, and at length Seth Sothell arrived, in 1683, to take his position as Governor, to which he had been appointed some time before, but having been stolen by the Turks on his way over, had been held in captivity for some time. While Albemarle was passing through aV this trouble in Northern Carolina, Charleston, under the management of Joseph West, was continuing in prosperity. It is true that there were feuds between the Puritans of New England, who had come down, and the royalists whom the proprietors in Old England had sent out. The Huguenots of France also came here, and a large company of French artisans and farmers, who understood silk manufacture, vine growing, etc. As for the people on the Ashley river, they saw that they had made a mistake in settling so far up the stream, and in 1680 the old town was abandoned and the foundation of a new Charleston laid upon the present site of the city of that name. As they had time to lay this with care, they saw to it that the streets were large and capacious, and that good spots were reserv^ed for the building of churches and a town house, and artillery grounds for the exercise of their militia, and wharfs for the convenience of their trade and shipping. The people came to this colony in great numbers, from England, Ireland and the West Indies. It goes without saying that the manners of this mixed company were rather loose, though for this ver>' reason less likely to have severe church and political differences. West was a man of determina- tion, and saw to it that his militia was kept well armed and the colony wel|[ protected from the Indians. But out of their greed for money grew a most dishonorable method of conflict, which placed a price upon the head of every Indian captive, who was then sold to slave traders. When this was brought to the notice of the proprietors, however, they put an immediate stop to this barbarous practice. The old Spanish buccaneers found Charleston a most convenient retreat, and so careless lyo THE STORY OF AMERICA. were they with their money, and such good drinkers and story-teilers, that the citizens encouraged their coming, and when one of the Governors imprisoned some of them, the people protested so that he was obliged to release them. One act of cruelty on their part, however, brought about the enmity of the Carolinians. A company of Scotch Presbyterians had come, under the leadership of Lord Cardross, and made a settlement at Port Royal, in 1684. Three Spanish galleys appeared suddenly before this little colony in 1686, and destroyed the place. They landed again south of Charleston, at Bear's Bluff, and sacked the settlement and took Governor Morton's brother prisoner. They intended to keep these depredations up along the coast, in retaliation for the wrecking and despoiling of some of their galleys by the colonists, but they were met by a terrible hurricane, and the galley on which IMorton was held was run ashore, so that she could not be got off. The Spaniards set fire to the galley where Mr. Morton lay in chains, and he was burned to death. England would not permit the colonists to move against the Spaniards at St. Augustine, however, fearing that it might involve the two great home nations in war. Seth Sothell, who has been mentioned as the Governor appointed in 1683, proved to be a treacherous and selfish man, and used the govern- orship of North Carolina for his own gain. When he heard that there was dissatisfaction in South Carolina, he called his followers together and seized the government of the other colony. Having everything under his control, he began to pile up a great fortune by a system of oppression and taxation. The proprietors were in despair, but finally appointed one Governor for all the province, north and south, who was to have his residence at Charleston. Philip Ludwell was this general Governor. He was sent over from England, and having no experience in colonial affairs, soon showed that he was not strong enough to manage the discontented settlers. Thomas Smith, one of the Caro- linian planters, was put in his place. He was a quiet, discreet and judicious man, who, without governing brilliantly or decisively, brought many benefits to the colony during the two years that he ruled. It was during his administration that rice was first planted in this country. The rice grew wonderfully in the marshes along the rivers, of a superior quality to that of the east. It was but a short time before it became one of Carolina's most valuable products. Thomas Smith found the complexities of government too much for him, and wrote to the proprietors asking them to send over one of themselves to govern. EACH FOR HIMSELF. 171 They did so, choosing John Archdale, a Quaker, who had bought out the interest of one of the older proprietors. With his hat upon his head, dressed in his quaint Quaker garment, this moderate and deliberate man stood before the assembly of the Carolinas, and told them gravely and firmly how he meant to manage them. He kept his word, with the quiet faithfulness of his sect. He inquired patiently into every com- plaint which reached his ears, selected a council from among his citizens, and, in spite of the fact that he was a Quaker, and opposed to war, trained the militia better than it had ever been trained before, looking to every detail of military matters himself. There were already many other Quakers at Albemarle, and these increased in numbers, and became, it goes without saying, his warm supporters. All of the colo- nists recognized his judicious rule, and after having got the colony into a wholesome state, appointed a successor, Joseph Blake, and returned to England. Joseph Blake ruled for four years over a colony now well established and well ordered. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Ramsay's "South Carolina." Williamson's "North Carolina." Fiction — Skitt, "Fisher's River." Simms' "Cassique of Kiawah." CHAPTER XXVI. !Hn'$ ^n|iim3nil^ I0 ffinn. ATTACK OF INDIANS ON NEW NETHERI.AND — DESTRUCTION 09 PAVONIA — PERSECUTION OF LUTHERANS AND QUAKERS AT NEW AMSTERDAM — SLAVERY AMONG THE DUTCH ENGLISH ENCROACHMENTS — SURRENDER OF NEW NETHERLAND — SETTLE- MENT OF NEW JERSEY. ^HILE Peter Stuyvesant was absent conquering New Sweden, a terrible calamity fell upon the Dutch behind him in the settlement. The Indians, realizing that this would be a fortunate time for attack, swarmed through New Amsterdam J Vy one day. The people, knowing their helplessness, treated them with as much policy as possible, and suc- ceeded in getting them to leave the place at sunset and cross to Governor's Island. It was hoped that, by a conference between the chiefs and the magistrates, some arrangements for peace might be made, but it was not yet night when the Indians grew bolder, and the military had to be called from the fort to protect the people. The Indians fled before the soldiers, took once more to their canoes and paddled out across the dark waters, yelling and howling as they went. The people watched with anxiety to see what would happen next, and in a short time a light springing up over Pavonia and Hoboken told them that the Indians had fallen upon the helpless settlers there. In a little while the fires died down, and at New Amsterdam they knew that Pavonia and Hoboken were burned to the ground and the people killed. As it proved later, only one man of each settlement was left alive, but the women and children were carried away as prisoners. The people at Staten Island knew neither of the threateninsfs of the Indians at New Amsterdam or of the destruction of man's inhumanity to man. 173 the villages, and were sleeping when the savages, mad with thirst for blood, came upon them. Twenty-three of the ninety people who lived among the beautiful hills of the island were killed, and all the houses were burned. And now the people would have given all they possessed for a glimpse of the one-legged old soldier whom they had so frequently abused, and they sent for Stuyvesant with all possible haste. He returned, full of determination, and gave heart to the people as soon as he appeared among them, though now for three days the Indians had been everywhere, ravaging and killing. No man knew better than he when to fight and when to treat for peace, and now he urged the people to cultivate friendly relations with the Indians and to rescue the prisoners with ransoms. Far north upon the Hudson, at Rensselaerswyck, the sturdy young patroon. Van Rensselaer, had already been following this policy, and had secured a renewal of the treaty with the Mohawks, so that that part of the country was spared. For several years compara- tive peace was kept between the Dutch and the Indians, but in 1658 trouble began. Peter Stuyvesant, after the massacre of 1655, just related, had induced the people to build fences about their villages and prepare themselves more carefully against attack. He also advised them to treat the Indians with fairness, but this they would not do, and the trouble of 1658 was brought about because a band of Indians were fired upon for being noisy and drunken. It is needless to say, however, that the whisky which put them in this condition was obtained from the Dutch. For this wanton killing the Indians took a prompt revenge by murdering farmers and burning their houses, and for six years the Ksopus Indians and the Dutch were almost continiially at war with each other. In 1663 the Indians fell upon the village of Wildwyck, plunder- ing the houses and setting fire to them. Many men were killed, and over forty women and children taken as prisoners. Then the Dutch were aroused to a wholesome resistance, which ended in a subduing of the Indians for a short time. But, in spite of all this discouragement. New Netherland continued to prosper. Gradually, the people gained power and their governors yielded some of their arbitrary rights. The English towns upon Long Island became more numerous, but for the most part they lived quietly with their Dutch neighbors. Much less religious than the Massachusetts government, there was far less persecution among them. Holland was the most tolerant of countries, and her colony kept, to a certain degree, the policy which had animated the mother country in dealing with men 174 I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. of new and unpopular religions. Yet at one time the IvUtherans were forbidden to hold meetings in New Amsterdam, and a poor shoemaker was imprisoned for addressing them. The Quakers, too, were persecuted for a time, but it could hardly be expected that any class of men, how- ever patient, would care to be railed against as the Dutch were by the Quakers. The women who spoke upon the streets against the steeple houses, the hireling preachers and the empty ceremonies to which the Quakers so intensely objected, were thrown into prison. One Friend Robert Hodgson, was treated most shamefully, being chained to a wheelbarrow and made to do hard work, while a negro beat him with a four-inch tarred rope. At night he was thrust into a dungeon. This continued for several days. His sentence condemned him to hard labor two years, but at length he was terribly whipped for speaking his message to those about him, and was so torn with the rods that his life was despaired of for a time. A sister of Peter Stuyvesant prayed that he might be released. When Hodgson recovered he was released, but banished. The Quakers increased rapidly, as. they always did where they were persecuted. Finally, a quiet English farmer who professed the faith was sent to Holland to appear before the directors in Amster- dam. Peter Stuyvesant' s ambition to have the sect crushed had overleaped itself, for the directors of Amsterdam reproved him severely for the manner in which he had treated these people, and told him that everyone in the colony should be allowed to follow his own conscience. After this, the Friends were no longer molested, and the director had the grace to be a little ashamed of his actions. Slavery was rapidly increasing in New Amsterdam. By 1664, A fricans were brought by hundreds to New Netherland, but the Dutch themselves were fond of agriculture, and did not grow to have that complete dependence ujDon the negro which the Virginians had. Slavery, therefore, never developed its worst feature among the Dutch. The English kept steadily encroaching upon the land which the Dutch claimed. Lord Baltimore asserted that the whole South river region was included in his patent, and sent a delegation from Maryland to demand a surrender for the province. The people in the South river country were willing enough to yield. They were dissatisfied with the management of the Dutch West India Company, and were perfectly willing to swear allegiance to any who would give them more comforts and protection. The claims remained unsettled until after the surrender of New Netherlands. Then the Dutch and Swedes of the South river district quietly yielded to the government of England. New Haven MAN'S INHUMANITY TO MAN. 1 75 and the other English towns along the Sound and on Long Island were brought under the jurisdiction of Connecticut, by a grant of land which John Winthrop got from Charles II. This new patent covered not only- Long Island, but all northern New Netherland. Peter Stuyvesant was greatly alarmed for the independence of his countrymen. For two years he fought it as best he could. He was a man of statesmanlike ability and his policy was clever, but the English were very determined. They sent men to stir up discontent in the English towns situated in New Netherland, and forced Stuyvesant to consent that the Dutch should not interfere in the least with the English towns in his province. One John Scott was sent to inquire into the English titles upon Long Island and carried with him the news that the King had granted all Long Island to the Duke of York. The English towns of that district, Hempstead, Gravestead, Flushing, Newton and Jamaica, united, choosing John Scott as their president. He started through Long Island, with a force of one hundred and fifty men, to reduce the Dutch towns to obedience, but he succeeded in doing but little, and was finally imprisoned by the magistrates at Hartford for asserting his own rights, instead of those of the country' he represented. The English continued to buy up ground from the Indians which the Dutch had already purchased from them, and the King kept on giving grants of land to his favorites, which included the territory that the Dutch had long occupied. In April, 1664, a force of three or four hundred men under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls, who acted as Lieutenant-Governor for the Duke of York, sailed for England to enforce the Duke's claims to New Netherland. Peter Stuyvesant heard of it, and did all he could to prevent it. To him, Dutch independence was more than life. He had the fortifications repaired and enlarged, raised money, procured ammunition, stored provisions in the fort and drilled his men, but in the midst of these preparations he got word from the West India Company saying that the fleet under Nicolls had been sent to force the obedience of the Massachusetts colonies, and that New Netherland need have no fear. Stuyvesant believed that this was so, and went up to Fort Orange on business. Though it was true that Nicolls had come to see to Massachusetts affairs, he had also come to reduce New Netherland, and, in the course of a month, brought his four ships up the bay before New Amsterdam. His men seized the block-house on Staten Island and blockaded the harbor. Then a proclamation was sent out that none should be harmed who submitted quietly to the King of England. Stuyvesant hurried 176 THE STORY OF AMERICA. down from Fort Orange, and prepared to make a defence, but no one would stand by him. When he tore up a letter from Nicolls demanding surrender, the people made him put it together again, and the mortified old Governor, who would so gladly have died for the sake of his colony, had to yield to them. He stood on the walls of the fort by the side ot a gun while the ships passed by him up the harbor and dropped their anchors near the fort. He did not order the gunner to fire. He feared, perhaps, that his people would not sustain him, and that in the end the Dutch would suffer more for such an act, but it can be imagined that his proud old heart broke at the humiliation. He wrote to Nicolls asking that a consultation might be held, but received answer that the white flag must be hung from the fort or Nicolls would come upon the town with ships and soldiers. The people of the town got up a petition asking Stuyvesant to yield. They said that they could see nothing but defeat, with all its terrors, before them, whereas if they yielded, the enemy generously promised them protec- tion. The hired soldiers in the fort were as ready to prey upon the town as to fight the Englishmen. Stuyvesant knew this, and on September 8, 1664, New Netherland surrendered. The troops were put on a ship bound for Holland, and the English flag was raised over Fort Amsterdam, which was henceforth called Fort James. The Englishmen called New Amsterdam New York, and Fort Orange was given its present name of Albany. A few weeks later. New Amstel, on the Delaware, was reduced, and the Dutch no longer had any authority on American soil. They seemed to take very kindly to their change of government, and matters went on with them very much the same as they had before. There was no feeling of bitterness between the two nations, and the English had the wisdom to appoint some of the Dutch to the government of ofiices. The city officers were left unchanged. Patroons owning the great outlying tracts of land had only to change their patent and take an oath of allegiance to England. The Duke of York gave many grants of land to Englishmen. New Netherland was divided into two provinces, one of which was given to Lord Berkeley, the elder brother of Sir William Berkeley, of Virginia, and the other to Sir George Carteret. Carteret's province was named New Jersey, and in June, 1665, Captain Philip Carteret, a brother of the proprietor, arrived as Governor, with a company of men. He settled his thirty emigrants at the point wliich he named, and which is still known as Elizabeth- point. In 1666, Newark was settled by a party from Connecticut. man's inhumanity to man ^77 These were joined in a little time by English people from other settle- ments, who made it a condition of their joining the company, that none should be admitted as freemen, or have the right to vote or hold office, who were not members of the Congregational Church. Massachusetts was much alarmed with the fear that it might be forced to come under the Duke of York' s patent. The Duke of York was a Catholic, and to have been placed under his authority would be the greatest pain for the Puritans which could be imagined. She, there- fore, refused to help Nicolls, although Connecticut and New Haven gave them what help they could against the Dutch. After the surrender of New Netherland, the Duke's commissioners held a conference with representatives from Connecticut, and the boundar\' lines of the provinces were decided upon, Long Island being given to New York. The Duke's laws were put in force, and though there were objections to some portions, they were accepted in peaceful discontent. Nicolls ruled for about three years, while England and Holland, on the other side of the world, were engaged in war. When peace was declared, Nicolls asked that he might be permitted to go home. He had always greatly resented the loss of New Jersey, and thought the Duke of York had made a great mistake in giving away this beautiful country. Colonel Francis Lovelace succeeded Nicolls as Governor. He served very honorably for four years. In no colony of America were so many people of different nations and tongues gathered. At the time of the surrender of New Netherland eighteen different languages were spoken in New Amsterdam. Though it was under English rule, it continued to be Dutch in its peculiarities. The people were hospitable and kindly, though very simple and a little slow. They educated their children with care, and were proud of their respectability. The houses were well built and their inhabitants solid and worthy citizens. Their gardens and orchards prospered wonderfully. Along the river bank were lines of locust trees, under which the people walked in the evening. A canal was built to help commerce and a bridge constructed over it. An exchange was started for trading purposes and commerce rapidly increased. The fort held forty pieces of cannon, and was well built, being of stone, with a thick rampart of earth. Within this stood the mansion of the Governor. In 1672 Peter Stuyvesant died, at the age of eighty, and was buried in the little chapel which he had built upon his farm. FOR FURTHER READING: HiSTORY-Whitehead's "New Jersej-^' ^ .m^v ^f «t N.Vholas »' Fiction— Paulding's Dutchman's Fireside" and "Book of St. Nicnoias. 11 CHAPTER XXVII. POLITICAL POLICY OF MASSACHUSETTS — EFFORTS OF ENGLAND TO RECOVER THE CHARTER — EDWARD RANDOLPH COIN OF THE COLONY SIR EDMUND ANDROS THE EPISODE OF THE CONNECTICUT CHARTER — ARREST OF ANDROS AND ELECTION OF PHIPS — DEATH OF PHIPS. IROM the first, Massachusetts, as a colony, had been ambitious for political independence. Though the commonwealth had in it little liberty, it was in many respects excellent. The people were determined, and determination is the best corner-stone of government. No good intentions can make up for weakness. If the people of Massachusetts erred, it was upon the side of too much sternness and inflexibility of purpose. They believed that there was a right way of doing things; that their way was the right way, and all other ways were wrong. Liberty of conscience seemed vicious to them — for was not the conscience capable of great error? But being so determined in religious matters, made them equally so in political affairs, and no wheedling diplomacy or threatenings of the government of England could make them lose sight of their charter, which they loved as dearly as their own lives, and which they protected with no little danger to themselves. Charles I had insinuated that they were governing without authority, and in many different ways had tried to get them to return their charter to England. His letters were passed over without replies from the colonial government. To refuse directly, would have been treason. To consent, would have been loss of liberty. To keep silent, was to con- tinue a delay which might end in victory for them. OUR COUNTRY, RIGHT OR WRONG. 1 79 At this time the King had prohibited the Puritans from leaving- England for Massachusetts, and on several occasions had made com- panies of them disembark from the ships on which they had taken: passage. Two of the men who took passage for Massachusetts among; the company of Puritans were Cromwell and John Hampden. Had they been allowed to get away, the most attractive of the Stuarts might have kept his head upon his shoulders. After the King was dead and the Long Parliament was in session, the charter was again threatened,, but the temporizing policy of the colonists again stood them in good stead. They wrote a letter to Cromwell which touched that religious strain he held in common with the Puritans of Massachusetts, and wort his valuable friendship. At one time he was seized with an idea, of removing the Massachusetts people to the Island of Jamaica, that they might undertake the conversion of the Catholics about there, but the general court pointed out the bad economy of such a step, and the matter was dropped. When Charles II was restored to the throne, the two' regicides, Whalley and GofF, fled to America. Massachusetts, in sym- pathy, of course, with the Protestant revolution, protected these men,^ and when a royal order was sent for their surrender, succeeded irt helping them to escape. But at the next general court a letter was- given to Charles II which protested the loyalty of the colony, and! asked for the protection of their government. The King sent a reply,, but demanded again the surrender of the regicides. The Massachusetts; people met this with their usual irritating silence, and the King's feel- ing toward them ceased to be amiable. In May, 1661, two men were sent to investigate the humor of~ the colony and see why it refused to obey the King and return the charter. The people explained as well as they could that it was- the foundation of their colony and their protection; that they were loyal', to the home government, and desired a royal confirmation of the- charter. It was granted, but with conditions which the colonists deeply resented. Every ordinance passed during the rule of Cromwell was to- be pronounced invalid. Members of the Church of England should be free to worship as they chose, and all should have the right of suffrage^ without regard to their religious opinions. As none but the Puritans,, who worship after the Congregational method, were allowed to vote,, this was naturally very displeasing to the Massachusetts people. A few years later the royal commissioners, under Nicolls, came: to secure the conquest of New Netherland, and incidentally to enforce the obedience of the Massachusetts colony to the King. This commis> l8o THE STORY OF AMERICA. sion returned to England after the surrender of New Amsterdatti. There had been a thorough attempt on the part of this commission to enforce the authority of the King, but the general court was quite as firm. Its conscience would not allow it, it said, in Puritanic phrase, to swear allegiance to the King except under the protection of the charter. The commissioners returned to England baffled. Then came the great plague of London, and after that the historic fire. The colony was prompt to send all the assistance it could. Its generosity was remarkable, considering its size. By this time New Hampshire and Maine were included in the government of Massachusetts, and the spars sent to England from Maine forests were invaluable to an army engaged in naval warfare, as the English were with the Dutch at this time. These evidences of loyalty might have conciliated the home government had not the dissatisfaction felt toward the colonies been kept alive by Edward Randolph, a man who had been sent to settle the question of the New Hampshire government previous to its incorpora- tion with Massachusetts. This man was heartily hated in Massachu- setts. He was far too good a servant of the King, and carried stories to him which greatly damaged the colony in the royal ears. Especially did he complain that they broke the navigation laws, which, Under heavy taxations, confined and limited the trade of the colony. They admitted that they did so, but said it was necessary to their prosperity. They offered, however, to cover the matter by an act of their own. Randolph would have none of this. He asked the general court to help him, but they followed their usual policy by paying no attention. Even the Governor seems to have kept a discreet silence. Another charge brought against them was that they coined their own money, which none but the King had a right to do. One clever gentle- man who had visited New England was sent for by the King that he might learn something about the matter. This man, whose name was Thomas Temple, showed the King some of the colony coins. They were of the old pine-tree variety. The King looked at them suspiciously, but Sir Thomas, being something of a courtier, told the King that the pine tree upon them was a royal oak ; that the Massachusetts people did not dare to put the King's name upon their coin, and had, therelore, put on the oak, which, as everyone knew, had preserved the King's life. This money had followed wampum, the exchange of the Indians. At one time early in the history of Massachusetts musket bullets had been used in the place of money. There was a very large coinage of OUR COUNTRY, RICxHT OR WRONG. rSl the pine-tree money, and it was used for a long time. At last, in 1681, came another letter from the King, asking that deputies should be sent to him to tender the submission of the colonies. IMassachusetts dared delay no longer, and sent two men to England, armed with a letter of such firm pride that the King grew angry, and issued a writ against the colony, demanding to show by what warrant it held its charter. When Charles II died and James, his brother, became King of England, he put Sir Edmund Andros over all of New England. He was a proud Englishman of high birth, one of the old-time loyalists, who thought obedience to the King a much greater thing than the liberty of a people. His manner of living was very disagreeable to the Puritans. He gave large drinking parties and made much display of his wealth and authority, while it was their habit to live quietly. By this time many of the men of Boston were rich. They were naturally proud of all that they had done and the respect in which they were held, but their manners were without show. The loss of the charter which they so loved, the dissolving of the general court, and the setting up of an arrogant and selfish Governor over them, filled them with an angry discontent. Randolph, whom they so hated, was made licenser of the press, and other men as overbearing arid disagree- able were put in office. No respect was shown for Puritan principles, and in the Old South Meeting-House, dedicated to Puritan worship, Governor Andros insisted upon holding Episcopalian service. He levied taxes pretty much to please himself, and was filled with great indignation when the people protested. He even made the land- owners give up their titles to him for examination, and said that the deeds from the Indians were not worth the scratch of a bear's paw. He made conditions, howc:ver, by which these titles could become legal; but the people would not accept them, since it was a matter of conscience to them not to give approval to riis rule. In New Hampshire, Andros had but little trouble. In Maine, he had succeeded in ousting the Baron Vincent de Chastine, Lieutenant of the French government of Acadia. ■^ His next work was to deprive Connecticut of its charter. In vain did the people protest. They set forth all they had suffered in subduing the soil and overcoming the Indians, and defended their claims to independence, but the plea had no effect. Andros insisted upon having the charter. The distressed Connecticut magistrates sat about the table of the little council chamber listening with anxiety to the royal governor. They talked about the matter all the afternoon and until 1 82 THE STORY OF AMERICA. evening had deepened and the candles were lit. Outside of the building crowds of excited citizens gathered. Andros made a final demand for the charter. It was no gust of wind that blew out the candle. In the darkness, the charter disappeared. The crowd outside dispersed. They were contented. The Governor, baffled and furious, entered an account of the meeting upon the State records, and wrote "finis" at the end. ISTo one in Connecticut appeared to know where the charter was. It was snugly hidden in a great oak tree on the grounds of Samuel Wallace, one of the magistrates. But Connecticut had lost its individ- uality. It was now a part of the royal province, and in a little while New York and New Jersey were also a part of New England, under Andros. But his authority was almost at an end. The pride of the people could stand no more, and when they heard that William of Orange had landed in England and the throne of King James was tottering, they wrote and read to the citizens of Boston a declaration of their inde- pendence from royal rule. This was read from the balcony of the town-house, on which were gathered the most prominent men of Boston. On Beacon Hill, tar barrels were blazing. All through the streets the boys were beating drums. Flags flew bravely over the city. The declaration declared that it rejoiced that the Prince of Orange was upon the throne of England and that the power of the Stuarts had been over- thrown. The royal servants were arrested and thrown into jail, Andros among them. Simon Bradstreet was made president. He was eight)^- seven years of age, but he was strong with the determination of the Puritans. The Massachusetts deputies, who visited the Prince of Orange, had permission to use their old charter until a new one could be made. This hardly satisfied the people, but they were better contented when Sir William Phips was made Governor of New England, Phips had been born on the Kennebec, in Maine, and was therefore welcomed by the colonists. He had been a sheep-tender on the Maine hills, and had worked as a carpenter in the great Maine shipping yards. He mar- ried a Boston widow who had money enough to start him in business. Having a romantic character, he built him a ship for the purpose of dragging lost Spanish treasures from the sea. He went to the West Indies and hunted about for the sunken Spanish galleys which had lain there for years. One of these he found, but did not get a large amount of spoils, and was anxious to search for another which he thought more valuable. He soon interested the King of England in his project, and OUR COUNTRY, RIGHT OR WRONG. 1 83 was given a man-of-war, well fitted in all respects. For two years he searched without effect, having many odd experiences, and successfully stopping a mutiny of his sailors. In spite of his failure to secure the Spanish treasure, he had so much determination and eloquence that he was equipped for a second voyage. This time he found the ship, richly laden with treasure. He received a good share of the bullion, coin and plate, and was given a cup, valued at one thousand pounds, by the Duke of Albemarle, who had sent out the expedition. The King knighted him, and he returned to New England, wealthy and famous. It was this man who was appointed Governor of New England, It was during Phips' administration that a fleet was sent northward for the purpose of subduing Canada, The idea was to take Quebec and Montreal, The New England soldiers fared badly. They sailed along the coast and up the St, Lawrence in so lazy a way that Frontenac had time to prepare for defence, Phips was not a soldier, and Wallace, who was with him, was a coward. The combination was fatal. They made continual mistakes, and at last, with many men lost and many more sick, were obliged to turn their ships toward Boston. One of the ships was never heard of, one of them burned, and a third was wrecked. The expense of the expedition had been so great as to bankrupt the treasury, and it was necessary to issue paper bonds. These soon fell in value thirty-three per cent. , and Phips redeemed them from the soldiers, to whom they had been paid, with money from his own private fortune. He also made an expedition to Maine, against the Indians, with but small results. His impulsiveness and generosity was not sustained by wisdom or quiet determination. Though a picturesque and attractive man, he did not make a good Governor, and the vexations of his office did not improve his temper, which was always hot. At length he was ordered to England to answer certain charges against him, and in London, in 1694, he died of a fever. He was one of the most adven- turous and romantic of all the men who at that time distingushed American history. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Trumbull's "Connecticut." Fiction— W. Seaton's "Romance of the Charter Oak." R. Dawes' "Nix's Mate." E- Charles' "On Both Sides of the Sea," CHAPTER XXVIII. Ih^$ uf ^ranit. KING PHILIP'S WAR — FIGHT AT BROOKFIELD — FIGHT AT HADLEY- FIGHT AT DEERFIELD. ORTY years after the destruction of the Pequots, there broke over the New England colonies another wave of Indian war. Phips was in England, and William Stoughton, the Lieutenant Governor, was attending to the colonial affairs. There had been no direct and flagrant insult to the Indians which prompted this, but, through all the long years, there had been a contemptuous treatment of them. For one thing, the Indian did not understand that when land was purchased of him for a few blankets, or scissors, that he was to yield it up forever. His understanding of it was that he gave the white man pennission _ to come upon it; but when the white man came and steadily drove him out, when his friends were treacherously murdered, or sold to slavery, he perceived too late what was intended. The Narragansetts had much reason to hate the Englishmen. They had never forgotten the treacherous murdering of their young and beloved chief, Miantonomo. He had been executed, without cause, by the Massachusetts commissioners, away back in 1643, ^^ore to please Uncas, the Mohican chief, who was the friend of the whites, than for any offence which he had committed. At the present time, the son of Miantonomo was reigning over the Narragansetts, and he allied himself to Philip, the second son of Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampanoags, Massasoit, it will be remembered, had been a good friend of the pilgrims of Plymouth at the time when they needed friends. In 1660 he died, leaving two sons, to whom he had given English names, Alexander and Philip. A year after Massasoit' s death, the elder of DAYS OF DREAD. 185 these brothers, Alexander, was carried as a prisoner to Plymouth, because he was suspected of joining the Narragansetts for the purpose of moving against the English ; but the chief died before they reached Plymouth. His wife, who was a queen among the Indians, believed that they had poisoned Alexander. When, fourteen years later, she heard that her brother-in-law, Philip, was going to make an effort to wipe out the bitter injustice and humiliation which had come to the Indians in all those trying years, she took her three hundred warriors and joined him. It was a fatal move for her. Within a year all but twenty- six of her braves were killed, and the young queen, tr>-ing to swim the river, was drowned. When the Englishmen found her body washed ashore, they cut her head from her comely shoulders, and set it up where her disheartened warriors could see it, and around it the broken- hearted braves set up a most dismal wailing. Philip, himself, was a man with many friends. The natural vigor and determination of his character, his frank and convincing way of speaking, his upright carriage, and penetrating eye, forced the admira- tion of all. He had tried to treat the white man with fairness; had answered to his many unjust suspicions with dignity and calmness, but in return had received many wounds which rankled. He was made to deliver up all the English arms which his tribe possessed. This humiliated him and his tribe deeply. Another incident irritated him also. One of the Indians whom Eliot had converted, warned the people at Plymouth that there was a growing anger among the Indians, and danger that they might soon break into war. The Indians probably learned of the story which the man had told, for he was found murdered and thrust into the ice of the river. Three Indians were accused of the deed, and a trial by jur}^ was held, in which six white men and six Indians were impaneled. The accused Indians were executed. Philip hastened preparations for war. On a fair June day in 1675, the people of Swansea appointed a day of prayer and fasting that they might be spared from the horrors of war. Going home from church, a man was killed by an Indian in ambush. Several were Wounded, and two who hastened for a surgeon were killed. Over by the garrison six more men were killed. A number of houses and bams were burned. This was the beginning of the war. It was the torch, so to speak, which called together the bands of savages. All through the remote settlements many houses were burned and much property destroyed. Cattle were driven away, and frequently farmers were murdered. Eighteen houses were destroyed in Providence. Through l86 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the months of July and August these crimes went steadily on. In August the general court sent a number of men to hold a peace confer- ence with some Indians at Brookfield. The Indians did not appear there as they had promised to do, and Captain Wheeler, with twent}' men, went to look for them. The Indians had prepared an ambush for them, and eight of the twenty Englishmen were killed. The captain and many others were wounded. They hurried to Brookfield to give the alarm to the people. Pell-mell the men, women and children rushed into the strong house in the settlement. Three hundred savages, as mad as wolves at the taste of blood, thronged into the village. They burned every house except the one where the frightened people were gathered. For two days and nights the men in that log cabin held out. The Indians had ammunition and guns, and kept up the fight from all sides. At night they would crawl along the ground and build fires against the walls of the building. They tied fire-brands to poles and tried to thrust them through the cracks in the logs, and attached burning stuff" to their arrows. But the fires were put out by the besieged. Even when burning sulphur was poured upon the roof, it was extinguished. The white men had become as cunning as the savages. They could fight them upon their own ground. The- third morning came, and with it despair. The Englishmen felt they could not hold out much longer. The Indians prepared a terrible machine. It was a cart piled high with hay and hemp, and blazing fiercely. This was pushed up against the building. It seemed as if there could be no escape. Either the brave men must see their wives and children burn there in the fire, or what was worse, let them suffer the horrors of Indian captivity. Pray- ing and weeping, the women prepared to take their children in their arms and venture out; but at that moment a cloud overspread the sky. There was a clap of thunder and a sudden down-pour of summer rain. The fire was extinguished. So wet did the building get that there was no longer any chance of burning it. The besieged held out during the afternoon, and before evening. Major Simon Willard, of Boston, with fifty or sixty men, dashed into the town and routed the Indians, eighty of whom were killed or wounded. The war spread steadily. Philip's influence was great. He went from tribe to tribe, haranguing, encouraging and threatening. Those he could not win to his side in any other way he bought up with wampum and gifts. No white man felt safe at this time. Every house and every church was an arsenal in which ammunition was stored. DAYS OF DREAD. 1 87 Men carried their arms everywhere, to church, to dinner and to bed. Flint-locks were already known in America, although they were not yet in use in England. The stories which could be told of this time would fill volumes, so many were hurried into captivity, so many tortured and mutilated. One of the fiercest fights was at Hadley, on the Connecticut, three or four weeks after the Brookfield fight. Hadley was a place for military supplies and had a garrison. Most of the soldiers were away at the time, and as at Swansea, the people were holding a feast day. Some one brought the alarm that the Indians were coming. Men had their arms at hand, and gathered about the door, while the women and children crowded into the corners of the building. The meeting-house was not a strong structure, and the Indians made an unusually savage onslaught. Resistance looked almost useless. The men were unnerved with fear- As the Indians surged up, and the first men who ventured to the open, door were met with well-directed arrows, they fell back with despair irt their faces. Suddenly an old man stood among them. No one had' seen him before. He was tall and soldierly, with masses of flowing- grey hair about his shoulders. He drew his sword like one used to wars, and stepping out with intrepid bravery, led the colonists to an attack. No one asked who he was. They simply felt that God had sent a deliverer. The Indians were chased to the woods, into whose murky depths they disappeared, and the colonists looked about for their leader, but he was gone. Not till long after did they know that it was Colonel Goff, the regicide, who was then in hiding at Hadley, and on whose head the King of England had fixed a price. No soldier with his experience could see a crowd of brave men perish for the want of a leader. On the very same day Deerfield was attacked, and here, later in the month, the people were fired upon as they were going to the meeting- house. The block-house at Northfield was besieged, and a number of persons killed. Near Hadley a company of young men, eighty in number, were sent out to complete the threshing and load the wagons with grain. They were under the command of Captain Lathrop. In these days a soldier was at the head of every venture. Returning in the middle of the month to Hadley, the company stopped in a large grove beside a brook, and the men broke their ranks and rested themselves in a pleasant spot. Suddenly, with no warning, seven hundred savages were upon them, and only seven of the men escaped. This was how 1 88 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Bloody Brook got its name. Captain Mosley, who had been left behind to protect Deerfield, heard the firing, and hurried to the spot witli one hundred and sixty men, part of whom were Mohegans. The attacking Indians were driven off. Tlie English, realizing that- there was no prospect of peace, decided that ic was best to begin a systematic warfare. Soldiers were called for. Massachusetts gave five hundred and twenty men, Connecticut three liuudred, and Plymouth one hundred and fifty-nine. The Mohegan Indians gave one hundred and fifty warriors. The idea was to march under Governor Winslow, of Plymouth, to the country of the Narragan- setts, in Rhode Island. There they had a strong fort, occupying six acres of dry ground. About it was a swamp, and beyond this a high palisade, protected by a chevaux-de-friese. There was a deep snow on the ground by this time, for it was now December. To reach the one entrance of the fort, it was necessary to get over a log as high as a man's breast. Under a fire from the Indians, four Massachusetts captains were killed, and three of the Connecticut leaders. But Captain Benjamin Church, putting those firm lips of his together, marched around to the rear, and entered there, carrying three bullets in him, but still in fighting condition. The savages were driven out into the swamp and beyond that, leaving seven hundred dead behind them. Three hundred of their wounded men died later. A great many of the old and feeble were burned in the wigwams which the Englishmen were foolish enough to fire, within the fort. The colonists also lost heavily. In spite of this terrible battle, Philip was determined not to yield. He felt, no doubt, that it was the turning point in his countrymen's history. If they lost their independence now, it would never be regained, but if they could succeed in exterminating the hated English, all might be as before. Solitude would be theirs again, and liberty their own. They could paddle their canoes at peace upon the wild rivers. The deer would return to the forest. The clam banks upon the coast would be unmolested. They would no longer be the victims of the white man's pride and cupidity. In February, Lancaster was attacked, but after that, for a month or two, affairs were quiet, and the colonists were rarely disturbed. In May, a large party of Indians gathered on the desolated fields by Deerfield, and began planting them. This news was brought to Hatfield, and Captain Turner rode twenty miles, with one hundred men at his back, reaching the Indians in the night. The roar of the fall on the river kept the horses' hoofs from being heard. Leaving the horses in the ravine, the soldiers fell upon DAYS OF DREAD. 1 89 the Indians just at day-break. The Indians, dazed with sleep and entirely unprepared for the attack, could not do themselves justice. One hundred and forty of them took to their canoes, but, in the panic, went over the falls and perished. Many were shot, and others took refuge in the rocks, or were put to the sword. Turner lost but one man; the Indians lost three hundred. But another large party of Indians, not far distant, heard the fight, and soon overtook Turner and his men. The brave captain was killed, with many of his followers, but most of them reached Hatfield safely. Philip had a fishery near the falls, from which he had intended t^ provide his men for the winter, and the breaking up of this greatly dis- turbed him. He made an attack upon Hatfield, but was defeated, and soon after he led seven hundred Indians against Hadley again, but many of them were slain and they were obliged to hastily retreat. Then he moved farther south. Town after town was sacked and burned. Now he was in Rhode Island, now in Connecticut, and now in Massachusetts. In these days every man became a fighter. Even the boys were enemies to be dreaded, and on more than one occasion whole families had been saved, in the absence of men, by the pluck and readi- ness of mere urchins. It was a great blow to the Indians when Nanuntenoo, the proud and revengeful son of Miantonomo, was taken captive. He was executed, of course, but was glad to die, so he said. All through the spring and summer of 1676 the colonies were in terrible fear. When Sudbury was attacked and partly burned, Captain Wadsworth, hurrying to the relief, was caught in ambush and killed, with sixty of his men. Captain Pierce was surprised, and his company of fifty Englishmen massacred. Only one of them escaped. Major Talcott, with a force of three hundred mounted men, surrounded a larger body of Narragansetts in a swamp in Rhode Island. All of them were either-killed in the assault or put to death afterward. Philip was becoming discouraged. He saw that his men were breaking down under the strain. The white man had learned all his secrets. He understood the decoy, the night attack, and the stealthy waiting as well as the Indian, now, and to this he united greater endurance and courage in the face of heavy odds. Twice Philip had barely escaped capture. He had been obliged to disguise himself At last, worn out and disheartened, he fled to his home on the isthmus of Mt. Hope. An Indian betrayed his whereabouts to Church. Church, whom Philip feared more than any other living man, started for the place at once. It was the middle of the night when he reached there. 190 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Across a swamp, on a bit of upland, slept the great chief, with his Indians about him. The Englishmen sent a heavy fire into the •camp. Philip sprang to his feet, gun in hand, and rushed forward. A minute later he was dead, with his face in the dark swamp water. The Indians could do little more. Their great leader, whose -eloquence was such an inspiration to them, whose courage was inex- haustible, and whose plans had been so daring and ingenious, was •dead. The power of the Indians over all that section of the country- was gone. Many rushed westward, and many, alas! served as slaves in the West Indies. Others sought the powerful friendship of the white men. All over New England there was mourning, for hardly a house had been left untouched by death. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Abbott's "History of King Philip." Fiction — R. C. Sands' "Yamoyden." Cooper's "The Wept of Wish-ton-wish." G. H. Hollister's "Mount Hope." Pierce's "Narragansett Chief." CHAPTER XXIX. H$$tn5 HOW THE WITCH-CRAFT HALLUCINATION STARTED — ^SAMUEL PARRIS AND HIS WITCH-CRAFT LIBRARY — THE TRIAL AND DEATH OF GILES COREY AND OTHER VICTIMS OF THIS HALLUCINATION. T is a pity that children should have been respon- sible for some of the most dreadful crimes which disgraced New England. It was they who started what is known as the witch-craft delusion. It was a strange time. In Europe, as in America, the people were morbid. A series of misfortunes made them open to this disease of the mind, which physicians now recognize as a sort of hysteria, but which at that time even the wisest and best of men supposed to be the work of the devil. Every one believed that there were witches, and the Bible said that witches should be hung. Men like Bacon went to the trouble of inventing a medicine for witches' ointment. Statesmen made laws concerning it. Ministers preached about it from the pulpit. To tell hideous stories of bewitched people about the win- ter fireside was one of the favorite amusements. Every one who wore scarlet, or who chanced to be peculiar, was sure to be thought a witch. This fearful disease had raged in Europe for a good many years before it reached the new world. So extensive had it become that a great many books had been written on the subject, and these books had been brought in considerable numbers to America. Samuel Parris, a man who had been a merchant in Barbadoes, but who had become a minister upon moving to Salem, had a number of these books in his library. In a town where books were comparatively few, they were naturally much borrowed and read, and appealed, as the horrible and mysterious always does, to the imagination of the people in general, and to children in 192 THE STORY OF AMERICA. particular. In Parris' family also was Tituba, an old slave, half negro and half Indian. She knew all the ways of witch-craft, and it was supposed that she could conjure up spirits with her black, bony hands, or, if she chose, ride through midnight storms, safely seated on a broom- stick. Not only has she figured in history, but in fiction and poetry, and all who know anything about those dreadful days know about Tituba and John Indian, her husband, Tituba had a habit of secretly gathering the children of the Parris and neighboring families into the kitchen, and there, by the flickering light of the fire, when the house was still and the old people away, she taught them all the dark secrets of her imaginary art, and instructed them in the way the bewitched children acted, telling them about the little Goodwin girl whom Cotton Mather had taken to live with him because she was bewitched. He wished to have her near him that he might study the actions of Satan in her, and it was through watching her that he came to believe in witch-craft, and did so much harm by advocating it. The little Good- win girl had accused a quiet Irish washer-woman of having bewitched her. Whenever the woman came near, she fell into spasms and sank upon the ground. Three other children did as they saw her do, and the poor washer- woman was'hanged. Tituba told these stories with delight, and the company of little girls practiced the actions of the bewitched. The children imagined such dreadful things that at last they were really no longer able to control themselves, but did really suffer almost as much as they had at first pretended to. So dreadfully did they act that doctors were called to visit them. They immediately said they were bewitched. The next thing then was to find the witches. The Reverend Parris, believing as he did in the existence of such a thing, was not illy pleased to have it come within his reach. If he really did not encourage the children in the matter, he at least influenced them to declare against his enemies. The first person they cried out against was Sarah Goodwin. She was accused of pinching them, and running pins and needles into them. The justices tried her, and sent her to prison. Many more were sent after her. Then came the charge against Giles Corey, a staunch old farmer, who was foolish enough to believe in witch-craft. The children cried out that he tormented them, and they fell into a strange illness, so real that the people had no choice but to believe in their sufferings. Corey was pressed to death and treated with great contempt in every way. The acquisitions came faster and fjister. A court of seven judges was appointed to decide upon the many cases brought before them. Among the children the epidemic spread. So A PASSING MADNESS. 1 93 Strong a hold did it have on them, that they actually declined until they were little more than skin and bones. A sort of second sight, or clairvoyancy, mingled with their hysteria, and the actual things which they foretold, or, being at a distance, correctly related, helped to confirm the popular belief. It got dangerous for one to have the least pecu- liarity. Any spot on the body — a mole or mark — was sufficient to convict one of being a witch. Gentle Rebecca Nourse, a farmer's wife, living in her own house and quietly tending her children, her house and her cows, w^as accused of being one of these baleful creatures, and was taken from her home, executed and thrown into the pit which was set apart for the witches. Christian burial not being allowed them. Here, at midnight, when no one was watching, came her little children and her husband to search for her poor body and give it a more gentle burial. Longfellow writes of Bridget Bishop, a jolly woman, fond of jests and bright dresses, who was condemned as much for wearing a scarlet petticoat as for anything else. Everyone who had an enemy saw a quick way of taking revenge upon him, by accusing him of being a party to the strange wickedness. The prison became crowded. As for the children, they seemed to have found themselves the most important and dreaded personages in the community. They grew very clever at imitating the people whom they accused of bewitching them, and chil- dren with soft voices acquired the power of talking like a man in deep, bass tones. It was not all imagination. It became insanity. One child, more conscientious than the rest, realized after a time that she did not feel all that she said she felt. She confessed, and accused the other children of deceit. The children promptly denounced her as a witch. But the matter had aroused the suspicions of the people. The wiser of them began to think it was a plot, and when at length Mrs. Hale, a woman of great beauty of character and of high station, was accused, the sympathy of the people was with her. Captain John Alden, a man of high character and good family, was accused. He made a sensible defence, which had no effect upon the justices, but at length he escaped. At last the children even dared to accuse the Governor's wife, and when they came to imitating some members of the Mather family, even Cotton Mather, the Methodist divine, concluded there must be a mistake somewhere. The matter ended almost as suddenly as it had begun. Governor Phips released one hundred and fifty persons from the jail. Several hundred more had, at one time and another, been impris- oned there, but only twenty were killed — not counting the two poor dogs which were formally executed for being familiars of witches. 194 '^^E STORY OF AMERICA. For one especial cruelty was Parris responsible. He hated, with all the narrowness of a minister of the time, the Reverend Stephen Burroughs, who seems to have had a belief which did not exactly agree with that accepted as orthodox by the Salem people. Parris had him driven out of the colony, and he took refuge with his family in Maine. At the time of the witch-craft excitement Parris succeeded in getting him accused and having him brought away down to Salem to be tried. An elder and two constables were sent to bring him, as Parris had chosen to given him the reputation of a dangerous man. He went with them cheerfully enough, having no thought that the matter was so serious. He was a remarkable man, of much animal magnetism, with a very commanding and penetrating eye, and all who came near him felt his influence. It was this power, added to his eloquence, which had made Parris jealous, and indeed had laid him open to suspicion, for it was not safe in those days to know very much. He understood wood-craft as an Indian does, and being a man remarkably strong and unusually clever, had done many things which his more stupid asso- ciates could not understand. Having a reputation of this sort, the terrified constables and the elder who were sent after him were distracted when he insisted upon leading them at night through a pathless forest, the way which he knew as well as his own garden. A terrible storm, with most violent lightning, broke over them, fright- ening the horses, breaiking the trees, and driving the men half mad with terror. To this day the spot in New Hampshire is called Witches' Trot. Once at Salem, all was over with him. He never went back to his wife and children beyond the forest. This dreadful chapter of Massachusetts history was very short. It was confined to the year 1692. In no time was it so sharp as it had been in the Old World, but it was bad enough, and made a great blot of ignorance and superstition on the fair page of native history. In 1720 a second attempt was made to stir up this old frenzy, but civilization had gone too far. The people would have none of it. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Upham's "History of Witch-craft." Fiction — J, Neal's "Rachel Dyer." Poetry — Longfellow's "Giles Corey." Whittier's "Witch of Wenham." Whittier's "Mabel Martin." Whittier's "Changeling." Whittier's "Wreck of Rivermouth.'* CHAPTER XXX. lanlbmait. WILLIAM PENN — ^THE SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA — REMARKABLE GROWTH OF THE COLONY CHANGE OF GOVERNMENT — RE- STORATION OF PENN — HIS DEATH — THE SLAVERY I QUESTION — BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. HE great State of Pennsylvania was settled by the Quakers, or Friends. In speaking of Pennsyl- vania, it is necessary to speak of William Penn. He was the son of a noted admiral of England, who was not only a man of much intellect, but of great humor and affability as well. His mother was an unusual woman also, and gave her son lessons in kindness and amiability which influenced him all his life, and had no little effect upon the history of this country. From his earliest years he was unusual. When he was a school-boy of eleven, he had strange visions in which the works and glory of God were revealed to him. It was by such things as this that the growing Society of Friends was distinguished. But at this time, Penn knew nothing of the Friends nor the fre- quency of these visions in England. Yet Penn was no dreamer; he was a gay, active boy, very strong of ann, capable of swift running, and fond of that jollity which forms so large a part of the schoolboy's life. In the course of time, a great preacher of the Society of Friends came to Oxford. Young Penn became a willing and enthusiastic convert. A short time after this, it was ordered that the surplice should be worn by the Oxford students. Penn could not permit this evidence of Episcopal pride to pass unchallenged. He and some of his friends tore the detested garments over the students' heads. He was expelled from school and banished from home. The tears of his mother, how- ever, softened the heart of the proud admiral, who forgave his son and 198 THE STORY OF AMERICA. sent him to Paris, in the hope that its allurements might win him from his fantastic ideas; and for a time they did, and he was as gay and heedless as any of the youths who lounged about Paris. He was bright and intelligent, and charmed London society with his graceful manner and witty speech ; but it was only a short time that he gave himself up to this light manner of living. Again he was drawn to the meetings of the Friends, and after this, sincerely devoted his life to their service. At one time he was fined for attending their meetings; at another he was thrown into the Tower for writing a book, setting forth their views, but while there, he continued to write as his conscience prompted him. It was seven months before he was released. Soon after this, his father died, reconciled to his son's strange beliefs, and leaving him a large property, which Penn spent for the most part in the cause of the Friends. It was Penn's ambition to start a colony in the New World; already he had been interested in some settlements there. New Jersey, it will be remembered, had been granted to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, but the people of New Jersey protested against their ruling, which was overbearing and unfair. There had been an insurrection; two colonies had been made — East and West New Jersey — and Berke- ley had sold his share to a company of Quakers. William Penn was one of this company. A few years later. Sir George Carteret died, and his rights in East New Jersey were sold to twelve Quakers, and in this purchase William Penn had a share. But here there were so many Swedes, Dutch and Scotch, that no effort was made to make the colonies distinctly Quaker. Over these, Andros, the royal Governor, ruled. Penn was anxious; as has been said, to make a settlement of his own, and after his father died, he told the King, who was seriously in arrears with the admiral's pay, that he would liquidate this debt if he would give him a grant of territory in America. Penn's courtly air and handsome face and form, and his experience in diplomatic matters, stood him in very good stead. In 1680, he obtained a grant from Charles II, including forty thousand square miles of territory between Maryland and New York. To this the King gave the name of Pennsylvania. So well known was he in Europe, not only as the son of the dis- tinguished admiral, but as a man of great originality and courage, that the sturdy, industrious people of Germany, as well as those of his own country, were anxious to follow him. He did not, like George Fox, neglect everything aesthetic, and dress himself in a not very clean suit of leather, and though he wore the garb of the Friends, he saw to it A GENTLEMAN. 1 99 that the fabric was good and the fit excellent. Dress and address are the two first things which one notices in a stranger. William Penn was too much of a statesman not to appreciate this. He knew that one could afford to be eccentric, but not disagreeable. It is not strange, however, that he was popular. His principles of government were of a broad nature. There was to be perfect liberty of conscience and political freedom for all — even the Indians. Only murder and treason were to be punished by death. Penn would not even have had these laws had he chosen himself, and while he lived, no gallows was ever erected in the province. He believed that a prison should be a place of reform. No oath was necessary to the man of good conscience. All pleasures which had in them any possibility of evil, such as cock-fighting, bull-baiting, card- playing and theatre-going, were forbidden. His scheme of government included one act which might be well imitated now — lying was punished as a crime. There was to be a trial by jury for all cases of injury, and Indians were to be among the jury, whenever Indian rights were in question. A German company bought fifteen thousand acres from Penn, and hastened to emigrate thither in 168 1. It was in 1682 before Penn and his friends set sail. Penn had an audience of the King, at which he astonished his Majesty by telling him that England had no right to molest the savages upon their own soil. "What," cried the King, ' 'have I not the right of discovery •?' ' ' 'Just suppose, ' ' said Penn, in his calm way, "that a canoe full of savages should by some accident discover Great Britain; would you vacate, or sell?" When Penn reached New Castle, on the 27th of October, the Dutch and Swedes gave him a ver}' cordial welcome. He naturalized all the inhabitants of the province, and then hastened up the river to Upland, which is now Chester, where he met the delegates who had already been selected by his commissioners. This was the first assembly. Everyone caught the infection of his sincerity and gentleness, and the arrangements made there by the assembly were remarkable for theii justice and liberality. Penn was delighted with the new country. The abundance cj natural fruits and berries, the beauty of the woods and hills, and the clearness of the river, charmed him. He went up the river himself, looking for a suitable site for the prospective city, and decided upon the sweeping peninsula around which the Delaware flows. This he named Philadelphia, that all might know the sentiment which prompted its founding. Penn called it his "holy experiment." He laid out the 200 THE STORY OF AMERICA. city himself, upon a great scale of squares; all of the avenues to be lined with trees, and houses to be set so that they might be surrounded with gardens. In the first year twenty-three ships filled with colonists came to Penn's province. The Indians, for the first time, were treated with absolute equality; there was not a touch of the arrogance of the Spaniard, the sternness of the Puritans, the commercial greed of the Dutch, or the bewildering mysticism of the French Jesuits. Penn was simple and direct. He ate with the Indians, out-ran them in jocular contests, and tried leaping matches with the sprightly young braves. Under the famous elm tree at Shackamaxon, the old resort for Indian councils, he held a treaty with the Indians. He and his followers wore no arms, and Penn wa? distinguished from his followers only by a sash of blue silk netting, falling like a soldier's scarf across his shoulders. The sachem of the Indians carried in his hand a chaplet, and when he donned this, the> savages flung their arms to the ground, in token that the treaties were inviolable. The address which he made to the Indians won their hearts completely, and in a short time he had learned their language, and no longer had need of an interpreter. This increased his popularity among" them. The driving bargains of his ofiicers in after years were nevei laid to his charge. Very early in its history, Pennsylvania had a school. Enoch Flowei was the teacher' snanle, and for four shillings a quarter he taught the boys and girls of Philadelphia to write, and for six shillings, to read. He would take boarding-scholars, giving them "diet, lodging, washing and schooling for ten pounds the year. ' ' Nor was it long before a printing press was set up. Penn had a friend, James Claypool, who was quite an eminent scholar, and who may have inspired these move- ments to an extent. Penn built him a mansion, called "Pennsbury Manor," at Bristol, on the Delaware river. Here he lived happily for two years, when he found it necessary to go to England, to answer some of the charges which his envious enemies had brought against him. He remained in England fifteen years, during which time affairs did not run as quietly in the colony as might have been desired. There were religious quarrels and political quarrels, until the colonies were so misrepresented in England that the government was taken away from Penn and given to a royal commissioner. In 1694, however, William and Mary restored the province to Penn's absolute government — no one had ever questioned his proprietorship — and in 1699 Penn himself came from England, not a little weary of courts and the friction of cosmo- A GENTLEMAN. 20I politan life, intending to pass the remainder of his years in his beautiful home on the Delaware, surrounded by those who knew and appreciated his noble qualities of heart and mind. Not a little astonished was Penn. when he saw Philadelphia, then a little more than eighteen years old. Doubtless he had carried in his mind's eye a picture of the colony as he left it, largely made up of rude huts, with chimneys of mud. When, therefore, he saw the noble city of over two thousand houses, most of which were built of brick, in that chaste, placid architecture of the Friends, and when he saw ti e wharfs and viaducts with their busy trade, he must have received quite a shock, in his sudden realization of the growth and success of his "holy experiment." He took for his own residence the slate-roofed house which stood in Second street, at the southeast corner of Norris' alley, until the year 1868, when it was torn down. John Penn, always called "The American," to distinguish him from William Penn's other children, was born in this house, of Penn' s second wife, Hannah Callowhill, a delicate, sweet woman, whom Penn dressed with much pride in silks and jewels in spite of the stern Quaker regula- tions in regard to costume. She preferred the country seat up the Delaware, and here Penn lived the greater part of his time, in some- thing of that state in which he had been raised. The house stood upon a hill, and was approached by an avenue of poplars. On one side ran the river, with the bank terraced down to it. The lawns were as well kept as the greener ones of England, and the gardens were planted, not alone with trees indigenous to Pennsylvania, but with many others brought from Europe and the tropics. The "forest primeval" of native elms and oaks was undisturbed, and in this were no formal walks, but only winding, woodland roads, made by accident, rather than design. Penn, like most Englishmen, was fond of good horses, and kept a stable of blood animals. Hannah Penn, tending her baby, or embroid- ering a screen in her boudoir, sat among satin-covered chairs, damask curtains, and silken blankets. The furniture was solid oak, spider- legged and carved. Rare china and plate filled the dresser. To all, there was an open house at Pennsbury ]\Ianor; ever}^ one was welcome, regardless of his or her standing, for Penn could never' see a distinction of persons, and showed as much courtesy in the society of Indians as he did in his converse with kings. One entertainment which he gave to the Indians upon the lawn was so extensive that a hundred roasted turkeys were prepared as a part of the bill of fare. At a time when wild turkeys 202 THE STORY OF AMERICA. frequently turned the scales at forty-six pounds, the banquet must have been ample. Penn accepted hospitality with as much grace as he gave it, and did not drop his courtly manners when he entered the wigwam of the Indian and ate hominy and acorns with him. There is a story told of his riding to the Derby meeting with little Rebecca Wood, a bare-legged country girl, sitting behind him on his well-groomed horse — himself immaculate, no doubt, as to attire. Those two years spent at Pennsbury Manor were, without question, the happiest of his life. He was one of the first men in America to dimly perceive that an immorality lay in slavery. The truth did not come to him openl\-, for he and the rest of the Friends might well ask, "Did not the Bible sustain it?" Penn himself was an owner of slaves, but he felt in them, as in all the men he met, the common current of humanity, and in his will he gave freedom to his blacks. He tried to procure the passage of a law for the regulation of marriage of the negroes, but this law the a5.sembly rejected. In 1701 he was obliged to leave the colony and n;turn to England, and never again did he return to that peaceful spot upon the Delaware where the most placid years of his life had been s])ent. In England, he met with much trouble. At one time the cliarter of his province was threatened; again a lien was put on it through misrepresentation and fraud. He found himself heavily in debt, and was arrested and lodged in Fleet Prison for nine months. But even the evil reports which came from his beloved colony concerning the mismanagement of government were not so distressing to him as the folly and selfishness of his eldest son, William, whom he sent to America in hopes that he would find more wholesome companions than in profligate London. In Philadelphia, his debauchery and drunkenness were borne with much patience, because he was the son of their dear Governor, but he was finally arrested in a tavern brawl; the court brought an indictment against him. Governor Evans, who was then administering affairs in the province, was his boon friend, and had been in the same disgraceful brawl at which Penn was arrested, but neither Penn's name nor his powerful friends could move the Quakers when they had determined to do their duty by a sinner, and he left the province in disgrace, leaving a large company of disgusted creditors behind him. So dissatisfied did the people become with the Governor that they actually defied his authority, and it was found judicious to dispose of him. Charles Cookin succeeded to the governorship in 1709, and ruled quietly, but without much distinction. His troubles were of an abstract A GENTLEMAN. 203 kind, relating entirely to religious obligations, subtile enough to have satisfied Puritan Salem. Following him came Sir William Keith, a governor of more sense, though of little more force. Philadelphia had but little sympathy with the warlike actions of the other colonists ; she was at peace with the Indians herself, and did not take a personal interest in those numerous expeditions against the French and Indians which disturbed the northern and southern colonies and steadily sapped their strength. WILLIAM PENN'S RESIDENCE. As for Penn, he lived till 171 8, and passed the last six years of his life in tranquility at Ruscombe, his English estate. Slowly and steadily his disease destroyed his powerful mind and wrecked his active body. ■ In 1732 Thomas Penn, his second son by his second marriage, moved to Philadelphia. He was never popular, but his elder brother, who came two years later, had something of the magnetism, vivacity and cordiality which distinguished his father. This was under Patrick Gordon's administration, and a time of great prosperity. Though the colony was the youngest on the continent, it had more white inhabivants than all Virginia, Maryland and the two Carolinas. Philadelphia was 204 THE STORY OF AMERICA. incomparably the finest city in America, and second in magnitude. Its trade was very extensive and its manufacturing excellent. When Gordon died, in 1736, George Thomas followed him, and quietly ruled for nine years. Philadelphia, like Boston, had become the resort for enterprising boys. One of these boys was Benjamin Franklin, a rather comely printer's boy of seventeen, who quarreled with his elder brother, and made for the great "City of Brotherly Love." Everyone knows how he walked down the pavement, lonesome and hungry, eating his roll of bread; everyone knows of his unfortunate engagement with the printer, and how Governor Keith finally took him into his favor, or pretended to do so, and sent the eager lad to London. There Benjamin found out how little the Governor's promises were worth, and returned to Pennsylvania. After this he prospered, and in 1728 was one of the men who established the Pe?i)isylvania Gazette^ a paper which lived for 120 years. He had previously written for the Neiv England Current^ his brother's paper, and, indeed, it was on account of these articles on public affairs, that he had quarreled with his brother. Through his efforts, a library was started in Philadelphia in 1731. In 1741 he founded a philosophical society, and in 1749 a university in Pennsylvania. This was at a time of great national perplexity, which must be left for another chapter. Collectors of rare American literature cherish a few copies of "Poor Richard's Almanac," which are still extant. This he issued for twenty- five years. It was a collection of saws and sayings which have passed into the phraseology of our country until they have become classic. The annual sale of this almanac was about ten thousand copies. These were handed down from family to family by country people, until they were worn to shreds. Franklin wrote many papers on political, financial and scientific subjects, and even now and then dipped a lighter pen in ballad-writing. He was the first great scientist of America. To him belongs the honor of showing that lightning is electricity, and the invention of the lightning-rod is his. Indirectly, all of our great electrical experiments are traceable to him. FOR FURTHER RFADING: History — Syjiher's "Philadelphia." Biography — Ellis' "Penn." Fiction — W. H. G. Kingston's "A True Hero." Poetry — J. G. Whittier's "Pennsylvania Pilgrim." Drama— Schmidt-Eber's "William Penn." CHAPTER XXXI. )}p ^nk\mnns l^irHtba. THE RULE OF LOVELACE AT NEW YORK — THE DUTCH RETAKE THE CITY — IT AGAIN REVERTS TO THE ENGLISH BY PATENT- GOVERNOR ANDROS AND HIS UNPOPULAR RULE LEISLER ASSUMES CONTROL — TROUBLE WITH NEW FRANCE. 3, JEW NETHERIvAND was governed by the Eng- lish with such happy results that the Dutch had no objections to any change of governors which might be desired, and when Nicolls wished to return home, the people gave a cordial welcome to Colonel Francis Eovelace. His rule was quiet and popular, and entirely without difficulty at the capital, although upon the borders there were some disturbances. At one time the men of the Long Island towns refused to give any money for renewing the New York fortifica- tions. Lovelace ordered their votes to be publicly burned, and this gave rise to difficulties which continued for a long time. In the north, the French were disturbing, and at several times it was thought that war must be declared against Courcelles, the Governor of Canada. But, while the people of New York were still thinking about the subject, they were given matters of more serious interest to attend to. England was again at war with Holland, and from time to time rumors reached New York that a Dutch fleet was on its way northward from the West Indies to retake the harbor. Lovelace was absent for the time being, and paid no attention to the summons from his Lieutenant-Governor. On August 7, 1673, twenty-three Dutch ships, carrying sixteen, hundred men, sailed into the bay of New York. The Dutch of the city rejoiced at the sight of their countrymen, and were not long in telling them the true condition of affairs. Such a force of men could well 206 THE STORY OF AMERICA. afford to laugh at the fret and fume of the village, in which men were running to and fro as if they had lost their heads. Drums were beaten about the streets. One nervous smith set to work on fire-locks, and the militia of the surrounding towns was called for. The Dutch commander quietly demanded surrender, and when the English came to treat with him and to beg for time, he quietly turned an hour-glass over and said that if the English did not surrender within half an hour he would open fire. He did as he said, and a few in the fort were killed, and others wounded. Six hundred Dutch landed on the banks of the Hudson. The fort surrendered, and the Dutch again took possession where Peter Stuyvesant had once stumped about in martial pride. The Dutch names were restored to cities, forts, rivers and bays. The Dutch burgomaster took the place of the English mayor. Antony Clove was chosen temporary Governor. Two ships-of-war were left him for protection, and the rest of the fleet sailed quietly away. New England was very much frightened when it heard of the success of the Dutch, but the Puritans were cautious, and though they took means for defending themselves, they did not venture to give the English of New York any assistance in ousting the Dutch. New York was easy to manage. So the citizens escaped plunder and outrage, they cared but little who their masters might be. The lawless class, which makes change of government in older cities so much to be dreaded, had no existence in the colonial towns. Over in Europe, events were taking a new direction. Peace was made between England and Holland, and though the States-general were really the winners of peace on their own continent, they never- theless gave up their possessions in the New World to the English. A patent of the New Netherland territory was given to the Duke of York in 1674. Major Edmund Andros was appointed by him to govern New York. The English names were restored, the officers reinstated, an.'l all went on as it had under the rule of Nicolls and Lovelace. This was fifteen years before the time that Boston impeached the government of Andros and put him in prison. He thought but little of New York, which contained only six or seven thousand people, while New England had at least one hundred and twenty thousand — such a difference was there between the easy-going Dutch and the fiercely-determined Englishmen. Under English rule, a more rapid growth came to New York. There was not a little emigration from England. The industry of whaling, which brought so much wealth to Long Island, was taken up. All together there were twenty- four towns in the settlement and a THE DUTCHMAN'S FIRESIDE. 20/ remarkable increase of farms, on which not only wheat and tobacco was raised, but even horses. Fish, peltry and lumber were quite heavily exported. In a very short time the manufacture of flour became an important industry. When Andros chose to visit New York he was received with great pomp, which must have been a balm to his pride, hurt by the contempt with which the people of the southern colonies treated him. He went to Albany for the purpose of holding a council for the chiefs of the five nations, and succeeded in securing the promise of their friendship. Perhaps one reason that the New Yorkers had so little against Andros was that they saw so little of him, and that he thought the colony of too slight importance to greatly interfere with. In New York were two decided political parties — or religious parties, for at this time it was hard to separate the two. James, the Catholic King of England, had been obliged to flee to France. William and Mary, the Protestants, had been proclaimed the King and Queen of England. The thoughtful saw that there would be danger of a conflict between the Catholic and Protestant factions. When Andros was deposed by the Boston Committee of Safety, the government of New York was left in the hands of the Lieutenant-Governor, Nicholson, and of the council. The Dutch inhabitants of New York were in sympathy with William and Mary. The English of New York were very largely Catholics. In New York, no proclamation of William and Mary was made, and the chaplain at the fort continued to pray for the infant Prince of Wales, and that the dethroned James might be victorious over his enemies. In consequence, there was a steadily increasing discontent shown among the Dutch. Nicholson feared that the question was getting too troublesome for him, and resigned his position and sailed for England. The council was very much frightened, which, as it lacked both brains and courage, it might well be. No one was appointed to take command, and it came about quite naturally, that one of the captains of the militia, with more vigor than the rest, should assume the control of affairs. It is such times of need which make leaders. This man was Jacob Leisler, who was willing to do no end of work and face a great deal of danger. The council would do nothing although the disposition of the colony grew steadily worse. Eeisler saw the full danger, and when it came his turn to guard the fort with his company, he called all the trained bands together and made them sign a declaration by which they said that they held the fort for William and Mary, and would protect the Protestant religion. The council, 2o8 THE STORY OF AMERICA. frightened at the threatening look of things, dispersed, some of the members going to Connecticut and others to Albany. Leisler, a merchant by trade, and a man of little education, was left in the entire control of affairs. He called a convention, at which he was appointed captain of the fort, and the delegates made themselves into a committee of safety. At the very outset Leisler was called upon to deal with some very serious matters. King James had fled to France, and was the guest there of Louis XIV. Louis sent word to Frontenac, who was then Governor of Canada, that he should take it upon himself to search among the inhabi- tants of New York, and to send all French Protestants to France. The English Protestants were to be exported to New England, France oi other places. The French Catholics were to be unmolested in theii homes. Enough artisans and farmers to provide for the colony were to be left as slaves. Frontenac was not slow to obey the orders foi invasion. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— Noah Brooks' "In I|b fui nl i\t yivnin. THE RULE OF GOVERNOR FLETCHER — FLETCHER SUCCEEDED BY THB EARL OF BELLOMOXT — THE COMMISSION OF CAPTAIN KIDD, AND HOW IT WAS CARRIED OUT — LORD CORNBURY BECOMES GOVERNOR — THE EXPEDITIONS AGAINST PORT ROYAL AND ^ OR a short time Captain Ingoldsby attended to the duties of governorship, but was relieved by Benjamin Fletcher, Governor for the King. His commission gave him command of the militia of the New England colonies as well as his own. It was thought necessary' for the safety of the colonies to have a general commander to protect them from the Indians. The colonies believed themselves to be independent, and certainly were under governors of their own, if one could tell any- thing by their charters. Connecticut sent a repre- sentative to England to complain of the violation of their rights under the charter. Rhode Island also sent an agent to protest to the King. While these men were in England, Fletcher came to Hartford and ordered the militia under arms. Governor Treat refused to let Fletcher assume command of his troops, but the militia was permitted to muster at Hart- ford. Fletcher ordered his commission and instructions to be read to the troops. In command at the front was Captain Wadsworth, and as soon as the reading began he cried, ' 'Beat the drums ! ' ' and all the sturdy Puritan drummers fell to raising such a noise that the voice of the reader was entirely drowned. The more the Governor shouted for silence the louder the hot-headed Wadsworth shouted for them to drum, until finally the Governor had to yield, leaving Treat in command. THE PEST OF THE PIRATES. 215 Fletcher sold licenses to privateers and pirates, and under his rule New York and the surrounding islands gained the reputation of being a nest of pirates. In the north, Frontenac was still active. The Mohawks had beert won to the side of the English, and three years after the massacre of Schenectady the French took three of the IMohawk towns. Major Schuyler, of Albany, was sent hurriedly after the French. In a few days he had overtaken them. They had three engagements, in which the French were repulsed each time. Then came a terrible fall of snow., and, hungr}' and cold, the troops on both sides were forced to retire ta their rude fortifications. On both sides were Indian allies. The Indians had a dislike for the Christian mode of warfare, and always shrank from open attack. For this reason they delayed the action constantl}-,. first the French, then the English allies refusing to move. It was orL this account that the French finally escaped by the floating ice on the Hudson, and got out of Schuyler's reach. Frontenac' s party, suffering: for food, straggled back in small parties to Canada. Fletcher had shown such greed and dishonest}^ in his administration, that he was deposed from ofiice, and the Earl of Bellomont put in his; place. It was found by this time that the southern colonies could not be: dealt with easily, and that their rights could not be disposed of without protest. The experiment which had failed with Fletcher was not tried with Bellomont. He was appointed Governor of New York and INIassa- chusetts, but only Captain-General over the military^ forces of Connecticut, Rhode Island and the Jerseys. One of the first things; which Bellomont did was to get from the New York assembly an. acknowledgment of the error under which Leisler was condemned, and he had his body taken up from the private ground and reburied with public state in the Dutch church. His vigorous action gave strength to the Protestant party and the promise of a fair and deter- mined administration. Honest commerce had been almost choked under Fletcher's rule^, and it was Bellomont' s ambition to get rid of that class of Frenck seamen who, under the excuse of war commissions, seized upon every ship whose cargo tempted them. These rovers made a journey upon the sea a thing of risk and terror to peaceable people. One of this; class was Captain Kidd. This valorous but unfortunate personage,, about whom so much has been written and told, was the friend of great men. One of Bellomont' s methods for getting rid of the pirates was ta send out a ship, at the expense of a joint stock company, for the purpose 214 THE STORY OF AMERICA. of capturing pirate vessels. A number of great noblemen, and the King himself, were to receive parts of the profits of the adventure. Bellomont and his friends provided a ship for Kidd's use, paying four- fifths of the cost. The rest was paid by Kidd. The crew was not to take more than one-fourth of the prizes captured. If nothing was taken, Kidd was to return the cost of the galley before March i, 1697. Kidd's previous reputation had not been particularly bad. He was a sea rover, and even then was known as a man of unusual adventure and daring. For this very reason he was thought a fit commander for the one hundred and fifty lawless men put under his charge. At that time Madagascar was a great resort for pirates. There they lived in barbaric splendor, in a manner not unsuggestive of the marvels of Monte Cristo. The first time Kidd was heard of he was living among these sumptuous outlaws. It seems that he had been unable to capture any of the pirates whom he had been sent out for, and had gone to Madagascar in the hope that he might fall in with some better luck. After a time he took to the sea again, and went as far as India, but meeting none of the vessels which he was authorized to overhaul, he finally preyed upon merchant vessels for his own benefit. For several years he followed this adventurous life, and in 1699 sailed uncon- cernedly into the New York harbor. Bellomont did not arrest him, because Kidd assured him that he could prove his innocence of the crimes of which he was accused, and he was allowed to go to Boston. There, however, he was arrested. He was thrown into jail, and tried to get out by telling of forty thousand pounds of treasure which was hidden in the West Indies, and which would be lost unless he himself went for it. Kidd was sent to England, where he lay in prison for a year. The Tories were determined that he should be convicted, since he had been the friend of the famous Whigs, and of Bellomont, the Governor. He was tried and convicted of the murder of a gunner whom he had accidentally killed in a brawl. And so Captain Kidd, the daring rover, was hanged. He was more famous than many better men, and it will be long before the youths of this country and England have ceased to feel interested in his daring exploits. When Lord Bellomont died, in 1701, Lord Cornbury, a cousin of Queen Anne, who, a year later, came to the throne, was appointed Governor. Truth to tell, it was only by quitting the country that he could escape being imprisoned for debt. He was a very worthless man, given up to drink and debauchery of all kinds, and the only interest that he took in his new office came from the hope that he might rapidly THE PEST OF THE PIRATES. 21 5 enrich himself. This year (1702) a dreadful yellow fever epidemic broke out in New York, which carried off more than five hundred within ten weeks. Cornbury was so unscrupulous that he did not even take pains to conceal his greed. He gathered large sums of money for the purpose of building a fortification at the Narrows, and then calmly kept the money for his own use. After this the assembly insisted upon giving all the money for public purposes into the hands of a treasurer of their own. The Governor immediately appealed to the crown, protesting against the insult to himself, but the crown refused to take his part. He was a fierce religionist, for all of his bad ways, and showed as great a lack of scruple in the matters relating to the church as in other affairs. One story which is told of him illustrates clearly the temper of the man. When the yellow fever was so bad in New York, he went to a town upon Long Island until it should be over. The Presbyterian minister there had the best house in town, and he courteously yielded this to the Governor to use during his stay. When the Governor no longer needed it he handed it over to a few represent- atives of the Established Church of England, who lived at the place, and said that the ground attached could be leased for the support of their church. He persecuted the Presbyterians throughout the colony, dnd would not allow a school teacher or clerg}'man to teach or preach except by a special license. Down in Massachusetts the royal Governor, Dudley, was making matters disagreeable, and continually fighting the charter governments. But there was a strong element in the colonies now which could not easily be crushed. The popular party had some brilliant men in it who were neither afraid to speak nor to suffer, and the arrogant governors knew they could go but so far. Everything which Cornbury did was disagreeable to the simple and industrious colonists. For one thing, he dressed like a woman, in great splendor, saying that it was proper that he should be so clothed to more fittingly represent his sovereign mistress, the Queen, He insulted the Quakers, who were no longer the wild and ill-advised creatures who had shocked the Boston meetings, but grave and dignified citizens. The people appealed to the Queen for protection, and Cornbury was recalled. He was arrested for debt and thrown in jail, where he remained until he became Earl of Clarendon, through the death of his father. Lord Lovelace was appointed Governor, but died in a short time. At this time New York was intending to send an expedition against Canada, and as the treasury was empty, issued bills of credit, the first ever put out by Nev/ York. 2i6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. But the English fleet was routed, and it was necessary to think of other means for subduing the French province. At this time the five nations were the friends of the English, and it was thought best to take advantage of their fickle friendship. Scliu\'ler, with five Indian chiefs, was sent to England to beg for help in- the conquest of the French. He was given ships and men for an expedi- tion, and joined with the New England men in the taking of Port Royal. Robert Hunter had succeeded Lord Lovelace as Governor of New York. He was in favor of pushing the war against the French. The New England people had received most of the credit of the capture of Port Royal, and the New Yorkers were anxious to do something as brilliant. The fleet was a large one. There were sixteen men-of-war and twenty transports, which started in the summer of 17 ii, under Sir Hovenden Walker, for the attack upon Quebec. Altogether there were seven thousand men. But the fleet had only sailed ten leagues up the St. Lawrence, when ten or eleven of the ships drifted upon the rocks, and one thousand men were drowned. Meanwhile, a detachment had marched from Albany to attack Montreal. Hearing of the disaster to the ships, those troops fell back. England won nothing, but the French were much alarmed. In 171 9 Hunter retired, and Burnet took his place. He was devoted to the interests of the people, but was not popular. He con- ceived a new plan for the conquest of the French. Most of the Canadian supplies were got from Albany, and he proposed to prohibit all trade between his own province and Canada, but this did not please the tradesmen, although it did the assembly. Few merchants care enough for national independence to see their trade decrease. The trade with Canada was carried on as if the Governor had not prohibited it. In the face of this opposition the Governor was not able to keep his temper, and did some ill-advised things. In 1727 he was removed and transferred to Massachusetts Bay. He was fonder of writing works on the Bible than governing, perhaps, and would no doubt have succeeded better as a private citizen than as a leader of men. The next Governor died shortly after his arrival, and Rip Van Dam, the eldest member of the council, acted as Governor until Colonel Cosby arrived, in 1732, to take the head of the colony. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Parkman's "Frontenac." Fiction— J. H. Ingraham's "Captain Kyd." , CHAPTER XXXIV. ^\$ !f ol]^ Tui^Hjiurs. THE FRENCH AND THE DISCOVERIES IN THE NORTHWEST — FATHERS JOUET AND MARQUETTE DISCOVER THE SOURCE OF THE MIS- SISSIPPI AND SAIL DOWN THE RIVER — DEATH OF MAR- QUETTE — THE EXPEDITION OF LASALLE AND HENNE- PIN — LOUISIANA DISCOVERED AND NAMED. HE English treated with the Indians, the Dutclj traded with them, and the French lived with them. More imaginative than the English or the Dutch, they saw at once the picturesqueness of savage life, and appreciated the wild delights of adventure and discovery. Champlain had ar- rived in Quebec on July 3, 1608. This was only a year after the settlement in Jamestown. Four years later he discovered Lake Ontario and Lake Nipissing. It was impossible to content that gallant explorer while he lived. Ever restless, he went from one point to another of the great unknown continent which stretched west- ward, and about which the English seemed to have had comparatively little curiosity. There grew up in Quebec a race of men half Indian in habit, who preferred the wilderness to civilization. They were absolutely fearless, good fighters, capable of endurance, fleet of foot, excellent hunters, and sin- cere Catholics. They carried the, cross of Christ in one hand and their muskets in the other, so to speak. The jaunty songs of these voyageurs made the wilderness ring. Jean Nicollet was one of these men, who went as far west as what we know as Wisconsin. In the year 1640 the Fathers Chaumonot and Breboeuf coasted along the northern shore of the State of Ohio, through the fair chain of waters by Detroit, and up the eastern shores of Michigan as far as the Straits of Macinac. Fourteen years later, two young traders went 220 THE STORY OF AMERICA. far west upon Lake Superior, and heard there of the great tribe of Sioux. When these traders returned to Montreal, in 1660, with six- teen canoes packed with furs, they excited great interest in the city, and quickened the love of adventure which already existed among the Frenchmen. The French had had many unhappy experiences with the Indians. The latter could not understand the mysticism of the Frenchman's religion; in his burning tapers, his altars, robes and crucifix, they saw the symbols of superstition, and thought the French- men must be the familiars of evil spirits. The French who had ventured to settle near Onondaga for the purpose of converting the Indians there, had been glad to escape with their lives. Father Jogues had been treacherously murdered, in 1646, by the Mohawks, in the Mohawk valley, simply because of the fear which his missal and altar produced. But undismayed by such catastrophes the zealous Jesuits continued to establish new missions. In the summer of 1660 Father Mesnard founded a mission on a point of the southern shore of Lake Superior, known then and now as Chagwamegan. He lost his life in some mysterious way, and in 1665 Father Allouez took up the mission there, preaching in the Algon- quin language to twelve or fifteen different tribes. Even the Sioux heard of him, and it was through them that he heard first of the Mis- sissippi. In 1669 Father Aloney, with Father Dablon, went as far as the Fox river, learning from the Indians not a little about the geography of the country. But the more thorough enterprise began when Jean Talon was appointed overseer of the trade of Canada. He called a council of Indians at the fort of Lake Superior, in 1671. An adventurer who knew the language and customs of the Indians was there, and repre- sentatives of Louis XIV. Chiefs of tribes from Hudson Bay and the head of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan were there. A cross was erected to which the arms of France was fastened, and possession was taken in the name of the French crown, and the chiefs promised to be loyal to the great King of France. Under this guarantee of friendship, Louis Joliet and Father Marquette started on an expedition in 1673. They discovered the source of the Mississippi, and went as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas. Father Marquette was a delightful writer, and left an account of his travels, full of romance and piety. The Indians everywhere were friendly, and the travelers even saw at one village a cross erected and adorned, which showed that the religion of the Jesuits was creeping among the tribes. With two Indian guides, THE HOLY VOYAGEURS. 221 they were shown the passage from the Fox to the Wisconsin river, and from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi river. Down this wild river, many hundred leagues from their own countrymen, the two peaceful but courageous Frenchmen floated, seeing little life besides great herds of buffaloes. They slept in their canoes at night for fear of being sur- prised. It was a good many days before they found any traces of men. Following up a trail which they had discovered, they came upon a party of Illinois Indians. These Indians were more demonstrative than those of the east. They indulged more in ceremonials, and had a more com- plex religion, at least so one must believe from the accounts left of them, though the difference may have lain largely in the fact that the Frenchmen were appreciative. The chief of the Illinois village came forth from his wigwam, naked, to welcome Joliet and Marquette, raising his hands to the sun. About him danced other braves, with the red calumet, or pipe of peace, in their hands. They were invited to visit the Indian village, where they were given a feast and led in a sort of triumphal procession to see the town. The people went with them to their canoes, with every expression of pleasure and courtesy which they could give. Soon after this the explorers saw the painted rocks, so famous after- ward. These were rocks on which the Indians had painted, in a way which Marquette protested to be as good as anything that could be done in France. They were ruthlessly destroyed by quarrying, in the present century. They then struck the great, muddy flow of the Missouri, staining the blue Mississippi with its repulsive streak. Marquette hoped that he might reach the Gulf of California, of which the Spaniards had given such glowing accounts. Marquette saw iron mines up the Ohio river near its meeting with the Mississippi, which showed that the French traders had already been as far as that point. They met with Indians who had guns, powder, knives, hatchets and cloth, which they had got from the Europeans on the eastern coast. Again and again the calumet saved Marquette and his friend from attack by the Indians, and at length, fearing that they might fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they turned northward again. When they reached the Illinois river they followed the course of that stream and made a portage into Lake Michigan. ' 'We have seen nothing equal to this river for the goodness of the land, ' ' said Marquette. "The prairies, wood, cattle, deer, goats, bustards, swans, ducks, paro- quets, and even beaver, abound here. There are many little lakes and little rivers. ' ' They had started in June, and by September were back 222 THE STORY OF AMERICA. to the French mission at Green Bay. Marquette lived for two years among the Miami Indians. His death is very touching. The gentle old man was making his way in his canoe to Macinac, in 1675, and stopped on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan to raise an altar and celebrate the mass. He seemed unaccountably sad, and asked his companions to leave him alone a little while. They did so, and when they came to him, found him dead. When Joliet reached Montreal with his story of the expedition, Robert Cavalier de La Salle, a Norman gentleman who had established a trading post at Lachine, not far from Montreal, felt that the time for an expedition had come. Frontenac gave La Salle letters of introduction at court, and he succeeded in getting all he asked for. With thirty men, plenty of stores and tools, he marched to Lake Ontario, made the portage by Niagara Falls to Lake Erie, and at Port Frontenac built a ship of forty-five tons. He named it the Griffin. She was armed with seven cannons, and well built, considering the disadvantages of her construction. She sailed westward in 1679, reaching the settlement of Green Bay in September. The Griffin was freighted with fur, and La Salle, with some of his men, walked to St. Joseph, at the head of Lake Michigan, nearly opposite the river Chicago. Here he waited for the Griffin^ but it never appeared. Depressed, but determined, he pushed westward, and established in the present La Salle county, in Illinois, Fort Creve-Cceur. La Salle sent Father Hennepin to trace the Illinois to the mouth, which he did, and then went up the Missis- sippi as far as the falls of St. Antony. He was taken prisoner by the Sioux. They allowed him to return to his own country, with the promise that he would visit them the next year. La Salle decided to return to Niagara, and left Henri de Tonty in charge at Creve-Coeur." The Iroquois Indians drove Tonty and his men from the fort, and as he hurried down the west side of Lake Michigan, La Salle came up the east side with reinforcements. Bitterly dis- appointed at finding the fort deserted, La Salle returned to Montreal, where he succeeded in making arrangements with his creditors — for the loss of the Griffin had seriously embarassed him — for another expedition. La Salle sailed in 1681, with twenty-three Frenchmen and eighteen Indians. The Indians took with them ten of their wives. With the party were the Chevalier Henri de Tonty, Father Zenobe, and Dautray, the son of the Procureur General of Quebec. These crossed the lake to the Chicago river, and it may interest the thousands who daily pass over that torpid and ill-smelling stream to know that they named it the THE HOI.Y VOYAGEURS. 223 ' 'Divine River. ' ' They stopped for a time upon the present site of Chicago, and then went on to the mouth of the Illinois. La Salle went on down the river as fast ^s the ice would permit him. On each side lay the shores, snow-clad; the trees glittering through the long, quiet nights with fairy frost. The stillness was absolute. It was not until they had sailed forty-five leagues that they heard the sounds of men. La Salle knew they had been seen by the savages, and thought it best to build a fort. He sent the calumet of peace to the Indian chiefs, and established pleasant relations immediately. He speaks particularly of the gayety of these southern Indians as compared with the severe and sombre natives of the north. He left a cross there with St. Louis* arms, and upon his return found that the Indians had surrounded it with a palisade that it might not be harmed. Next he passed the village of the Arkansas, where a superior people lived, with well-built houses, having roofs of canes, fixed so as to form a dome. They were ornamented with barbaric but effective paintings. They had furniture^ also, and understood the making of cloth. Next they came across the Natchez Indians, and passing them, pushed on in the hope of finding the sea. At last the water of the river tasted salt. A little further on and it became saltier. A little further yet and they looked upon the sea. Planting the cross, with the arms of France, they took possession of the mouth of the Mississippi in the name of King Louis. The expedition made its way back slowly, La Salle suffering from severe illness. The report of his great discovery was sent to France, and finally La Salle himself crossed to confer with King Louis. He was given power for the colonization of Louisiana. Louisiana, as La Salle named the territory for the King, included the present State of Louisiana and all the territory north of the line of Texas and west of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Parkman's "France and England in North America." "I,a Salle's Discovery of the Great West." CHAPTER XXXV. ^ a [a i>H Ik LA SALLE LANDS ON THE SHORE OF TEXAS — HE IS MURDERED — THE HUT IN THE WILDERNESS — THE EXPEDITION OF d' IBERVILLE — THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW ORLEANS, AND THE MISSISSIPPI — SCHEME OF JOHN LAW — THE MASSACRE OF CHOPART — BIENVILLE'S ILL-FATED EXPEDITION AGAINST THE CHICKASAWS. A SAIvLE set sail from France on the 24tli of July, 1684, with four vessels and a fine equipment, but one accident after another delayed him, and it was almost a year before he neared the mouth of the Mississippi. Through a miscalculation he passed beyond the mouth of the river and landed farther west. La Salle was sure that a mistake had been made, but could not induce the captain of the fleet to return, and had no choice but to land his goods where he was. By this accident Texas was first of the Gulf States, after Florida, to be settled by Europeans. The ship master cruelly deserted La Salle, and returning to France, abused the ear of the King with stories about the great discoverer, which so injured him in the esteem of the court that no relief was sent to him — relief which he was in great need of Fortunately the Indians were gentle and hospitable, and helped to supply the wretched little colony with food. La Salle spent his time in unavailing searches for the Mississippi, which came to seem to him at last like some mythical stream, having no existence. It was on one of these journeys that the gallant and unfortunate explorer met his death. He left the post in charge of twenty of his THE CHEVALIER LA SALLE. 225 colonists, and taking as many more with him, started out with no guide but a compass and no protection from savages, except that fur- nished by a few arms and his conciliatory policy. They had been out about three months, when La Salle sent out a party in search of some supplies which had been left upon a previous journey. This party killed two buffaloes and sent back for horses to bring the meat to camp. La Salle's young nephew, Morangetand, and two others, went with the horses. Morangetand flew into a passion because the hunters had set apart a portion of the meat for themselves. This the law of hunting clearly entitled them to, but Morangetand w^as a hot-headed young fellow, who had the pride of La Salle without his gentleness. The hunters laid a plot for the killing of Morangetand and two faithful servants who were with him. This they did at night while the men were sleeping. The hunters lacked the courage to meet La Salle, and lingered so long that the Chevalier grew anxious, and calling a friar for company, walked in search of them. There is a tradition that as he went a great sadness came over him. He talked of his successes as if they were things of the past, and all the philosophy of the gentle friar was not able to arouse him from this melancholy mood. As he neared the place where he knew the hunters to be, he fired his pistol to let them know of his approach, and they crossed the river to meet him. He asked where his nephew was, and was answered insolently. La Salle rebuked him, and the hunter fired, shooting him through the brain. He was only forty-six years old, and in all his able life was never more full of vigor and enterprise. Had he lived, the history of the Missis- sippi valley would have been very different. There was a quarrel among the murderers, in which the man who fired the fatal shot was himself killed. The rest of the colony were eager to get out of the wilderness as soon as they could. The good friar and four others decided to push toward Canada, and mounting their horses, bade their friends farewell. What became of those who remained at the colony is not known. The friar and his friends, jour- neying northward, came suddenly upon a cottage built in the French style. Near it stood a cross. The bewildering effect of such a sight in the heart of the wilderness can be imagined. It was the dwelling of two of Henri de Tonty's men, Charpentier and De Launay, who had been left on the banks of the Mississippi two years before. Here one of the friar's friends remained. These three Frenchmen were the only living souls left to mark the adventures of the French in the valley of the Mississippi — Louisiana, the French called it. 226 THE STORY OF AMERICA. It was ten years after La Salle's death before France made any strong effort to renew the colonization of the Mississippi valley. Sieur Lemoyne d' Iberville, son of the distinguished Baron Longueuil, of Canada, was then given the command of an expedition fitted out by the King for the planting of a colony. Baron Longueuil had eleven sons, not to mention numerous young kinsmen, all of whom were men of spirit. Many of them were concerned in the fierce fights of the French and English at the north. D' Iberville had two frigates under his charge when he left France, and the three vessels joined him at Saint Domingo. This was in 1699. With him was that same friar who was the friend of La Salle in that ill-fated colony, St. Louis. He it was who pointed out to d' Iberville the strong, turbid flow of the Mississippi, staining the blue gulf Up the river they found Indians who had cloaks which La Salle had given them, and a breviary which the friar had left in 1682. The boats were moved from Biloxi Island to the Mobile Bay, on d' Iberville's first journey. The second time he came, he found a point on the Mississippi river about thirty-eight miles below the present city of New Orleans. This settlement, established in 1700, was the first really made in Louisiana, as we know the State now. That on the Mobile Bay was abandoned in a short time and re-estab- lished on the Mobile river. By this time communication was established between Canada and the settlements of Louisiana, by way of the great xiver. Lake Erie, and the Miami Portage. About this time an English- man by the name of Coxe sent out an expedition to explore and take possession of the Mississippi, under a charter given to Coxe by Charles II for the territory west of Florida. This expedition was met by one welcome him. In front of the King marched a tall man carrying a sceptre of black wood a yard and a half long. Upon it hung two crowns, and dangling from these were chains of bone. Each link was a mark of honor. All of the Indians wore skins, and the King wore rabbit's skin — a mark of royal distinction. Their heads were decorated with feathers of rare birds. They entertained Drake with a long ceremony, ending in a dance, after which they asked the Englishman to be King of their country. The crown was set upon Drake's head, and all the chains of honor hung about his neck. Drake thought it wise to accept these honors in the spirit which they were given, and took the country in the name and for the use of Queen Elizabeth. It must not be forgotten that this was away back in 1579. Then followed a wild scene in which all the common people yelled and howled, and tore the skin from their faces with their nails, meaning to offer sacrifice to their new and mysterious Governor. Drake and his friends made a visit into the interior, where the Indian villages were. They found the country fruitful, filled with game and excellently adapted for settlement. Neither Drake nor his men would have objected to lingering longer among these friendly tribes in a land of such unusual beauty, but their disabled ship was repaired and there was need for hastening back with reports of the voyage. A monument was left in the port composed of a copper plate, fastened to a wooden post. Upon this plate was engraved the right of Queen Elizabeth to the kingdom, the Queen's picture and Drake's arms. The Indians mourned exceedingly when Drake left them, and built bright fires on the cliffs to cheer his departure over the waters. In 1 581, Augustine Reyes, a Franciscan Father, went northward and rediscovered the pleasant land of which Coronado had written, and was able to guess at the site of the "seven cities." Reyes started thither, with two brethren of his order and eight soldiers, for the purpose of making converts to the Catholic faith among the Indians. But one of the friars was killed by the Indians, and the soldiers, fearing for their safety, deserted, leaving the two friars to go on alone. When the soldiers passed Santa Barbara, they confessed the state they had left the unfortunate Fathers in, and aroused the indignation of Antonio de Espejo, who hurried to their relief with a caravan of fifteen horses and mules and some Indian guides. Espejo discovered many interesting tribes of Indians who had progressed in the arts and industries to an unusual extent. Some of them wore cotton garments, striped with THK LAND OF GOLD. 235 white and blue. Others understood the tanning of leather so well that the Spaniards held it to be as fine as anything done in Flanders. The great rivers and mighty forests, the mountains and the fruitful plains delighted them, but they were obliged to press on after the priests whom they were hurrying to succor. In the countr}^ which they named New IMexico, they found people dressed in cotton and leather, with good boots and shoes. At last they learned that the poor Franciscan Fathers had been killed, and Espejo devoted himself merely to exploration, leaving a large part of his company in camp near the Tiguas tribe of the "sixteen towns." He found idols in some of the houses; umbrellas decorated with the sun, moon and stars were in use by one tribe, and many had wrought the precious metals into forms of ornament. Espe- cially interesting was the town of Acoma, which was inhabited by six thousand Indians. It was built on a high cliff, fifty platforms in height, and reached by steps cut out of the rock. The water was drawn from cisterns. Of course no crops could be raised upon the site of this rocky city. The farms lay two leagues away and were irrigated by artificial means. Espejo at length visited the country which Coronado had entered half a century before. Here he found Christians and some baptized Indians, who understood the Spanish language. This was the great province of Zuni, which still holds its name and keeps the old customs as Espejo saw them in the last half of the sixteenth century. After journeying still farther, Espejo came to rich silver mines, but it is not known in what direction he journeyed. When Espejo rejoined his party he found most of them determined to return to Santa Barbara. He, with eight soldiers, concluded to explore the river Del Norte. It was two years before he ended his journeyings. Until 1595 the great western territory remained undisturbed. Then the Count Monterey, at that time Viceroy of Mexico, and Juan de Onate went into New Mexico to plant colonies in the valley of the Rio Grande. Sante Fe, which was one of Onate' s settlements, was founded before Jamestown, and is, therefore, next to St. Augustine, the oldest town in the United States. This settlement had in its beginning one hundred soldiers and five hundred settlers, and the number continued to be about the same for a hundred years. Indian raids were not infrequent, and the people could offer but little resistance until 1692, when Diego de Barges established Spanish garrisons in the valley. El Paso, on the Mexican frontier, was one of Onate' s settlements. Farther west, on the ocean coast, Spain followed up the discoveries ?-^, THE STORY OF AMERICA. of Drake. It is not necessary to mention each one of these. Spanish names were given to the coast, and Spain claimed it as her own, although she took but very languid interest in it. It was the Jesuits, anxious for the saving of souls, who finally settled upon the peninsula of California. Francisco Kino, a devoted brother of the Jesuit society, infused with a noble enthusiasm, undertook to Christianize the penin- sula. A series of missions were founded by him, and in 1697 he succeeded in getting a mission built in lower California. On the west side of the gulf was Father Salvatierra, and on the east side Father Kino. These two men, both systematic and capable of clear leadership, constantly helped one another. The system of the Fathers was very complete. The Indians were taught the Spanish language, and were induced to attend religious services every day. Those who did so were supplied with rations. The sick, old and helpless were provided with food. All of the Indians were given coarse cloth, cloaks and blankets. The missionaries instructed them in the cultivation of their fields, but finding that the Indians would not harvest and preserve the crops, they themselves took care of them. Wine was one of the first products of California, bnt the Fathers soon found it was necessary to keep it from the Indians. By the time that the missions had existed in California for a gener- ation they were surrounded with a semi-civilized set of men and women who gave up the wild life of the forest for the more laborious and quiet one of the farms. lyonely and desolate, the little missions stood out from the savagery of the villages. In them there were often but two Spaniards, a Father and a soldier. The missions were well built, with a touch of that Moorish architecture which the Spaniards had made their own. Not alone were the missions the schools, the churches and the depot for sup- plies, but they served for courts of justice as well, and any culprit was punished there according to the judgment of the Spaniards. The children were educated in reading, writing and singing, and many of them were sent to Soreto, the chief station. Such of these as showed unusual intelligence were made church-wardens at the various rancherios. One Father taught his Indians to spin wool and weave it, and he him- self made the staffs, wheels and looms. This was opposed to the policy of Spain, which wished to force all her colonists to purchase man- ufactures direct from home. It was this same policy which kept the settlements of the Spaniards so far behind those of the English and French. Cortez tried to encourage manufactures in the colonies, but THE LAND OF GOLD. 237 his policy was overturned, and the people received from Mexico the cloth which had been made in Holland and sold in Spain. The Fathers continued to form new missions whenever some benefactor could be found who would give an endowment of $10,000, $6,000 of which was put at interest and devoted to the education and care of the Indians. Each Father kept a chronicle of all which happened to him, and these engaging narratives helped not a little in the collection of money in Mexico and Spain. The mines of Arizona began to be richly devel- oped, and it is still possible to see the remains of old mining operations there. Every little while the Indians, who seemed so obedient and trustful, would uprise suddenly and war with each other in their old savage fashion. In their hearts they resented this easy conquest of the Spaniards. The eloquence of their orators was leveled against the woman-like patience with which the braves sat down to eat the bread of charity, and from time to time the well-fed proteges of the missions were lashed into insurrection. After the death of Father Kino, in 171 1, the missions began to decay. He had baptized more than forty thou- sand infidels, founded numerous churches, and conducted valuable explorations. Spain, herself, was losing her glory, and it was not strange that the little missions, to which she had always been more or less indifferent, should suffer early from her decline. After this comes a history of revolts, and at last, June 25, 1767, came the decree of the council chamber of Charles III for the expulsion of the Jesuits. The land upon the Gulf of Mexico had not been entirely neglected by the Spaniards. In 1690 a mission was established at the spot where La Salle's unfortunate colony had been. Other missions and military posts were established about Texas and New Mexico. But in 1693 the Spaniards were driven from them by the Indians. However, there still remained, on the west side of the Rio Grande, the posts known as Presidio del Norte and El Paso. In 171 2, Louis the XIV gave the grant of Louisiana to Antonio Crozat, which included the land reaching to the Rio Grande on the west. Between this country and Mexico there has always been a brisk smuggling trade. The first Texas missions were founded by the Fran- ciscan Fathers, who used much the same plan that flie Jesuits had done farther west. When the war of 1718 was declared between France and Spain, the little settlements on these distant frontiers thought it behooved them to imitate the home countries, and war with each other. One large expedition was fitted out to move against the French settle- 238 THE STORY OF AMERICA. ments of" the Upper Mississippi. The Spaniards lost their way and fell in with some Indians who massacred them and took all of their arms. After this Spain made no other attempt to settle on the land of the Upper Mississippi. In 1728 the Spanish government transported four hundred from the Canary Islands to Texas. A portion of these settled at San Antonio, Texas, but the growth of Texas was very slow, and the deadly policy of Spain took the life from the colonists. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Bancroft's "History of California." Hittell's "History of San Francisco.'' Help's "Spanish Conquest of America." Kip's "Earlj' Jesuit Missions in North America." Curtis' "Children of the Sun." CHAPTER XXXVII. il|8 iaroHttas. SIR NATHANIEIv JOHNSON IN CAROLINA — STRATEGY AT FORT JOHNSON — RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES — MASSACRE OF 1711 — UPRISING IN SOUTH CAROLINA THE YEMASSEES — THE BUC- CANEERS — REBELLION AGAINST THE PROPRIETORS. ^FTER Governor Moore's administration in South Carolina, which, through his ill-advised move against St. Augustine, plunged the colony so heavily in debt. Sir Nathaniel Johnson was appointed to office in Moore's place. Johnson was a man who had more of the instincts of a general than of a ruler. His administration was marked by one of those religious disputes which made so much trouble in all the early colonies. It arose from an act passed by his first assembly, taking away the civil rights from all who blasphemed the Trinity, or refused to believe in the divine authority of the Bible, and condemning them to three years' imprisonment. Following this, came a law which required every citizen who belonged to the assembly to conform to the religion of the Church of England. By this law ever}^ Puritan of whatever shade of belief was robbed of his civil rights, though these dissenters were far greater in number than the Episcopalians. This Episcopal minority, of course, represented the Lord Proprietors who governed the colony. The dissenters sent John Ashe to England to beg the protection of the Proprietors, but he got no satisfaction from them. Another agent, Joseph Boone, was sent to England to make an appeal to the House of Lords. They referred the petition to the Queen, with a prayer that the wrongs of the colonists might be righted, and Queen Anne declared the laws to be null and void. 240 THE STORY OF AMERICA. 4 Though Johnson was so injudicious a ruler, he had some qualities which were not to be despised. At one time, when he learned that an attack was to be made upon Charleston by the French and Spanish, he superintended a pretty piece of strategy, which is worth relating. On James Island, in Charleston harbor, Fort Johnson held a few men for the protection of the city. William Rhett was placed as admiral over the militia of the province, which, with guns and ammunition, was put on board six merchant vessels which were in harbor. These prepara- tions had barely been completed when the invading fleet, consisting of a frigate and four smaller vessels, under the command of Captain Le Feboure, sailed up and demanded a surrender. The man who brought the demand was blindfolded and taken from fortification to fortification. In each one of these he saw a well-armed and uniformed force, and never guessed that the men in each fortification were always the same, and that they hurried quietly before his blindfolded eyes. He went back to his commander and reported the extent of the force. Rhett managed his little fleet of merchant vessels with such skill that Le Feboure was unable to make a landing, and in a few days the French retreated. The religious differences of the colony were not easily quieted. In spite of the fact that John Archdale, the Quaker, was one of the Proprietors, the Friends were at one time refused seats in the assembly. The war of words between the dissenters and the Episcopalians was constant. These disputes led to serious political complications. After Johnson was removed, South Carolina was in doubt for some time as to who was really Governor, such misunderstandings and contentions were there. When the claimants for office tried to summon an armed force and to move against each other, the militia quietly refused to obey. It was not until 1713 that Charles Eden was appointed Governor by the Proprietors and that religious freedom was allowed to be ihe right of every man in the Carolinas, During the last four years the colonies had not only been rent by internal rebellion and bitter perse- cutions, but by savage wars with the Indians as well. In 17 11 the Tuscaroras succeeded in uniting in North Carolina all of the smaller tribes, as well as the half-civilized Indians about the colonies, in a general conspiracy against the English. On an appointed morning a single war-whoop was given just at break of day and in ever}^ house the servants rose against their masters. All about the villages lurked bands of savages waiting to fall upon the settlements in an unguarded moment Few Indian massacres were conducted with so much fierceness and THE CAROUNAS. 241 decision. In most cases there was a blunder somewhere, but here, unfortunately, there was none. Many hundred were killed within that hour at day-break through all the settlements, and for three days the tide of murder swept on from south to north, stopping at last for want of more victims to kill. In all Indian warfare the burning of houses and destruction of property was as much a part of the fight as the killing of men. Governor Hyde begged Virginia and South Carolina for aid. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, interceded with the Indians, but Governor Craven, of South Carolina, sent a body of militia and several hundred friendly Indians hurriedly through the wilderness to the aid of the sister colony. In an open battle the Tuscaroras suffered heaw loss. The distracted remnant of settlers in North Carolina kept shut up in their garrison. The crops they had planted with so much care were destroyed. Little was left of the pleasant farms and villages. The little store of wealth which had been accumulated through the patient years was gone, and in almost every family there was mourning for the murdered. Through the long winter of 17 13 this remnant of a colony dragged out a wretched existence, owing what little life it had to the protection of the soldiers from the South. A treaty was made at last with the Indians, and the soldiers retired to their homes. When the Indians were freed from their presence they broke their treaty, and the following summer was spent by both the English and the Indians in preparations for a renewal of the war. At the close of the summer Governor Hyde died, and Colonel Pollock was chosen Governor. He used the best means in his power for the protection of his colony. Realizing its limited resources and how few men it had to defend it, he sowed division among the Indians, weakening their party. Help came both from Virginia and South Carolina, and in an attack upon the Indians, in the spring, many of them were killed and eight hundred taken prisoners and carried to South Carolina as slaves. The next colony to suffer from the Indians was South Carolina itself In the spring of 1715 there was a sudden uprising among the Yemassees, the tribe who had been the allies of the South Carolinians in their conflict with the Tuscaroras. As in North Carolina, a day was agreed upon, and the outbreak came with horrible suddenness. More than four hundred were murdered, and many hundred homes were burned. There was in the whole colony only one proof of friendship between the races. Sanute, a Yemassee chief, had a great reverence for a bonny Scotch woman who lived with her husband upon the frontier. After the habit of his race when they vowed friendship, he 242 THE STORY OF AMERICA. had washed his face with scented water and crossed his hands upon his breast, vowing that he should eternally be her friend. When the massacre was agreed upon, he warned her, and she and her husband fled to the coast. An organized force was led against the Yemassees by Governor Craven, and the Indians were defeated, and pushed through the wilderness across the Florida border. The Indians were now practically driven from the Carolinas — a country full of traditions for them and for which they had bravely fought. All the lands which had been reserved to the Yemassees were taken possession of by the colony, but these the Proprietors wrenched from them for their own use, and the new emigrants, hastening over to the territory which was opened up to them, were ruined by the demands for rent and purchase money. Governor Craven, of South Carolina, was succeeded by Robert Johnson, a son of the former Governor, Sir Nathaniel Johnson. He took charge of the colony under great difficulties. The Proprietors had taken away all independent legislation from the assembly, and assumed the right to reject and repeal all laws as they saw fit. The revenue was taken off the imported British goods, which had been used for the support of the colony, and the pirates who lurked about the Carolinian coast had become so bold that it was necessary to incur the expense of open conflict with them. The vessels of these buccaneers were so well armed and manned that they were able to capture merchantmen within sight of Charleston. When any person fell into their hands they extracted a ransom from the government. The admiral of these rovers was the famous Blackbeard, who had a squadron of six vessels under his command. He and his dare-devil captains had a station at the mouth of Cape Fear river. From here they could sally out upon any vessels bound for Charleston, and thus seriously injure the commerce of the colony. William Rhett, who had so cleverly managed the little fleet of merchantmen at the time of the French invasion, was put in command of a ship sent out to capture Steed-Bonnet, one of Blackbeard' s most dreaded allies. It had been thought almost impossible to take him, but Rhett attacked his pirate vessel with its crew of thirty, captured them and took them to Charleston, where they were hanged. Another of the pirate captains, Morely, angered at his companions' fate, soon after this sailed defiantly into the mouth of the harbor. Governor Johnson took command of his ship himself, and went out to meet him. The Governor's crew was triumphant, and boarded the pirate, killing every one except the captain and one of the crew. These, though bleeding with many wounds, still refused to surrender, and were taken to THE CAROLINAS. 243 Charleston and hurriedly hung, that the Carolinians might have the satisfaction of seeing them swing, A royal proclamation had been made some time before, promising pardon to all pirates who would surrender, and Blackbeard, with twenty of his friends, went to Governor Eden, of North Carolina, and took advantage of this proclamation. He rioted about the village for a time, and then took to his life on the sea again. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, offered a large reward for his head. Two armed sloops were fitted out and sent after him. He heard of their coming and made preparations. His twenty-five men were ready to fight to the death. He boarded one of the sloops, which had got aground, with the expectation of making an easy victory, but a large reserved force of men who had been kept below, sprang upon the deck as the pirates poured over the sides. A hand-to-hand fight followed, and the two captains closed upon each other. After they had fired their pistols they fought with dirks, until Blackbeard fell. The successful Virginian party boarded the pirate vessels and made prisoners of the rest of the crew. A negro had been put with a fire-brand ac the magazine, with orders from the captain to blow up the ship as soon as she was taken, but he was discovered, and the act prevented. Black- beard's head was stuck upon the end of the bowsprit, and the young commander of the Virginian troops, Lieutenant Maynard, sailed proudly back into the Chesapeake. South Carolina had just got this well oflf her mind and was freed from the depredations of the buccaneers, when she was threatened with Spanish invasion. Governor Johnson promptly called for money to prepare defences. The assembly said there was no money, and that the tax upon imports ought to be enough. The Governor reminded the assembly that the Proprietors had repealed the law. The assembly replied that they had nothing more to do with the matter. There was no Spanish invasion, as expected, but the difficulties between the Pro- prietors and the assembly had reached a climax. The people prepared for revolution, feeling they could stand the tyranny of the Proprietors no longer. Governor Johnson was held in respect and affection, in spite of the fact that he represented the hated Proprietors. His sin- cerity and good sense had won the hearts of the people, but notwith- standing this, they refused now to obey him or pay any attention to his orders while he voiced the will of rulers so tyrannical and unjust. The people elected a Governor for themselves — Colonel James Moore — and he was inaugurated on the same da}^ that the militia was assembled for the revolution in Charleston. Governor Johnson had been at his plantation, 244 ^HE STORY OF AMERICA. and when lie came into Charleston he found the city alive with excite- ment. Drums were beaten about the streets, the ships were decorated with bunting, work was given up, and in the town square stood the militia of the whole province. Johnson tried to reason with the lead- ing men. Some he indignantly reproved, and he ordered Colonel Parris, who was at the head of the troops, to disperse his men at once. This Parris refused to do, saying that he was there in obedience to the orders of the assembly, and when Johnson insisted upon having his commands obeyed, the soldiers were ordered to present their guns, and Johnson was told that he came nearer at the peril of his life. No one came to Johnson's side, and he saw that although he had not one enemy among those around him, the cause of the Proprietors was lost. He was led politely from the field by one of the leaders of the uprising, more popular than ever, perhaps, for the courage with which he had faced the loaded muskets of the troops. Both parties sent agents to England to present their sides of the difiiculty, and in 1721 the govern- ment was taken away from the Proprietors and became a royal province. Sir Francis Nicholson, who seemed to be the favorite adjuster of diffi- culties in the colonies, was sent over by the King. Queen Anne was dead, and George I had been King for over six years. Nicholson showed his usual good sense. He understood what the people needed, and was nothing if not a diplomat. He secure'" peaceful relations with both the Spaniards and the Yemassees. He signed treaties with the Cherokees and Creeks, on the west, and encour- aged the building of churches and the laying out of parishes, sending to England for pastors. This was not so much that he had any personal religious enthusiasm, as that he knew the church was one of the corner- stones of government, and that it would greatly help the people in educational as well as religious and social affairs. There had not been a public school in the whole province when he came, but he constantly urged the necessity for them, and even used his private means, until at the close of his four years of administration a fair system of education had been begun. In 1729, both the northern and southern colonies were purchased by the crown, Lord Carteret refusing to sell his share, and retaining all the territory from 34° 35' to the boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. After this, North and South Carolina became legally two separate provinces. Burrington was the first royal Governor of North Carolina, but in a short time was dis- placed by Gabriel Johnson, who was appointed in 1734 and remained Governor of the colony for twenty years. In South Carolina, Robert BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. "THE FUR CAP." After an en^aving by Desnoyers. THE CAROIJNAS. 245 Johnson, the Governor who had been so determined under the rule of the Proprietors, was sent back with a royal commission. He was wel- comed with enthusiasm, and for the four remaining years of his life worked to restore order, peace and prosperity. The colony was a mixed one, including English, French, Irish, Scotch and Spanish, dif- fering in taste, religion and educational prejudices. Besides these, were about twenty-two thousand African slaves, not to mention the half- civilized Indians who hung about the colonies. There were a great many white slaves at this time, and from these degraded people came the "poor whites" of the South. With such a population as this. Gov- ernor Johnson's difficulties were many, especially as the debts of South Carolina were heavier than ever before. But the colony was now too strong for its life to be again in danger. Its prosperity was assured. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Ramsey's "South Carolina." Williamson's "North Carolina." Fiction— W. G. Simms' "The Yemassee." A. J. Requier's "The Old Sanctuary." Matilda Douglas' "Blackbeard." 15 CHAPTER XXXVIII. HOW GEORGIA CAME TO BE SETTLED — THE EMIGRANTS — ^THE WESLKY* AND WHITEFIELD THE MARCH OF THE SLAVES — ^THE SPANISH ATTACK — GEORGIA AS A ROYAL PROVINCE. HE English colonies of the North had been settled by men who thought themselves righteous. The most southern colony of the English — Georgia — was settled by men who were manifestly unrighteous. They were taken largely from the jails of England. It came about through a movement for the reformation of English jails. James Oglethorpe, a humane gentleman, taking great interest in the poor and criminal classes of England, came to the conclusion that in another country they might be made good citizens. He procured a grant of land in the summer of 1732, which was granted to twenty trustees for the benefit of the poor of the kingdom, and included all of the land between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers. Oglethorpe was a gentleman of courtly manners and of very noble family. He was also a soldier of experience. Sub- scriptions were obtained through England for the benefit of this colony, and a company of people were carefully chosen from the destitute among the large cities. They were largely laborers out of employment, or debtors who had long been imprisoned by their creditors. Ogle- thorpe himself took charge of the first company of emigrants. This contained about one hundred and fourteen persons. The place which they selected for settlement was the site of the present city of Savannah. Under the intelligent direction of Oglethorpe, matters went well with the settlement from the beginning. The people were divided into three parties. One prepared land for cultivation, a second felled trees, and a third built palisades. Until the town was built they lived in FROM ALLEYS AND BY-WAYS. 247 tents. Their jQrst care was to prepare a battery and a magazine. Laborers were brought from Charleston to help in building, and Oglethorpe laid out the plan of the beautiful city of Savannah, which has been preserved to this day, and which stands as a monument to his judgment and taste. Even the names of the streets are, in many cases, the same which he gave. In a short time other colonists were sent over from England. A treaty was made with the Indians, and local govern- ment was established. South Carolina was most friendly to the colony, and gave it much help. As soon as possible substantial dwellings were put up in place of the cabins first erected. The manufacture of silk was made one of the principal industries of the colony, and a light-house was built on Tybee Island, ninety feet in height. A company of Highlanders built Fort Argyle, on the Ogeechee river, as a defence against the Spanish. In the first year and a half the colony increased to nearly five hundred persons. Besides the poor of England, there came many Highlanders from Scotland, and they took most kindly to American life, being used to hunting and to the cultivation of a sterile soil. Their half-barbaric, picturesque garb, the music of their bagpipes, and their love for a life in the wilderness, won the admiration and friendship of the Indians. There came, also, a company of Salzburgers to Georgia. These people were of a religious sect which had been persecuted for centuries. For a time a handful of them had found comparative peace in the valley of Salzburg, a province of Bavaria, but as they increased in numbers the wrath of the church was again turned against them, and they were driven from their homes, wives and husbands separated, and children taken to be raised in the Catholic Church. Twenty thousand of them found refuge in Prussia. Some fled to Holland and some to England. In England, they were kindly received, and it was thought that a safe asylum might be provided for them in the American colony. Fifty families, still living near Salzburg, accepted the invita- tion, and marched through Germany to the northern coast, carrying the young and old, with their few provisions, in rude carts. When they came through a Catholic district they were persecuted, but when the district was a Protestant one they were treated with great kindness, the peasants even carr>dng the women and children in their arms from one town to another. It was many, many weary months before they reached Savannah. Their industry and their long acquaintance with privation made them very valuable to a new colony, although, like the Friends, they did not believe in the taking up of arms, and would 248 THE STORY OF AMERICA. furnish no men to the fighting force of the community. 'I^ands were given them on the Savannah river, which they selected themselves, and named the place Ebenezer. Soon after their arrival, in the spring of 1734, Oglethorpe went to England, returning in the winter with about three hundred persons. With him came two young men by the name of Wesley, who stayed in Georgia but a short time. The people did not guess at that time the lofty strain of genius which ran in them, and which was to bring such powerful influence to bear on all Christendom in after years. John Wesley had a church at Savannah, and when he left, his friend, George Whitefield, who was to be no less noted than himself, took his place there. He and Wesley had been friends at Oxford. Oglethorpe brought with him on his second voyage two acts of Parliament. One of them prohibited the introduction of spirituous liquors in the colony and the other forbade the bringing of slaves. Unfortunately neither of these laws could be enforced. White- field fought the introduction of slaves for a time, but at length he himself yielded to it, and worked large plantations with them, using the money for the benefit of an orphan asylum which he built near Savannah. His influence had much to do with the introduction of slaves in Georgia. A large part of the emigrants which Oglethorpe had brought over with him were put on the Island of St. Simons, at the mouth of the Altamaha river. The island was m?de formidable with forts and batteries. The Governor made an unfortunate move against St. Augus- tine, and was severely repulsed there. On his third visit to England he obtained a military commission which included South Carolina as well as Georgia. In the summer of 1739 he learned that the Spanish were trying to make allies of the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws, who had formerly been friendly to the English. Zomo Chi-Chi, the friendly chief whom the first settlers of Savannah had used as an interpreter, begged Oglethorpe to attend a council three hundred miles northwest of Savannah, at which the chiefs were to gather. It took him one month to go and return, going through an unbroken wilderness, which no settler had previously entered. Not alone did he have the intermi- nable forests of the South to pass, but the bewildering swamps as well. He met chiefs of numerous tribes, who could bring seven thou- sand warriors into the field, and gained such influence over them that it was a protection to Georgia through all his life, and indeed long after that useful life had ended. Shortly after this, the slaves of ([Carolina arose and began a march toward Florida, destroying the plantations and FROM ALLEYS AND BY-WAYS. i549 killing the whites as they went, but getting badly intoxicated, they were surrounded by a body of militia and dispersed, a few being taken prisoners and others killed. In 1742 the Spaniards made up their minds to retaliate for the English expedition against St. Augustine, and sent a fleet of thirty vessels, with a force of five thousand men, against Georgia. Oglethorpe got his Highland forces together from Darien, and all Indian allies who were in reach. A force of about eight hundred men were put in the field. Oglethorpe's action in this was gallant, though he only had a merchant vessel of twenty guns and two schooners of fourteen guns each. When the fleet of vessels sailed up St. Simons harbor, Ogle- thorpe himself took command of the vessels. He put eight schooners, with one man each, out for the purpose of harassing the vessels or of conveying himself from one place to another. He directed the batteries on shore as well. The fight lasted twenty hours, and the Spanish fleet fought their way through the fire of the batteries to the shore. Oglethorpe spiked his guns, destroyed all the provisions, and fell back upon Frederica, on St. Simons Island. The English were now behind those fine defences on which they had prided themselves. The head of the bay was difficult to navigate, and no ship could get through without ' 'going about. ' ' As she did so, the batteries were so placed that she could be raked at once from three directions for three-fourths of a mile. The Spaniards dared not attempt this, and landed the fleet four miles below the town, with the intention of attacking the English at the rear with their force of five thousand men. A road ran southward from Frederica between a marsh and one of the tangled southern woods. At one place this road had a crescent shape, with a width of about sixty feet. The crescent ended in a wood, and here Oglethorpe left a detach- ment of troops, with some Indian allies. The Spaniards had uo difficulty in driving this handful of men before them. Word was sent to the general, who hurried up, met the Spaniards at the entrance of the crescent and drove them back through the wood, into the open country beyond. Leaving a force of men there, he went back to Frederica, fearing an attack from the front. Finding all quiet there, he took a large reinforcement and started once more down the road. He met his men flying before the Spaniards. He turned them back and hurried on, for he knew that if the enemy once got through the narrow road to the prairie, Frederica could not long stand out against five thousand men. The Spaniards had marched on, and two or three hundred of them lay in the crescent of the road. The Englishmen 250 THE STORY OF AMERICA. had fled before them. From the rear there was no danger of attack, and they quietly went into camp there, and began to prepare a meal. Bui the rear guard of the Highlanders, who had been so far behind that they could not aid their comrades, had leaped into the wood when the panic had seized their fellow-soldiers. They were hidden completely in the dense woods, and the Spaniards swept by them without dreaming that any man either could or would enter that dark tangle. With the Highlanders were a few Indians, who understood well this method of warfare. The Highlanders and Indians waited in perfect silence, not allowing one sound to escape them, until all of the arms of the Span- iards were stacked and they were resting on the ground and quietly taking their dinner. Then two Highland caps were raised in the air at different points. This was the signal for attack. Fire was poured in upon the Spaniards. The Highlanders were in no danger, for they could not be seen, and consequently could not be fought. The men in the roadway were falling with every shot. By the time Oglethorpe had reached the place the firing had ceased, and the Highlanders and Indians, shouting with triumph, stood in the midst of the Spaniards, hardly one of whom escaped. The Spaniards gave up the attempt of making an attack by land, and were easily defeated on the water, when, a few days later, an attempt was made to approach the town that way. The Spanish general, in the course of a few days, put his whole army on board his vessels, and went back to St. Augustine, persuaded that the English force must be a heavy one. Oglethorpe promptly manned his three boats and chased the fleet out of the sound. In 1744, General Oglethorpe returned to England, but he never, to the end of his ninety-six years of life, lost his interest in the colony. After his departure from Georgia, William Stephens was appointed president of the trustees. The colony had not kept up its first happy promise of prosperity. The manufacture of silk and of wine had both been unsuccessful. So much time had been spent in active warfare that lands had been neglected, and the prohibition of slave labor caused much discontent. The trustees, feeling that they could not govern the people to the satisfaction of either party, gave back the charter to the crown. For ten years after it became a royal province its growth was slow. In 1754, when a convention of delegates from the several colonies met at Albany to fonn a union, Georgia was not represented. FOR FURTHER READING: HiSTPRY— Jones' "Georgia." Fairbank's "Florida." Carpenter's "Georgia." Jones' "Zomo-Chi-Chi." CHAPTER XXXIX. Wft §nmlms txl Tirgtnm* ^UI^PEPPER IN VIRGINIA — GOVERNOR EFFINGHAM — NICHOLSON AND ANDROS — THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES — MARYLAND THE CLERGYMEN OF VIRGINIA. FTER the triumpli of Berkeley over Bacon in Virginia, the Royalists were very overbearing. Morals had become very loose. Every one in the colony worked for himself There was an absence of that public pride, which was the strength of Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massa- chusetts. In 1675, Lord Culpepper came to Virginia with a commission for life over the province, to take up the affairs of the colony where the proud old Governor Berkeley had dropped them. Culpepper's only interests in the colony were personal ones. He oppressed the people with fresh taxes. There was an over-production of tobacco, the only staple of the colony, and therefore a steady lowering of prices. Few towns sprung up, and the people living upon isolated plantations could not work in unity. The Assembly clamored for the rights of the people. They protested that a stop must be put to the over-production of tobacco. A few head-strong men undertook to put an end to this over-production by cutting the young plants. This may be known as the earliest American strike. Like most strikes, it only increased the difficulty. There was much distress, too, because the currency of the colony was not worth its face value in gold. In 1684, Culpepper surrendered his patent and ceased to be governor. Virginia was once more a royal province. Lord Howard, of Effingham, became the ruler of affairs. He levied new duties, invented new oppressions, and hung the foolish plant cutters. Imprisonment was common for slight offenses. Effingham repealed many laws of the Assembly, and revived laws which were hateful to the colonies. Small 2.S2 THE STORY OF AMERICA. rebellions were numerous during his rule, and the slave element con* stantly increasing and growing more turbulent, threatened the lives of the free population with insurrection. Affairs were bettered some when Effingham went to England, and Colonel Francis Nicholson became lyieutenant-Governor. Though Nichol. ^ ^ - 3 son had made so foolish a figure of him^ self in New York, he seemed to have a healthy mfluence upon Virginia. More liberal, modest, and unselfish than before, he went to work with a will to straighten :^ out the complicated affairs of the colony. He visited every part of his province, that he might become familiar with the people and their condition; he gave entertainments, and himself superin* tended athletic sports. By his enter- prise, a great public road was built through the province, and a public post'^ office instituted. He decided that the best way to stop the over-production of tobacco was to encourage other industries, and he saw to it that flax was grown, leather manufactured, and that the trade with the Indians flourished. Drunken- ness he made a misdemeanor, punishable with the stocks, and instituted an almost Puritanic mode of living among the care^ less, luxurious, and wine-loving Virgin^ ians. He aided in the establishment of William and Mary College, which had been established by the Rev. James Blair, the head of the Established Church of Virginia. This college was used then mainly for the education of men intending to be clerg^^men, and here, at the time of Nicholson's endowment, there were over a hundred pupils. Though Nicholson onl}' remained in Virginia about two years, he made many radical improvements. Sir Edmund Andros was sent over in his place. Like Nicholson, Andros had learned wisdom with expe* rience. He came among the Virginians in a somewhat humbler frame of mind than he had when he was first set over New England, Perhaps A CAVALIER OF VIRGINIA. THE CAVALIERS OF VIRGINIA. 253 the stern lessons which the Puritans taught him was not forgotten, and in any event he was more likely to be popular among the Episcopal royalists of Virginia than among the Puritan Whigs of Boston, He brought with him the charter of William and Mary College and began a good work in the colony by completing the post-office which Nich- olson had started. He also encouraged domestic manufacture and intro- duced cotton, although it did not succeed in Virginia. But the slave trade lay like a blight upon the colony, putting a check to true industry. A contest between President Blair, of William and INIary College, and Governor Andros resulted in the displacement of the latter from office, and Nicholson was called from Maryland to take his place. When Nicholson left Virginia, after his first administration there, he returned to England, and when a revolution in Maryland had deposed the government of Lord Baltimore, thus becoming a royal province, Nicholson was made the second royal Governor. In Mary- land, now the Catholics and now the Puritans were uppermost in polit- ical matters. In religious matters it was always liberal, and people of all faiths were welcomed there. The conflict between the Puritans and the Catholics was political, rather than religious. An armed revolution was brought against the Catholic government in 1681, and Baltimore's government was overthrown. The Protestant assembly took upon itself the direction of the affairs of the colony. Nicholson ruled here with satisfaction until he was recalled to Vir- ginia. He substituted the Church of England for the Catholic Church. This, it can easily be imagined, was a difficult matter. There was a great lack of clergymen in Maryland, and Nicholson had a considerable number brought over. Public worship was forbidden to the Catholics. The Puritans and the Quakers were not interfered with, although they were greatly discouraged. Nicholson had a school built in each county of the province, and a school embracing the higher branches, called King William's School, was opened at Annapolis, in 1694. Annapolis had been made the capital of the province by Nicholson. In a short time ever^'one of the thirty parishes had a small librar}', in each of which there were about fifty volumes. At Annapolis there was a larger library, containing eleven hundred volumes. All of these books were free to ever}'one in the colony. When Nicholson, fresh from these labors, went to Virginia, he found that the colony had grown in his absence. It now had a population of forty thousand. This second rule was not so satisfactory to the people as the first one had been. The House of Burgesses, which represented the 254 THE STORY OF AMERICA. people, had grown very strong. He had an open quarrel with the rnembers because he desired that Virginia should contribute to the building of forts for the protection of the northern provinces against the Indians, The burgesses refused to give anything. Nicholson felt that the colony was disgraced by this refusal, and said so in terms more unmistakable than polite. He became unpopular, also, because he took away the power of the vestries in the churches. These vestries had the right of controlling, to an extent, the action of the clergymen. These clergymen, be it said, were rather a rollicking and prodigal set. Frequently they were not even as orderly in their private living as were their careless parishioners. Their drinking was notorious. When Nicholson was guilty of the error of taking away the powers of the vestries the people felt that they were at the mercy of a lawless set of leaders, and complaints were sent to England against the Governor. These complaints were not all of a public nature. Nicholson had, unfortunately, made himself ridiculous in his love suit to a lady who refused to marry him, and he threatened the lives of her father and brothers. A thing of this sort naturally made him many enemies. Before he was deposed he laid out the town of Williamsburg, which was made the capital of the colony, and here, in the second year of its settlement, was held the first commencement of William and Mary College. This was nearly sixty years after the first commencement day of Harvard College, in Massachusetts. Nicholson was recalled to England, and for five years the colony managed its own affairs, under the council. Then Alexander Spots- wood arrived, bringing with him the writ of habeas corpus. Governor Spotswood was still young. He was full of life and ambition, with an inborn sense of justice and a true appreciation of happiness. He set about immediately reforming the courts, and tried to regulate the taxes. He was interested in the colony, and assisted it by raising a large fund for its support. He established a school for the education of Indian children also. Young and adventurous, he was not willing to stay cooped up in the settled part of his province, but desired to go beyond those beautiful mountains which raise themselves in blue mists at the west. In August, 1 716, he started from Germantown, on the Rappa- hannock, to cross the Blue Ridge. With him, on fine horses, were a company of gentlemen, filled with as much curiosity and gayety as him- self Troops of hunters and servants went with them, and liquors and provisions were carried upon a train of horses. Every day this gallant company marched and hunted. With their trumpets, their gans, and THE CAVALIERS OF VIRGINIA. 255 theh songs, they awoke for the first time the hoarse echoes of the moun- tains. They crossed beyond the dividing ridge of the mountains, where the waters parted, and took possession of the beautiful valley beyond. In six weeks they returned, having traveled more than two hundred miles. Spotswood, in memory of this charming expedition, founded tLe order of the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe, giving each comrade who had accompanied him a little golden horseshoe to be worn as a badge. But it was sixteen years after this before the Shenandoah valley, which he and his merry companions had visited, was settled; and then the intruders came, not from Virginia, but from Pennsylvania, and were constituted largely of Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. Germans from Penn- sylvania also scattered themselves through this fertile country. Spotswood secured a treaty with the Indians, which gave to the Eng- lish all of the region east of the Blue Ridge and south of the Potomac. This treaty was of much value to Virginia. In 1722, Spotswood ceased to be Governor, but as a private citizen he was still valuable to the com- munity. He found beds of iron ore on his forty thousand acres of private property, and he was the first to establish a furnace and foundry in Vir- ginia. Following him came Hugh Drysdale. The building up of the val- ley beyond the Blue Ridge brought many emigrants direct from Germany, and in the first half of the eighteenth century the population of Virginia was doubled twice. A better class of men began to come, who desired liberty and independence rather than riches, and who were willing to work themselves, instead of depending upon the toil of unhappy slaves. The people who came now were of the middle classes, self-respectful, industrious, and temperate. They had neither the arrogance of those of gentle blood, nor the viciousness of those unhappy creatures dragged from the slums of London. A more vigorous religious life was apparent, too. Following Drysdale, came Governor Gooch, and he was in power when the great preacher, Whitefield, was welcomed on his first journey to Virginia. Governor Gooch, be it said, did not take part in this welcoming, but the people made up for his lack of enthusiasm. In 1736 a printing press was set up, and William Parkes published a weekly paper at Williamsburg. The colony was no longer m_ade up entirely of plantations. Prosperous towns sprung up about the coast and the rivers. Norfolk, Fredricksburg, Falmouth, Richmond and Petersburg were founded and flourished. The life of the richer planters of Virginia was very luxurious. The women were renowned for their beauty and their coquetry. The men prided themselves upon their hunting and good fellowship. The entertainments of the day were cere- 256 THE STORY OF AMERICA. monious and stately, in violent contrast to the simplicity cultivated in Massachusetts. In Maryland, the government liad once more passed into the hands of the Baltimore family. Now the Baltimores represented the Protest- ant fa.^tion, having seceded from the Catholic Church. Six Lord Bal- timores ruled over Maiydand, the last of them dying in 1771. Their rule had always been wise and manly, and when Maryland passed into the hands of the royal government it was in a prosperous condition. In 1750 the population was about one hundred and thirty thousand. Iron was being developed in the State, and a large number of furnaces and forges were working successfully. Woolen, linen, tanning, shoe- making and other trades were succeeding, but here, as in Virginia, too large a proportion of the people were slaves ; there was an over-produc' tion of staples and an element of discontent. FOR FURTHER RFIADING: Fiction — Caruther's "Knights of the Horseshoe," >ML^f - ' '1 ' " ''■■ I 'ii " i 'i i i ii _':"r"" iiHir'^"-~ A MORAVIAN SETTLKMENT. a^Msaaf^sMMUSMi CHAPTER XL. THE FIRST TRIAL FOR LIBEL IN AMERICA — THE NEGRO PLOT IN 1 74 1 — THE BURNING OF "QUACK" AND THE HANGING OF URY — THE MINGLING OF DUTCH AND ENGLISH IN NEW YORK — THE GOVERNMENT OF ,'^, LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR CLARK. HEN Colonel Crosby came to New York, in 1732, to act as Governor, liis coming brought about a difficulty which was the only thing to make his administration memorable. Rip Van Dam had been attending to affairs before the Governor's arrival, and was asked to give an equal partition of the salary and perquisites of the office in the interval between Crosby's appointment and his actual appearance in New York. The popular party sympathized with Van Dam, and, as usual, the aristocratic portion of the city was in sympathy with the royal Governor. A suit in equity was brought about, and the JVeza York Weekly Journal laughed in rather an indiscreet way at the Governor. Two ballads were printed whose humor was considered to be of a libellous sort. It was decided that they should be burned in the public square by the common hangman, in the presence of the magistrates. The hangman burned them, but the magistrates refused to be present. The editor of the paper was arrested and brought to trial. The case was brought before the jur>', and the prisoner was acquitted. It was held that the editor said nothing which was not true. It was perceived that to speak against people in power might not always be wrong, and that to tell the truth, however disagreeable, was a thing which should not be necessarily punished as an offense. This was the first trial of the kind in this country, and furnished a precedent which was long quoted. 258 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Crosby only lived four years after his appointment, and George Clark, a member of the council, quietly ruled over New York for seven years. His administration was marked by one dark tragedy, for which he was not personally responsible any more than the city full of people about him. This was what is called the negro plot of 1741, when all New York went mad together. There were a few Spanish negroes in the place, who, though they were freemen in their own country, had been enslaved in New York. It was known that they were resentful, and when a large number of fires broke out about the city the blame was laid on them. The Governor's "house was burned, and within a few days numerous other houses were found smoking. In most of the cases the fires were extinguished before they did much harm. But the people became excited over the matter, and when the crowd cried that the Spanish negroes had caused the fire, everyone was ready to take it up. It is true that the negroes had faithfully worked with the white men to extinguish the fires, but this was not thought of. All negroes found in the streets were arrested. Vague stories, lacking foundation, spread like wild-fire. It was thought that there was a plan to burn all of New York to the ground. A set of disreputable people who kept a saloon of the lowest order said that they knew of a conspiracy among the negroes. Among these people was one young girl, Mary Burton, a servant, who had been raised in the lowest surroundings. She was met by the dignified council and all of the most powerful men of New York, and urged to tell the truth. Anxious to save herself from any blame, frightened, and naturally vicious, it is not strange that she stated that there was a terrible plot to burn the city and to murder and rob its inhabitants. Every member of the bar wished to plead in behalf of the government, and not one person offered to present the cause of the friendless and quaking negroes who were imprisoned in the jail. The people demanded victims. They were willing to believe any story that might be told, even that of the lying, frightened child of fifteen. Others were found as willing as she to tell stories about the negroes, hoping to bring themselves into favor with the judge — for every doubtful person of New York was under suspicion. A few, indeed, thought their might be no truth in it and took pity on the poor negroes, but these were a hopelessly small majority. The negroes were wild with fright, and confessed to crimes which they had never committed- Standing on a pile of faggots which were presently to be lighted for their own consuming, it is not strange that they told of others implicated in the matter in the hope of saving themselves, but this it never did. A REIGN OF TERROR. 259 They said that a few negroes had intended to watch the doors of Trinity- Church on some morning, and to kill the congregation as it came out; that they were then going to murder the rest of the inhabitants, assume rule, and select a king from among themselves. The court believed this ridiculous story. The most influential citizens of New York urged punishment, and in two or three months more than one hundred and fifty negroes were imprisoned. Over one hundred were convicted as conspirators, twelve of them were burned alive at the stake, eighteen were hanged, and seventy-two were transported as slaves to other countries. In the few cases where their masters came forward and protested their innocence, attempting to prove an alibi, the evidence was paid no attention to whatever. The terrified negroes were ready to confess to anything. One poor negro, named Quack, admitted that he set fire to the Governor's house; that he took a brand from the kitchen fire and put it on a beam under the roof; that the roof did not catch fire, and that the next day he did the same thing, pufiing at the brand until it flamed. The truth of the matter was, that a plumber had been up on the roof with an open furnace of live coals; that the wind was high and some sparks lodged in the shingles. As the excitement grew the people began to fear a Popish plot. They hunted the town over for Catholic priests, but found none. There was a rumor that priests were coming to New York in the guise of dancing-masters, school-masters, music-teachers, etc. One quiet school teacher, John Ury, was arrested on suspicion. Mary Burton, the child who had brought so much trouble on the negroes, said that he was one of the men in the habit of frequenting the place at which she had lived, and which was supposed to be the gathering spot of the conspirators. Though many protested that Ury was an honorable and quiet man of godly life, he was hanged. At last Mary Burton went too far, and began to implicate gentlemen who wore "rufiies," and who offered her presents of silk dresses. The judge and his friends thought this a good time to bring the examination to a close. Although this childish and abject excitement spoke so badly for New York, it was, as a matter of fact, growing in power. It had become the key of the colonies, so to speak. Presbyterians had come from Ireland and Protestants from France, toward the end of the seven- teenth century, and in 17 10 three thousand of the Protestants who had fled to England, at the invasion of the Rhenish palatinate by Louis XIV, crossed to New York, settling upon the upper water of the Mohawk and Schoharie creeks. The Scotch, Scotch-Irish, Dutch and English 26o THE STORY GF AMERICA. came in large numbers to the colony, spreading over the country and cultivating the land. School-houses were built among the villages. New York itself wore a most attractive appearance. It had a reputa- tion for great cleanliness and order. The beautiful Holland tiles and bricks still held place in their house-building. The English lived with great luxuriance and wore fashionable clothes, but the Dutch clung for the most part to the quaint and picturesque costumes of their father- land. The life for all was pleasant, and amusements were much more sought by the people of New York than by those of New England. In 1756 the population of New York City was twelve thousand. In 1738 Eieutenant-Governor Clarke founded a school for the teaching of Latin, Greek and mathematics. The other colonies were beginning to send their products to this port for shipment across the sea. The royalists and common people were constantly at verbal war with each other, but they united sufficiently to increase the mercantile value of their place. They reluctantly took part in the movement against the French or Indians, and gave money grudgingly. The Governor was of warlike spirit, and felt it a shame that the people under him were so reluctant to do their share of fighting for the defence of the confedera- tion of the colonies, but the assembly and the militia united in disregarding his orders, and he realized, as did De Eancey, who followed him, that the time had come when concessions must be made, even by the King, to the stalwart burghers of the New World. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Brodhead's and O'Callaghan's "New York." Fiction — F. Spielhagen's "Deutsche Pioniere.' . J. F. Cooper's "Satanstoe." CHAPTER XLI. LORD BELLOMONT'S RULE OVER NEW YORK, NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MASSACHUSETTS — DUDLEY'S RULE — THE FRENCH AND ENG- LISH WAR OF 1702 — TAKING OF PORT ROYAL — THE LUMBERERS' DIFFICULTIES IN MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. ? ^ORD BELLOMONT'S rule over New York, New Hampshire and Massachusetts was a pleasant one. Though he was a member of the High Church of England, he deferred to the Puritanism of his colonies. The assembly refused to vote him a salary, as it had done with all of the Governors who preceded him. But the money which it appropriated for him was considerable. The assembly insisted that it should have the right to make such appropriations as it pleased from year to year. The amount depended entirely upon the popularity of the Governor. By this means the colonies kept to them- selves a reserve which would send any obnoxious or too tyrannical ruler back to his own country. Governor Bellomont made an effort to check the unlawful priva- teering of Rhode Island, for this little State had become the home of pirates. It was not unusual for some ship, hovering about the shore, to make out after a vessel at sea, capture it, bring it to shore, and appropriate its cargo. The harbor was never closed with ice, as was that of New York. The Gulf stream, flowing around the rocky shores of Rhode Island, kept it free through all the seasons, so it became the favorite resort of the sea rovers. Rhode Island had once had a poor reputa- tion for harboring those obnoxious persons who dissented from the Con- gregationalism of Massachusetts ; it now gained a worse reputation from the favor it showed to the pirates. 262 THE STORY OF AMERICA. For many a long year Connecticut and Rhode Island quarreled with each other about boundary lines, and it was not until 1703 that Connec- ticut was willing to accept the Pawcatuck river as her eastern line. When Bellomont died, Stoughton became Governor for a short time, when he also died, and Dudley was sent to manage the affairs of Massachusetts. In May, 1695, that Board of Trade was organized in London which regulated the colonial and commercial affairs until the American Revolution. Its interference with trade and commercial liberty was a constant source of vexation to the people. The detested Randolph was again sent over as surveyor-general. Dudley tried to carry into effect an article of the new Massachusetts charter which gave the Governor the power to reject the nominations of the General Court. Cotton Mather headed a strong party, which included all the leading clergy of the province, to put Dudley from office. But Dudley also had a strong party among the royalists, and this dispute served to keep up that internal dissension which Massachusetts wcs. never free froiji. For five years there had been peace betweer the French and English, and those terrible Indian raids upon New Hampshire and the province of Maine had ceased. But in 1702 war was again declared between France and England, and the French and Indians of Canada once more felt free to vent their native hatred against the English colonies of America. Never had the Indians been more cruel, subtle and suc- cessful. The town of Deerfield, in Connecticut, was surprised by three hundred French and Indians one morning in February, 1704. The town had been guarded by sentries, for an attack was suspected ; but the savages in the woods waited until they retired at daylight, and then rushed upon the people, who were just arising for the labors of the day. Fifty were killed, and a hundred of them were carried to Canada. Among these were children, who were given to the Jesuit priests that they might be raised in the Catholic faith. Many of the young women were married to Indians, and with that began the race of half-breeds, which filled the northwest with such good trappers and guides. It was not infrequent for the children stolen in this way to acquire such a love for Indian life that they could never bring one back to the dull restraints of Puritan civilization. The free woods were dearer to them than the tedious town. The delights of the chase were preferred to the labors of the field. The French claimed the whole of Maine as far as the Kennebec, and had established a trading and missionary post among the Norridge- wock Indians, who dwelt among the upper waters of the river. The THE CLASH OF ARMS AND IDEAS. 263 PVench and Indians united in their efforts to keep the English east of the Kennebec, and every English fishing vessel found in Canadian waters was seized upon by the French men-of-war. Governor Dudley saw with apprehension the growing enmity of the Indians, and asked the Norridgewocks to meet him in council. The Indians did so, prom- ised friendship, and helped in the building of two great cairns of stone, which was a sign of lasting friendship. All of the time that the Indians were feigning to be in such an amiable mood, they were preparing to seize the Governor and his suite and give them into the hands of the French. The plan was not carried out, because a French party expected did not arrive in time. In less than six weeks after this an attack was made upon the settlements between the Kennebec and the Piscataqua. All over the province the people hurried to the garrison houses. The fields were no longer worked, except under the protection of a force of armed men. The settlers armed themselves and went in pursuit of the Indians, but could not find them. Several of these unsuccesful tramps were made upon snow-shoes through the unbroken snow of the wilderness. Colonel Church, the celebrated Indian fighter, came up from Massachusetts with over five hundred men to protect these northern settlements. But aside from destroying some villages and killing a few of the enemies in chance engagements, he did little. In the midst of winter the New Hampshire men fell upon the Indian village of the Norridgewocks, burning the French chapel and the wigwams. This made the Indians more unrelenting than ever. Within a few months they attacked many of the settlements of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. The diflSculty then, as in all Indian warfare, was that the Indians would never meet their enemies in open field, and more danger and expense was encountered in finding them than in fighting them, A high price was paid to everyone who brought in an Indian scalp to headquarters, a man's scalp being worth one hundred pounds, and that of a child or woman fifty pounds. Dudley was firm in his purpose to move against Canada and conquer it. This seemed to him the only way of freeing the colonies from their enemy. Colonel March was sent with a force of a thousand men, in 1707, to reduce Port Royal, in Noval Scotia, All through the winter and the spring the men fought in vain. They had been reduced from one thousand to two hundred in number, principally from the hardships of the winter in that latitude. Then came Nicholson's campaign with the New York men, which also failed. In 17 10 the place was taken by five regiments of troops which sailed from Boston 264 THE STORY OF AMERICA. harbor. General Nicholson, of New York, commanded the expedition. Only forty lives were lost among the English, and Nova Scotia ceased to be a French province. In 1 7 14 Governor Dudley was removed from office. The Whigs had grown to be the stronger party, and the)- declared that the office of Governor was vacant. Following him came Colonel Burgess, who sold his commission to Samuel Shute. At the time Shute assumed authority Massachusetts contained ninety-four thousand inhabitants. It had one hundred and ninety vessels. In the fisheries were one hundred and fifty smacks. Manufactories of many sorts were flourishing to the great vexation of the English, who tried in vain to keep down colonial industry. About this time inoculation was first introduced in the colonies. Boston had suffered frightfully from small-pox. At three different times it had raged in the city. When vaccination was introduced by a physician named Boylston, it was fought not only by the doctors, but by the ministers as well. Cotton IMather was one of the few who encouraged the brave physician. Shute had the same trouble in Massachusetts which his predecessors had had. The assembly refused to vote him a fixed salary, and this, as usual, was made the subject of many quarrels. The currency of the colonies had fallen far below par, and the financial condition was gen- erally bad. Upon the north the Indians were constantly intrigued. The country was likely at any time to be plunged into continuous war. In matters of theology there was less sternness. Newspapers were becoming more common. Jonathan Edwards was writing his books on Calvanistic philosophy, and following him were a number of theolog- ical writers for whom he furnished inspiration. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton Mather, did not cease, even in his old age, to write religious pamphlets. Benjamin Franklin at this time was writing with versatility and vigor. A few years later than this, William Livingston, a journalist, and Governor of New Jersey, wrote a poem on philosophic solitude. William Smith, at one time president of William and Mary College, wrote an excellent history of the first discovery and settle- ment of Virginia. This was published in 1747. Cotton Mather, of course, expressed in newspaper and pamphlets his vigorous and com- bative ideas on the subjects of the day. The lumberers of Maine and New Hampshire suffered great injustice at this period from the King's surveyors, who went through the forests selecting the best of the trees and marking them with a broad arrow. THE CLASH OF ARMS AND IDEAS. 26: These the settlers were not allowed to touch. The farmers had a leg:al right to the land on which these trees stood, and they resented bitterly the stealing of their property. They were also kept from shipping timber to foreign countries — a matter which the}' felt concerned no one but themselves. In 171 8, a number of Scotch Presbyterians came to New Hampshire. They introduced the manufacture of linen, the spin- ning of wool and the cultivation of the potato. In 1723 Shute left for England, and Wentworth became Governor of New Hampshire. The year before this the third Indian war had broken out in the northern provinces. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Drake's "Indian Wars." Cotton Jlather's "Magrnalia." Thornton's "Historical Relations of New England to the English Commonwealth." FROZEN IN. CHAPTER XLII. Expedition of maine and new Hampshire against THr n<:>p RIDGEWOCKS — THE COMMAND OF CAPTAIN JOHN LOVEL,L — WILLIAM DRUMMER IN MASSACHUSETTS — ^WHITE- FIELD'S revival AND SHIRLEY'S ADMIN- ISTRATION — LOUISBURG THE SURRENDER. ETWEEN the years 1722 and 1724 a harassing war- fare was kept up by the Indians. The savages crept in small bands about the frontiers of Maine and New Hampshire, falling, at the most unexpected times, upon unprotected homes. If a woman ventured alone into her yard, she was apt to be seized by the prowling Indians. A man journeying home in the twilight, knew that he did so at the imminent risk of his life. In 1724, Massachusetts and New Hampshire decided that an expedition must be sent out against the Norridgewock Indians. Twice before attempts had been made to break up the settlement of these Indians. Among them was a brave and determined man. Father Sebastian Rasle, a French priest who had gained immense influence over the Indians. He had lived among them thirty-seven years, and though he was a scholar, dropped his own language for that of the Norridgewocks and adopted their manner of living. The Indians loved him with all the intensity of their wild natures and were willing to meet any danger in his defense. The Englishmen knew that if they wished to succeed in subduing the Indians, they must first capture Rasle. Twice they had failed. On the i2th of August, 1724, they succeeded. Two hundred English- men rushed upon the Norridgewock village when most of the warriors were absent. Such as escaped from the rifles and swords flew into the woods, and Father Rasle, in attempting to turn the attention of the ''AMERICANS ARE BORN REBELS." 267 enemy from these flying women and children, was himself killed. The Englishmen stuffed his mouth with dirt and hacked his poor old body horribly. It wanted only this to inflame the Indians. Captain John Ivovell organized an expedition which started in April, 1725, against the Pequawkett Indians, of Maine. The Indians lay in ambush for Lovell, and he and eight of his men were killed. The remaining twenty-three retreated under cover of night to the stockade, taking with them the men who could walk. One brave-hearted fellow, Lieu- tenant Robbins, who was mortally wounded, asked that a musket be left beside him so that he might have one more shot before he died. The men, after their weary march, found the stockade deserted, and in continuing their march homeward, some of the wounded died on the way. There were few left of the Pequawkett Indians. But the English saw that yet sterner measures must be taken. They concluded, therefore, to move against the French, without whom the Indians might have lacked the courage to keep up their continuous fighting. Some commissioners were sent to the French Governor to inquire into his reasons for disturbing the treaty between France and England. The Governor was entirely under the influence of the Jesuit priests, who believed that it was to the glory of their religion to fight the Protestant Englishmen whenever they could. The commissioners succeeded only in getting the Governor to procure the release of some captives. A treaty was made between the English and the Eastern Indians in 1725, and for twenty years there was comparative peace. Thus closed the third Indian war. New Hampshire was very anxious for a Governor of her own, who should in no way be beholden to Massachusetts authority. It was not until 1740 that she succeeded in getting the consent of* the Crown to such a measure and that the boundary line which divided her from Massachusetts was definitely decided upon. Benning Wentworth, a son of Lieutenant-Governor Wentworth, was made the first Governor. He brought to his ofiice all of the dignity which the New Hampshire people could have desired. With a troop of guards about him he rode in a pretentious coach, and lived in a house which, for those days, was little less than princely. The story of how he married pretty Martha Shortredge, one of his servants, is told so well by Mr. Long- fellow that it would be foolish to repeat it. In Massachusetts, William Drummer, the Lieutenant-Governor, was looking after the forces of the colony while Shute returned to England. Following, came Burnet, who had some bitter quarrels with 268 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the assembly on the old question of a fixed salary. In 1730 Jonathan Belcher was sent out from England as Governor. He refused to accept the grant of money voted him by the assembly, and dismissed the house. This had no effect upon the people, and at length the King was obliged to yield the point and consent that Massachusetts should do as she pleased about the payment of Governors. This was one of the strongest steps toward national independence — it was the greatest concession which the Crown of England had yet made. William Shirley who succeeded him in office, was much liked. He was the first of the royal Governors who succeeded in keeping up cordial relations with the people. Whitefield's great religious revival, which was shaking New England from its foundation, may have had something to do with these amicable relations. It may seem surprising that there was much need for a revival of this sort in Puritan New England, but the truth was that the people had begun to feel the reaction which naturally followed in the wake of religious discipline so stern as that the early Puritans imposed. People had grown indifferent and worldly, but their religious traditions made their remorse all the more sharp, when they were awakened to a sense of their falling-off" by a man of Whitefield's eloquence. The religious excitement grew so high that even the coldest could not stand out against it. The more sensible people did not approve of this excitement, and thought it was doing great harm to the nervous and impressionable. In 1744 the French and English in the old country became involved in another war. The Governor of Breton, as soon as he heard of it, moved against a settlement of English fishermen on the island of Canso. The French had been very jealous of the English fishermen, and were glad of an excuse for striking a blow at them. The settlement at Canso was destroyed and the men sent to the French fortress at Louisburg. Governor Shirley at once began preparations for war. He made up his mind to take Louisburg. This was the strongest fortress in America. It had been twenty-five years in building, and cost France thirty millions of livres. At the southeastern point of Cape Breton was a walled town, two miles and a half in circumference. The stone rampart was over thirty feet high and in front of this ran a ditch eighty feet wide. The harbor was defended by a battery of thirty 28- pounders. Upon a little island just opposite was a battery of still larger guns. The town was entered over a draw-bridge which was guarded by a circular battery of thirteen 24-pounders. The batteries and six bastions could mount one hundred and forty-eight cannons. ''AMERICANS ARE BORN REBELS." 269 Shirley's preparations were made in secret. Only the New England troops consented to join the enterprise. Shirley took with him 4,500 men. Whitefield encouraged the expedition, and his influence was very valuable. Colonel William Pepperell was persuaded by Whitefield to take command of the expedition. The French heard nothing of the matter. All over the provinces a day of fasting and prayer was held. The troops met on the island of Canso; then, on April 29, 1744, they sailed for Cape Breton. A part of the English landed and set fire to some large warehouses filled with spirits. The smoke, drifting inland, so frightened the French that they spiked the guns of their battery at the bottom of the harbor, and taking boats, retreated to their walled town. Thirteen men who were reconnoitering found that the battery was deserted, and took possession. As they had no flag with them, one of the soldiers went up the flag-staff with, a red coat in his teeth and nailed it up, that the French might know they claimed possession. The French attacked them, but were held off" until reinforcements came up, when they again retreated. On May 5th, Pepperell threw up three batteries near the city. Guns and ammunition had been dragged through the swamps during the past fourteen days, and these were hurried into the batteries. Another battery was thrown up within a short distance of the draw-bridge, but the town was not easily forced. Pepperell knew that the island battery must be taken. This could only be done by sending a fleet up the harbor. Commodore Warren, who was cruising around outside of the bay, had captured a French ship having sixty-four guns, six hundred men, and a quantity of militar>' stores on board. From the men on the captured ship, the English learned that the French were expecting a large reinforcement. The English decided to move at once. Pepperell tried a night attack with his scaling ladders, but his men were repulsed with a loss of sixty killed, and one hundred and twelve taken prisoners. The siege was still continued from the batteries. Pepperell was getting very short of ammunition, and some of his best guns burst. By the first week in June, fifteen hundred of his men were sick. Commodore Warren kept the French from carrying the news of the siege to Quebec. But the French were not alarmed, and felt no great need of reinforcement. They were well-trained soldiers; their enemies were farmers and mechanics, many of whom knew little about the use of their fire-arms. Pepperell built another battery within range of the island battery in the harbor. He had nearly ruined the draw-bridge battery by this time. Commodore Warren and General Pepperell decided to make an attack 270 THE STORY OF AMERICA. together. Warren's fleet was drawn up in line and the land forces were put in a position to attack. This was the 15th of June, 1745. The French lost heart. They asked that hostilities might be suspended and terms of capitulation made. On the 17th of June, Pepperell marched into the fortress at the head of his plucky men. Governor Shirley hastened up and was given the keys of the place by the general. Six hundred and seventy regular troops, thirteen hundred militiamen, six hundred sailors and two thousand inhabitants were sent to France, The English had lost one hundred and thirty men. The French lost three hundred. General Pepperell was made a baronet, and was the first American to receive that honor. Warren was made admiral. Pepperell was also given high honors in the English army and presented with a table of silver and a service of plate by the city of London. For a year Louisburg was garrisoned by New England troops. FOR FURTHER READING- History— Leakj^'s "England in the Eighteenth Century^ (Chapter on Whitefield.) Poetry — Whittier's "Mogg Megone." Whittier's "Mary Garvin." CHAPTER XLIII. IV )}}tt^ llnnt Mnmm ^il| M\m Hlfe/' THE GROWING SPIRIT OF INDEPENDENCE — THE FIRST EXPEDITION AGAINST FORT DU QUESNE — THE COI.ONISTS FOR AGGRES- SION AND OFFENSE — BRADDOCK'S ILI.-FATED EXPEDI- TION GEORGE WASHINGTON'S FIRST AP- PEARANCE — BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT AND DEATH. N Boston, in the year 1747, there was an occur- rence which marked the growing independence of the colonies, and showed how near they were, even then, to revolution. Commodore Knowles, commanding an English man-of-war, sailed into Boston harbor, and to supply places of some sailors who had deserted, he took a press-gang from the merchant vessels of Boston. As soon as the people learned that some of the Boston boys had been forced on the King's ship, they armed themselves with clubs and stones and hurried to the Governor's house, where the officers of the ship were being entertained. All day they surrounded the house, and in the evening they ^ became so threatening that it required the utmost efforts of the Governor and other influential citizens to keep them from violence. Even then they sent brickbats crashing through the win- dows of the council chamber, and demanded that every officer in town belonging to the fleet should be seized and held till the Boston boys were released. The militia was ordered out next day by beat of drum, but the drummers were in full sympathy with the kidnaped sailors, and refused to obey orders. The mob was made up mostly of mechanics and laboring men, and by their authority alone the officers of the ship were held in custody for three days. Commodore Knowles threatened to bombard the town if they were not released. Governor Shirley, 272 THE STORY OF AMERICA. disgusted with the disorderly conduct of the citizens, went to the castle on the harbor that he might be out of a town where law was so disre- garded. The General Court passed a series of resolutions which expressed sorrow for the behavior of the citizens, but declared that the House would exert themselves to redress their grievances. The militia came out promptly, ready, and perhaps even anxious, for conflict Governor Shirley returned to the city, and the Boston sailors were exchanged for the British officers of the man-of-war. When Knowles sailed out of the bay, everyone in Boston gathered on the wharves and shouted at the discomfiture of the Commodore, who went back to England with an appreciation of the fact that the people in the colonies would do pretty much as they chose. In 1 748 a treaty was made between France and England which returned to France the fortress of Louisburg, which the English had so gallantly taken. There was not a man in the colonies who did not feel this to be a personal insult. It seemed as if the mother country set a low price upon the lives of her subjects. The engagement had plunged the colonies heavily in debt, also, and it was some time before Parlia- ment voted the money to pay it. The treaty between the countries in the Old World had little effect upon the colonies in America. Hostilities were kept up on the border constantly, and when open war was resumed, in 1755, there was but little change in the attitude of the French Cana- dian and the English settlements. The French had built a chain of military posts along the great lakes and upon the highways of the river system. About these grew up little settlements. They even com- manded a part of the Mississippi. The English were pushing their settlements westward, and in 1748 the Ohio Company was formed, which made use of the river communication by the Potomac and the eastern branches of the Ohio. A road was built over the mountains from Cumberland to Pittsburg, and exploring parties were sent out ia 1750 and 1 75 1, under Christopher Gist, who was surveyor of the com- pany. In 1753, Major George Washington, a young Virginian, was sent out with Gist and others to visit the French forts which were encroaching upon the land which the English considered their own. The reports which he brought back in January, 1754, determined Vir- ginia to fit out an expedition immediately. This was done. Washington was made second in command under Colonel Joshua F'ry. The French were under Contrecceur, who soon met a detachment of the English, drove them from the fort which they were building and occupied it himself Washington, who had command of the main body of the "THEY NURSE TREASON WITH THEIR MILK." 273 army had a gallant engagement at Great Meadows, but was defeated and forced to surrender. It had been proved that the colonies could not work independently Benjamin Franklin and other of the wisest men of the colonies thought It was best to have a union. Congress assembled at Albany. Massa- GEORGE WASHINGTON IN HIS YOUTH. After the painting by C. W. Peale, and the engraving of J. W. Paradise. chusetts Bay, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, the Jerseys, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and North and South Carolma sent delegates. Chiefs from six nations also met them there. This congress wished to meet annually, but the Board of Trade in 274 'I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. London would not permit it, thinking that it gave too much power to the colonists. In the convention it was agreed that war with Canada was necessary. In 1754, Edward Braddock was made Commander-in-chief of all the fortresses in North America. Six thousand regular troops were given by the Crown, ready for service, as well as the money for the purpose of raising a colonial army. It was Braddock' s intention to march against Fort Cumberland. Unfortunately, Braddock started from Vir- ginia, because the road had already been built from there. But this made his march an exhausting and expensive one. He did not understand the nature of warfare in America, although he was a man of much experience and bravery. He was used to the well-regulated warfare of Europe, and could not, or would not, understand the savage methods which the frontiersmen used, owing to the fact that the Indians were always allies with them and they had no choice but to employ their methods. Braddock had one thousand regular soldiers, thirty sailors, twelve hundred provincials, a train of artillery, and wagons and horses which Benjamin Franklin had procured for him, beside the brave, friendly Indians. This line stretched along the narrow road. Had the Indians chosen at any time to attack it, as it wound its way through the great forest of white pines and the desolate mountains, it could have cut it into a dozen pieces. Washington was sent ahead with twelve hundred men, about half of the force, leaving the rest with the baggage and the horses at Little Meadows. There were not more than a thousand men under Contre- coeur holding the French fort. Contrecceur thought that it might be safest to surrender at once, but De Beaujeu, one of his captains, asked permission to lay an ambuscade for the British. The Indians put on their war-paint and followed him. The Frenchmen were wild with enthusiasm. Braddock, proudly confident of his strength, moved on. Washington said afterward that he never saw so beautiful a sight as the British troops made on that morning when they were ordered as if on dress parade, and with their flying colors, their martial music and glittering uniforms, hastened toward the fort. Suddenly Beaujeu, dressed in a French hunting dress and wearing a silver gorget, bounded down hill. Behind him came the French and Indians. At a signal the Indians disappeared. The French fired upon the English, then all about from the hollows and the woods came the fearful shrieks of the Indians. The English stood steady in a compact body and returned the fire. Beaujeu was killed, but his men, fighting from behind trees and ''THEY NURSK TREASON WITH THEIR MILK." 275 in ravines, worked terrible destruction among the Englishmen, who were fighting after E^uropean methods on the clear ground. Washington wanted Braddock to allow the men to use the methods of the natives, but this was not soldierly, according to Braddock' s idea, and he would not permit it. Braddock had four horses shot under him, and was finally wounded himself. His army beat a wild retreat. A few faithful friends carried him with them. He died, giving up his command to Washington, and was buried at Great Meadows. The army marched to Philadelphia. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Spark's "Ivife of Washington." Columbus' "L,ife of Washington." Parkman's "Pontiac." Fiction— C. McKnight's "Old Fort Du Quesne." Wright's "Marcus Blair." Thackeray's "Virginians." CHAPTER XLIV. ^B^olHlah J^rabm, FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS IN NOVA SCOTIA — THE RIVALRY BETWEEN THE SETTLEMENTS — COLONEL WINSLOW DRIVES OUT THE ACADIANS — THE PATHETIC EXODUS — PERSECUTION OF THE EXILES. IVING upon the basin of Minas, in Nova Scotia, was a company of people called the French Neu- trals. They were British subjects, for at this time Nova Scotia was an English possession, but they were constantly suspected of being in sympathy with the French and would take no oath of alle- giance which did not contain a proviso that they 1 p were never to take up arms against France. The pc -pie \J of the community were very industrious and frugal, and ~, they gained wealth rapidly. Their religion held them together, and kept them from mingling with the Prot- estant English. The French and the English united in holding them in suspicion, feeling that they must be dangerous if they would give the allegiance to neither one nation nor the other. England was anxious to have Nova Scotia, or Acadia, settled with hearty British subjects, and in 1749, Colonel Edward Cornwallis led an expedition of nearly two thousand five hundred persons into Chebucto harbor and settled the town of Halifax. The nearest settlement was that of the French, on the basin of Minas. A little cattle path ran through the woods for twenty miles, connecting the two towns. The garrison was removed from Eouisburg, and assisted in the work of the young settlement at Halifax. The English imagined that their French neighbors were setting the Indians upon an attack upon the colony, and all through the winter of 1749 the people lived in fear of 1: DESOLATED ACADIA. 277 an attack. There was also a French settlement at the mouth of the St. John, and it was feared that the two colonies would unite in a move against the English, To avoid such danger, the English decided that the people of Grand Pre must be made to take a complete oath of alle- giance or else be removed altogether from communication with the French. After several years of suspicion and dissatisfaction a crisis was reached in 1755, when the people of Minas begged to have the arms, wnich had been taken from them, restored. There was a rumor that a French fleet was in the Bay of Fundy and that the Acadians intended to join the forces and attack the English garrison. The Governor ordered the French inhabitants to send delegates to Halifax for the pur- pose ol giving the oath of allegiance. They refused to take it. It was therefore decided that the French inhabitants should be sent out of the province. An expedition was sent from Massachusetts, under the com- mand of Edward Winslow. The French fortifications were taken, the Acadian Indians disarmed, and some of the Acadians pressed into English service. The farmers of Grand Pre were then asked to meet the English in the little church at 3 o'clock in the afternoon to hear what the English officers had to impart to them. The old and young men, and all the boys of ten years of age, were required to be there. They assembled, unsuspiciously, to the number of four hundred and eighteen. The church was put under guard. Colonel Winslow told him that it was his Majesty's instructions and orders that all lands and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live stock of all sorts, were forfeited to the Crown. Only their money and household goods were allowed them. It was promised that families should be kept together, and that removals should be as easy as it could be made. The poor French farmers were surrounded by troops, and their prayers and protests were of no avail. The men were kept in the church for some time, waiting for the arrival of the vessels which would transport them. When they came, all the young unmarried men were placed u|)on the vessels first, then all of the young married men. Only the very young or the very old were left on shore- There was no chance for a revolt. It was many weeks before the rest of the transports arrived in which the families were to be placed. In the meantime, the unhappy women spent their days in packing up their goods and arranging for departure. Colonel Winslow grew tired of his bitter task. The weeping of the women worried him, and their prayers were harder to face than the fire of an enemy would have been. On the 21st of October the remaining transports arrived and the people were embarked. There were at least 17 278 THE STORY OF AMERICA. two thousand of them, possibly more. The exiles were scattered through a number of the colonies. Some of them returned to France. There was a colony planted in Louisiana, and a few returned in time. In Massachusetts, they were persecuted. The children were taken from their parents and driven from town to town. Everyone refused to care for them. No doubt the Puritans thought that they were serving the Lord in this persecution of the Roman Catholics. In Pennsylvania, the exiles were distributed among country towns and provisions were made for them from time to time. They were always gentle under the wrongs which were heaped upon them. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Haliburton's "History of Nova Scotia." Fiction — Mrs. Williams' "The Neutral French." Haliburton's "The Old Judge." De Mine's "The Lily and the Cross." Poetry— I/ong^ellow's "Evangeline." CHAPTER XLV. >l^i Jfinn 0r ll^a JfHb$* uPERATlONS AGAINST THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH — THE BATTLE AT BLOODY POND — THE FRENCH TAKE FORTS OSWEGO AND WILLIAM HENRY — THE ENGLISH RETAKE LOUISBURG THE BATTLE OF CARILLON — THE ENGLISH RETAKE OSWEGO AND CAPTURE FRONTENAC AND DU QUESNE. GENERAL plan had been laid out by the English for the reduction of France in the New World. The unfortunate expedition of Braddock was but a part of this. He was to take Fort Du Quesne and move on to Niagara. Governors Shirley and Johnson met with their forces at Albany. Gov- ernor Shirley was to move against Niagara, where he was to be joined by Braddock' s men. General John- son was to move against Crown Point, a French garrison on the southern shore of Lake Champlain. While Governors Shirley and Johnson were waiting in Albany for the arrival of the last of their troops, they received word of Braddock' s disaster. The men were inexperienced and impatient. Fighting, they could understand, but waiting and planning, which is sO large a part of the success of war, was distasteful to them. Shirley was obliged to wait so long before making his attack upon Niagara that a fall storm set in. Many of his men deserted him, and he thought it best not to venture upon so long a march, amidst the inclemency of the coming weather, with a reduced force of men. He learned, also, that the French, under Baron Dieskau, were intending to attack Oswego. He strengthened that place by increasing the garrison there to seven hundred men. The French were anxious for Oswego, for 28o THE STORY OF AMERICA, though Forts Niagara and Frontenac commanded each end of Lake Ontario, Oswego, upon the southern bank, held the key to the Ohio valley. So long as this was not in the possession of the English, the French traders were not likely to be interfered with. Dieskau was, indeed, npon the point of moving against Oswego, when he heard of General Johnson's intentions to move against Crown Point. Dieskau abandoned his first intention and hurried to meet Johnson. He had two thousand men, whom he took up Lake Champlain to Fort St. Frederick, at Crown Point. There he waited for the English. General Johnson's forces had been sent northward, under General Lyman, in mid-summer. They spent their time in building a fort on the east bank of the Hudson while they waited for General Johnson to arrive with the necessary stores and equipments. It was the 8th of August, 1755, when General Johnson set out to join Lyman. Ammunition, provisions and all other necessaries of a campaign were carried fourteen miles to Lake George. Here they were obliged to wait for their boats, but built a fort in the meantime. Here Indians from the Six Nations joined Johnson from time to time in small numbers. Lyman's men were engaged in strengthening the fort; Johnson encamped farther south on the lake, in a spot protected by the lake on one side and a marsh on the other. Dieskau left a strong party at Crown Point and marched southward, with the intention of taking Lyman's men, thus cutting off Johnson from his supplies. Could he do this, there would be nothing between him and the New England border. The Indians were full of objections. They were always reluctant about attacking forces, having a terrible fear of cannon. They refused to believe Dieskau when he told them that Lyman was entirely unprovided with them. Dieskau was, there- fore, obliged to march against Johnson's camp. Johnson heard of their approach and went to meet them. Dieskau prepared an ambush in the shape of a horseshoe, intending, when the English marched into it, to bring around one of the long lines and close about them, attacking from all sides. Hendrick, the chief of the Mohawks, and a detach- ment of Johnson's men, marched into this. Upon three sides oJ' them the French and Indians rose with a yell and fell upon them. Bloody Pond, on the east shore of Lake George, still marks the spot where those unfortunate men fell. Reinforcements covered the flight of the remnant of the English back to the rude barricade which Johnson had hastily raised and where he had placed his few cannons which he had brought up in boats. The Canadian Indians would not pursue the fight when they saw the THE IvION OR THE LILIES. 28l cannons. The Mohawks, on the English side, had already fled. Their chief, Hendricks, had been killed. The provincial soldiers, hiding behind their barricade of trees, picked off the French regulars until they were obliged to take to the woods, Johnson had been wounded and Lyman took command. The French, protected by the trees, crept up close to the breastworks, and the battle became a hand-to-hand fight. Lyman kept the cannons busy sending a raking fire through the swamps where the savages were lurking. The French were obliged to fly. Johnson gave orders that his men were not to pursue them. The French rested and began preparations for a meal, for they were half starved. Just then a detachment of two hundred New Hampshire troops marched down from Fort Lyman. These fell upon the French, and besides doing much execution, got their baggage and ammunition. The French lost about five hundred, the English between two and three hundred. There was the greatest rejoicing in the colonies. Johnson was made a baronet and given a large sum of money. In Albany, the people knew that they had been saved from destruction. The English proceeded to build a strong fort at the south end of Lake George. It was called Fort William Henry. That and Fort Lyman were both well garrisoned. The French took possession of the pass at Ticon- deroga and fortified it. Governor Shirley, since the death of Braddock, had been at the head of the English army in America. The plans which he laid for the coming year, 1756, w^ere a repetition of the year before. The desire was to capture Fort Du Quesne and Crown Point; Niagara, Frontenac, and Ticonderoga w^ere to be taken, if possible. The British and French governments formally declared war in May, 1756. Lord Loudon was made Commander-in-chief of the English forces, and the Marquis De Montcalm was placed at the head of the French. The Englishman was indolent and unambitious. He waited for this thing and that, while the army in America was suffering for his presence. Montcalm was very different. He hastened to Canada with two thousand men and a large quantity of stores. Under his directions the French cut off" supplies intended for Oswego. They captured small English forts, took a considerable number of prisoners, and succeeded in winning the alliance of the Six Nations. The French succeeded in capturing Fort Ontario, with a slight loss to themselves. The English lost as prisoners of war, sixteen hundred men, including eighty officers, one hundred and twenty pieces of artillery, a large store of ammunition, and the seven armed ships and two hundred batteaux which were to have been sent ao^ainst Niagara and Frontenac. 282 THE STORY OF AMERICA. The English, weakened by the languid and ineffectual command of Lord Loudon, continued to be inactive. The force had dwindled, Dy sickness, from seven to four thousand. Montcalm returned to Montreal for the winter. The English plans for the next year were to confine hostilities to a single expedition. This was to be against Louisburg, which the English had taken once before so gallantly. Four thousand more men were raised in the colonies. The troops met at Halifax and were joined by Loudon with six thousand regulars, but when Loudon learned that Louisburg was well garrisoned, he concluded to put off an attack for a year and returned to New York. When Montcalm heard of this, he made up his mind to move against Fort Willian Henry. This fort had been badly situated. Some of the hills by it commanded it absolutely, and around it were marshes and low-lying ground. Montcalm, with fifty-five hundred Canadians and regulars, and sixteen hundred Indians, made his way from Ticonderoga across the portage to the upper part of Lake George. Here he divided his men. Part were sent in batteaux and canoes down the lake with all the baggage, and twenty-eight hundred followed the Indian's trail by the side of the lake. These last mentioned were under the command of De Levis. Montcalm landed on the west side of the lake, about two miles from the fort, and demanded its surrender. Colonel Monroe, who was in command, promptly refused, thinking that he could rely on the assistance of General Webb's men at Fort Lyman, fifteen miles below. But Webb had the stupidity to advise Monroe to surrender, since he could give no aid to him unless General Johnson arrived with reinforcements. The French intercepted this letter, learned the nature of the men they had to deal with, and sent the messenger on his way. General Johnson did arrive with reinforcements, but Webb would not permit him to give the assistance to poor Monroe, although the common soldiery were wild for action, and outraged at the meanness which left him to his fate. The siege lasted for six days and Monroe was obliged to surrender. Montcalm made liberal terms but the Indians had been inflamed with liquor and their thirst for blood aroused. Montcalm had promised that the troops should be marched to Fort Lyman safely. He tried to keep his word, but the Indians broke from all control and fell upon the Englishmen. In their panic the English ei-en fled to the French for protection. It has never ceased to be a subject for dispute among the friends and enemies of Montcalm, as to whether he inspired the Indians in this treachery or not. Montcalm burned Fort William Henry and returned to Canada. THE LION OR THE LIUES. 283 The Indian depredations continued all along the English frontier as far as the valley of the Shenandoah. Oswego, the key of the Ohio valley and the great lakes, had been lost. It is true that the English held Acadia, but the silent and desolated villages were not a proud possession. Fortunately, at this time, a man who was always a friend of the American colonies came to their relief It was William Pitt, the English statesman. At this time he was Secretary of State, and he took vigorous measures for sending armies, ammunition and a general equipment from England. He also called for a large number of colonial soldiers. All the New England men needed was encourage- ment and example, and they responded to the call with enthusiasm. Admiral Boscawen and Sir Jeffrey Amherst were placed in command of the forces which were called to attack Louisburg. On June 2, 1758, these forces arrived at Louisburg, and a well-planned. assault was made. The French surrendered and the English took six thousand prisoners. This was very important to the English, for there now stood nothing between Louisburg and Quebec, the strongest and most impregnable of the Canadian cities. New England began to take courage once more, and looked to Brigadier-General Wolfe, who played an important part in the engagement, for a leadership of more power. Abercrombie, who had taken the place of the ineffective Loudon, was aiming at the capture of Ticonderoga. With him was Lord Howe, a general of bravery and dash, trusted by his officers and beloved by his men. On the 5th of July, Abercrombie came up Lake George with fifteen thousand troops, both regulars and provincials, in a fleet of batteaux. The scarlet uniforms of his English regulars, the plaids of his Highland troops, and the motley garb of his provincials making a picturesque spectacle. The French had been sent to keep the English from landing. One body of them was driven back, the other took to the woods, and wandering there bewildered, encountered a body of horsemen, who were also lost. In the engagement which followed, nearly all of the French (three hundred and fifteen) were killed. The English lost heavily also, and Lord Howe was shot. His loss was a greater disaster to the English than twice the number of the French slain would have been. On the 8th, a regular attack was made upon Carillon. Abercrombie sent his regulars again and again to the deadly abatis. The huge trunks and roots of the trees afforded the best protection in the world for the French. Lord Abercrombie, unused to this method of defence, did not sufficiently value its strength. At sunset the English gave the fight up as hopeless and withdrew to 284 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the lake. The discouraged men encamped upon the ruins of Fort William Henry, and counting their numbers, found that they had lost over two thousand. Meanv/hile, Bradstreet. with three thousand men, had once more secured Oswego to the English. He then rode down the lake to Frontenac and captured its garrison, and then returned to Albany to joiA the men who remained. The third expedition which had been sent for the recovery of Fort Du Quesne, under General Forbes, was successful. Forbes did not march by the road which Braddock had followed, but started from Bedford, Massachusetts. With Forbes was Colonel Washington and his Virginian troops. A great deal of time was wasted in building bridges and leveling woods after the manner of European warfare, which the commander followed and Washington protested against. The march was so long that the provisions were exhausted, and it was feared that the expedition would have to return without having accomplished anything. The French did not feel strong enough to venture resistance, and they set fire to their magazine. So the English conquered almost in spite of themselves. The key to the lakes and the Ohio valley was once more in their possession. A terrible disaster befell the army a few days later, when Grant's detachment of men, consisting largely of Highlanders, were surprised by seven or eight hundred Frenchmen, and nearly all killed. Pitt continued to send supplies and men over to America. By the 6th of July, the English were before Niagara. The general first in command was killed by the carelessness of one of his soldiers, and Sir William Johnson took his place. The French knew that their garrison was too small to hold against the besieging force, and sent to Detroit and Presque Isle for reinforcements. These the English met and defeated in a spirited engagement. When the French at the fort were convinced of this disaster, they surrendered. Meanwhile, Amherst had brought eleven thousand men to awe the little garrison of Ticonderoga. The French did not attempt resistance, but blew up the magazine and retreated northward. Amherst went on cautiously to Crown Point, only to find that the French had retreated still farther north. The rest of the year was employed by Amherst in building those massive works on Crown Point, which are still the wonder of tourists. Rogers was sent with his rangers against the Indians, but the great interest of the English campaign lay with General Wolfe. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — James* "Ticonderoga." Cooper's "Last of the Mohicans." Poetry — Whittier's "Pentucket" Whittier's "St. John." CHAPTER XLVI. il^a yn{\^ nl §hv^. THE EXPEDITION AG Alls ST QUEBEC — THE NIGHT ATTACK AND THE FIGHT ON THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM — THE DEATH OF MONTCALM AND WOLFE — NEW ORLEANS AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY ' GIVEN TO SPAIN. ■H„,0„ ....... _..„..«.. spirit, he suffered constantly from bodily weak- ness. Nothing but a fierce determination, to restore the honor of the English colonies could have kept him up through those trying expedi- tions. He rested in England for a time after iking of Louisburg, and then returned to prepare the capture of Quebec, suffering, meantime, from a melancholy and a presentment of death. At the of June, 1759, the English forces left Louisburg encamped on the Isle d' Orleans, in the St. Law- :e, a little below Quebec. A detachment was put on the promontory of Point Levi, on the southern shore of the river, and still nearer the city. IMontcalm learned of their coming, and made preparations for defence. Rocky bluffs rose straight up from the St. Lawrence, and for years these natural fortifications had been considered impregnable Montcalm had about three thousand men, in fortified camps, protecting the cit}\ Across the St. Lawrence was a dam, with vessels sunk behind it and barges in front. The St. Lawrence, on the south side of the city, was about a mile wide, and at that place was a swift-flowing river. Montcalm' r forces were much larger than Wolfe's, and the English soldiers were inclined to the belief that an attempt against such forces and fortifica- tions was useless. Wolfe did not depend upon strength, but on strateg}-. An attack was made on the French camp near the falls of Montmorenci. The Englishmen made a bold attack, but in the end were forced to take 286 THE STORY OF AMERICA. to their boats and retreat. The expedition was a sorry failure, and at least five hundred men were lost by the English. The siege was kept up for another month. Little effect was made upon the upper town, but the lower one was almost destroyed. Wolfe was sick and melancholy. The inaction was dispiriting to the troops. What they desired was to force Montcalm to meet them on open field. At length Wolfe, lying ill in his tent, hit upon a plan which made him immortal. In the time which they had lingered there, Wolfe had become well acquainted with the country, for his men had reconnoitred faithfully. Therefore, on the night of the twelfth, a moonless night, Wolfe rose from his bed and led sixteen hundred of his men. They dropped silently down the river with the current, and landed beneath the overhanging heights above the city. Up these wooded bluffs were steep paths, and fourteen volunteers led the way while the sixteen hundred men followed. Once they were challenged by a sentinel. A High- lander replied, in the French tongue, that they brought provisions. There was no other interruption. It was the Highland boys in their plaids that sprang ashore first. They were used to mountain climbing, and rushed up the steep. The little guard at the head of the path was soon overpowered. When the morning light broke, Quebec was astonished to see an English army on the Plains of Abraham, the great table land behind the city. Montcalm hurried thither with twenty-five hundred men. He had been on the other side of the St. Lawrence river, and had to cross the bridge of boats and pass through the city before he reached the Plains. The English had already begun to intrench themselves. The French had no time for preparations, and one gun was all they had been able to drag after them. The Canadians crouched in the corn- fields and began the attack, and the French regulars, in three divisions, moved upon the centre and the flanks of the English. The French kept up a steady fire, but the English did not level their guns until their enemies were within a few feet. Then, of course, the fire was deadly, and the English followed it up by a hand-to-hand attack. The Frenchmen fell into disordered rout. Wolfe was wounded. He had one ball in his side, and another in his breast. Some one carried him to the rear and laid him on the grass, where he lay almost unconscious, but when a man cried, ' 'See how they run!" Wolfe raised himself suddenly and asked, "Who run?" When he heard it was the enemy, he gave his last orders: "Tell Colonel Burton to march Welb's regiment down the St. THE PATHS OF GLORY. 2S7 Lawrence river and cut off their retreat from the bridge." Then he died peacefully. Montcalm was also killed, and was buried in i cavity of the earth made by the bursting of a bombshell. It was the burial he had asked for. On the i8th of September, 1759, the British took possession of Quebec, the French withdrawing their troops to Montreal. With the opening of the river in the spring, De Levis came down from Montreal with an army of seven thousand men. The English moved out with soldierly spirit, and a second battle was fought upon the Plains of Abraham. The English were worsted, and the French began a siege. Both forces waited in quiet for some time, expecting reinforcements. They came to the English first, and De Levis threw his guns into the river and retreated. On the 8th of September the city surrendered. In the terms of capitulation were included Detroit, Michelimackinac and all the French forts farther west. The French fleet, which arrived upon the coast soon after, was entirely destroyed by the British squadron. Canada, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton now belonged to Great Britain. FOR FURTHER READING : History — Warburton's "Conquest of Canada." Fiction— Hall's "Twice Taken." Tiffany's "Brandon." YFP 10. QUEBEC. CHAPTER XLVII. jl ^Icm 1|0r Jfibrl]^. PONTIAC, CHIEF OF THE OTTAWAS — ARRIVAL OF ROGERS' MEN AT DETROIT — PONTIAC' S CONSPIRACY — BEGINNING OF WAR — THE SIEGE OF DETROIT — THE BATTLE OF BLOODY BRIDGE. HE chief of the Ottawas, Pontiac, claimed all the land upon the southern and western sides of Lake Erie. He is said to have commanded his Indians with great skill at the time of Braddock's defeat. In 1746, he and his warriors defended the French with bravery, against the Northern Indians. Practically, he was the principal chief of three great tribes, the Objibewas, the Ottawas, and the Potta- watomies. At the time of which we write he v/as a little past the prime of life, but was still one of the most intelligent and formidable men of his race. He was haughty and eloquent, not lacking in statesmanlike quali- ties, nor in a certain poetic imagination. When the English detachment was sent to take pos- session of Detroit, under Major Rogers, Pontiac came in person to inquire what right he had to pass through the country. He was told of the conquest of Canada and that the party were on the way to accept the surrender of Detroit. Pontiac retired to turn the matter over in his mind for the night, and on the following day made a speech in which he affirmed his friendliness towards the English and prom- ised that they should be unmolested. That he was sincere in his pro- testations of friendship is proved by the fact that when Rogers and his famous rangers arrived at the Detroit river, Pontiac persuaded four hundred Detroit Indians, who were lying there in ambush for them, to disperse. Had he not done so, this would have been the last adventure A BLOW FOR LIBERTY. 28q of that picturesque band of men whose exploits have been the delight of all American boys. But the English were never so attractive to the Indians as were the French, and after a time the grim old savage, Pontiac, began to long for his more entertaining friends, who had so long lived near him in good fellowship. He could not understand why a large garrison of Frenchmen should lay down their arms and surrender to a handful of English rangers, and he listened with satisfaction to the tales which the French poured into his ears. They said that the great French Father had been asleep, but that he would awaken now and avenge the wrongs of his children. Pontiac, solitary and gloomy, pondered upon this in the depths of the Michigan forests, and laid plans for driving the Eng- lish from the country. This was to be done by attacking all the forts in a single day, as well as all the frontier settlements. He had heard that a large French fleet was on its way down the St. Lawrence, and he hoped to win the good will of the commander. With him, he would march upon the older English settlements and drive the people back across the Atlantic. Ambassadors were sped to the several Indian nations with a red-stained tomahawk and the wampum war belt. The Senecas, Algonquins, Wyandots and some southern tribes became allies of Pontiac. Each tribe was to dispose of the garrison nearest it and then turn upon the adjacent settlements. On April 27, 1763, Pontiac called a great council on the river Ecorces and addressed his warriors there. He recounted all the wrongs the Indians had suffered at the hands of the English, and he told of a tradition that a Delaware Indian had been allowed to enter the presence of the Great Spirit, who told him that his race must return to the customs and weapons of their ancestors, give up the whisky which the white men had taught them to use, and throw away the implements with which he had tried to chain them to the dull drudgery of civilization. Pontiac assured his friends that the French were coming down the St. Lawrence with a large fleet of soldiers who would stand by them and be their friends. The insurrection was to be on the 7th of May, and Pontiac was to lead the attack on Detroit. On the ist he visited the fort with forty warriors, and danced the the dance of peace before them. He retired to finish his plans of war. He and one hundred chiefs were to enter the fort for the purpose of holding a council with the commander. Pontiac was to make a speech, and when he presented the wampum belt wrong end foremost, it was to be the signal for the Indians to fall upon the officers and kill thein. 290 THE STORY OF AMERICA. The Indians waiting outside about the streets were to do the same deadly work among the soldiers and citizens. The plans were well laid, but on the 5th, one of the English women visiting in Ottawa vil- lage to make purchases of maple sugar and venison, saw many warriors cutting off the barrels of their guns with files. She wondered why they could wish the barrels of their guns to be made shorter. There was only one conclusion; they wished to hide them under the folds of their blankets. One of the beautiful young Indian girls who were in the habit of visiting the fort left with so much reluctance on the night before the attack that she was questioned until she confessed the details of the plot. Pontiac made her suffer severely afterward for this treachery to her race. The force of Pontiac about Detroit was from six hundred to two thousand. The English garrison consisted of one hundred and twenty men. The fort was a square enclosed by a palisade twenty feet high. At each corner was a wooden bastion, with a few light pieces of artil- lery, and over the gateways were block-houses. Two armed schooners were anchored in the river. Pontiac came at the appointed time and entered the gate with his warriors. He saw at once that his plans had been discovered. "Why do I see so many of my father's young men standing in the street with their guns?" he asked. Gladwyn, who was commanding, replied, lightly, that they had been out for exercise. Pontiac began his speech, doubtless turning over in his mind the possibility of an attack even now. Once he lifted the wampum belt. Gladwyn replied with a slight movement of his hand. There was a rattle of arms at the door and the roll of a drum. Pontiac sat down in dismayed silence. The Indians were finally conducted to the gate by the soldiers, and ushered out in sullen silence. Pontiac and three chiefs came back the next day with a calumet and told Gladwvn that evil birds had sung lies in his ear. The followino- day he came with a large crowd of warriors, to find the gates barred. He was told that he alone would be allowed to enter. The war-whoop which his followers gave was the declaration of hostilities. Some of them ran to the defenceless English houses outside the fort, killed the inhabi- tants, and shook their bloody scalps at the soldiers. Pontiac' s village was hastily moved across the river to the mouth of the creek we now know as Bloody Run, a mile and a half north of the fort. On the loth he began a regular siege, fighting in the usual savage manner, behind barns and fences, keeping well out of reach of return fire. Two Scotch A BLOW FOR LIBERTY. 29 1 officers responded to Pontiac's wish to hold a council with the Eng- lish. Both were detained as prisoners and one was murdered. The Wyandots joined Pontiac and the siege was renewed with great vigor. It had taken Gladwyn some time to realize the extent of the conspiracy. But now he removed everything about the fort which could obstruct the sweep of his guns. He carefully economized the provisions, and dug wells in the fort. These wells were not alone needed to provide against thirst, but to extinguish the fires as well, for one of the chief methods of Indian warfare was to tip the arrows with burning tow. Under cover of darkness the friendly Indians across the shore brought over supplies. Pontiac's soldiers had not been prepared for sustained conflict, and before long were short of provisions. The old chief was not lacking in dignified ideas of war and would not permit his men to prey upon the Canadian farms. He made a large number of promissory notes upon birch bark, which were to be exchanged for provisions. After his disastrous war had closed it is said that he redeemed all of these notes. Reinforcements were on their way up Lake Erie for Gladwyn. He knew of this, and sent one of his schooners to hasten their approach, but the schooner missed them, and they continued to slowly creep up the coast, not knowing of the siege, and were captured by a band of Wyandots, who killed or took as prisoners sixty men. Only two boats escaped. The Indians hid in the boats which they had captured and forced the crew to sail into the harbor. The Indians hoped to enter the fort by this strategy. At the fort they had watched the approach of the boats with great delight, and the disappointment when they were seen to be laden with Indians, was almost unbearable. The two boats which escaped hastened to Niagara and told their story. An expedition for relief was formed. The Indians made an attempt to capture this also, but it reached the fort in safety. The approaches to the fort were guarded by the schooners, of which the Indians stood in great fear. They made several attempts to destroy them with fire-rafts, but were not successful. The Wyandots and Pottawatomies exchanged prisoners with Gladwyn and sued for peace, but the Ottawas and Ojibewas kept up the conflict. On the 29th of July a reinforcement of two hundred and eighty men reached Detroit, and revived the spirits of the exhausted garrison. They now felt strong enough to march out from the fort and openly attack the Indian camp. But the Indian never could be made to fight in fair field. 292 THE STORY OF AMERICA. They liid behind every tree and clump of bushes. Dalzell, who led the expedition, could find no enemy, and after going as far as the deep- ening twilight would permit, turned his men back toward the fort. Then every bush, tree and hill became alive with savages who had lain in ambush. Dalzell was killed. Rogers took possession of a house and defended some of his men there. The cellar of the house was crowded with women and children, and upon the trap-door, which covered it, stood an old man who needed all his little strength and his eloquence to keep the soldiers from rushing, in their terror, into the cellar. Rogers held out until the batteaux, which had gone down the river with the killed and wounded, returned. This was called the battle of Bloody Bridge. In it the English lost hfty-ninemen and the Indians about twenty. The great desire of the ; tidians was to keep supplies from reaching the fort. One of the scnooners returning to the fort from Niagara was attacked in the Detroit river by a large number of Indians, who swam silently through the water with knives in their teeth. The crew fought them with spears and hatchets, and succeeded in saving the boats from capture, but the captain was killed and several men badly wounded. The boat would have been lost, had not the mate given an order that the magazines should be fired. The Indians understood enough English to take warning. The next expedition which was sent to the fort from Niagara was overtaken by a storm. Seventy men were lost, besides all the store of ammunition. The Ottawas finally sued for peace, and Pontiac raised the siege in October and returned to his melancholy forest. That portion of the war which he superintended himself had not been successful, but his allies had been more fortunate. At almost every fort in that country the work of destruction had been successfully carried out. Forts Sandusky, St. Joseph and Quatanoir, on the Wabash, were all captured, and in most cases the garrison were murdered. At Michelimackinac, a very crafty plan was laid for the taking of the fort. The Indians invited the officers to witness a game of ball on the plain in front of the fort. From early morning till noon the soldiers looked on, well pleased with the sport. Finally the ball was thrown near the gate of the fort. The Indians made a rush for it, seized the two officers, who were stand- ing near, and bound them, while the savages poured into the fort. Inside were the squaws, with weapons concealed under their blankets. These the men seized and fell upon the soldiers. Seventeen were killed instantly, and six were tortured to death. The English traders were led into captivity. The French, quietly looking on, were not touched. ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD, A BLOW FOR LIBERTY 293 At Prasqui, near the present town of Erie, Pennsylvania, the fort was was besieged for two days and a half Here the Indians mined the fort and the English were obliged to snrrender. They were taken as pris- oners to Pontiac's camp. At Fort Le Boeuf, a block-house, in which the garrison had taken refuge, was set on fire, and the garrison of fourteen men dug a hole in the ground in the rear and crept stealthily into the forest, while the Indians stood dancing around in the belief that they were burning to death. The men started for Fort Pitt, but some of them died of hunger by the way. At Fort Venango, on the Alle- ghany, the garrison was butchered and Lieutenant Gordon slowly tortured to death. Fort Pitt itself was well fortified. It had a good supply of water and provisions, and the attack was not successful. A command was sent out from Philadelphia, under Colonel Henry Boquet, to strengthen the garrison at Fort Pitt. He had five hundred men with him, mostly Highlanders. These marched through a desolate tract of country at the western part of Pennsylvania. Many settlements there had been laid waste and the inhabitants murdered. A fierce attack was made on him near the stream called Brush river, where the men had encamped. His little army was entirely surrounded, and his horses, unused to the blood-curdling shrieks of the Indians, were unmanageable. The Scotchmen fought firmly, rather than bravely, and their very lack of excitement won them the victory. The fight was resumed the next day at the first break of light. The Scotchmen were placed at a terrible disadvantage. They stood in an open space in a compact mass. The Indians were dispersed through the woods and fought from behind trees. Boquet feigned retreat. The Indians supposed that their prey was about to escape, and made a furious attack. This was exactly what Boquet desired. In a short time the Indians were flying before the Scotchmen. The march was resumed, and the force arrived at Fort Pitt, having lost eight officers and one hundred and fifteen men. In a short time general peace was made, but for many months after the people in the frontier villages lived in terror of their lives. Two thousand whites were killed. Several costly expeditions had been entirely destroyed. Pontiac, still revengeful, tried to start another con- spiracy, but failed. He was murdered in 1769 by a Kaskaskia Indian, on the spot where St. Louis now stands. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Parkman's "Conspiracy of Pontiac." Drama— A. Macomb's "Pontiac." CHAPTER XLVIII. m^nv I'HE STAMP ACT — CONDITION OF THE COLONIES — THE OPPOSITION TO TAXATION — REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT — REFUSAL OF THE ASSEMBLY TO PROVIDE FOR THE TROOPS SENT OVER BY ENGLAND. OR a time after the close of the war a pleasant tranquility reigned in the colonies. George Washington, writing to a friend in England, confessed there was really nothing to say. "Happy the people whose annals are tiresome," says Montesquieu. For a time it seemed as if life in New England was to resolve itself into this fortunate monotony. But the young King George HI, in England, had ideas which brought this tranquility to an end. He believed that the colonies were rich enough to help him in carrying out one of his famous schemes. He wished to build a great palace which should rival the splendor of Versailles. To do this, it was evident that a prodigious sum of money was necessary. There was no easier way to raise it than by taxing the American colonies. In 1763 a bill was introduced in Parliament which tested the whole question of the possible revenue to be derived from that source. It required that stamps varying in price, none of them less than one shilling, should be placed upon the records of all commercial transactions. An amendment to the sugar act was also introduced. The duty on foreign molasses was changed from six pence a gallon to three pence, and new duties were imposed on coffee, pimento. East India goods, and wines from Madeira and the western islands. George III was not mistaken in thinking that there had been a rapid increase of wealth in the American colonies. Between the years 1765 and 1775 two- thirds of m Srftr IhomLC i^noCtf^ Jx^M^n ^Ue* j77^^ ((^y^m^^L//im^^^ C^SAR HAD HIS BRUTUS. 297 the foreign commerce of Great Britain was that which she conducted with America. Between 1700 and 1760 the value of property in England increased fifty per cent. William Pitt claimed that this was due wholly to the American colonies, and said that Great Britain reaped a profit of two millions a year from them. At this time there were three millions of people in America, and these purchased almost every manufactured article from Great Britain, exporting, in return, fish, tobacco, indigo, rice and naval stores. England sent goods amounting to two million pounds annually to New York and Pennsylvania alone. But to the indignant Americans who turned the stamp act over in their assemblies, there seemed to be no reason why they should be imposed upon simply because they were prosperous. That peculiar form of lawlessness which was so much stronger and more dignified than law, and which the people of New England had shown before, was thoroughly roused now. Samuel Adams, the leader of the popular party in Boston, inflamed the people by his indignant eloquence. "If our trade may be taxed, why not our lands?" said he. "Why not the produce of our lands, and, in short, everything we possess or make use of? If taxes are laid upon us in any shape, without our having a legal representative where they are laid, are we not reduced from the character of subjects to the miserable state of tributary slaves?" Such speeches, and James Otis' passionate pamphlet on the rights of the colonies, filled every American with courage and a determination to resist. Quietly, and to an extent secretly, ever}^ man in America armed himself The speeches of the assemblies should have fairly warned the English ministers, but they were anxious to gratify the caprice of their half-mad King. A Continental Congress met at New York, in which there were delegates from the nine assemblies to consider what had best be done. Most of the assemblies had already met in the province and had made their individual protests. In Virginia, Patrick Henry had drawn up his famous resolutions denouncing the right of the mother countr}' to tax her colonies. These were warmly opposed, and Henry, rising in the house, cried, ' 'Csesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Crom- well, George III" — "treason!" cried the men from ever}' part of the house — "may profit by their example," continued Henr^-, firmly. "If this be treason, make the most of it!" The Continental Congress at New York was composed of the most distinguished men in the colonies. On the roll were the names of many men who, in the end, sided with the Crown. Among them was General Timothy Ruggles, of Massachusetts who was president of the 298' THE STORY OF AMERICA. Congress. He and several others were stauncli Tories. The resolu- tions were not impertinent, nor even passionate. They were dignified, moderate, and absolutely hrui. The thirteen articles of these resolu- tions had a single purpose — a protest against taxation. Meanwhile, the piles of stamp paper which were to produce this new revenue arrived in the different sea-ports. The collectors who brouglit the stamps were hung in effigy and waited on by mobs. Most of them were compelled to resign. In Boston, the mob entered the house of Oliver, the agent, and broke his windows. Then they gathered at the house of his brother-in-law, Governor Hutchinson, one of the richest. men in Boston, and threw everything into the street. The militia was called out to arrest the ringleaders, which they made pretense of doing, but released them willingly enough, when they were ordered to do so by the mob. The newspapers were filled with letters of protest from private citizens. The opposition was led chiefly by the "Sons of Liberty," an association in New York. The royal governors and the officers under them were ver}^ bitten Lieutenant Cole, of New York, swore that he would cram the stamps down their throats with the sword. The distributor of the stamps in Maryland was obliged to fly to New York, and was finally visited by a delegation from the Sons of Liberty, and forced to take an oath to the effect that he would not resume the duties of his office. In South Carolina, the stamp act was publicly burnt, the bells of Charleston were tolled, and the flags of the ships in the harbor were at half-mast. Nor was it alone the young men, fond of novelty, who conducted these proceedings. The older and more dignified took part in them with equal enthusiasm. The colonies also took more radical and business- like methods of resistance. They agreed among themselves not to import English goods, and orders which had gone forward were countermanded. The retail dealers agreed neither to buy nor sell such goods as were brought into the country. A fair was opened in New York devoted to domestic manufactures. That the growth of wool might not be interfered with, it was determined that no lambs might be used as food. No mourning goods were manufactured in America and it was agreed that they should not be purchased. Some of the ship- masters bringing them over were forced to return with their cargo. In England there was a new ministry — a ministry which had not yet made up its mind what its attitude should be toward the colonies. For the first time in a year, William Pitt appeared in the House. His speech upon the situation was most sarcastic. He said that Americans PATRICK HENRY, a^AR HAD HIS BRUTUS. 3OI were the sons, not the bastards, of England, and closed his speech with the celebrated words: "The honorable gentleman tells us that America is obstinate; America is almost in open rebellion. Sir, I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest. ' ' Benjamin Franklin was present, and was examined thoroughly on the question. The stamp act was repealed. Throughout the colonies this was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Joy bells were rung in the churches, liberty poles raised, and pictures of Conway and Barre hung in Faneuil Hall. Conway was the man who had brought in the resolution for the repeal of the act. Barre was the man, who, when the stamp act was passing through Parliament, replied to the remark that the colonies had been planted by the care of England, with this indignant speech: ' 'They planted by your care ! No, your oppressions planted them in America. They nourished up by your indulgence! They grew by your neglect of them. As soon as you began to care about them, that care was exercised in sending persons to rule them in one department, and another who were' perhaps the deputies of deputies to some member of this house, sent to spy out their liberties, to misrepresent their actions and to prey upon them; men whose behavior on many occasions has caused the blood of those Sons of Liberty to recoil within them!" Statues of George III and Pitt were erected in Virginia and Mr^ryland. In New York, statues of the King and Pitt were also erected and liberty poles raised, at the bases of which hogsheads of punch were drank. But the people had rejoiced too soon. The habits of loyalty was still strong in them, and they desired to have cordial relations with the home government. They had taken the repeal of the stamp act for more than it really meant. The sugar act was not modified, and still collected a revenue. It was still required of the colonies that they should provide fire, candles, vinegar, salt, bedding, utensils for cooking, beer, cider and wine for all the troops who might be sent to America. Again the ministry of England had changed, and now had at its head a man who was determined to tax the colonies as he pleased. He insisted that military garrisons should be kept up in all the large colonial towns, and that they should be supported by colonial taxation. In June of 1768, Sir Henry Moore, the Governor of New York, sent a message to the assembly, asking them to make provisions for the troops, then on their way to the colony. The assembly refused. They were willing, they said, to bear a share in the support of the troops on 302 THE STORY OF AMERICA. their way through the province, as they had always done, of their own free will. But they would contribute nothing to the quartering of troops in the colony. Parliament ordered that all the legislative rights of New York should be stopped until this command had been complied with. The sympathy of all the colonies was with New York. At this time port duties were levied on wine, wools and fruit, if shipped direct from Spain and Portugal, and upon glass, paper, lead, colors and tea. This revenue was to be used for the support of the civil officers of the colonies. It will be remembered that the assemblies had always insisted upon the right to care for the royal governors in the wa}- they considered best, and that the sum given to the Governor annually, depended partly upon the prosperity of the province, and partly upon the benefit which the Governor had actually been during the year. A letter of supplication was promptly sent to the King. The reply was a letter from the Secretary of State of England, to the General Court of Massachusetts, commanding them to withdraw the resolution which gave birth to the letter. If they refused, the government was to dissolve the court. The assemblies of the other colonies received word that they would also be dissolved if they were disobedient. A letter so insulting and patronizing showed the absolute ignorance which England was in regarding the character of the American men with whom they had to deal. Four regiments of soldiers were then quartered in the town of Boston. Every man was curious to know why they were there. Americans could not grasp the idea of a standing army. They believed that the soldiers were there for no reason but to menace the community. The idea entertained in England, that it was a compliment to have troops stationed at a town, could not be understood by them. This Puritan town, forced by law into habits which were almost ascetic, and ruled by a government which was largely religious, could not tolerate the gayety, not to say debauchery, of the soldiers. The town had refused to prepare quarters for them. At a town meeting it was requested that every inhabitant should provide himself with fire-arms for sudden danger, in the case of a war with France. There was, as everyone knew, no likelihood of a war with France, but the fiction was sustained, and every man obeyed the bidding. When the troops arrived, one regiment was quartered in Faneuil Hall, another in the town hall, and one encamped on the Common. The Irish regiments, which arrived, a few days later, were added to those on the Common. A fleet of eighty men-of-war, having in all over "one hundred and eighty guns, was C^SAR HAD HIS BRUTUS. 303 anchored off the town. It was with difficulty that the wisest among the Bostonians prevented an outbreak. The people were not only willing to fight, but they were anxious to do so. The very boys shared the popular discontent. There had been quite a quarrel between them and the soldiers, for the soldiers were in the habit of destroying the snow-slides which the boys had prepared for their sleds. The boys appealed in vain to the captain, and finally went to the British general. He said: "Have your fathers been teaching rebellion, and sent you here to exhibit it?" "Nobody sent us here," said one of the boys. "We have never injured nor insulted your troops, but they have been spoiling our snow-slides so that we cannot use them any more. We complained, and they called us young rebels and told us to help ourselves, if we could. We told the captains of this and they laughed at us. Yesterday our slides were destroyed once more, and we will bear it no longer." The general ordered the damage repaired and told General Gage about the matter, who said that it was impossible to beat the notion of liberty out of people who had it planted in them from childhood. FOR FURTHER READING: Biography— Loring's "The Hundred Boston Orators." Tudor's "Life of Otis." Wells' "Life of Samuel Adams." Sparks' "Franklin." Adams' "Life of John Adams." Wirt's "Patrick Henry." CHAPTER XLIX. !n$lon >BH-ji;nnKsr$> TROUBLE IN BOSTON — "THE BOSTON MASSACRE" THE TEA TAX- ATTITUDE OF GOVERNOR HUTCHINSON — THE BOSTON ' 'TEA party" ' — THE BOSTON PORl BILL. RRITATIOM in Boston reached its height on 1^ March 3, I'l^jO, For a long time there had been many quarrel ; among the common soldiery and the Boston ytamen. Probably there was little choice betv^^^en the ignorance and brutality of both parties, but the popular sympathies were, of course, with the /:.raericans. On the evening of the 3d, some soldiers had agreed to hold a sort of free fight with a company of rope-makers. In the rough hand-to-hand fight several va.e.v on both sides were wounded. On the following night an attempt was made to renew the squabble, and it was suppressed with some difficulty. The soldiers were resentful and naturally had a strong- partisan felling. On the night of March 5th, two young men tried to pass -a sentinel at the foot of Cornhill. The senti- nel told them that they could not pass. A struggle followed and a crowd gathered. The sentinel was snow-balled. A file of troops was sent out to defend the scntr}', and succeeded in getting him into the barracks safely. But tiie blood of the crowd was up. The actual indig- nities which had been heaped upon them made them anxious for revenge, and they can hardly be criticised if their methods were petty. Another sentinel was espied, who had, it was said, knocked down a Boston boy f^. few days before. The ill-nature of the mob was turned against him. H'ing to the camp and announced that he was colonel and commander-in-chief of all the party. The officers took him into their confidence, showed him their plans, and tried to win his co-operation. Allen was in a hurry for action, and feared unless they moved quickly they would not be able to surprise the fort. Arnold insisted on taking entire com- mand. Ethan Allen, brave, vain, and headstrong, was not likely to yield at the head of men whom he had organized. At length it was proposed that the two men should march together at the head of the column. This compromise was accepted, and a force of eighty-three men marched upon the fort. The garrison was asleep, and Allen hastened to the quarters of Captain Delaplace. The Captain leaped out of bed, cr>4ng: "By what authority?" "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," said Allen. It doubtless went against the grain of the experienced soldier to yield to an uncouth, 320 THE STORY OF AMERICA. awkward braggart, such as Allen must have seemed to him. But the garrison was asleep, himself unarmed, undressed, and at disadvantage. There was nothing for it but surrender. The stores and military material, including one hundred and twenty pieces of cannon, were captured. Crown Point was taken a little later. The Continental Congress, during its session at Philadelphia, chose as Commander-in-chief of the American forces, George Washington, of Virginia. Artemas Ward, of Massachusetts, was to be his Major-Gen- eral. Gates, of Virginia, his Adjutant-General. Charles Lee, an Eng- lish officer, and Schuyler and Putnam, were also Major-Generals. Washington and Gates hastened to Cambridge, hearing on their way of the battle of Bunker Hill. It was the 2d of July when Washington and his friends arrived at Cambridge, and on the 4th of July he assumed command. His hurried but thorough investigation of the army, its plans and materials, shov/ed him that their great danger lay in a lack of powder. In the thirteen States there was hardly enough for one general action. The apothecary shops in New York were searched for saltpetre. Letters were written in all directions, asking that it might be sent to headquarters, if only in the smallest quantities. A man of less tact than Washington might have started many feuds in the army for he had difficulty in getting his officers and Congress to always work in harmony. Unlike many of the men about him, he was a gentleman of high breeding, cultivated, politic, and experienced. The reputation which he had of being the best statesman and the richest man in Virginia won him the admiration of the people of the southern colonies, while, on the other hand, his directness and sim- plicity of speech, his gravity and sensible caution, endeared him to the northern men. An attack from the English lines was dreaded. The Americans feared to be outnumbered. Of the sixteen thousand seven hundred and seventy-one New Englanders, nearly two thousand were sick or absent from duty. The American army was divided by the Charles river, over which there was but one small and insecure bridge. Orders were given to keep the minutemen in the towns in constant readiness and to sustain a thorough drill. But the English Generals had no intention of moving. The strain on them at Bunker Hill had been greater than the Americans guessed. The heat of the summer was hard on the wounded. In England it was thought that Gage was inex- cusably languid, and he was recalled and practically disgraced. These matters hindered the attack of the English, which hindrance the UBERTY OR DEATH. 32 I devoted New England men considered nothing less than providential. The Americans were making every effort to procure powder, lead, cloth- ing and tents. Benjamin Franklin was on the Committee of Safety, in Philadelphia, and he was among the most active in the attempts to pro- vide these necessar>' articles. Robert Livingstone, of New York, estab- lished a powder mill so secretly that none of the English spies round about found it out until Livingstone made a raid on the government's stock of saltpetre and carried it off. The Committee of Safety, in Georgia, got hold of a supply of powder intended for the Florida Indians. Several hundred barrels were captured from a trading vessel in the Gulf of Mexico. An attack was made on Bermuda and a goodly quantity secured there. In New Orleans, Oliver Pollock, an American, was sending powder to Pittsburg by the river. As soon as the English cruisers were taken away from the coast at the approach of autumn, the government sent an eighty-ton vessel to Bordeaux to buy powder on the account of "The Continent." The lead mines of Connecticut had been worked some, and the products were now used for ammunition. By the press of necessity a little navy was being started. On May 5th the people of New Bedford and Dartmouth, irritated at the Falcon, one of the British sloops of war, which huno- about the coast, recaptured a vessel with fifteen prisoners which the Falcon had previously secured. On June 1 2th the Margaretta, an armed sloop belonging to the Crown, was taken off the main coast, as well as two other sloops of lesser size. Jeremiah O' Brien was made marine captain by the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, and was stationed in Boston harbor to intercept sup- plies sent to the English troops. Washington supplied armaments and money from the Continental treasur>' and six small vessels received commissions. Both Connecticut and Rhode Island had a small vessel in the service. The destitution of the English troops was becoming extreme. They were shut up in Boston by the activity of the Continental troops. Their supplies were being carried into the camp of the eneni}-, and sick- ness was rapidly increasing among them. But the forces under Washington were rapidly growing. In six weeks they had increased two thousand three hundred and ninety. Among them were several companies of riflemen from Virginia — men who could hit a target of seven inches at a distance of two hundred and fifty yards, while in rapid motion. But the Americans were unused to camp life, and sickness began to tell among them also. As soon as Washington received a sufficient supply of powder to justify action he advance his works to the 322 THE STORY OF AMERICA. left by fortifying Plowed Hill. This brought the circle of his lines so that the extreme left was north of Boston. His headquarters were ou the Charles river, just beyond Cambridge. The right wing, under Gen- eral Ward, reached Dorchester Neck, directly south of Boston. In October, Cape Ann, or what we now know as Gloucester, and Falmouth, now Portland, in Maine, were burned by the English. This was done by a fleet of armed vessels. The act seemed like a misfortune, but in reality it raised the Americans to a full understanding of what war meant. Previously they had hardly realized that they had laid themselves open to attack in any direction. They had believed that the conflict would be confined to Boston Bay. It was necessary to take active measures for meeting the enemy upon the sea as well as on the land. During the past few months the coast towns had been at the mercy of the English vessels. Newport had been threatened, and was only spared when it consented to furnish the commander of the English fleet with provisions. Bristol was bombarded, and many houses destroyed. A force landed on the island of Canonicut, in December, burned houses and barns, and carried off" all the live stock. Washington was obliged to send down a detachment of men, although he could ill spare them. General Lee took a force of eight hundred to Newport, and not only placed them so that they could protect a considerable stretch of land, but so that they could keep a close watch upon the Tories of the district as well, who were suspected of carrying informa- tion to the enemy. It was not easy for the New Englanders to equip a fleet of war. But the work progressed steadily, if slowly. The first notable victory at sea was the taking of. the brigantine Naiicy^ loaded with military stores. These were more than acceptable to the army. Washington was with difficulty keeping the soldiers with him. The term of enlistment of the Connecticut men had expired, and they were anxious to return to their homes. It was found that Dr. Benjamin Church, a member of the House in Massachusetts, was secretly writing letters to his brother-in-law in Boston, which revealed the condition and plans of the American army. He was expelled from the House and put in close confinement. Washington reorganized his army and issued a general order for the enlistment of new men. The corps of officers was pruned and improvements were made in all respects. On January 2, 1776, the army was practically a new one. At this time the army carried the national flag which we now have, with the exception of the number of stars, which were then but thirteen, in accordance with the number of the colonies. General Howe, shut up in Boston, met with many discoui- LIBERTY OR DEATH. 323 agements. Numerous accidents befell his provision ships. Some of them were taken by the enemy, and others met with severe storms and were obliged to discharge their cargoes. He even found difficulty in providing barracks for his troops during the winter season. He would have been glad to evacuate, but thought he had not transports enough to remove his force, and wrote to England for more help. He pulled down the Old North Church Meeting-house for fuel, and was obliged to mine for coal in Cape Breton. Faneuil Hall, to the great horror of the Bostonians when they heard of it, was used to hold theatrical entertain- ments in. General Burgoyne, who had at that time more fame as a literary man than as a soldier, wrote a little play which he called the "Siege of Boston." This was being performed, when a sergeant rushed upon the stage and cried that the Yankees were on Boston Hili. The audience laughed heartily, thinking it a part of the performance, but in a few moments the officers were ordered to hasten to their posts, and the audience broke up in confusion. It was true that some of the Connec- ticut companies had crossed the Neck, and fired the bakery of the Encrlish at Charlestown. In the midst of such alarm Burgoyne returned to England. The "elbow-room" which he had thought to make was not yet his. The American Congress, from time to time, had consid- ered the advisability of setting fire to Boston, but this Washington was reluctant to do. He believed that if such a disaster could be avoided, it was best to do it. General Howe himself did not permit the destruc- tion of property more than he could help. Washington wished to cross to Boston on the ice, but in the council of war which he called he was outvoted. General Howe, on his part, sent a party on the ice to Dorchester Neck, who destroyed every house on the peninsula, and took some Americans prisoners. Washington would never have remained so inactive had he been supplied with powder and heavy artillery. He was almost in despair, when the capture of the Nancy renewed his hopes, and gave him ammunition. Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen sent down the guns they had taken from Ticonderoga. Under the direction of Henry Knox, the cannon were put upon fifty-two sleds and drawn by long teams of men over the snow-covered passes of the Green Mountains and the rude roads of New England. As soon as these reached Washington he called out all the militia of the neighborhood. Ten regiments reinforced him .it once. Ward was given the over-sight of the movement upon Dorchester heights and entrusted the immediate command to John Thomas. The ground was 324 THE STORY OF AMERICA. frozen and it was impossible to throw up works, but fascines were collected and made a fair defence. On the night of Saturday, IMarch 7, 1776, the American works opened a cannonsding at the north of Boston. This was kept up through the two following nights for the purpose of occupying the. attention of the English. Meanwhile John Thomas' train, which consisted of twelve hundred men, took possession of a high hill upon Dorchester heights. Four hundred yoke of oxen drew the material for the works, passing within a mile of the English sentinels, who had no thought for anything but the cannonading at the north. In one night the men threw up a very good defence. The works had been planned by Gridley, who had been so successful with the plans of Bunker Hill. When Howe's astonished e\-es saw these in the morning he thought they must have been built by twelve thousand men. The English fleet dared not remain under fire from these guns. Howe himself feared to attack the works. He notified Washington at once that if he would not molest the town or the ships, he would leave Boston peaceably. On the morning of Sunday, the 17th of March, he sailed with his whole army, after destroying all of his property which he could not take away. He found that in an emergency he had ship- ping enough to carry off" his force. With Howe, sailed about eleven hundred loyalists, to whom the cause of the King was still dear. Many of these settled in Nova Scotia. The few people left in Boston received the army as benefactors when they marched in with music and flying banners. Washington was treated with great courtesy, and the street up which he rode still bears his name. Congress ordered a gold medal to be presented to him — the first coin struck by independent America. Upon its face was a picture of besieged Boston with a group of horsemen in the foreground and the proud motto: ''Hostibus primo fugatis. " Washington believed that the next point of attack would be New York, and continued his preparations for an engagement there. For three months the country was left with hardly a foreign soldier on its soil. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— H. Hagel's "Old Put." Hawthorne's "Septimius Felton." Cooper's "Lionel Lincoln." D. P. Thompson's "Green Mountain Boys." Poetry — "Soug of the Vermonters." Anon. Z CO to .3 o -s W Q CHAPTER LII. )}^$ fhm t{ jLfernl^Hm* THE DESIGNS FOR THE AMERICAN CONQUEST OE CANADA — ^MONT- GOMERY'S MOVE AGAINST MONTREAL ARNOLD'S FAILURE AT QUEBEC — ^THE UNION OF THE FORCES — ^THE SECOND DEFEAT AT MONTREAL — THE AMERICANS FALL BACK UPON TICONDEROGA AND CROWN POINT. ^T the north, Arnold and Allen carried on a sort of / freebooting together. They were ambitious to get Lake Champlain in the hands of the patriots. In all sea adventures Arnold was given the lead, and under his command an English sloop was captured. Encouraged by this, they laid a plan for the conquest of Canada. Arnold took up his quarters at Crown Point, and Allen remained at Ticonderoga. Congress was timid about seconding the ambitious designs of Arnold, and sent a committee of men to confer with him. They found him sullen and obsti- nate, and learned that his followers were in a state of mutiny against the government, and willing to side with him even at the cost of patriotism. A thousand men had been assigned by Connecticut to garrison Ticonderoga. When Arnold learned that these were to be commanded by Colonel Hinman, lie resigned, as he was not willing to be second in command. The Governor of Canada %vas determined to retake Ticonderoga and Crown Point. As for the Canadians themselves, they were in a state of comparative indifference. The richer element was probably truer to the king than were the common people. The Indians of the Mohawk val- ley had been estranged from the Americans, and were now the allies of the Canadians. There was a call for volunteers on the part of the American Congress, and, meanwhile, Ethan Allen and Major John 328 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Brown were sent into the country between Lake Champlain and Montreal, to discover the true condition of affairs there. Schuyler was Commander-in-chief of all the northern forces, and about the middle of August, 1775, was ready to move his troops. Altogether, these did not number quite two thousand. Schuyler's chief subordinate officer was General Richard Montgomery, a young Irishman of much soldierly experience and strong personal attractions. He was with Wolfe at the capture of Quebec, in 1759, and had further won the confidence of the Americans by marrying one of the ladies of the patriotic Livingstone family. No general among the Americans was more popular with the soldiers. Schuyler fell ill shortly after leading Ticonderoga, and the command devolved upon Montgomery. In the light skirmish in which the conflict opened, Montgomery was thoroughly disheartened by the cowardice of his soldiers. The troops were raw and undisciplined. They suffered not alone from bodily ailment, but from intense homesick- ness. Boston men, fighting for the protection of their homes, and in the face of a brave and 'determined enemy, had plenty to keep up their spirits. But to fight in the midst of a wilderness for the possession of a fortification, with winter approaching, and a poor outlook for provisions, could not but be dispiriting to men who were new to the profession of arms, and cared little for conflict in the abstract — men who had not even learned the value of subordination and discipline. Allen himself, though a brave man, was a bad soldier in some ways. He had never learned the necessity of waiting for orders, and was quick to do whatever his impulse prompted. When he was on his way to join Montgomery's camp, with a force of eighty Indians, he fell in with Major Brown, who had two hundred men in his party. These two leaders decided to attack Montreal. They had heard that there were no more than thirty men in garrison at that point, and that the towns- people sympathized with the Americans. The plan was for them to attack the city with two columns of men, above and below. The river was crossed in a blustering storm, and Allen's band, at early dawn, stood shivering upon the river bank waiting for Brown's men, who never came. The garrison set upon Allen, killed a number of his men, and carried others as prisoners to England. Among these unfortunates was Allen himself The American expedition against the fort of Chambly was successful. The inhabitants round about aided in its capture. The stores of ammu- nition and provisions were taken to the army encamped under the walls of St. John. An attempt on the part of the English to relieve the THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM. 329 garrison there was repulsed and the fort was finally surrendered, principally because the provisions had given out. By this surrender five hundred regular troops, the greater part of the British army in Canada, fell into the hands of the Americans. Montgomery believed that the time had now come to take Montreal. He posted forces so that all communication would be prevented between that city and Quebec. Upon both sides of the river he planted batteries. On the 13th of November he marched into the town, without bloodshed, the Governor and the garrison having left. In the meantime, Washington had sent up a supporting party, numbering eleven hundred men. These were well equipped, although, from the nature of the journey, they could carry no field-pieces. Washington himself had outlined the expedition. He desired them to ascend the Kennebec river, cross the highlands that divided it from the Chaudiere, and descend that stream to where it enters the St. Charles, nearly opposite Quebec. Washington had a hand-bill printed, which was distributed among the Canadians for the purpose of impressing upon them the friendly spirit of the Americans and begging them to join in the cause of liberty and assist in driving the British from America. With the men who had the country's interests most at heart the conflict in Canada was not a side issue, but an important part of the war. They set a high value upon that extensive and fertile country, with its magnificent rivers and superior natural advantages. But Washington expected far too much of Arnold and his men. He desired them to meet Schuyler's army, which was then in motion, and to take but twenty days for a march of two hundred miles. It took, instead, sixty days, and the little army of eleven hundred men had been reduced to about one-half when it reached the St. Charles. Their bpats had been swamped in the treacherous Chaudiere; they had marched through bogs and were forced to make exhausting portages, carrying their heavy loads with them; they had a fatal lack of acquaintance with the country, and were out of provisions long before they reached their destination, and were obliged to eat shaving soap, candles, salve and dogs, even boiling their moccasins in the hopes of getting some nourishment from them. The horrors of the march are sickening, and not the least shocking scene was when Arnold, who had hurried on to procure provisions, sent back cattle and other supplies to his star\ang men. They ate like wild beasts, and many of them died from the effects of their indiscretion. It took them ten days to march the last thirty miles after they had entered Canada, for, although the 330 THE STORY OF AMERICA. road was now comparatively easy, the men were too exhausted to go far in a day. During that last delay, one hundred men, mostly carpenters^ had come down from Newfoundland and were busy repairing the defenses of Quebec. By the time Arnold was in a position for attack, soldiers were brought down the river and had prepared for the defense of the city. Washington had relied upon the surprise of Quebec, but Arnold had himself given information of his movements by a letter which he entrusted to a faithless guide. On the 13th of November, the very day that Montgomery entered Montreal, Arnold took his men over the same ground that Wolfe had taken, and in the morning had an army on the plains of Abraham^ behind Quebec. But the -English did not, as Montcalm had done, respond to the challenge. There was no revolt in the city — a thing which both Arnold and Washington had counted upon. Arnold had not the power to make a breach in the walls near the city. The garrison was shortly reinforced, and Arnold was obliged to break camp and retreat to Point Aux Trembles. Here Montgomery joined him on the ist of December and took the command. The army now consisted of three thousand men, with six field-pieces and five light mortars. They encamped before Quebec. Deep snow lay over all the country, and as it was impossible to build earthworks, Montgomery had fascines set up. These were filled with snow, over which water was poured, making a barricade of ice. It looked cruel and forbidding, but the first cannonading broke it in pieces. The men were encamped there for three weeks. Montgomery found them hard to manage, and on Christmas day decided that an attack should be made under cover of the first stormy night. The plans were elaborately laid. Arnold Was to penetrate the lower town, Montgomery to advance to the rocky heights of Cape Diamond and reach the upper town by an easy communication. Aaron Burr had charge of a forlorn hope which was to scale the Cape Diamond bastion. The night of the 30th, as had been hoped, was daik and stormy. Montgomery's men made their way over blocks of ice and through the drifting snow till they reached the barricades under Cape Diamond. The Americans crowded past this and Montgomery urged on the advance, but as they neared the block-house, which was pierced for muskets, the brave young leader was killed, just as he cried, "Push on, brave boys. Quebec is ours." Two captains and two privates were killed at the same moment, and the Americans retreated in disorder. Arnold's men, under cover of the storm, had reached the palace gate, but here at the first barricade Arnold was wounded. THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM. 33 1 Morgan, a Virginian, at the head of his riflemen, took the lead, and scaled the barricade with ladders. He was knocked down once; he mounted again at the head of his men. He carried the barricade and drove the enemy into the houses at the sides of the street. If he could have had reinforcements, he would have carried the day; but the odds were too heavy. He tried to cut his way out, but was surrounded on all sides and obliged to surrender. He had four hundred and sixty-six men with him at the time. The Englishmen buried Montgomery within the city. Forty-two years later his body was given to the Americans, who carried it, with great honors, to New York and raised a monument to his memory in front of St. Paul's Church. His wife> then a very old woman, sat alone upon the porch of her house on the Hudson, watching the funeral boat as it sailed by. The discouraged army was now placed under the command of Arnold, who begged Schuyler for reinforcements. In the course of the winter three thousand were sent to him. The English were afraid to risk an engagement against so heavy a force of men. The Canadians took neither one part or the other, with a few exceptions. A commis- sion, consisting of Benjamin Franklin and four other gentlemen, one of whom was afterwards Archbishop of Baltimore, was sent to visit Canada and see if a political union could not be made, but they had scarcely reached Montreal when news came of a British fleet at Quebec, and Franklin hurried back to Philadelphia to urge the great need of reinforcements. These came in March, under General Wooster, wha tried for two months to make an impression upon the fortifications of Quebec. He failed, not from lack of courage, but from want of military experience. Major-General Thomas took his place, and decided that it was wisest to retreat. He was not permitted to do even this unmolested. He lost one hundred men as prisoners, as well as most of his stores and provisions. In a number of small engage- ments which followed between detachments of both armies, the English troops were successful. Brigadier-General John Sullivan was sent ta take the place of John Thomas, who, it was believed, retreated with unnecessary readiness. A last stand was made and an engagement fought, but the English had three times more men than the Americans, and one hundred and fifty of Sullivan's men were taken prisoners. They were obliged to fall back upon Ticonderoga and Crown Point. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — Gleig's "A Day on the Neutral Ground." "In Chelsea Prison." Drama — "The Death of General Montgomery in Storming Quebec." Anon. CHAPTER LIII. ^ THE FEELING IN ENGLAND — THE HIRING OF THE HESSIANS — ATTI- TUDE OF NEW YORK — THE CONFLICT WITH THE SOUTHERN COLONIES — THE DEFENSE OF FORT MOULTRIE. ^ HE Parliament in England was thoroughly aroused ^^^ by this time to the importance of subduing and punishing the rebels in America. The friends of the colonies in Parliament, Edmund Burke, Barre, and Wilbur, protested against the measure which voted the King and ministry all the men and ^ material they should need in carrying on the war, but no opposition could stem the tide of King George's impa- tience. He decided that the disorders in America must be put down. It was not so easy as he had supposed to obtain addi- tional troops. Men could not be found in England, and the King was forced to draw upon his garrisons in the West Indies, Ireland and Gibraltar. Even then the number was not sufficient for the successful carrying en of the war, and King George was forced to beg of friendly nations fr-i help. To his surprise, some of these nations which he had felt sure he could count upon, refused him. The reply frou) Holland was that the States-General considered the Americans worthy of every man's esteem, and looked upon them as a brave people, defending in a becoming, manly and religious manner those rights which, as men, they derived from God, not from the legislature of Great Britain, and that if soldiers were to be brought against them, the States-General of Holland pre- ferred to see Janizaries hired rather than soldiers of a free State. Russia, for different reasons, refused help. Frederick the Great had little sympathy with the English movement, and practically did not believe that a great State should have colonies which were severed from THE PALMETTO LOGS. 333 it by natural obstacles. In short, the sympathy throughout Europe was with the Americans. The foreign troops which George III finally obtained were from the petty German princes. Among these men there was little voluntary service, but almost all, with the exception of the ofl&cers, were impressed, and a small price per head was paid by England to the German potentates for their services. There were 29, 166 men in the German troops sent to America. The English and Americans agreed that the campaign for 1776 must center at New York City. As soon as news of Concord and Lex- ington had reached New York the people had taken immediate steps to defend the city. The feeling there had, from the first, been as strong as elsewhere. The year previous, when the British garrison there had been ordered to join the army in Boston, the citizens consented to let them embark unmolested, but as the troops marched down Broad street, led by five carts loaded with arms, they were stopped by Marinos Willett, a "Son of Liberty." He seized the first horse by the head and brought the whole line to a stand-still. When the commanding officer asked what he meant by the interruption, he replied that it had been agreed that the troops should embark without molestation, but they had not been given permission to take away arms to use against their friends in Massachusetts. The mayor of the city and Governor Morris protested against Willett' s high-handed proceeding, but the sympathy of the crowd was with him, and the English were forced to leave without their arms. He then addressed the soldiers, and said if any of them were willing to join the ranks of liberty and desert their ranks they should be protected. One soldier only responded to the invitation, and was marched off with much cheering by the crowd. The Americans helped themselves to the cannon at the Battery, and placed them along the Hudson to protect the river, now that the conflict of '76 seemed to threaten that point. Lee was ordered by Washington to take command at New York. This was not a little alarming to the Tories of the town, who feared that this decisive action would bring about immediate hostilities, and that the place might be bombarded by the English vessels lying off" the coast. There were hot internal dissen- sions in the city. The conflict between the Whigs and Tories was very bitter. The Tories were powerful and rich, but the Whigs outnum- bered them, and had on their side that fierce determination and sense of religious right which gave them their strength from the beginning to the end of the conflict. It must be owned that their treatment of the Tories was not Christian. Some of the Tories were tarred and feathered, 334 I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. some were waylaid, mobbed and insulted, while others were deprived of office and driven from home. Laws were enacted which inflicted penalties of great severity on them. It is estimated that during the course of the Revolution more than twenty-five thousand loyalists joined the military service and arrayed themselves against the patriots. The defenses of the city which the Whigs prepared, were, as can easily be imagined, accomplished under constant protest from a large portion of the inhabitants. When Lee assumed command of affairs at New York he turned all of the city into a camp of war, and presented as bold a face toward the threatened harbor as was possible. The works were strengthened, batteries were wisely placed, and the streets well barricaded. On March 6, 1776, Congress divided the southern and middle colonies into two military departments. Lee was sent south and Lord Stirling given the command of affairs at New York. He carried on Lee's work with the utmost vigor. Every male inhabitant of the town was put to work on the fortifications — rather rough work for some of the ostentatious gentlemen of New York. Washington himself arrived in the city on April 13, and took up his headquarters there. Families began leaving the town as rapidly as possible and the soldiers took possession of the dwellings which they abandoned. The British had other plans besides the capture of New York. They were anxious to move against the southern colonies, where they believed submission could be easily enforced. The Governors of Virginia and North Carolina labored under the delusion that most of the people in those colonies were loyal to the King's cause. Each Governor was provided with a small force to back his authority, and the King sent seven regiments to strengthen them. These he himself selected with great care. They were led by Earl Cornwallis, while the fleet was com- manded by Admiral Peter Parker. When they reached America, General Clinton was given the general command. The colonists who stood by Governor Martin, of North Carolina, were Scotch loyalists, chiefly Highlanders, who had emigrated to America after the defeat of the Pretender, and who still held to their oath of allegiance. The son and husband of Flora McDonald were among their leaders, and with them were a large number of Stuarts. But the sturdy Scotch Presby- terians in the back counties took up arms for the patriots, and the Governor soon realized that matters were not to run as smoothly as he had expected. As soon as the Provincial militia heard of the mustering of McDonald's clans, they arrayed themselves to prevent them from THE PALMETTO LOGS. 335 reaching the Governor. They were led by Brigadier-General James Moore, who had with him many gentlemen of wealth and influence. These walked in the ranks with the common soldiery, to keep up the spirits of the men. Moore's force numbered two hundred less than McDonald's. In the first engagement the loyalists were routed. Eight hundred and fifty men were taken prisoners, disarmed and discharged and fifteen hundred excellent rifles were secured, besides a quantity of money, and, what was equally valuable, a chest of medicine. This was practically the end of Toryism in North Carolina. Within two weeks the patriots had ten thousand men in arms, these prompt meas- ures securing peace for North Carolina until 1780. The State was at liberty to give its aid to the other colonies. The next attempt was upon South Carolina. From the first, this province had felt much sympathy with Massachusetts, and was now prompt to arise for the defense of her own border. The militia was ready to move at the earliest call. Those on the border of North Carolina were held in readiness to join the southern men, should it be necessary. Colonel Christopher Gadsden and William Moultrie were in command of the regular troops. William Thompson led a regiment of riflemen, all of whom were excellent marksmen — the Colonel the best of them all. North Carolina sent down a regiment to join them, with- out even waiting to be requested. The first thing seen to was the securing of Charleston harbor, for it was known that Clinton could do nothing without the aid of the men-of-war, and that these men-of-war could do nothing unless they held possession of the harbor. There were already some defences there, and these were hurriedly strength- ened. Sullivan's Island, a long, marshy strip of ground, well wooded, guarded the entrance to the harbor. Opposite was James Island, which was practically a part of the main coast. Gadsden was put on James Island and Moultrie and Thompson were put upon Sullivan's. Pennsyl- vania had sent down a force of men under the command of Armstrong, and these were placed near the city of Charleston. Every preparation possible was made in the town. Warehouses were torn down that the cannon might have full sweep. The streets were barricaded. All the horses, wagons and boats were impressed into service, and all the lead in the city was made up into bullets, the very weights of the windows being used. On the 4th of June, General Lee arrived and assumed command. The brunt of affairs rested, however, upon Colonel Moul- trie, who was working to coiriplete his fortifications on Sullivan's Island. His men worked upon it night and day. But only the two 336 THE STORY OF AMERICA. sides fronting the channel were completed when the enemy attacked. These walls, however, were sixteen feet thick and guarded with palmetto logs. Into their tough and spongy fibres the balls could sink without doing harm. In the centre of the fort was a marsh, which the men left undisturbed, knowing that shells would be much less apt to explode if they fell into it. On the 31st of May the enemy appeared. Messengers were sent for the militia in all directions. The women and children were hastened out of the city. The slaves were set to completing the works. Every freeman worked of his own accord. Lee, and other soldiers as well, had little confidence that Moultrie's fort could stand out against the heavy guns of the enemy. But Moultrie himself was confident. The land forces of the enemy landed on Long Island, which lay north of Sullivan's. These were to attack in the flank and rear while the fleet bombarded the fort in front. Thompson's sharpshooters were to oppose the land forces. The English had twb 56-gun ships, five frigates of twenty-eight guns each, a mortar ship and two smaller vessels, bearing in all two hundred guns. The bombardment was continuous after it once began, the shot streaming steadily against the side of the fort. But the spongy palmetto logs could not be split and the banks of sand kept them from being dislodged. The shells, as had been expected, fell into the marsh and seldom exploded. Colonel Moultrie was inside nursing a gouty foot and calmly smoking as he gave orders to his intrepid men. More gallant defense could not have been made. When the flag of the fort — a blue banner with a silver crescent, bearing the word liberty — was shot away. Sergeant William Jasper leaped the parapet and. in the midst of the hottest fire, replaced it on the bastion. The men aboard the ships suffered terribly. Three vessels ran aground, and one of them was deserted and burned. Early in the evening the ships withdrew two miles from the island. Clinton had directed his forces at the north side of Sullivan's Island, but was held in check there by Thompson. A victory could not have been more absolute. Moultrie was accounted one of the successful commanders of the army. The fort was named after him. and his regiment was presented with a pair of beautiful banners. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Carrington's "Battles of the Revolution." Coffin's "Boys of '76." Moultrie's "Memoirs of the American Revolution." Ramsay's "American Revolution in South Carolina." Poetry— Robert M. Charlton's "Death of Jasper." (See Ford's Historical Poems.) CHAPTER LIV. THE GROWTH OF A DESIRE FOR INDEPENDENCE — THE DECLARATION C? INDEPENDENCE — THE FORMING OF STATE , CONSTITUTIONS. OR a long time the people of America were unwilling to admit, even to themselves, that the Revolution was a war for independence. Frank- lin himself assured Pitt, in March, 1775, that, though he had traveled in America, he had never heard any expression in favor of independence. Even the "Sons of Liberty" were unwilling to talk about this matter, feeling that the people were not ready to accept it. The newspapers openly denounced the idea. Until Thomas Paine's book, "Common Sense," was published, the subject was almost a tabooed one. But that pamphlet presented a strong plea for independence. Men, women and children read it. It was for them an education — a liberator from old preju- dices. It gave them fresh ideas and fresh courage. The different States began to urge Congress to take a more decided position. Samuel Adams, "the Father of American Independence," saw that at last the country was reaching the point which he had so long been hoping for. Resolutions were passed in each Colonial Assembly which heralded the "Declaration of Independence." On the second day of July, 1776, the Thirteen States, assembled in Congress, resolved unanimously "that the thirteen colonies are, and of right ought to be, independent States.'* Following this came deep deliberations. The matter was one in which there could be no hurry. All knew that if the position was once taken, it would be impossible to draw back from it. There were many dele- gates to the Congress who did not fully understand the situation, and who asked that all the consequences of such a step might be fully 340 THE STORY OF AMERICA. pointed out to them. This John Adams did, eloquently and clearly. At last all of the members signed the Declaration, except the delega- tion from New York, which had not been empowered to do so. But it is possible that there were many who signed with reluctance and regret. John Adams was elated. He wrote to his wife that the day had been the most memorable epoch in the history of America, and that it should be celebrated by succeeding generations as a great anniversary festival. " It ought to be solemnized," said he, " with pomp and parade, with games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires and illuminations, from one end of the country to the other, from this time forward forever more ;" and so till now it has been, though on the fourth of July instead of the second. Thomas Jefferson prepared the original draft of the Constitution, although he was indebted to the resolutions passed by the several colonies for some of his best ideas and expressions. The clause relating to slavery, which Jefferson had written, was cut out. Had it remained, it might have had its influence in a matter which plunged the nation into a yet more dreadful war then the Revolution, nearly a hundred years later. It was not until the eighth that the Declaration was read, and printed copies distributed. A great concourse of people gathered about the observatory of the State House, in Philadelphia, and here the Declaration was read to them from the balcony by John Nixon, a mem- ber of the " Committee of Safety." THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In Congress^ July 4i ^77^- The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America: When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right ot the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, THE SONS OF LIBERTY. 34I laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long- established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and^ accordingl)', all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolish- ing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpation, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such a government, and to provide new guards for their future security, Such has been the patient suffering of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former system of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, imless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected ta attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accomodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing^ with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise, the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States — for that purpose, obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 342 THE STORY OF AMERICA. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new ofiices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in time of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation; for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; for protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabi- tants of these States; for imposing taxes on us without our consent; for depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; for transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pretended offences; for abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its bounda- ries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; for taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of governments; for suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the liigh seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, iJU ni (fl O u en {f0 i0nHnink{$* WASHINGTON AT NEW YORK — ARRIVAL OF THIRTY-TWO THOUSAND BRITISH TROOPS — OVERTURES FOR PEACE BY THE BRITISH — BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND — THE BATTLE OF HARLEM HEIGHTS — DE- STRUCTION OF NEW YORK — BATTLE OF WHITE PLAINS. Washington was anxious to hold New York pennanently, and he believed that it could be done. He continued the work which Lee had begun. Governor's Island, Fort Stirling and Long Island were well fortified and manned. Strong works were built upon the Palisades and three water batteries were also built along the shore of the Hudson. By June eighty pieces of cannon and mortars were mounted, bearing upon the bay and the two river channels. It was not until the last of June that the enemy arrived. The first to come was Sir William Howe, commander-in-chief, with his Boston army. Governor Tryon, of New York, and many loyalists, went out to meet him. The troops followed in one hundred and thirty ships, and by June 29th all were in the bay. They debarked upon Staten Island, and here the General took up his headquarters. Admiral Howe, Sir William's brother, followed with some troops, and on August 12th the Hesssian arrived. These forces numbered altogether thirty-two thousand men. Washington had upon his rolls about nineteen thousand. Under Howe's command were many distinguished officers, men of high breeding, intelligence and bravery. The English and Hessian soldiers were well trained. De Heister, the general of the Hessians, had been THE CONTINENTALS. 347 in many European campaigns. Among the Hessians was a famous company of sharpshooters, under Donop. Even those Hessians who" had come against their will and who were not used to bearing arms had still warlike traditions, and they were surrounded by such good material that their inexperience did not greatly lessen the strength of the force. As for Washington's men, they were made up of farmers, merchants, min- isters and mechanics. They were brave, but lacking in discipline and an understanding of war. They were without uniforms, a thing which is always depressing to the soldier, and were poorly equipped, the old flint-lock piece being the common arm. Bayonets were few. These men, in motley array, presented but a poor contrast to the elegantly costumed Englishman, and the Hessian, with his brass-pointed cap, his brass-hilted sword and glittering bayonet. General Washington's headquarters overlooked the Hudson, near Varick. Admiral Howe and his brother said that they had come bringing the olive branch of peace, and on July 14th sent a flag of truce up the bay with a letter to the commander-in-chief. The generals sent out to receive this letter found that it was addressed to George Washington, Esq. , and returned it with the remark that there was no such man in the American army. On the 20th another flag of truce was sent up with a message to his Excel- lency, General Washington. This was received and read with atten- tion, but Washington could entertain no proposition for peace which did not acknowledge American independence. An interview was held between Lord Howe and a committee of Congress, which came to nothing, because Howe had not been empowered by the King to admit the inde- pendence of the colonies. On August 20th all of the British troops were moved over to Long Island. The sight was an exhilarating one. Nearly ninety boats and flat-boats were filled with the best troops of the army, the glittering arms, the artillery and handsome horses, making a display which that harbor has never seen excelled. Fifteen thousand men took possession of the roads of the island and occupied the Dutch village, while General Cornwallis and Donop' s sharpshooters drove back the Pennsylvania riflemen who had been patrolling the coast. Gen- eral Green was in command of the Americans at Long Island, and had surrounded himself with strong earthworks thrown up in what is now the heart of Brooklyn. On what is now Washington Park stood Fort Putnam, at the crown of the hill. The ridge of hills which lay between the Brooklyn lines and the coast of Gravesend Bay was made the outer line of defense by Washington. Several regiments were brought over from New York to reinforce the Brooklyn wing. General 348 THE STORY OK AMERICA. Green was ill with a fever which was raging among the soldiers, and his command fell upon General Sullivan. Early on the morning of August 27th the American guards were unexpectedly attacked by the INDEPENDENCE HALL. English. The day had not yet broken, and in the confusion the American pickets retreated, leaving their major a prisoner with the THE CONTINENTALS. , 349 «nem_^. Reinforcements soon arrived and the men held to a steady resistance, although most of them were untried and raw. Against the seventeen hundred inexperienced troops of Lord Stirling were placed at least six thousand English veterans. The Americans took advantage of an orchard near by and the heavy growth of hedges to protect them. Stirling was making a fair defense, when Generals Clinton, Cornwallis, Howe and Earl Percy came up with their men. These marched well around the American lines before they were observed. Two battalions fell into the hands of the English. The rest of the Ameri- cans retreated toward the Brooklyn camp, fighting as they went. General Sullivan was captured. The Hessians marched on rapidly after the retreat had begun, attacking the broken detachments. Ten thousand British and four thousand Hessians chased less than three thousand Americans through the woods and over the hills of Long Island, but most of the Americans succeeded in getting behind the works. Stirling still held the field with an organized force. They were surrounded and obliged to surrender to the Hessian commander, De Heister. Two other regiments were captured as well. The English loss was three hundred and seventy-seven officers and soldiers. The American loss, in killed and wounded was less than three hundred, but they had given between eight hundred and one thousand prisoners into the hands of the enemy. On the afternoon of the 29th a council of the general officers met Washington, and it was decided to retreat from Long Island. For twelve hours the troops were ferried across, in the midst of serious interruptions. There was still doubt as to whether it would be wise to continue the defense of New York, and at one time the Americans thought seriously of burning it before they deserted it. For two weeks there was comparative quiet. Had Howe chosen, he might have destroyed New York himself, but he, as well as Washington, concluded that it would be wiser to let it remain unharmed. Washington, after considering how insubordinate his soldiers were becoming, concluded not to continue the defence of New York. The men were sadly discouraged by the disaster at Long Island, and they were neither well paid nor well fed. The disorders were many, and some of the men were so homesick that, though they remained faithful to their posts, they could not be relied upon for vigorous fighting. Fortunately, Washington's call for fresh men was responded to and he was able to allow some of his disabled men to return to their homes. On the 2d ■of February Washington's army numbered less than twenty thousand. 350 THE STORY OF AMERICA. New York was to be evacuated on the 15th, and the activity of the city for a few days previous could easily be observed by the English. Howe was prompt to move his ships up closer to the city, and about 10 o'clock on the morning of the day appointed for the removal, these ships opened fire. Under cover of this, Donop's Hessian sharpshooters crossed to New York and chased the Americans over the fields to Murray Hill. Washington and his men rode out in a vain attempt to rally the militia. Even those of the men who were willing to fight, could make no stand against the headlong and terrified rout of the majority. Washington was worked up to one of those fierce spasms of anger for which narrow-minded people have so often criticised him. It is said that he drew his sword and threatened to run some fugitives through, and that he laid his cane over many of the officers who showed their men the example of running. He dashed his hat on the ground and cried, "Are these the men with whom I am to defend America." So disgusted was he and so regardless of his life, that had not one of his attendants seized his horse's reins and turned him toward Harlem Heights, the General would probably have fallen into the enemy's hands. It is said that Putnam and Aaron Burr gathered up a portion of the soldiers, and by the most extraordinary exertions m&rched up the west side of the island through the woods and brought the men to Harlem Heights in safety when night had fallen, Howe was close upon this column in pursuit, and might have overtaken them, but for the exertions of a charming Quaker lady, Mrs. Murray. The General and his staff" stopped at her door to ask how long since the Americans had passed. Mrs. Murray replied that they were long since out of reach, and begged that General Howe and his followers would come in and rest from the heat. Mrs. Murray and her daughter treated them with cake and wine, and held the men by their quaint Quaker coquetry for two hours. As a matter of fact the Americans had not been gone ten minutes when Howe inquired for their whereabouts. A terrible rain fell that night. The patriot soldiers were without shelter. They had lost their provisions, cannons and baggage. The generals were not in a mood for giving them much sympathy for they felt that a more ready courage and obedience would have saved the day. There was a brisk engagement in the morning which was fairly well fought, and put some fresh spirit into the army. Early on the morning of the i6th occurred the battle of Harlem Heights, in which Washington himself directed the movements. He succeeded here in driving the English regulars in an open field — an experience new to THE CONTINENTALS. ^cj^ the American soldiers. In this engagement the Americans lost four valuable leaders. But the troops were reanimated, and Washington set great store by the influence of this victory upon their minds. New York was now entirely in the possession of the English. On the 2ist it was nearly destroyed by fire, though not intentionally. Five hundred buildings were burned, and it is supposed that several women and children perished in the flames. The Americans were suspected of setting the fire and about two hundred of them were arrested. Most of them were discharged as soon as examined. One man was hanged. This was Captain Nathan Hale, of Connecticut, a patriot of great courage and influence. He had volunteered to go within the British lines at Long Island and obtain information concern- ing the forces of the enemy, which was absolutely necessar>^ to Washington. He was captured, and papers found upon him which showed his purpose. He did not at any time deny that he was a spy. He was hung without any trial, and was not even permitted to see a clergyman or use a Bible in his last hours. The letters he had written to his mother and sister were burnt. History has placed him among the honored men of America. There was quiet for a few weeks, and it was not until the 12th of October that Howe was ready to renew hostile measures. The position of the Americans at Harlem Heights had been strengthened, but the Commander-in-chief feared that they could not be held, with the exception of Fort Washington. This was filled with a good garrison. The majority of the troops were* scattered along the hills west of the Brown river, which runs nearly parallel to the Hudson. The army were disposed here in position to face the enemy. Washington held White Plains and the roads leading up the Hudson and to New Eng- land. The English moved up in two columns — an impressive sight to Washington and his officers, who looked down upon them from the hills. At the time of Howe's approach the troops were disposed along the brow of a steep declivity. The enemy came clambering straight up the ascent, but recoiled under the hot fire with which they were received. They made a second attempt and were again forced to retreat, but in the third rush they were successful, and drove the Americans before them. All through the retreat the patriots kept up a steady fire from behind trees and fences, and at the close of the day the loss of the English was much greater than that of the Americans. Within the next two or three days Washington withdrew his army to a position on the North Castle heights, which was so strong that Howe 352 THE STOR\' OF AMERICA. did not attempt to capture it. He now turned his attention to Fort Washington. On the i5tn of November Howe demanded a surrender of the fort, threatening that if he was obliged to take it by assault the garrison would be put to the sword. Magaw, who was commanding the Pennsylvanians holding the fort, replied that he preferred to defend it. So insulting a demand for surrender would probably have deter- mined him to this course, even if he had not previously intended it. The fight was a hot one. The American forces were scattered over the hills, along the shore of the river, and about the fort. All of these were finally crowded into the fort. Magaw was obliged to surrender,, but it was upon honorable terms. The loss of the English army was three times as great as that of the Americans. Fort Lee was also forced to surrender. The Americans withdrew to the other side of the Hackensack river. Howe commanded the entrance to the Hudson. Washington believed that the British would follow their successes about New York by an immediate attack upon Philadelphia. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — J. R. Simms' "The American Spy." Alden's "Old Store House." Poetry — F. C. Finch's "Nathan Hale." Drama — D. Frumbell's "Death of Captain Nathan Hale." CHAPTER LVI. lalib %x$h nnh ^mmu THE JERSEY CAMPAIGN — THE BATTLE OF TRENTON — ^THE BATTLE O?' PRINCETON — WINTER ENCAMPMENT OF WASHINGTON AT MORRISTOWN. Washington left a part of his force to hold the the posts which they still retained at the north, and took Putnam, Green, Stirling and Mercer southward with him. The entire force which accompanied him was less than four thousand. He wrote to Governor Livingstone, of New Jer- sey, telling him to prepare for an invasion of his territory, and asking the people to remove their stock, grain and other possessions out of the reach of the enemy. The treatment of the people in the villages of New York, by the English, had been merciless, and Washington wished to prevent, as far as he could, another scene of such desolation. Washington was ^ anxious about the condition of his army. The enlist- ment terms of his men were short, and by the first of December Wash- ingfton would have but two thousand men with him. The two armies moved through northern New Jersey, Washington always a little in advance of Cornw^allis. The two Howes, as peace commissioners, offered pardon to all who had taken up arms against the king, if they would return quietly to their homes. This offer held good for sixty days, and many in New Jersey and Penns}-lvania accepted it. As the British moved on through the towns, they took possession of horses, cattle, wagons and whatever else they desired. Washington kept a close outlook, and steadily retreated. His intention was to make a stand for the protection of Philadelphia. Fearing that at any time he misfht be forced to retreat into Pennsylvania, he had boats in readiness at Trenton, and, to keep the English from pursuing him, he ordered 356 THE STORY OF AMERICA. that all sorts of craft should be removed from the Jersey side, for seventy miles up and down the Delaware river. The American force crossed the Delaware just as the English entered Trenton. The two armies moved southward. Congress thought it unsafe to remain in Philadelphia, and adjourned to meet in Baltimore. Washington was in great need of reinforcements, and kept sending commands to Lee, who was at the north, to join him with his forces. But L,ee was envious of Washington's position, and desired to be first in command himself He paid no attention to the commands, although they were imperative, and it was a fortunate thing for the army when he was finall)^ taken WASHINGTON OX THE HUDSON. prisoner by a company of British dragoons. His command fell to General Sullivan, who lost no time in obeying Washington's orders, and reached headquarters just sixteen days after the first command was sent to Lee. Howe swept on through the country, the Americans hurrying before him. The Pennsylvania and New Jersey men had gone to their homes, their term of enlistment having expired. The patriot troops were thoroughly dispirited. Washington felt that warm action was necessary, even though it might be risky. He decided to fix Christmas day as the date^ of an attempt upon Trenton. The British were confident that rebellion was about put down in America. They BATTLE FIELD AND BIVOUAC. 357 had scattered themselves widely over the country', partly to afford pro- tection to the loyal inhabitants and partly to keep recruits from joining the American army. The men were quartered in companies of twelve and fifteen to a house, all through the farm district, and were given over to plunder of the most vicious sort. Barbarians could not have been more merciless. The wanton destruction of property was the least of their offences. The English had acquired a thorough contempt for Washington's army. They no longer felt fear or any need of watch- fulness. Situated at Trenton was Rahl, with twelve hundred men. Against these men Washington meant to move. Cornwallis was so confident that the campaign was over that he had obtained leave of absence, and had already reached New York, on his way to England. It was upon this lack of suspicion that Washington relied for the success of his plan. He determined to cross the Delaware at night above and below Trenton, to fall upon Rahl and his Hessians, capture them, and recross before he could be overtaken. That Donop and his sharpshooters, who were below Trenton, might have their attention engaged, a body of militia kept up a skirmish which drew off part of his force eighteen miles. General John Cadwallader was directed by Washington to cross the Delaware at Bristol, with a force of Pennsylvanians, and General Ewing was told to cross directly opposite Trenton. The main column, landing nine miles north of Trenton, at McConkey's ferry, was to be led by Washington himself. When the night came it was found unfa- vorable. Both Cadwallader and Ewing were unsuccessful in their efforts to cross, for the ice was piled up high on the Delaware shore. But Washington made up his mind that he would act, even though he was obliged to do so without support. The troops in his immediate command he felt that he could trust. Twenty-four hundred men composed the expedition. Most of them had seen service, and they were led by valiant men, but the difficulties they had to contend with now were not common ones. There was a driving storm, which half blinded the troops and threatened to make the guns useless. The current of the river was swift and filled with cakes of floating ice. The gentlemen who composed Washington's staff were filled with a courage which was almost gay. All the way across the treacherous river they encouraged the troops in every manner possible. The boats were manned by Massachusetts fishermen, who were natural sailars, and among the best soldiers of the war. Washington had hoped to be on the Jersey shore by midnight, but it was four in the morning before T^^^S THE STORY OF AMERICA. troops and cannons were safely landed. It was too late to retreat, how- ever, and there was nothing to do but to push on, although there was no longer hope of surprising the town. The road was slippery, and many of the men were nearly barefoot, but among the troops were the most experienced and tried men of the army, and no complaints were made. At Birmingham village the troops were divided, so that they miofht march around the town in two columns. It was found that the priming of the muskets had become too wet to use in many cases. Wash- ington gave orders for the men to fight with bayonets. The Hessian outposts were surprised. A detachment of Americans, led by Lieu- tenant James Monroe, dashed in among them and was soon within Trenton. Sullivan had led the men up the lower road and had succeeded in surprising the outposts there as well. The Hessians made an attempt to form in the streets, but Washington himself directed the guns which cleared them away. Rahl had been indulging in Christmas festivities through the night, and neither he nor his men were clear- headed enough to do their best. They ran for their lives and were checked at every quarter. In a short time they were compelled to lay down their arms. Rahl, their lieutenant, was mortally wounded, but lived long enough to give up his sword to Washington. The Ameri- cans took nine hundred and fifty prisoners and six guns, and killed seventeen and wounded nearly eighty of the enemy. Their own loss was only two killed and four wounded. By evening Washington had recrossed the Delaware, and by the 30th he had mustered his whole force in the neighborhood of Trenton. Cornwallis was determined to have revenge for the Trenton affair. He gathered all his available forces at Princeton, and on January 2, 1777, marched with his seven thousand men upon Trenton. They succeeded in cooping the Americans up there in a position which Washington recognized at once as being very perilous. To cross the Delaware in the presence of the enemy and retreat once more into Pennsylvania was impossible. Between Trenton and McConkey's ferry lay a part of the English army. In any position for battle his flanks could easily be turned, for the enemy outnumbered him. In a council of war a for- tunate plan was hit upon. It was to follow an almost unused road and to reach Princeton secretly, if possible, in the night, and so escape from the trap in which they were at present caught. General St. Clair attended to all the details of preparation. Along the front of the camp the appearance of an army at rest was kept up. The guards were relieved, the camp fires were kept burning, and every semblance ot BATTLE FIELD AND BIVOUAC. 359 peaceful encampment sustained. As a matter of fact, the troops were quietly marching along what was called the Quaker Road towards Princeton. The ground was frozen and the artillery moved without trouble. Washington went with them in the midst of his guard, which was composed of twenty-one gentlemen of fortune, from Philadelphia, who were volunteers to the army and paid their own way. In the morning Cornwallis awoke to the realization that his prey had escaped, and that the Trenton affair was still unavenged. But before the success of the manoeuvre was assured there occured a brisk engagement between General Mercer's men and a detachment of the English. This was known as the battle of Princeton. In it the English were routed, losing sixty killed and many wounded, besides one hundred and fifty prisoners. The American loss was small. General Mercer had been unhorsed, and on refusing to surrender, was bayoneted on all sides while he fought single-handed with his sword. He died a day or two later. Not a few of the men died from the effects of that night march through the bitter wind. They went without rest or provisions for two days and nights, and all of them were insufficiently clothed. As soon as Cornwallis learned that the enemy was at Princeton, he marched his soldiers in hasty pursuit, and entered that town just an hour after the Americans had left it. Washington took up winter quarters at Morristown. There was a feeling of general satisfaction throughout the United Colonies, for though the army had met with many disasters, it had succeeded in holding the English well in check. It was now seated in the very heart of New Jersey, which at one time everyone felt sure that the enemy would overrun. True, Howe held New York, but he had been •obliged to abandon his plans against Philadelphia, Cornwallis and Howe had been outgeneraled and their veteran troops had suffered severely at the hands of the raw militia. George Washington was recognized as a great soldier, patient, discreet, ingenious and brave. Europe, and even England, were obliged to admit the dignity of the American Revolution, and to recognize the fact that the world had a new nation. FOR FURTHER READING : Biography — G. W. Greene's "Life of General Green." Fiction — C. J. Peterson's "Kate Aylesford." Paulding's "Old Continental." Poetry — "Battle of Trenton." (See Ford's Historical Poem.) C. F. Orne's "Washington at Princeton." CHAPTER LVII. STATE OF THE AMERICAN ARMY — THE PENNSYLVANIA CAMPAJiiN- THE BATTLE OF BRANDYWINE — "THE PAOLI MASSA- CRE" — THE BRITISH AT PHILADELPHIA — THE BATTLE AT GERMANTOWN — WASH- INGTON WINTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. N April, 1777, General Howe demanded of Wash- ington a return for a number of officers and twenty-two hundred privates whom he had released and sent within the American lines. Washington refused to make an exchange which would be equal in numbers, for he said that the enemy had broken the spirit of the contract made concerning prisoners. He accused Howe of great injustice and cruelty, and said that many of the prisoners, when released, were in so weak a state that they died before reaching their homes, or immediately afterward. In exchange for these suffering men, broken in body and mind, Washington did not propose to make a return of an equal number of able-bodied Englishmen. As a matter of fact, the American prisoners met with terrible treatment. As soon as they were taken they were robbed of their baggage, their money and their clothes. Many of them were kept upon the prison ships, which were terribly overcrowded, with only one-third me allowance of food which they should have had. It is said that at least eleven thousand five hundred men died upon the prison ships. Wash- ington continued to refuse an equal exchange of men for the melancholy creatures who were sent him, almost none of whom were able to be placed in the field again. This was a great disappointment to Washing- ton, for he was in serious need of men. The term of many of his THE YEAR OF THE THREE GALLOWS. 36 1 regiments had expired, and in the spring of 1777 he did not have four thousand names on his muster-roll. The difficulty of procuring munitions of war was as serious as that of procuring men. Arms were scarce and gunpowder almost unattainable. But for France, it is doubtful if the war could have been carried on. In spite of her treaty with Great Britain, France was friendly to the American cause. Though the French minister deeply deplored to the English government the aid which the people of France were giving to the American patriots, he took care to remain ignorant of what was actually being done. Large supplies of powder, cannon and field equipage were shipped from France and allowed to leave without hindrance from the government. Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee were sent by Congress to France, and these asked the King to recognize the independence of the United States. He would not do this, although he expressed his good will and ordered two million livres to be paid them by quarterly payments. Spain secretly joined France in helping the colonies, and contributed one million livres, but she was not willing to be known in the matter. It is not necessay to relate in detail all the numerous and unimportant skirmishes which took place at different points between the Americans and the English, During the spring of 1777 the English burnt a number of villages, and Governor Tyron, who was now Major-General of the Provincials, did some disastrous work through Connecticut. Each of those engagements between the opposing forces has left many interesting traditions, but to cite them all, or even the best of them, would be a task too great to undertake. In May, Long Island was the scene of some determined fighting, the hostilities reaching as far as Sag Harbor. General Prescott, of the English army, was captured, and Washington hoped that he might be exchanged for Lee, whom it will be remembered was in the hands of the English. Lee was still believed in by many people, although he had offered to sell himself and his plans to the English and had for months been disloyal to his country. By the 28th of May, Washington broke camp, moving to the southeast that he might be in a better position to watch Howe's movements. The patriot army had now increased to seven thousand, Sullivan was in command of the continentals at Princeton, and the first move of the English army was to send Cornwallis to attack this town, Sullivan fell back and was not overtaken, Cornwallis tried to bring Washington into action, but failed, A little later he succeeded in taking three cannons and two hundred prisoners from General Stirling, but on the 362 THE STORY OF AMERICA. 3otli the English withdrew and crossed in a body to Staten Island. For six weeks they made no move, and Washington was unable to guess what their intentions might be. On the 23d of July, Howe set sail from New York, with eighteen thousand men, leaving six thousand in the city, under Clinton. A week later the English fleet appeared in the Delaware, but Washington had put such good obstructions there that it again put out to sea. Washington was as anxious as he was curious. He feared that it might be Howe's intention to move upon Charleston, and knew that defences could not reach the city in time to be of help. When next the fleet was hea? d of it was off" the Chesapeake, >-.^' -, MARQUIS MARIE JOSEPH PAUL DE LAFAYETTE. and Washington was reassured by the reflection that Howe's intention must still be to move upon Philadelphia. At this time Washington's army was joined by several foreign officers, who distinguished them- selves in their devotion to the American cause. Among them were Lafayette and Baron John De Kalb. De Kalb and Lafayette were commissioned by Congress. Lafayette was very young — indeed he had not yet reached his majority — and it was only '^'l.en he assured Congress that he had come as a volunteer and would pay his own expenses, that he was commissioned. The very ship in which he had THE YEAR OF THE THREE GALLOWS. 363 brought his men had been purchased and fitted out at his own expense. Washington marched his army through Philadelphia on the 2 2d of August. Howe was pushing his army through Pennsylvania. On the loth of September Washington determined to hinder his further progress. At this time Howe was on the bank of the Brandywine river, commanding the principal forts. The engagement was a general one all along the lines. The Americans were finally forced to retreat. Their loss was three hundred killed and five hundred wounded. The English loss was less than six hundred in killed and wounded. Lafayette distinguished himself, and received a wound in the leg which kept him confined to his quarters for two months. The American army retreated the following day towards Pennsylvania and German- town. On the 15th of September it crossed the Schuylkill. Here Howe advanced upon them. Anthony Wayne was in the American advance and was quite willing for a battle, but a drenching rain storm put an end to it. On the 19th of September Wayne was at Paoli, and within sight of Howe's encampment. He saw that the army was quietly engaged in camp occupations and told Washington that if he would come to his aid with the whole army he believed that a deadly blow might be dealt them. The intention was to move upon them in the night. Wayne had fixed midnight for the time of his movement. The watchword in his camp was "Here we are and there they go," but it proved to be a watchword without a signification, for, two hours before midnight Howe did exactly the thing which Wayne was intending to do. The British fell upon the American camp, firing no shots, but using their bayonets. The Americans were in the light of their camp-fires, and the British in the protection of the shadow. Wayne's men ran in confusion through the dark woods. Nearly one hundred and seventy were killed. This is known as the Paoli massacre. At I o'clock that nigliL an aid-de-camp dashed- into Philadelphia with a message from Washington that the enemy had crossed the Schuylkill and would be in the town in a few hours. The news spread through the town wildly and the people were roused out of their beds to hurry from the place. A patrol was put in the streets to guard against fire. It was over a week before Howe marched into the city. His troops were received with loud cheers by the Tories. Washington learned a few days later that Howe had sent a small detachment to reduce the American forts on the Delaware. Washington decided that this was a good opportunity to strike an effectual blow. Howe's army was encamped in a long, straight line, to which there 364 THE STORY OF AMERICA. were four approaches. Washington's plan was to advance on all four roads and engage the enemy along the whole line at the same moment. The attack was to be made at precisely 5 o' clock on the morning of the 4th of October. On the evening of the 3d the American army left its encampment and marched all night. They reached the points aimed at about daybreak on the 4th. The morning was misty and they were upon the outposts of the enemy before their approach was known. The Americans were in good fighting mood. Their cry was to revenge the Paoli massacre. A part of the English lines broke, and the day might have been won, but that in the fog and smoke the Americans mistook their own lines for those of the enemy, and did serious injury among themselves, delaying the general movement. The battle was lost and Washington ordered a retreat. A thousand men had been left behind, while the English lost not more than five hundred. But Howe was alarmed, nevertheless, and withdrew his army into the city. He was in doubt where to take up his winter quarters. The Delaware river was commanded by the Americans and it was not easy, therefore, to obtain provisions. The Schuylkill was seriously impeded by obstructions and by floating batteries along the shore. Howe sent Colonel Donop, with his Hessian sharpshooters, to reduce Fort Mercer. Donop made a furious assault, but both he and his lieutenant-colonel were killed, as well as four hundred Hessians. The two British ships, which had moved up the river to aid in the assault, ran aground. One was blown up by the fire from the fort and the other burnt to escape capture. But Howe still felt that he could not afford to let the enemy retain possession of the Delaware river. On the 19th of November the British fleet was brought to bear upon Fort Mifflin. The garrison there made a sturdy fight, but could not hold out against the heavy guns of the vessels, and they were obliged to take refuge on the other side of the river, in Fort Mercer, having had two hundred and fifty out of four hundred either killed or wounded. Cornwallis now moved into New Jersey, at the head of so large a force that even Fort Mercer had to be deserted. The Delaware, below Philadelphia, was now under the control of the British fleet. Washington took up his winter quarters at Valley Forge, and it is said that the march of his army over the frozen ground could be tracked bv the blood from their uncovered feet. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Cooper's "History of the American Navy." Fiction— Cooper's "Pilot." J.R.Jones' "Quaker Soldier." E. H. Williamson's "The Quaker Partisans." Poetry— Carleton's "Little Black-eyed Rebel." CHAPTER LVIII. mikvth mt^mtnvt. WASHINGTON'S CAMP AT VALLEY FORGE — NEGLECT OF CONGRESS— THE CONWAY CABAL — GENERAL STEUBEN — BURGOYNE IN THE NORTH — ^THE SIEGE OF TICON- DEROGA — THE BATTLE OF ORISKANY HE winter at Valley Forge was a drear}^ one. Congress neglected the soldiers woefulh". For months they were left to suffer with hunger, cold, and disease. They slept without blankets, many of them sitting all night by their camp-fires. At one time there were more than a thousand of ' them without shoes. Even the sick had to lie on the ground without even a bunch of straw under them. There were but few horses, and the soldiers themselves drew their wood and provisions to their huts in little carts. It was very seldom that the troops received any money, and when they did, it was in Continental cur- rency, the value of which was steadily decreasing. It fell so low that at one time it took one hundred Conti- nental dollars to buy a pair of shoes. The foreign officers who had joined the camp were still faithful. Besides Lafayette and DeKalb, were Kosciusko, Pulaski and Von Steuben. These lived in little log huts "no gayer," writes Lafayette, "than a dungeon." These men were used to courts, luxury and adulation, and their devotion to the American cause was put to a severe test, although, of course, they did not suffer the stinging privations of the common soldiery. The camp at Valley Forge was laid out in parallel streets of log huts, built by the soldiers. Fortunately there was plenty of building material close at hand. This was their salvation. Had they not been well sheltered, it is doubtful if they would have had courage to face the rigors of that winter. Even as it was, the death-rate increased thirty-three per cent. 366 THE STORY OF AMERICA. from week to week. Desertion was frequent, but not so frequent as one might expect. Congress was at York, Pennsylvania. It seemed to the men who had the interests of the national army at heart, that Congress was strangely neglectful and indifferent. Upon Washington's shoulders, fell the responsibility and burden of providing supplies and putting down mutiny. His distresses were added to by the fact that he had many enemies who were planning for his overthrow. Chief among these was General Gates, who had conducted the latter part of a suc- cessful campaign at the north — a campaign in which he won more BAROX VON STEUBEN. credit and did less work than several other generals whose names history Jias not so faithfully preserved. He was exceedingly jealous of Wash- ington, and conspired with a man by the name of Conway for the overthrow of the Commander-in-chief This was called the ' 'Conway Cabal." A conspiracy of this kind could not be conducted without correspondence, and this made discovery almost inevitable. Through- out the country the cabal aroused universal indignation. In the midst of these troubles Washington had the satisfaction of knowing that the best men of the country were his warm friends, and he also perceived TATTERED CONQUERORS. 367 that in spite of their privations the army was growing in effectiveness. This was due largely to William Von Steuben, the Prussian general, who has been mentioned before. He had been with Frederick the Great, and understood the management of men thoroughly. He intro- duced the Prussian system of minor tactics, and beginning on a small scale, he gradually brought the whole army into an admirable state of drill. The fact that he had no personal ambition in the matter and was moved solely by a sympathy for the soldiers and the cause they represented, endeared him to the hearts of the men. He had a quick temper and a brusque manner. He swore at the soldiers in German, and compelled his aids to swear at them in English. But the men had the sense to perceive that what they were learning would make them formidable. They saw now, if they had never before, the necessity of absolute obedience on the part of the soldier, and that he is valuable only when he becomes an unthinking part of a great human machine. In the battles which were to come Steuben was remembered with affec- tion and tenderness when the men saw the strength they had gained under his instruction. Stories of his bluffness, his roughness and his profanity were told for long years after with a humor which but illy disguised the emotion which the mention of his name awakened. So the long months of the winter passed with Washington's men, and mean- while, in the North, there were active hostilities. Burgoyne, on his return to England after the end of the American campaign in Canada, submitted to the ministry his ' 'Thoughts for con- ducting the war from the side of Canada." His plans were approved, and in March of 1777 he was given command of a force. Lieutenant- Colonel St. Leger was to assist him by making a diversion on the Mohawk river. The Governor of Canada was ordered to give all the assistance possible by adding Canadians and Indians to the expeditions. But the Canadians were more than indifferent; they were disinclined to the service. It was a matter which did not concern them, and in which they would have preferred to take no part. With the Indians, as can easily be imagined, it was quite different. But Burgoyne was seriously criticised, even in England, for the use of these savages in honorable warfare. The plan of the campaign was for Burgoyne to get possession of Albany, control the Hudson river, co-operate with Howe, and allow that general to act with his whole force southward; in short, to divide New England from the other States, and thus make their reduction easier. But through a very slight accident, which, however, was not slight in its consequence. General Howe was not informed of these 36S THE STORY OK AMERICA. plans at ^11. Burgoyne landed with his eight thousand men off St. John's river, with the finest artillery train in America. Under him was a corps of successful officers. An English fleet was put upon Lake Champlain, consisting of nine vessels, carrying one hundred and forty- three guns and manned by one hundred and forty seamen. On the 17th of June Burgoyne prepared for an attack against Ticon- deroga. The river of St. John being the outlet of Lake Champlain, he had easily moved down to the western shore of the lake, and arra) ed himself before the fort. Ticonderoga was still thought to be the key to the northern colonies, and the English believed its reduction to be necessary. The Americans were confident of holding the fort. General Arthur St. Clair, of Pennsylvania, was in command of the post with a force of three thousand men. Major-General Schuyler, who at this time had charge of the northern department, hastened to strengthen the chain of posts from Ticonderoga to the Hudson and Albany. St. Clair's force was too small to cover every explored point, and to save some of his out-post detachments, he withdrew them. One of the posts which he was forced to abandon was Mount Hope. This the English General, Frazer, took possession of with heavy guns, and cut off the communication of the Americans with Lake George. But this was a little matter compared with an unexpected move on the part of the British, which amazed and dismayed the Americans. South of Ticon- deroga was a steep wooded height, which rose more than six hundred feet above the level of the lake. This was Sugar Loaf Mountain. It overlooked every fortified elevation in the vicinity, but had always been neglected in former wars because it was thought to be inaccessible. Burgoyne had with him engineers of ambition and skill, who secretly made a path up which the artillery could be drawn to the top, and one morning the American garrison, awoke to find the best guns of the English army frowning down upon them. St. Clair had but one chance of saving his garrison and that was by leaving the fort secretly at night. On the 6th of July, at 3 o'clock in the morning, the troops marched out of the Ticonderoga forts and moved towards Castleton, thirty miles southeast. The guns had been spiked, the tents struck, the women and the sick sent hours before up the lake with the stores, and all would have gone well if some one had not been foolish enough to set fire to one of the houses. By the light of the blaze the English saw the Americans retreating, and started immediately in pursuit. All the next day St. Clair retreated through the woods and on the morning of the ytli was attacked. He met with a heavy loss and TATTERED CONQUERORS. 369 was obliged to retreat. Forty of his men were killed and three hundred and fifty wounded or taken prisoners. General St. Clair made a circuitous march of more than one hundred miles and reached Fort Edward with the remainder of his army. Throughout the colonies there was a feeling of deep chagrin which, to tell the truth, was out of proportion with the disaster. In England there was rejoicing as ill-proportioned. There was no question, of course, but that the condition of the northern army was serious. All the troops that General Schuyler could muster at Fort Edward by the middle of July were barely five thousand. He called for assistance, and Washington sent him two brigades of Morgan's splendid riflemen, besides tents, ammunition and guns, which he could but illy spare from his own army. General Benedict Arnold and General Lincoln, of Massachusetts, were ordered to report to Schuyler. Burgoyne, for some reason, was slow in moving, and these reinforcements had time to reach Fort Edward without interruption. In all, the American army at the north numbered six thousand, two-thirds of whom were Conti- nentals, fairly armed. When Burgoyne' s soldiers began their march, they found that the roads had been torn up, trees felled across them, all the bridges destroyed, and the cattle driven off. Their provisions were tardy, and the month of July had almost passed before they reached the river at Fort Edward. -. On the 2 2d Schuyler abandoned this fort and took a better position on Moses' creek, three miles below. Being threatened here, he fell back from one point to another until he reached Von Schaick's Island, where the Mohawk runs into the Hudson. Burgoyne' s plan of the campaign, as has been said before, was to send two forces southward. One of these was to march through the Mohawk valley to Albany and join the main body. This was composed of eighteen hundred men, under St. Leger. These reached the vicinity of an old fortification on the Mohawk river, known as Fort Schuyler, St. Leger demanded surrender but was promptly refused. The people of the valley were patriotic, and at the first alarm the militia had turned out eight hundred in number and hurried to the relief of the garrison, which was composed of seven hundred and fifty New York and Massachusetts Continental troops, under Colonel Gansevoort. At the head of the militia was General Nicholas Herkimer, a sturdy German, who had been so warm in his defence of the popular cause that his leadership alone gave courage to the people of the valley. He sent word to Gansevoort of his approach, and suggested that the garrison should meet him at an appointed place. But St. Leger heard of 370 THE STORY OK AMERICA, Herkimer's approach and intercepted him. Herkimer was marching carelessly through the Mohawk valley where the river bends frequently and the ground is broken with ravines, when he found himself surrounded by Indians and Englishmen in ambush. -The Americans had entered well into the defile near Oriskany, where they were quite at the mercy of the enemy. Herkimer was mortally wounded at the beginning of the engagement, but he seated himself upon his saddle at the foot of a tree, lit his pipe, and determining to die as slowly as possible, gave his orders. No fight of the revolution was more desperate. For a large part of the time it consisted of hand-to-hand struggles, in which the men fought with knives, tomahawks, swords and spears. The fight lasted for five hours, till the ground was covered with the dead and wounded, nearly two hundred being killed on each side. At length help came to the Americans. Gansevoort had been reached by a messenger and sent out a sortie, composed of two hvmdred and fifty New York and Massachusetts men, under Lieutenant-Colonel Willett, of New York. This party rushed into the enemy's camp, where only a few troops had been left in charge, capturing baggage, stores, papers and flags and drawing the attention of the enemy away from Herkimer's hard-pressed forces. The Indians were frightened and soon retreated. This weakened the British so that they had no choice but to follow. St. Leger did not, however, give up the siege of the fort until news reached him of Arnold's approach, when the Indian allies compelled him to abandon the siege. This was the first check to Burgoyne's plans. The hatred of him among the Americans had increased a thousand fold. His cruelty in employing the Indians was everywhere condemned. The fate of Jane McCrae was quoted as an example of the horrors which Indian alliance involved. She was a young woman, beautiful and gently reared, affianced at the time of her death to a young loyalist officer. She was killed while in the hands of two Indians, and her long hair was after- wards shown at Burgoyne's headquarters. People chose to believe that she was killed by the Indians, but in fact she was killed by her friends, the American soldiers, who were firing upon a party of Indians who had captured Miss McCrae and a friend with whom she was staying, Mrs. McNeal. Miss McCrae was buried by the soldiers who had attempted her rescue and heedlessly caused her death. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Burgoyne's "Expedition from Canada." Biography — Spark's "L,ife of Allen." Fiction — E. E. Ellis' "Haunted Wood." C. F. Hoffman's "Greyslaer." CHAPTER LIX. "'itfanttt Inom." THE RAID ON BENNINGTON — GENERAL GATES GIVEN COMMAND AT THE NORTH — THE BATTLE OF FREEMAN'S FARM ^\ BATTLE OF BEMUS HEIGHTS — ^SURREN- DER OF BURGOYNE. / ' ^URGOYNE, moving his main column witli slow, military precision, was in great need of stores, and was delighted when he learned that about twenty- five miles east of his line of march, at Bennington, in the New Hampshire grants, was a depot of J-^ horses and stores, which the Americans had established. To march against this store-house was, therefore, his intention, and he appointed for the leader of the raid Lieutenant-Colonel Baume, a trusted German ofiicer. Under him was a select corps, five hundred strong, and a party of loyalist rangers. About one hundred Indians joined the column also. Baume started out on the eleventh of August, and on the afternoon of the thirteenth, then sixteen miles distant from his starting point, wrote to Burgoyne that the rebels were now aware of the expe- dition, but that the Tories all about the country were flocking in to him. He complained that the Indians were uncontrollable, and added that he had learned that the strength of the American militia at Bennington was about eight hundred. Burgoyne concluded, on receiving this information, that it would be best to reinforce Baume, and on the fifteenth sent forward Colonel Breyman and his five hundred Brunswick chasseurs. It was true that Burgoyne' s approach had been learned of by the "rebels." They had risen with their usual promptitude, and at their head was General Stark, who, at the time of the Boston fight, had gathered the farmers of the country around him and hastened to the rescue. At Bunker Hill, and at Trenton, he had done brave work, and now the whole region was ready to answer to his call. The State 372 THE STORY OF AMERICA. ordered out the militia, and gave Stark the command. His brigade consisted of fifteen hundred militia. To these were added companies of ''Green Mountain Boys," which swelled the entire force to about twenty-two hundred. These hastened to Bennington, many of them marching by night in a severe rain. By the sixteenth. Stark was ready to attack Baume's main body. There is a story that as the general came in sight of the enemy he cried: "See there, my men; uiere are the red coats; before night they are ours, or MoUie Stark is a widow." The fight lasted for two hours, and the British were finally forced to give way. No road of escape was left open to them, and the entire body surrendered. Baume was mortally wounded. The Ameri- can militia-men, in great exultation, scattered over the abandoned camp for the purpose of plundering it. By this greed and disorder they came near losing all the advantage they had gained, for they were surprised by Colonel Breyman with his reinforcements, and it was only by the promptest action-of the American officers that the English were driven back. When night fell, it was certain that the Americans had gained a signal victory. They had taken four cannon and nearly seven hundred prisoners, with but a small loss to themselves. This was known as the Battle of Bennington. This success at the north reanimated the spirits of the colonies. Volunteers hastened northward to swell the victorious army there. General Gates was given command of the northern department, in the place of Schuyler, and the former general reaped the credit of all the work Schuyler had done. Gates moved the camp from the m-outh of the Mohawk, and took possession of Bemus Heights, twenty-five miles north of Albany. This site was commanding, and capable of easy defense, and, under the direction of Kosciusko, was strengthened by a line of breastworks and redoubts. This post held the road to Albany, and to reach that town Burgoyne must first overcome this obstacle. The British were still annoyed by lack of supplies, but it was necessary that they should push on, and they hastened to attack the Americans on Bemus Heights as soon as possible. Gates had about nine thousand men. His position was excellent. Upon the right was the Hudson; on the left, ridges and thick woods; in front, a ravine and abattis. Commanding with Gates was a large number of efficient officers, among them Arnold, and Colonel Daniel Morgan of Virginia, with his famous rifle corps. On the eighteenth there was a skinnish, in which a number of Englishmen, who were gathering potatoes, were killed or captured. On the nineteenth, work began in good earnest. Burgoyne moved upon Gates in three large columns. "ELBOW ROOM." T,JT) Gates hastened to send out Arnold and Morgan to meet liim. The battle ground was interspersed with thick woods, occasional clearings, and ravines. With such protection the lines were able to approach within close range. The fight was a long and serious one; now one side and now the other fell back. A number of the American com- manders lost half of the men in their force. The English had four pieces of artillery on the ground, but the Americans had none. A partv of New Hampshire men charged upon and seized a twelve-pounder. They were driven from it by a larger body of the enemy, but secured it a second time, and were again forced back. Private Thomas Haynes, of Concord, sat astride the muzzle of a piece when the enemy came up, and killed two men with his bayonet before a bullet struck him. The fierceness of the struggle can be imagined when it is known that thirty- six out of the forty-eight British gunners were either killed or wounded. The firing ceased at sunset. The Americans withdrew their fortified lines and the enemy held the field. Neither side were victorious, but Burgoyne had received his second check. The engagement was known as the battle of Freeman's Farm. The British fortified the ground which they held, and rested there for eighteen days. In the meantime, reinforcements came to Gates. General Stark threatened Burgoyne' s communication with the north, and Colonel John Brown, with five hundred men, had made a dash at Ticonderoga and taken prisoners and guns. Burgoyne' s constant hope was to join the main body under Howe, and thus force Gates to fall back. By the 21st of September he received word that Sir Henry Clinton had been sent from Howe's army with an expedition which would sail up the Hudson for the purpose of taking the forts near West Point, thus creating a diversion in Burgoyne' s favor. Clinton succeeded in doing as he desired, and carried both Forts Montgomery' and Clinton by assault. The American loss was about three hundred, of whom sixty or seventy were killed or wounded. The British dismantled the forts, burned two American frigates and laid a village in ashes. General Putnam, who was in command of the Americans at that point, retreated farther up the river and attacked the post at Fishkill. Clinton then returned to New York. This had not been of such marked relief to Burgoyne as he had hoped. The American lines were closing about him. He was short of provisions, and he found his Indian allies restless. It was necessary for him to either advance or retreat, and it was more in keeping with his character to do the first. With his best generals, he took position on 374 I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. open ground within a mile of the American lines, sending an advance around to reach the American rear. Gates was quick and cordial in his response, sending out Morgan, with his riflemen, to begin the work. Hardly an hour passed after the British gave battle before their whole line was retiring in disorder. The success of the day had largely been due to the efforts of Arnold. There were many jealousies and enmities in the northern division, and Arnold's impassioned and overbearing disposition had brought him into disgrace. Gates had taken his command from him and told him to remain in his tent, but when he heard the firing upon the field and saw how the American lines wavered for a time, he rushed out and took command of first one corps and then another, rousing the troops to enthusiasm. Gates sent a messenger ordering him to leave the field, but Arnold succeeded in avoiding him, and continued to cheer on the men who followed wherever he led. Even when the English were driven to their intrenchments, and the twilight had deepened almost to darkness, Arnold and Morgan broke through the lines and works and forced the Hessians to abandon theii position. In this last charge Arnold was wounded. Congress promoted him to the rank of Major-General. The American loss had been small, but the English had lost many men as well as one of their best generals, and altogether the defeat of the English was decisive. Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga and encamped at the north side of the Fishkill. Gates followed him and made such a disposition of his troops as to surround him. His line of retreat was severed ; he was threatened in the rear, and had but five days rations in the camp. Under the circumstances there was little choice but for him to make proposals for surrender. These he sent to the American commander, who agreed that the British army should march out with all the honors of war and have free passage to England, upon condition of not serving again during the war. The surrender included five thousand seven hundred and sixty-three officers and men. On the 17th of October the army laid down their arms in the presence of two majors of General Gates' staff. For several days after, Burgoyne and his officers were entertained courteously by Gates and his staff. In England, Burgoyne was severely blamed for a blunder in which the ministry should have taken the blame to themselves. Congress presented Gates a medal for accomplishing what, up to this time, was the most important event of the war. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Burgoyne's "Orderly Book." Felton's "Journal of American Revolution." B'^&GRAPHY— Spark's "Life of Stark." PXTiON— Cooper's "Chain-Bearer.'- CHAPTER LX. EVACUATION OF PHILADELPHIA BY THE BRITISH — THE BATTLE OF MONMOUTH COURT HOUSE — FIRING OF BEDFORD AND FAIR HAVEN — THE WYOMING MAS- SACRE — WARFARE IN THE WEST. HE British forces had occupied Philadelphia for more than eight months with a force much larger than Washington's, but they had failed to estab- lish themselves in the State at large. Early in the summer of 1778 they received orders to return tc New York, for the concentration of their forces had become necessar>\ On June i8th they began to move, and were soon ferried across the river and marching northward through the Jerseys. Howe had been relieved and Sir Henry Clinton had the command. The train was composed of fourteen thousand effective men and the provision train was eight or ten miles long. The heat was intense, the roads bad, and during the long march to New York between six and eight hundred Hessians deserted. As soon as Washington heard of Clinton's start he broke camp at Valley Forge and sent his men forward to destroy bridges and delay the enemy. On the 21st the Americans crossed the Delaware and on the 28th struck the rear of Clinton's columns, bringing about the battle of Monmouth Court House. General Steuben himself had reconnoitred the enemy the day before. Lafayette, Green and Lee were given commands. The night before the 28th several hundred men were moved up closer to the enemy, where they could be in position to watch their movements in the morning. As soon as Clin- ton's troops were set in motion Washington sent word to Lee to hasten operations and force an engagement. The main army moved forward to support the advance corps. Lee was thrown into confusion by con- 376 THE STORY OF AMERICA. flicting reports, and it was 9 o'clock in the morning before he was assured that the British were really continuing their march. The opportunity for attack, according to Washington's plan, was lost. A second skirmish took place between detachments of both armies, the Americans gaining the advantage. At this stage of the conflict Lee sent orders to Wayne to move to the right and capture the enemy's rear guard. This looked like a retreat to the rest of the commanders, and they left their positions and fell back some distance, when Lee sent his tardy orders to stand fast. By this time the entire division was in retreat. This the British saw and were not slow to take advantage of. Lee watched his detachments retreat across the ravine and then, seeing that they were safe, followed them, to find that Washington had come up with the main army and taken command himself. In a moment the atmosphere changed. The vacillation of the troops was gone, and they responded to the command of Washington' s vigorous leadership. The Commander-in-chief ordered the nearest officers to hold the ground, while he formed the main army. The retreating troops were quick to join those in position. When Lee, last of all, came across the ravine, Washington met him and reproached him in terms as angry as they were justifiable. Lee's military career was practically ended. He was soon after brought to trial before a court-martial, found guilty of disobedience to orders, misbehavior before the enemy, disrespect to the Commander-in-chief, and was sentenced to suspension from command for a year. The British soon advanced, but the Continentals stood firm, and Lafayette prevented Clinton from deflanking the position. Not until 5 o'clock in the afternoon did the British fall back. The loss was about three hundred and fifty on each side. Clinton marched on to New York without further interruption, Washington following him. The Americans encamped upon White Plains, where they could watch the enemy. Late in July the Count D'Estaing arrived from France with a squadron of twelve ships, carrying four thousand troops. This fleet was intended for the relief of Phila- delphia, but did not reach the Delaware until that city had been evacu- ated. It finally put in at Newport, and at its approach twenty-one English vessels were burned to avoid capture. The Continentals had been in great hopes that D'Estaing would put in at the harbor of New York, but he claimed that the water there was not sufiicient. Not a little dissatisfaction was felt, • but this was soon forgotten in a determina- tion to be grateful for his aid. It was decided that the French and American armies were to co-operate in an attack upon Newport, where c !3 o o u m a Vi O •a V u o B m 'S p SABRE AND MUSKET. 2)11 General Pigot was stationed with six thousand British and Hessians. There were ten thousand Continentals in Rhode Island, under the command of Sullivan. Sullivan agreed with D'Estaing that an attack should be made on August loth, but he moved before that date and neglected to inform the French commander of his change of purpose. On the 9th, when the French were ready to co-operate, a fleet of thirty-six vessels, under Lord Howe, appeared at sea, and D'Estaing re-embarked his men and put out after them, but no battle followed, for the fleets were overtaken by a terrible storm which scattered them. Sullivan thought best to push on, even without the French troops. He forced the enemy to withdraw within their lines of intrenchment, covered his own men with earthworks, and waited for D'Estaing's return. The French commander, instead of returning, went to Boston to have his fleet repaired. It was a bitter disappointment to the Conti- nentals. Sullivan was doubtful about the safety of attacking under the circumstances, for D' Estaing steadily refused to separate his men from the ships. But on the 29th an engagement took place, which was provoked by Sullivan. In the end the Americans were driven from their positions, though with a loss of only one-fifth as large as that sus- tained by the British. On the following day Sullivan learned that Pigot was to be reinforced by Clinton with five thousand men, and he therefore began a hasty retreat across the country. Clinton finding there were no soldiers to fight, set fire to New Bedford and Fair Haven and all the vessels at their wharves. Howe sailed to Boston and chal- lenged D'Estaing to battle, but he was not yet ready for sea, and when his fleet was at length refitted he sailed for the West India station without any further effort to help the American cause. While these hostilities were being conducted along the coast, in the west the Tories and the Indians were still keeping up frequent though irregular hostilities. In the battle of Oriskany, the year before, more than one hundred Indians had been slain, and in the tribes of the Six Nations there was a thirst for revenge. Joseph Brant was the most influential of all their chiefs. He had been educated among the whites, and having naturally an active mind and a savage nature, was now a most formidable leader. He was attached to the Tory interest of cen- tral New York by a sort of relationship with Sir William Johnson. The Tories did not disdain to use him as one of their chief allies, and among the Whigs he was dreaded without measure. From July to November of 1778, a merciless warfare was kept up by the Tories and Indians on the defenseless Whigs. The warfare extended all along the 23 378 THE STORY OF AMERICA. valley of the Susquehanna, northward through the west of Albany. Villages were burned, and men, women and children murdered. Toward the last of June two forts were taken at Wyoming, and many of the inhabitants of the valley were obliged to fly for their lives to Fort Forty. Colonel Zebulon Butler had command of the garrison here, and foolishly moved out against the Tories and Indians, who had a much larger force than he. All but sixty of his three hundred men were killed. As the news of this terrible massacre spread through the valley, the people fled from their homes to the woods and mountains, or sought protection at Fort Wyoming. In a little while this fort was also surrendered on a promise that the settlers should be permitted to return to their farms. But, as might have been expected, this promise was broken and many of the farmers, with their wives and children, were slain. About this time Joseph Brant had entered the settlement of Springfield, at Oswego Lake, and burnt every house in the village except one, in which he had had the humanity to place the women and children. Two months later Brant, with a large body of followers, destroyed the settlement of German Flats, in the valley of the Mohawk. For ten miles not a house or field was left unmolested. Early in November a terrible fate overtook Cherry Valley, a village remarkable for the refinement and virtue of its inhabitants. The people were staunch patriots, and were, therefore, sure targets for Tory vengeance. Nearly fifty persons were killed here in the course of one day, and all but sixteen were women and children. The fort was not taken, .but most of the buildings in the village were burned. Still farther west the warfare was waged as mercilessly. The terri- tory which is now the States of Tennessee, Ohio and Kentucky was then thinly settled with pioneers. It was three years since Daniel Boone had blazed a trace in the wilderness west of Virginia. The men who followed him were among the bravest and most enduring of the nation. Hunting and fighting were necessary to their bare existence. Their deeds of endurance and fortitude are among the most romantic tales of history. They had settled, unfortunately, upon what was considered the common hunting grounds of both the northern and southern Indians, and the savages naturally resented the encroach- ment upon their lands. The terrible disasters which overtook the pioneers of that region caused it to be called "the Dark and Bloody Ground." The English added fuel to their hatred, and many of the expeditions against the unfortunate settlers were inspired at Detroit, Vincennes and Kaskaskia by the commanders of the garrisons there. SABRE AND MUSKET. 379 Colonel George Rogers Clark, one of the hardy pioneers of Kentucky^ determined to strike at the source of this mischief Patrick Henry^ who was then Governor of Virginia, gave him aid, and Clark got together a band of one hundred and fifty men, and in May, 1778, went down the Ohio. At Corn Island, by the falls of the Ohio, he built a block-house as a depot for provisions, and leaving five men in charge^ went on with his force, which had now increased a little. While he was gone, these five men built cabins where Louisville now stands. He left his boat at the mouth of the Tennessee and marched across to Kas- kaskia. Here he surrounded and took the town. He sent the Governor to Virginia, and exacted an oath of allegiance to the United States from the people. Cahokia was soon taken in the same manner^ and after that Vincennes, on the Wabash. It was in the autumn of 1778 that the county of Illinois was first recognized and a civil com- mandant appointed. Governor Hamilton, of Detroit, soon recovered Vincennes, where Clark had left only two men in the fort. Hamilton was not aware of this fact, and approached with eight hundred men„ demanding a surrender. The captain refused till he knew the terms. Hamilton conceded the honors of war, and the captain and his one man marched out with dignity between the surprised columns of the enemy.. Late the following winter Clark marched from Kaskaskia through the swamps of that country and retook the fort. Hamilton was sent as a prisoner of war to Virginia. The Indians, who were always anxious ta be on the strongest side, now became the friends of the Americans. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Moore's "Treason of Charles Lee." Biography— Abbott's "Life of Boone." Stone's "Life of Brant." Fiction— H. Peterson's "Pemberton." Poetry— Hopkinson's "Battle of the Kegs." Campbell's "Gertrude of Wyoming." William Collins' "Mollie Pitcher at Monmouth." CHAPTER LXL BRITISH REDUCTION OF GEORGIA — THE DESTRUCTION OF NEW HAVEN — THE AMERICANS CAPTURE STONY POINT — THE GREAT NAVAL ENGAGEMENT OF JOHN PAUL JONES. OWARD the close of the year the war drifted to the South. The ministry of England still held that the southern colonies ought to be, and could be, subdued. Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell was sent, with two thousand men, to reduce Savannah. There were twelve or fifteen hundred Continent- als at that place, under the command of General Robert Howe, of North Carolina. He was well situated, with a lagoon in front, a morass on the right and the swamps of the river on the left. The works of the town were in his rear and he thought himself safe, but Campbell discovered a path through the swamps, which had been left unguarded. A detachment, led by a negro, went over this path and turned Howe's right. At the same time an attack was made in front, and the Americans beat a confused retreat into the town, losing over five hundred in killed and as prisoners, as well as baggage and artillery. In a short time Campbell was in possession of Augusta, and the people of Georgia were obliged to acknowledge royal rule. Throughout Georgia and the other southern colonies there had been a fierce partisan warfare. Nowhere else in the colonies had there been neighborhood feuds as bitter as in those States. The loyal and patriot parties were about equally divided all through the South, and first one and then the other would be in the ascendancy. As soon as Campbell took Augusta a company of Tories assembled for the purpose of joining him, but they were intercepted by a band of Whigs. Seventy men were captured, tried for treason, and five of them THE ASSAULT ON STONY POINT. THE "BON HOMME RICHARD." 3S3 were hanged. In March, 1779, five hundred North Carolina militia were ordered to move down the Savannah towards the enemy, who had left Augusta. The Patriots were surprised by the Tories, two hundred men killed or wounded and the rest frightened into dispersing with as much speed as possible. Occurrences of this sort were not unfrequent. A party feeling existed everywhere, and neighbors whose plantations adjoined each other waged as bitter war against one another as if they had been denizens of different countries. The militia could not be relied on, for they were likely at any time to leave their duties and hasten home to the protection of their households against private enemies. By the nth of May the English commander was before Charleston and summoned it to surrender. This Moultrie and the other military leaders would not consent to, and in the engagement which followed the English were obliged to move back upon Savannah. In the course of the summer General Clinton sent down several expeditions for the purpose of harassing the people. Along the Virginian coast many merchant vessels were burned and large quantities of provisions destroyed. General Tryon landed at New Haven on the 5th of July with three thousand men. The move was an unexpected one, and there were no soldiers to oppose him. But the people armed, and the Yale students formed themselves into a military company, Dr. Daggett, the president of the college, sending his daughter to a place of safety and then shouldering his musket to fight with his pupils. He was, unfortunately, taken prisoner. The inhabitants did all that they could to check the progress of the enemy, but the Hessian and British soldiers filled the town and indulged in every sort of outrage. The houses were robbed, the men murdered and a scene of debauchery and cruelty followed which was a disgrace to civilized soldiers. Norwalk and Green's Farms were visited next and treated in the same manner. Washington had placed his force so as to cover West Point. He had recovered Stony Point, which Clinton had taken from him but a short time previous. The attack for recovery was made at midnight on July 15th. Every soldier had a badge of white paper fastened to his hat, that he might be distinguished from the enemy. Each man was to shout, "The fort is our own, " as he entered the works. Between the point and the mainland was a neck, which, at the hour of the attack, was covered by the tide about two feet deep. While crossing this, fire was opened upon the Americans from the guns. The Americans had been ordered by Anthony Wayne, who led them, not to 384 THE STORY OF AMERICA.' fire, but to depend entirely on their bayonets. The English stood by their guns crying, "Come on, ye damned rebels, come on," to which Wayne's men cheerfully responded, "Don't be in such a hurry, my lads; we will be with you presently" — and they were, although they had to scramble up the steep ascent and over the abatis with the English fire upon them. The attack was one of those impetuous ones which none could lead so successfully as "Mad Anthony Wayne." He was struck in the forehead with a ball, but insisted on being carried into the fort by his men. The entire capture had not taken more than half an hour, and by it the Americans gained nearly fifteen hundred prisoners, fifteen pieces of cannon, and large quantities of stores and ammunition. This defeat delayed Clinton's advance and caused him to postpone indefinitely the movement upon Connecticut. A little later than this he met with another surprise in the loss of the post at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City. On the 19th of August, Major Henry Lee, with five companies of southern troopers, carried the place by assault without firing a shot. They were hotly pursued, but took one hundred and fifty prisoners with them in safety. Clinton sent out a naval expedition in August, which had an engagement near the' mouth of the Penobscot, in which they were successful. In this affair the American colonists showed a lack of courage and judgment. Not more than a month after this, General Paul Jones fought his great battle upon the sea. It was the most important event of the year, and indeed one of the most remarkable battles which ever took ' place upon the ocean. The contest upon the sea up to this time had been barely respectable. It was mostly a warfare of privateers, with plunder for its aim. Congress had been anxious for a navy, and had made all the efforts possible for establishing one. But their means were limited, and the work had been left mostly to the small frigates and privateering vessels, who, in their way, did not a little work for the Revolution. In the year 1777 two hundred and fifty British vessels were captured by American cruisers before the ist of February. By the end of that year the number taken was four hundred and sixty-seven. The most successful of all the seamen was Paul Jones. All along the English coast he was held in terror and dread. To him the King of France gave an old Indiaman, fitted out as a man-of-war. This Paul Jones named the Bo7i Homme Richai'd. This cruised along the west coast of Ireland and the north of Scotland for more than a month, with two consorts, the Alliance and the Pauhis. On the 2 2d of February they came in sight of a fleet of merchantmen under convoy of two frigates- THE "BON HOMME RICHARD." J«5 One of these, the Serapis^ carried fifty guns, the other, the Countess of Scarborough^ carried twenty-two. Jones gave the signal for pursuit as they were off Flamborough Head, on the coast of Yorkshire. He was not altogether in good condition for fight, for his crew had been reduced to man prizes, and his prisoners were two-thirds as numerous as his remaining crew. Besides, the Serapis was a new frigate. She had twenty guns on each of her decks, main and upper, and ten lighter ones on her quarter deck and forecastle. The Richard had only six guns on her lower deck, which were all on the same side. Above these, on the maii;i deck, were fourteen guns on each side. She had a high quarter and forecastle, with eight guns on these, and was of old-fashioned build, with a high poop, so that her lower deck was but little below her antagonist's main deck. It was after sunset, and a full moon had arisen, when the Richard came within hail of the Serapis. Captain Pearson, of the latter frigate, spoke the Richard twice. For answer Jones opened fire. Unfortunately, at the very first, two heav>' guns on the lower deck burst. Many of the men were killed by the explosion. The rest went up to the main deck. The Serapis responded to the fire immediately. Jones pushed up closer, and as the heavy vessels swung around, the jib-boom of the Serapis ran into the mizzen rigging of the Richard. Jones himself fastened the vessels together, and one of the anchors of the Serapis caught the quarter of the Richard.^ lashing them fast. The Serapis was so close to her antagonist that she could not open her ports on the starboard side, and her first shots were fired through her own port lids to free her guns. The fire from the main deck of the Serapis^ while it badly injured the Richard^ had but little effect upon the men, who, as has been said, deserted the lower deck, where the cannonading did most execution, at the beginning. The upper guns of the Richaj'-d.^ of course, hung over the Serapis^ as the former vessel had greatly the advantage of height. Muskets were little used, for it was night and clouds of smoke enveloped the vessels. At length, after two hours of about equal fighting, the men in the Richard'' s tops began throwing hand-grenades upon the deck of the Serapis^ and one sailor, who had worked himself out to the end of the main yard with a bucket filled with grenades, lighted them one by one and threw them down the hatchway of the Serapis. They fell among a row of eighteen-pounder cartridges. The row was lighted, and in the explosion which followed, twenty men were blown to pieces. Many others were frightfully burned. Some of them were stripped naked, leaving nothing but the collars of their shirts and their wrist- bands 3^6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Upon them. This roused them to desperation, and they made an attempt to board the Richat-d. They were met by Jones with a spike in his hand at the head of his men. The English were forced to fall back. At half past ten, Pearson, of the Serapis^ struck his colors, but the fight was so equal that the men upon the Richard hardly knew, when the cry "they have struck" came, whether it was Pearson or Jones who had yielded. There is a story that when Pearson delivered his sword to Jones he said: "I cannot, sir, but feel much mortification at the idea of surrendering my sword to a man who has fought me with a rope around his neck." Naturally this reproach did not in the least discomfort Jones. He returned the sword courteously, saying, "You have fought gallantly, sir, and I hope your King will give you a better ship." When Jones heard afterward that Pearson had been knighted for his intrepid action, he remarked: "He deserved it, and if I fall in with him again I will make a lord of him." When morning dawned the Richard was found to be sinking. The fires on her had not been put out, and she had been sadly torn to pieces. The wounded were, therefore, removed to the Serapis and were followed by the crew, who watched the gallant Richard sink to the bottom. The King of France presented Jones a sword, and Congress gave him a vote of thanks. Jones' action was the last important one between the English and the American ships in tlie war. The French fleet was relieving the American government from the expense of maintaining a navy. For the most part the naval actions during the remainder of the war were between privateers, of which there were a large number. FOR FURTHER READING; History — Tarleton's "History of the Southern Campaign." Lee's "War in the Southern Department." Hawk's "Revolutionary History of North Carolina."' Drayton's "Revohition in the Carolinas " Biography— McKenzie's "Paul Jones." Fiction — Cooper's "The Pilot." T. Mirg^e's "Paul Jones." A. Cunningham's "Paul Joues." - Dumas' "Captain Paul." RED JACKET. From Weir's painting, igngraved by Danforth. (Facsimile^) CHAPTER LXII. '■\ I i>IF EXPEDITION AGAINST THE SIX NATIONS — THE CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS — HUMILIATION OF THE SIX NATIONS — EXPE- DITION UP THE MISSISSIPPI FROM LOUIS- IANA — triu:mph of clinton IN THE SOUTH. WASHINGTON was opposed to the movement against Canada. He thought it involved an unnecessary waste of lives and money, and it seemed to him that the great cause would not be materially affected by victory in that direction, and that the army of the nation, feeble enough at best, had need to concentrate its attention upon defense of American homes. The plan of Cana- lian conquest had been a favorite one with Congress, and they listened to Washington's objections with unfeigned irritation. When at length they yielded, it was only upon condition that an effort should be made to take the British fort at Niagara. This Wash- ington did not altogether approve of, but he hoped, by sending an expedition against that fort, to severely punish the Six Nations, from whose atrocities the frontier settlements still continued to suffer. Early in 1779, preparations were made for carrying the war into Central New York and Western Pennsylvania. The command was given to Sullivan. The directions from Wash- ington were that he was to seem to have Niagara as his destination, but the punishment of the Indians was to be his sole object. These com- mands Sullivan followed closely, never approaching within seventy- five miles of Fort Niagara. But the spring and the summer passed before Sullivan was able to move. Congress showed its usual indif- frence, and the men were in no way provisioned for such an expe- 390 THE STORY OF AMERICA, dition. At one time all the officers in the New Jersey brigade sent in their resignations. In doing so, not even Washington could accuse them of lack of patriotism. Their families were actually suffering for the necessities of life, for the soldiers had received no pay for months. The officers insisted that they must return to their homes and provide for their families. Washington made a protest to the New Jersey legis- lature, which brought help for the time being, and the men resumed their duties. Before Sullivan could obtain supplies for his men he had to indulge in reproaches to Congress which were more candid than courteous, and which made him many enemies. It was late in August when Sullivan was ready to move. He found the enemy in force near Elmira. This force was placed in a position protected on two sides by a bend in the river, and strengthened in front by a breastwork which was artfully hidden by woods and under- brush. Into this ambush it was expected that the American forces would march. Joseph Brant led the Indians, and the Butlers, father and son, fiercest among the Tories, were the commanders of the loyal militia. The Americans knew well that should they fall into the hands of such enemies, no quarter would be shown, and in case of defeat, victory would be turned into massacre. But this stratagem was not successful. A rifleman who had climbed a tall tree discovered the whole plan, and by his discovery defeated it. Sullivan had three thou- sand men, led by able and experienced officers. He sent a portion of his army to face the Indians and force them into fight. Another por- tion was sent quietly through .woods and swamps for an attack on the rear and flank. The enemy was caught in its own trap, and when the artillery broke in upon them from the rear, crying, "Remember Wyoming!" they took to headlong flight. Sullivan's army resumed its march in two days, and for weeks kept on its way leaving behind it the most utter desolation. Never before had Indians attained such a degree of civilization. They had built themselves towns and comfortable log huts, conveniently furnished and surrounded by excellent orchards and fields. Sullivan spared none of these. His relentless destruction set back the civilization of the Indian permanently. Never since, except among the Cherokees, have they shown the industry, frugality and self-respect which they did at that time. Thousands of fruit-bearing trees were cut down. Two hundred bushels of Indian corn and immense quantities of potatoes, beans and other products of their farms and gardens were destroyed, as well as forty villages. The Indians were left with neither shelter nor food to THE SIX NATIONS. 39 ^ carry them through the winter, which was close at hand, and which proved to be one of terrible severity. It was little wonder that when any of Sullivan's men fell into their hands they were tortured in that manner of ingenious cruelty of which only the savage is capable. Sul- livan went as far as the most western settlement of the Six Nations, called Seneca Castle. From here he retraced his footsteps, having lost, in a long series of encounters, only forty men. Upon rejoining Wash- ington's army he resigned his commission. He had done the work appointed him and had done it well, but the reproaches which he had heaped upon Congress for their neglect of the national army caused them to accept his resignation without demur. At this time, or a little before, an expedition was undertaken from Louisiana, which, in the final settlement between England and the United States, probably did more than anything else towards securing the territory west of the Mississippi to the United States. This expe- dition was led by Galvez, the young and ambitious Governor of Louis- iana. A declaration of war had been made by Spain against England. The bonds of friendship between Spain and the United States were therefore strengthened, and Galvez joined with Pollock, the agent of Congress, in moving against the British forts, Manchac, Baton Rouge and Natchez. They also succeeded in capturing eight English vessels on Lake Pontchartrain, and a few months later took Mobile. The following year Pensacola, the last post in Florida in British possession, was also reduced by Galvez. But for this, in the final adjustment, the United States might have been bounded by the Mississippi river on the west. The war had now lasted for five years. Clinton was stfU of the opinion that the quickest way to bring it to an end was to overrun the thinly settled southern country and compel the people to swear alle- giance to the King. By dividing the Union there, it was hoped that the rebellion could be suppressed. The national army was in despair. Washington mustered only about fifteen thousand men, and of these not more than eleven or twelve thousand were in the ranks. The time was approaching when many of the terms of enlistment would expire. For months the pay of the soldiers had not been forthcoming. They were often hungry, all were poorly clothed, and some were actually naked. Had it not been for foreign loans, the nation could not have been sus- tained. It was this wretched army of half-starved men which Wash- ington had to bring against Clinton's well-cared-for troops. A common commander would have done one of two things — he would either have 392 THE STORY OF AMERICA. lost heart and surrendered, or brought on a rash attack to bring an end to these desperate straits. But Washington's military genius was equal to the occasion. His policy was to watch warily every movement of the enemy, to harass, annoy, delay, and to seize those rare opportuni- ties where a blow could be struck in safety. Clinton was lacking in that energy which sustained Washington, and while it seemed to lie in his power to win victory, he preferred to remain passive. Clinton believed that should he make both the South and North points of attack that he could crush either one or the other, for Washington, it was obvious, could not divide his forces. Charleston was still in possession of the Americans, being held by General Lincoln. The Americans were anxious to regain Savannah, and a plan was laid by which D'Estaing was to return from the West Indies, join with Lincoln, and move upon Savannah for the purpose of recapturing it. They did so, and demanded surrender. The answer of Prevost, the commander of the fort, was one of defiance. A siege was sustained there for a month, but as Prevost showed no signs of yielding, an assault was made on October 9th. D'Estaing and Lincoln led the attack with their combined force of four thousand men. The French fleet in the harbor kept up a cannonading of shot and shell. The English had a strong defense, and from behind the abatis and earthworks, kept up a murderous fire. The American bravery displayed was superb. Ser- geant Jasper, who had restored the flag to its place when it was shot down at Fort Moultrie, was killed here in defense of his colors. Between eleven and twelve hundred on the American side were killed, amone them Count Pulaski. The British lost less than fifty. This ended the siege of Savannah. The French fleet set sail for the West Indies and Lincoln retreated to Charleston. Clinton now resolved upon energetic measures for the reduction of the whole South. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Ramsay's "American Revoluticr. in South Carolina." Stone's "Border Wars of the American Revolution." "Siege of Savannah." Anon. CHAPTER LXIII. 4^ Wt nm §m ^[0 ¥rud *]|omr^ tt PI^ANS OF THE TWO ARMIES — SIEGE OF CHARLESTON BY THE ENGLISH — CAPTURE OF THE AMERICAN ARMY AT THE SOUTH — THE BURNING OF CONNECTICUT FARMS — ARRI- >VAL OF ROCHAMBEAU — TREASON 'of general ARNOLD. HE winter of 1779-80 was one of great severity. The sufferings of the American army at Morris- town were ahnost unendurable, and even the English, in their comfortable quarters at New York, were not a little annoyed by the extreme cold. The English constantly expected an attack, for the ice was so solid that the town could be easily approached. Lord Stirling led his Continentals across the Kill on the ice, at Elizabeth town, -to Staten Island, marched two thousand men north to the Narrows, and burned a fortified house and several vessels. Another party crossed the North river in sleighs, and marching to Newark, burned the Academy and sacked some of the houses. Expeditions of this sort served to keep the Eng- lish in expectation of a general attack. Clinton's ambi- tious designs for subduing the southern colonies were not a little delayed, and it was the middle of March before he was ready to take the final steps for investing Charleston. Meanwhile, the American envoys begged for more extensive help from France. Franklin and his asso- ciates, who represented America in France, were doing work of as much importance to the independence of this country', as were Washing- ton and his devoted generals. Lafayette visited France to join his solicitations to those of Franklin. Together they persuaded the court to send nearly six thousand men, under Count De Rochambeau. The expedition was a splendid one. It sailed in April, at the time that Clinton appeared before Charleston and demanded surrender. General Lincoln, who was in command of the American defense at that 394 THE STORY OF AMERICA. point, sent word that he should hold it to the last extremity. This he did. The English fleet crossed the harbor, and closed slowly around the city. The American troops, defending the city at the rear, were met by the enemy and defeated, so that all of Lincoln's available roads for retreat were cut off. On the eighth of May the town surrendered, and the Continental troops and seamen were held as prisoners of war. The entire southern army of America was thus in the hands of the British. Savannah and Charleston, the foremost seaports, were captured and held by the enemy. The British army in Georgia and South Carolina numbered nearly fourteen thousand men. Clinton's plan of subduing the southern colonies seemed to him, and to everyone else, only a question of time. In spite of all lessons, however, the English continued to under-estimate the inherent patriotism of the 2\merican heart. Clinton issued a proclamation requiring all persons to take an active part in settling and securing his majesty's govern- ment, and declaring that all who refused to do so should be considered enemies and rebels. In all of the southern States there were many who were willing to remain neutral, but comparatively few — aside, of course, from the open Royalists — who were willing to take up arms against their own countrymen. In the popular protest which was made to this proclamation, a Major James was sent to ask the com- mander of a British post at Georgetown for an explanation of the proc- lamation. The commander replied: "His majesty offers you a free pardon, of which you are undeserving, for you all ought to be hanged; but it is only on condition that you take up arms in his cause." Major James, the American, replied that those whom he represented would not submit to such conditions. "Represent! You damned rebel, if you dare speak in such language I will have you hung at the yard arm. ' ' James had no weapons, but for answer he knocked the British officer down with a chair and left him senseless. James and his four brothers were, after this, among the leaders of the partisans of the State. When the news of the surrender of Charleston reached Morris- town, it had a very dispiriting effect upon the troops. The English counted upon this, and on the sixth of June, six thousand troops were marched from Staten Island to the village of Connecticut Farms. The militia of the country fought every step of the way with them, falling back slowly and coolly before the superior numbers of the English, but they were unable to protect the village, and Connecticut Fanns was burned. The wife of the Rev. James Caldwell was killed by a shot through the window of the room where she was sitting with her "whom can we trust now?" 395 children, A few days later, when the English had undertaken another movement, the husband of this murdered woman was among the leading spirits of the defense. The engagement took place at Spring- field, and in spite of the utmost efforts of the Americans the place was taken and burnt. When the men were in want of wadding for their guns, Caldwell distributed hymn books among them with the exhorta- tion, "Put Watts into'em, boys!" After the burning of Springfield, the enemy returned to Staten Island. By the nth of July, De Rochambeau arrived in Newport with his troops, now swelled by the addition of a fleet to twelve thousand men. Washington wished to move at once upon New York, but many of the French were ill from the effects of a troublous voyage, and their commander would not consent to action. So, to the great disappoint- ment of the people and of the army, the autumn passed in inactivity. As Washington was returning to his army from an interview with Rochambeau, at Hartford, in Connecticut, his unexpected arrival at West Point discovered the gigantic treason of General Arnold. Arnold was a man of proud and haughty spirit. As a soldier, his bravery and dash were never questioned. As a gentleman and a patriot, there was always some doubt of him in the minds of those who knew him best. His naturally arrogant nature had been irritated by the neglectful conduct of Congress in not paying that tribute to his ability which he felt that it deserved. This is urged as his only motive for his treason- able actions. For several months he corresponded with the British Commander-in-chief, giving him all the military and civil news which could be of any use to the enemy. While Arnold was in command at Philadelphia, various charges had been brought against him by the State, for which he was taken before a court-martial. After a public rebuke from the Commander-in-chief, he was restored to the service and under pretense of being disabled from duty in the field by an old wound, was given the command of West Point. He took this for the sole purpose of betraying his trust and selling himself at a high price to the English. No post in the country was of greater import- ance to either side than that of West Point. It commanded the navigation of the Hudson, and to a degree the communication with Canada, as well as that between the Northern and Southern States. The garrison by which it was held numbered more than three thousand men. These were defended by one hundred guns. With the betrayal of the place, large stores of provisions, ammunition, and the greater part of the men would inevitably fall into the hands of the English, and a blow 396 THE STORY OF AMERICA. would be struck at the American cause which would render success more than doubtful. In order to make the final arrangements, it was necessary that a personal interview should be held between Arnold and some represent- atives of General Clinton, Major Andre was the officer chosen by Clinton, as being a man of discretion and bravery. Arnold dared not trust any one on his own side with a knowledge of his villainy, and determined to converse with Clinton's emissary himself He deter- mined, too, to take as little personal risk as possible, and after making several ineffectual efforts to induce Andre to come within the American lines, he at last succeeded. It became necessary that if the plan was to be carried out, it should be done immediately, and under stress of this pressure Andre consented to leave the British ship, on which he had put himself that he might be nearer to Arnold, and to come on shore within the American lines. Hiding his uniform under a long overcoat, he took a boat and was rowed to the foot of Long Clove Mountain, about six miles below Stony Point, where he met Arnold. There, hidden in the bushes, the conspirators talked through the night. At dawn, Andre was taken to Arnold's headquarters and concealed there. To escape with his news was a difficult matter. The vessel in which he had been brought had moved farther down the river, and he was obliged to risk a ride through the country To provide against suspicion, Arnold gave his confederate a pass made out to John Anderson, which allowed him to pass White Plains and beyond. Mounted upon a good horse, Andre began his perilous ride through the country. He was within half a mile of Tarrytown, when he was stopped by three men who wished to know his business and destination. How so brilliant a man could have blundered in the carrying out of a scheme of such paramount importance, it is not easy to see, but in the alarm of the moment he confided that he was a British officer. The men took him to the nearest military post. Here the pass of John Anderson seemed to be a sufficient explanation of his presence. But his gait betrayed the fact that he was a soldier, and the matter was investigated. No one was willing to believe that one of the most trusted generals of the American army was a stupendous traitor, and it was some time before that idea even occurred to any one. The commander of the post to which Andre was taken wrote a letter to Arnold concerning the mysterious person, John Anderson, and asking an explanation. When Arnold received it he was at breakfast with two of Washington's aids. "WHOM CAN WE TRUST NOW?" 399 He saw that his treason would soon be known in all its enormity. He quietly went into another room, told his wife, in a few hurried words, of his peril, mounted a horse at his door, and riding to the river side, took a boat. Then, tying his handkerchief to his cane as a flag of truce, he sailed to the British ship, the Vulture. It was afternoon before his escape was noticed. Andre was hung. He had risked his life to oblige his commander, and under the promise of the reward of a large sura of money. He failed in his scheme, and received the punishment due a spy. It has been the fashion, both in England and America, to sympathize with iiim greatly because he was young, high born, scholarly and brave, but he "did not act the part of a hero in the cause in which he died. No one who has read history can help contrasting his dramatic self-con- sciousness — for he wrote and talked much about his sense of honor and his bravery — with the modesty and devotion of Nathan Hale, the spy who died regretting that he had not another life to give his country, Washington offered to exchange Andre for Arnold, but Clinton was a man of honor, and would not break his word to a traitor, even to save a man who was the victim of his plans and his friend. The British government showed its gratitude to Arnold by giving him a commission as Brigadier-General in the army, and 6,315 pounds sterling in money. His wife and all of his children were pensioned, and throughout their lives received half pay as retired officers. But Arnold received no more respect among the English than among his own countr^'men. Later, in the southern campaign, Cornwallis positively refused to have him in his command. That spirit of brilliant daring which had distinguished him in the American army never again showed itself In the victories which he won for the English he showed more of the spirit of a murderer and a marauder than of a general. FOR FURTHER READING: History — "Trial of Benedict Arnold." "Trial of Major John Andre." "New York City in the American Revolution." Tuckerman's "America and her Commentators." (French auxiliaries.) Biography — J. N. Arnold's "Life of Arnold." Fiction — E. P. Roe's "Near to Nature's Heart." Poetry — Harte's "Caldwell, of Springfield." Freneau's "Arnold's Departure." Bradley's "Andre's Last Moments." Drama— Calvert's "Arnold and Andre." Lord's "Andre." Dunlap's "Andre." u^ CHAPTER LXIV. 3nm ^inl "^m n §tmtnV' CX)RNWALIvIS AND GATES AT THE SOUTH — THE COMMAND OF THK SOUTHERN FORCE GIVEN TO GENERAL GREEN — THE BATTLE OF KING'S MOUNTAIN — BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURT HOUSE. ORTUNATELY no serious harm came of Arnold's treachery, but to the people, and to the Commander-in-chief in particular, it was very discouraging. "Whom can we trust now?" asked Washington, sadly. It might well be a moment of gloom, for in the South, afifairs for the time seemed hopeless. After Charleston was taken and the army moved through the State, Colonel Abraham Beaufort was sent, with about four hundred Virginian troops, to harass the enemy. He was met by thirty cavalry and mounted infantry under the command of I/ieutenant-Colonel Bamastre Tarleton. Tarleton fell upon the Americans without giving them time for defense, and when they threw down their arms and begged for mercy, he cruelly killed them. It was not a battle, but a massacre, and won for Tarleton that reputation for cruelty by which he is remembered to this day. Had not the country been filled with partisans likely to rise at any time, this might have seemed the end of the war in the South, but since there was not a citizen who was not likely at any time to become a soldier, it was impossible to tell when the country was conquered. The loyal partisans of the Carolinas and of Georgia were obliged to content themselves at this time by harassing the enemy in every way possible. Sumpter, Davie, Marion and many others were the leaders of desperate bands of men who hid themselves in the swamps and thick woods of the southern country, and sallied "I HAVE SENT YOU A GENERAL." 401 forth at unexpected moments to annoy and injure the enemy. The camp of Marion was hid in the swamps of the Pedee, and so securely concealed, that even his men had sometimes to search for hours before they found it. Cornwallis, a soldier on the old plan, used to military precision and well-regulated warfare, was not a little chagrined and vexed by hostil- ities of this sort. He was never certain where he would find the enemy, and when he did find them he could not rely upon their keeping in battle array. They were very much more apt to disperse, baffle pursuit, and only appear again when they could strike an unexpected blow. When he learned that Baron De Kalb was marching southward with Maryland and Delaware troops, Cornwallis was prompt in his measures to intercept them. Gates had now been appointed by Congress to conduct the campaign, and he hastened forward with cavalry from Virginia and North Carolina, for the purpose of forming a junction with De Kalb. The American army numbered three thousand men, most of whom were raw recruits, without discipline, sufficient arms, or comfortable clothing. The British troops were veterans, but were fewer in number than the Americans. Gates wished to wage active warfare, although he must have known that his men could not be relied upon to stand steady fire. Gates sent Marion with his men into South Carolina on a reconnoisance, ordering him to destroy all the bridges and boats on his way, that the British might have no means of escaping to Charleston should they be defeated. But Cornwallis had no intention of being defeated. He was as anxious as Gates for action, and with far better cause. On the 15th of August, 1780, both armies moved, each with the intention of surprising the other. At the first fire the Americans broke ranks and fled, but a portion of the militia had the courage to check the advance, and the fight continued till night forced them to desist. When morning dawned Cornwallis was able to take in all the weakness of his opponents. He posted his best men opposite the untried Virginia militia, who, as he expected, fired a single shot, threw away their arms and fled. The panic spread along the lines, and a great part of the army fled without a blow. The Conti- nentals, under De Kalb and Gist, fought with coolness and decision, pushing the enemy before them. But they were finally so hard pressed that one-third of them were killed or wounded and the rest were forced to seek safety in the woods. De Kalb, the distinguished French commander, fell under eleven wounds. His clothing was stripped from him by the soldiers, and it was only when he was discovered by Com- 402 THE STORY OF AMERICA. wallis that any attention was paid to his needs. Gates' army was practically annihilated, and the militia, who never felt under obligations to remain in organized force, returned to their homes. Within a few days Gates gathered together such of his men as could be found, with the intention of forming a new army, making his headquarters one hundred and eighty miles from his dreadful defeat. Cornwallis determined to subdue South Carolina before Congress could send another army. With Tarleton and Ferguson, two unrelenting persecutors of patriots, to help him, he started out on a journey through the State. In many of the smaller engagements all through the southern country Cornwallis had had reason to believe that success would soon crown the English arms. He therefore followed the Americans with enthusiasm and on the 8th of October fought the battle of King's Mountain, near the boundary line of North and South Carolina. Here Cornwallis suffered, losing about one-fourth of his fighting force. He sent to New York for reinforcements and spent the time mainly in attempts to meet with Sumpter, or Marion, or some of the other partisan leaders who waged constant hostilities. In the autumn. Green arrived to take command of the remnant of the army which Gates had so nearly destroyed. He came with Washington's warm recommendation, but it was feared that he could do little, so reduced was the southern army and so illy provided with necessities. Green did not believe that the army could sustain an active campaign, and began with a policy exactly opposite to that of Gates. His plan was to avoid a general battle as long as possible, to delay the enemy at every step of his progress — to tire him out, as it were. His army moved into South Carolina in two bodies, the larger part of which was commanded by the General himself and the other by Morgan. Green moved steadily towards Cornwallis, and only halted when he was about seventy miles east of him. Tarleton was sent in pursuit of Morgan, who, it was feared, threatened the whole line of posts in the rear of the British army. So great was his anxiety that Cornwallis himself, instead of moving upon Green, tried to intercept Morgan. This American general was therefore forced into an engagement. He chose a field of open woods in which his cavalry could easily maneuvre, and behind which there were two hills which he could use in case of need as a protection. He posted four hundred men on the first eminence and in front placed militia and skirmishers. On the second eminence was Colonel Washington's famous cavalry and a corps of mounted infantr}'. Behind them were the horses and militia, ready either for pursuit or "l HAVE SENT YOU A GENERAL." 403 flight. Eight hundred men were on the field and all were so well disposed, that when Tarleton looked at them he thought that the enemy was at least two thousand strong. The English came on with a rush — one of those charges which have made them famous in battle fields all over the world. They were met with a deadly fire, and when the first line was broken through, the second stood valiantly for a time and then gave way. Colonel Washington, with his cavalry, charged upon the wing, broke straight through a line and charged again from the rear. He found himself then at the rear of the other wing of the forces, and fell upon them there, while Morgan conducted the conflict in front. The English prayed for quarter, and it was with much difficulty that the American commanders kept their soldiers from slaughtering Tarleton' s men as Tarleton' s men had slaughtered so many of their comrades. Tarleton lost six hundred prisoners out of his thousand men; one hundred were dead upon the field; his two guns, his colors, eight hundred muskets, one hundred dragoon horses and a large part of his baggage train were in the hands of the enemy. Upon the American side only twelve were killed and sixty wounded. But still Green knew that discretion compelled him to act upon the defensive ratner than the offensive. His orders to Morgan were, therefore, to retreat and join the main army, which he did. Cornwallis pushed on through the State, and Green slowly retreated before him in good order. The American army grew, by reinforcements from the Virginia and Carolina militia, to forty-three hundred men, but as nearly three-fourths of this force were raw recruits, the strength of the army was not materially added to. March 15, 1781 — the winter having been passed by Green in eluding Cornwallis — Green made a stand near Guilford Court House and awaited the enemy. The battle field was well chosen, the men being under good commanders. They were well placed, and there was no essential point of weakness except the inexperience of the greater part of the men. The British, as usual, advanced steadily and quickly, and as usual the American militia fired one shot and then fled. But a few of them held their ground until the British charged with their bayonets, then they also fled, and the conflict was left to Green's regulars who fought desperately. Colonel Washington, with his splendid cavalry, was there, in which one expert swordsman cut down thirteen of the enemy, There were many hand-to-hand encounters. The fight was a desperate one, but Cornwallis' force was so held that in the end the Americans retreated, though they did so slowly and in good order. Cornwallis lost nearly one-fourth of his army. The victory 404 '•''HE STORY OF AMERICA. was with the British, but they paid far too great a price for it. Green's army was too exhausted to venture an attack the next day and Corn- wallis, who said that he was tired of going about the Carolinas in search of adventure, wrote a letter to his Commander-in-chief, begging that he might be allowed to quit the Carolinas and put his army in march for Wilmington. Green started after him in hurried pursuit, but he was not able to overtake him. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Draper's "King's Mountain and^its Heroes." Fiction — W. G. Simms' "The Partisan." C. H. Wiley's "Alamance." Poetry — "Battle of King's Mountain." ' Wmiam C. Bryant's "Song of Marion's Men." CHAPTER LXV. AE.N0LD'S expedition — BATTLE BETWEEN CORNWALI.IS AND LAFAY- ETTE — THE SIEGE OF YORKTOWN AND SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS — THE SACKING OF NEW LONDON BY ARNOLD. ^HAT," Arnold once asked of a prisoner, *'wotiU be done with me if I should be captured by the Americans?" The prisoner replied: "If my countr}-men should catch you, I believe they would cut off that lame leg, which, was wounded in the cause of freedom and virtue, and bur>^ it with the honors of war, and after- ward hang the remainder of your body on gibbets," The answer was, probably, a reflex of Arnold's own fears. He could no longer be relied upon for daring attack, and was sent by Clinton upon marauding expedi- tions. It was he who was selected to lead the expedition to Virginia, the sole purpose of which was harassing and ravaging any part of the country where he could do so with safety to his men. Arnold had with him a force of nine hundred. He landed at Westover, on the James river, and marched to Richmond. Here he divided his troops, remaining, himself, in Rich- mond, to destroy much private property, military stores and public archives. The detachment which he had sent on an excursion of destruction was met by Baron Steuben, but not checked by him. Arnold went as far as Portsmouth, wreaking his anger and bitterness upon the country he passed through. Congress and the Commander-in- chief were seriously distressed. Their impulse was to send immediate help, but this they were in a bad condition to do. Thirteen hundred Pennsylvania men had mutinied. There had been a misunderstanding about the term of their enlistment, and the neglect which they had sustained at the hands of Congress irritated them beyond endurance. 4.o6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. They were not lacking, as their many hard-fought fields testified, in patriotism, but their physical suffering, added to a sense of having been imposed upon, was more than they could patiently stand. That they were patriotic, is shown by the fact that the emissaries sent by Sir Henry Clinton, offering them aid and protection if they would join the English standard, were delivered to the proper authorities to be executed as spies. With a great effort the States raised a large sum of money to quiet the complaints of the soldiers. In February, Washing- ton was able to make preparations for a campaign in Virginia, which should oppose Arnold's progress. He sent a detachment of twelve hundred New England troops, under Lafayette. These he ordered to the head of Chesapeake bay, where they weie to embark for the lower part of Virginia. The British fleet had been recently disabled by a. storm, and Washington was anxious that his French allies should seize this time to send the whole French squadron to the bay, in aid of the movement under Lafayette. These started, but in an engagement with the English were defeated, and sent back to Newport. When Clinton heard this, he sent General Phelps, with an additional force of two thousand men, to take command in Virginia. These followed the same plan which Arnold's troops had done. They did not fight, but they ■ravaged. Steuben was sent to pursue him, and the two generals chased each other about the country, without either much profit or harm. The great point with the English was to deprive Green of men and supplies. Cornwallis was still at the south, and hoped to conquer the colonies by moving northward from Georgia. When his force moved up to join that of Arnold and Phelps, Lafayette was largely outnumbered, and he fell back to make a junction with Antony Wayne, who was approaching with eight hundred Pennsylvania men. Cornwallis had little respect for Lafayette. So boyish was the young French general that the Englishman could not believe that he understood or could apply military tactics. But the first engagement between the forces was a drawn battle. Lafayette's men in the retreat were maneuvred with cleverness. The vexation of Cornwallis was added to by the fact that Clinton begged him to send three thousand of his men northward to his relief Cornwallis was ordered to put himself behind the defences at Portsmouth, and, as soon as he started for this place, Lafayette followed after in close pursuit. Lafayette received some severe checks on this march. Green, meantime, was marching southward. One of the English forts was taken. This success was due to the erection of a wooden THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 407 tower of logs, so tall that it could overlook the stockade. Here the sharpshooters could pick off the garrison without danger to themselves. In course of time other forts were taken by the same means. Thus the hostilities at the South progressed. They were made up mostly of skirmishes, to which the name of battles could not be appropriately applied, but the fighting was fierce, and the consequences marked. The personal partisanship of the colonies grew, rather than decreased, and all the while a net was slowly closing about the English. Green was frequently defeated and compelled to retreat, but as the enemy fol- lowed up his forces, they became only the more enmeshed in the web which he was weaving about them. Washington himself crossed the Delaware and reinforced Lafayette. Following him came Rochambeau with his force. Clinton was mewed in New York, and, as his call for reinforcements showed, was continually expecting an attack from Wash- ington. In fact, Washington had been threatening that city all summer, and his rapid movements toward the South were unknown by Clinton for some time. De Grasse, the admiral of the French fleet, had been requested by Washington to come from the West Indies and join him in the Chesapeake. As Washington neared the lower part of that bay and learned that the summons had been promptly obeyed, he rode back to tell Rochambeau himself, waving his hat and calling to the French commander like a child. This, he felt sure, was the herald of victory and peace. Fifteen hundred men were carried down the Chesapeake Bay in boats to the mouth of the James river. The rest went to Annapolis by aid of the French frigates and then marched overland. Washington had time to stop for a day at his beautiful home, Mount Vernon, and to entertain Rochambeau and all the other officers for a few hurried hours. On the arrival of this large force Cornwallis with- drew behind the fortifications which he had built to defend Yorktown. The American and French generals promptly laid works by which the town might be approached — for the first time conducting a regular siege by the system of scientific and technical warfare. On September 30th the town was surrounded. Cornwallis did all that he could to annoy the men at work. This was the utmost that he could do. On October 9th fire was opened by the besiegers, and one by one the batteries and cannons of Cornwallis were rendered useless. He wrote a letter begging Clinton to come to his help lest army and navy should be lost. He made one attempt in the night to cross the York river and escape, but a violent storm put an end to these plans, and on October 19th this brave general surrendered upon honorable terms. His most 4o8 THE STORY OF AMERICA. miportant redoubts had been carried by assault. He had been crowded within the innermost part of his works. All avenues of escape were shut off. There were many sick and wounded among his men, and it would have been selfish and grossly inhuman to have required more fighting from them. On the very day that he surrendered, Clinton sailed from New York to the relief of Yorktown, but learning that every British soldier in Virginia was a prisoner of war, put back again. , With it he sent the history of a dishonorable triumph which he hoped would counterbalance it somewhat. This triumph was that of an expedition against New London, commanded by Arnold. Arnold landed his force at the mouth of the Thames river on September 6th. He divided his force in two columns and marched one column up each side of the river. His own home had been in New London, and he made use of his local knowledge of the town to direct the troops which had been sent to destroy it. Cornwallis, it is said, refused to have him under his command in Virginia, and it was this that caused his diversion northward. The expedition against New London had been proposed by the Commander-in-chief to divert Washington's attention from the South. It was hoped that he might return to the protection of New England. New London was surrounded and burnt. The militia of the neighborhood gathered in Fort Griswold, but they had not nearly force enough to man the parapets. Arnold's men were crazy with liquor. These poured over the earthworks and demanded surrender. Ledyard, the American commander, ordered his men to throw down their arms and surrender to Major Bronfield, who was at the head of the Englishmen. That officer stabbed Ledyard with his own sword as he surrendered it and a general massacre followed in which the whole garrison were killed or wounded. Of these, only three had been killed before Ledyard had given the order to surrender. The dead were stripped of their clothing, and when preparations were made for blowing up the magazine of the fort, the wounded were piled upon a wagon and which, being sent rolling down the steep hill, against a tree, many of the wounded were killed by the shock. Groton, on the other side of the river, was also burnt, though Arnold, it is said, had the humanity to direct that a few of the houses, belonging to old friends, should be spared. FOR FURTHER READING : Fiction — J. P. Kennedy's "Horseshoe Robinson." J. P. Simms' "The Scout." " " "Catherine Walton." " " "Woodcraft." " " "Foragers." " " "Eutaw." CHAPTER LXVI. >|i^ J^}Dttt$|Hr0 T3r$u$ 11^$ ^ur0ri* CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY AT THE CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTION- JOHN ADAMS MADE MINISTER TO ENGLAND — THE DISBAND- ING OF THE ARMY — THE CALL FOR DELEGATES TO CONSTRUCT A CONSTITUTION. U^ HE surrender of Cornwallis did not end the troubles of this country. The people were neither at war nor at peace. They were very poor, terribly in debt, with a standing army which they dare not dissolve still on their hands, and no government except that of the Continental Congress. Com- merce could not be conducted upon the seas without danger. The fisheries were not yet open to Americans, and the English still held some of the military' posts. To remedy these troubles and bring about a condition of greater order and prosperity, was the ambition of every man in America; but from the outset, they were divided as to the means. One party desired that the country might have a general government. The other preferred that each State should have a government of its own, but that for safety, all should be united in a confederation. Thus, for several years after the war, the country was in a state of half peace, which was most unhappy in its effects. Meanwhile the political disagreements of the people strengthened and multiplied. The weak- ness of the confederation was becoming apparent. Congress had only an advisory power. It could compel no measures and had always to wait for the sanction of the people in everything. It was remarked at the time that it could not even command the money to buy the quills with which the pens for writing the laws were made. It had been necessary for years to run the government and the army upon loans. Franklin, John Adams and the other commissoners in Europe had 4IO THE STORY OF AMERICA. talked constantly about the great value of American lands, and thus money was easily secured from European financiers. But the money borrowed was insufficient to meet the demands of the people, and paper currency had been issued. In course of time two hundred million dollars of Continental currency was sent afloat. Congress seemed to think for a time that to make money it needed only to have a printing press which could send out crisp sheets of paper. But this currency fell steadily in value until, in 1779, one hundred paper dollars were worth only two and a half dollars in silver. The last issue of the Continental currency still exist in the large sheets in which they were printed. The man who received the sheet from the public treasury did not think it worth while to cut it into separate bills. The country now needed specie, and this began to be furnished in small quantities by the payment of gold, which the French commissaries paid for the supplies they required for their men. Trade was slowly opening up with Europe again, and every shipment brought a little valuable coin to the impoverished commerce of America. The right to the fisheries of eastern waters and the right to dry fish on the uninhabited lands of the coast were secured to the Americans by John Adams, who obtained it with great persistence. Scarcely had the war terminated, when each country charged the other with the violation of the treaty of peace. The disputes were so hot that it was decided to hasten the appointment of a minister plenipotentiary to the court of Great Britain. In February, 1785, John Adams was made Ambassador to represent the United States at that court. Meantime, civil war on the northern American frontier had more than once seemed certain. Vermont was determined to preserve her independence, in spite of the claims of New York on the one side, and New Hampshire on the other. She had asked again and again for admission to the Union, but this had been denied her, partly because of the jealousy of her neighbors, and partly for the reason that the Southern States were unwilling to have a Northern State entered with- out a Southern one to counterbalance it. Vermont had no political existence as a distinct colony of the Crown, at the time that the thirte^ other States were created into a confederacy by the agreement of the representatives, and it was now claimed that this was one reason why her prayer should not be granted. The "Green Mountain Boys" felt that if the Union owed nothing to them, they, in turn, owed nothing to the Union. They therefore threatened to offer Great Britain terms of peace and allegiance. Only then did Congress awaken to the danger .. — .m^i^ m ^^ B a a >> Q fm THE PLOWSHARE VERSUS THE SWORD. 411 which threatened. In the spring of 1781 a force of ten thousand men from Canada threatened an invasion across the northern border. Washington dared not spare a man from his army. The panic every- where was intense. Letters were written by certain English generals to Ethan Allen, begging the people of Vermont to return to their allegiance to the King, and promising, in the case of her revolt against the United States, she would be made an independent British province. Perhaps the people of Vermont never had any intention of accepting this invitation, and that they only endeavored to mislead their country- men for the purpose of making them do as they wished, but it is certain that for a time they were considered as very dangerous and treacherous neighbors by the inhabitants of the States. Concessions were made by New York and New Hampshire, and Vermont was given the boundary lines which she herself had drawn, so that when peace was declared Vermont was not a British province. She was not, however, admitted as a State to the Union till 1791. In these years of turmoil and perplexity one of the things which distressed Washington, and the people in general, was that the English continued to hold New York, Charleston and Savannah. While the enemy was still in the country it was impossible for Washington to dis- band his army, and the men, without pay and with little to eat or wea-r, became exceedingly discontented and mischievous. They now knew by experience what they could do by force of arms, and it is little wonder that they plotted among themselves to bring about a state of affairs which would give them increased importance and comfort. Letters were circulated in camp, setting forth the injustice with which the army bad been treated, and suggesting that it refuse to disband unless its rightful dues were paid, and that Congress be told that this army continue to exist and would keep its arms. A meeting was called on the I ith of March. The writers and instigators of the letters had an idea that the army would take the position for America which Cromwell's army took for England. The leader of this army might, as Cromwell had done, place himself at the head of the nation. When news of these letters reached Washington, he asked the representatives of the army to meet him for the purpose of talking the matter over. In the meantime, a second letter was written which was even more outspoken than the first. When Washington met the representatives they had profited by reflection, and were prepared to receive in a humble spirit the stern rebuke which Washington gave them. After setting forth the true nature of these letters, exposing all the sophistry in them, and 25 412 THE STORY OF AMERICA. calling their treasonable intentions by their right names, he begged the army to have confidence in Congress, and promised to do all that he could himself in their behalf. Resolutions were passed which declared that the army viewed wnth abhorrence and rejected with disdain the suggestions of the letters. Washington's common sense alone saved the country, if not from overthrow, at least from terrible disaster. The many weary months that followed before the soldiers were allowed to return to their homes, were endured with comparative patience. At one time a company of eighty recruits mutinied and took possession of the State House in Philadelphia, but in a short time this insurrection died/rom its own feebleness. On November 25, 1782, New York was evacuated by the British, and Washington marched in with his army to take possession. A little less than a month afterwards the Commander-in-chief met his compan- ions in arms at Fraunces Tavern to take leave of them. It would be difficult to imagine a scene of more dignified pathos. For }'ears Washington and many of his officers had been in the closest association. They were more than comrades — they were friends — and the terrible trials which they had undergone together, the great risks which they had run, the difficulties which they had overcome, bound them as no prosperous acquaintanceship could have done. Washington spoke a few broken words of farewell, and the officers dispersed. On the 29th of December he returned his commission to Congress, which was then at Annapolis in public session. On vSeptember 3, 1783, the final treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by which Great Britain acknowledged the United States to be free, sovereign, and independent. At this time Philadelphia was the chief city in the country, having a population of forty thousand. This was three times greater than that of New York and twice as large as that of Boston. New York was still suffering from the effects of the devasta- tion caused by the war. In New England the people were busy with ship-building and coast trading. Throughout the Middle States manufacturing was rapidly increasing. The Southern States were made up of plantations worked by slaves. Between England and America the balance of trade against this country was greatly increasing. Within two }ears after peace was declared the value of goods imported from England into the United States was nearly thirty million dollars, while the exports for the same time were only between eight and nine millions. What little good monev there was in the United States was thus drawn off to England, for THE PLOWSHAR?: VERSUS THE SWORD. 413 the young manufactures of America could not, it goes without saying, com]3ete with those of England. In 1783 the debt of the United States was forty-two millions, and that of the separate States, twenty millions. There was no mint, and both Congress and States continued to issue currency. It was in vain that Congress implored the States to provide means for paying their debts. England, with difficulty, collected the debts due her by the Americans, and it looked as if the States, for com- mercial reasons alone, might be forced to yield their independence and return to a country which would at least provide them with a government and an exchecquer. The Congress of Delegates, which had been formed with such haste at the breaking out of the Revolution, and which w^as composed of men from all parts of the country, was not equal to meeting the present emergencies. Washington himself, who never made a written statement without deep thought and reflection, admitted that Congress was not able to execute the functions of government. John Adams wrote from England that so contemptible was America in the eyes of Great Britain that she was not considered at all in state matters. Thomas Jefferson was Minister to France, and was obliged to exercise all of his ingenuity to keep America and American commerce rightly before the French court. Since the disregard of government was so great in the old States, it is not surprising that on the frontier this was carried to still greater lengths. In the Wyoming country of Pennsylvania there had long been a dispute concerning boundaries and rights which reached a crisis in 1786. The settlers took up arms and declared their intention to form a new vState, but they were suppressed as rioters. In the western part of North Carolina a number of counties set up an independent government, calling themselves the State of Franklin, but this soon came to an end through internal troubles. In several different places efforts were made by armed mobs to prevent the sitting of courts and legislatures, but like most mobs, these were dissolved with comparatively little trouble. About this time x\lexander Hamilton proposed that a national convention meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787, for the purpose of providing a new constitution which should give strength to the Federal Government. Addresses were sent to the legislatures asking them to send delegates to this convention. In Congress, the party which objected to the consolidation of power was the stronger, and this only consented to the convention on the condition that it confine itself to revising the articles of confederation. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction— J. E. Cooke's "The Youth of Jefferson." "Rose Hill." J. P. Kennedys "Swallow Barn." u CHAPTER LXVII. THE FORMING OF THE CONSTITUTION — WASHINGTON ELECTED PRESIDENT. HE convention met at the time appointed, with George Washington in the chair. The legislative chambei was the same in which the Declaration of Independence had been signed, and many of the signers were then present. The most influential men of the States were there, many of them differing bitterly in opinion, but all agreeing in their desire to give to the United States a constitution which should add to its dignity and power. The greatest cause of dispute was about the preponderance of power. The question was: Should power rest in the people, or in Congress? In other words, should the general government coerce the States, or should the States be sovereign to themselves? The promise that the convention was only to revise the articles of confederation as Congress desired was, of course, brought to notice. Various plans were laid before the House by Alexander Hamilton, and other leaders of public thought. All of these were considered in turn. Randolph, of Virginia, and Patterson, of New Jersey, had plans of government which were long debated upon. But so angry and hopeless did the debates become, that even the calmest and most judicious despaired of reaching any results. Benjamin Franklin, an old man now, was present, and in the midst of these diffi- culties and misunderstandings he arose and made this speech : ' 'It is to be feared that the members of this convention are not in temper, at this moment, to approach the subject on which we differ, in a candid spirit. I would, therefore, propose, Mr. President, that, without pro- ceeding further in this business at this time, the convention shall ■ "first in war, first in pkace." 417 adjourn for three days, in order to let the present ferment pass off, and to afford time for a more full, free and dispassionate investi- gation of the subject; and I would earnestly recommend to the members of this convention that they spend the time of this recess, not in asso- ciating with their own party and devising new arguments to fortify themselves in their old opinions, but that they mix with members of opposite sentiments, lend a patient ear to their reasonings, and candidly allow them all the weight to which they may be entitled; and when we assemble again I hope it will be with a determination to form a Constitution, if not such a one as we can individually and in all respects approve, yet the best which, under existing circumstances, can be obtained. Before I sit down, Mr. President, I will suggest another matter, and I am really surprised that it has not been proposed by some other member at an earlier period of our deliberations. I will suggest, Mr. President, the propriety of nominating and appointing, before we separate, a chaplain to this convention, whose duty it shall be uniformly to assemble with us and introduce the business of each day by imploring the assistance of Heaven, and asking Its blessing upon our deliberations." The three days were spent in the manner which Dr. Franklin advised, and, on reassembling, the chaplain who had been appointed appeared and led the devotions of the assembly. Dr. Franklin addressed the house first, as everyone expected and desired that he should do. His wisdom, experience, common sense and deep- seated calmness gave a placidity to the convention which it had not had before. With more earnest intentions the convention renewed its work. The Constitution was finally amended. It prescribed that the laws of the United States were, thenceforth, to be administered, not by a confederacy or mere league of friendship between the sovereign States, but by a government distributed into three great departments — legisla- tive, judicial and executive; that the powers of government should be limited to concerns pertaining to the whole people, leaving the internal administration of each State in time of peace to its own constitutional laws, provided, that they should be republican, and interfering with them as little as possible in case of war; that the legislative power of this government should be divided between the two assemblies, one representing directly the people of the separate States, and the other their legislatures; that the executive power of this government should be vested in one person, chosen for four years, with certain qualifications of age and nativity, and invested with a qualified negative upon the enactments of the laws; and that the judicial power -418 THE STORY OF AMERICA. should consist of tribunals, inferior and supreme, to be instituted and organized by Congress, the judges removable only by impeachment. Washington signed the Constitution first, remarking solemnly as he did so: "Should the vStates reject this excellent Constitution, the probability is that an opportunit\- will never again be offered to cancel another in peace; the next will be drawn in blood." With three exceptions the Constitution was signed by all the delegates present. The convention, however, which framed the Constitution, was not clothed with legisla- tive power, and the Constitution was, therefore, referred to the several States. In the summer of 1788, nine of the States ratified it. Rhode Island was the last of the thirteen original States to accept the Constitu- tion, which she did in ^lay, 1790. The year of suspense was full of internal troubles. In New York, the brilliant young Alexander Hamilton led the Federal party with dramatic fervor, and when his triumph was made apparent by the ratification of the Constitution, a great festival was held in New York City. There was a procession of traders, merchants, artisans and professional men, who bore aloft on their banners the names of Washington and Hamilton, and a frigate fully manned, called the Federal ship "Hamilton," was borne on wheels through the streets, her cannons replying to the salutes with which she was greeted. The first Congress met in New York on Alarch 4, 1789. When the votes of the Presidential electors were counted, the first choice was unanimous for Washington. John Adams received the largest number of votes for \^ice-President. A special messenger was sent by the president of the Senate to notify Washington of his election. This great man was living quietly at his princely home of Mount Vernon. His home life was very dear to him, and it was with the most painful reluctance that he took upon himself once more the burdens of the nation. As Washington traveled from his home in Virginia to New York, which was now the seat of government, he received enthusiastic greetings everywhere. At Trenton, where he had fought with such brilliancy, a triumphal arch was thrown across the bridge which he was to cross. The arch was supported on thirteen pillars, which were wreathed with flowers and bore inscriptions which must have been deeply gratifying to him. Beneath this arch stood a party of young girls with baskets of flowers in their hands, and they greeted Washington with a song which had been composed for the occasion, strewing flowers before him as they sang. As he neared New York a delegation was sent to meet him. A barge, with a crew of thirteen to represent the "first in war, first in peace." 419 colonies, was for his special use, and following this, with flying flags, came many other boats. The Governor of the State and many other distinguished persons awaited Washington at the wharf and escorted him to his quarters, Washington preferring to walk up the crowded streets that he might seem to enter the city in humbleness and good fellowship, A few days later the ceremony of inauguration took place in the balcony of what was then the Senate chamber. This was called Federal Hall, and it stood at the meeting of four streets, which were crowded to suffocation with people. Washington came on the balcony, and the Chancellor of New York read the inaugural oath to him. After the oath was administered, the people cried, "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" But this was a reminder of kingly customs which was never repeated for any other President. Flags were raised, cannons were fired and bells were rung, launching in with joyful burst of song the new Republic, with a magistrate at its head v/ho, for wisdom, disinterestedness and pure patriotism, has never been equaled by any following President save one. This was April 30, 1789. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Curtis' "History of the Constitution." Frothing-ham's "Rise of the Republic." Fiction— N. JI. Curtis' "Doom of the Tory Guard. ' CHAPTER LXVIII. HAMILTON'S POLICY AS THE FIRST SECRETARY OF STATE — INCREASE OF AMERICAN COMMERCE — THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY — FRONTIER TROUBLES AT THE WEST. pLEXANDER HAMILTON was made Secretary of the Treasury, an office hardly second in importance to that of the President itself at this time. If the nation was to be restored to pros- perity, it rested upon him to devise efficient measures. Hamilton's policy from the first was to give notice to the Old World that the new Federal government assumed all the obligations of the old confederation, and provided, as that enfeebled body had not been able to do, for their discharge. Ham- ilton succeeded in getting the government to assume the State debts. One of the first acts of Congress was to pass a tariff bill, for Plamilton and many others believed that protection was the only system possible in that stage of national life and in the condition of the civilized world. A national bank was started which was under private direction, and yet served the government by making it owner of one-fifth of the capital stock of ten million dollars and the preferred borrower to the same amount. A hundred minor matters were attended to by the Secretary with equal care. The sale of public lands increased, regulations were made for the coast trade, navigation laws enacted, revenue cutters established, light-houses built, and numerous plans were formed for the sustaining of law and good order. A bill was passed imposing a duty on imported domestic spirits, for the purpose of swelling the revenue. American enterprise soon felt the benefit of these measures. In 1787 the French government issued a decree placing American citizens on the same commercial footing as Frenchmen, and STARTING THE WHEELS OF PROGRESS. 42 1 admitting American produce free of duty. As France had a free trade treaty with England, this act had much to do with the ceasing of com- mercial hostilities between America and England. When war broke out between France and England, the carrying trade of the world fell into the hands of the United States. The trade with the West Indies became almost wholly American, for French ships could not go there. Spanish trade was carried on under a neutral flag and English merchants found it safer to use American vessels. Great commercial houses came into existence. The trade with China and East India became a source of wealth, and the seamen of America were counted remarkable for their enterprise and courage. The question of slavery was one of the most important with which the Federal Congress interested itself It was held that Congress had no power over slavery in the States, but that it had power in the terri- tories. By the ordinance of 1787, all the territory northwest of the Ohio then belonging to the United States, and comprising what is now the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, was to be the home of free labor forever. Slaves had become especially valu- able in the South by the growth of the cotton industry. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. America has been the home of many great inventions, but none of them have been of greater import- ance than this to the Republic. It was the first key which was applied to the unlocking of the natural capabilities of this land. Whitney was the son of a Massachusetts farmer. He chanced to visit Georgia and saw there the great difficulty with which the seed was separated from the cotton. After a few months of hard study he invented a successful machine which in one day, by the labor of a single hand, could do more than was usually performed in many months by the old method. Whitney afterward made a fortune by the invention of fire-arms. The slave was thought to be a necessary part of the cotton trade, and there- fore assumed an importance in American affairs which it had never before held. It is very interesting to note how good and bad tendencies seemed to conflict with each other at this period of national history. At this very time an impetus was given to public educational matters which they had never received before. Education for all was a part of the free government. Noah Webster began the publication of his school books and gave his life up to the establishment of a national literature. In these matters the young States led, rather than followed, the older ones. Civilization spread westward and marked its progress by a series of triumphs over the savages and the soil. John C. Symmes 422 THK STORY OK AMERICA. obtained a grant of one million acres, bounded on the south by the Ohio, and on the west by the Miami, and here, in 1788-9, South Bend and Cincinnati were settled. The English still retained some of the frontier posts, and about these the Indians continually flocked. They were persuaded by the English that the Americans had no claim to any territory beyond the Ohio, and in truth every State westward had been an encroachment upon Indian territory. Indian warfare upon the settlers, therefore, took on its worst form here. At no time were the settlers safe. The man who left his home in the morning never knew whether he should WASHINGTON'S TKKASURE CHEST. ( Frolll a photograph.) return alive to it or not, and would have felt no surprise if on returning he should find his wife and children dead in his cabin. vSeveral villages were plundered and burned, and every train of emigrants was sure to encounter danger, if not death. On the Ohio and other rivers many tragic scenes were enacted. The Indians would watch for a passing boat, murder the passengers, and let the boat-load of corpses drift with the flow of the stream to the settlements below. In seven years fifteen hundred persons were killed or captured by the Indians on the Ohio, and twenty thousand horses were stolen. It was in vain that the Americans sued for a treaty of peace. War was forced upon them — a STARTING THE WHEELS OF PROGRESS. 423 war which ended in disaster the most serious ever sustained by an American ami}- in its battles with the Indians. In the month of September, 1790. General Harmar was intrusted with the duty of subduing the fierce tribes on the Miami and Wabash. The general had with him a body of three hundred and twenty regulars, who, being reinforced by the militia of Pennsylvania and Kentucky, formed a corps of four hundred and fifty-three men. Upon his approach the Indians set fire to their villages, but they could not be brought to an engagement. At length the Americans were unexpectedly attacked and severely disabled. After this humiliation to the United vStates, Congress, in the following year, 1791, strengthened the national military force and placed in the hands of President Washington larger means for the protection of the frontier. General St. Clair, then Governor of the territory west of the Ohio, was appointed commander of a large force. When Washington parted from, him he impressed upon him again and again the danger of a surprise ^'You know how Indians fight," said he; "I repeat it, beware of a surprise." St. Clair went out into the wilderness with these words ringing in his ears, but on the 4th of November, while the regulars were encamped on one of the tributaries of the Wabash and the militia were resting upon a high flat on the other side of the stream, they met with that disaster which Washington had especially warned them against. The Indians rushed upon them at a most unexpected moment, taking advantage of a division of the arm}'. Nearly half of St. Clair's force were slaughtered and he beat a headlong retreat. His militia had proved useless, and even his regulars had been panic-stricken. The Indians, as usual, fought from cover, and against them the fire of the Americans, aimed at random into a dusky forest, could have little effect. The pursuit was kept up about four miles, when, fortunately for the Americans who still survived, their foes could no longer restrain their eagerness for plunder, and returned to rifle the bodies of the dead soldiers. For thirty miles the terrified Americans continued their panic-stricken flight, throwing away their arms as they went. They left their wounded at Fort Jeffer- son and retreated to Fort Washington, at Cincinnati. Washington learned of the disaster with rage and agony. Never since the inter\'iew at the battle of Monmouth did he so give way to that terrible wrath of which he was capable. Thirty-eight officers and six hundred privates were killed or missing, and twenty-one officers and two hundred and forty- two privates wounded. Among the camp-followers were two hundred and fifty women, most of whom were killed or captured. 424 THE STORY OF AMERICA. No time was lost m sending out another expedition. The indig- nation of the people had been roused to the highest pitch. It was said that during the fight several British officers were seen upon the field with the Indians, who had come down from Detroit to urge on their savage allies. The man sent out to take St. Clair's place was General Anthony Wayne. His courage was reckless, and gained for Irim the name of "Mad Anthony," which he was called by his soldiers more in love than criticism. Washington himself carefully instructed Wayne in his mode of warfare. Nearly two years passed before Wayne had gathered his four thousand men and built the line of forts necessary to success. He followed Washington's directions implicity during all this time. He never permitted his army to be divided, and marched with open files that a line might be quickly formed in the thick woods. It was his habit to halt early in the afternoon, that the camp might be surrounded by a rampart of logs before nightfall. His cavalry laid waste the country for many miles on each side of the line of march. When he had four good forts behind him to offer protection in case of retreat, he decided to* attack. The Indians had consented to an engagement, and on the morning of August 20th the two forces met on the banks of the Maumee river. The action was short and decisive. The cavalry attacked the flanks of the Indian line and the infantry charged with the bayonet upon the centre, and as soon as they caused a retreat, poured a volley of musket balls into their foes. The Indians were pursued until within reach of the guns of the British fort. Here the Americans encamped for a few days, destroying all the property in the neighborhood. Wayne's loss was comparatively small, and for a time the Indians were effectually subdued. A treaty was made with them in 1795, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the United States, and from that time the more rapid settlement of the West began. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Flint's "Indian Wars of the West." Fiction — Gait's "Lawrie Todd." Bird's "Nick of the Woods." CHAPTER LXIX. >\$ iourll^ ¥tma$ of W^n^U tm> DEATH OF FRANKI.IN — ^THE HUMOR OF WASHINGTON'S TIME— THB C~\ ^ POTTPv OF HAMILTON — THE PENNSYLVANIA ^ WHISKY RIOTS. 'OT long after Washington became President, one of the greatest of Americans died — the first scientist, perhaps, which this country had ever produced. This was Dr. Benjamin Franklin, whose early life has been told of in another part of this history. In the courts of England and of France he won a consideration which was not paid to any other envoy from the young nation. Had he been known for no other reason, he would have been celebrated as the discoverer of the electric fluid in light- ning. He had long been a student of electricity, and formed a theory that lightning and the electric fluid were the same thing. He was very much laughed at when he circulated this idea, in a little pamphlet, and he made up his mind to prove it to the satisfaction of everyone. He and his young son together made a great kite of a silk handkerchief, and fastening a piece of sharpened wire to the stick, went out to fly the kite in a thunder-storm. As a low thunder-cloud passed, the electric fluid went down the string of the kite and when Franklin touched the key that he had fastened to the string, his knuckles drew sparks from it, showing that the electricity was there. In a short time he invented the lightning rod. In all public matters he had great influence, and he founded more good institutions and benevolent enterprises than any American of his time. The last public act which he performed was to sign a memorial to Congress, in behalf of the Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Society, asking the abolition of slavery. He lived to be eighty-four, and died on April 17, 1790. Throughout the States the mourning was universal, and 426 THE STORY OF AMERICA. in France the Assembly went into mourning for him three days. At this time the customs and habits of the people of this republic were very different from those of the present da\-. It was a ceremonious age — an age of display — and the traditions of royal splendor still clung, in a degree, about the capital of the republic. President Wash- ington was a man of great wealth, and one who believed that there should be distinctions in men, and that honor should be paid to those who deserved it. He desired, for instance, that the official name of the President should be "High Mightiness," which were the words employed in describing the Stadtholder of Holland, which at that time was a republic. But this title was objected to, and Excellency was substituted. Washington's levees were very stately entertainments, and differed exceedingly from the free and easy receptions which are at present held at the White House. Once in two weeks at precisely three in the afternoon, the doors of the great dining-room were thrown ■open. By the fire-place stood President W^ashington, with members of his Cabinet and other distinguished gentlemen about him. His usual dress was a black velvet coat, with white or pearl-colored waistcoat, yellow gloves, and silver knee buckles and shoe buckles. His hair was powdered and gathered in a silk bag behind. In his hand he carried a cocked hat, and wore a long sword, with a scabbard of polished white leather. The habit of shaking hands would have been considered too familiar at that time, and Washington greeted each of his guests with a courteous bow. Mrs. Washington gave brilliant evening levees, which it was considered a great privilege to attend. Dinners and public meetings were held in all the large towns of the nation on the birthday of the President, and the local poets were expected to address odes to Washington. When Washington drove to the sessions of Con- gress, he went in a state coach, the body of which was in the shape of a hemisphere, cream-colored, bordered with flowers around the panels, which were ornamented with figures representing cupids, and siipport- ing festoons. On great occasions the coach was drawn by six horses, on ordinary occasions by four, and on Sundays by two only. The driver and postillions wore liveries of white and scarlet. This display and formality upon the part of the President influenced the whole nation. It was, indeed, but the continuation of the state in which the Grovernors had lived. The forms of politeness were very elaborate, and the people devoted much attention and money to their dress. In Connecticut and Massachusetts there were still sumptuary laws against extravagance, but at this time they, were not enforced. Even the THE COURTLY TIMES OF WASHINGTON. 427 clergymen wore wigs, with gowns and bands, in the pnlpit, and cocked hats on the streets. The Jndges of the Supreme Court, in winter, wore robes of scarlet faced with velvet, and in summer, ver\^ full black silk robes. It is still their practice to wear the latter sort. The ladies dressed their hair with powder and pomatmn, and built it to such a great height above the head that it became necessary to have carriages of greater height made than those which had previously been used. At this time Sedan chairs were used as well as carriages, and in these FRANKLIN'S GRAVE, PHILADELPHIA. the grand dames were carried from place to place by two i:ervants in dashing liveries. The ladies themselves were gorgeous in rustling brocades, powder, patches and jewels. These patches, which were of black silk, were pasted upon the face, and were cut in a great variety of fantastic shapes. There were crescents, stars, anchors and even elephants, and a belle would sometimes decorate herself with at least twenty of these. Gentlemen dressed as brilliantly as the ladies, and in 428 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the same sort of fabrics. If a gentleman went abroad, lie appeared in his wig, white stock, white satin embroidered vest, black satin small clothes with white silk stockings and fine broadcloth or velvet coat. If at home, a velvet cap, sometimes with a fine linen one under it, took the place of a wig, while a gown, frequently a colored damask lined with silk, was subsituted for the coat, and the feet were covered with leather slippers of some fancy color. No gentleman's costume was complete without a snuff"-box, and on these little trifles the greatest art was expended. A salutation between friends was immediately followed by an ofier of snuff, and a man who did not take it laid himself open to the charge of being discourteous. The nation still felt the influence of Puritan prejudices, and was only beginning to tolerate the theatre, which at one time had been considered by the stern citizens of Massachusetts as one of the worst beguilements of Satan. Massachusetts is spoken of, because in religious and philosophic matters she was the leader. Private theatricals, which Washington and other fashionable people occasionally had at their houses, gradually paved the way for public entertainments. Musical concerts were allowed at this time, which, in itself, marked quite a growth in public taste and liberality, for at one time they would have been considered the height of frivolity. Balls were popular, and some of them were given on a very large scale. The French Ambassador gave one in Philadelphia which was so large that a building was erected on purpose for the entertainment. It is said that on fete days the hair- dressers were kept so busy that ladies had to employ their services at 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning, and to sit upright all day to keep from disturbing the head-dress. It was thought that when the army was disbanded the country would be filled with beggars, for it could hardly be expected that men who had been kept without other occupation than that of arms for eight years, would easily adapt themselves to ways of industry again. But they went back to their workshops and farms, and places were found for them by a people who, although they were capricious, were certainly not ungrateful. At that time the working people did not, as now, depend upon great monopolies for support. Cloth was spun in almost every house; tallow candles made in every kitchen. Wood was to be had almost for the chopping, and neighbors exchanged the produce of their farms and gardens. Secretary Hamilton was doing all in his power to restore the commercial confidence of the people and place the government on a THE COURTLY TIMES OF WASHINGTON. 429 sure financial basis. In trying to do this, he took some measures which were very distasteful to the people. A bill drawn up by him was passed in Congress in March, 1791, which increased the duty on imported spirits, making it from twenty to forty cents a gallon, and what was still more offensive to the people, laid a tax on distillation. The people of various States, held meetings, appointed committees, and adopted resolutions asking for an unconditional repeal. Those who accepted the offices of collectors were treated with every sort of indig- nity. Some of them were tarred and feathered, their houses were burned, and they were ostracized, although many of them were men of high business and social standing. The insurrection gathered rapidly and finally organized for resistance to the law. Under the leadership of John Holcraft, known more widely as "Tom the Tinker," the mob attacked several houses in Pennsylvania. The handful of militia was forced to surrender to them, and the mob burned several houses belonging to the law-and-order party. A few days later the mail to Philadelphia was stopped and the insurgents took from it several letters which gave accounts of the riot. The writers of these letters were severely persecuted. The insurgents next summoned the militia to meet on Braddock's Field, August i, 1794. Seven thousand came armed and provisioned for four days, but when they were told to capture Fort Pitt, they dispersed. President Washington was alarmed, and fearing that the rebellion might spread through the country, called on New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia for fifteen thousand men, and sent commissioners to the scene of the disturbance, with power to arrange for peaceful submission any time before September 14th. As these commissioners soon returned without having come to any satisfactory arrangement, the troops were put in motion with the Governors of New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, and Virginia at the heads of their men, under the leadership of General Henry Lee. Most of the disturbances were in the counties west of the Alleghanies, and the soldiers were obliged to cross these mountains, sufiering not a little from disease and exposure as they did so. The insurrection died quickly upon the appearance of the troops. Some of the leaders left the countr)^ and some were arrested and brought to trial. Only two were convicted of treason, and these were pardoned bv the President. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — Charlotte Walsingham's "Annette." H. H. Brackenridge's "Modem Chivalry." CHAPTER LXX. THE POLlTICAIv PARTIES OF THE YOUNG NATION — THE JAY TREATY — ELECTION OF JOHN ADAMS TO THE PRESIDENCY — ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS TROUBLE WITH <^ FRANCE. HE influence of the French rebellion was strongly felt in America, and the discontented among the people showed a willingness to imitate, upon the slightest provocation, the example of the French people. The old French monarchy had been over- thrown, and an attempt made to establish a republic in its place — an attempt which had led to violence and bloodshed which had never been equaled in the history of civilized nations. This struggle Americans watched with much interest. They were not free from a disinterested desire to see their great ally firmly estab- lished in a republic such as they themselves were found- ing. Jefferson had long been in Paris, and was among the company of brilliant fanatics whose heads were after- wards sacrificed to the relentless commune. Of all of them, he was the only one whose dream of power was finally realized, and who, in later years, stood at the head of a nation. The party in America which sympathized with the French and had democratic sim- plicity for their watchword, were inclined to quarrel with what was considered the ostentation of President Washington, as well as with the vigorous legislative measures of Secretary' Hamilton. The men of this party first called themselves Republicans, and afterwards Democrats. Samuel Adams, as well as Jefferson, belonged to this party. The party on the other side were known as Federalists, and desired that the States should all be governed by one central government, and that to an extent the judicial and executive laws of England should be imitated. Wash- A DEMOCRACY. 43 1 ingtoii, Hamilton and John Adams were among the foremost Feder- alists. Questions of international commerce were of the greatest polit- ical interest at the time, and the Federalists associated themselves with protection, while Jeiferson and his friends headed the free trade move- ment. From time to time different influences were brought to bear upon each of these parties, and cliques or bands of partisans came up wliich held individual views of some of the questions of the day. The Democrats were especially fearful that the national government would become too powerful and destroy the rights of the States. They feared that it might grow aristocratic and exclusive, as in European nations. As early as 1791 a minister had been sent from England. He made laws concerning the capture of French merchant vessels, which created the strongest indignation among the Democrats. No minister arrived in America from France until 1793, and the man sent was Edmund Charles Genet, who was received with great enthusiasm by the French party in the United States, because he was one of the "Liberators" who had beheaded Louis XVL He was intoxicated with the wild notions of the French revolution, and had not the common sense to perceive how different was the government which he was now sent to confer with. He quarreled with the laws, threatened to head an uprising of the people, and at last became so intolerable that the Americans were obliged to request that he should be recalled. The British continued to wage war upon the French vessels, and issued an order directing cruisers to make a prize of any vessel carr>-ing the produce of a French colony or transporting supplies to such colony. This, of course, was a serious interference with America as well as France, and Congress decided to stop all commercial intercourse with Great Britain till the western posts still held b}' the British were sur- rendered. Washington was anxious to avert war and in 1794 sent an envoy extraordinary to London to negotiate a treaty of amity and com- merce. Chief Justice John Jay was the man selected for this enterprise. The minister for foreign affairs in England met Jay half way, and in a short time a treaty was agreed upon, which went into operation in February, 1796. The withdrawal of British troops and garrisons from the western posts was agreed upon, as well as free inland navigation and trade to both nations upon lakes and rivers, except that the United States were excluded from the domain of the Hudson Bay Company. There were many other particulars relating to trade by water which need not be mentioned. Great Britain was to pay for losses by her irregular captures by British cruisers. Citizens of either countr)^ were 432 THE vSTORY OF AMERICA. permitted to hold landed property in the territory of the other, and no private property was to be confiscated in case of war. Ships of war were to be received in each other's ports. Citizens of either in the other's territory were not to be molested, and criminals escaping from one country to the other were to be delivered up. When this treaty and all of its particulars were known about in America, it aroused the warmest controversy. The President and most of his Cabinet were fairly well pleased with it, but the Democrats were so incensed against it that they proposed to nullify the law by withholding the necessary appropriations to carry out the terms of the treaty. Their particular argument was that it benefited England at the expense of France, and that it was for the benefit of northern trade, and failed to provide for the loss of slaves who fled with the British armies at the close of the Revolution. The needed appropriations were obtained only after fierce debates, only four votes from States south of the Potomac being given in its favor. The South was ambitious for ascendancy, and already the breach between the two sections became noticeable. Washington's second administration was coming to an end. During the eight years of his government the nation had gained more confi- dence in herself and had increased greatly in size. In 1792, Kentucky had come into the union. This region was at first, as has been said before, considered a part of Virginia. The Spanish government had, at one time, endeavored to induce the Kentuckians to declare themselves independent of the Union, and to join I^ouisiana, which still belonged to Spain, but these efforts failed. In 1796, Tennessee became a State. This part of the country had been explored much earlier than Ken- tucky, and, indeed, may have been visited by De Soto, long before the settlement of the Eastern States. It was, however, settled much more slowly than Kentucky, and the settlers came chiefly from North Caro- lina. It was here that the attempt to establish the State of Franklin was tried. This failed, after two or three years of unhealthy existence. Being so near North Carolina, Kentucky could hardly fail to be a slave State. At the end of Washington's Administration there were sixteen States in the Union. The first census of the nation, which was taken in 1790, showed a population of about four millions. Washington refused a third election to the presidency. John Adams, of Massachusetts, who had been Vice-President, was chosen by a small majority over Thomas Jefferson, who, as it will be remembered, belonged to the Democratic party. In those days the candidate who received the second number of votes in A DEMOCRACY. 433 the presidential election was made Vice-President, and thus Thomas Jefferson was given that position, although he and the chief executive differed so widely in politics. From the breaking out of the Revolu- tion, President Adams had been one of the most unselfish of the patriots. He had assisted in framing the Declaration of Independence, and had been one of the Ambassadors to make the treaty with France at the close of the war. But notwithstanding these services he was elected against the protest of a large part of the nation. Never since has any election been conducted with such bitterness of spirit and such public revilement. The volcanic government of France had thrown into this country many burning brands. The young "philosophers," as they termed themselves, could not, and would not, understand the principles of this government. They were accomplished in vituperative rhetoric, and astonished the moderate-speaking Americans with all sorts of wild speeches, which were mistaken for eloquence. So troublesome did they become that on June i8, 1798, were passed what were known as the alien and sedition laws. By these, naturalization was restricted and the President was permitted to send out of the country such aliens as he thought dangerous to the United States. He was permitted to give license to aliens to remain during his pleasure, and, if he wished, to exact bonds for their good behavior. Aliens who had no license might be imprisoned, and masters of vessels who brought them might be fined for not reporting their arrival. The sedition law made five offences penal. These were: "Defaming Congress or the President;" "excit-* ing the hatred of the people against them;" "stirring up sedition in the United States;" "raising unlawful combinations for resisting laws, " and ' 'aiding foreign nations against the United States. ' ' A wild storm of dissent greeted these acts, which, indeed, were hardly in keeping with the sentiments which America had always voiced, calling herself the asylum for the oppressed of all nations. In the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky it was declared that Congress had acted beyond its constitutional powers; that the States were not bound to obey, and that each State had the right to determine the question of constitu- tionality. With these resolutions, which Vice-President Jefferson sanctioned, the Democratic party strengthened its power. The Democratic party urged that these laws were such an insult to France, which had many distinguished citizens in America, that she could well be excused for the diplomatic measures which she took to annoy America. At one time nearly one thousand American vessels were detained or captured by the French government, and when the American 434 THE STORY OF AMERICA. government sent an envoy to France, the Directory ordered him to qnit the county. The Englis'n cruisers were also exceedingly annoying, and the commanders had no hesitancy in searching for English seamen on board of American vessels, under which pretext they frequently kidnaped American seamen. Adams was constantly hampered by the peace policy of Jefferson, who did not believe that war was right in the new brotherhood which had grown out of the French commune. But Adams had determination enough to insist that another commission should be sent to France. When this commission reached that country they were told that they would be received by the Directory if they chose to make a handsome loan to the French Republic. When the envoys refused to accept such humiliating terms, they were ordered out of the country. Congress determined to take a hostile attitude, and ordered the standing army to be enlarged by twelve regiments. A navy of twenty-four vessels was ordered, and merchantmen were allowed to arm themselves against the French vessels of war. In theory, the two nations were at war, but there were no engagements between them except among the cruisers. Two serious conflicts took place in the West Indies. A heavy French privateer and a French frigate were captured and sent into port as prizes. But at this time Napoleon came into power, and everything was changed. He received a new embassy sent out by Adams with great cordiality. The French cruisers were told to leave American vessels alone, and America changed her aspect to one of friendship. The Federalists, who were for war, were thoroughly dissatisfied with peaceable measures. The President tried in vain to take a middle course which should please both parties, and succeeded in pleasing neither of them. The unpopular sedition law was one of the things most talked of in the election of 1800, by which the administration of the government fell into the hands of the Democrats, to remain there for a quarter of a century. But in the meantime, there had been several occurrences of national interest outside of this. FOR FURTHER READING: Biography — "Life of John Jay." History— Carlyle's "Freuch Revolutiou." CHAPTER LXXI. % ^nttvn Jfuafar. THE FRIES INSURRECTION — SELECTION OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL- DEATH OF WASHINGTON — LOUISIANA — AARON BURR. \A\^]\IONG the things which awakened national anxiety was the .Fries insurrection of 1799. Discontent with the window tax began to show itself in 1798, and, in the spring of the following year, a rebellion against it broke out in North- ampton county, Pennsylvania. It spread rapid!}-, especially among the Germans. The militia was called out, the insurgents soon subdued, and their leaders arrested. John Fries was tried for high treason and found guilty after two trials, but the President pardoned him. Fries afterwards became a rich and respectable citizen of Philadelphia. In the same year, 1799, the site of the national capital was decided upon. Some of the members of Congress were very anxious that the place should be New York. This the southern members fiercely opposed, and threatened, as the)' always did when in any way annoyed, to secede from the Union. There was some thought of placing the national government at Philadelphia for ten years, but a desire among many of the members that a permanent site should be selected, hindered the carr)'ing out of this plan. At last it was agreed, "that a district of territory on the river Potomac, at some place between the mouths of the eastern branch and Connogoche- ague, be, and at the same time is, hereby accepted for the permanent «ite of the government of the United States." To this city was given the name of Washington. The plan of the city was laid out by Washington himself, and the present stately city shows how excellent these plans were. But it was desolate enough when John Adams took h's wife to the White House, and placed her in charge of that mansion, 436 THE STORY OF AMERICA. which in those days was considered by many as far too elaborate an edifice for a republican president to live in. The long, unimproved avenues, up which few people went, the deep morasses and thick groves, were dreary surroundings for the nation's capital and the residence of its President. Mrs. Adams complained that so few people lived round about that they could not even get fire-wood drawn for their comfort. The malaria which arose from the swamps was dangerous indeed, and the expense of keeping up such a huge building was entirely out of proportion to the President's salary. But these inconveniences were, of course, soon remedied. There is no question but that the site is a beautiful one for a large city. A level plain, three miles in length and two miles wide, extended from the banks of the Potomac to a range of hills bounding the plain on the east. The hill on which the Capitol stands has a noble view. This is the centre of the city, and the avenues radiate from it, thus making the city the shape of an amphitheatre. The institutions of government, art, science and education stand at great distances from each other, and have given to the city its name of ' 'The City of Magnificent Distances. ' ' Before the year 1799 had closed, George Washington was dead. The party bitterness which had called down so many criticisms upon him vanished suddenly out of sight. The nation recognized how much it owed to his wisdom, uprightness, unselfishness and honest pride. Congress declared what has since passed into a proverb, that he was "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," and Europe recognized the fact that one of the three great men of the age had died. These three were Napoleon, Wellington and Washington, and of them, Washington can safely be said to be the most disinterested. When Thomas Jefferson followed Adams as President of the United States, in 1801, his way was made comparatively easy for him, by the fact that Nap'>leon was now at the head of the French nation. The confused and complicated foreign conditions were altered. Especially did this affect the West, where there had been a continual distrust between the Americans and the Spaniards in Louisiana. Upon three different occasions the western men had been upon the point of war, by the authority and with the sanction of the President. One of the chief causes of the quarrels was, that the Spanish commanders at New Orleans refused to let the men from the territories unload any of their exports at the New Orleans wharves. To end these troubles, Jefferson sent Robert Livingstone to Paris, with a proposal to purchase the island on which New Orleans stands, and the right of passage to the A MODERN LUCIFER. 437 sea. The original territory of Louisiana, be it understood, as a French province, comprised the valleys of the Mississippi, the Ohio, the Missouri and the Illinois. At the close of the French war, in 1763, France ceded to Great Britain all that portion of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi and north of the Iberville, about a hundred miles WASHINGTON'S GRAVE AT MOUNT VERNON. above Orleans; at the same time France transferred to Spain all the rest of her territory on the western side of the Mississippi. In 1800, the province was returned to France by Spain. This will account for the fact that the officers at Orleans, civil and military, were sometimes French and sometimes Spanish. At the time referred to the Intendant 438 THE STORY OF AMERICA. " of Orleans was a Spaniard, although France was the possessor of the province, Robert Livingstone agreed, for the United States, to pav sixty million francs to the French nation for the province of Louisiana. When Napoleon heard that the negotiation had been completed, he said, with great satisfaction, "I have given England a rival." In America there was comparative indifference in regard to the purchase. The western men were glad to be protected from the petty authority of the foreign officers at Orleans. But Robert Livingstone said — and no one contradicted him — that the United States had no wish to extend their boundaries across the Mississippi. The government took posses- sion of the new territory by a public act on the 20th of December, 1803. The Vice-President at this time was Aaron Burr, one of the most brilliant of American statesmen. When he had held the position of Vice-President for three years, he committed the great crime which began his downfall. He challenged Secretary Hamilton to a duel and killed him, as both Burr and Hamilton and everyone else knew that he would. In tlie election of 1804, when Jefferson was returned to office, Burr was not re-elected, and George Clinton became Vice-President in his stead. Burr was as restless and ambitious as ever. He had lost his friends, but his thirst for power had only increased. It is hard to tell just what motive actuated him when he drew about him a company of adventurers, and sailed down the Mississippi river with all the theatrical display and assurance of a conqueror. He and his followers were in search of fortune, authority, and empire. No crusade of the middle ages could have been more romantic or vaguely ambitious in its purpose. iNIany people thought, and still think, that his intention was to take Orleans and establish a western empire. Burr was a man of very rare magnetism. The man who wished to disbelieve in him must first avoid him. He was courtly, elegant, and accomplished, haughty with men, and suave with women. He had offended Washington by his profligacy, and on that account had been removed from Wash- ington's military family at the time of the Revolution. As he went through the West, he took care to arouse in the pioneers of that country the hatred which they had so long felt against the Spaniards of Orleans. He begged them to remember Philip Nolan, a young agent of the American government, who had gone to Texas to collect horses for the Spanish post at Orleans, under a pass from the Governor of Texas. Through the treachery of the Spanish government he had been killed and all of his companions sent to the mines — mines in which so many unfortunates met with a mvsterious end. A MODERN LUCIFER. 439 Burr visited Blennerliassett's Island, in the Ohio, not far from Marietta. Harmon Blennerhassett and his beautiful wife were emi- grants from Ireland. They had purchased this exquisite island, built a fine house upon it, and lived there in state which was little less than princely. Even at that time of open and prodigal hospitality, they were celebrated for the splendor of their entertainments, and their large circle of distinguished friends. Mrs. Blennerhassett was a woman of DUEL I'.irrWEEN UURR AND HAMILTON. queenly manners and of keen intellect, and the cleverest men and women in the nation were glad to know her and to have the entree of her house. Through her influence Burr won the co-operation of hei husband, and Harmon Blennerhassett united himself to the adventurer and placed a large part of his fortune at his disposal. In the summer of 1806 Burr made the attempt which he had so long threatened. On Blennerhassett\s Island he collected boats, provisions, arms and ammu- 440 THE STORY OF AMERICA. nition. Here a goodly number of recruits joined him, and as the boats sailed down the Ohio and the Mississippi, other confederates were picked up by the way. Jefferson, for many reasons, had shut his eyes to Burr's actions as long as possible, but was now forced into publishing a proclamation which denounced the whole scheme, and the United States Marshals of Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky made attempts to arrest the expedition, which, however, were not successful. As Burr neared Natchez, he had thirteen boats and sixty men in arms. Here the adventurer's party found the militia of the territory in arms to oppose them, and they were all taken to Natchez as prisoners. Burr was tried, but pronounced guilty of no crime, which showed how thoroughly the western people sympathized with him. Disguised as a boatman, he disappeared into the wilderness. In the middle of January he was discovered and arrested, and conducted to Richmond, Virginia, to be tried by the United States on a charge of high treason. Such, however, were his personal attractions still, that when he was placed under guard, it was thought necessary that every man in the squad should be taken apart and compelled to swear that no interviews should be held with Burr upon the road, and that he should not be permitted to escape. His trial lasted three or four weeks, and ended in a verdict of not guilty. Burr became an exile in Europe, where he lived in great poverty and was shunned as a felon and an outlaw. He was ordered to quit England and while in France was kept constantly under the eyes of the police. Weary of such existence, he returned to America and resumed his profession of the law, but he never won the confidence or the friendship of any of his countrymen. His daughter Theodosia alone remained loyal to him. She was the wife of Governor Allston, of South Carolina. When she heard that Burr was returning from France, she set out from Charleston to meet him at New York, but the boat in which she sailed was never heard of again. This blow was the bitterest which Burr' had endured, and the rest of his miserable life was spent sorrowfully alone. Blennerhassett died bankrupt and broken-hearted on the Isle of Guernsey. A few years later the beautiful Mrs. Blenner- hassett died in New York, in the most abject poverty, and was buried by some lowly Irish women. A fall more profound than that of Burr's has seldom been known. He came within one vote of being President of the United States; he died almost, if not literally, a beggar, with whom other beggars might have been ashamed to associate. CHAPTER LXXII. THE PIRACY OF THE BARBARY STATES — WAR WITH TRIPOLI— A '^^^ EXPLOITS OF OUR NAVAL HEROES — THE 1% ~X TRIUMPH OF AMERICA, ONSIDERING the comparative weakness and the insignificance of the Barbary States, it seems strange that for twenty years they should have forced the United States to submit to the depreda- tions of their corsairs. From its earliest years the American government made a mistake in its treatment of the semi-barbarous States of northern Africa. As early as 1787 a treaty was ratified with Morocco, for which Congress paid eighty thousand dol- lars. In 1796 another was made with Algiers, by which it was agreed to pay forty thousand dollars for the release of thirteen Americans held as slaves in that State, a large amount of cash besides, and an annual tribute of twenty-five thousand dollars as the price of exemption from further aggressions. When there chanced to be a delay in the first remittance the Dey exacted still further tribute, and a ship of war costing about one hundred thousand dollars, was sent to him as a present for his daughter. The Barbary States subsisted almost entirely by piracy, and it was not upon the United States alone that they levied such tribute, but upon European nations also, though, of course, England or France at any time could easily have humiliated them had they taken the trouble to do so. Thousands of Americans were taken captive and millions of dollars were spent for ransom. It was a common thing for notices to be read in American churches of the captivity of members of the church in Tripoli or Algiers, and a sum of money was usually raised for the ransom of each. It required four thousand dollars to rescue a captain or a passenger. The Dey said that if the people of the United States 442 THE STORY OF AMERICA. paid him tribute, they were his slaves, and acting upon this principle, he force the frigate George Washington to carr}^ his own tribute to the Sultan. This tribute consisted partly of slaves and wild animals, and was carried to Constantinople under the flag of the Barbary States, This insult was more than even Jefferson, with his dislike for war, could endure without a protest. In 1801 Tripoli herself took the initiative and declared war before America did so. Jefferson sent four of the six American vessels to the Mediterranean. It was his policy to economize in every direction, and he believed that a navy was an unnecessary expense. He thought all that was necessary to protect the country was a few gunboats, capable of bearing but one gun each, which were to be kept under shelter where they could be easily launched in case of necessity. Many small engagements were fought in the Mediterranean which brought no notable results. In August, Lieutenant Sterrett, in the Enterprise^ of twelve guns and ninety men, fought with a Tripolitan vessel of fourteen guns, off Malta The Tripolitan vessel struck after a two-hours' fight, and then discharged another broadside when the Americans had left their guns and were cheering for their victory. Sterrett ordered his men back to the guns and raked the treacherous ship from end to end, not stop- ping till the mizzen mast was shot away, the hull riddled, fifty men killed and wounded and the colors thrown into the sea by the frantic commander. Sterrett then ordered that the enemy should throw all their arms and ammunition overboard. The remaining masts were cut away, the ship completely dismantled and then left to make its way home with a single sail. The Americans did not lose a man. As a matter of fact the Tripolitans were not good fighters, and they relied upon surprising their victims for their piratical successes. Their triumphs had iisually been over peaceful merchantmen, whom they ter- rorized by their wild manner and show of blood-thirstiness. It became frequent for the Americans to destroy their vessels and crews without loss to themselves. In July, 1802, the frigate Constellation iow^xi nine gunboats off Tripoli, and drove five of them ashore while the others escaped into the harbor. In June of the next year there was a battle of still greater odds. A cruiser from Tripoli, carrying twent}'-two guns, was driven into a bay seven leagues east of Tripoli. Here, with nine gunboats about her and a bod)- of cavalry on the beach, the John Adams and the Eiiterprise fought at close range for three-quarters of an hour, till the enemy's guns were silenced and her crew leaped over- board. The Americans were about to take possession of the boat, DECATUR'S TRIBUNE. 443 when a boat-load of Tripolitans returned to her and re-opened fire. ^hejohn Adams replied, and the colors on the Tripolitan vessel were taken down. A moment later all her guns were discharged at once and she blew up with an explosion which tore her to pieces. In 1803, the squadron on the Mediterranean had increased to nine ships, which carried in all two hundred and fourteen guns. The Philadclpliia captured a Moorish cruiser which the Governor of Tangiers had authorized to prey upon American commerce. Commodore Preble entered the harbor of Tangiers with four of his fleet and asked an explanation of the Emperor, who claimed that he was not responsible for the act of the Governor, and renewed the treaty with the United States. The Philadelphia struck upon a reef in the harbor of Tripoli, and while she was in this helpless state, was attacked by gunboats, and her commander, Captain Bainbridge, was compelled to surrender. The Tripolitans took advantage of an unusually high tide to haul her off and refit her. The American commodore was, of course, anxious to repossess this valuable vessel, or, failing in that, to unfit her for service by the Tripolitans, and Stephen Decatur successfully carried out a strategy by which this end was reached. He ran into the harbor one night in February, 1804, in a small prize vessel, the Intrepid. He pretended that the ship was a merchantman which had lost its anchor, and gained consent to make fast to the Philadelphia. At a signal his men arose from the decks, and poured through the ports and over the decks of the frigate. The barbarians ran shrieking to hide in the hold or dash into the sea, and in less than half an hour Decatur had cleared the decks, put combustibles in every part of the ship and set fire to them. By the time the Philadelphia was in flames the little vessel of Decatur was sailing away out of the harbor without the loss of a man. On August 3d Preble entered the harbor of Tripoli with his fleet and bombarded the town from his mortar boats. His frigates and schooners were out where they could fire upon the batteries. Of the gunboats, three, for different reasons, were thrown out of the combat and the other three closed with the enemy. One of these, commanded by Lieutenant James Decatur, a brother of Stephen, forced a Tripolitan gunboat to yield, but as he was stepping upon deck, was treacherously shot through the head by the Tripolitan commander. The boats drifted apart and the enemy escaped. Stephen Decatur, in command of another boat, was fighting with miglit and main. He boarded one of the enem)'s boats, and dividing his men into two parties, charged 444 I'HE STORY OF AMERICA. around each side of the open hatchway, calling for surrender and bayo- neting all who resisted. When he had done his work here thoroughly, he closed with the boat where he knew his brother had just been mur- dered. He boarded this recklessly, and after a fierce fight, singled out the captain who had shot his brother. He was an immense barbarian, armed with a sharp pike. He and Decatur closed in a hand-to-hand fight. Decatur's sword broke at the hilt, and he parried the thrust of the pike with his naked arm. It entered his breast, but he wrenched it out, tore the staff away from his enemy, grappled him and rolled him upon the deck. The savage Turk struggled to draw his poniard, but Decatur grasped his pistol and shot his antagonist, who fell back dying upon the deck. In the midst of this, a blow was aimed at Decatur from behind by a Tripolitan officer. This would doubtless have killed the distin- guished commander had not a young sailor named Reuben James stretched out his arm to receive the blow. The life of Decatur was saved, but it was at the expense of the right arm of the young sailor. There were eighty men in the two boats captured by Decatur, and of these fifty-two were killed or wounded. The third boat engaged in the struggle was commanded by Lieutenant Tripp, who boarded one of the enemy's gunboats and by a rebound of his own boat, was left with only ten men on the deck of the enemy. The two commanders fought each other — the Tripolitan with a sword, Tripp with a pike. The Ameri- can, covered with wounds, was forced to the deck, but with a sudden renewal of strength, succeeded in piercing the Turk with his pike. The rest of the crew surrendered. At the close of the engagement it was found that three of the enemy's boats were sunk and three others captured. The Americans had but fourteen killed and wounded. A little later than this, Commodore Preble engaged in a conflict with some of the enemy's vessels, in which he lost eighteen men. Most of these were injured by the explosion of the magazines of one of his gunboats. A few days later the bomb ketch Intrepid was fitted up as an "infernal," and one hundred barrels of powder and missiles were put in her hold in tightly planked rooms. In the deck, immediately above, were piled one hundred and fifty shells and a great quantity of shot and fragments of iron. The plan was for her to be taken by a crew of men in among the Tripolitan fleet. The combustibles were to be fired and the men make their escape in two boats. There was a thick haze over the water and her movements could not be seen by the enemy. She had neared the enemy's batteries before they saw her and opened fire. Exactly what happened has never been known, but a DECATUR'S TRIBUNE. 445 light was seen to move liorizontally along her deck, then to drop out of sight, and the next minute there was a frightful explosion, a great shaft of fire darting up from the vessel and the blazing rigging and canvas were lifted high into the air. The thirteen bodies of the crew were found two days later mangled beyond recognition. Little or no harm had been done to the enemy by the explosion of the boat. In November, 1804, Samuel Barron was made Commodore of the Mediterranean squadron, which then consisted of ten vessels, carrying two hundred and sixty-four guns. The United States had never before assembled so large a squadron. At this time America took advantage of a national dispute among the Tripolitans to strengthen herself there. The reigning Bashaw of Tripoli had gained the throne by deposing his elder brother, and the United States agreed to reinstate the exiled prince. They got together a force of adventurers from various nations and the American flag was raised upon Derne — the first time that it ever floated over any fortification on that side of the Atlantic. The town surrendered, and the reigning Bashaw was frightened into making peace. The United States no longer paid tribute, the prisoners in the hands of the Tripolitans were ransomed, and for some time Barbary States ceased to trouble America. But they dealt most unfairly by the exiled prince, whom they had promised to return to his throne. Again he was exiled, and this time without his wife and children, who were kept as hostages by his brother for his peaceful behavior in the future. He complained to the United States that they had left him in poverty and wretchedness, but they paid no attention to his appeal. They were learning lessons in statesmanship ! FOR FURTHER READING: Biography— McKenzie's "Life of Stephen Decatwr." Poetry— C. H. Calvert's "Reuben James." 27 CHAPTER LXXIII. (i'^ [t^utmm itm ft EXPLORATION OF THE NORTHWEST — INTRODUCTION OF THE STRAM- BOAT — PASSAGE OF A LAW FORBIDDING THE AFRICAN ^y^ SLAVE TRADE — THE JEFFERSONIAN POLICY — MARITIME TROUBLES. WO great enterprises marked Jefferson's adminis- tration. One of these was the invention of the steamboat; the other was the exploration of the Northwest by Meriwether Lewis and William Clarke, whom the President sent out for that purpose. The first person to propose the steam- boat was Thomas Paine, in 1778, during the Revolu- tion; and in 1784, James Ramsey built a vessel, which reached a speed of three or four miles an hour against the stream, on the Potomac. James Fitch built one, which was used on the Delaware, and predicted, to the great amusement of everyone who heard of it, that steamboats would one day cross the Atlantic. But these boats were constructed upon a principle which made them impracticable, and the first one built upon the present plan was launched on the Hudson, by Robert Fulton, in 1807. Three years before, Fulton had urged upon Napoleon, in Paris, his plans for the steamboat. Napoleon, always progressive, was willing to witness the trial of a boat and adopt it for the use of his nation, should it prove successful. But the experimental vessel was built too slightly, and the boiler and engine proved a greater weight than it could bear. They broke through it, and sank to the bottom of the Seine. Fulton was dismissed in disgrace, and returned to his own country. The Cler- mont, which he launched upon the Hudson, made the trip from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours, and back again in thirty. Fulton said that the morning he left New York, there were not more than 'JEFFERSONIAN SIMPLICITY. 447 thirty persons in the city who believed that the boat would ever move one mile an hour. Indeed, he was laughed at very heartily, and the vessel was called "Fulton's Folly." But as it went up the river against wind and tide, at the rate of five miles an hour, throwing showers of sparks into the air and making a great roar of machinery and paddles, the people gave a shout of applause, the first sign of encouragement which the devoted inventor had ever received. After this, steamboats increased rapidly, and, by the suggestion of many thoughtful men, were greatly improved and soon in general use, although it was a long time before an ocean steamer was ever built, and it was not until 1812 that a steamboat navigated the waters of the Ohio. It was in 1804 that Lewis and Clarke were given their commissions by the President, and started out with a large party to explore the THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON. waters of the Missouri river, cross the mountain range and descend ^ to the Pacific. For twenty-six hundred miles they pushed their flotilla against the current of the Missouri; then, leaving a considerable por- tion of the party to guard the boats, they crossed the mountains, mounted on horses which they had captured, and discovered the two streams which are known as the Lewis and Clarke rivers. They followed up these rivers to where they joined with the Columbia, and then went on to the sea. Robert Grey, of Salem, Massachusetts, had discovered the river Columbia in May, 1792, he being the first man to carry the American flag around Cape Horn and up the Pacific ocean. 448 THE STORY OF AMERICA. * He had named the river after his ship, the Columbia Rediviva. Lewis and Clarke met upon their journey with numerous Indian tribes who had never before seen white men — many, indeed, who had never heard of them. This journey was the first ever made by any white man to the Pacific, north of the line of Mexico. One important event that happened during Jefferson's administra- tion was the passage of a law forbidding the African slave trade. It will be remembered that this trade had existed ever since 1619, and it was agreed when the constitution was formed that there should be no interference with the slave trade until January i, 1808. More than a year before that time President Jefferson called the attention of Congress to the subject, and congratulated the members upon the fact that they would soon be able to forbid the barbarous traffic. The debate which followed in Congress was very long and bitter. Although no one was in favor of continuing the slave trade, there were wojiderfully wide differences of opinion as to the best way of putting it down. It was argued, too, that if it was right to hold slaves at all, it could not be wrong to import them. At length, under the lead of Joshua Quincy, of Massachusetts, and others, a law was passed forbidding the importa- tion of slaves from any foreign country into the United States after the year 1807. But in spite of the law, slaves were secretly imported for many years, until treaties were made with other maritime countries by which the slave trade was declared to be piracy. But it must be understood that the slave trade between the different States of the American Union was not abolished. The only States free from it were those which had incorporated in their charter an act forbidding slavery forever within their borders. The population of the country had nearly doubled in twenty years. At the end of the first ten years of the century the census showed a population of seven million two hundred and forty thousand. Wealth was increasing in a much greater proportion. After the invention of Whitney's cotton gin the exportation of cotton had increased from one hundred and eighty-nine thousand pounds exported in 1791, to sixty- two million pounds exported in 181 1. Not alone in this, but in every direction, increase of prosperity was visible. Ship-building and fisheries were sources of great wealth. The State of Ohio was organized and admitted into the Union in 1802, making the seventeenth State of the Union. When its people adopted a constitution, they incorporated in it some principles which were new to the world, and which were much considered in the formation of other States. To encourage settlemenU JEFFERSONIAN SIMPLICITY. 449' they provided that for four years after any settler purchased land of the United States no local taxes should be laid upon it, and Congress met this generosity of the people with another gift, which has been made a precedent in all similar legislation since that time. This law granted to the State one township in each section of their survey for the estab- lishment of its schools. This gave to the new States of America opportunities for public education which are unequaled in the world. Thus it came about that for that State and all which followed it, every man who desired could lay claim to a generous portion of land, and could have, without expense to himself, a liberal education for all of his children. ^ Emigration to the Ohio valley became rapid. It no longer seemea as far west as it had previously, though people still thought that any man who had looked upon Lake Michigan was a very great traveler indeed. There had been but comparatively little interest felt ni that vast stretch of western territory, but the purchase of Louisiana, which more than doubled the area of the national territory, and the tales which Lewis and Clarke brought back of the richness of the mysterious north- west country, aroused an interest which had never been felt before. In the narrative, which the explorers published, they told of finding the buffalo so numerous that in one case a herd occupied the whole breadth of the river a mile wide, and the party had to stop for an hour to see the animals pass by. Trade with the Indians was another spur to western excursions, and a New York merchant, John Jacob Astor, started a trading post called Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia river. But this post was afterwards sold to one of the British fur compames. Jefferson's administration was very different in all social respects from that of Washington and Adams. From the severity of his life and habits we have gained the expression, 'Jeffersonian simplicity. Washington, upon his inauguration, had driven in a coach and six to the capital, dressed in velvet and wearing costly jewels. Jefferson, on a like occasion, rode on horseback in a dress which, though careful, was certainly not ceremonious. When he dismounted he tied his own horse to a post, walked unattended into the Capitol building, and read his address Upon his second election he did not go to the capital at all, but set the example of sending a "message" to Congress by a secretary. This has been the practice ever since. He did not believe m those stately ceremonies which had graced Washington's time, and he abolished the weekly levees, only opening his doors on New Year's day and the 4th of July, at which time he welcomed any one who cared to see 450 THE STORY OF AMERICA. him. He was a strong believer in universal suffrage, and thouglii that all men had a right to vote for their own rulers. The Democratic party sustained him in this, but the Federal doubted whether it would be safe to place the ballot in the hands of the people and leave go\ern- ment to popular vote. At that time republican government, even to the most patriotic, was a thing looked on with distrust. Jefferson was very anxious to pay oflf the indebtedness of the government, and he succeeded in paying thirty-three millions of debt. This was largely done by reducing the expense of government, and to this day it is a mooted question as to whether this economy was wise or not. A great carrying trade had fallen to America because of the European war, which placed an embargo upon European courts. Holland, Italy and France were largely dependent upon America for sugar, as well as coffee. Tobacco and cotton were also largely exported. The extensive trade of the West Indies was transacted for the most part through the United States. So profitable did the carrying trade become that building and maritime commerce increased in a ratio larger than that of the population. In commercial rivalry with Great Britain, the new nation almost equaled the old in her shipping on the seas. It was not strange that the older nation should look on this with jealousy, and out of this jealousy there grew a rancour which caused the seizure of many an American merchantman. When it was proved that the ship was neutral in the court of inquiry', it would be released, but if by chance the cargo had been perishable, the ship owner had suffered a severe damage for which he could obtain no reprisal. Thus it happened that American merchantmen were constantly obliged to submit to indignities of one sort and another. Chiefest among these was the impressment of her seamen into the English service, for it was quite common for English officers, seeking deserters from the King's service, to overhaul American vessels and look for the deserters, very frequently taking off with them an American-born man. This trouble culminated in the proclamations known as the Decrees of Berlin and Milan and the Orders in Council. By the Berlin and Milan decrees, Napoleon declared the English Islands to be in a state of blockade, and claimed the right to seize all vessels trading with England or her dependencies. The English Government replied to these decrees by the "Orders in Council" prohibiting all commerce with those parts ot the continent of Europe which were under the dominion of France or her allies. Practically, this meant all of Europe except Russia, and laid American vessels open to seizure wherever they might go. The JEFFERSONIAN SIMPLICITY. 45 1 United States protested against these blockades, and maintained that the blockade of a port must be maintained by a competent force upon the spot. This, of course, was the right and dignified position to take, but the country had no navy to sustain its policy, and this is where Jefferson's economy showed itself to be poor and false. He did not even believe in fortifications for harbors, but thought they should be protected by cannons on wheels, which could be dragged from place to place as they were needed. Thus it was that America was obliged to submit to these insults when native pride prompted every man in the country to resent them. At length, however, the United States frigate Chesapeake was overhauled at sea by an English vessel, which fired several broadsides into the American ship. As the Chesapeake had gone to sea without any expectation of war, the men were not able to fire a gun, and the English ofiicers carried off four deserters which had belonged to their crew, but had been previously impressed from an American ship. Jefferson forbade American harbors and waters to all vessels of the English navy, and sent a vessel of war with a special minister to London to demand satisfaction. The English offered reparation, but at the same time issued a proclamation, directing commanders to make a demand for all English seamen serving on all foreign ships of war, and to report refusal should they meet with it. There would doubtless have been war as a result of this, had the Americans possessed a navy to fight with. When Congress met in 1807, it prohibited the departure from American ports of all American vessels. No merchandise of any kind was to be exported. The people of the United States, and particularly of the South, were foolish enough to believe that Europe would suffer severely if it did not receive her products, and that they were practically making war against England without expense to themselves or danger to their fellow-citizens. But at the North, where men were engaged in commerce, ship-masters and seamen were naturally dissatisfied with a measure which kept them shut in port. It was actually a fact that the grass grew in the streets and on the piers of the sea-board cities, and as week after week passed, the depression of trade grew deeper, until the fallacy of the measure became apparent to all, and Jefferson awoke to the realization that the States which had been his warmest friends, rebelled against his policy. At this time a presidential election came on. FOR FURTHER READING: Travels— Lewis' and Clarke's "Expedition to the Rocky Mountains." Fiction — Mrs. Stowe's "Minister's Wooing." J. C. Hart's "Mariam Coffin. " CHAPTER LXXIV. Hr jHtn. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON — THE SOUTHERN WAR PARTV — DECLARATION OF WAR AND POPULAR PROTEST — ^ THE TROUBLES ON THE WESTERN FRON- TIER THE CHICAGO MASSACRE — SURRENDER OF HULL. MADISON, of Virginia, was the next President. He had been a member of the couven- tion that had framed the Constitution, and had been Jefferson's friend upon all occasions. Indeed Jefferson may be said to have been his political master, and he was anxious that when he left the presiden- tial chair, the mantle should fall upon Madison. Madison came into power at a troublous time. The foreign rela- tions were especially unfortunate, and in the West there was danger on the frontier. The Indian chief Tecumsgh and his brother the "Prophet" had for a long time been trying to persuade the western tribes to give up drinking whisky and return to the customs of their fathers, Tecumseh held also that the treaty made in 1809, by William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana territory, with several of the tribes, ceded to the government lands which belonged to th© Indians. Harrison invited Tecumseh and his brother to a conference, which barely escaped ending in a massacre. The attitude of th^ Indians was so threatening after this that Harrison, with two thousand men, ascended the Wabash and built a military post at Terre Haute.. This was in 181 1. Harrison tried in vain to open friendly relations with the "Prophet," but when he found that he could not hope to, succeed in doing this, he marched against the Indian village and: encamped within ten miles of it, on the Tippecanoe. On the morning A NAVAL ENGAGEMENT DURING THE WAR OF 1812. WAR AGAIN. 453 of September 7th his camp was surprised by the savages. The soldiers had the presence of mind to put out their camp-fires, that they might not furnish so ready a target for the arrows of the enemy, and forming in a square, fought the Indians with courage. When the sun arose the men who were mounted made a charge which dispersed the enemy. Harrison found the Prophet's town deserted the next day and burnt it. At this time Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and John Calhoun, of South Carolina, both young and ambitious men, stood at the head of the southern party who desired to have war with England. New England was anxious for a fleet, if such a war was to be undertaken, but the southern faction consisted of the slave-holding element, and were not willing to unite with New England in any measure, or even to accept her advice. The plan was to invade Canada by the enlargement of the regular anny and the help of the militia. Madison desired peace, but as another election day rapidly neared, he was informed that unless he declared for war he would not be renominated as a candidate for the presidency. He was a man who had long been overshadowed by others, and his ambition now was supreme. He declared war against England June 18, 1812. A protest against the war was drawn up by Joshua Quincy, of Mas- sachusetts, and signed by thirty-eight members of the House. They denounced the war as a pretext to give aid to Napoleon against Eng- land, and showed how unprepared the nation was, without either army or navy, to begin a contest with the strongest nation in the world, and they pointed out to their constituents the fact that the declaration of war was a party measure and that it was dangerous to the Union in the extreme. The people also expressed extreme disapprobation; ministers made it the subject of sermons; it occupied the pens of the pamphlet- eers and was the subject most discussed in newspapers. Against the Federalists, who took this view of the matter, the Democrats, who constituted the war party, were greatly incensed. On June 22, 181 2, a mob sacked the office of the Federal Republican^ in Baltimore, and followed it up by doing great damage to several houses belonging to Federalists and to vessels in the harbor. Within a month the editor of the Federal Republican^ Alexander Hanson, once more issued his sheet. The office was again attacked, but Hanson had taken means for defending his property and fired upon the mob, killing one and wounding several. When the militia was called out, instead of arrest- ing the rioters, they arrested Hanson and his party and lodged them in jail, where they were again attacked by the mob, who killed, in the 454 THE STORY OF AMERICA. most wanton manner, General Lingen, and lamed General Henry Lee for life. The ringleaders of the mob were tried, but acquitted. The regular army at this time numbered six thousand men. To these were added fifty thousand volunteers and one hundred thousand militiamen, and Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was given the command. General William Hull, the Governor of Michigan, was appointed com- mander in the West and was ordered to be in readiness to invade Canada in the event of war. His intimate acquaintance with the country made liim well aware of the danger which was run by taking a warlike atti- tude in a territory where there were so many Indians. But he was not able to impress upon the government all of the needs and conditions, and marched from Ohio with about two thousand men, chiefly militia, who were especially uncontrollable and insubordinate. When the declaration of war reached him, he promptly crossed the Detroit river, a few miles below Detroit, for the purpose of taking Fort Maiden. He issued a proclamation promising protection to the inhabitants, but stating that no quarter would be given to those who were fighting in company with the Indians. The news of the declaration of war reached the Canadian commanders before it did Hull, and the first movement was upon the part of the English who took the fort at Michelimackinac by surprise and compelled its surrender. The Indians, who were always ambitious to be on the strongest side, immediately joined the English. This filled Hull with great apprehensions, and he sent to Captain Nathan Heald, who was in command of Fort Dearborn, where Chicago now stands, to hasten and join him at Detroit. The Indians about Chicago were supposed to be friendly, but their actions were per- plexing, and Heald was anxious about the outcome. He promised the Indians the property in the fort which he could not take away, and in the night he destroyed the firearms, gunpowder and liquor, which was the articles for which they were most eager. On the morning of August 15th, he set out with fifty soldiers and the families of the village. The party followed the road by the shore of the lake which was guarded by a low range of sand hills, behind which the disappointed Indians were crouched. At a point near the southern extremity of what is now the Lake Front Park, the Indians rushed upon them with their war cry- In the conflict which followed, the women fought with the men, but they were no match for the savages, and such as survived after a short but deadly struggle surrendered. Of these, all the wounded were scalped, for it was known that the British Colonel Proctor, at Maiden, had offered a high price for American scalps. The children, twelve of CO o O '5 WAR AGAIN. 455 them in all, had been put together in one wagon, in the futile hope that the Indians might spare them, but the little ones were all tomahawked by one Indian. The massacre was attended by peculiar horrors, which are too terrible to bear description. At about the same time Hull sent out Thomas B. Van Home to guard a supply train. Home's detachment met a force of English and Indians at Brownstown, and were defeated with dreadful slaughter. Another expedition, under Lieutenant-Colonel James Miller, was sent to open communication with the base of supplies at Racine river. These were caught in an Indian ambuscade, but after a valiant fight for two hours succeeded in routing the savages and returned to their boats. They left fifty of their comrades dead behind them, but had the satis- faction of knowing that twice that number of Indians had been killed. Hull retreated to Detroit, where, with the eight hundred and fifty men still left him, he made arrangements for defense. The rest of his men had been sent on distant expeditions. On the i6th of August General Isaac Brock, the English commander, crossed the Detroit river with over two thousand regulars and Indians, and demanded the surrender of the city. When Brock demanded surrender he had said that he could not restrain his allies, the Indians, from rapine and murder, in case the place should be carried by assault. Hull dared not rely upon his insubordinate militia for any desperate fighting, and as he had learned that the officers had formed a conspiracy to take away his command from him, he decided to surrender. He knew that if he defended the place and his enemies succeeded in defeating him, the fate of the women and children would be terrible. Among them was a part of his own family, and he had not the courage to run the risk. He surrendered without making an effort to fight, and for this was counted a traitor, tried by court-martial and condemned to be shot. But Madison, remembering that he had served through the Revolution with devotion, and feeling that the neglect of the government had much to do with the case:, pardoned him. FOR FURTHE;r READING: History — Drake's "Life of Tecumseh and the Prophet." Fiction — Richardson' s "Hardscrabble. " Richardson's "Waumaugee." Mrs. Kenzie's "Wau-bun." Poetry— C. H. Colton's "Tecumseh." CHAPTER LXXV. ^^^tmt §m l(|t {\t ^^^'* war of l8l2 — the niagara campaign — the battle of queens- town naval operations — the six triumphs of the americans — affairs in the west — the conflict on the lakes perry's victory. .ENERAL STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER had been given command on the Niagara frontier, with orders to capture the heights of Queenstown. On the morning of October 13, 1 81 2, he sent two small columns across the river. Some of the men succeeded in landing, but several of the boats lost their way. The regulars charged up a hill and took position on a plateau, wait- ing here for the attack of the enemy. The American force was worsted and obliged to retreat to the beach. They were here reinforced, and ordered to scale the heights, which they did, capturing a battery at the top of the slope. General Brock had heard of the conflict, and had ridden at full speed from. Fort Dodge. Upon his appearance on the field the English regained courage, and made an effort to recover their battery. They drove the Americans to the very verge of the precipice. The American commander realized that a desperate defence must be made, and he cheered on his men to such a fierce assault that the English broke and fled down the slope. General Brock made a brave efifort to reorganize the English, but fell, mortally wounde'd. Three other officers in turn took up his command, but all fell, and a retreat was ordered. Lieutenant-colonel Winfield Scott now reinforced the Americans, and assumed command on the heights. He had expected that the militia would follow him, but the militia refused to be taken out of their State, and cautiously remained where they were. The British were quick to take advantage of Scott's unprotected "never give up the ship." 457 position, and cliarged upon him with a heavy force. He repelled them twice with the bayonet, and upon the third charge, in which the English were reinforced, the Americans were driven to the precipice, and let themselves down from ledge to ledge, hanging by bushes and roots till they reached the water. The boats were not here to receive them, and they were forced to surrender, making the entire American loss in this action about one thousand. The war party were much opposed to the use of the navy — if the few gunboats possessed by the Americans could be distinguished by that name — ^but, at length, Madison was persuaded to order out the vessels, such as they were. The British navy at this time had more than one thousand vessels, manned by one hun- dred and forty-four thousand sailors. The United States had twenty large war vessels and a few gunboats, together carrj'ing about three hundred guns. The navy itself was anx- ious to take part in the war, and one hour after consent was given Commodore John Rogers put to sea in the President^ and gave chase to the English frigate Belvi- dere^ which escaped with a loss of seven men. The Presi- dent lost sixteen men by the bursting of a gun, and six 458 THE STORY OF AMERICA. from the fire of the enemy. Rogers went on across the Atlantic^ capturing an English privateer and seven merchantmen, and retaking au American prize. At the same time an English squadron off New York captured several merchantmen and the man-of-war Nautilus. Thus began the wars upon the seas. After this there were numerous engagements, one of the most notable of which was the victory of the frigate Constitution.^ under Captain Isaac Hull. He fought the British frigate Guein'-iere. The vessels opened broadsides upon each other at close range, and finally grappled, both parties trying to board. But the sea was rough and the musketry fire unceasing, and 'they were obliged to give this up. The Guerrierc lost her mainmast and foremast, and the Constitution: h&&6. herself, and got into a. position where she could take her antagonist fore and aft. The Guerriere., therefore, struck. The Americans lost but fourteen men and the British seventy-nine, losing their ship into the bargain, for in the morning it was found necessary to blow her up, as she was sinking. It was said that the victory to the Americans came through superior gun practice, which was not a little astonishing to the English, who had especially prided themselves upon proficiency in that direction. The Americans had placed sights upon their guns and could, therefore, fire with great accuracy. The English, as yet, had not adopted this plan. When Captain Hull landed in Boston he was met with a public welcome. Triumphal arches had been raised, the streets decorated, and he and his officers were entertained at a public dinner. In New York and Philadelphia he met wnth a like recognition of his services, and Congress voted him a gold medal, and his crew fifty thousand dollars. At the beginning of autumn, in the conflict between the Wasp.^ of America, and the Frolic, of England, the vessels grappled and the Americans sprang on the deck of the Frolic and compelled surrender. The Frolic carried a large crew, of which only twenty were unhurt. A few weeks later, Commodore Stephen Decatur captured a packet with a large amount of specie, and afterwards fell in with the frigate Mace^ donia with which he fought two hours. The Macedonia struck, and owned to a loss of one hundred and four men. Decatur lost but twelve. Captain Bainbridge fell in with the British frigate /<^e'^, off the coast of South America, and after a fight of two hours the Java struck, having lost every spar and one hundred and twenty men. Bainbridge' s frigate, the Constitution, lost but thirty-four men. It was this engagement which gave to the Constitution the title of "Old Ironsides." England was amazed, that in the six encounters at sea the enemy should have nl m bo .s *o b0 «t w •o V u o 5 < tn ' left her, took a small boat, and in the midst of a fierce storm of bullets reached the Niagara. He sailed this vessel straight through the British lines, delivering broadsides on both sides as he went. Then getting across the bows of the English vessels he raked two or three of them while his smaller craft poured in grape and canister. Perry told the outcome of the day's work in his brief despatch to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop. ' ' Harrison was transported by Perry's fleet to the Canadian shore of the Detroit river and besieged Fort Maiden. The English general set fire to the place and retreated, and Harrison pursued him by land while Perry carried his baggage and supplies by water. On the 5th of October Proctor turned about and faced his pursuers, choosing a posi- tion where he could plant his guns in a highway, and be protected on each side by marshes. Tecumseh was with Proctor, and the Indians and British were arrayed for the defence of the highway. Harrison placed his mounted infantry in the front of the ranks, and faced.the Indians who were in the marsh. The horsemen moved slowly when the bugle gave them the signal, but increased their pace till they dashed with terrible force through the enemy, killing, capturing or scattering the English regulars. Proctor was pursued by a dozen well-mounted men, but escaped. Tecumseh was killed and the Indians fled. The Am.ericans had regained the territory of Michigan, and Harrison and his troops returned to Buffalo. This decisive conflict was known as the battle of the Thames. Hull, and then Dearborn, had then been retired with their military reputations shattered, and General Wilkinson was now put in charge of the northern forces, which consisted of Harrison's force at Buffalo, the force at Fort George, that at Sackett's Harbor, and the right wing of the Vermont frontier, under Wade Hampton, these numbering altogether about twelve thousand men. Wilkinson was in poor health, and was much more interested in a whisky bottle than in a campaign, and therefore left his command largely to inferior officers. It was the plan for him to move down the St. Lawrence with a part of the men, while Hampton was to advance overland, make a junction 462 THE STORY OF AMERICA. with him and the whole army was to move upon Montreal. To make the road easy, Chauncey drove Yeo into port and kept him there. But notwithstanding this, the Americans met with many disasters. The weather was bad, the boats poor, and some were driven ashore, while others went to the bottom, causing the delay of the whole flotilla unti they could be replaced. At Williamsburg, they encountered troops to the number of seventeen hundred. A sharp battle followed, from which both parties retired in good order with a loss which was similar upon both sides. The other general. Wade Hampton, was as inefficient as Wilkinson, and he sent word that he could not make the junction agreed upon. Upon receiving this news Wilkinson willingly went into winter quarters. Hampton, with five thousand men, had beem successfully checked by the English Lieutenant-Colonel de Dalaberry^ who had a force of four or five hundred. In December General Drum- mond appeared between Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the Americans holding Fort George, which had been so expensively gained the summer before, fled at his approach, taking refuge in Fort Niagara and burning- Newark as they went. The enemy followed them and captured Fort Niagara without meeting with any respectable resistance. They killed eighty of the garrison, including the men in the hospital. A number of towns were destroyed, and all the farming region laid waste, many of the inhabitants being put to death. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — Kirkland's "Zury." W. C. Iron's "The Double Hero." Poetry— J. G. Percival's "Perry's Victorj' on Lake Erie." Oliver W. Holmes' "Old Ironsides." Levi Bishop's "Battle of the River Raisin." CHAPTER LXXVI. THE WAR WITH THE CREEKS — ^JACKSON'S CAMPAIGN — AFFAIRS ON THE SEA-BOARD — "YANKEE" STRATEGY — THE TREATY OF PEACE. 'EFORE Wilkinson had been removed from the southern to the northern departments, he had taken Mobile away from the Spaniards. This he did without resistance. It was done in accordance with the claim that the eastern boundary of Louisiana was the Perdido river. Spain denied this, and resented the seizure of Mobile. The powerful tribe of Creek Indians were given supplies of arms and am- munition at Pensacola and incited against the Americans Tecumseh, who had since met with a warrior's death, had been sent south to lash the Creeks by his resentful eloquence into a still more warlike frame of mind. Both the English and the Spaniards urged them on, and early in 1813 they began their hostilities. In the first encounter they were defeated, but in the second one, at Fort Mimms, a thousand of them, under the command of a noted half-breed, William Weathersford, besieged a stockade in which the inhabitants of the neighborhood had taken refuge. The men and women fought together here for many hours, and large numbers of the Indians were killed, but the buildings were finally set on fire, and the Indians massacred the people as usual, not even sparing the children. Only twelve of the garrison escaped. The rest were murdered with horrible tortures. The Southwestern States were prompt to punish these atrocities. The legislature of Tennessee appropriated three hundred thousand dollars for the campaign, and placed Andrew Jackson at the head of five thousand men. These men were composed largely of Western 464 THE STORY OF AMERICA. pioneers, well mounted, used to forest fighting, and capable of great endurance. Among them were Sam Houston and Davy Crockett, men which every American schoolboy counts among his heroes. Jackson built Fort Deposit, on the Tennessee, as a depot for supplies, and foraged the country thoroughly, burning every Indian village in his way. The Indians were first met at the little village which occupied the site of the present Jacksonville. The American detachment con- sisted of one thousand mounted men, who gave the Indians no quarter, killing every one of them, and taking the squaws and children prisoners. In a later encounter they killed three hundred out of one thousand of the enemy. At this time a force of about fifteen hundred came from Georgia, while from the West came another force, so that the Creeks had enemies upon three sides of them. The Western men, under General F. S. Claiborne, discovered a town of refuge on the Alabama. This was built on holy ground, and no path led to it. In it were the women, children and the prophets. When Claiborne broke in upon their religious rites, he found captives bound to stakes ready to be burned. Claiborne sacked and burned the town. By this time winter had closed in, and the short enlistments of the men were expiring, and therefore the operations for the year were closed. Along the sea-board, America had met with continued disasters through the year of 1813. Early in the spring a blockade had been declared from Montauk Point, on the eastern extremity of Long Island, to the mouth of the INIississippi, It was true that the British squadron was not sufficient to guard such a vast extent of coast, but it was well able to seriously interfere with commerce, and harass the people of the towns. Admiral Cockburn was especially dreaded for his cruelties. Along the shores of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina, he waged an unsoldierly warfare upon the quiet people of the villages and farms. His brutal sailors, half intoxicated, were allowed to over- run the country, robbing, burning, and committing every outrage which their ungoverned viciousness prompted. Cockburn' s men enticed away slaves and sold them in the West Indies. But their destruction and appropriation of property were the least of their offences. In the course of the year Congress authorized the building of four ships of the line, six frigates, six sloops of war, and as many vessels as might be necessary for operation on the lakes. Besides these, a large number of privateers were commissioned, and did some excellent service. One of the most notable of the engagements between privateers was between the Shannon and the Chesapeake. This happened before 'blue lights." 465 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, and, indeed, the vessel whicli Perry fought in was the Lawrence^ named after the gallant commander of the Chesapeake^ and on Perr>''s flag were the last words of Captain Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship." The fight between the 6'-^«««- by John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. All the flourishing sea-ports of New England, from Portsmouth to Long Island Sound, received at this time a blow from which they never recovered. As another presidential election neared, the power of the Federal party continued to wane until it was quite annihilated. James Monroe, of Virginia, was made President in 1817. He had fought in the Revo- lutionary War, and had been Secretary of vState under Madison. Though an amiable man, he had but little strength of character, and was not well calculated to manage the affairs of State. He was not well established, when he was called upon to consider some serious, matters on the southern frontier. For a short time it looked as if America might once more be plunged in war, and this time with Spain, as well as England. Florida, which was still a Spanish province, was the home of the Seminole Indians, and these savages had for many years offered protection to the slaves who sought it. It will be remem- bered that many years before there had been an insurrection among the slaves of South Carolina and Georgia, and that they had fled into Florida. There had been three generations of people since that time, but the slave-holders of the States mentioned could never forget that within a short distance of them were hundreds of people who were their property. When, therefore, there was any war with the Indians A TRANSIENT AMIABILITY. 477 of Florida, it was always practically a slave hunt, and both the Span- iards and Seminoles were quick to aid in repulsing such movement. When the British army left Florida, in 1814, a colonel by the name of Nichols remained in Florida, and having much sympathy for the Indians, he built a fort for them on the Appalachicola, near its mouth. This he supplied with large quantities of arms and ammunition, and returned to England, leaving the fort in the hands of the Seminoles. It soon passed from their hands into those of the negro refugees. Gen- eral Edmund P. Gaines, who had charge of the southern frontier, con- tinually complai'ned of this "negro fort," and united with Georgia in urging the Federal government to war. There was no question but that the fort was an excellent place of refuge for any overburdened slaves who found a chance to escape from the lash of the overseer, and as the slave-holders believed that the Federal government was framed for the purpose of protecting their interests, and that their chief duties lay in that direction, it is not strange that the Southern States should assume the government to be willing to take up arms for the purpose of recovering these unfortunates. In July, 1816, a detachment of Americans was sent to attack this fort, and some red-hot shot entered the magazine, where nearly eight hundred barrels of gunpowder were stored. The fort was laid in ruins instantly, and two hundred and seventy of the three hundred and thirty- four inmates killed outright, most of the others dying from their wounds soon after. The inmates were negroes and Indians, of both sexes and all ages. An Indian chief and the negro commander were among those who were not killed by the explosion, and these were tortured to death after the Indian manner. It is not surprising that in the year that followed, the settlers were murdered, and the settlements robbed. The wonder is rather that the retaliations were not more numerous. The Seminole chiefs warned the American soldiers not to cross the Flint river, saying that the land beyond was theirs, and that they should protect it by every means in their power. General Gaines did not regard this warning, and marched upon the Seminole village, burning it to the ground. The Seminoles took to the forest and waited. A few days later a boat passed down the river carrying forty soldiers, with some women and children. The Indians, concealed upon the bank, killed every one of these except four men, who swam to the shore, and one woman, who was kept in captivity by a chief The command in this border war was now given to Andrew Jack- son. Jackson paid no attention to the orders given him to call upon 478 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the militia of the border States through their governments, but raised a volunteer force among his old companions-in-arms in Tennessee — all of them magnificent fighters, and men who worshiped Andrew Jackson as the hero of his country. On the site of the negro fort he built and gar- risoned another, which he called Fort Gadsden. From here he advanced toward the Bay of St. Marks, driving away without difficulty the few Seni- inoles who tried to intercept him. The Spanish Governor of the fort at St. Marks could not make a defense, and Jackson marched in on the 7th of April, hauled down the Spanish flag and raised the American in its place. A few days before, an American armed vessel had sailed up the bay, ran up English colors, and thus enticed on board two well-known Seminole chiefs who were supposed to have been the leaders in the recent massacre. They were brought on shore and hung by Jackson's orders. A strong garrison was left at St. Marks and the march was resumed. Jackson wished to march upon and surprise the Indian town Suwannee, which was said to be a place of resort for negro refugees. Jackson was too late, however, for when he reached the vil- lage he found it deserted. At about this time occurred one of those incidents which showed Andrew Jackson's inflexible and iron nature. At St. Marks he had taken prisoner a Scotchman named Alexander Arbuthnot, who was a trader with the Indians. He had a depot of goods near Suwannee, and from his writing to his son to remove the goods to a place of safety, the Indians were warned of the advance of the Americans. On this account Jackson chose to look upon him as a spy. At Suwannee, Robert C. Ambrister, an officer of the English army, who had been suspended from duty for a year on account of fighting a duel, got into the Ameri- can camp by mistake. It had been his intention to join the Indians. He was therefore kept as a prisoner of war. Both these men were sen- tenced to death. Arbuthnot was hanged and Ambrister shot. These excutions were against all law and entirely without justification. Upon Jackson's previous campaign he had caused six militiamen to be shot, because they claimed that their terms of enlistment had expired, and that they should return to their homes. The men were honest in their claim, and were entirely innocent of any intention to offend. When Jackson reached Fort Gadsden upon his return, he was met with a protest against this invasion of Spanish territory from the Gov- ernment of Pensacola. He promptly turned back, reoccupied Pensa- cola and took the fort to which the Governor had fled. It is said that he afterwards regretted that he did not hang the Governor. Jackson THE SKCOND ADAMS. 479 tried afterwards to shift the responsibility of all these aggressions upon the shoulders of Monroe, but it is not rightly known where the greater part of the blame should be put. It was not Andrew Jackson's habit to ask permission of any one to do what he considered his duty. Nego- tiations for a treaty with Spain were being conducted in Washington, and in February, 1819, they were concluded. The Floridas were ceded to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. The breach between the Southern and the Northern States was widening. The value of slave labor rose as the new lands on the lower Mississippi opened fresh fields for cultivation. Slave-raising had become a science, and it was concluded by the economists that it was better to use up a gang of negroes in seven years and supply their places by new purchases, than to attempt to prolong the lives of the gang in hand by moderate labor. The invention of the cotton gin had also greatly increased the value of slaves, for two hundred pounds of fibre could be freed of seeds in a single day by the gin. As it was dif- ficult to overstock the market with this produce, thus it became almost impossible to overstock the plantations with slaves. There was nothing the slave-holders so much dreaded as legislative interference, and it was their constant ambition to keep a man in the presidential chair who should look after the interests of this wicked traffic, and see to it that the Northern States did not get in the ascendancy. To do this it was necessary that they should insist that as many slave States were included in the Union as free States. Thus, after Indiana, came Mississippi, in 1 81 7, a free State and a slave State. After Illinois, 181 8, came Ala- bama, 1819, a free State and a slave State. In March, 1818, the citizens of Missouri asked permission of Congress to form a State constitution, and to be admitted into the Union. Missouri lay' beyond that district where slavery had existed up to this time, and Congress, and indeed the whole country, was divided upon the question as to whether Mis- souri should be a slave State or not. In admitting the other slave States to the Union, Congress had not instituted slavery, but only allowed it to exist. Should the government conclude to permit slavery in Missouri, it would be giving official encouragement to it. When a formal bill was entered in February, 181 9, for the admission of Missouri, a New York Congressman proposed, as a condition of admission, that from that moment there should be no personal servitude within the State except of those already held as slaves, and that these should be freed within a short time. The South met this proposition with defiance and the haughtiest indignation. The North was threatened with terrible pun- 480 THE STORY OF AMERICA. ishment for her interference with the States of the South. Even as the question was being discussed a slave-coffle passed the Capitol, the men being bound together with chains and the women and children walking behind under the lash of a slave-driver. But this degrading sight served no other purpose than to point the paragraph of an eloquent Senator. For many weeks the debate went on passionately, and finally, when Maine asked for admission into the Union, the Southern men protested that she could only be admitted on the condition that Missouri was allowed to come in as a slave State. Had not some of the Northern men gone over to the side of the South, slavery might have been kept out of Missouri, but at last the Southern faction grew so strong that it became necessary to accept a compromise, which is known as the Mis- souri Compromise, in which slavery was prohibited in all that portion of the Louisiana purchase lying north of 35°, 30', excepting Missouri. This compromise was only carried by much trickery, and what little good there was in the compromise was taken out of it by the President and the Cabinet. When the bill was brought to the President he asked two questions. First, whether Congress had a constitutional right to prohibit slavery in a territor>-. The Cabinet were all agreed that Con- gress had such a right. Second, he wished to know if the section prohibiting slavery "forever," referred only to the territorial condition or whether it also applied when the Territory became a State. With the exception of John Quincy Adams, the Cabinet claimed that this referred only to the Territory, and that when any of these Territories became States, they could admit slaves, should they choose to do so. In the next session of Congress a bill was passed preventing free negroes and mulattoes from settling in Missouri under any pretext whatever. In short, negroes in Missouri were to have no rights — they were not under any circumstances citizens. Thus did the Federal government make itself responsible for slavery, and aided in its establishment where it had not previously existed. From this time forward the fight between slavery and freedom was an open one. FOR FURTHER READING; Fiction — I\ Philip Freneau, a Hugue- not by descent and a New Yorker by birth, was the first American poet to attain eminence, although the Revolution started into life a multi- of ballad-writers. Philip Freneau graduated at the college of New Jersey in 1771, where he was a class- mate of James Madison. He published four volumes, which were read in England as well as America. His political burlesques were popular, but are not so well remembered as his more serious poems. Joel Barlow was the first American to make an attempt at a national epic. This he termed "Columbiad." It is stately, but without grace. Dr. James McClurg, of Virginia, wrote many romantic verses of the sort usually penned in ladies' albums at that time. Charles Brockden Brown was the first American novelist. The history of this country had been too severe to encourage fiction. In the South, there was a comparative indifierence to letters, and in the North, literature took, for the most part, the form of a religious controversy. Brown's novels were gloomy, and it is for this reason that they are not better known. David Ramsay prepared some valuable books, and Jeremy Belknap wrote a history of New Hampshire, and a series of biographies. The first standard book written by a New England woman is the "History of New England," by Hannah Adams. Dr. Abel Holmes' "Annals of America" is a very valuable book. Chief Justice Marshall wrote a "Life of Washington," and William Wirt a biography of Patrick Henry. John Ledyard was the first 492 THE STORY OF AMERICA. American traveler to write a history of his exploits. Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote voluminously about medicine. Alexander Wilson was the author of some works on ornithology; Samuel Mitchell was the first man in this country to write on chemistry; Benjamin Barton was the earliest American authority on botany, and Benjamin Thompson wrote on physics. The theological writers of the last part of the eighteenth centur>' and the first part of the nineteenth were very numerous. Among them were William Ellery Channing, Henry Ware, Andrew Norton, Noah Worcester, Moses Stuart and Leonard Woods. In later years came Lyman Beecher, the Alexanders, President Hopkins, Professor Edward A. Park, and many others too numerous to mention. Dr. Charles Dodge, a Philadelphian and a graduate of Princeton College, is one of the most dignified of our Calvanistic philosophers, but William Ellery Channing is undoubtedly at the head of the earlier schools of theological and metaphysical writers. Later, came a more brilliant school of theological writers. Among these were Orville Dewey, William H. Furness, John Freeman Clark, Henry W. Bellows, Andrew Peabody and William R. Alger. These were Unitarian writers. Theodore Parker, Cyrus A. Bartol, Moncure D. Conway and Octavius P. Frothingham were among the writers who started in religious work and gradually employed their pens in secular writings. Mark Hopkins, of Williams College, and Noah Porter, of Yale, are among the most distinguished of our mental scientists. Thomas C. Upham, a professor in Bowdoin, wrote a work in 1831 on the elements of mental philos- ophy. James Marsh, president of the University of Vermont, was an influential Transcendentalist. Lawrence P. Hiscock was a profound writer on metaphysics as a science. Francis Wayland, president of Brown University, was an excellent writer on political economy, philosophy and ethics. Taylor Lewis, a professor in Union College, was a linguist, philosopher and scientist. Each church had its staunch denominational writers, some of whom have exerted a strong influence, notably John McClintock, of the Methodists. The "Knickerbocker writers" is a term applied to Washington Irving, James Kirk Paulding, Joseph Rodman Drake and Fitz-Green Halleck. Washington Irving was born in New York City in 1783, and absorbed there the curious life which he has so delicately and faithfully portrayed. At nineteen he wrote for a newspaper edited by his brother Peter, taking up theological and social topics, and using the name of "Jonathan Old-Style." In 1814 he visited Europe, where he 4^ HENRY WADSWORTH I.ONGFEI,I The line was also traced on to the Pacific Ocean, as it stands on all later maps. When Tyler had taken his position of sympathy with the Southern States he formed a close alliance rnth Calhoun, the leader of tiie Southern party, and devoted himself for the rest of his administration to the cause of the South. As a result of this came the annexation of Texas. The Spaniards and the French had contested for Texas and established rival missions or religious settlements through it. Finally, the province of Texas revolted from Mexico and declared itself an inde- pendent State. Large American colonies had been established there and the Americans took part in its struggle for independence. The slave-holding element fixed envious eyes upon this great tract of land, which was more than twice as large as the States of New York, Penn- sylvania and Ohio put together. Mr. Calhoun admitted that the object of securing Texas was to uphold the interests of slavery, extend its influence, and secure its permanent duration. The Whigs saw very clearly that if this immense tract of land was peopled with slaves and representation was determined by population, that freedom would be entirely outvoted in the Government forever. Mr. Webster's unwill- 508 THE STORY OF AMERICA. ingness, as Secretary of State, to abet the admission of Texas caused him to be removed from office. Mr. Upshur was put in his place, but was killed soon after his appointment, and in March, 1844, Mr. Cal- houn, the leader of the Southern faction, was made Secretary of State. A resolution for admission passed the United States House of Repre- sentatives February 25, 1845, and the United States Senate on March I St. It was approved immediately by the President three days before he went out of office, and the United States assumed the Texas debt of seven and a half million dollars. Florida was admitted as a State to the Union in 1845 — ^^^ same year that James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected President of the United States. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Jones' ''Republic of Texas." Urquhart's "Annexation of Texas." Fiction — Lowell's "Bigelow Papers." Mayne Reid's "Osceola." General Donaldson's "Sergeant Atkins." E. C. Z. Judson's "The Volunteer.'' H. Hazel's "The Light Dragoon." S'.'S^,''?' — CHAPTER LXXXII. i THE ADMINISTRATION OF POLK, AND THE WAR WITH MEXICX)^ VARIOUS SEVERE BATTLES — CONQUEST OF CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO — OCCUPATION OF THE CITY OF MEXICO — TREATY OF PEACE — BIRTH OF THE FREE SOIL PARTY AND ELECTION OF TAYLOR. HE news of Polk's election was the first report ever transmitted by telegraph in America, being sent on a line which Professor Morse had just completed between Washington and Baltimore. The combined opposition of the Whig party and a new party called the Liberty party, which was formed to resist the influence of slavery, were unable to cope with Democratic supremacy, and Mr. Polk was elected by a considerable majority. He came into power with the certainty of a war with Mexico on his hands. A strong naval force had previously been sent into the Gulf of Mexico, and all the military which could be spared ordered to the southwestern frontier. At the time of Polk's inauguration, three thousand six hundred soldiers were at Corpus Christi, Texas, under General Zachary Taylor. Texas was annexed by joint resolution to the United States in March, 1845, and a year later Taylor moved southward to a point on the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoras. At the same time he called upon the Governors of Louisiana and Texas for five thousand volunteers, and, wishing to open communication with Point Isabel, moved eastward. The Mexican general, Arista, wished to hinder his return, and planted six thousand men across his road at Palo Alto, nine miles from Mata- moras. When Taylor returned and found his way blockaded, he gave battle. He had with him some heavy guns which worked terrible 512 THE STORY OF AMERICA. havoc in the Mexican infantry, and in the midst of the conflict the prairie grass between the two lines took fire, furnishing a thick curtain of smoke, beliind which Arista drew off" his men. The next morning the Mexicans took position in a deep ravine at Resaca de la Pahna. This ravine was shaped like a horseshoe, and the open side was towards the advancing Americans. But notwithstanding this superior position, the Americans succeeded in capturing the enemy's artillery, and putting the infantry to flight. On the 13th of May, before news of these events reached Wash- ington, Congress formally declared war, and authorized the President to call for fifty thousand volunteers for one year. The mass of the people of the United States were not willing to go to war about a mere question of boundary. They were somewhat dismayed by the call for volunteers, and thought that it was hardly worth risking so much merely to insure to the United States another hundred miles of territory. Texas claimed that its western boundary was the Rio Grande. Mexico claimed that it was the river Neuces. Congress pretended to believe that Mexico had first declared war, and President Polk labored in his message of 1846 to show that the territory of the United States had been invaded by the Mexicans. The fallacy of this statement was exposed by Abraham Lincoln, who was then a member of the House of Representatives. However, many volunteers were sent by the south- western States, and when General Taylor's army was swelled to seven thousand men, he approached the fortified town of Monterey. This was garrisoned by ten thousand Mexicans, under the command of General Santa Anna, who had formerly been President of Mexico, and was considered the best soldier of that republic. When Taylor sat down before the city with his force, he sent General Worth's division to plant itself on the enemy's line of retreat. The Americans took first one and then another of the fortified eminences upon the river, and on the 23d of September they fought their way into the streets of the city. These were held by stout barricades and nobly defended, but as Taylor pressed from the east and Worth from the west, the Mexicans were finally obliged to yield. The winter passed without any brilliant engagement, but in May. 1847, Colonel Philip Kearney was ordered to organize an expedition foi the occupation of New Mexico and Upper California. He marchec' into Santa Fe on the i8th of August with eighteen hundred men, and issued a proclamation declaring the inhabitants absolved from theii allegiance to Mexico, and organizing the State as a Territory of the THE SAD PLAIN OF MONTEREY. 513 United States. He appointed a civil governor and hastened on to California with a small cavalry force. John C. Fremont, with an exploring expedition, was in California at the time, and was ordered by the Government to see that no foreigners should trespass upon the country ; in other words, that the Spaniards and IVIexicans should be irritated as much as possible. He learned that the Mexican commandant of California was on the point of expelling some American settlers, and this gave him the excuse for at once assuming the ofifensive. He captured the city of Sonoma and succeeded in securing independence to OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO. the settlers. Not that they were eager for independence, but the gallant young captain was determined to make American patriots of them, even against their will. Commodore Stockton, who commanded the American fleet, had joined Fremont, taken possession of Los Angeles, and then of Monterey, the capital of California, and set up a provisional govern- ment, with himself at the head. Meanwhile, the Government, considering that Taylor's manner of conducting the war was far too conciliatory, sent General Winfield 514 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Scott to take the chief command and conduct the war in Old Mexico as should seem to him best. He reached Taylor in January of 1847, ^ook ten thousand of Taylor's troops, and left that general not quite seven thousand. News of this reached Santa Anna, and he prepared to strike while his enemy was thus divided. Taylor heard that the Mexicans were approaching in force, and he fell back to a strong position south of Saltillo. Here, among the thin, sharp mountain walls, and the innumerable passes and ravines, is a broad plateau, known now as the Battle Ground of Buena Vista. Taylor had with him in fighting condition but fifty-two hundred men. Santa Anna's force at the very least was twelve thousand. Cavalry, of course, could not be used on ground of this nature, and, indeed, the attacking part)' could not even get their artillery in position. Taylor placed his men in groups upon the tops of the bluffs near the edge of the plateau. Here they fought through February 2 2d, and on the 23d renewed the contest. The plateau was mid-way up the mountain, and Santa Anna sent part of his men to descend from the higher bluffs and others to scale the incline from below. Throughout the day the ground was hotly contested. Now a ]\Iexican and now an American column was forced to draw back. As night closed in the result of the day was still undecided, but when morning broke the Americans found that the Mexicans had retreated. They learned later that the Mexican loss was much heavier than their own. Scott had taken his army to within a few miles of Vera Cruz. Vera Cruz was a strongly fortified city of seven thousand inhabitants. The castle of San Juan de UUoa stood about a thousand yards off shore on a reef commanding all the channels of the harbor. The Mexicans had supposed that it would be impossible for any boats to reach the city without coming under the guns of this strong castle, but Scott landed his men by means of surf boats, and bombarded the castle for four days. The city and castle surrendered on the 27th. The capital of Mexico was still two hundred miles distant, but toward this Scott marched as soon as he received the necessar}- supplies. At Cerro Gordo he was intercepted by the Mexicans, who had taken position on the heights at a strong mountain pass, with a battery commanding every turn of the road. But the Americans climbed up paths which the Mexicans had thought inaccessible and fell upon the enemy's rear, while others bravely contested the pass. The intrencli- ments were finally carried by storm, and the guns turned uj^on tlie rapidly- retreating Mexicans. Santa Anna fled with his men toward THE SAD PLAIN OF MONTEREY. rjr Jalapa. Scott followed him and took the place and waited here for reinforcements, which soon arrived. Santa Anna opened negotiations for peace, and promised to stop fighting if one million dollars was paid to him personally. He wished an installment of ten thousand imme- diately, and this Scott paid to him. But the Mexican Congress decided that the cause was not yet desperate, and Santa Anna's arrangement was disregarded. Scott, therefore, marched on with his men to the city of Mexico. He found that this was approached by causeways, crossing low and marshy ground, and these causewajs were commanded by rocky hills which were strongly fortified. Santa Anna intercepted him aud brought about the battle of Contreras. This was fought at the west of the city upon a rugged field of broken lava. The ground was terrible, the artillery and the cavalry almost useless, and even the infantry were injured not a little by falls upon the treacherous and broken crust. The Mexicans were finally surrounded, and many of them were cut down upon the spot, while others escaped through the American lines and took to the mountain paths. Two thousand Mexicans were killed or wounded, and nearly a thousand captured, including four generals. All the stores and ammunition fell into the hands of the Americans, who had lost but sixty in killed and wounded. Following close upon the battle of Contreras came that of Cheru- busco. Here Santa Anna had concentrated his entire force. A large stone convent guarded the bridge, across which the Americans were obliged to pass, and the river at this point was very wide. The Mexicans were prepared to defend the bridge stoutly, having pierced the building for the use of muskets, and surrounded it by a strong field-work. But the Americans approached by ditches and dykes closer and closer, till at last they crossed the moat, scaled the parapet, and won the convent— and the battle of Cherubusco. Their loss, however, had been very heavy. Scott's next movement was, on September 7th, upon the Molino del Rey (the King's Mill), a group of strong stone buildings, where it was oaid that the church bells of the city were being cast into cannons. Not far from this stood the castle of Chapultepec, upon the great rock of that name. The buildings were five hundred yards long. They had been barricaded, loop-holed, and provided with sand-bag parapets. Not far from these buildings was the Casa Mata, another strong building prepared for defence. Between these two buildings was a battery, and about them the Mexicans had gathered in force. Scott was located upon the southern side of the city, and, therefore, left 5l6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Worth to conduct the siege of these buildings, which were upon the western side of the city. Scott did not himself think the castle of Chapultepec of much importance, and when Worth begged that he might be allowed to take it if possible, Scott refused his request. He therefore prepared his men to take the Molino del Rey, and surrounded that building before daylight in the morning. His orders were to capture the battery, but when the men crept up to the spot where they last saw it, they found it had been moved. A moment later it opened upon their flanks, killing more than half the attacking column. While the Americans were reforming, the Mexicans rushed upon the ground and killed the wounded. But the Americans recovered and charged again. Companies of sharpshooters picked off the gunners and the Mexicans upon the roofs of the buildings. At last the gate of the great yard gave way, and the assailants rushed in, continuing the fight hand-to-hand within the court. A large part of the very best of the American force were slain and the Mexicans were killed in great numbers, the survivors finally retreating to the castle of Chapultepec. The fire was still kept up from Casa Mata, and the Americans approached in the very teeth of the fire, bringing the whole of their artillery to bear upon the walls, forcing the Mexicans to abandon the building. Worth had secured these buildings at a terrible cost, as seven hundred and eighty, out of three thousand five hundred of his troops, had fallen, but in obedience to Scott's positive orders, they were abandoned to the Mexicans. Later, however, in a council of war, it was determined that the castle of Chapultepec must be reduced before the city could be taken. This castle stands upon a great rock a hundred and fifty feet high. The northern and southern sides of this rock are absolutely inaccessible, and the eastern and a portion of the western nearly so. It is possible to scale the southwestern and western sides. A battery stood in the angle of the long zig-zag road which formed the regular approach to the castle. Strong fortifications were placed upon the rock, and around were ditches, aqueducts and walls. The Molino del Rey was upon the western side, and upon the east two great causeways led into the city of Mexico. Two thousand men, with thirteen heavy guns, defended the place. The Americans tried to reduce it by artillery fire alone, but finding this impossible, a party seized the Molino and occupied it. From here, on the 13th of September, fire was opened upon the castle, and a little later infantry were sent out to advance along the grounds of the great enclosure which extends west of the castle. This western slope was perforated with mines, but the Mexican officer who came out to HENRY CLAY. THE SAD PLAIN OF MONTEREY. 517 explode them was shot down, and the assailants went on to the crest of the hill. This crest, however, they could not climb, and as they had no scaling ladders at hand, they took refuge in the crevices of the rocks, and picked off the Mexicans at the guns. A large number of the Mexicans were letting themselves down the perpendicular rock on the eastern side, and a force was sent around to intercept them, and cut off their retreat. When the scaling ladders arrived, the force upon the west scaled the walls in the midst of a terrible fire and gained the para- pet. They then walked across the ditch upon the ladders. Meanwhile, another party had climbed up the southern slope and entered at the great gate. The enemy gave way everywhere and the Americans took possession of the castle. Then they pushed on after the flying enemy into the city, but when they reached the citadel where Santa Anna commanded, they were met with a fire so dreadful that further advance was simply impossible. However, the Americans gained possession of numerous buildings and dragged their howitzers to the roofs where they did destructive work upon the Mexicans below. Night fell with Americans in the city, but the citadel was still unconquered. The Mexicans held a council of war and decided to withdraw their army from the city, liberate the convicts in the prison, arm them, and urge the inhabitants of the city to fight with them from the house tops. The army was therefore drawn out of the city in the night, and when morning dawned gangs of convicts, deserters, robbers and thieves took the place of the soldiers, fighting with paving stones which had been carried by the thousands to the house-tops in the night. The American artillery was turned upon these houses and the desperate people soon submitted. By the 15th of September, 1848, the city was quiet and in possession of the Americans. Then came the treaty which ended the war, and gave to the United States not only Texas, but New Mexico, California and Arizona. This year General Taylor, candidate of the Democratic party, was elected President by a large majority over Charles Francis Adams, the nominee of the Free-Soil party. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Major Ripley's "History of the Mexican War." Fremont's "Memoirs." Scott's "Autobiography." Fiction — J. R. Lowell's "Bigelow Papers." J. Clement's "Bernard Lisle." "Talbot and Vernon." Anon. C. L. Hentz's "The Planter's Northern Bride." C. L. Hentz's "Eoline." C. L. Hentz's "Marcus Warland." Poetry — Charles F. Hoffman's "Monterey." J. G. Lyon's "Hero of Monterey." Albert Pike's "Buena Vista." Whittier's "Angels of Buena Vista." CHAPTER LXXXIII. ID Ih nnh m^ )]^am$. D:EATH of TAYLOR, AND ADMINISTRATION OF MILLARD FILLMORE- DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA — SLAVERY AGITATION — THE TROUBLE IN KANSAS. TAYLOR lived but one year after he was elected President, and Vice-President Millard Fillmore, of New York, became President fot the remainder of that term — 1850 to 1853. I^ur- inp- Taylor's administration o:old was discovered in California. It is most surprising that it had never been discovered before, and that it should be discovered now quite by accident. It was found in a little mill-stream running from the Sierra Nevada, and caused such excitement that all efforts to keep it secret necessarily failed. A great tide of emigration set in upon California, not from the Eastern States alone, but from all parts of the world. Great wagon trains crossed the desolate plains and the snowy passes of the Rocky Mountains to the land of gold. Many gold-seekers went away around Cape Horn, and yet others ventured across the Isthmus of Panama. So rapidly did the population increase that it was not long before the Territory applied to the Union for admis- sion as a State. In the State constitution which was formed, slavery was prohibited forever. President Taylor was a Southern man with slave-holding principles, but he was one who earnestly desired to pre- serve the union of the States, and in readily granting this constitution to California he hoped that the anti-slavery agitation might be quieted, and the country saved from the conflict to which even the dullest could see i*" was inevitably drifting. The Free-Soil party was rapidly gaining strength. Northern Sena- ti o Q 3 o (/) GOLD AND IRON CHAINS. 521 tors presented resolutions, whenever there was an opportunity, for the prohibition of slavery in the new Territories, but none of these bills were carried. Mr. Clay, who twice before in the clash of sectional opinions had offered compromises which temporarily allayed the storm, tried once more to act as conciliator. Kentucky was making a new constitution, and Clay suggested that there should be a gradual eman- cipation of the slaves in that State, and that as they were made free they should be colonized in Africa. But though Clay had been the cherished idol of the Kentucky people, they could not endure this reso- lution, and he was deserted by the "Fire-eaters," as the slave-holding extremists were now called. Daniel Webster, whom the North had always considered one of its warmest and most eloquent supporters, was guilty at this time of a change of opinion. He supported the compro- mises of Mr. Clay, perhaps with the hope that he might gain Southern favor — for it must be clearly understood that Mr. Clay's compromises had for their end the quieting of the Northern conscience. It was hoped that these concessions to Northern prejudice would secure the Southern States from further interference. Daniel Webster's attitude was that the Union would be disbanded if the slave-holders were not allowed to have their way. He believed in the preservation of the Union, even at the price of the continuance of slavery'. Mr. Calhoun, the third great statesman of that period, was dying, and his influence could no longer be used to uphold the policy of the South. When Mr. Fillmore took the presidential chair left vacant by the death of Taylor, Mr. Webster was taken into the Cabinet as Secretary of State, and the North knew that it could hope for but little from the Administration. He accepted and signed the compromise without hesitation, and the beginning of his administration is noted for the passage of the fugitive slave law. This gave the owners of slaves per- mission to recapture their escaped slaves in any part of the free States, and to carry them back without trial by jury. That the slave-holders might meet with no hindrance or annoyance, commissioners were appointed throughout the country who were to decide upon all questions of capture. If they decided that the slave was the property of the man who claimed him, their fees were twice what they were if they decided otherwise. This law was received in the North with horrified indigna- tion. Since every citizen was obliged to prescribe to it, many men refused to take the oath of citizenship or to vote. Others already bound protested that right was greater than law, and that they should simply disregard the enactment. It was a matter in which few could be 522 THE STORY OF AMERICA. passive. Every citizen in the free States was considered as under obliga- tions to capture and return to their masters any negroes found within their territory. The alarm among the colored people was intense. The free negroes knew that there. was no legal protection left them, and that any of them at any time might be seized and returned to slavery. They had not dared to count on the strong wave of sympathy which swept the North. A few years before, to be an Abolitionist was to be despised, persecuted, almost outlawed. But now the question was shown to the public in a different light. The Southern States had disregarded Northern wishes, and it occurred to the North that the gospel of State Rights might not apply aione to the States of the South. It had always been urged in the support of slavery; why was it not possible to urge it for the protection of liberty? It was therefore determined by private opinion that the Northern States would do as they pleased about rendering up fugitive slaves. But it was the masses who decided this. The prominent men, with the ministers at their head, protested that the law must be obeyed, and begged the people not to disturb commercial prosperity by any ill-advised sentiment- alism. When attempts were made to capture fugitive slaves, the slave- hunters found that they met with unexpected obstacles. The people of the villages aroused to defend the slaves with arms, not alone from impulses of humanity, but to protect what they deemed their constitu- tional right. The tables were turned upon the South. State sov- ereignty put on a new aspect. Not unfrequently slaves were snatched from the court-room and carried away by their friends of the Free- Soil party. But government, whether State or municipal, had no sympathy with these demonstrations. Boston showed that she intended to have the obnoxious law obeyed. An attempt was made to rescue Antony Burns, a fugitive slave, from the court house. The attack was repelled and one man was killed. The city called out the militia and the marshal joined to these all the United States troops in the vicinity. Antony Burns, a dejected frightened negro, was given back to his master with as much military pomp as might have celebrated the victory of a conqueror. More than one hundred civil officers of Boston, with the poor fugitive in their midst, marched out of the court house in a solid square formed by United States marines and a company of artillery. But this repre- sented only the authority of the law. In the hearts of the people who watched the poor slave as he was taken in the midst of this display to GOLD AND IRON CHAINS. 523 Long Wharf, there smouldered the protest which makes righteous revo- lution so much higher than law. No doubt this pitiable rendition of Antony Burns was a good thing for Massachusetts, for now throughout the State there was a righteous anger, as intense as that which ani- mated her when she fought for her own liberty three-quarters of a century before. There, and indeed throughout the North, when law failed, force was resorted to, and the slaves were rescued. When it became necessary for the slaves to fight in their own defense, arms were put into their hands. In some States the use of prisons, and the ser- vices of State officers in the arrest of fugitives, were forbidden by State legislation. The South saw that it had gone too far. Otherwise the administration was not without benefit. Postage was reduced, the agricultural bureau established, the Pacific Railroad begun, and the enlargement of the Capitol started. Those negotiations which opened up Japan to the world were begun. As the time for the election of a new President drew near, the Congressional members for thirty- three States pledged themselves not to support any man for the presi- dency not opposed to the renewal of the agitation of slavery. John Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, was the Democratic candidate. The Whigs held three conventions and nominated for President John Parker Hale, of New Hampshire. The Democrats were successful, and Pierce entered the presidency, pledging himself to do all in his power to preserve silence upon the question of slavery. But he had not been in office six weeks when the agitation was renewed as bitterly as ever by the effi)rts of the friends of slavery to overthrow the Missouri Com- promise. This, it will be remembered, passed in 1820, and prohibited slavery north of a certain line of that great domain which had been bought under the name of Louisiana. It was now proposed to organize, out of that region from which slavery had been thus excluded, two new Territories, to be named Kansas and Nebraska. The inhabitants of these were to have the right to determine for themselves whether they should establish slavery or freedom — "squatter sovereignty," an epi- grammatic Senator termed it. This bill passed May 30, 1854, and through the North it awakened an indignation as intense as if a part of the Constitution had been repealed. An invisible line seemed to divide the section between free labor and slavery, and to break over this line seemed treason and sacrilege. The "Northern conscience," of which the South had been so afraid, was aroused at last. The "religious liberty' ' at which the South sneered was the foundation of their resent- ment. 524 THE STORY OF AMERICA. The Northwest crowded the new Territories with settlers. The Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company was formed, holding a capital of five million dollars, and this company took five hundred New England emigrants into Kansas. The slave-holding element of Missouri was alarmed. They could easily see that Kansas was likely to become a free-labor State beyond the power of legislature to hinder. It was not easy for a slave-holder to prepare a plantation and move his army of negroes into the doubtful Territory. But the men of the North and the West, adaptable, industrious and enterprising, seized the oppor- tunity to settle upon fertile lands, which could be had for nothing, or next to it, with avidity. But whenever a party reached the line which divides Missouri from Kansas, they were met with strong opposition by the reckless and brutal men of that region, known as "Border Rufiians.'* These tried in vain to check the stream of emigration. Meetings of men in the slave interest were held in Missouri, in which they pledged them- selves to remove any and all emigrants who should go to Kansas under the auspices of the emigrant aid societies, and the frequent outrages on the Missouri line testified how ambitious they were to keep their word. W. H. Reeder, of Pennsylvania, was appointed Governor of the Territory, and arrived in Kansas in October, 1854. Most of the emi- grants settled at Lawrence, or near there, for the reason that the title of the land there was clear, whereas at that time much of the Kansas territory had a doubtful title, as the Indians had not yet given up their claims to the land. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — R. Hildreth's "White Slave." Holt's "Abraham Page." J. Hungerford's "The Old Plantation." J. H. Ingraham's "Sunny South." Mrs. Jeffrey's "Woodbiirn." M. Lennox's "Ante-Bellum." Logan's "The Master's House." M. J. Mcintosh's "The Lofty and the Lowly." Miss Palfrey's "Herman." Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin." G. W. Peck's "Aurifodina." W. W. Brown's "Clatella." Mrs. Cross' "Azile." W. Adams' "The Sable Cloud." W. F. Adams' "Hatchie." CHAPTER LXXXIV. m. SACKING OF LAWRENCP: — JOHN BROWN AND THE DESTRUCTION OF OSSAWOTTOMIE — ELECTION OF BUCHANAN ASSAULT ON SUMNER — THE MORMONS — ELECTION OF LINCOLN. MORMON TEMPLii. S soon as Kansas ventured to prepare for an election, an army of Missourians invaded her territory and cast votes for the candidate of the slave-holding interest. More bal- lots, indeed, were cast for the Democratic ticket than there were voters in the State. As the governor would not counte- nance these outrages, he was removed, and a man who could be depended upon to wink at 526 THE STORY OF AMERICA. coercion was put in his place. The inhabitants of Kansas called a convention and prepared a constitution for themselves. To keep this from going into operation the militia were called out, and a military company from South Carolina invaded the State, pledged to war. Lawrence was sacked, and some of its principal buildings burned. A civil war between the two parties followed. Many li\es were lost on both sides, and Kansas acquired the melancholy nickname of "Bleeding Kansas." The influence of the administration at Wash- ington was against the Free State party, and the United States troops were used for such purposes as dispersing the legislature and arresting the leaders of the Free State party. Yet another Governor was appointed, and under his administration an army from Missouri entered the Territory, and destroyed the village of Ossawottomie. This was the home of a peculiar man named John Brown. He was absent at this time, in pursuit of a party of border ruffians who had recently killed one of his sons, and who at that time had two others in chains. Brown returned to find his home destroyed, and to lay out, in his simple, passionate way, a plan which, in its failure, cost him his life. In the beginning of 1857 the Kansas legislature met once more, but the prominent members were arrested b^ the United States marshal, leav- ing both houses without a quorum. But the bitter struggle came to an end after a time. The Free State men conquered, and the attempt to force slaver}^ into the Territory was given up. A constitution prohibiting slavery in Kansas was made in 1852, and Charles Robinson was the first Governor chosen. Two years before this, Franklin Pierce, "who had come in with little opposition, and gone out with none," had given place to James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. At the time of Buchanan's election the country was in a political ferment. A party called the "Know Nothing Party" had been organized in New York, and its ranks were rapidly swelled. Its avowed purpose was to check foreign influence, especially the influence of the Pope, purify the ballot, and maintain the use of the Bible in public schools. The organization was a secret one, and, no doubt, had purposes which it did not confide to the world. It was called the Know Nothing party, because it was the habit of the members to say that they knew nothing of the proceedings or intentions of the society. In the midst of the greatest confusion of opinion and of the bitterest discussion in Congress, Buchanan came to the presidency as the candidate of the Democratic party. A little later, the Senate was disgraced by one of the most shocking occurrences of those troublous times. Charles THE TRUTH GOES MARCHING ON. 529 Sumner, Senator from Massachusetts, delivered on two days a speech which he called, when published, the "Crime Against Kansas." It was replied to by four different Senators, who, prompted by the bitterness and insolence which the time seemed to provoke in all, used expressions and indulged in abuse of which the Senate chamber had previously been guiltless. Mr. Sumner retaliated with indignation and even fierceness. Two days later, after the Senate adjourned, and he was sitting at his desk writing, Preston S. Brooks, a representative from South Carolina, approached him and said: "I have read your speech twice over care- fully; it is a libel on South Carolina." He hit Mr. Sumner over the head with a heavy stick till he fell to the floor bleeding. For four years the State of Massachusetts was represented by his empty chair, while he was in Europe trying .to recover his health. The act itself might have passed simply as the attack of a brutal man, and been thought no more of, but for the reason that the House and Senate sympathized largely with the assailant. Brooks, with an insolent speech, resigned from the House, but was returned at once by his constituents and received the congratu- lations of many. He died soon after, and an eulogy was pronounced upon him in the House. This showed plainly to the Liberty party of the North the trend which affairs were taking, and helped to swell the tide of resistance to Southern rule. Mr. Buchanan was another of those men who, though born in the North, were willing to sustain the Southern policy. His first message assured the country that the discus- sion of slavery had come to an end. Following close upon this address came the decision of Judge Taney in the Dred Scott case. Scott claimed that he had been removed from Missouri to Illinois in 1834, and taken into territory north of the compromise line; that in 1838 he had been taken back into Missouri and sold again to his present master. He protested that he and his children were free, but his master maintained that Scott, being a negro, was not a citizen of Missouri and could not bring an action. The lower courts differed, and the case was brought before the United States Court. Here it was twice argued, and Chief Justice Taney gave it as the decision of the court, that the black men could not be citizens; that they could only be treated as property, and that they had no right which the white man was bound to respect. The most conserv^ative in the North were startled by this decision into a radicalism which they had not before thought themselves capable of. In the midst of these troubles a wave of great financial depression swept over the country. Commerce and enterprise had been developing 530 THE STORY OF AMERICA. at an abnormal rate, and the system of credit had been perilously wide. The prosperity proved to be an apple of Sodom, which, when crushed, gave out only a puff of dust. In this same year the Government took exception to the views held by the Mormons, and the President removed their Governor, Brigham Young, who was also the Prophet of their Church, and appointed a Gentile. This plan has always been followed since. The Mormons have converted the once arid desert of Utah into a very paradise, and every traveler is astonished to find such a beautiful and thriving coun- try; and here, again, is to be found one of the wonders of the world — the Great Salt Lake. The summer of this year was marked by the first telegraphic message which ever passed from America to Europe. This cable was laid by private enterprise, and neither the Governments of England or the United States can take any credit to themselves. In the summer of 1858 John Brown came into prominence. Every few years there arises somewhere in the world a man whom criticism calls a fanatic and whom posterity recognizes as a martyr. In truth, Brown was both. The contending theories of politicians, the tedious delays of the law and of Government and the shameless procrastination which was shown by the Administration, lashed him into resistance. He was of Puritan blood, and had in him the Puritan devotion to duty and principle. He had seen the suffering of the people of Kansas, who were laboring for freedom, and had himself suffered from the outrages of the border ruffians. One son had been killed and another driven insane by these men, and he meant to devote his life to aid, so far as he could, the extermination of slavery' and the punishment of the slave- holder. Like many another reformer a strain of madness mingled with his devotion. He believed that he was God's messenger. Early in the year he had called together in Canada a quiet convention of the "True Friends of Freedom," and had prepared a provisional constitution for the people of the United States. He had been well acquainted in his youth with the mountains of Virginia, and it seemed to him that they were made to be the stronghold of an army — an idea which Washington had held before him. His plan was now to get the slaves to join him; to retreat to these mountains and hold them until the slaves from all over the land flocked to his standard and let him lead them to liberty. George L. Stearns secured him arms and gave him four hundred dollars. Brown went to Maryland and established himself at Harper's Ferry. On the i6th of October, 1859, he took possession of the United States Armory and buildings at Harper's Ferry, stopped railroad trains, and held the town THE TRUTH GOES GOES MARCHING ON. 533 with a force of fourteen white men and four negroes. He would doubt- less have escaped had he not been too considerate of the feelings of the families of the men whom he kept as hostages. On their account he delayed, and United States troops, under the command of Colonel Robert H. Lee, soon surrounded his little force and compelled it to retire to the engine house. Here Brown's band fought desperately. Thirteen of them were killed or mortally wounded, and among them two of Brown's sons. He defied danger with perfect coolness, and one of his prisoners describes him as feeling the pulse of his dying son with one hand, and holding his rifle with the other, all the while encourag- ing his men. After his capture he was put on trial before a Virginian court, and behaved with such fortitude, self-forgetfulness and dignity that even his enemies admired him. He was condemned and handed December 2, 1859, ^^ Charleston, Virginia, stopping ou the way to the scaffold to kiss a little slave child. Six of his comrades were hung the next day. A few others, who had been on duty outside of the town at the time of Brown's capture, escaped to the mountains and thence to the free States. The South was in a ferment. It was generally understood that should the Republicans succeed in electing their candidate in the next campaign, that it would be the signal for secession. At this campaign there were in the field the Democratic party, the advocates of secession, the Constitutional Union National party — made up of the remnants of the old Whig and American parties, who hoped both to avoid war and preserve the Union — and the Republican party. Abraham Lincoln was the candidate of the last named party, and he was elected by the largest popular vote ever given for any President. Very glad was Mr. Buchanan to resign his place to some one who would take the responsibility of meeting the great questions of the hour. Mr. Lincoln was a man of very moderate opinions in regard to slaver}', and he said often in public speeches, that he did not approve of abolishing slavery in the States where it was already established by law. But notwithstanding this, his election was looked on as very dangerous for the slave States, and his inauguration was the signal for disunion. FOR FURTHER READING: Biography — Nickolay and Hay's "Life of Lincoln.' Drew's "John Brown's Invasion." Fiction — J. W. De Forest's "Kate Beaumont." Mrs. Dupuy's "The Planter's Daughter." J. R. Gilmore's "Among the Pines." J. R. Hatermann's "Dead Men's Shoes." S. J. Hale's "Northwood." Poetry — Phoebe Gary's "John Brown." E. C. Stedman's "Ossawattomie Brown." Edna D. Proctor's "The Virginia Scaffold." CHAPTER LXXXV, W $ jtrB laming, '%n{\pt jlir^^nm/' SECESSION — THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY — ATTACK ON FORT SUMF» TER — THE FIRST CALL FOR TROOPS — THE THREE YEARS' ENLISTMENT — THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. 9 ECESSION was begun before President Buchanan's term had expired. It is putting it mildly to say that the Secessionists were confident. To begin c \li ~~=' JP"- vvT' became engaged at this point, when both columns retreated with a loss of about sixty men on each side. McDowell gave up the plan of turning Beauregard's right flank, finding that he was very strongly intrenched at that point, and the two days which followed the engagement at Black- burn's Ford were spent in searching for a ford where a column could cross and protect the passage of the army. General Patterson did not succeed in keeping Johnston penned in the Shenandoah valley, and that general had joined Beauregard with a portion of his forces. McDowell did not know this, and crossed the stream with his force as soon as possible. The battle ground was a plateau thinly wooded and crossed by a small stream that flowed into Bull Run. The enemy were slowly driven back through this grove under a most destructive fire, but General Thomas J. Jackson and his men stood immovable upon the spot where they were posted, and won for General Jackson the name of "Stonewall." But as the Confederate line fell back, it gained higher ground, which placed the Union troops at a disadvantage. Jackson and 540 THE STORY OF AMERICA. liis men fell upon the Union right, and broke the troops. A terrible panic followed, and the troops swarmed back toward Washington in mad haste. The Congressmen in their carriages, the soldiers without their guns, the drivers of army wagons without their wagons and "stonewall" JACKSiON. dinging to the backs of their horses, rushed back together in a con- Jusion so headlong that it would have been comical if it had not been tragic. The loss of the Confederates was about one thousand nine h-andred; that of the Nationals about one thousand five hundred in ''WE ARE COMING, FATHER ABRAHAM." 541 killed and wounded, and as many more in prisoners. But this victory- was not so Helpful to the Confederates as the people of the North imagined it would be. It disorganized the Confederate army more than defeat would have done, for the Southern volunteers thought that their cause was gained, and many of them went to their homes. Later in the year there was a smaller battle at Ball's Bluff, m which. the National troops were also unsuccessful. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Frj-'s "McDowell and Tyler at Bull Run." '*■ Doubleday's "Forts Sutapter and Moultrie." Abbot's "Blue Jackets of '6i." Fiction— J. H. Au^hey's "The Iron Furnace." Mr. Remicks "Millicent Halford." Poetry— G. H. Boker's "Poems of the War." Mrs. Warfield's "Battle of Bull Run." Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic." A. G. H. Dugarme's "Bethel." Richard Realf 's "Apocalypse." CHAPTER LXXXVI. ij^B l[tittm !I[ttrBtj0r. ATTITUDE OF FOREIGN POWERS — BOMBARDMENT OF THE FORTS AT HATTERAS INLET — CONQUEST OF CHARLESTON HARBOR — THE CAMPAIGN WEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES GRANT AT FORTS HENRY AND DONELSON — THE WAR IN MISSOURI. N the Old World the American conflict was looked upon with satisfaction. Many were glad to see that the Republic, which they had always prophesied would end in failure and confusion, was about to fulfill the prophesy. France, upon a flimsy excuse, sent an army into Mexico. Eng- land threatened war because two gentlemen, James M. Mason, of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, who were sent out by the Confederate Government as ministers to London and Paris, were taken from an English ship and returned to their own country. The British steamer was allowed to go on, because the captors were not willing to cause inconvenience to inno- cent persons. England demanded an apology and the return of the two men taken from her steamer. The Secretary of State, William H. Seward, sent a masterly letter to Eng- land, which, while it offered no apology, and, indeed, defended the capture of the ministers, nevertheless satisfied the English nation and averted war. The commissioners were released and allowed to sail for England, but their purpose had been practically thwarted. England continued, however, to sympathize with the insurgents. Her leading journals congratulated the Southerners upon their courage in upholding their rights. The Russian Government alone was friendly to the United States. THE UK ION FOREVER. 543 The Presidents who preceded Ivincoln and the Cabinets which sustained them had systematically closed their ears and eyes to all that promised war, and now that the United States found itself confronted with the probabilities of a long conflict, she was poorly prepared. Her vessels were for the most part in foreign waters, and it was many months before news could reach them and bring them home. Only twelve vessels were in port — four in Northern and eight in Southern ports. Three hundred of the navy who had been educated for services in the United States went over to the Confederacy, as did a large number of those educated at West Point for the army — among them some of the best generals of the war. To establish itself on the seas, the Govern- ment bought all sorts of merchant crafts, and had gunboats built as hastily as possible. It was necessary to get vessels in sufficient quantity to secure the blockade of the Southern ports, but this was never made so secure that blockade runners did not frequently defy it. The Con- federate Government enacted a law providing that a portion of every cargo brought into its ports must consist of arms and ammunition. Thus the Southern soldier was always well supplied with the best weapons which English arsenals could produce. The Confederates sent out cotton, tobacco and rice in payment for these. To shut off this trade was the ambition of the Federal Government. To do this, it was necessary to sustain a complete blockade of Southern ports. An expedi- tion was fitted out at Hampton Roads, commanded by Flag-officer Silas H. Stringham. It numbered ten vessels and carried one hundred and fifty-eight guns. Two of these vessels were transport steamers having on board nine hundred troops, commanded by General Benjamin F. Butler, It sailed on the 26th of August, 1861, with sealed orders, and arrived at its destination, Hatteras Inlet, before sunset, anchoring off" the bar. Early in the morning an attempt was made to land the troops, but the surf was so heavy that the powder was damaged and the lives of the men endangered, and only about one-third of the troops were landed. Two forts had been erected to protect Hatteras Inlet, and the project was to capture them. They were garrisoned by about six hun- dred men, but were not ver>' strongly built. The troops that landed took possession of the smaller work, and the fleet bombarded the larger one. At the end of three hours the larger fort surrendered, and in the meantime the smaller one had been taken possession of without difficulty. Seven hundred prisoners were taken and sent to New York. Not a man was lost among the Federal forces. Garrisons were left to protect th" place, and a coaling station was established for the blockading fleet. 544 "^HE STORY OF AMERICA. By the last of October a much larger expedition sailed from Hamp- ton Roads. It consisted of more than fifty vessels, and was commanded by Flag-officer Samuel F. Dupont. It had not long been out when it •was scattered by a terrible gale. One transport vessel was complete] y wrecked; one threw over her battery and another her cargo, and one store ship was lost. It was some time before the fleet got together again. Then it was joined by some frigates which were blockading Charleston harbor, and all sailed for Port Royal, arriving on the 5th and 6th of November. The entrance to the harbor was protected by two earthworks. Fort Walker and Fort Beauregard. On the 7th of Novem- ber the order of battle was formed. The fleet steamed steadily by Fort Walker, pouring shells and rifle shot into it. The fort made a gallant defence, but could not prevent the ships from turning and steaming out again, delivering a yet hotter fire. Three times the boats passed and repassed the fort; then the Bienbelle sailed yet closer and delivered afire that dismounted several guns, and worked dreadful destruction in the fort. The gunboats were sweeping it with their fire, and at last the troops were seen pouring out of the fort in a panic. The Federalists sent a flag of truce on shore, but no one remained in the fort to receive it and the national colors were raised. The troops were then debarked and put in possession of both forts, repairing and strengthening the works. Thus the Government obtained a permanent foothold on the soil of South Carolina. West of the mountains, the year 1862 opened with some lively work. A large Confederate force of Kentuckians had gathered at Paintville. These were attacked by Colonel James A. Garfield, in command of one thousand eight hundred infantry and three hundred cavalry. They were driven out of Paintville and finally forced into another engage- ment. At last they retreated in the night, leaving their dead on the field. A few months before this there had been an engagement west of the mountains in which the loss was greater. This was called the battle of Mill Springs, and was fought at the head of steamboat naviga- tion on the Cumberland. General George H. Thomas was in command of the Federalists, and General George B. Crittenden was in command of the Confederates. The battle began early on the morning of January 19, 1862. It was fiercely fought through the day, and by night the Confederates took refuge in their intrenchments. In the morning they managed to cross the Cumberland, leaving their wounded, horses, mules, wagons and some of their guns behind them. Two Confederate regiments disbanded and scattered to their homes, for the men, being THR UNION FOREVER. 545 new to war, were easily discouraged. Thomas received the thanks of the President for his victory. The Confederates lost nearly twice as 54^ THE STORY OF AMERICA. many in killed and wounded as the Federals. The progress of the conflict at the West had so far been quite encouraging to the Union sympathizers. When General Henry W. Halleck was placed in command of the Department of the Missouri, in November, 1861, he divided it into districts, giving to General Ulysses S. Grant the district of Cairo, which included Southern Illinois, the counties of Missouri south of Cape Girardeau, and all of Kentucky that lie west of the Cumberland river. The Cumberland and the Tennessee rivers are about ten miles apart where they enter Tennessee, and here, to command them, the Confed- erates placed two forts — Fort Henry, on the east bank of the Tennessee, and Fort Jefferson, on the west bank of the Cumberland. They had also fortified the high bluffs at Columbus, on the Mississippi, twenty miles below the mouth of the Ohio, and Bowling Green, on the Big Barren. General Grant asked permission to capture Fort Henry, and after considerable delay Halleck gave his consent. This fort was gar- risoned by three thousand men, under General Lloyd Tilghman. It was not a strong work, bags of sand being largely used instead of solid earth embankment, but its position was fortunate. About it were ravines, through which little streamlets reached the river, and these were filled with timber and rifle pits. On the land side lay low, swampy ground. A fleet of iron-clad gunboats had been prepared by the United States Government for service on the western rivers, and on the morning of February 2, 1862, a fleet of four iron-clad and two wooden gunboats, commanded by Flag-officer Andrew H Foote, steamed up the Tennessee until it was within sight of the fort. When it was within six hundred yards, a bombardment was opened, to which the guns of the fort promptly replied. The fire was kept up for an hour, and one of the boats, the Essex^ received a shot in her boiler, by which many men were scalded or wounded. The heavy fire from the gun- boats had telling effect upon the fort. The flag-staff was brought down, seven guns dismounted, and the sand-bags knocked out of place. At last a rifle gun in the fort burst. All but about one hundred of the garrison fled, and General Tilghman was left with a single company of artillerists. He served a gun with his own hands as long as possible and then surrendered. The Confederates, fearing that Fort Donelson would be the next point of attack, withdrew their force from Bowling Green, and joined it to that in Fort Donelson. National troops immediately took pos- session of Bowling Green and General Grant laid siege to Fort Donel- THE UNION FOREVER. 547 son. This fort was on high ground, and enclosed one hundred acres. The land side was protected by slashed timber and rifle-pits, and there was a strong water battery on the lower river front. Within the fori were twenty thousand men, commanded by General John B. Floyd On February 12th Grant chose his positions around Fort Donelson and the next morning opened fire. After both sides had used their artillery 548 THE STORY OF AMERICA. for some time, an attempt was made to storm the works, which was unsuccessful. A dismal storm of sleet and snow set in. The gunboats and the troops with them had not yet arrived to Grant's assistance, and his men were obliged to sleep that night in the storm with the scantiest rations. Next morning the gunboats appeared, landed the troops and supplies, and then moved up to attack the water batteries. The fight that followed was a desperate one. The defense of the fort was man- aged with skill and bravery and the gunboats suffered terribly. At last the boats were so torn and weakened that they were obliged to drop down the stream out of the fight. At a council of war held within the fort that night it was decided to attack the besiegers in the morning with the entire force, and daylight had barely broken when the fighting was begun. It soon extended all along the line. The right wing of the National arm}' was borne back, and the Confederate cavalry tried to gain their rear. Grant waited, with his usual calmness, until the attack was at its height. He then ordered a sudden counter-attack, and Generals Lew Wallace and C. F. Smith dashed forward, swept the works with their field guns, drove out the defenders, and took possession of the ground which they had previously lost. The night which fol- lowed was a bitter one, and the wounded could be but poorly cared for. A large number of the men within the fort took advantage of the dark- ness to hasten up the river to Nashville. In the morning a white flag was hung out, and a letter sent to Grant asking that commissioners be appointed to arrange terms of capitulation. Grant's reply was: "No terms other than an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works. ' ' The commander of the fort surrendered, and Grant's decisive and imperturb- able words gave a feeling of security to the whole North. The people felt that there was at least one general in the field who accepted no compromises; who knew what he wanted and how to get it. The long artificial line of defence from the mountains to the Mississippi was now swept away. In Missouri, there had been, since the very first opening of the war, a continual warfare. It was kept up between half-organized bodies of men who met by chance, and frequently dispersed after the encounter. Colonel James A. Mulligan held Lexington gallantly against the Con- federates there in the autumn of 1861, and Halleck's men did some good work later in capturing newly-recruited Confederate regiments. A large number of these, under General Van Dorn, were in the north- western part of Arkansas. Some of the Union troops crossed the line THE UNION FOREVER. 549 into Arkansas, chose a strong place on Pea Ridge, in the Ozark Moun- tains, and awaited attack. On March 8, 1862, Van Dorn moved to attack the Union troops, which were formed in a line on the blufifs along the creek facing southward. The battle lasted all day with heaw loss, but without much change of position, and on the following day it was renewed, and the Confederates finally put to rout. The Union loss '.vas ove^ thirteen hundred, the Confederate loss unknown. The nature of the ground was such that pursuit of Van Dorn's forces was impos- sible. A large number of Cherokee Indians had been engaged upon the side of the Confederates, but they could not stand the artillei}-', and contenting themselves with a few scalps, hurried from the field. Many decisive battles took place during 1862. Chief among these were the battles of Shiloh, Seven Pines, Malvern Hill, Chickahominy, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which virtually freed about three million slaves. Perhaps the most important events of 1863 were the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg and the surrender of Pemberton to Grant at Vicksburg. Later in the year occurred the battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga. Meanwhile the campaign of McClellan had aroused dis- satisfaction, and he was removed from the command of the Army of the Potomac. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Nickolay's "Outbreak of the Rebellion." Glazier's "Battles for the Union." Headley's "Grant and Sherman." Fiction— W. Bradshaw's "Angel of the Battle Field." E. Z. C. Judson's "Rattlesnake." E. Z. C. Judson's "Sardis." Poetry— H. H. Brownell's "War Lyrics." "Capture of Fort Donelsoa." CHAPTER LXXXVII. H]| ^l^al nuh ^}p\h THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS — FIGHT BETWEEN THE "MONITOR' AND THE "MERRIMAC." HE largest city in the territory of the Confederates was New Orleans. In i860, it had a population of nearly one hundred and seventy thousand. In that same year it shipped twenty-five million dollars' worth of sugar, and ninety-two million dollars' worth of cotton. Moreover, it commanded the Mississippi, and it was easy to see that the possession of it would strike a great blow at the Confederacy, and shut off, or at least make it difficult to bring, supplies from Texas and Arkansas to feed the armies in Tennessee and Virginia. Between the sea and New Orleans were two forts. The smaller — Fort St. Philip — was on the left bank of the river, and was built of earth and brick, with its guns in plain sight on the top. The other — Fort Jackson — on the right bank, mounted seventy-five guns, fourteen of which were in bomb-proof casemates. The forts were garrisoned by about fifteen hundred men, commanded by General Johnson K. Duncan. A fleet of fifteen vessels, including an iron-clad ram, and. a large floating battery, covered with railroad iron, protected them. Just below the forts a heavy chain was stretched across the river, supported by hulks anchored at intervals across the stream. Two hundred sharpshooters were placed upon the banks to give warning to the forts of the approach of any foe, or pick off any seen upon the decks. It was thought by Admiral David D. Porter that these forts might be reduced by throwing enormous shells into them, which should explode on striking. At his suggestion, twenty-one great mortars were cast and mounted on as many schooners. They threw shells thirteen inches in diameter, weighing two hundred and eighty-five ' pounds. The noise Rv i.'i If \ti6^ h • — ««B^;^ < w o ^; H < W > < o Q < en O I— ( Pi O H > Q < O < Pi < Q < WITH SHOT AND SHELL. 551 wheu they were fired was so great that the gunners weie absolutely deafened, and platforms had to be prepared at some distance, to which the gunners could leap just before firing. In addition to the schooners which carried the mortars, were six sloops of war, sixteen gunboats and five other vessels, besides transports carrying fifteen thousand troops, commanded by General B. F. Butler. The flag-ship of the fleet was the Hartford^ a wooden steam sloop of war, two hundred and twenty- five feet long. It was the most powerful expedition that ever sailed under the American flag, and the man who commanded it was Captain David G. Farragut, who was quite unknown to the American public, although he was one of the oldest men in the navy. It was said that lie could fill the place of any man in the fleet, and that there was no possible accident or contingency on shipboard which he could not cope with as well as any man living. It was late in March when the fleet went in by Pass a P Outre. The masts of the mortar schooners were trimmed off with bushes, so that they could not be told from the trees on shore, and were moored in the woods. A careful computation was made by which an effective fire could be sent from the mortars without the gunners seeing what they fired at, and, beginning on April i8, a steady bombard- ment was kept up for six days and nights. Six thousand shells — eight hundred tons of iron — were thrown in and around the forts, where they worked the most terrible destruction. But they did not silence the guns, and the forts held out bravely. In the midst of the bombard- ment, the Confederates sent several flatboats, loaded with dry wood, smeared with tar and turpentine and blazing furiously, down the stream among the fleet. But Farragut had anticipated this very thing, and had hooks prepared to tow them ashore, or take them past the fleet, where they could float out to sea. An attack was to be made on the forts in the night, and all the decks were painted white, that needed articles might be found with greater ease. Every spare chain was hung up and down the sides of the vessels, where they would protect the machiner>^ from the enemy's shot. Farragut's plan was to run by the forts, injuring them as much as possible as he passed; capture the Confederate fleet, and hasten up the river to the city. At 3:30 o'clock in the morning of April 24, the fleet started. Four nights before, two gunboats had gone up the river and succeeded in cutting the chain across the river, making an opening wide enough for the fleet to pass through. Some of the gimboats engaged the water battery of Fort Jackson while the fleet went by. The first division consisted of eight 552 THE STORY OF AMERICA. vessels, and was commanded by Captain Bailey, a sailor oi as much experience as Farragut. He had soon passed Fort St. Philip, and found himself fighting with eleven Confederate vessels. The work which he did in the next few minutes is almost tmequaled. He rammed som^i of the vessels, put shot into others, turned his huge swivel gun at others, exploded a shell in the boiler of one and finally passed the fort with his division. The second division, with the flag-ship Hartford leading, had yet more serious trouble. The Hartford was set on fire by a fire-raft, but her guns were loaded and fired as coolly as if nothing was the matter, and at last such a rain of shot was poured into Fort St. Philip ^is. i?s ADMIRAL DAVm FARRAGUT. that the bastions were cleared, and the gunners could be seen running to shelter. A part of the third division became entangled among the hulks, and did not get by the chain, but three of the six gunboats came on bravely, burning two steamboats and driving another ashore on their way. On the morn:lng of the 25th New Orleans was at the mercy of the National guns, and the unconditional surrender of the city was demanded. The stars and stripes were raised over the city, and in the midst of the greatest tumult General Farragut took possession of the city with tv/o hundred and fiftv marines. General Butler arrived there o U m a t3 WITH SHOT AND SHELL. 553 with his forces on the ist of May, and he kept possession of the city throughout the remainder of the war. When he came into it, it was turbulent, disorderly and mutinous. His rule of it was so stern that it has often been criticised severely, but he left it cleaner than it had ever been before, and in order and comfort. While the naval expedition which conquered New Orleans was on GENERAL BENJAMIN BUTLER. its way, the waters of Hampton Roads, from which it sailed, were the scene of that famous battle between the Mojiitor and the Merrimac. which revolutionized naval warfare. The Merrimac was a great steam frigate, with a high hull and a steep roof covered with wrought iron five inches thick, with a lining of oak seven inches thick. The sides 554 THE STORY OF AMERICA. of the ram were also plated with iron, and the bow was armed with an iron ram something like a huge plowshare. Ten guns looked out from the dormer windows in her roof She was under the command of Franklin Buchanan, and on the 8th of March, accompanied by two gun- boats, she went out to raise the blockade of the James and Elizabeth rivers, by destroying the wooden war vessels in Hampton Roads. She first met the frigate Ctmtberland^ which gave her a dreadful broadside, but though some of the shot entered her open ports and broke two of her guns, all that struck her armor rattled off her like hail off a roof She ran her iron prow into the Cimtberland^ and that vessel at once began to settle. Her commander would not surrender, however, and the crew stood by their guns, firing broadside after broadside, until the vessel went down with her colors still flying. When the frigate had reached the bottom, her top-mast still projected above the surface, with the American flag upon it. Such of the men as were not wounded leaped overboard at the last minute, and got ashore with the help of the boats. When the Mei^rimac had completed the destruction of this vessel she attacked the Congress and finally set her on fire. The next morning the Merrimac undertook to finish up the fleet, but at the opening of her operations was met by a new antagonist. It was a small iron vessel, looking, as the men said, "like a cheese-box on a raft." Nothing appeared above the water except the flat iron surface over which the waves washed, and a revolving iron-clad turret in which there was one gun. This was the Monitor^ built by John Ericsson, and commanded by Captain John L Worden. This little vessel had just been hurried into Hampton Roads, after a stormy and dangerous passage, when she met the Mer^'imac. She placed herself between the wooden ships and the great Merrimac^ and a fight of four hours fol- lowed. The broadsides from the monstrous iron ship had little effect upon the saucy Monitor. At times the vessels almost touched each other. The Monitor drew less water than the Merrimac, and could steam quite around her. By afternoon the Merriinac withdrew to Norfolk, and did not come down to fight again. A little later she was abandoned and blown up. Eight months later the plucky little Mom- l&r foundered in a gale off Cape Hatteras. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Soley's "The Blockade and the Cruisers." Ammen's "The Atlantic Coast." Parton's "General Butler in New Orleans." Peckham's "General Lyon and Missouri in 1861." FiCTON — L. M. Childs' "A Romance of the Republic.*' C. C. Coflfin's "Winning His Way." J. E. Cooke's "Hilt to Hilt." Poetry— E J. Biitler'.s "War Poems." CHAPTER LXXXVIII. ''l[aruiarb h^ \\t Jfafl 1|lHnk/' GRANT GIVEN ABSOLUTE COMMAND — THE BATTLE OF THE WILDER- NESS — "FORWARD BY THE LEFT FLANK" — SECOND BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. :N the 19th of March, 1864, President Lincoln and General Grant met for the first time, and Grant was given his commission as Lieutenant- General and entrusted with all the armies in the field. Thoughtful people had seen for a long time the sore need of a single military head for the armies. From the first, the Union armies had sel- dom been as well led as the Confederate, and had been placed at a disadvantage by working disjointedly and in parts. As soon as the need for a supreme head was really felt, all eyes were turned toward Ulysses S. Grant as the man best fitted by his independence and decision to fill the place. Sherman was now put in special charge of operations in the West. Halleck was made chief of staff", and his duties henceforth were few. Meade was con- tinued in command of the Army of the Potomac. General B. F. Butler, with the Army of the James, was held for active service in the field. Grant planned a campaign in which he considered the Army of the Potomac his center; the Army of the James, under General Butler, his left wing; the Western armies, under Sherman, his right wing, and the army under Banks, in Louisiana, a force operating in the rear of the enemy. The plan was for all to move simultaneously, and each com- mander was given an objective point. The bulk of Lee's army was upon the western edge of the Wilder- ness, a wild, desolate region twelve or fifteen miles square, lying south of the Rapidan. Here, it will be remembered, the battle of Chancellorsville 556 THE STORY OF AMERICA. had been fought in May, 1863. The ground had once been mined >for iron ore, and the woods cut for the furnaces of the smelters. A thick second growth of underbrush had sprung up which was indescribably dense, and the whole region presented a melancholy and deserted aspect. The Army of the Potomac lay north of the Rapidan, opposite the Wilderness. It was organized in three infantry corps, the second, fifth and sixth, respectively commanded by Generals Winfield S. Hancock, G. K. Warren and John Sedgwick, and a cavalry corps commanded by General Philip H. Sheridan. General Meade was still in command of the whole. The ninth corps, under Eurnside, nearly twenty thousand strong, was at Annapolis, with its destination unknown. Grant told his secrets to no one, for the whole war had been injured by treachery at Washington, from sources which could only be guessed at, but which kept the Confederates acquainted with every movement of the Union armies. The Army of Northern Virginia, as that portion of the Con- federate army opposed to Meade was known, consisted of two infantry corps, commanded by Generals Ewell and Ambrose Hill, with a cavalry commanded by General Stuart, the whole under Robert E. Lee, I/ongstreet was within reach and furnished an offset to Burnside's corps. Before daylight on the morning of May 4th, the Army of the Potomac marched in two columns for the lower fords of the Rapidan. Lee was unable to dispute the passage of the river, and may have been quite willing to permit the Union army to entangle itself in the Wilderness. Lee was acquainted with every road and by-path of that perplexing region, and believed that he could make up for his deficiency in num- bers by bewildering his opponents. Grant wished to hurry the Army of the Potomac past the Wilderness in one day, but Lee proposed to strike upon the flanks of Grant's long columns and cut them in two, as they marched by two winding roads. On the morning of the 5th a body of cavalry came into collision with Ewell. Meade had no idea that it was the opening of a serious battle, and thought that a detachment had been left by Lee merely to mislead. But reinforcements kept coming up on both sides, and the fight never ceased until 4 o'clock in the after- noon, when both sides drew back to intrench themselves. On the morning of the 6th, both Lee and Meade were eager to attack, and they moved almost simultaneously. Throughout the day the fortune of the fight fluctuated. Hasty intrenchments were made, lost and retaken on both sides. About 4 o'clock a fire sprung up in the dry forest, and the •wind blew the smoke and flames right in the faces of Hancock's men, who were intrenched behind a breastwork of pine logs. The Confed- "FORWARD BY THE LEFT FLANK." 557 erates swarmed over, but in spite of their determination and of the cruel flames, they were driven back to their own lines. Darkness fell and closed the battle, although Ewell made an attack after dark upon a portion of Sedgwick's corps, capturing two brigades which numbered three thousand men, with hardly any loss to himself. The Union loss in killed and wounded was fifteen thousand, besides five thousand prisoners. The Confederate loss was about ten thousand killed and wounded and a few prisoners. But the advantage was practically on the side of Grant. The Confederates had withdrawn to their intrenchments, and from that time to the end of the campaign they seldom showed any desire to leave them. Lee had conducted the battle in that desolate jungle with the greatest skill, but he now had a general opposed to him who could endure misfortune without being panic-stricken; who knew how to turn everything to his own ad^^antage, and whose obstinate determination was invincible. Lee himself exclaimed after the bloody battle of the Wilderness: "Gentlemen, at last the Army of the Potomac has a head." On the 7th, Sheridan cleared the road for the southern movement of the army, and Grant gave orders to move forward by the left flank to Spottsylvania, To withdraw an army in the presence of a powerful enemy and send it forward to a new position is one of the most difiicult feats of war. Grant did this several times before the end of the campaign, and always by withdrawing the corps that held his right flank, and passing it behind the others while they maintained their position. Lee became aware of Grant's movement, and also moved toward Spottsylvania Court House, until there was a race for the posses- sion of that place. A part of the Union troops had held back to guard an attack upon the rear of the moving column, so that finally all of Lee's troops stood intrenched at Spottsylvania. Here, on the 8th of May, the two armies faced each other and waited — the Army of Northern Virginia desperate, the Army of the Potomac determined. On this same day Grant sent Sheridan, with his cavalr}', to ride around Lee's army, tear up railroads, destroy bridges and depots and capture trains. Sheridan had been considered a dull man at West Point, and in a class of fifty-two had ranked thirty-four. He was very young at the time, and lacked the confidence of the officials at Washington, but Grant believed in him thoroughly, and Grant's instinct in selecting his lieuten- ants was always to be trusted. On receiving Grant's orders, he dashed ofi" with his well mounted men, and succeeded in destroying ten miles of railroad, several trains of cars, cutting all the telegraph wire and recapturing four hundred prisoners who had been taken in the battle of 1^3 8 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the Wilderness, and were on their way to Richmond. The Confederate cavalry, under General Stuart, set out to intercept him, and succeeded in getting between him and Richmond. Sheridan's troops met them seven miles north of the city, at Yellow Tavern, and after a hard fight defeated them. General Stuart was mortally wounded in this engage- ment, and by his death the Confederacy lost its best cavalry leader. Sheridan dashed through the outer defenses of Richmond and took some pri.soners, then finding the remainder of the defenses too strong for him, he cross the Chickahominy and rejoined the army on the 25th. As the Union army came into position before the intrenchment of Spottsylvania, Hancock's corps held the western end of the line, Warren's stood next, then Sedgwick's, and then Burnside's. On the 8th of the month General Sedgwick had been killed by an unerring sharpshooter who appeared to be posted in a tree, and in the course of the day killed at least twenty men who attempted to place the batteries. General Horatio G .Wright succeeded Sedgwick in command of the sixth corps. On the evening of the 9th a division of Hancock's had a short engagement and suffered considerable loss without accomplishing any- thing. The next two days were spent in maneuvering and fighting without decisive results. On the nth of January, Grant sent a dispatch to the War Department, saying: "We have now ended the sixth day of very hard fighting. The result of this day is much in our favor. Our losses have been heavy, as well as those of the enemy. I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." The Confederate loss had been, in fact, far less than the Union, for the Confederates were fighting behind intrenchments. These intrenchments were very strong, and search as he might. Grant could find no weak point. In the grey, foggy morning of May 12th, Hancock's corps dashed upon Lee's center, which was a salient angle thrust forward from the main line. Hancock succeeded in sweeping back the Confederate pickets by mere force of the charge. He passed the abatis and carried the breastworks, making prisoners of three thousand of Ewell's men. Little was gained, however, by the carrying of this salient, which was an outwork of no great importance. Ewell, strongly supported, stood beyond a second fortification, and Hancock was unable to move him. The battle of this day is not easy to describe. The men charged over and over again; -the losses were heavy on both sides; little was gained, and no action of great peculiarity marked the day. During the next week Grant received reinforcements and resumed his flanking move- ments. Lee tried an attack, but was repelled. On the morning of the "FORWARD BY THE LEFT FLANK!" c^ c^9 2 2d, that general looked in vain for the army of the Potomac. It had disappeared. Lee could easily guess its destination. He broke up his camps and threw himself across its line of advance toward Richmond. When Grant reached the North Anna, he found Lee awaiting him upon the other side, and disposed to seriously oppose his crossing the river. The corps of Hancock and Warren were sent across the river at points four miles apart, and Lee wedged his force between two colum.ns. Grant saw that one of these might be snattered, and drew them both back, resuming his old flanking move- ments on the 26th. Lee was quite heavily reinforced while on the North Anna, and at the close of May was back at the Chickahominv, where a battle had been fought two years before. Lee was there before Grant and behind strong fortifications. On the 3d of June, in the drizzling rain of the early morning, the second battle of Cold Harbor began. General Barlow's division stormed and carried the first line of Confederate intrenchments. From a second line a shower of lead was poured upon them, and when they fell back they left half their number behind them. Two more attempts were made, both equally unavailing, except that a considerable number of prisoners were taken. The entire loss of the Union army at Cold Harbor, in the first twelve days of June, was ten thousand and fifty-eight, and among these were many valuable officers. There had been an almost constant skirmishing. From the dusk of the morning till the dusk of the evening the continual crack of the rifle was heard. The Confederate position was very strong. The line was from three to six miles from the outer defences of Richmond, the right resting on the Chickahominy, and the left protected by the woods and swamps about the headwaters of several small streams. The only chance for attack was in front. On the 3d of June, at half past 4 o'clock in the morning, the second, sixth and eighteenth corps moved forward rapidly together, to try what could be done by an attack on the front. Barlow's division of Hancock's corps struck a salient, and fought hand-to-hand till they captured it, taking nearly three hundred prisoners, and three guns, which they promptly turned upon the enemy. But beyond the first line no division, however determined, could go, and trenches were rapidly dug, behind which the men could pro*^ect themselves. Thus closed the twelve days' fighting. It was evident that nothing could by done by an attack on Lee's front, and Grant decided to put his army into a new position. He sent part of his cavalry to the James, above Richmond, for the purpose of destroying portions of Lee's line of supplies from the Shenandoah valley, 560 THE STORY OF AMERICA. and then prepared intrenchments from his position at Cold Harbor to the point where he expected to cross the Chickahominy. Grant was then in readiness to march his army from before the face of the enemy for fifty miles, to cross two rivers and bring it into a new position. The bridges on the Chickahominy had been destroyed, but each column carried a pontoon train. The long lines of infantry, artillery and trains crossed over the river at many different points, and an army of more than one million was placed in a position threatening the Confederate capital, and the Confederates saw that the end was near and certain. Through the rest of the war they fought with a passion which showed their desperation. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Down's "Four Years a Scout and Spy.'* Edwards' "Noted Guerrillas." Eggleston's "A Rebel's Recollections." Grant's "History of the Rebellion." Lemour's "Morgan and His Captors." Fiction— "The American Mail-bag." E. Eggleston's "Roxy." Poetry— J. G. Whittier's "In War Time." CHAPTER LXXXIX. )}^t StmfebBrnb iriit$$r$. THE CONFEDERATE PRIVATEERS — FIGHT BETWEEN THE " KKAR- SARGE" AND "ALABAMA" — THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF ARBITRATION — ^SHERMAN AND THE WESTERN CAMPAIGN. N 1856, a treaty was signed at Paris by the great powers of Europe, by which they agreed to give up the right of privateering. The United States offered to sign this on condition that a clause be inserted declaring that private property on the high seas, if not contraband of war, should be exempt from seizure by the public armed vessels of an enemy, as well as the private ones. This amendment was declined by the European powers, and the United States therefore did not become a party to the treaty. When the War of Secession began, the Confederate authorities stated their intention of arming private vessels to prey upon American commerce, and the United States Gov- ernment then offered to accept the treaty without England and France, however, refused to permit our Government to join in the treaty then, if its provisions against priva- teering were to be understood as applying to vessels sent out under Confederate authority. The Confederacy was therefore unhindered in its privateering enterprises, and not only kept a score of cruisers roam- ing about the seas to prey upon United States commerce, but had the satisfaction of knowing that more would be built for her at any time she wished, in the best ship-yards of England. Among her cruisers were the Sheiiandoah^ which made thirty-eight captures, the Florida^ which made twenty-six, the Tallahassee^ which made twenty-seven, the Tacony^ which made fifteen, and the Georgia^ which made ten. Still more famous than these were the Sumpter and Alabama. The Alabama amendment. !^62 THE STORY OF AMERICA. had been built for the Confederate Government in 1862, at Birkenhead, opposite Liverpool. She was an excellent sailor, carried both canvas and steam, was two hundred and twenty feet long, and, though of wood, a very formidable vessel. The British Government was notified by the American Minister at London that such a ship was being built in an English yard, in violation of the neutrality laws, and demanded that she be prevented from leaving the yard. But the English Government was not over-anxious to prevent her escape, and moved so slowly that the cruiser escaped to sea. Her crew were mostly Englishmen, but she was commanded by Raphael Semmes, who had served in the United States Navy. She roamed about the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Gulf of Mexico for nearly two years, and captured sixty-nine American merchantmen; most of which were burned at sea, while their crews were put on shore at some convenient port or sent away on passing vessels. The Alabama was always kindly received in foreign ports, for she was helping to ruin American commerce. None of the war vessels which had been sent after her had been able to capture her; because of the rule that when two hostile vessels are in a neutral port, the first that leaves must have been gone twenty-four hours before the other is permitted to follow. But in June, 1864, the United States man-of-war Kearsarge, commanded by John A. Winslow, found the Alabama in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. Winslow did not go into port at all, and thus escaped the twenty-four-hour rule. The Alabama had no desire to escape the Kearsarge, and her commander sent out a note asking Winslow not to go away. The request was quite unnecessary. The Kearsarge waited patiently, till on Sunday morning, June 19th, the Alabama, watched and applauded by thousands of Englishmen and Frenchmen, sailed out to crush the Kearsarge. The vessels were a very fair match in point of size and armament When they were seven or eight miles from the coast, the Alabama opened fire, and the two vessels steamed round on opposite sides of a circle half a mile in diameter, firing their starboard guns. The gun practice on the Alabama was very bad; that on the Kearsarge was excellent. She threw balls in at the port-holes of her enemy, and swept away whole crews of gunners. She felled the mizzen mast with a shot, and pierced the hull below the water line, letting floods of water into the hold. Before an hour had passed the Alabama struck her colors, and her officers threw their swords into the sea in token of surrender. While the Kearsarge was lowering boats to take off the crew, the Alabama, with a shudder and a plunge. went to the bottom of the English Channel. The Kearsarge succeeded GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN. THE CONFEDERATE CRUISERS. I-50 in rescuing some of the men, and an English yacht saved Semmes and about forty of his crew, but a considerable number were drowned. Captain Semmes had been defeated once before by the Kearsarge, when he commanded the Sumpter. That vessel, after a career in which she succeeded in capturing many American vessels, was blockaded by the United States steamers Kearsarge and Tuscarora, in the harbor of Gibraltar, in February of 1862, and was there abandoned by her captain and crew. In 1872, the International Court of Arbitration, sitting in Geneva, Switzerland, decided that the British Government, for neglecting to prevent the escape of Confederate cruisers from its ports, must pay the United States Government fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars. This sum fell far short of the damage which had been done, but the United States cared less for the money than for the establishment of the principle. While the army of the Potomac was putting itself in position for a death-grapple with the army of North Virginia, important movements were going on at the West. The purpose of these was to secure the Mississippi river absolutely, and to set free the large garrisons required to hold the important places on its banks. General Sherman set out from Vicksburg on the 3d of February, 1864, with a force of over twenty thousand men. His destination was Meridian, over one hundred miles east of Vicksburg, where two important railroads cross each other. The Union troops entered the town on the 14th, and destroyed the Confederate arsenal and store-houses, as well as the machine shops, the stations and railways. The rails were heated and then bent and twisted, and were popularly known as "Jeff Davis' neckties," and "Sherman's hair-pins." The roads were thoroughly destroyed, every mill and factory ruined, and only the dwelling-houses left untouched. A detachment of cavalry, which Sheridan had sent out to destroy Forrest's Confederate cavalry, having failed in its purpose, Sherman thought best to return to Vicksburg. He was followed to that city by thousands of negroes, who could be turned back neither by persuasion nor threats, and who saw in Sherman a deliverer whom it was their duty and pleasure to follow. On the west side of the Mississippi, General Banks attempted to perform a service somewhat similar to that of Sherman's, for the purpose of widening the gap in the Confederacy, He set out with about fifteen thousand men, in March, for Shreveport, at the head of steam navigation on the Red river. Here he was to be joined by ten thousand men, under General A. J. Smith, who had been detached 5^4 THE STORY OF AMERICA. from Sherman's army for the occasion, and Commodore David Porter, with a fleet of gunboats and transports. Smith and Porter arrived promptly at the rendezvous, captured Fort De Russey, telow Alexan- dria, and after Banks' arrival, the army moved along the river roads within sight of the gunboats. This march was continued for many days, the monotony being broken by an occasional skirmish with small bodies of Confederate troops, and slight demonstrations from the gun- PICKING COTTON. boats. The anuy was strung out for twenty miles on a single road, and walked along easily, not unpleased with the comparative quiet. They were punished for this carelessness by coming suddenly upon a strong Confederate force, commanded by General Richard Taylor, near the Sabine Cross-roads. Neither commander intended that there should be a battle, but the men of both sides became much excited, and it was necessary on both sides to keep bringing forward men, until at last Banks' line suddenly gave way. The cavalry and teamsters rushed in confusion THE coxfederatp: cruisers. q6z^ a\td fear before the victorious Confederates. Three miles in the rear, the nineteenth corps stood the tide of the ront, and successfullv repelled the Confederates. Banks fell back to Pleasant Hill, where, on the following day, he had nearly his whole force in line. The Confederates made an assault late in the afternoon, and were repelled. Banks followed this up by an attack on his own part, and recaptured several of the guns he had lost the day before. Banks had been ordered to return Smith's borrowed troops, and, therefore, could not follow up his victory, but fell back to the river Ecore. Here it was found that the river had so fallen as to make it impossible for the fleet to pass down the rapids, and it was feared that the boats would be taken and destroyed. They were saved by the ingenuity of Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Bailey, who, though scoffed at by the army engineers, built a dam across the river in eight days, in which he left a narrow passage, though which the water rushed like a mill-race. Within a few days the entire fleet passed through this swirling stream of water and steamed down the Mississippi, Fifteen thousand troops, under General Steele, had marched from Little Rock toward Shreveport, to reinforce Banks, but were defeated by the same force of Confederates who had engaged in the battles of Sabine Cross-roads and Pleasant Hill. FOR FURTHER READING; History — Cannon's "Casual Papers upon the Alabama." Semme's "Cruise of the Alabama." Ammen's "The Atlantic Coast." Mahan's "The Gulf and Inland Waters." Soley's "The Blockade and the Cruisers." Fiction— W. H. Thome's "Running the Blockade." Poetry — T. B. Read's "Kearsarge and the Alabama." CHAPTER XC. "jtfbr Inii, Pot!" SHERMAN'S MARCH TO ATLANTA — THE BOMBARDMENT OF WOBILB — DESTRUCTION OF THE "ALBEMARLB." HESE two expeditions only heralded the great campaign which Sherman was to undertake with his army, and which was to be simultaneous with that carried on by Grant in Virginia. Its import- ance was almost as great, its difficulties as numer- ous. The object was to move forward to Chattanooga, reach and capture Atlanta, which was important as a railroad center and for its manufacture of military sup- plies, and thus sweep a great gwath through the Confed- eracy. General Joseph E. Johnston, one of the best eenerals in the Confederate service, had been left to guard this section of countr}', and Sherman realized that his skillful opposition could only be overcome with great difficulty. Chattanooga is a hundred miles from Atlanta, through a country of many hills and streams, well adapted for an army acting on the defensive. Johnston was the man to make the most of this. He had an army numbering fifty-five thousand, while Shennan had one hundred thousand. But the practical difierence was not great, for Sherman was not only to act on the offen- sive, but to leave heavy detachments behind him from day to day to guard his communications, for all of his supplies were drawn from Nashville, over one single-track railroad, which was liable to be broken at any time. Thus Sherman was obliged to stretch out his army like a great elastic string, while Johnston could keep his well massed, and would also have the advantage of fighting on the defensive. Sherman's men were well supplied, but were permitted to take nothing which should hamper them in their daring march. General Thomas was the only man in the army who was allowed a tent. Sherman himself had "after you, pilot!" 567 neither tent nor wagon train. Every man, from Sherman down, car- ried five days' provisions on his back. On May 5th, the army left Chattanooga and followed the line of the railroad south toward Atlanta. Sherman sent McPherson south- ward to march through a gap in the mountains, strike Resaca and cut the railroad over which Johnston drew all his supplies. McPherson reached Resaca, but found such a force there that instead of attacking boldly, he fell back to the gap and waited for the rest of the army to join him. By this time Johnston had learned what was going on, and had concentrated his forces in a strong position at Resaca, where Sher- man faced him on May 14th. The day was given up to skirmishing, for neither general was willing to fight at a disadvantage. Sherman threw two pontoon bridges across the river that he might send a detach- ment to break the railroad, and McPherson gained a position where his guns could destroy the railroad bridge in the Confederate rear. Johns- ton thought it best to hasten away from a place in which he was becoming so cramped, and on the 15th crossed the river and moved southward, burning the bridges behind him. By pontoons and fords, Sherman's forces hurried after. When Sherman was a young lieuten- ant he had ridden through the country from Charleston, South Carolina, to Northwestern Georgia, and he still remembered how the land lay and the rivers ran. He knew that Allatoona Pass, through which the railroad south of Kingston runs, was very strong, and could be easily held by Johnston. He therefore directed his columns in such a way as to threaten Marietta and Atlanta, so as to cause Johnston to withdraw from Allatoona and leave the railroad, which, as Sherman's army advanced into the country, became more and more necessary to it. Johnston moved westward to meet this movement, and the forces met at the cross-roads by New Hope Church. For six days there was constant skirmishing around this place, and in the end, though little had been gained, the advantage was with Sherman. He succeeded in securing all the wagon roads from Allatoona, and in sending out a strong force to occupy the pass and repair the railroad. Johnston took up a new position on the slopes of the Kennesaw, Pine and Lost mountains. From here, he could see everything that was done by Sherman's army. That army did not try to get out of sight, but moved closer and closer, by intrenchments. For several days heavy rains kept Sherman from acting, but as soon as fair weather came, steady skirmishing was kept Up between the two lines, and the loss of men on both sides was heavy. 35 568 THE STORY OF AMERICA. On June 14th, the Confederate army suffered the loss of General Leonidas Polk, who stood by a battery on the crest of Pine Mountain, with a group of officers examining the field with their glasses. General Polk had been for twenty years the Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Louisiana, and in his death the Confederacy lost one of its most influ- ential men. On June 15th, Sherman found that Johnston had with- drawn from Pine Mountain, and promptly occupied the ground himself, taking a large number of prisoners. On the following day the enemy had abandoned Lost Mountain and retreated to works prepared for them by gangs of slaves, on the Kennesaw, where they were able to cover Marietta and the roads to Atlanta. On the 27th, Sherman decided to attack the enemy in his intrenchments, and launched heavy columns against them, while a steady fire was kept up all along the line. This experiment cost Sherman over twenty-five hundred men, and gained nothing, for though his men charged valiantly, only a few reached the enemy's works, and these were killed or captured. Sherman therefore decided on an action which required the utmost boldness, and which was against the rules of warfare, to-wit: He left his communications, took ten days' provisions in wagons, and moved his whole army south- ward to seize the road below Marietta. He did this by moving by the right flank, in the same cautious manner that Grant had done in his difficult march from the Wilderness to the James river. Johnston fell back to the Chattahoochee, but instead of crossing the stream, put him- self behind a magnificent piece of field fortification which a thousand slaves had been working on for a month. But Sherman held the river above and below and was able to cross when he chose, and Johnston, realizing Sherman's advantages, crossed in the night with his entire army, and burned the railroad and other bridges behind him. On the 17th of July, Sherman cautiously followed, moving his army by a grand right wheel, toward the city of Atlanta. At this point, Johnston, who had so cautiously and skillfully evaded his opponent, was removed, and the command given to General John B. Hood, a man capable of reckless fighting, but lacking Johnston's skill and wisdom. Sherman knew that sudden sallies were to be expected now, and on July 20th, as the Union troops were entering Atlanta, Hood's men left the intrenchments prepared for them along the line of Peach Tree creek, and attacked. At the end of two hours the enemy was driven back to his intrench- ments, leaving hundreds of dead on the field. A day or two later the Confederates fell back to the immediate defenses of the city. On the 2 2d, Hood moved out with a part of his army, and attacked 'after you, pilot!" 569 a detachment of Sherman's men, who had been left without proper protection upon a hill. The forest hid him till his men burst upon the camp, and the troops were taken entirely by surprise. But under the direction of General Logan and others, the surprised forces rallied and repulsed seven fierce charges. A counter-charge finally drove back the Confederates. The Union loss in the battle of Atlanta was three thousand five hundred and twenty-one men killed, wounded and missing, and ten guns. The Confederate loss was larger. General McPherson was killed in the woods, where he had ridden alone at the first sound of battle. He was a young man, and a brilliant one, popular with the soldiers, and of no little assistance to Sherman. General Howard was promoted to McPherson' s place, in command of the Army of the Tennessee, and General Hooker resigned, because he thought that the position should have been given him. General Henr\^ W. Slocum was given Hooker's command of the twentieth corps. On the 28th, when Sherman moved again by the right. Hood made a heavy attack, which Logan repelled with a loss to himself of five hundred and seventy-two men. Sherman constantly sent out cavalry expeditions to break the railroads south of Atlanta, but as fast as he broke, the Con- federates repaired them. Kilpatrick's cavalry rode entirely around Atlanta, defeated a combined cavalry and infantry force, and thought he had done damage enough to the railroad to keep supplies from entering the city for ten days, but before twenty-four hours the enter- prising Confederates had trains running into the city again. Finding that these raids accomplished but little, Sherman again moved by the right, and swung his army into position south of Atlanta, and then advanced toward the city. The greater part of Hood's force escaped eastward on the night of September ist, and, a few days later, Sherman made his headquarters in the city and took permanent possession. Grant and Sherman had planned to have the city of Mobile taken by forces moving east from New Orleans and Port Hudson. The principal defences of Mobile Bay were Fort Morgan, on Mobile Point, and Fort Gaines, three miles northwest of it. The passage between these two forts was obstructed by many piles and a line of torpedoes. The eastern end of this line was marked by a red buoy, and from that point to Fort Morgan the channel was open to allow blockade runners to pass. The plan was to have Farragut's fleet pass these forts, subdue the Confederate fleet inside, and take possession of the bay. A land force to co-operate with him was furnished, under General Gordon Granger. Farragut's fleet consisted of four iron-clad monitors and 570 THE STORY OF AMERICA. seven wooden sloops of war. Each sloop had a gunboat lashed to her side, to help her out in case she was disabled. On the 4th of August all the ships were under way, the Brooklyn going first and carrying an apparatus for picking up torpedoes. The forts and the Confederate fleet opened fire upon them half an hour before they could bring their guns to answer. Farragut's flag-ship, the Hartfo7'd^ suffered especially. She received a one-hundred-and-twenty-pound ball in her mainmast, and :»^ :^^ LIEUTENANT CCSHING'S ATTACK ON THE "ALBEMARLE. had great splinters sent flying across her deck, which killed and v/ounded many of her crew. But the Hartford and the other vessels weathered the storm, and as they came abreast of the fort, poured in terrific broad- sides of shot and shells, and soon quieted the Confederate batteries. It was known that the red buoy marked the line of torpedoes, and the captains had been particularly warned not to pass east of it. But Captain Craven, of the monitor Teciimsch^ disregarded this order in his "AFTER YOU, PILOT!" 57 1 impatience to attack the Confederate ram Tennessee^ and his vessel struck a torpedo which exploded. As the vessel was rapidly sinking, Captain Craven and his pilot met at the foot of a ladder which afforded the only escape. The pilot moved aside for his superior officer to pass. Craven knew that it was his fault that the accident had occurred, and said, "After you, pilot;" "but," said the pilot, "there was nothing aftei me, for the moment that I reached the deck, the vessel seemed to drop nom under me and went to the bottom." Farragut was lashed in the rigging of the Ha^'tford^ and ordering steam on his vessel, led the whole line past the dangerous torpedoes. He succeeded in sending the Tennessee^ the Confederate iron-clad, off for a time, and sent his gunboats in pursuit of the enemy's gunboats. These succeeded in destroying or capturing all of the Confederate vessels except one. The iron ram Tennessee then steamed boldly into the midst of Farragut' s vessels, trying to ruin them with her powerful ram and firing in every direction. She was so heavy and cumbersome that the Union vessels were able to avoid her by skillful management, and the monitors poured solid shot against her armor. When at length they shot away her smoke-stack, life on her became unendurable, and she surrendered. It was a glorious victory, but Farragut, coming down from the shrouds, thought less of the triumph than of the twenty-four dead sailors — long his companions — who were laid out on the deck of the Hartford^ and over whom the brave old sailor wept some bitter tears. In October the Confederate iron-clad Albemarle was destroyed on the Roanoke river. Lieutenant William B. Cushing, of the navy, ventured with a volunteer crew, in a small steam launch, to put a torpedo under her overhang. This exploded and sent her to the bottom, destroying the launch also. The crew of the launch, with the exception of Cushing and one sailor, were lost. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Andrew's "Campaign of Mobile." Logan's "The Great Conspiracy." Poetry— L. C. Redden's "Idvls of Battle." H. H. Brownell's "Farraguts Bay Pigbt. Fiction— G. W. Nichol's "The Sanctuarj-." CHAPTER XCI. %vnm yjihnk k i\$ ^m. THE MARCH FROM ATLANTA TO THE SEA — THE ENTRANCE TO SAVANNAH — THE SIEGE OF RICHMOND — BURNSIDE'S BLUNDER THE BURNING OF CHAMBERSBURG. HERMAN converted Atlanta into a purely military post, and ordered all the inhabitants to leave the town. Hood lingered about the neighborhood till the first of September, and then set out to Tennessee with the purpose of destroying the railroads, by which the national army was supplied. Sherman guessed his designs, hurried a detachment to check him, and some fierce fighting took place about Allatoona. Hood continued his retreat, and early in December reached Nashville. Thomas was awaiting him at this place, and, after two days of sharp conflict, the Confederates were utterly routed. Sherman now set out on his march from Atlanta to the sea, a distance of two hundred and twenty-five miles, in a straight line. His object was to destroy the railroads in Georgia, which would deal a more fatal blow to the Confederacy than even the seizure of the Mississippi had done. He made the most thorough preparations. His army was weeded out; all the sick and disabled sent north; every luxury dispensed with, and every necessity provided for. The presi- dential election was at hand, and before the army departed, commis- sioners came and took the votes of the soldiers. Every detachment of the army was given the most minute instructions, and on the twelfth of November, as the army whirled out of Atlanta, the road was destroyed behind them, the depot, machine-shops and locomotive house torn down, and fire set to the ruins. Every man in the army was a FROM ATLANTA TO THE SEA. 5^3 veteran. There was the most perfect confidence in Sherman. Each man was, to an extent, in his confidence; knew what he was to do, why he was to do it, and was determined to perform his part. The army was to live, for the most part, upon the country. The ^oldiers were forbidden to enter dwelling-houses, but foraging parties were to daily gather sufficient vegetables and drive in an}' stock which was in sight of the encampment. At least ten days' provisions were to be kept in the wagons. Whenever the army was unmolested no houses or mills were to be destroyed, but if guerillas were to appear, or if the line was especially annoyed, the army commanders were permitted to order a retaliation. Frantic appeals were put forth to the people of Georgia, by the G^overnor of the State, to' stay the march of this army. The Secretary of War sent word that the enemy could now be destroyed, if the people would only arise and protect their native soil. But there were no people, or at least no men, to arise. Almost every able-bodied man in the State was in the war. Thus Sherman's great army swept on through the heart of the Confederacy, meeting with no opposition worth speaking of until the heads of the columns were within sixteen miles of Savannah. Here the roads leading to the city were found to be obstructed by felled timber, with earthworks and artillery; but Sherman's forces, who had torn up more railroads, cleared more roads, and built more bridges than any other portion of the national army, were not easily stayed by a few felled trees and some earthworks. When torpedoes and shells were found buried in the ground, the Confederate prisoners were made to remove them. Fort McAllister, fifteen miles below Savannah, was the only real obstacle in the way. This hindered communication with the fleet, and it was therefore necessary to carry it. This Sherman did on the thirteenth. He then demanded the surrender of the city. This was refused by General Hardee, who was in com- mand at that point. Sherman prepared for a regular siege, but on the twenty -first of December, 1864, Hardee left the city, marching his force toward Charleston, and Sherman entered it the following day. Sherman wrote to the President: "I beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns, plenty of ammunition, and about twenty-five thousand balesof cotton. ** The President received this message on Christmas eve, and it was the first word which he had heard from that vast army for over a month. Sherman's entire loss in the march had been seven hundred and sixty- four men. He had struck directly at the source of the Confederate 574 THE STORY OF AMERICA. supplies, and had accomplished a great purpose with but little destruc* tion of life. Meanwhile, Mr. Lincoln was rechosen President, in spite of the personal abuse that was heaped upon him, and the declaration of a large portion of the North that the war was a failure. That it was not so, was owing largely to the combined action of Sherman and Grant. In Virginia, events had so shaped themselves that the campaign took the form of a siege of Richmond. Lee was confident in his belief that his seventy thousand men could hold this well-fortified city against any force that could be brought against it, so long as his army was fed. To reach Richmond, it was necessary for Grant to carry Petersburg, which was the focus to which several roads converged. Five railroads entered this point, besides several plank roads and turnpikes. These railroads formed the main means of supply for the Confederate force, after those of the valley of the Shenandoah had been thoroughly interrupted — and Grant saw to it that they were interrupted. Petersburg was not strongly fortified, and on the 14th of June a feeble movement was made by General Smith against the place, which was not successful. On the 1 6th Grant himself superintended a forcible attack. The Confederates made a stout defense, but late in the day rushed back in full flight. They were stayed, however, by a single fresh brigade, and night put an end to the fighting. In the darkness, Beauregard drew off his disordered troops to an unfortified position, and worked them all night throwing up intrenchments. Lee, now realizing the importance of Petersburg, hurried large reinforcements down from Richmond. On the 17th the contest for the Confederate lines was renewed, and Hancock and Burn- side carried it at a cost of four thousand men. On the following day the Confederates moved back to their inner lines, which were too strong to be attacked, and Grant contented himself with enveloping Peters- burg with his army. The siege was regularly opened on the 19th of June. Grant's first attempt against the railroad was on the 21st of June, against the Weldon road, which was the most important one. The two detachments which were sent out for this purpose were nearly at right angles with each other, but were not in connection, and did not sufficiently guard their flanks. A heavy Confederate force, under Gen- eral A. P. Hill, coming out to meet the movement drove straight into the gap between the forces, and succeeded in capturing seventeen hundred men and four guns. The fighting was not severe, but the movement against the railroads was checked. Hill withdrew to hia intrenchments. The Union lines were re-established on this flankj FROM ATLANTA TO THE SEA. 575 and nothing of importance occurred here till the middle of August. But near the center of the line in front of Burnside's corps there was great interest felt in a tunnel which was being dug by a regiment of Pennsylvania miners. These were directed under the nearest point of the Confederate works, and the digging was begun in a ravine, to be out of sight of the enemy, the earth being carried in cracker-boxes and hidden under the brushwood. This mine, planned by Burnside, was five hundred and twenty feet long, with lateral branches at the head forty feet in each direction, and charged with eight thousand pounds of gun- powder. It was exploded on the afternoon of July 30th. A great mass of earth, two hundred feet long, sixty feet wide and thirty feet deep, shot up into the air and fell, leaving a crater into which fully fifty thou- sand Union troops poured. These were unable to climb its sides, and the Confederates, after the first shock of horror had passed, poured a plunging fire over the brink. Not till eight terrible hours had passed were the troops ordered to leave the crater, which they did by one nar- row passage. The Union lost four thousand men in this engagement. The Confederates not more than one thousand. Burnside, distressed past expression at the failure of the movement, begged to be relieved from his command, and his corps was given to Parke. Lee had become so confident of his position at Richmond that he sent a considerable force to the aid of Early, who, for some time had been operating in the valley of the Shenandoah. The defenses of Washington had been nearly stripped of troops to reinforce the Army of the Potomac, and Early hoped to take the National Capital by a sudden dash. On the loth of July he came within six miles of Wash- ington without meeting much show of resistance. There was great alarm in the capital. The citizens. Government clerks and Govern- ment officials armed themselves to defend the city. Fortunately, Early halted for two days, and in the meantime Grant sent the sixth corps from before Petersburg, and the ninteenth, by water, from Hampton Roads. These reached Washington just in time to save it, and on the 1 2th Early retreated across the Potomac with a great quantity of booty, lyittle attempt was made to follow him, and within two weeks he made a raid into Pennsylvania. His cavalry, three hundred strong, entered Chambersburg on the 30th, and stated that unless two hundred thou- sand dollars in gold was immediately paid, the town should surely be burned. As this amount of money could not be produced by the citizens, the village was given to the flames. All these disasters Grant clearlv saw were owing to the want of an efficient commander for that 57^ THE STORY OF AMERICA. department, and he hastened to Harper's Ferry, accepted Hunter's resignation, and appointed Sheridan to the command of all the troops in West Virginia and about Washington. FOR FURTHER READING. History— Boynton's "Sherman's Historical Raid " Cox's "Marching to the Sea." Cannon's "Grant's Richmond Campais-n " Taylor's "Four Years with General Lee " Poetry— C. G. Halpin's "Song of Sherman's Army." J. G. Whittier's "Howard at Atlanta." bHERIDAN'S FAMOUS RIDE FROM WINCHESTER TO CEDAR CREEK. CHAPTER XCII. SHERIDAN AND THE SHENANDOAH CAMPAIGN — SHERMAN'S MARCH NORTHWARD FROM SAVANNAH — THE BURN- ING OF COLUMBIA. |HEN Sheridan was placed in command of the army of the Shenandoah he was but thirty-three years old, and Secretary Stanton objected to him on the grounds that he was too young for so im- portant a command. He had not been a brilliant scholar at West Point, but in the army his record was good. He had, in short, a genius for fight- ing. Under his direction the cavalry of the Union ser- vice became imconquerable. Grant, whose instinct was sure in the selection of his assistants, persisted in giving the command to him. His instructions were to push up the Shenandoah valley, and leave nothing to invite the enemy to return. Such stock and provisions as could not be used were to be destroyed. The Shenandoah valley ran like a fertile road between the mountain walls, and down this the Confederate force could be launched at almost any time upon Washington. So fruitful was this valley that it furnished the chief source of supplies for the Confederate army, and was a strong- hold almost impossible to carry from the sides. To enter it from the end and follow a Confederate army through it was a hazardous matter, but Sheridan undertook it with enthusiasm. Early's main force was on the south bank of the Potomac, above Harper's Ferry, and upon Sheridan's approach he hastened to recall his cavalry, who were gather- ing wheat upon the battle field of Antietam. Sheridan hastened to move his army toward Winchester to threaten Early's communications and draw him into battle. Early altered his position to cover Win- chester, and waited for reinforcements from Lee's army. Grant warned 578 I^HE STORY OK AMERICA. Sheridan that the force would be too strong for him to attack, and he therefore waited till the Confederates should take the offensive, which they did on August 21, 1864. The engagement was not of much importance. For three or four weeks following, Early kept his whole force at the lower end of the valley, and amused himself by making raids into Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Maryland. The cavalry indulged in many small engage- ments, with var^'ing results. Grant and Sheridan agreed thoroughly as to the method of conducting the campaign, and they paid no atten- tion to the criticisms which they received from every quarter. They felt sure that the time would come when Lee would recall part of the forces he had sent into the valley, and that Sheridan could then deal a severe blow to Early. All happened as they expected. On September 19th, Lee re- called the command which had reinforced Early in August, and at the same time a large part of Early's remaining troops were sent to Martins- burg, twenty miles away. Sheridan, who had been watching Early as a cat does a mouse, knew that the moment had come to spring. Early was east of Winchester; Sheridan along the line of Opequan creek, about five miles east of the city. Early in the morning Sheridan set his troops in motion. The men crossed the stream, passed through a ravine, and by mid-day were in line of battle. In the meantime Early had sent to recall his men from Martinsburg, and his whole force was uniting in front of Winchester. The battle began along the whole line at once, and never ceased till nightfall. As the afternoon drew near its close Sheridan had the advantage, and he kept his men to their work with a tenacity which discouraged and bewildered the Confederates till they fled through the streets of Winchester in hopeless dismay and escaped up the valley. The Union loss was five thousand; the Confederate loss one thousand less, with two generals and nine battle flags. Sheridan wrote to Grant that he had ' 'sent Early whirling through Winchester." Early retreated southward and took up a position on Fisher's Hill, where the valley narrows till it is only four miles in width. Here his men began the construction of intrenchments. Sher- idan followed promptly and some of his troops gained an eminence overlooking the Confederate intrenchments, and hastened to cut trees and prepared batteries at this point. Sheridan carefully reconnoitred the position himself, and planned to send the greater part of his cavalry through the Luray valley to the rear of the Confederates, thus cutting WHIRLING THROUGH WINCHESTER. 579 off their retreat, and at the same time to attack in front with a portion of the men, while General Crook, with the eighth corps, should make a detour and come in on the enemy's flank. Just at dusk Crook and his men crept silently out of the woods and burst upon Early's left. The Confederates were astounded. Their own intrenchments were used by the enemy against them, and at the front Sheridan pressed promptly on and the enemy fled in dismay. Sheridan's cavalry, however, failed to get through to the rear, and retreat was therefore left open. In the battle of Fisher's Hill the Union loss was about four hundred, and the Confederate about fourteen hundred. Early retreated on through the valley, and Sheridan relentlessly followed until he could safely go no farther. On October 5th, Sheridan turned about and swept his army like a cloud of locusts through the fertile region, destroying everything except the dwellings. In his report, Sheridan said: "I have destroyed over two thousand barns filled with wheat, hay and farming implements; over seventy mills filled with flour and wheat; have driven in front of the army over four thousand head of stock, and have killed and issued to the troops not less than three thousand sheep." Early was now reinforced, and he, in turn, pursued Sheridan. On October 7th, the cavalry of both sides indulged in a spirited engage- ment, in which the Union forces were victors, and captured over three hundred prisoners, eleven guns, and all the wagons of the opposing force. Sheridan halted north of Strasburg, at Cedar creek, and put his army in camp there under General Wright, while he obeyed a summons calling him to Washington to confer about the continuation of the cam- paign. As the valley had been laid desolate. Early could find nothing for his men and horses to live upon, and he was forced either to leave the valley or attack immediately. He decided to attack, and on the night of the i8th, his soldiers crept silently upon the flank held by Crook's corps, burst upon it with such unexpected fierceness that the men had not time to leave their tents, and many of them were stabbed while they were still sleeping. The nineteenth corps was also routed in confusion, but the sixth stood firm and covered the retreat of the rest. Sheridan was returning from Washington, and when he reached Winchester, heard of the battle. He dashed on for twenty miles and met a stream of fugitives pouring in a headlong rout toward Winchester, but when he shouted, "Face the other way, boys; we are going back to our camps!" the men turned and followed the little general on his foam- covered horse back to the defense. In the afternoon Sheridan himself 580 THE STORY OF AMERICA. attacked, sending his gallant cavalry around both flanks, and breaking the whole Confederate line. All the guns lost in the morning were retaken and twenty-four besides. In the battle of Cedar creek, the Union loss was five thousand seven hundred and sixty-four, of whom seventeen hundred were prisoners taken in the morning and hurried away toward Richmond. The Confederate loss was about thirty-one hundred. This practically ended the campaign in the valley. The army of the Potomac, before Petersburg, went into winter quarters behind its intrenchments, contenting itself with a constant picket and artillery fire. During the winter the Confederate army suffered greatly. They were sometimes without meat, often without other necessities, and always without luxuries. On the 15th of January, 1865, Fort Fisher, which commands the port at Wilmington, was captured by a combined naval and militar}^ expedition under General Alfred H. Terry. This had been an important avenue of supply to the Confederates, and its loss was severely felt. On the 9th of February, 1865, Lee was made Commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the Confederacy. He first appointed General J. E. Johnston as com- mander of all the troops in Georgia, South Carolina and Florida, and gave him orders to drive back Sherman. Sherman's great army had left Savannah on the ist of February, sixty thousand strong. The march which Sherman now undertook was much more difficult and dangerous than that from Atlanta to the sea had been. In the former march the army had moved parallel to the courses of the rivers, but in the march through the Carolinas all the streams had to be crossed. l<\irther- more, Sherman now had for his opponent General Johnston, whose ability even Sherman might well stand in fear of General Hood, who had been displaced for the reinstatement of Johnston, had met with a severe blow from Thomas, at Nashville, on the 15th of the previous December, and popular opinion had demanded his removal. There was danger, too, that Lee might slip away from his intrenchments, escape the watchful Grant, and launch his whole force against Sherman. The fleet, therefore, co-operated with Sherman; watched his progress from the coast, and finding points where supplies could be reached, and refuge taken, should it be necessary. Sherman met with some opposi- tion, but reached Columbia in a short time. As this was the capital of South Carolina, it was expected that the army would meet with serious opposition, but it was found that the city was only protected by Wade Hampton's cavalry. True, the bridges had been burned, but these were soon rebuilt, and on the 17th of February, Sherman's men marched WHIRLING THROUGH WINCHESTER. 58 1 nto Columbia as Hampton's left it. When they entered, they found the air full of burning flakes of cotton, for innumerable bales had been piled in the streets and set on fire. The city was in flames in many places, and General Sherman ordered his men to aid in extinguishing the fire. Sherman has often been accused of burning the place, but he positively denies all responsibility for it, though he confesses that some of the Union prisoners, who were released upon his arrival in the city, may have assisted in spreading the fire after it had begun. The general gave the citizens five hundred head of cattle, and did what he could to shelter them. However, he destroyed the arsenal and the foundries in which the Confederate paper money was printed. Sherman advanced into North Carolina, hindered slightly by several conflicts which Johnston forced upon him. The march was continued toward Raleigh. Thirty-five miles south of that city, on the i6th of March, the left wing of the army suddenly came upon Hardee's forces, intrenched upon its path. After some hard fighting the Confederates retreated, each side having lost five hundred men. On the 19th of March another sharp engagement took place at Bentonville, in which the Union loss was one thousand six hundred and four men, and the Confederates two thousand three hundred and forty-two. This closed Sherman's operations, and he rested where he was until terms of peace were made. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Whitney's "Who Burnt Columbia?" Trezevant's "Burning of Columbia." Newhall s "With Sheridan in Lee's Last Campaign." Pond's "Shenandoah Valley in Humphrey's "Virginia Campaign of '64 and '65." rx^x.v.^.— J. E. Cooke's "Hilt to Hilt." Poetry— T. B. Read's "Sheridan's Ride." CHAPTER XCIII. H %\ SHplnin! 8^ inplmn! tn I CLOSING OF THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGN — THE EVACUATION OF RICH- MOND — SURRENDER OF LEE AT APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE — ASSASSINATION OF PRESI- DENT LINCOLN. HE closing campaign in Virginia, and that which practically ended the war, was begun on the 24th of March, 1865, when Grant ordered that a grand movement be made on the 29th against the Con- federate right. Lee hoped to prevent the carry- ing out of this plan, and on the 25th made a sudden attack at Steedman, near the center of the Union lines before Petersburg. The attempt was a com- plete failure, and the Confederates lost three thousand men, at a time when they could poorly afford them. On the appointed day and hour Grant's movement was begun, a very important part of it being assigned to Sheridan, who had rejoined the Army of the Potomac. Lee's army had been extended to Five Forks, and on the ist of April Sheridan attacked this point with such vigor that Lee greatly weakened himself to defend the place. Grant promptly assailed the works at Petersburg, and carried the exterior lines. The end was near. Lee and all of his generals realized this fact. Lee telegraphed to Davis at Richmond, that Petersburg must be immediately abandoned. The news reached Jefferson Davis as he sat in church. He rose quietly, and leaving, made hasty preparations for going south. The night that followed was a terrible one in Richmond. The mob broke loose, plundered warehouses and dwellings, and committed all sorts of out- rages. General Ewell, who commanded there, set fire to the bridges and storehouses. There was a high wind, and in a short time a third of Richmond was in flames. Early Monday morning a small body of "OH, captain! my captain!" 583 Union troops took possession of Richmond, the Confederate capital. They were met by the civil authorities, who announced that the city liad been evacuated by the army, and surrendered fully. At 4:30 in the afternoon, the Union flag floated in the murky air above the court house at Petersburg. The Confederates had blown up all their works and were in full retreat. Lee thought that there was still hope for the Confederacy. He desired to gather his widely scattered forces together and to make one more effort. In all he still had forty thousand men. If he could reach Johnston, he thought it might be possible to escape pursuit, and undertake a different sort of warfare. But he had marched out with rations for only one day, expecting to be met with large supplies at Amelia Court House. The directions concerning the supplies were not explicit, and they went straight on, so that Lee found no supplies waiting for him when he reached that place, and had to "break up his forces into foraging squads. The Union columns were in close pursuit, and on the 6th of April, Sheridan struck EwelP s corps of the retreating army at Sailor's creek, and took seven thousand prisoners. Weary, disheartened and hungry, the rest of the Confederate army pressed on, fighting passionately whenever they had an opportunity. On the 7th, Grant wrote to Lee proposing to receive the surrender of his army. Lee replied that he did not think the case hopeless, but wished to know what terms could be offered. Grant's nickname in the army was 'Unconditional Surrender," and Lee expected that the terms would be severe. But Grant only required that the men surrendering should not take arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged. On the 9th, the two commanders met at Appomattox Court House, and terms of surrender were formally agreed upon. The substance was, that all officers and men should be paroled, ■all public property be turned over, and each officer and man be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by the United States authorities so long as the paroles were observed and the laws obeyed. The number paroled was twenty-eight thousand eight hundred and five. Of these, not more than eight thousand had muskets in their hands, for the others had flung away their arms in their weary flight. The men were permitted to take their horses with them— Grant said they might need them for plowing. No cheering, firing of salutes, or any other sign of exultation was permitted, and the famished Confederates were fed by their victors. On the 26th of April, Sheridan, in North Carolina, received the surrender of General Johnston upon the same terms, and the surrender 584 THE STORY OF AMERICA. of all the Confederate armies soon followed. The number of Johns- ton's immediate command surrendered and paroled was thirty-six thou- sand eight hundred and seventeen, to whom were added fifty-two thousand four hundred and fifty-three in Georgia and Florida. In the meantime, the country was shocked by the murder of Presi- dent Lincoln. On April 14th, it had been his intention to attend the theatre at Washington, with Grant. Grant was unable to attend, and Lincoln, rather than disappoint the people, went, accompanied by his wife and Major Rathbone. An actor whose moving passion had always been an ambition for notoriety, entered his box, shot him, leaped upon the stage with a theatrical cry of ' '■Sic Semper Tyrannis! The South is avenged, ' ' and escaped. At the same time that Lincoln was shot, an unsuccessful attempt was made upon the life of Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, in his own house. Mr. Seward was in bed, suffering from injuries received by a fall from his carriage, and the steel casing in which his head was sup- ported saved his life. It was found that a conspiracy had long been in progress among a few half-crazy Secessionists in and about the capital, and that the mur- der of Lincoln was the culmination of this. No man has ever been mourned as Mr. Lincoln was. His firmness of character, his' kind- heartedness, his foresight and justice, seemed at times almost super- human. Yet he was a man so eminently of the people, and of such democratic sympathy, that no one felt awed by him. He was one of the best representatives of pure republicanism, a statesman of the noble type which should belong to republics, and a man of such spon- taneous and abundant humor that he appealed immediately to the '^Dmmon heart. A portion of his second inaugural address is worth 'Quoting, as it gives an excellent insight into his calm and judicial tharacter: "Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease when, or even before, the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astonishing. Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men's faces. But let us judge not, that we be not judged. The prayers of both could not be answered; that of neither has been answered fully. If we shall suppose that Ameri- "oh, captain! my captain!" 585 can slavery is one of those offences which in the providence of God must come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offence came shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a loving God always ascribes to Him? Fondly do we hope, fen^ently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's two hundred and fifty years of unre- quited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said: 'The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether.' With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work we are in, to bind up the national wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." Mr. Lincoln was buried at his old home in Springfield, Illinois, which he had left four years before. No day passes that his grave is not visited, and the very clovers which grow about it are treasured in thousands of homes. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Davis' "Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government." Mahoney's "Prisoner of State." Raymond's "History of Lincoln's Administration." Boykin's "Evacuation of Richmond." Grayson's "Great Conspiracy. Secret of the Assassination Plot.'' Poetry— Florence Anderson's "Surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia." CHAPTER XCIV. ^^Tt innnut i>iru0 mtx ^nskn!^ ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON — CAPTURE OF JEFFERSON DAVIS — RECONSTRUCTION — IMPEACHMENT OF PRESI- DENT JOHNSON — PURCHASE OF ALASKA — RETURNING PROSPERITY TO THE UNION. f^vNDREW JOHNSON, of Tennessee, Vice-President with Lincoln, now became the President of the Republic. He took the oath of office on the 15th of April, 1865, thus becoming the seventeenth Chief Magistrate of the United States. His first act was to offer large rewards for the arrest of Jefferson Davis, President of the recent Confederacy^ and his official associates. Davis, with a small escort, had fled southward, hoping to reach the Gulf coast and make his way out of the country. But on the loth of ]\Iay he was overtaken by a detachment of Federal troops, under Colonel Pritchard. He was then at Irwinsville, in the heart of Southern Georgia. Colonel Pritchard and his men came siiddenly upon Davis" encampment in the woods, and captured him while he was trying to make his escape partly disguised in a woman's waterproof cloak. It is said that had not his heavy cavalry boots showed from below the cloak, his identity would not have been suspected. He was taken to Fortress Monroe, and kept there for several months under a charge of high treason. It developed in time that he had nothing to do with the plot for the murder of the President, and as many others were as guilty as he of treason, he was set at liberty upon bail. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Horace Greeley and Gerrit Smith, a life-long Abolitionist, went upon his bond. He has never been tried. • As for the murderer of Abraham Lincoln, he died a wretched death. He was shot while defending his "ye cankot serve two masters." 587 life in a burning barn, to which his pursuers had followed him, and from which they were trying to drag him. Four of his associates were hanged for complicity in the conspiracy, on the 7th of July, 1865. Three others were sent to the Dry Tortugas for hard labor during life, and another was condemned to six years of hard labor at the same place. The -^Dcople of the United States now hoped that these last black pages had closed the book of conspiracy, suffering and death which had marked the War of Secession. The boys — such as were left of them — were sent to their homes. On May 23d, the Army of the Potomac, and Sherman's army on the 24th, were reviewed before the Capitol and disbanded. In every town there were festivities and rejoicings, and in every town, too, there was much sorrow. It had cost the country nearly six hundred thousand lives, and more than six billion dollars to destroy the doctrine of State Sovereignty. But the United States was now established as a nation. Every man within its territory was free, and the people of the North were as magnanimous as possible toward the men they had defeated. The country was scarred with battle fields and graves, but among the judicious there was a desire to forget and to heal. The task before the National Government was a great one. The people had troubled at the thought of it, even with the calm and just Lincoln to guide them. Without him, it seemed still more serious. To begin with, the financial condition of the country was as bad as it well could be. Gold was far below par. The National debt was two billion seven hundred and fifty-six million four hundred and thirty-one thousand five hundred and sevent^^-one dollars. The taxes laid upon the people were as high as they could well endure — not that the}^ complained about them. In the States where the insurrection had existed, there was the greatest confusion. The people were divided on the question of what should be done with them. There were those who thought that treason was a crime which could never be regarded as a mere difference of political opinion, and that a crime so serious deserved serious punishment. Others believed that since the seceding States had been forced to remain in the Union, they should be represented upon the same basis, and with the same privileges, as the other States. No provisions had been made in the Constitution for the readmission of a State that had claimed the right to secede, and had withdrawn from the Union. On one hand, there was a fear that the negroes of the South, who outnumbered the whites, might take the 588 THE STORY OF AMERICA. government of the South into their own hands — a most groundless feat to any acquainted with the negro disposition — and on the other hand there was a well-based fear that the negroes might be governed and controlled by their old masters in a spirit utterly at variance with justice and humanity. President Johnson did not understand how a State could be punished for treason. He therefore issued proclamations of qualified amnesty, removed the blockade from the ports as well as the restriction upon commercial intercourse with the border States. He appointed resident civilians as provisional governors over North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Texas. He asked these States to hold conventions, with a view of organizing State governments, and for the purpose of securing the election of representatives to Congress. The States were required to repeal the ordinances of secession, accept the abolition of slavery, repudiate the Southern war debts, and ratify, by a vote of the people, the several constitutional amendments. Before Congress met, in December, five States had formed with constitutions, and elected State officers and representatives to Congress. The Republicans were not satisfied with what the President had done, and looked to Congress for some modifi- cation of his action. While Mr. Johnson's reorganization policy was causing those who engaged in the rebellion to congratulate themselves upon the ease with which they had escaped punishment, eleven different States prepared laws which were in direct defiance to liberty. These laws were called the "Black Codes" in the North. Mississippi enacted a law denying the ex-slave the right to acquire and dispose of public property. In several States, it was made a criminal offence, punishable with fine and imprisonment, for a freedman to leave his employer before the expira- tion of the term of service prescribed in a written contract. In one State, it was made a criminal offence for a negro to intrude himself into any religious or other assembly of white persons, into any railroad car or other public vehicle set apart for the exclusive accommodation of white people, upon conviction of which he should be sentenced to stand in a pillory for one hour, or be whipped not exceeding thirty-nine stripes, or both at the discretion of the jury. When Congress met in December, 1865, with a Republican majority in both Houses, it hastened to appoint a committee to inquire into the condition of the States which formed the so-called Confederacy of America, and report whether they were entitled to be represented in either House of Congress. This committee was known as the Recoi>- '*YE CANNOT SERVE TWO MASTERS." 589 stniction Committee, and their report was looked for by Congress and the entire nation with the utmost anxiety. They did not report till the following summer of 1866, and in the meantime the States which had seceded were not allowed representation in Congress. The attitude of Congress offended the President, and in a speech to the populace in front of the presidential mansion, he denounced the Republican party which had elected him to office. Thenceforth he made constant war upon the legislative branch of the Government, and caused such Cabinet members to resign as could not agree with him. He refused to pass a bill which provided for the reservation of three million acres of public land in the South for occupation by former slaves, and also vetoed a bill designed to confer the right of citizenship upon the freedmen, and to provide means for protecting them in the right. But Congress passed this bill over the veto of the President. It also passed the Fourteenth Amendment over the President's veto. The Fourteenth Amendment declared that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens, and forbid any State to make or enforce any law which abridged the privileges of these citizens. In February, 1867, a bill was entered for the admission of Nebraska, which stipulated that Nebraska should never deny the right of voting to any person on account of his race or color. The President vetoed the bill, but Congress passed it over his veto. On the 6th of February, 1867, a bill to provide efficient govern- ments for the States in insuiTection was read in the House. The States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Florida, Texas and Arkansas were divided into five military districts, each under the government of a military officer, who should govern them by civil tribunals whenever he should decide them to be more appropriate than military commissions. The bill pro- vided that these States should establish constitutions satisfactory to Congress, and not conflicting with the Constitution of the United States. The President vetoed this bill, but it was passed by Congress. At this time Secretary Stanton was removed by the President from his position as Secretary of War. Stanton refused to resign, and Con- gress supported him in his refusal. For this and other reasons President Johnson was impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors. After a long trial, which closed on May 16, 1868, the vote for conviction was thirty- five and for acquittal nineteen. As it needed the vote of two-thirds of the Senators for conviction, the President was acquitted. During Lincoln's administration West Virgima was formally ad- 590 THE STORY OF AMERICA. nitted to the Union as a separate State. This was in 1863. In 1867 Nebraska was admitted as a State of the Union. The immense region called Alaska had also been purchased from the Russian Government, in 1867, for more than seven million dollars. Its area is about half a million square miles, and this brought the whole area to about three '*YE CANNOT SERVE TWO MASTERS." 59 1 million five hundred thousand square miles, instead of the original eight hundred thousand. There were now thirty-seven States and twelve Territories, with a population of more than thirty-eight million. The year 1866 was marked by the laying of a successful and per- manent Atlantic cable. A strong, flexible cable was shipped on board the Great Eastern, which, after a prosperous voyage, arrived at Heart's Content, Newfoundland. It then returned to the mid-Atlantic, where the end of the cable which had been laid in 1865 was grappled, and a splice was made. This line has never failed, and marine cables have increased rapidly since. In 1867 the National Grange, for the promotion of the farming interests of the country, was organized at Washington. This order has now spread all over the United States, and though the enthusiasm which attended its birth has died out, it has done not a little toward elevating the condition of the farmer, increasing the value of his products, and putting him on a firmer business footing with the consumer. The Union Pacific Railroad, which crosses nine mountain ranges and links the Atlantic with the Pacific, was completed on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Point, Utah. The last tie of laurel wood, with a plate of silver upon it, was laid, and the last spike, composed of iron, silver and gold, was driven in the presence of many onlookers. The telegraph wires were attached to the last rail, and the blows telegraphed to many parts of the continent the completion of the road. The total length of the road is two thousand miles. Its cost was one hundred and twelve million two hundred and fifty-nine thousand three hundred and sixty dollars. FOR FURTHER READING: History — Partridge's "Making of the American Nation." Loring's "History of Reconstruction." W. H. Bancroft's "Alaska." Field's "History of American Telegraph." Fiction — A. W. Tourgee's "Hot Plowshares." A. W. Tourgee's "Bricks Without Straw." A. W. Tourgee's "A Fool's Errand." C. Reid's "Valerie Aylmer." Poetry— Lowell's "Washers of the Shroud." Walt Whitman's "My Captain." CHAPTER XCV. ADMINISTRATION OF GRANT — THE KU-KLUX KLAN — THE CHICAGO FIRE — THE CUSTER MASSACRE — THE PANIC OF 1 873 — THE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION — ADMINISTRATION OF ">. PRESIDENT HAYES — RAILROAD ^ I%C4 RIOTS OF 1877. ENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT, whose services during the war had so endeared him to the hearts of the American j)eople, was elected by the Republican party, and inaugurated as President of the United States in 1869. During his admin- istration all the seceded States became finally restored to the Union. The enormous debt incurred during the war was very greatly decreased. More than one-fifth of it ($600,000,000) was paid. Meanwhile, Congress had passed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. This amendment reads: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. The South was in a fever of anxiety about what it termed "negro supremacy." It claimed that the freedom of speech and press had been overthrown; that the American capital was converted into a bastile, and that a system of spies and official espionage had been established, to which no constitutional monarchy of Europe would dare to resort. Matters in the South had been complicated by the fact that at the close of the war thousands of Northern men had settled there. These Northern settlers met with a hostile reception, and their interference in GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT. A HUNDRED YEARS OF LIBERTY. 593 the government of the South aroused the wildest indignation. They were termed "Carpet-Baggers," for the reason that they usually stayed but a short time in the South, and, metaphorically speaking, carried their possessions in a carpet-bag. The more liberal men of all jDarties are willing to admit now that these "Carpet-Baggers" were often guilty of 'ill-timed and officious acts. It was largely their presence in the South which called into existence the terrible secret society known as the Ku-Klux Klan. In some places this society was known as the "Pale Faces," and in others, as the "Knights of White Camelia." These wished to frighten the ex-slaves, in order to keep them from taking part in the elections; to rid the country of "Carpet-Baggers," and to susta.in, as far as might be, the fonner slave-holding power in the ' 'irreconcilable South. ' ' This order prevailed in all parts of the Confederacy, and was so secret that no member knew who any of the others might be. When the men met they were always masked. This organization sent out armed men, who patrolled communities, intimi- dating men, and committing murder and other crimes. As the identity of the members could not be proved, they were neither caught nor tried. So great was the alarm caused by the Ku-Klux that the Governor of Tennessee, in 1868, called an extra session of the legislature, to provide measures of protection against the order. A committee reported that for six months, saying nothing of other outrages, the murders had averaged not less than one in each twenty-four hours. It reported that in fourteen counties of North Carolina, there had been eighteen murders and three hundred and fifteen whippings. In twenty- nine counties of Georgia, there were seventy-two murders and one hun- dred and twenty-six whippings. In twenty-six counties of Alabama, two hundred and fifteen murders and one hundred and sixteen other outrages, and in Louisiana, in 1868, there were more than one thousand murders. The particulars of this persecution by the Ku-Klux are as wild, romantic and terrible as any tale of feudal and uncivilized times; to re-admit the seceded States into the Union under such circum- stances, was a delicate and a dangerous task. The chief requirement for re-admission was, that each of the States should ratify the Fifteenth Amendment. Congress now determined that the amendment should be enforced, and authorized the President to use the army to prevent violations of law, and make penal any interference, by fraud or force, with the right of full and free manhood suffrage. Federal supervisors were appointed to oversee elections in cities of over twenty thousand inhabitants. This continued for several years. 594 '^HE STORY OF AMERICA. In 1 87 1, the people of the Northwest suffered a great blow from the partial destruction by fire of Chicago, the commercial center and the chief port of that district. The fire broke out on the 8th of October, and originated from the explosion of a lamp kicked over by an angry cow. For two days it raged almost unchecked, and was sustained by a fierce wind. It spread over two thousand one hundred and twenty-four acres, and destroyed seventeen thousand four hundred and fifty build- ings. The loss was almost one hundred and seventy-five million dollars^ and ninety-eight thousand people were made homeless. At the same time a terrible fire devastated Northeastern Wisconsin. Here the fire was accompanied by a hurricane, and swept through forests, fields and villages, leaving nothing but charred earth in its track. Over one thousand lives were lost. The town of Peshtigo was entirely swept out of existence. Here the fire rushed upon them with a loud roar, apparently almost out of the sky, and without any warning. Six hundred'Jives were lost in this town alone. Throughout the northern part of Michigan there were similar experiences, and indeed the entire Northwest suffered from fires, any one of which would have been famous at another time, but which, in a year of general catastrophe, were thought little of The season was one of unprecedented dryness, the air was hot and the wind high, and this accounted, no doubt, for the frequency of these disasters. Meanwhile, in spite of all difficulties and drawbacks, the American nation had been rapidly progressing. Its triumphs of mechanical ingenuity were unequaled. Its literature, its science, its art, were beginning to win recognition. Its system of popular education was remarkable. It had been proved to the world that a republican govern- ment on a large scale was practicable, and that the people were as well able to defend their principles as a king to defend his. Even the constant arrival of thousands of emigrants unacquainted with repub- lican ideas, and full of an inherited dislike for government, was not able to seriously hinder the onward sweep of improvement. It was several years later before these people became so numerous or their mistaken ideas so prominent as to cause concern. In the autumn of 1872, President Grant was re-elected. Henry Wilson was chosen Vice-President, in the place of Schuyler Colfax. Shortly after Grant's second inauguration, in 1873, the Government became involved in troubles with the Modoc Indians. At a friendly conference, the Indians murdered General Canby and a clergyman, in April of 1873. Four of the leaders were hanged in the following A HUNDRED YEARS OF LIBERTY. 595 October for their treachery. But the insincerity was not all upon the side of the Indians, and the policy of the Government toward this unhappy race of people has always been vacillating and selfish. Late in June, 1876, General Custer and his command of three hundred men were attacked at Little Big Horn river, in Montana Territory, and destroyed. Only one man escaped to tell the particulars of the direful defeat. The terrible manner in which these men met their death, and the indignities which were committed upon their dead bodies, aroused the keenest horror, and the management of the Indians from that time on has been more severe. Mention should be made of two great political parties which had been formed, and which, though neither of them have been in power or even near to power, have had much influence in political as well as moral matters. The Temperance party was organized in 1872, and consisted of a national combination of local temperance organizations, which had been in existence for many years. This received the name of the Prohibition Reform party, in 1876. It awakened much enthu- siasm in the cause of temperance, and in the course of time Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Kansas and Iowa adopted prohi- bition principles, making it a punishable crime to sell liquor within the limits of the States. A number of other States are known as Local Option States, and have prohibitory districts. The second party mentioned is known as the Labor Reform National party. It grew out of the combinations of workingmen called Trades' Unions. How this party was weakened in later years by the movements of a body of men known as Anarchists, and too often confounded by unthinking persons with the men of the labor party, must be told in another chapter. In 1873 occurred a great financial panic, which spread in the course of the year over the whole country. Firms in every part of the Union failed, and business for the time was almost paralyzed. The effect upon the laboring classes was most unfortunate. Everyone was afraid of losing money and locked it up, when it was most needed by the people. Mills were closed, great railroad enterprises suddenly abandoned, and speculation ceased. The great credit system was largely at fault for this commercial crash, and the business of the country was perilously speculative in its nature. It turned thousands of tramps upon the country; it ruined thousands of rich men, and, perhaps, among other things, it brought a few rich men to their senses, and showed them that honest industry is worth much more than a genius for speculation. It was four years before the country' recovered from the results of this panic. 37 596 THE STORY OF AMERICA. In this year Elisha Gra}-, of Chicago, invented the instrument which became the basis of the modern telephone. The adaptation of it to the human voice, in 1873, by Professor Bell, of Boston, completed the invention. Grant's second administration was marked by some grave political scandals, among which was that of the Credit Mobilier. This was a corporation which placed a large amount of money in the Union Pacific Company, and induced many men of capital to embark in the enter- prise, and to take stock both in the Union Pacific Company and in the Credit Mobilier Company. Mr. Oakes Ames was a leader in this enterprise, and he presented shares of stock to a considerable number of members of Congress. It was claimed that he did this for the purpose of keeping Congress friendly and favorable to the Pacific Railroad, and it occasioned much concern and indignation throughout the United States, for it was feared that bribery might become open and frequent in Congress, and the liberty of the people seriously endangered. The only punishment which Mr. Oakes Ames and his most culpable sympathizer, James Brooks, received, was the absolute condemnation of the House. Both gentlemen died within three months after these resolutions of condemnation were passed, broken in reputation and self-respect. Without doubt, however, bribery of one sort or another is frequent at Washington. The Democratic party at about this time demanded investigations o{ the New York Custom House, the United States Treasury, the Navy Department and various other institutions, but comparatively little was proved against the Administration. In the South, matters became so grave that General Sheridan was sent to New Orleans to see that law and order was enforced there, and to oppose the movements of the White League. This league had constantly assaulted and disfran- chised the blacks, so that it became necessary to protect the freedmen. Shortly after this was done the country became disturbed by anothet scandal. This was an extensive whisky ring, organized to control legislation so as to avoid revenue taxes. It consisted of an association of distillers, in collusion with Federal officers, and succeeded for a time in defrauding the Government of the tax on spirituous liquors. Follow- ing this came the impeachment of William W. Belknap, the Secretary of War. He was charged with selling an Indian trading post. Up to this time he had been much respected, and it was a great grief to the people that he should have been found guilty of treachery. It is pleasant to turn from these dark political pages to the centennial ffUf'l^m'mmmmm' MASSACRE OF GENERAL CUSTER AND COMMAND. \.i^ A HUNDRED YEARS OF LIBERTY. 597 celebration of the independence of the United States. There were festivals and meetings all over the United States, and a great inter- national exhibition was held at Philadelphia in honor of the event 598 THE STORY OF AMERICA. Thirty-three nations were represented by their industries, and almost ten million people visited the exhibition, so that nearly four million dollars were received for admission alone. A great impulse was given to American industry, and the United States had much cause to be proud of its inventive skill, and some cause, to tell the truth, to be ashamed of its art work, which was poor, compared with that of the older nations. During the year 1876 Colorado was admitted into the Union as a State, making thirty-eight States and eleven territories. The next presidential election was attended with much excitement. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, were the presidential and vice-presidential candidates of the Republican party. Those of the Democratic party were Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A, Hendricks, of Indiana. The votes of the States were very closely divided between these two candidates, and the decision depended upon the votes of two doubtful States, It was generally admitted that the Democrats had legally chosen one hundred and eighty- four electors and the Republicans one hundred and seventy-three, but the four votes of Florida and the eight votes of Louisiana were in doubt. If all of these were to be counted for Mr. Hayes he would have a majority of one. The Returning Boards of these two States declared that Republican electors had been chosen. These Boards were bodies of men appointed after the war by the laws of these States, and were authorized not only to count the votes actually cast, but to throw out the votes of neighborhoods where there had been violence or intimida- tion. The Republicans maintained that these Boards had exercised their power rightfully, but the Democrats claimed that they had unjustly thrown out a great many Democratic votes which should rightfully have been counted. The Republicans thought that the fraud and violence of the Democrats in some parts of these States had been so great as to justify the action of the Returning Boards, The question was a difficult one, and there was nothing in the Constitution to aid in its settlement. Throughout the country the excitement was great, and many feared that a civil war was at hand. Week after week passed by and at length the wiser men of both parties in Congress decided that the best plan was to appoint an Electoral Commission, to which all doubtful votes should be referred. Five Senators, five Representatives and five Justices of the Supreme Court composed this body, and it decided by a vote of eight to seven that the votes of Florida and Louisiana must be counted as the Returning Boards had reported them, because these Boards had been legally appointed by those particular States, and the other States could A HUNDRED YEARS OF LIBERTY. 599 Hot revise or reject their returns. This decision gave Hayes and Wheeler one hundred and eighty-five votes, and Tilden and Hendricks one hundred and eighty-four. Hayes and Wheeler were therefore declared to be elected, and were inaugurated on March 5, 1877, but during the whole of their administration there was a bitter spirit between the two parties, and the Democrats could not forget that the Electoral Commission had been composed of eight Republicans and seven Demo- crats, and that all of these men had voted precisely as their party prin- ciples had prompted them to do. Fortunately, Mr. Hayes was a man of peaceable and conciliatory disposition. Though not a brilliant man, he was ambitious to be a just one. Mr. Hayes began by making up his Cabinet from both parties, which was a very uncommon thing. It had long been the motto of the parties "to the victor belongs the spoils," and following up this motto the Presidents conferred the offices within their appointment upon those who had supported them, regardless of their ability or honesty of purpose. Mr. Hayes, therefore, gave ofience. He withdrew all United States soldiers from the State Houses of any of the States which had belonged to the Confederacy, and prohibited the interference of United States troops with the elections in those States. Many of the people objected seriously to this, and especially to the with- drawal of troops from South Carolina, which of all the States of the South was the most difficult to control. But the President insisted that his principle was right, and that since South Carolina had been read- mitted as a State, she could not be treated as conquered territory. The effect was indeed beneficial, and the States continued to grow more peaceful from that time on. Injustice, intimidation and contempt cer- tainly exist still in the treatment of the colored people, but it is hoped that by another generation this will die out, and many negroes have taken the remedy into their own hands. During the summer of 1879 there was a 'great exodus of the negroes from the States of the South to those of the Northwest. The negroes were received kindly in Kansas and Indiana, and have therefore settled extensively in those States. During the summer of 1877, our Government engaged in a war with the hitherto friendly Nez Perces Indians. These were subdued by our arms as usual, and made our enemies. The Government and banks of the United States resumed specie pay- ments on January i, 1879. It was feared among business men that this might cause much embarrassment, but the change from paper money to silver and gold was accomplished with ease. During Hayes' admin- istration there was a great agitation concerning the emigration of natives 60O THE STORY OF AMERICA. of China into the United States. The workingmen claimed that they lowered the price of American labor, and protested that they could not compete with them. The President vetoed the bill restricting their emigration, but the newspapers did not permit the subject to die out, and in 1888 the bill restricting emigration was passed. It was during Hayes' administration that the agitation of the work- ingmen began to have its serious effect. In July, 1877, there was a great convulsion among the railroad hands on the central roads of the United States. The beginning was on July 17th, when the brakemen and firemen on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad refused to work, and prevented others from working, because their wages had been reduced ten per cent. By the next day the entire road was in possession of the strikers. A call for aid was made upon the Government, to which President Hayes responded with a body of Federal troops and a procla- mation to the rioters to disperse. At Pittsburg, there was a special intensity of feeling, and the excitement was great in Chicago. The Tradesmen's Union held a meeting and resolutions Were passed demand- ing concessions from the companies. By the 20th, Pittsburg was com- pletely in the power of the rioters, and fifteen hundred trains were stopped. At Baltimore, the Maryland regiments were ordered out, and as they were leaving their armory were met by a crowd of several thou- sand. These stoned the regiments until they were obliged to fire in self- defense. Several men were killed. On the 21st, the State tnilitia of Pennsylvania arrived at Pittsburg and a terrible scene of riot and vio- lence followed. The militia found their enemies so formidable that they took refuge in the railroad round-house. From here they fired upon the crowd. The mob had sacked the gun stores, and returned the fire with enthusiasm. By setting fire to some cars of pretroleum they forced the militia to leave the round-house. The fire spread rapidly and the railroad property was soon in ruins. Throughout the 2 2d and 23d the disturbance continued. Serious riots broke out in Philadelphia, and the excitement spread to Chicago, St. Louis and San Francisco. But before a fortnight was over order was restored. Some of the companies compromised with the strikers, and others ran their trains with new employes. The following year was marked by a terrible plague in the South. Seven thousand deaths were caused in the months of August, September and October of 1878, by yellow fever. Whole villages were deserted by the panic which accompanied it, and the industries of the South, still young and uncertain, were almost crushed by the disaster. A HUNDRED YEARS OF LIBERTY. 6oi During this year Thomas A. Edison brought the phonograph to the attention of the world. This remarkable instrument, which is now becoming of practical use, will repeat, after any interval of time, the words which have been spoken into it. The mechanical inventions in the United States within the last twenty-five years have been unprece- dented for their number and their utility. The utilization of natural gas for heat and light, the heating of houses by steam, the common use of hydraulic power, the progress in mining, and the experiments in explosives, not to mention the improvements in looms and all sorts of practical machinery, are remarkable. FOR FURTHER READING: History— Andreas' "History of Chicag-o." Phelps' "Life and Public Services of U. S. Grant." Howard's "Life of Hayes." Fiction— Mrs. Whitney's "A Summer in Leslie Goldthait's Life." J. G. Holland's "Arthur Bomucastle." O. W. Holmes' "Elsie Venner." H. \V. Beecher's "Norwood." Mrs. Stowe's "Oldtown Folks." F. B. Aldrich's "Queen of Sheba." F. B. Aldrich's "Margery Daw." Mrs. St. John's "Bella." / Poetry— Whittier's "Centennial Hymn." E. Renaud's "Chicago." Longfellow's "Revenge of Rain-on-Face." CHAPTER XCVI. ►^ §!h !f H^mnrbt^ ELECTION AND DEATH OF PRESIDENT JAMES A. GARFIELD— ADMIN- ISTRATION OF ARTHUR — THE ANARCHISTS ^1 OF CHICAGO. ;^ N the National Convention of 1880, the Repub- licans nominated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and William H. English, of Indiana. At this election the Republicans won by a decided majority, and President Garfield was inaugurated March 4, 1881. Garfield's administration opened v/ith what was known as a dead- lock in the Senate, which was a mere matter of party, but which, at the time, caused no little discussion. President Garfield announced it as his intention to make a great effort to rid the United States of the shame of polyg- amy, which exists in Utah, and his best efforts would doubtless have been devoted to this end but for his untimely death. On July 2, 1 881, while waiting for a train in the railway station at Washington, President Garfield was shot and mortally wounded by a half-insane creature, whose name deserves no place in history. The President was taken to the White House, where he lay between life and death for many weeks. He confessed to a great desire for being near the sea, and on September 6th, was taken to Elberon, New Jersey. Here, on the nineteenth of September, he died, mourned by the whole nation. His industrious, wholesome life, and the fact that he had risen from a poor boyhood, worked his way through college till he stood at the head of it, served faithfully in camp till he became a general, and maintained his position in Congress with so much dignity that he was rhosen President, made him seem to the youth of America the typical /AMES A. GARFIELD. THE OLD HAYMARKET. 603 man of the Republic, He was mourned in Europe as well as in America, and when he died, the British court, as well as the friends of the President at Washington, went into mourning. His death was not the result of any conspiracy, nor of political hostility, but the act of Dne egotistical and half-insane man, who was angry at being refused an office. The murderer was tried, and hung on June 30, 1882. Mean- while, Vice-President Arthur had succeeded to the presidency, taking the oath of office at New York, September 20, 1881, and again more formally, iwc days after, at Washington. No new States were added to the Union duricg Arthur's administration. The nation was prosperous and peaceful, and Arthur's inaugural address was notable by reason of its being the first one in twenty years that contained no reference to the Southern States as a distinct part of the nation. It was evident that the great sectional contest was drawing to an end, and all the bitteriiess of feeling which had attended it was disappearing. The history of a nation should not be made up of its wars and its disasters. By rights, the greater part of its pages should be devoted to those intervals of peace when education flourishes, industry increases, and the influence of home life is most felt. At such times one may, if he chooses, estimate rightly the comparative position of his nation, its advantages and disadvantages, and judge rightly its value to the world. In 1879, as has been said, specie payi^ient was resumed in the United States, and ever since that time the national currency has been at par value. Any one who possesses a paper dollar can receive a gold or silver dollar for it without difficulty. This placed commerce upon a more certain foundation. Industry has gradually increased, and we have begun to manufacture many articles which we formerly imported almost entirely from Europe. Watches, cotton, woolen, silk, tne finest musical instruments, carriages, furniture, cutlery, railroad iron, carpets and decorative fabrics are among those industries which have been taken up at a comparatively recent time, and the products of which are sold, not only in America, but on the other side of the water. In other ways we are not doing as well as we once did. We no longer possess a nav}^ of any sort whatever, and no foreign sea is ever decorated with the American flag. This has come largely from the fact that iron vessels have taken the place of wooden ones, and that England has greater advantages for building iron vessels than America possesses. As it is a law that a vessel must carry the flag of the country it is built in, the purchase of vessels will not remedy this deficiency. A.nother great drawback in this country is the rapid growth of 6o4 THE STORY OF AMERICA. monopoly. The telegraph, the railroads, oil, coal and many other necessities are governed by rich corporations, who are able to ask any price that they choose, and have the power to keep down all competition. A large class of men who follow the teachings of a modern economist and philosopher named Henry George, believe that all necessities of this sort should be owned and managed by the Government. They also believe that land should be public property as much as air or water. The great question of the country is at present, and nmst remain for many years, the adjustment of capital and labor. There has long been a cry from all parts of the country for co-operative work. A foolish and impassioned set of men, most of whom are emigrants from the monarchies of Europe, and known as Anarchists, are among those who have formed themselves into a party to combat monopoly and undue wealth. On May 4, 1886, this discontent culminated in a terrible tragedy at the city of Chicago. An open-air meeting was held by the discon- tented party at the old Haymarket, on the West Side of the city. As the attitude of these men had been threatening for several weeks, a company of policemen were sent to preser\^e order. Their presence and their demeanor inflamed the wrath of some madman in the crowd, and a dynamite bomb was thrown into their midst, killing one policeman immediately and wounded sixty-seven others. The bomb was probably thrown by a German named Schnaubelt. This man fled, and was never captured. Seven policemen in all died, from the results of the riot. The city was seriously alarmed. There were rumors of a great con- spiracy. It was whispered that a plot existed to burn the city to the ground. A raid was made on the office of the Arbeiter Zeititng^ the organ of the Anarchists. Here dynamite bombs and infernal machines were found, as well as a large number of circulars on which there was an appeal to the workmen to arm themselves. It is said by the friends of the Anarchists that these circulars were not intended for distribution. They maintained that some ill-advised person had put that appeal upon the circulars without the knowledge of the men who were to speak at the Haymarket meeting which the circulars announced. It is said that Albert Parsons, one of the best known of the Anarchist leaders, refused to speak at the meeting unless other circulars were printed which did not contain that seditious injunction. These milder circulars had been printed and circulated, and those left in the office, it is said, were to be destroyed. But even when this point is conceded, it does not explain the presence of dynamite GROVER CLEVELAND. THE OLD HAYMARKET. 605 Eight leaders of the Anarchists were arrested on charge of conspiracy and murder. They were August Spies, Albert. R. Parsons, Samuel Fielden, Oscar Neebe, George Engel, Louis Ling, Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer. It is maintained by the Anarchists that some of these men were not acquainted with each other; that they had never met until they were brought together in the court-room, and that obviously no conspiracy could have existed between them. On the other hand, it was maintained by many witnesses that each of these men had been heard making incendiary speeches, and evidence was brought before the grand jury which convinced that body that a conspiracy had actually existed for the destruction of the city. It is, however, admitted by all that the excitement of the time caused injustice to at least a part of these men. They were far from being equally guilty; they had not all acted in complicity, and they should have had separate trials. But the terrible sufferings of the policemen who were the victims of these misguided men worked upon the sympathies of the people, and interfered to some extent with the cause of justice. On August 3d, after a long trial, a verdict of guilty was rendered. Oscar Neebe was given fifteen years in the penitentiary. The rest of the men were sentenced to be hung. Before the ominous day of execution was reached, a petition, signed by the leading citizens of the city, begged a commutation of sentence for Fielden and Schwab, who were more temperate and judicious than their compatriots. As a consequence, these two men were condemned to life imprisonment. Before the day of execution, Louis Ling, the most impassioned and the youngest of the condemned Anarchists, committed suicide by setting fire to a dynamite cartridge in his mouth. It is held by some of the Anarchists that he did not commit suicide, but was murdered by the jail officials, who gave him a loaded cigar to smoke. He died within a few hours. A short time before his death a dynamite bomb was found in his cell. As all persons who visited the Anarchists were thoroughly searched before they were admitted to the jail, and as officers were present at every interview, the way in which that bomb came to be in his cell has always been an unsolved mystery. The manner in which it was found was suspicious. Ling was awakened from his sleep in the early morning, dragged hastily from his room, and confined in another cell. The jail officials then produced a bomb, which they claimed was found beneath his bed. Their word may be taken for what it was worth. On the nth of November, 1887, JParsons, Spies, Fischer and Engel were hung in the jail on the North Side of the city. They refused to 6o6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. ask for pardon, and died heroically, sincerely believing themselves to be the martyrs of a righteous cans^'. That their efforts were misguided, futile and harmful, the judicious cannot doubt, but that they deserved death, may well be questioned. Socialism was incalculably injured by the agitation of the Anarchists, and the great question of the ameliora- tion of the laboring man's lot was in no way solved, either by their lives or their deaths. They are remembered with execration by many, with unchecked devotion by a few, and with sincere regret by the majority. With the exception of Parsons, they were not Americans, and they brought to this country the hatred of government which they had acquired in Europe. Furthermore, the ruling political party of Chicago was Irish, the police force was composed almost entirely of Irishmen, and a bitterness of ieeling existed between this race and the Germans in the cosmopolitan city of the tragedy. The Anarchists were Germans. Both the policemen and the Anarchists went to lengths, which were prompted by race hatred. The affair was but in a very small degree American, but the movement was not an unadulterated injury to America, for it inspired her broader-minded people with a judicious pity as well as a greater caution. Such men realized that the State should not alone cure diseases, but should try to prevent them, and they admitted to themselves that had these enthusiastic and impassioned men been checked at the proper point, or guided into the right channels, they might have been saved from themselves. That they were not altogether bad is proven by the fact that a man of clear judgment like William Dean Howells, one of the greatest of American writers, chooses to publicly and respectfully observe the anniversary of their deaths. FOR FURTHER READING- Fiction — R. Edwards' "Twice Defeated." G. W. Curtis' "Trumps." ( "The Bread Winners." Anon. Mrs. Burnet's "Through One Administration." R. H. Newell's "Avery Glibun." Bayard Taylor's "John Godfrey's Fortune." R. B. Kimball's "Henrj' Powers, Banker." R. B. Kimball's "Undercurrent of Wall Street." POETRY— D. Bethune Duffield's "A Dirge." N. P. Willis' Poems. George Arnold's Poems. O. W. Holmes' Poems. T. B. Aldrich's Poems. CHAPTER XCVII. WLESIDENT CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION— CIVIL SERVICE REFORM AND PENSION BILLS — MANY NOTED UNION GENERALS PASS AWAY — DEATH OF GENERAL GRANT — PROMI- NENT EVENTS OF FOUR YEAR? OF DEMOCRATIC POWER. ^^^FTER twenty-four years of power, the Republican Vi party was defeated in the election of 1884. James "^ G. Blaine, of Maine, was their candidate fo*' President, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, the famous general, for Vice-President. The Demo- cratic nominees were Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. This election was marked by a growing spirit of liberality. Party lines disappeared to an extent, and there was a desire among the more honest men of the nation to get rid of what w?g known as machine politics, and to vote for the man who seemed most worthy to ex- ercise power. President Cleveland was inaugurated March 5, 1885, with Mr. Hendricks as Vice-President, who, however, died November 28, 1885. After the ^eath of Vice-President Hendricks, a law was passed by Congress, pro- viding that in case of the death of both President and Vice-President, the Secretary of State should be the successor to the presidency. A law had been previously passed, known as the Civil Service Act, under which the appointments to certain offices should thenceforth be made by competitive examination. The object of this law was to do away with the spoils system, to assure greater permanency, and to prevent the selection of politicians in the place of reliable and educated persons. 6o8 THE STORY OF AMERICA. President Cleveland was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, March i8, 1837. Three years later he was taken to Fayetteville, near Syracuse, New York, where his father, who was a Presbyterian minister, received a salary of one thousand dollars. The boy, Grover Cleveland, was given a common school education, and as soon as he was old enough, became a clerk in a village store. In 1853, the father died at Holland Patent, New York, and his son was thrown upon his own resources. He went to New York City, and became a teacher of the blind in an institution where his brother held a position. A year later he started West, and meeting an uncle at Buffalo, settled there. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1859. In 1869 ^^ was elected sheriff of Erie County, and in 1881 he became mayor of Buffalo. In 1882 he was elected Governor of New York by a sweeping majority, unparal- leled in the history of American elections. While he still held office, in July, 1884, he was called by the Democratic National Convention to be the standard-bearer in the presidential contest. After the inauguration. President Cleveland's first duty was to announce his Cabinet, and the day he took his oath of office he sent the following nominations to the Senate: Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware; Secretary of the Treasury, Daniel Manning, of New York; Secretary of the Interior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, of Mississippi; Secretary of War, William C. Endicott, of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Navy, William C. Whitney, of New York; Postmaster- General, William F. Vilas, of Wisconsin; Attorney-General, Augustus H. Garland, of Arkansas. Before the close of the Administration there were several changes in the Cabinet, as it was first framed. Charles P^ Fairchild succeeded Daniel Manning as Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Manning having resigned on account of ill health. Lucius Q. C. Lamar was appointed to the Supreme Bench, and William F. Vilas became Secretary of the Interior, Don M. Dickinson taking his place as Postmaster-General. The most difficult question that confronted President Cleveland was the distribution of official patronage. It had long been the custom of the Government to give all appointive offices to its own partisans. This usage, well established since the time of President Jackson, was the origin and cause of much abuse of office in the various departments of the Government. Extreme party men maintained the principle, "To the victors belong the spoils.'' The best politicians advocated civil-service reform, and worked against the old practice of appointing men for party service, and not for personal ability. In the evenly con- CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM. 609 tested elections of 1880 and 1884, it became necessary for both parties to conciliate civil-service reformers. It was they who threw their influence for Cleveland in the hotly contested election, and he went into office pledged to carry out the views of those who, trusting the sincerity of his belief in civil-service reform, had raised him to power. No Chief Magistrate ever had more confusing questions to decide, or a more difficult work to take up. In his perplexing position. President Cleveland showed rare judgment. His sturdy strength of character and natural independence of spirit carried him through many a trying ordeal, and his most bitter political opponents could not impugn his honesty, integrity and common sense. During President Cleveland's administration it was rather strange that there should be a revival of interest in regard to the civil war, which did not tend to allay sectional feeling between the North and the South. Many of the leading participants in the war contributed personal reminiscences of the battles in which they fought, and although such authentic accounts of the great civil struggle are invalu- able from an historical standpoint, they naturally recalled painful memories and delayed a perfect amalgamation between former opponents. In 1875, General William T. Sherman had published a book contain- ing his memories of the war, and Alexander H. Stevens, late Vice- President of the Confederacy, had told the story from the other side in a volume called "War Between the States." In 1884 General Grant published a series of articles in the Centttry Magazine^ and the wide interest they awakened induced him to prepare his now famous ' 'Memoirs. ' ' During President Cleveland's administration many pension bills were brousfht before Cong^ress. These bills occasioned bitter contro- versies and helped to foster sectional prejudices. The President had the courage to veto the bills that he considered unworthy or tending toward an extravagant or unnecessary expenditure of the public funds. But while he vetoed many pension claims, he also signed a great number. In 1884, when he entered office, there were thirty-four thousand one hundred and ninety-two pension claims allowed, and in 1888 the num- ber had been nearly doubled, over sixty thousand names appearing on the pension list. Notwithstanding these figures, the fact that President Cleveland vetoed various pension bills that had passed Congress, caused the Grand Army men to look with disfavor upon his re-election, and their influence was one of the causes of his defeat in the campaign of 6lO THE STORY OF AMERICA. While volumes were being written about the war, many of its heroes passed away. In a single year, several Union generals died. At the beginning of the summer of 1885, the public announcement that General Grant was stricken with a fatal malady saddened the entire nation. For many months the hero of Vicksburg and Appomattox battled bravely with disease until, on the 23d of July, he sank peacefully to rest at the summer cottage on Mt. McGregor. The brave old man, after traveling around the world and being entertained by half the kings of earth, died in comparative poverty, and, what was worse, with a cloud hanging over his name. This, however, was cleared away, and the American people honored and loved him at the end as a man true and faithful, whose only crime was that he believed others to be as honest as himself and trusted too honestly and completely. That he might not leave his wife in poverty, he worked constantly upon his memoirs through the long, dreadful months when he was suffering intense agony from the cancer in his throat which eventually caused his death. His last days were cheered by the restored confidence of his countrymen. He died, in the consciousness that his book would insure a life-long competence to his family and that his name would be preserved with those of Washington and Lincoln. His funeral ceremonies were the most solemn and impressive ever witnessed in the United States, and, on April 8th, the body of the greatest American soldier was interred, with great military pomp, at Riverside Park, near New York City. Less than three months later, General George B. McClellan died. General McClellan was the first commander of the Army of the Potomac and at one time general-in-chief of the army. He was subsequently Democratic candidate for President, and later Governor of New York. General Winfield S. Hancock, senior Major-General of the United States Army, was the next to be called away. In 1880, he was the Democratic candidate for President, and was defeated by President Garfield. Before the close of 1886, another Union commander died. Late in December, Major-General John A. Logan, United States Senator from Illinois, became ill at his home, Calumet Place, in Washington City. He had long been a sufferer from rheumatism, brought on by exposure in the early campaigns of the war. Few men did more than General Logan to strengthen the Union sentiment in the wavering border States. Without military training, he rose rapidly in the army and became the great volunteer general of the war. When the rebellion broke out, he resigned his seat in Congress and joined the Union army. In 1884, CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM. ♦ 6X1 after being defeated in his candidacy for Vice-President upon the Republican ticket, he resumed his duties in the United States Senate. Mrs. Logan, a woman of rare intellectual power, was always a wise counselor and a noble companion to her illustrious husband, and she will always occupy a high place in the regard of the American people. On November 25, 1885, Thomas A. Hendricks, the Vice-President, was stricken with paralysis and died suddenly at Indianapolis. He was buried at the beautiful Crown Hill Cemetery, near that city. A little later, two other distinguished Democratic leaders joined "the great majority." On February 12, 1886, Horatio Seymour died at his home in Utica, New York. He had reached the ripe age of seventy-six, and his long life had been one of great activity. In 1868, he was the Democratic candidate for President against General Grant. Samuel J. Tilden, the most distinguished man in Democratic politics, died at his home, called Greystone, near Yonkers, New York, August 4, 1886. He was born February 14, 1814, and, although in his seventy- third year at the time of his death, his intellectual force was unabated and his faculties unimpaired. He faithfully served his party for more than forty years and held many places of public trust. In 1876, he was nominated for President and polled a majority of the popular votes, although he failed to receive a majority from the Electoral College. After his candidacy for President, Mr. Tilden retired from public life, but he continued to be a guiding spirit in his party until his death. In April, 1884, Cincinnati was the scene of terrible riots, which grew out of distrust of the courts. A murderer was not, according to the judgment of the people, dealt with severely enough, and the "laws' delays" had become so frequent that the people protested. Their protest took the form of a riot, the only results of which were disaster. Many were killed by the militia, the court house was burned, many thousand dollars' worth of public property was destroyed, the city kept under first mob and then martial rule for several days — and all to no end. August and September of 1886 saw the destruction of the beautiful city of Charleston by earthquake. A series of shocks, extending over three days, devastated the city. Hundreds of people were killed, and those who escaped death were rendered homeless. Like Chicago, however, the city rapidly rose out of its ruins. The summer of 1888 saw a return of the epidemic of yellow fever in the South. Thousands of people died, but the percentage of death was not so great among those attacked by the disease as it had formerly 6i2 ' THE STORY OF AMERICA. been. The relief of the sufferers, both in the Charleston catastrophe and in the plague-stricken portions of the South, was prompt and cordial, and came from all parts of the United States. The generosity of the North upon these occasions did much to dissipate the bitterness between the sections. In March, 1887, the country sustained a great loss in the death of Henry Ward Beecher, the orator, writer and philanthropist. He was taken away from a life that was still busy, notwithstanding increasing years and constantly widening fields of labor. No man did more than he to broaden popular ideas and" teach liberality of thought. His work as a moral reformer and political instructor was even more prominent than as a preacher and theological thinker. Living in a critical period of American history, he threw himself into the anti-slavery conflict and took first rank on a platform that abounded with orators. No subject ever evoked more brilliant and forcible oratory than the slavery question, and no single voice did more than Mr. Beecher' s to arouse the North against the encroachments of slave power. Against every compromise measure, he protested in language that was most eloquent and indig- nant, yet in his indignation he never lost his moral composure and self- restraint. By far the most remarkable of his political addresses were those delivered by him in Great Britain in 1863. He spoke in Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool and London, and each address was prepared with special reference to the audience that would hear it. The greatest danger to the national cause in our civil war was from the intervention of European powers. England was especially feared. To these four addresses, more than any other one cause, America is indebted for the subsequent sympathy of the common people of England. Mr. Beecher took an active part in several presidential campaigns. At the time of President Lincoln's second candidacy, he made a series of brilliant political speeches, and he exerted a powerful influence in secur- ing the election of President Cleveland. Born in Litchfield, Connecticut, June 24, 1 81 3, Henry Ward Beecher' s early education was of the severe New England type. He graduated from Amherst, in 1834. In 1837, he began his ministry in the small town of Lawrenceburg, Indiana. In 1839, he took charge of the Presbyterian Church at Indianapolis, and in 1847 accepted a call to the Plymouth Congrega- tional Church, of Brooklyn, New York. It was with Plymouth Church that his name was henceforth inseparably connected, and during his ministry of forty years in its pulpit was a powerful molder of public opinion. While laboring with exceptional vigor in completing bis CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM. 613 long-delayed "Life of Christ," which he purposed to follow with an autobiography, Mr. Beecher was suddenly stricken with apoplexy, and after lingering for a few days in an unconscious condition, passed away on the morning of March 8th. His death produced wide-spread sorrow throughout the American nation. In pulpits representing every school of thought, sermons on his career and character were preached, and in all sorts of organizations, religious and secular, resolutions to his memory were passed. One of the most noted pieces of legislation during President Cleve- land's administration was the Inter-State Commerce Law. The bill was introduced before the Forty-ninth Congress and attracted much atten- tion, as it was intended to benefit the public by reducing railway fares and freight charges. After a long fight in Congress, during which time the bill was several times altered, it finally became a law. The bill provided for uniform freight and passenger rates upon all railroads throughout the United States. President Cleveland had the satisfaction of knowing that four great States were admitted to the Union immediately preceding the close of his administration. This was an unusual number to be added under one President, These States were North and South Dakota, Montana and Washington. Dakota was entitled to admission some time before, but unworthy political motives prevented it from claiming its right place as a State. President Cleveland's administration was notable from a social point of view. The inauguration of a Democratic President for the first time in a quarter of a century naturally created great enthusiasm. The ceremonies were impressive, and the event was celebrated with much pomp, although the man who assumed the Chief Magistrate's chair was one of the most unostentatious of men. President Cleveland being unmarried, his youngest sister. Miss Rose Elizabeth Cleveland, became the hostess of the White House. A woman of progressive ideas, intellectual and thoughtful, she immedi- ately made a pleasant impression upon the public. When her father died, she was a child eleven years old, and the care of her education devolved upon her mother. She was naturally studious, and early gave evidence of a strong and original mind. After graduating from a prominent seminary she returned to it as a teacher. Later, she became principal of the Collegiate Institute, at Lafayette, Indiana. Her health becoming impaired, she withdrev.- from active school work and became 6 14 THE STORY OF AMERICA. a lecturer upon historical subjects in several large seminaries. She made her home at Holland Patent, New York, and at the death of her mother she continued to live at the old home until she was summoned away from her books to do the honors of the White House, where she presided with tact and dignity until the marriage of her brother. Miss Cleveland had become known as a writer of essays and literary criti- cisms, and while residing at the White House she found time to publish a book which met with great success. In May, 1886, the approaching marriage of the President was announced, and the prospect of a wedding at the White House piqued the public interest. The bride-elect. Miss Frances Folsom, had been in Europe for some time and she was almost unknown in Washington, where she was soon to be the center of official social life. She was born in Buffalo, New York, and was the only daughter of Oscar Fol- som, a prominent lawyer of that city. In 1870, Mr. Folsom became a partner of Mr. Cleveland in the practice of law, and a strong friendship sprang up between the two lawyers. Death soon severed this friend- ship, however, for in July, 1875, Mr. Folsom was thrown from a car- riage and killed. Mrs. Folsom immediately gave up her home in Buf- falo and removed to Medina, where she devoted herself to the education of her daughter, who was later sent to Wells College, Aurora. At school and college, the future wife of the highest official in the land was distinguished for her studious habits and bright mind, and she graduated from Wells College with high honors. Mr. Cleveland never lost sight of his partner's wife and daughter, and, during her school days, the young girl received many tokens of his friendly regard. On the evening of June 2, 1886, President Cleveland and Miss Frances Folsom were married. The ceremony was performed in the Blue Room of the White House, the Reverend Byron Sunderland, D.D., officiating, assisted by the Reverend William Cleveland. As the mar- riage ceremony was performed, a salute of cannon was fired from the navy yard, and all the bells of the city churches rang greetings. On June 15th, the President and Mrs. Cleveland held an official reception, and the winsome manners of the new lady of the White House won every heart. Three days later another reception was held at which not less than ten thousand people crowded to meet Mrs. Cleveland, who wore her bridal gown and had the Blue Room decorated with flowers, just as it had been on the evening of the wedding. Although only twenty-two years old and but a short time out of school when she became the first lady of the land, Mrs. Cleveland main- CIVIL-SERVICR REFORM. 6'S tained the dignity of her exalted position with such tact and discretion that no word of criticism was ever passed upon her. Beautiful, gentle and kind, she endeared herself to the people. Highly accomplished, unaffected in manner and fascinating in address, she was everywhere Ibved and honored. In 1887, the President and Mrs. Cleveland made a tour through the country, going as far north as St. Paul, Minnesota, and as far south as Montgomery, Alabama. They were welcomed everywhere with great enthusiasm, the cities vieing with one another in the preparations for their entertainment. In the National Democratic Convention of 1888, President Cleve- land was unanimously renominated, but he was defeated in the election by the Republican candidate, General Benjamin F. Harrison, of Indiana. The reasons for Republican success have been studied with much curi- osity, and statesmen have had cause to remember the prophecy of General John A. lyOgan. He said that the election of 1888 would result in Republican triumph, for the reason that the children bom after the close of the War of Secession would become of age and that they would be Republicans by heredity. After the inauguration of President Harrison, Mr. Cleveland resumed the practice of law, associating himself with a prominent firm in New York City. As President of the United States, he left an honorable record. He was an indefatigable worker, spending many hours every day at his desk. His administration was noted for the business-like methods that he employed. An ardent advocate of tariff reform, he devoted much space in his annual messages to the subject. FOR FURTHER READING: Fiction — E. Eggleston's "The Hoosier Schoolmaster." E. Eggleston's "The Circuit Rider." E. Eg'gleston's "Roxy." F. Winthrop's "John Brent." J. W. DeForrest's "Overland." Rattlehead's "Arkansas Doctor." Bret Harte's "Luck of Roaring Camp." Bayard Taylor's "Hannah Thurston." Mrs. H. W. Bucher's "From Dawn to Daylight." Huntington's "Alban." F. W. Shelton's "The Rector of St. Bardolph's." I,. M. Childs' "A Romance of the Republic." Mark Twain's "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras Couaty." C. E. Whitehead's "Wild Sports in the South.*^ Poetry — I,oweirs Poems. Bayard Taylor's Poems. Bret Harte's Poems. /K BIK — if ' - h\ — I — T -a V ^i' "I '■ ' 1 I CHAPTER XCVIII. ^-^ ilput^Il %m J[itmim$btlmn/' THE FOUR YEARS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON^S TERM — COMPEL CATIONS WITH ITALY AND GREAT BRITAIN RECIPROCITY AND THE PAN-AMERI- CAN CONGRESS SECOND ELEC- TION OF CLEVELAND. HE four years of the term of Harrison's presidency were full of important events in the making of our country's history. The foreign policy of the administration was vigorous and independent, and it won admiration from all nations, but there were some narrow escapes from an interruption of the many years' successive peace that the nation had enjoyed. With Italy, Great Britain and Chile were disputes that for a time threatened the friendly relations that had existed with those as well as all other nations. But of greater importance than the war-clouds that hovered were the triumphs of peace that marked the ad- ministration. The crowning glory of these was the Pan-American Congress, or the congress of all-America, which met in Washington and was attended with such noble results. In 1826, Gen. Simon Bolivar, the great South Amer- ican liberator, inaugurated a movement for an international American con- ference, but it was not until more than sixty years later that the effort culminated in success. On the second of October, 1889, delegates from the eighteen independent nations of the hemisphere, including Hayti, met at Washington to confer concerning certain propositions involving their common welfare and prosperity. None of the European colonies were invited to participate in the conference, for it was felt that their interests were not the same. It was thought that Spain desired to have Cuba and Porto Rico included, but they were not invited. The republic of San Domingo refused the invitation, and the credentials of the Hawaiian del- egates did not reach them in time for them to sit in the convention. The 6l8 THE STORY OF AMERICA. sessions of the conference continued until the 19th of April, 1890, every topic presented for discussion having been considered and formally dis- posed of. These topics were twenty-five in number, and upon nineteen of them the action of the congress was unanimous. Among the more important results of the congress were these: A plan of arbitration was adopted for the settlement of differences between the American nations. The delegates from Chile, under instruc- tions, declined to participate in the discussions, because the proposition was contrary to the policy of their government. The right of conquest was declared to be inadmissible under Ameri- can public law. The establishment of an international American monetary union and the issue of an international coin or coins, to be uniform in weight and fineness, was recommended. The negotiation of reciprocity treaties for the free interchange of cer- tain commodities by the American nations was recommended. The appointment of an international commission to superintend a sur- vey for an intercontinental railway was recommended, each nation to con- tribute its share of the expense. This great Pan-American Congress was only a deliberative body; that is, the delegates were authorized to discuss propositions, and to make such recommendations to their governments as they thought proper, but the ratification of the governments was necessary to make the recommen- dations effective. But with little delay the plans of arbitration and sev- eral others of the things suggested were ratified by most of the govern- ments, and by this time almost every one of the recommendations has been adopted. The inter-continental railway will certainly be an accom- plished fact within a few years. Then it will be possible for one to enter a palace car at Chicago or New York and without change of cars to ride to the other side of the equator, finishing the journey at Montevideo or some other far southern city. The countries which were represented at this great conference were Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecua- dor, Guatamala, Hayti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay, Venezuela, and the United States, The president of the congress was James G. Blaine, Secretary of State of the United States. He had been the prime mover in the arrangements, and the congress and the resulting reciprocity treaties were considered by him to be the crowning event of his political life. The narrowest escape that the United States has had from war with a European nation was during the spring of 1891, when complications arose with Italy that immediately threatened to result in an outbreak of hostil- ities. The causes that led up to the trouble ended in what was known BENJAMIN HARRISON. THROUGH ONE ADMINISTRATION. 619 as the New Orleans massacre, in which eleven Italians imprisoned in the city jail of that city were murdered by a mob. On the night of October 15, 1890, David C. Hennessey, chief of police of New Orleans, was murdered in the streets of that city. Two months later eleven Italians were indicted as principals and accessories to the crime. In the middle of February, 1891, their trial began, and after a month the jury found them not guilty. The verdict was universally con- demned in New Orleans, and a meeting was called on the 15th of March to take into consideration the vindication of the law. The result was that a large crowd proceeded to the parish prison, and forcing an entrance shot eleven of the accused dead. The Italian government by its American minister, Baron Fava, imme- diately demanded of Mr. Blaine that the federal administration interfere for the protection of the living prisoners and the other members of the Italian colony in New Orleans. He demanded also that the mob and those who inspired it be speedily brought to justice. Mr. Blaine at once telegraphed the governor of Louisiana deploring the massacre, expressing the hope of the President that the subjects of a friendly power be furnished adequate protection, and that the leaders of the mob be promptly brought to justice. A telegram was at the same time sent to the United States minister at Rome, instructing him to con- vey to the Italian government the profound horror and regret of the President, and to assure it that every possible effort would be made to protect its subjects. Correspondence passed between the two governments, and demands were made and insisted upon by Italy that assurance should be given by the United States that the leaders of the mob should be punished, and that indemnity should be paid to the families of the victims. These things Mr.- Blaine refused to promise until after a thorough investigation, and the Italian minister was, therefore, ordered by his government to withdraw from Washington. When negotiations closed, the Italian government declared, with grieved indignation, that the United States had shown its unwillingness to do justice and right. An investigation that was completed on the 19th of May, gave positive proof that the jury that tried the Italian prisoners had been tampered with by the friends of the prisoners, and that the trial was a travesty on justice. The result is, that Italy remains in amicable relation with the United States, but that she, nevertheless, feels much aggrieved toward this nation. During this administration, the seal fisheries dispute between England and the United States has been an event of great importance. Congress in 1868, to preserve the valuable seal fisheries of Alaska, passed regula- tions that the number to be killed each year should not exceed 100,000. 39 620 THE STORY OF AMERICA, There was so much poaching in the fisheries that, in 1886, vessels were sent to Behring sea, and it was attempted to enforce the doctrine that Behring sea was a mare claiisum, and that the United States had jurisdic- tion over one-half of it. In the enforcement of this claim, three British schooners were captured, and with their cargoes were confiscated. The following summer, five other British vessels were seized. The British government made demands for the release of the prisoners, and presented claims for large damages. The vessels were, therefore, released, and an effort was made toward arbitration of the difificulty. The result was that a modus vivetidi, or temporary arrangement, was made between the two governments which restricted both for the time being. For a time it had seemed that hostilities might result, but everything ended peaceably. The revolution in Chile, which had been agitating that country for some months, resulted in a victory for the insurgents and the formation of a new government. During the month of October, 1891, a riot occur- red at Valparaiso, which threatened to involve the United States in a war with that South American country. The United States warship, " Balti- more," in the harbor of that city, gave shore leave to a number of sailors, and while they were on land, in the streets of the city, they were attacked by a mob of Chileans, and a number of them were killed after a desperate fight. The commander of the ship reported the outrage to the United States government, and there was great indignation in this country over the outrage. For two or three months there was great excitement in this country over the prospect of a possible war with Chile. The construction of warships was hastened. The President sent messages to Congress regarding the affair, correspondence passed rapidly between the Ameri- can minister to Chile and the authorities at Washington, and the excite- ment ended only by an abject apology on the part of Chile, and a promise by that nation to pay liberal indemnity to the families of. the murdered sailors. These three narrow escapes from war, all with countries far from our- own land, have impressed our people more and more with the necessity for an enlarged and modern navy, and construction has been carried along with great rapidity during the past four years. The administration of President Harrison was characterized by the passage of a great deal of very important legislation. The most impor- tant of the measures which passed congress was the McKinley bill, which was adopted as a strictly republican measure. It passed the Senate September 30, 1890, by a vote of 33 to 27, and passed the House Sep- tember 27th, by a vote of 152 to 81. There was much doubt as to the effect of the bill. Mr. Carlisle in a speech in the Senate said it would make an average rate on imports of 60 per cent., while Mr. Morrill put the average rate at less than 50 per cent. While the law increased the THROUGH ONE ADMINISTRATION. 621 free list considerably, it raised the duties on wool and woolens, tin plate and some other goods, as well as on almost all agricultural prod- ucts. The law went into effect October 6, 1890. The same session of congress passed an exceedingly liberal number of acts in the nature of pension legislation; the principal one of these was the disability pension act, which provided that all persons who served ninety days or more in the war of the rebellion and were honor- ably discharged, and who are suffering from a disability of a permanent character shall be entitled to receive a pension. The anti-trust law was passed to prevent trusts and unlawful monopo- lies from conspiring to restrain trade or commerce among the several states or with the foreign nations. Severe penalties were provided to assist in the enforcement of the law. Two new states were admitted to the union in the same session of congress — Idaho and Wyoming, and Oklahoma was organized as a territory. At the next session of congress one of the bills of most permanent importance was the international copyright act. After July i, 1891, all publications published simultaneously in England and America are entitled to secure international copyright. This secures to authors the results of their labor in both continents and avoids the constant pirating of literature that has been too frequent. It is not only in the United States that things happen which interest Americans. Far to the south of us there is being carried on an enter- prise which is of wonderful importance to our country. It is the canal which is to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans through the country of Nicaragua. The idea of joining the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a canal through the intermediary basin of Lake Nicaragua originated with Antonio Galvano in 1550, but it was not until late years, when increased commerce made a new and quicker route from the East to the West imperative, that it became the subject of much discussion. The Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, the successor of several, previous companies which had done nothing more than to organize, was incorporated by congress in 1889. The company has engaged to build the canal to completion before 1900. Thousands of miles will then be saved by ships going from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, and the commercial value of this artificial waterway will be incalculable. One man, an American by adoption, who has done much for his own fame and the fame of the nation by his wonderful explorations, com- pleted one of his most remarkable journeys during the year 1889. This was Henry M. Stanley. The object of Mr. Stanley's last trip through Africa was the relief of Emin Pasha, who had been appointed governor of Equatoria by Gen. Gordon previous to his own fall in Khartoum. 62 2 THE STORY OF AMERICA. This was in 1878. From that time until 1886 he was entirely cut off from the outside world and nothing was heard of him. In 1886 word reached Europe that he was in great distress and peril; money was raised and a relief expedition was placed under the command of Mr. Stanley. He started at once for the heart of Africa, and after a frightful journey of three years, fighting his way inch by inch, he reached Bagamoyo on the Indian ocean December 4, i88g, with Emin Pasha safe. During the three years he had traveled six thousand miles through the most terrible of the African jungles. Mr. Stanley then proceeded to Europe and finally to this country, where he delivered a course of lectures for several months before immense audiences. Many persons of note in political and educational circles passed from this life during the years from 1889 to 1893. Allen Thorndike Rice, the editor of the North American Review and United States minister to Rus- sia, died at New York City May 16, 1889. A few weeks Irter, on the 24th of June, Donald G. Mitchell, the author of " Reveries of a Bach- elor " and other volumes of essays, died in the same city. Henry W. Grady, an orator and editor, author of " The New South," died on the 23d of December at his home in Atlanta, Georgia. John Jacob Astor, the head of the Astor family and a great financier, died at his home in New York, February 22, 1890. Samuel J. Randall, one of the most prom- inent members of the House of Representatives, and for years the repre- sentative of the Philadelphia district, died on the 13th of April at his home in that city. Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, who was the prohibition candi- date for the presidency in 1888, died at New York July 9th. The 13th of July, at New York, there passed away Major-General John C. Fremont, the great " Pathfinder," whose explorations of the West in the days before civilization had passed the Mississippi river won him fame. He was the candidate of the republican party for the presidency in 1856, and throughout his life was a man of great prominence and was greatly honored. Eugene Schuyler, Consul-General at Cairo, Egypt, and writer and author of a noted history of Peter the Great, died at his far-off post in Egypt the i8th of July. One of the most famous of the humorous writ- ers of America, Benjamin P. Shillaber, who wrote under the nom de plume of " Mrs. Partington," died at Chelsea, Massachusetts, the 25th day of November, at an advanced age. Mrs. Charles Wetherell, bett-^r known as the famous opera singer, Emma Abbott, died at Salt Lake City January 5, 1891. The 17th of the same month there passed away the great statesman, historian and ex-sec- retary of the navy, George Bancroft, at Washington. Kalakaua, King of Hawaii, died at San Francisco, where he had journeyed for the benefit of his health, on the 20th of January. SCENE ON THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. THROUGH ONE ADMINISTRATION. 623 January 29th the Hon. William Windom, Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, died at a banquet in New York. The 13th and 14th o( February were fatal days to the great men of the times of the rebellion On the first of those days Admiral David B. Porter, whose same stands next to that of Farragut in the annals of the nation as a naval officer, passed away, and the next day he was followed by Gen. William Tecum- seh Sherman, the last of the great triumvirate of union generals, and one of the recognized commanders of modern times, Lawrence Barrett, the celebrated actor, died March 20th, and March 2 1 St Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, one of the most distinguished of the confed- erate generals, also passed away. Phineas T. Barnura, the greatest show- man who ever lived, died April 7th. One of the most noted of American historians was Benson J. Lossing, who died the third of June. On the same day, August I2th, died James Russell Lowell, poet and diplomat, and George Jones, proprietor of the New York Times. William J. Flor- ence, the comedian, who died November 19th, was the second great actor who died during the year. The list of the noble dead for 1892 is also a distinguished one. The 4th of March there died in New Haven the fa- mous educator, Noah Porter, for many years president of Yale college, and editor of Webster's dictionary. The 26th of the same month the " Good Gray Poet," Walt Whitman, died at his home in Camden, New Jersey. Cyrus W, Field, to whose energy was due the first laying and the success of the Atlantic cable, died July 12th at Irvington, New York. George William Curtis, journalist, poet and essayist, died at Livingston, New York, the 31st day of August, The 5th of September Daniel Dougherty, lawyer and orator, died at his home in Philadelphia, Two days later in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire, John Greenleaf Whittier, the " Quaker Poet," died at the age of eighty-five years. The most famous band mas- ter of his time, Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, died in St. Louis, September 24th, at the age of sixty-three years. Caroline Scott Harrison, wife of the President of the United States, died at the White House.Washington, October 25th. Frederick Schwatka, the celebrated Arctic explorer and geographer, died in Portland, Oregon, the 2d of November. One month from that day there passed away in New York the richest man in the world, the American financier and plu- tocrat, Jay Gould. Great catastrophes help to make history. The Chicago fire and the Johnstown flood are events that will never be forgotten. While we may l)e thankful that no such frightful disasters as these have blighted our country's happiness during the past four years, yet there have been many minor disasters, especially conflagrations, worthy of note. In 1889 two nourishing cities in the new state of Washington suffered almost total annihilation of their business districts by the destroying element. June 624 THE STORY OF AMERICA. 6th Seattle was swept with a fire that caused the loss of ;^6,ooo,ooo, and August 5th a fire ^2,000,000 greater passed over Spokane, Two Massachu- setts cities suffered in November. On the 26th day of the month Lynn suffered a loss of 5io,ooo,ooo, and an ^8,000,000 fire swept Boston but two days later. Eighteen hundred and ninety saw no such destructive con- flagrations. October 28, 1891, occurred the Milwaukee fire, with a loss estimated at $7,000,000. Among the important events of a nature other than political, with an influence upon the history of the country, are many incidents worthy of mention. December 9, 1889, occurred the dedication of the great Audi- torium tuilding at Chicago. It is a magnificent structure, containing the largest and finest opera house in the United States. The event was con- sidered of such importance that the President of the United States jour- neyed to Chicago to make the dedicatory speech. Tornadoes in many parts of the country are remembered during the year 1890. At Louis- ville, on the 27th of March, many buildings were destroyed and nearly one hundred lives were lost. At Lake Pepin, Minnesota, the 13th of July, two hundred lives were lost. The 31st day of July, 1890, was the one hundredth anniversary of the first patent ever issued by the United States government. The patent was granted to Samuel Hopkins for making pot and pearl ashes. Within the century 433,432 patents were issued. A noble indication of the growing intimacy between the United States and Canada occurred on September 19, 1891, when the tunnel under the St. Clair river, connecting Port Huron and Sarnia, was open for traffic. The tunnel is a single track railway tunnel, more than a mile in length, and the use of it avoids the necessity which previously existed of trans- ferring trains across the river. The sentiment in Canada favoring annex- ation to the United States is constantly on the increase, and many people believe that a few years more will see our northern Sister added to our own family of states. Man's desire for a new home has been shown by the opening of sev- eral Indian reservations for settlement. September 22, 1891, there was a grand rush of home seekers into the Indian lands of Oklahoma, and fif- teen thousand persons tried to occupy land which was not more than enough for one-third the number. Two great educational institutions have been organized and opened in the United States during the period of President Harrison's administration. October i, 1891, the Leland Stanford, Jr., University at Palo Alto, California, opened with 473 stu- dents. The university had been endowed with enormous sums of money by ex-Senator Leland Stanford, the California millionaire, as a memorial to his son who died in youth. A year later the University of Chicago opened quietly with a large number of students, a complete faculty and THROUGH ONE ADMINISTRATION. 625 an immense endowment, which was started by John D. Rockefeller and added to by citizens of Chicago. Labor troubles were numerous during the years of which we are read- ing. The most serious of all the disturbances was the riot which was the culmination of the great Homestead strike. At Homestead, Pennsylva- nia, an iron mining and manufacturing town near Pittsburg, the laborers employed in the mills belonging to the Carnegie Steel Company struck against a reduction of wages. The owners of the mills sent to the Pinker- ton Detective Agency for men to guard their property against a threat- ened riot, and a large number of men were sent, who came to Homestead on a barge from Pittsburg. The strikers met them and prevented them from landing. In the battle that resulted, eleven strikers and nine detectives were killed. The militia were called to the scene, and were kept there for several weeks before it was safe to withdraw them. After some time there was a compromise between the owners and the workmen, and the strike was declared ended, and the men permitted to return to work. An international conference, in which the interests of the United States were great, was held at Brussels, Belgium, beginning November 22, 1892. It was the international monetary conference, at which dele- gates from various countries of the world met to discuss the silver and gold questions and their relation to one another as standards of value. The results attained were exceedingly important, particularly to the silver- producing states of the union. In the summer of iSgi.an expedition under the command of Lieuten- ant Peary, of the United States navy, landed on the west coast of Greenland, nearly at the extremity of previous explorations, to spend a winter in that desolate land. Lieutenant Peary's brave wife accompanied him, and with their small party they remained there in the far Arctic regions through the six months of night until the following summer, when the ship returned and bore them back to civilization. During that time Lieutenant Peary, with one companion, had made a journey of two thou- sand miles on snow shoes, which resulted in discoveries of great interest to geographers. In the fall of 1892, our country was frightened at a threatened inva- sion of cholera which had left its crowded Asiatic cities, where it makes its home, and had already spread over portions of Europe. The 31st day of Angus*- the steamer " Moravia" arrived from Hamburg at New York with cholera on board, twenty-two deaths having taken place during the voyage. Ship after ship reached New York harbor with the dread dis- ease, but a rigid quarantine stamped it out before it gained a foothold on our shores. Probably, without exception, the most important event of the Harri- 626 '-IHK STOKV OF AMERICA. son administration was the election that ended it. The enactment of the McKinley bill had aroused great opposition to the policy of extreme protection even among many who had been life-long republicans. The result showed in the election of November 8, 1892, when the country was swept by an overwhelming political landslide in favor of the democratic candidates. At Minneapolis, on the loth of June, the republican national convention had put in nomination President Benjamin Harrison to suc- ceed himself, and Whitelaw Reid, of New York, for the vice-presidency On the 22d of the same month, the democratic convention, at Chicago, nominated Grover Cleveland, and Adlai Stevenson of Illinois, for the presidency and vice-presidency. The campaign that followed was warmly contested, but without the bitterness and acrimony that had characterized past elections. The election was a surprise to every one, not so much in the general result as in the wonderful extent of the land- slide. State after state, that for thirty years had been faithfully republi- can, was carried by the democratic party with large majorities. There seems little doubt that the result of the election was due to a popular revolt against the extreme measures and the policy of the McKinley bill. The general prosperity of the country during the four years of Mr. Harrison's administration was unexampled. New enterprises multiplied. Many portions of the western states were open to settlement and the development of the country in every direction was remarkable. The administration was business-like and honest, winning the admiration of all, both at home and abroad, for its vigorous American policy and its liberal spirit in the effort to increase American commerce and influence. The administration was marked for the number of deaths that occurred among the immediate family and official associates of the President. His wife, his father-in-law, the wife and daughter of his Secretary of the Navy, and his ex-Secretary of State were the more notable of these. Three men of political note who died during the first months of 1893 were ex-President Rutherford B. Hayes, Justice of the Supreme Court L. Q. C. Lamar and Gen. Benjamin F. Butler. The career of President Hayes is briefly told in the chapter relating to his administration. After the expiration of his term as President, he retired to his home at Fremont, Ohio, where he lived until the time of his death. He passed away on the night of January 17th. Several prominent people died during the year. Among others were Edwin Booth, the tragedian, Lucy Stone, the noted advocate of woman's rights, and Leland Stanford, the founder of Stanford Univer- sity, California. The death of Justice Lamar at Macon, Georgia, on the evening of Jan- uary 23d, was a great shock and surprise to the country, as he had not been suffering illness. Lucius Ouintus Curtius Lamar was born in Put- nam county, Georgia, September i, 1825. He graduated at Emory Col THROUGH ONE ADMINISTRATION. 62 7 lege, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1847. In 1853, he was elected to the Legislature, but a year later returned to Mississippi and set- tled on his plantation. He served in congress from 1857 till i860, when he resigned to join the confederate army. He rose to the rank of colonel; after the war he again served as a representative and then as a senator. On March 5, 1885, President Cleveland appointed him secretary of the interior, and afterward elevated him to a seat on the supreme bench. One of the most unique figures in American history is Gen. Benjamin Franklin Butler, who was born at Deerfield, New Hampshire, November 5, 1818. He was one of the first to enlist in the Massachusetts volunteers at the outbreak of the rebellion, and commanded the camp at Annapolis. In May, 1861, he was made a major-general and assumed command of the department of Virginia. At this time he made his famous point in regard to fugitive slaves, refusing to send them back to their owners on the ground that they were "property contraband of war." Gen. Butler was appointed commander of the gulf in 1862, and established headquarters at New Orleans. It was there that he roused the indignation of the south- erners and made political capital for his enemies throughout the rest of his life by the strict military discipline with which he ruled the city. After the war for twenty years he devoted himself to candidacy for office, running indiscriminately as a republican, democrat or greenbacker, for any office for which he could secure a nomination, and sometimes as an independent candidate when he failed to secure one. His various efforts included four successive elections to congress as a republican, one elec- tion to the governorship of Massachusetts as a democrat, and a campaign for the presidency as a candidate of the greenback party. His check- ered career ended at Washington on the morning of January 11, 1893. CHAPTER XCIX. THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION AT CHICAGO — OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 400 YEARS OLD— THE MAGNIFICENT SITE AND BUILDINGS— OBJECTS OF INTEREST HE idea of holding an international exposition, in commemoration of the four hundredth anniver- sary of the discovery of America, was first actively discussed in 1885. In the competition before Congress, several cities urged their claims to be designated as the location of such an enterprise. Chicago was successful and at once began to take active measures to insure the success of the undertaking. The site of the World's Columbian Exposition, as it was called, comprised Jackson Park and Midway Plaisance. In October, 1890, the committee on grounds and buildings appointed a chief of construction, and on December 8, 1890, a consulting board was formed under the chairmanship of the chief of construction. In November, 1890, the consulting board entered upon the duty of devising a general plan for the Exposition, taking as a basis for the study of the problem the classified list of exhibits which had been prepared by a committee charged with that duty. The list, together with the advice received directly from the committee dictated the number and the size of the buildings which would be required to meet the intention of the Act of Congress. The larger part of the site selected was a swampy, sandy flat, liable at times to be completely submerged. Other parts were low ridges, which had originally been sand bars deposited by the waters of the lake. Upon some of these ridges there were trees, of stunted habit, because of the sterile and water-soaked soil in which they had grown, and the extreme exposure to frigid winds from the lake, to which they had been subject to a late period every spring. The idea was that there should be a system of navigable water-ways, to be made by dredging-boats, working inward from the lake through the lowest parts of the site, the earth lifted by the boats to be so deposited as to THE CROWNING GLORY OF THE CENTURY. 629 add to the area, and increase the elevation of the higher parts, which would thus become better adapted to pleasure-ground purposes, and to be used as the sites for the buildings of the Exposition. This idea was carried out and after infinite labor the swamp was transferred into a fairy land of wonderful beauty. The Administration Building was one of the most perfect examples of architectural form ever erected. This building was 262 feet square and was erected at a cost of ^5 50,000. It was richly ornamented in bas- reliefs, frescoing and sculpture. Around the base of the dome, on the corners of the pavilions, and at the entrances were groups of statuary, emblematic of the arts and sciences. The building was divided into four grand pavilions known as A, B, C and D, occupied from the ground to and including the third floor by the ofifices of the Exposition, express, telegraph and telephone companies, and bank and press headquarters. Above the third floor were four tunnel passages leading from one pavilion to another. The Palace of Fine Arts, now the Field Columbian Museum, is Gre- cian-Ionic in style, and is a pure type of the most refined classic archi- tecture. The structure is oblong, and is 500 by 320 feet, intersected north, east, south and west by a nave and transept 100 feet wide and sev- enty feet high, at the intersection of which is a dome sixty feet in diame- ter. The building is 125 feet to the top of the dome. The transept has a clear space through the center of sixty feet, being lighted entirely from above. On either side are galleries twenty feet wide and twenty-four feet above the floor. The collections of sculpture were displayed on the main floor of the nave and transept, and on the walls both of the ground floor and of the galleries were ample areas for displaying the paintings and sculptured panels in relief. Around the entire building are galleries forty feet wide, forming a continuous promenade around the structure. The main building is entered by four great portals, richly ornamented with architectural sculpture, and approached by broad flights of steps. The walls of the loggia of the colonnades are highly decorated with mural paintings, illustrating the history and progress of the arts. The frieze of the exterior walls and the pediments of the principal entrances are ornamented with sculptures and portraits in bas-relief of the masters of ancient art. The general tone or color is light gray. The con- struction is necessarily fire-proof. The main walls are of solid brick, covered with staff, architecturally ornamented, while the roof, floors and galleries are of iron. Approaching the Fisheries Building from either front, one was impressed with its beauty and general grace of construction. The tall dome towered high above the gables of the main structure, while the small turrets that adorned the dome and main entrances appeared in 630 THE STORY OF AMERICA. pleasing contrast with the red tiled roof, columns and arches. Flanked on both the east and west by small pavilions and connecting arcades, the whole presented an architectural view of great magnificence. The infi- nite detail of fishes and other aquatic animals with which the columns, arches, and friezes were decorated in bas-relief, was gratifying to the eye, and the skill and ingenuity displayed by the ornamentation were as remarkable for originality as for fitness. The forest resources of the world were exhibited in the Forestry Building, which was one of the most interesting and unique structures on the grounds. It was made of wood and with a colonnade composed of tree trunks sent from almost every State in the Union. For instance: Arkansas furnished pine, white oak, red oak and sassafras; California, sugar pine, redwood and trunks of the young sequoia: Delaware, red cedar, white oak and white ash; Kansas, burr oak, hickory, huckleberry, sycamore and walnut; Minnesota, white pine, sugar maple, ash, oak, Cot- tonwood, spruce, box cedar, tamarack and elm, and Wisconsin, pine, white oak, basswood, elm, birch and spruce. The dimensions of this building were 200 by 500 feet, with a central height of sixty feet. The Horticultural Building was 114 feet high on the inside, and 1S7 feet in diameter, with a gallery extending around a well or open center. Four parallelogram-shaped rooms, technically called curtains, each 270 feet long, connected the dome and central pavilion, forming two interior courts. The style was Venetian renaissance, the order Ionic, with a broad frieze decorated with cupids and garlands. A highly orna- mented vestibule, with statues on either side, representing the awak- ening and sleep of flowers, formed the main or grand entrance. Opposite the main entrance and flanked on either side along the lagoon with long rows of mammoth vases filled with flowers and trailing plants was a succession of steps leading down to a broad landing, for picturesque gondolas and other water craft. The dome was sufificiently large to admit of the construction of a miniature tropical mount- ain and an extensive cave underneath. Several cascades were formed upon the sides of the mountain, and the sparkling waters dashed from rock to rock under the foliage of the largest palms, tree ferns and other tropical plants that were ever collected in a conservatory. Australia, Central and South American countries, Africa and every nation in Europe, the West Indies, China, and the largest conservatories in the United States, contributed to the collection of plants which were exhib- ited in the dome and east curtains. Japan, among many rare plants, fur- nished some dwarf trees more than 100 years old and only a few feet in height. The dome gallery contained exhibits of herbariums, florists' supplies, fruit and flower plates, and was used as a promenade from THE CROWNING GLOKV OF THE CENTURY. 63 I which to look down on the plant displays. The west curtains contained the pomological exhibit. The Live Stock Pavilion covered an area of over three acres. The general arrangement of this magnificent pavilion was the same as the ever famous Coliseum at Rome, the architecture of the former being Roman esque, and the latter purely classic of the Doric order. The building was constructed of framework covered with staff. The seating capacity was 6,000. The center was used as a large arena for the purpose of parading live stock. The Machinery Building, or Palace of Mechanic Art, was 850 feet long and 500 feet broad, and with the Machinery Annex and Power-house cost about $.1,200,000. The building was spanned by three arched trusses, and the interior presented the appearance of three railroad train-houses side by side. The naves were lighted and aired from above by large monitor roofs, and in the center were three domed roofs, each covering an open space 125 feet square. The Manufactures Building was the mammoth structure of the Expo- sition. It was the largest building in area ever erected on the western hemisphere and the largest under a roof in the whole world. Despite this fact, every foot of available space was taken, and it is even asserted by conservative judges that more than double the space could have been assigned to exhibits. This building was three times larger than the Cathe- dral of St. Peter, in Rome, and four times larger than the old Roman Coliseum, which seated 80,000 persons. The central hall, which was a single room without a supporting pillar under its roof, had in its floor a fraction less than eleven acres, and the entire building could comfortably seat 300,000 people. There were 7,000,000 feet of lumber in the floor, and it required five carloads of nails to fasten the 215 carloads of flooring to the joists. The exterior outline covered an area of nearly thirty-two acres, and, including galleries encircling the interior, afforded in the aggregate forty-four acres of exhibiting space. This vast structure was covered with an arched roof of steel and glass, affording ample light and venti- lation. It measured 1,687 by 787 feet. Within the building a gallery 50 feet wide extended around all four sides, and projecting from this were 86 smaller galleries, 12 feet wide, from which visitors could survey the vast array of exhibits and the busy scene below. The building was rec- tangular in form, and the interior was divided into a great central hall, 380 by 1,280 feet, surrounded by a nave 107 feet wide. The long array of columns and arches, which its facades presented, was relieved from monot- ony by very elaborate ornamentation. In this ornamentation female figures, symbolical of the various arts and sciences played a conspicuous and very attractive part. The exterior of the building was covered with staff, treated to represent marble. There were four great entrances, one 6^2 THE STORY OF AMERICA. in the center of each facade. These were designed in the manner of triumphal arches, the central archway of each being 40 feet wide and 80 feet high. Surmounting these portals was the great attic story, orna- mented with sculptured eagles 18 feet high, and on each side above the side arches were great panels with inscriptions. At each corner of the main building were pavilions forming arched entrances, designed in har- mony with the great portals. The building over the portal of which was written " Mining," attracted marked attention. It was the first exposition building distinctively devoted to this industry, its walls containing the first separate and com- prehensive mineral and metallurgical exhibit. It is one of the new developments and marvels of an exposition that furnished so many sur- prises and wonders. Upon a great floor 700 feet long by 350 feet wide and covering over, five and a half acres, was constructed a massive and solid structure, relieved and embellished with all the symmetrical and classic forms and rich ornamentations known to architecture. An arcade consisting of a loggia on the main floor and a deeply recessed promenade on the gallery floor occupied the main fronts of the building. It was intersected at the center by an enormous arched entrance 56 feet high and 25 feet broad ending at the corners in square pavilions surmounted by low domes. Its architecture, of early Italian renaissance, with a slight touch of French spirit, together with the enormous and floating banners, invested the building with the animation that should characterize a great general exposition. The interior design was of no less interest than the exterior. The roof rested upon ten great cantilever trusses so that the floor was practically unencumbered, there being only two rows of iron columns on either side. This was the first instance of the application of the cantilever system to building, and the result was a structure signally adapted to exhibition purposes, the gain in space being quite large. The cost of the building was ^250,000. The Transportation Building was unique in its architecture. Its gor- geous exterior decoration and its superb golden door identified it at once. Its polychromatic front bore the name of illustrious railway and marine inventors and sculptured groups idealizing the different forms of trans- portation. The north and south entrances were also elaborate and bore the individual statues of many famous men. A peculiar feature of the vast annex was the fact that it was found necessary to carry the intramu- ral electric and elevated railways over its roof. The descent from these aerial stations was at the southwestern corner of the building. The main building measured 960 feet long by 250 feet deep. Along the central avenue, or nave, the visitor saw facing each other scores of locomotive engines, highly polished, rendering the perspective effect of the nave both exceedingly novel and striking. Add to the effect of the exhibits HON. WILLIAM McKINLEY. THE CROWNING GLORY OF THE CENTURY. 633 the architectural impression given by a long vista of richly ornamented colonnades, and it may easily be seen that the interior of the Transpor- tation Building was one of the most impressive of the Exposition. The building was exquisitely refined and simple in architectural treatment, although very rich and elaborate in detail. The Agricultural Building was erected at a cost of Si, 218,000. The main entrance was 64 feet wide, with Corinthian pillars 50 feet high and five feet in diameter. The rotunda was 100 feet in diameter surrounded by a great glass dome. The dimensions of this building were 800 by 500 feet. The Electrical Building was 345 feet wide and 700 feet long. The general scheme of the plan was based upon a longitudinal nave 115 feet wide and 114 feet high, crossed in the middle by a transept of the same width and height. At each of the four corners of the building there was a pavilion, above which rose a light, open spire or tower, 169 feet high. Intermediate between these corner pavilions and the center pavilions on the east and west sides, there was a subordinate pavilion bearing a low, square dome upon an open lantern. The building had an open portico extending along the whole of the south facade. The Anthropological Building was the last of the Exposition build- ings to be constructed, when it was found to be necessary to obtain more space for the section of education in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. The Ethnological department was then assigned to the new building. The building was 415 feet long and 255 feet wide, with a gal- lery 48 feet wide on all four sides. Thirty thousand square feet on the southern end of the floor was given up to the sections of hygiene and sanitation and of charities and corrections belonging to the Liberal Arts. The remainder of the floor was occupied by the archaeological and ethnological exhibits of foreign countries. State boards and individuals, and the collections made by the assistants of the department who were sent to various parts of North, Central and South America to make special explorations and researches under the direction of the chief of the department. The Woman's Building was a beautiful building, built in the style of the Italian renaissance. The principal facade had an extreme length of 400 feet, the depth of the building being half this distance. The main grouping consisted of a center pavilion flanked at each end with corner pavilions connected in the first story by open arcades in the curtains, forming a shady promenade the whole length of the structure. The first story was raised about ten feet from the ground line, and a wide staircase led to the center pavilion. This pavilion, forming the main triple-arched entrance with an open colonnade in the second story, was finished with a low and beautifully proportioned pediment enriched with a highly ^34 THE STORY OF AMERICA. elaborate bas-relief. The corner pavilions, being like the rest of the building, two stories high, with a total elevation of 6o feet, had each an open colonnade added above the main cornice. Here were located the hanging gardens, and also the committee rooms of the Board of Lady- Managers. A lobby 40 feet wide opened into the rotunda, reaching through the height of the building and protected by a richly ornamented skylight. This rotunda was surrounded by a two-story open arcade, as delicate and chaste in design as the exterior, the whole having a thor- oughly Italian court-yard effect, admitting abundance of light to all rooms facing this interior space. In the second story, above the main entrance and curtains, were located ladies' parlors, committee rooms and dressing rooms, all leading to the open balcony in front, and command- ing a splendid panorama of almost the entire ground. The whole second floor of the north pavilion enclosed the great assembly room and club room. The first of these was provided with an elevated stage for the accommodation of speakers. The south pavilion contained the model kitchen, refreshment and reception rooms. In accordance with the Act of Congress, approved April 25, 1890, the Executive Departments of the United States Government made an interesting and creditable display, under the auspices of a board of management and control, composed of government ofificials appointed from the several departments. The Government Building was classic in style and bore a strong resemblance to the National Museum and other government buildings at Washington. Its leading architectural feature was a central octagonal dome 120 feet in diameter and 150 feet high. The south half of the Government Building was devoted to the exhibits of the Postoffice department, Treasury department, War department, and Department of agriculture. The north half was devoted to the exhibits of the Fisheries Commission, Smithsonian Institute, and Interior department. The State department exhibit extended from the rotunda to the east end, and that of the department of justice from the rotunda to the west end of the building. The Naval exhibit was unique. A structure, which to all outward appearance was a full sized modern battleship, was erected on piling on the lake front in the northeast portion of the grounds. It was surrounded by water and had the appearance of being moored to a wharf. The structure had all the fittings that belong to the actual ship, such as guns, turrets, torpedo tubes, torpedo nets and booms, with boats, anchors, chain cables, davits, awnings, deck fittings, etc., together with all appli- ances for working the same. Officers, seamen, mechanics and marines were detailed by the Navy department during the Exposition, and the discipline and mode of life on our naval vessels were completely shown. Besides the buildings erected by the various foreign governments. THE CROWNING GLORY OF THE CENTURY. 635 there were many other structures of great beauty. Chief among them may be mentioned the Casino, Music Hall, Children's Building, Convent of La Rabida, Festival Hall, Leather and Shoe Trades Building and others. Nearly every State was represented by a building of its own. The attractions of the Midway Plaisance were as follows: Diamond Match Company's Pavilion; Fire and Guard Station; International Dress and Costume Company; Electric Scenic Theater; Libbey Glass Com- pany's Works; Irish Village; Japanese Bazaar; Javanese Village; Ger- man Village, Museum and Garden; Zoopraxographical Hall; Streets of Cairo; Persian Palace; Eiffel Model Tower; Ferris Wheel; Vienna Cafe, Algeria and Tunis Theater and Restaurant; East India Bazaar; Panorama Volcano Kilauea; American Indians; Chinese Theater and Joss House; Captive Balloon; Brazil Concert Hall; Ostrich Farm; Sitting Bull's Cabin; Irish Industries; Bulgarian Curios; Adams Express Company Pavilion; Colorado Gold Mining; Log Cabin of 1776; Venice-Murano Company; Hagenback's Animal Show; South Sea Islanders; Vienna Bakery and Theater; Panorama Bernese Alps; Turkish Village, Bazaar and Mosque; German Wienerwurst House; Moorish Palace; Moorish Mosque; Model of St. Peter; Glass Spinning; Ice Railway; French Cider Press; Fire and Guard Station; Austrian Village; Dahomey Village; Lapland Village and National Hungarian Orpheum. The Exposition buildings were dedicated October 21, 1892. On May I, 1893, the gates were thrown open to visitors, who thronged from all over the world to witness the wonders of the "White City." CHAPTER C. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT CLEVELAND — THE NEW TARIFF — THE INCOME TAX — THE COAL STRIKE — THE COXEY MOVEMENT — THE PULLMAN BOYCOTT — THE SILVER QUESTION. HE inauguration of President Cleveland was cele- brated with great pomp and ceremony March 4, 1893. The day was very cold, but the city of Washington was filled with a throng of visitors, eager to welcome the incoming chief executive. The installation of Vice-President Stevenson took place in the Senate chamber. President Cleveland took the oath of of^ce on the eastern portico of the Capitol in the presence of the people, where he delivered his inaugural address. The new President was then driven to the reviewing stand in front of the White House to witness the inaugural procession. Here he stood for five hours receiving the salutes of the passing regiments and the cheers of the enthusiastic spectators. In the evening the inaugural ball took place in the Pension Bureau building. On the following day President Cleveland announced his Cabinet, composed of the following men of note: Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois, Secretary of State; John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky, Secretary of the Treasury; Daniel S. Lamont, of New York, Secretary of War; Hoke Smith, of Georgia, Secretary of the Interior; Hilary A. Herbert, of Alabama, Secretary of the Navy; J. Sterling Mor- ton, of Nebraska, Secretary of Agriculture; Richard Olney, of Massachu- setts, Attorney-General, and Wilson S. Bissell, of New York, Postmaster- General. Mr. Bissell afterward resigned and was succeeded in ofifice by William L. Wilson, of West Virginia. The death of Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham, which occurred May 28, 1895, necessitated another change in the cabinet. President Cleveland placed Richard Olney at the head of the State Department and Judson Harmon was appointed Attorney-General. The administration of President Cleveland was conscientious and con- sistent. He advocated a just, but firm foreign policy and a strict adher- PRESIDENT OR GOVERNOR. 637 ence to the principles of sound currency and tariff reform. He believed tiiat the civil-service laws should be applied to every branch of service, including even presidential appointments— that merit, not political influ- ence, should govern all selections for of^ce. Recognizing the importance of immediate legislation. President Cleve- land called an extra session of Congress, which assembled on August 7, 1893, to consider laws relating to the currency and tariff reform. William L.Wilson, of West Virginia, was made chairman of the house committee of ways and means, with instructions to draft a bill which should repre- sent the principles of the Democratic party on the question of tariff reform. The Wilson bill, as it was termed, was introduced into the House on January 8, 1894. It was opposed by the Republicans on general principles, but its provisions for free wool, ccJal, lumber, sugar and iron ore were denounced by Democrats representing States whose interests would be effected by the enactment of such a law. Although the bill advocated the removal of 38 per cent, of the duties upon imports and the inclusion of manufactures and farm products in the free list, it passed the House by a vote of 204 to 140. The bill went to the Senate on February 2, where it again encountered the opposition of prominent representa- tives of both parties. The matter was then referred to the finance com- mittee of the Senate and a new bill was prepared. The Senate tariff bill opposed the principles of free raw material and advocated a duty of 40 cents a ton on coal and iron ore, a tax of one cent a pound on raw sugar, with a protection of one-fourth of a cent per pound on refined sugar. The rates in the metal, glass, earthenware, cotton, woolen and agricultural schedule were increased, while salt, lumber and wool were left on the free list. On July 3 the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 39 to 34 and went to the conference committee of the two Houses. The members of the committee, however, failed to agree on the sugar, coal, iron ore, woolen and cotton schedule, but after some discussion a settlement was reached and the House accepted the Senate bill. President Cleveland had already declared himself opposed to the measure on the grounds that it neither represented the principles of the Democratic party nor tariff reform. In a letter to Mr. Wilson, he said: " We have in our platform and in every way possible declared in favor of the free importation of raw materials. We have again and again promised that this should be accorded to our people and our manufac- turer as soon as the Democratic party was invested with the power to determine the tariff policy of the country. The party has now that power. We are as certain to-day as we ever have been of the great bene- fit that would accrue to the country from the inauguration of this policy, and nothing has occurred to release us from our obligation to secure this advantage to our people. It must be admitted that no tariff measure 63<'^ THE STORY OF AMERICA. can accord with Democratic principles and promises or bear a genuine Democratic badge that does not provide for free raw materials." On August 15, the bill was sent to the President, who allowed the measure to become a law without his approval. The reduction in the tariff naturally caused a decrease in the country's revenues and necessitated some form of taxation which would balance this loss. The proposal to levy a tax on incomes in the United States was no sooner made than it became the subject of wide discussion by all interested in ll-.c measure. Secretary John G. Carlisle in a report to Con- gress said: " It is a generally recognized fact that capital in the form of money, bonds and other evidences of debt does not usually by reason of its tan- gible and transitory nature bear its due proportion of the burden of tax- ation under the revenue laws of the several States and municipalities as compared with real estate and visible personal property, and while no discrimination should be made against it, whether it be represented by corporate or other investments, there appears to be no good reason why the contributions for the support of the public service generally should not be equalized as nearly as possible by including this kind of property in the Federal revenue system." After the provisions of the Wilson bill were made public, the ways and means committee took under consideration an income tax law. Chairman Wilson was personally opposed to such a measure, but agreed to it when adopted by a majority of the committee. In an article pub- lished in the North American Review, Mr. Wilson gave his views regard- ing this form of taxation. After enumerating the advantages of the income tax under the English system, he said: " But despite these strong arguments in favor of an individual income tax, and the unquestionable equity of its general theory, there are grave counter reasons which rise up before a legislator who seeks to embody it in our tax system. Aside from the very natural objection of those who might have to pay such a tax, its administration is necessarily accompa- nied by some exasperating demoralizing incidents. Our people have so long and so generally been free from any public scrutiny into their per- sonal incomes, and even from any personal contact with Federal tax col- lectors that they resent the approach of either. Moreover, like the personal property tax, which is so universally evaded, the personal income tax would easily lend itself to fraud, concealment and perjury." The income tax bill, passed by both Houses of Congress and approved by the President, became a law. Suits were then brought to test its validity, and the courts declared the law unconstitutional. The matter was then carried to the Supreme Court, which reversed the decision of the lower court, but ruled that all incomes derived from rents, or PRESIDENT OR GOVERNOR. i)^) State and municipal bonds, were exempt from taxation. Under this decision, the business man, manufacturer, and salaried employe were forced to pay a tax of 2 per cent, on all incomes over $4,000 per annum, while landlords and bondholders were exempt from the tax, so far as their incomes were derived from rents or bonds. By a subsequent decision, however, the law was declared unconstitutional. On March 29, 1894, President Cleveland vetoed the seigniorage bill, "an act which directed the coinage of the silver bullion held in the Treasury and for other purposes." On August 13. 1894, the Senate ratified a new treaty between the United States and China, and on November 22, a treaty was signed between this country and Japan. The years 1893 and 1894 were marked by industrial depression and financial stringency. The latter year was made memorable by a series of most disastrous labor disturbances. On April 21, 1894. 152,000 miners left their work, and thereby closed nearly all the bituminous coal mines in the country. The miners asserted that the causes of the strike were low wages and lack of steady employ- ment. The mine operators, on the other hand, claimed that the " hard times " had lowered the price of labor and decreased the consumption of coal over 25 per cent. Mine owners were forced to cut prices in order Jio catch trade, until the price of coal at the pit was often as low as 75 cents a ton. In less than a month after the outbreak, 175,000 miners had joined the strike, and the bituminous coal region was the scene of unrestrained violence. The owners of mines called upon the local authorities to protect their property; desperate battles took place between the strikers and armed deputies. In many places it was found necessary to call in the aid of the militia. Order was finally restored, and on June 8, a conference of miners and operators was called to meet at Columbus, Ohio, to arrange a scale of prices. An agreement was reached and the strike ended. In the meantime the miners had lost 1^12,500,000 in wages, while the loss in the various departments of busi- ness amounted to $20,000,000. The most unique effort to aid the long-suffering cause of labor was attempted by J. S. Coxey of Massillon, O. He proposed to organize "industrial armies" at different parts of the country, which were to simulta- neously march to Washington. These organizations were formed for the purpose of urging upon Congress the necessity of legislation in the inter- est of labor. According to Mr. Coxey and his followers, a law ought to be passed providing for the issue of $500,000,000 in legal tender notes to be expended by the Secretary of War at the rate of $20,000,000 a month, for building roads throughout the country. Another law was to be urged A'hich would give every .State, city or village the right to deposit in the 640 THE STORY OF AMERICA. National Treasury non-interest-bearing bonds to an amount not exceeding one-half the assumed valuation of its property; the Secretary of the Treasury would then be obliged to issue legal tender notes to an amount equal to the face of the bonds. On March 24, Coxey and his army of 100 men left Massillon, O., for Washington. At the same time other industrial armies were formed in other parts of the country. The Coxey contingent reached Washington, where the leader and two of his lieuten- ants were arrested, tried and imprisoned. Other armies which had assem- bled at various points were disbanded and the movement ended in com- plete failure. The coal strike had hardly ended when another labor outbreak occurred which threatened disaster to the business interests of the entire country. This was the strike of the employes of the Pullman Palace Car Company, followed by the boycott of the Pullman cars by the American Railway Union. The business depression, which affected all departments of trade and industry, had made it necessary for the Pullman company to reduce the wages of its employes. The workmen became dissatisfied and a strike was threatened if wages were not advanced. Nearly all the operatives resided in the town of Pullman, in houses owned by the company, but the reduction in wages was not followed by a proportionate decrease in rents, which were collected each month of the employes. After paying his rent, including gas and water bills, the unfortunate workman often found himself without the means of providing food for his family. In answer to the demands of the employes for an impartial investigation of their troubles, Mr. Pullman replied that the company had always endeav- ored to benefit the people of Pullman; contracts for car construction had been accepted at great loss in order to afford steady employment; the company's repair shops at Detroit had been closed, and a system of internal improvement had been carried on, which necessitated an expen- diture of ^160,000. Mr. Pullman further stated that the company actu- ally paid the city of Chicago each month ^500 more for water, than it collected of the employes; moreover, the average amount collected monthly for gas consumed was only $2, while houses often rented as low as $6 per month. The grievances of the workmen were investigated, although no increase of wages was ordered. When the company learned that the men had decided to strike, notice was given that the works would be closed indefinitely. This occurred May 12, 1894. The American Railway Union held its national convention in Chicago on June 15, with Eugene V. Debs as president. A committee was appointed to confer with the officials of the Pullman company. The refusal of the company to recognize the American Railway Union was followed by an order to boycott all Pullman cars, with instructions to PRESIDENT OR GOVERNOR, 64I begin on the Illinois Central road and to extend to all others in the coun- try using these cars. This practically meant a strike on every railroad that should not refuse to haul the Pullman cars until that company should consent to submit the demands of its employes, for increased wages, to arbitration. This was called a "sympathetic strike," but it failed to arouse the sympathy of those who were sincerely interested in the cause of labor. Switchmen, brakemen, firemen, trainmen, engineers and con- ductors were forced to participate in a movement which ended in failure. The railroad companies were under contract with the Pullman company for a long term of years, and were obliged to carry out their agreements, hence they could not accede to the demands of Debs. On the evening of June 26, the St. Louis express, on the Illinois Cen- tral Railroad, was stopped at Grand Crossing, where it was surrounded by a crowd of excited strikers. The engineer and fireman were forced to leave the train because it contained Pullman coaches. One hour after- ward nine trains were blocked at Grand Crossing and trafific was finally suspended. The following day the strike extended to other roads and the transportation of mails was abandoned. By the 29th of June railroad business had come to a standstill at Los Angeles, Cal., St. Louis, Mo., Terre Haute, Ind., Cairo, 111., Pueblo, Colo., Toledo, O., Omaha, Neb., Dubuque, la., Topeka, Kas., Duluth, Minn., Fargo, N. D., and all inter- mediate points. The situation rapidly became more serious and the tracks on many roads were blocked by overturned freight cars. Disturb- ances were of frequent occurrence in and about Chicago, and the sheriff was called upon to furnish armed deputies. On July 2, a Cabinet council was held at Washington and on the following day the regulars at Fort Sheridan were ordered out for duty at Chicago. The southwestern por- tion of the city was in the hands of the mob and there were frequent skir- mishes between the rioters and the soldiers. Gov. Altgeld sent a letter to President Cleveland, demanding the withdrawal of the Federal troops from the State of Illinois. The President replied that abundant proof had been shown that the presence of the regulars was not only proper but necessary in order to preserve peace. On July 6, the mob set fire to 775 freight cars in the yard of the Pan Handle road, a loss of ^500,000. At Hawthorne 21 1 freight cars, loaded with merchandise valued at $80,000 were destroyed. On the same day five regiments of State troops were ordered to Chicago. Gov. Altgeld again sent a long and vindictive letter to President Cleveland, protest- ing against the presence of the regulars, on the grounds that the State was fully able to protect its own interests, and that the ordering out of Federal troops was an unwarranted act on the part of the President. The following letter, characteristic of the chief executive, was sent in reply: 64- THE STORY OF AMERICA. Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C, July Gth. The Hon. John P. Altgeld, Governor of Illinois, Springfield, 111.: While I am still persuaded that I have neither transcended my authority nor duty in the emergency that confronts us, it seems to me that in this hour of danger and public distress, discussion may well give way to active effort on the part of all in authority tc restore obedience to law and to protect life and property. Grover Cleveland. On July 7, a conflict took place in Chicago between the mob and Company C, of the Second Illinois Regiment. The soldiers were forced to fire, killing two persons and fatally injuring several others. During the day 690 cars and engines were burned or wrecked, 96 cars were over- turned, 9 buildings were burned and 26 men were either killed or injured. On the following day martial law in Chicago was declared, by a formal proclamation issued by President Cleveland. On the same day an encounter took place at Hammond, Ind., between the rioters and regulars, in which one of the mob was killed and seven were wounded. On the 9th the Second Brigade of State troops was ordered to Chicago. Wrecking trains were sent out to clear the tracks of overturned cars and wreckage. On the loth Debs was arrested on a bench warrant, issued by Judge Grosscup, of the United States District Court, charging him with conspiracy. An unsuccessful effort was then made to prolong the strike by calling out the Knights of Labor. This was practically the last day of the strike. Order was gradually restored and the regular business of the railroads was resumed. The actual cost of the strike is unknown. The loss in Chicago alone is estimated at ^7,000,000. A great many prominent people died in Europe during the year 1894. The President of the French republic, Marie Francois Sadi-Carnot was assassinated at Lyons, June 25, and Alexander IIL, Emperor of Russia, died at Livadia, Greece, November i. Count Ferdinand De Lesseps, the noted engineer; James A. PVoude, the historian; Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot; Anton Rubenstein, the pianist; Edmund Yates, the journalist; Rosina Yokes, the actress, and Robert Louis Stevenson, the novelist, died during the year. America was called upon to mourn the death of Oliver Wendell Holmes, the poet and essayist, which occurred in Boston, October 7; George William Childs, the journalist, died in Philadelphia, February 3, and David Swing, the clergyman, died in Chi- cago, October 3. The list of illustrious dead includes the names of Con- stance Fennimore Woolson, the novelist; William F. Poole, librarian of the Newberry Library, Chicago; James McCosh, ex-president of Prince- ton College; G. P. A. Healey, the artist; Frank Hatton, the journalist; Gen. N. P. Banks, the soldier; James M. Bailey, the humorist, and others. The discussion of the currency question now completely occupies the public mind. The free coinage of silver is advocated by many, on th«. PRESIDENT OR GOVERNOR. 643 grounds that the prevailing financial depression is a direct result of the domonetization of silver in 1873 On the other hand, it is urged that a reversal of the former monetary system, which recognizes gold as the standard of value, will result in retarding the return of the country to business activity. The signs of growth and progress are already manifest in all depart- ments of trade and industry. The clouds of doubt and uncertainty, which now darken the sky, only presage the dawn of another era of prosperity for the American people. CHAPTER CI. >\^ %m\th ^bb$ *f Htj^. ITS OLD ASCENDANCY — THE INVENTION OF THE MONITOR — THE DETB* RIORATION OF THE NAVY, AFTER THE CIVIL WAR — APPOINT- MENT OF THE ADVISORY BOARD THE NEW NAVY — IMPROVEMENTS IN NAVAL ARTILLERY — ORGANIZATION OF THE NAVY DEPART- MENT — SKETCH OF JOHN ERICS- /^ SON — USES OF THE NAVY. HE STORY OF AMERICA would not be com- plete without a few words concerning the United States Navy. Pride in its navy was one of the earliest sentiments cherished in the hearts of the American people, and the gallant deeds performed upon the high seas in the first years of the nation's existence will not fade from the pages of its history. In referring to the navy of the past, it is im- possible to avoid recalling the individual interest and personal satisfaction that all its members felt in it and such feelings were fostered by the superiority of its ships. The colonies could not afford to build vessels of ade- quate size to contend with men-of-war that they had to meet in battle, but the few that they owned were well adapted to meet the small British cruisers, and to capture merchantmen. The frigates of this early day were small vessels, vary- ing from six hundred to a thousand tons. The ships that were built in 1794 were constructed according to the most advanced ideas of the time, and the wooden vessels belonging to the United States and sailing the ocean between 1840 and i860 were the finest in the world. The old frigate Congress^ and the sloop Portsmouth were noble ships for their time, and models which other maritime nations imitated. During this greatest era of sailing vessels, from 1840 to i860, steam began to be used, and was introduced as an auxiliary power. The naturally invent 3 O Mm '-'. lM\i#iiiS«^ THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 645 ive genius of American ship-builders enabled them to adopt the new force so successfully that the United States vessels continued to be prominent for many years as models from which other naval powers might cop)-. Before sailing vessels were finally abandoned, a number of large ships were built. These ships were a sort of a compromise between steamers arid sailing vessels, and they did good service. The Mississippi^ the Missouri^ the Susquehanna^ the Saranac and the Pozv- hatan belonged to this class. They were launched between 1840 and 1850, and were a credit to the country. The Powhatan is now an interesting relic of this transition period of naval architecture. She was built of seasoned live oak, and retained so much of her original seaworthiness that, in 1886, she was still upon the list of the navy. In the last years of her usefulness, the Poivhatati was employed in trans- porting relief crews from Aspinwall to Panama. When those who realized the great future power of steam began to agitate the subject of supplanting sailing vessels by steamers, there was at first a great deal of hesitancy about making such a radical change. It was advocated that the new ships should be provided with full steam power, using sails as an auxiliary, but the old pride in the sailing vessels could not be made to yield at once to the new inventions. It was considered a great concession to admit steam at all, but the United States Government was not the only nation conservative in improving its navy. The other maritime powers pursued the same course, and for many years the United State? retained the lead in producing the most creditable types of war ships. In 1854, Congress passed a law ordering the construction of a new class of frigates. The Merrimac was the first of these new vessels to be launched, and she showed a great advance in ship-building. When she was sent to European waters she attracted great attention from foreign naval architects, who immediately copied her. The vessels built after the Merrimac model were the best ships of the time in the English navy. In 1858, what was known as the Hartford class of large corvettes began to be built. This class comprised the Hartford^ the Brooklyn^ the Pensacola^ the Richmond and the Lancaster. These ships were imitated by England and France. They were of good speed and were used for cruising in foreign ports. Being built of wood, they required frequent repairs, and they are gradually being struck from the list of commissioned vessels. The Kearsarge belonged to another type of war ship. The Kear^ surge was built in 1859, and several vessels of the same pattern were 6^6 THE STORY OF AMERICA. launched just before the war. During the war, vessels were built with a special regard for the purposes for which they were to be used. It was necessary to construct ships as rapidly as possible, in order to pro- tect the coast, and what were known as "ninety -day gunboats" and "double-enders" were hastily built. Merchant steamers were also armed with such batteries as they could carry. This extraordinary increase of vessels, under the pressure of necessity, was not productive of permanent benefit to the navy, and the emergency ships soon dis- appeared when they were no longer needed. The Juniata and Ossipee^ which were launched in 1852, belonged to the Kearsarge type and proved capable of good service. The Monitor marked a new era in naval architecture and created a great sensation when it appeared. It w^as the invention of Captain John Ericsson, and saved the Union fleet at Hampton Roads. Captain Ericsson's inventive mind had early conceived the idea of the revolving turret in connection with the floating battery. In 1854, he had ofiered the device to Napoleon III, only to have it rejected; but he believed in it, if Napoleon did not, and, in 1861, proposed the novel idea to the United States Naval Department. His proposition met with encourage- ment, and he was given a contract to build his first vessel, after his long- cherished plan. By an extraordinary display of energy, the vessel was completed in one hundred days, and arrived at Hampton Roads March 9, 1862, just after the iron-clad Mer7nmac had sunk the Cumberland and the Congress^ and v/as about to destroy the whole wooden fleet. The "cheesebox on a raft," as the Confederates called the Monitor^ defeated the Merrimac^ and the complete success of Captain Erics- son's invention revolutionized the navies of the whole civilized world. The original Monitor was lost at sea; but other ships were built after Ericsson's peculiar model. There is no doubt that the Monitor was the first of the turreted vessels of the world. Although it made so great an innovation in naval construction, its essential principles were never universally approved by naval architects. The Monitor was like a raft carrying a revolving turret. It was constantly submerged by the waves, but its depth of draft insured stability. The circular form of the revolving turret was well suited to deflect the enemy's projectiles. Machinery was employed to move the turret and so point the guns, and there were many other advantages in the new war ship. Since the war, many improvements have been made in the monitors, and they form a conspicuous feature of modern fleets. The double-turreted monitors, of which the Terror is an example, THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 647 were subsequently built. They were, unfortunately, constructed of wood, which had already been condemned abroad as an unsuitable material for building war ships. The duration of these wooden turreted vessels was not long, and new vessels of this order, three of which bear old names, were rebuilt of iron. In 1874, some vessels known as the Adams class were built and launched. These vessels were of wood, convenient and handy, and were intended as cruisers in time of peace. The Marion class of sloops, launched about this time, were also built of wood. The Alert is one of three vessels that were built of iron in 1874. She was constructed as a laudable experiment to improve and change the material for construc- tion. This effort was partly induced by pressure from the iron interest of the country. The change was, however, limited to the small class of diminutive vessels. This improve-ment in material was not, however, relied on, for in 1876 the Trentoii was launched. She was built of wood, and represented the latest type of ships in the navy. For fifteen years after the civil war, the navy steadily deteriorated and its decrepit condition was a reproach to the country. Its old reputation for proficiency and advancement was lost. The Government pursued a temporizing policy and maintained an economical attitude toward it. It was, however, not the intention that the navy should be neglected or abolished. Yearly appropriations were passed for its sup- port, and its needs were frequently presented to Congress. The amounts appropriated were, however, not large enough to permit many new constructions of ships or artillery. Wooden ships were repaired where steel ships should have been built, and cast-iron guns were used where steel guns should have been placed. The rapidity with which a large fleet of cruising vessels was built and brought together during the civil war, left the impression upon the public mind that, in case of any great emergency, the deficiency in the navy could be hastily supplied. Being favored by peace at home and abroad, it seemed wiser to allow other countries to improve upon naval equipments, believing that when the necessary time came, the United States could profit by the experiments of other maritime powers. After a long interval of indifference in regard to the navy, attention was at last centered on the subject. It was seen how rapidly naval improvements had been made in foreign countries, and how utterly the United States was distanced by the other maritime powers. A grow- ing desire arose to repair the effects of past neglect, and Congress began to move in the matter. The origin of the first effort to improve 41 648 THE STORY OF AMERICA. the navy dates from June, 1881, when the Advisory Board was appoiHKsd to consider and to report on the needs of the navy. This board, on November 7, 1881, decided that the United States Navy should consist of seventy unarmored cruisers of steel. It reported that there were thirty-two vessels in the navy fit for cruisers, and it indicated the char- acter of the vessels that should be built. This board considered unarmored vessels, and did not discuss the subject of armored ships, although it expressed the opinion that such vessels were indispensable in time of war. It was some time before any practical results followed from the action of this board; but in 1883, Congress authorized the building of three steam cruisers and a dispatch boat. These vessels were the Chicago^ the Bosio7i, the Atalanta and the Dolphin. In the act of Congress, approved in March, 1885, four additional vessels were authorized. These were the first steps toward our new navy. Up to the time of this new movement, no steel for ships had been rolled in the United States. Construction in American iron plates had been extensively carried on, but steel-plating was imported at great cost to the ship-builder. The question of naval material has always been a most important one. Before 1840, the science of naval construction had not advanced for two hundred years, all ships being built of wood. In the next two decades there was rapid progress, and since the war innumerable inventions have revolutionized ship-building. The Dolphin caused much discussion when first launched, but she has proved a staunch vessel and capable of good service. Though not regarded as a vessel for fighting purposes, she is a ship of the class that is needed in all navies as a dispatch boat. Her advent in the navy marked a new period — the inauguration of the successful manufacture in the United States of American rolled steel ship-plating. The Dolphin is the first vessel, whether for naval or for commercial purposes, to be built entirely of steel of home manufacture. The Dolphin has proved herself eminently successful, and, with the exception of the steam yacht Atalanta^ is the fastest sea steamer of her displacement built in the United States. All the ships of the new navy are built of steel and modeled after well-tested designs. Fifteen of the vessels that were last authorized by Congress are (in 1889) in course of construction or but recently com- pleted. On October 8, 1888, the United States cruiser ^^///w^r^ was launched at Philadelphia. The Baltimore was the first cruiser buiit for the new navy. Before the Samoan disaster, the United States numbered ninety-two THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 649 serviceable vessels, fifteen of the first class, thirteen of the second class, forty-three of the third class and seven of the fourth class. These carried in all four hundred and eleven guns. Besides, there were twelve tugs and a number of wooden sailing vessels. The new navy, when completed, will comprise of the armored vessels, the Puritan^ the Miantonomah, the AmpJiitrite^ the Mo7iadnock and the Terror, All of these are iron-clad and each carry four lo-inch breech-loading guns, besides powerful secondary batteries. Of this class the Maine and the Texas were the last to be launched. In addi- tion to these armored vessels, there are to be six iron-clad monitors, each carrying fifteen-inch smooth-bore guns. Of the unarmored vessels recently built, the Chicago^ the Boston^ the Atalanta and the Dolphm are all of steel. Last to be built are the Charleston^ the Baltimore, the Newark^ the Yorktown, the Philadelphia, the San Francisco, the Con- cord and the Bennington. They carry altogether ninety-four rifle guns. There has recently been built a steel cruiser, Vesuvius, with three 12- inch guns and two second-class torpedo boats. Twenty-eight vessels in all have been added to the navy, and Congress appropriated an addi- tional sum of two million dollars for floating batteries and other naval equipments. With the rehabilitation of the navy an effort was made to dispense with all the old vessels that had lost prestige with the improve- ment in ship-building. The few wooden ships which carry the flag to other countries were gradually condemned, and it has been estimated that in 1898 the entire wooden navy will have disappeared. A few words about naval artillery cannot but be interesting. From the time of the invention of cast-iron cannon, in the year 1558, the improvement in artillery was very slow. It was thought that the cannon was such a wonderful invention that it was an impertinence to think of improving it. The first guns were muzzle-loaders. There had been rude attempts at breech-loading, but they were soon abandoned. The guns were of a number of calibres to suit the weight of the batteries on the ships. At the end of the eighteenth century what was known as an eighteen-pounder was the preferred gun for the main-deck batteries of frigates. The eighteen-pounder was the largest calibre used on the ships of the United Colonies of North America in the war of the Rebellion. In the war of 181 2, the carronade was adopted as a spar- deck armament of frigates. The advantage of large calibre guns was firmly impressed upon those who occupied themselves with naval matters. As the fleet was developed, the twenty-four-pounders gave way to the thirty-two-pounders, and then the forty-two-pounders were 650 ■ THE STORY OF AMERICA. introduced. In time, the forty-two-pounder was, however, abandoned and the thirty-two-pounder was retained as the largest calibre. In the interval between 1840 and 1845, the thirty-two-pounder was replaced by a gun of the same calibre, of greater weight, called the long thirty-two- pounder. Up to this time, no explosive projectiles had been used with cannon, properly so-called. Mortars were originally used for project- ing huge balls of stone at high angles. They were first used in 1624, but the unwieldly weight of the instruments prevented their use in the field. To provide for field use, light mortars were cast, which, when mounted on wheels, were denominated "howitzers." A mortar was never used in naval armament, although it has been employed upon ships engaged in bombarding cities. The success of explosive pro- jectiles did not immediately lead to their application to horizontal firing from cannon. The shell gun marks an important event in naval artillery. It required many years to bring it into general use, so as to displace the solid-shot gun. The first United States vessel, the battery of which was composed exclusively of shell guns, was the sloop-of-war Ports- mouthy in 1856. With shell guns, much depended upon the successful working of the fuse of the shell, without which it was but a hollow substitute for a solid shot. The fuses which were used to explode the first bombs were long wooden plugs, bored and filled with powder. This fuse was improved upon, and the United States naval fuse became justly famous, one feature of it being a simple and an effective device called a water-cap, which guarded against injury from water when the shell was fired. Previous to the introduction of shells, incendiary projectiles had been in use. They were simply intended to set fire to the ships of the enemy, and were not explosive. Hot shot was employed for this purpose, but it was used chiefly in batteries on shore. Within the twenty-five years following the civil war, marvelous advances have been made in artillery. Dynamite has entered into the composition of explosives, and the carrying power of all sort of firearms has been greatly increased. Steel guns have succeeded those of iron, and will be used in the artillery of the new navy. The necessity of a change in the naval artillery of the United States was recognized for a number of years, but it was impossible to obtain steel of domestic manufacture for the new guns. So the men-of-war were compelled to make their cruises abroad with antiquated batteries that were inferior to those carried by ships belonging to other nations. THE UNITED STATES NAVY. ^51 The torpedo has had a great influence upon naval warfare. Millions of dollars have been spent by European powers in experimenting with this deadly implement of destruction. Its introduction into the artillery of the navy necessitates an additional fleet of torpedo boats. In former times, a fleet consisted simply of battle ships. Dispatch boats were added later. The torpedo had made it necessary^ to adopt a new class of vessels, called the "torpedo boat captures." The duty of these boats is to destroy the torpedo boats of the enemy. They have great speed and are provided with powerful batteries. The English and French governments were the first to adopt them. In the early period of its history there was no such branch of the Government as the Department of War. In the first of our great wars (that of 181 2) there were only twenty ships in the navy, the organization of which was of the simplest character; but these few ships were the best of their class afloat. There being no organization of policy, each commander of a vessel was compelled to act for himself; thus Hull, Decatur and Porter — all of them young men — made great reputations for themselves by their sagacity and courage. In 1815 a board of three officers was appointed, styled the Naval Commissioners, who had charge of all the work of the department. The board was to perform, under a secretary, all the ministerial duties of his office. In 1845, ^^^is board of commissioners was replaced by the bureau system, which, with some changes, has continued until the present time. The bureaus, when first organized, were not qualified to direct the navy. As a working force, \he navy was without any direction. There was no responsible officer to superintend the training of officers or the enrollment, assignment and disciplining of seamen. No one was competent to attend to the dis- position of vessels or other important work. The effect of this half- reform became evident in 1861, when the department was suddenly plunged into war. No one had the faintest idea what to do or whose business it was to do anything. The chiefs of the bureaus had various duties. One managed the navy yards, another had charge of the con- struction of ships and a third superintended the building of guns. A fourth supplied provisions. The department had no office organized for staff work; it contained no information upon which to act; it had no machinery by which information could be procured, and at this critical time the department, which had been maintained for sixty years for the service of the country, was found to be entirely wanting in the means of conducting war. At this time. Captain Fox was appointed chief clerk of the Navy Department, and he did a lasting service ia 652 THE STORY OF AMERICA. organizing an efficient administration of naval affairs, and in appointing able men to carry out his plans. The number of the war bureaus was increased during the war to eight. In 1882, an important office was added to these bureaus. It was called the Office of Naval Intelligence, and was created for the purpose of collecting and systematizing informa- tion concerning the resources and movements of foreign navies. This office was a most important improvement in the management of the naval department. Any account of naval progress would be incomplete without a sketch of John Ericsson, who gave such an impetus to naval construc- tion by his wonderful inventions. His life was eventful, and the most useful part of it was linked with the history of his adopted country, America. John Ericsson was born in Sweden, in 1803. At eleven years of age, he was appointed cadet of engineers, and two years later was chosen as a leveler on the grand. ship canal between the Baltic and the North Sea, planning the work for over six hundred men. In 1820 he became an ensign in the Swedish army, rising rapidly to the rank to lieutenant and captain. In 1825 ^^ invented a condensing flame engine, and the next year went to England to introduce it. Coal, however, did not effect the same results as pine wood, and the invention was not a success. In 1827 Ericsson resigned from the Swedish army and went to England, where he devoted himself to the invention of various devices to be used at sea. In 1829 ^^ invented the steam car- riage "Novelty," and beat Stevenson's "Rocket" in atrial contest. In 1833 he invented the caloric engine, which excited the wonder of the scientific world, and resulted, two years later, in the completion of the caloric ship Ericsson. In 1839, at the urgent request of Commodore Stockton, of the United States Navy, Ericsson came to the United States and applied his screw propeller principle to the war ship Prince- ton. At the World's Fair in London, in 1851, Ericsson obtained the prize for his numerous inventions. On March 9, 1862, he had the satis- faction of seeing his long-cherished turret plans carried out in the Monitor. In 1869 Ericsson built a fleet of thirty vessels for the Spanish Gov- ernment for the protection of Cuba. In 1883 he constructed his sun motor as a last gift to science. He contributed many scientific articles to various magazines. Many honors were conferred on John Ericsson by Sweden, and in July, 1888, on the attainment of his eighty-fifth year, he was especially honored by a visit from the representatives of the King of Sweden, who sent him a token of appreciation of his THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 653 genius. He was made a Knight of the Royal Orders of Denmark and was awarded the grand cross of naval merit bv King Alphonso of Spam. In character, Captain Ericsson was singularly quiet and re'tir- mg. He was very little known in the neighborhood where he lived and he was an active man up to the time of his death. One of the excuses he gave for not receiving visitors on his last birthday was that he was "too busy, as he had not yet completed his life-work " One of the curious traits of his character was the total absence of anxietv to personally see the workings of any of his machinery. He was never on board the Destroyer but once after she was completed. In fashion- mgan mvention, he worked almost entirely from drawings, and knew just as well how every part of the finished machiner>^ looked, or should look, as though he had handled it a thousand times. Captain Ericsson died March 9, 1889, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. The United States Navy will henceforth rank with the navies of the other maritime powers. The real use of the navy is to provide the country with means of carrying on war, and it may seem that there is little necessity of a navy in time of peace. It has been said that, inas- much as the national policy has been peaceful, and inasmuch as the United States has never been allied with any foreign power, there will be no danger of future naval combats. If, however, the Government should neglect the means of national defense, the country is liable to suflfer most unexpectedly. No country is secure from an invasion of its nghts. Within the last hundred years, the United States has been at war SIX times, including the French hostilities in 1798. The causes that brought about these wars have been adjusted, but new causes may arise at any time. In the event of an European war (and there are always rumors of some foreign complication) the position of the United States as an unarmed neutral would be extremely uncertain. The navy protects American interests by its moral force as well as its maritime strength. If it were abolished, it would be impossible for the United States to maintain its standing as a great nation. The duties of the navy, apart from the necessities of war, are numer- ous. It was stated by the first Advisory Board that vessels of the navy were required for "surveying deep-sea soundings, the advancement and protection of American commerce, exploration, protection of American life and property endangered by war between foreign countries, and service m support of American policy where foreign government is concerned. ' ' The navy has been called the police of the ocean, and it is of 654 THE STORY OF AMERICA. inestimable service in protecting commerce. In exploration, it has sent out expeditions of such a daring character as to astonish the world. When, reorganized and fully equipped, it will be once more a credit to the country, and a means by which great things may be accomplished. It is maintained at an annual expenditure of from twelve to twenty millions, and is a costly adjunct to the Government. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 011 446 665 7