Class ..Ar& i Book Copyright N"-:: ^ CDEflSlGIlT DSPOSm STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION By Thomas Woody, Ph.D. University of Pennsylvania Early Quaker Education in Pennsylvania. Published by Teachers College, Columbia University. 287 pages. Price $3 . 00. Furstenschulen in Germany after the Reformation. George Banla, Publisher, Menasha, Wisconsin. 46 pages. Price $1.00. tirii* dolUgM* f*t»» GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY MENASHA, WISCONSIN 1920 DEC 2 l^cO INSCRIBED TO WiLHELMINE LaWTON WoODY FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY AFTER THE REFORMATION By THOMAS WOODY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA ^/^1?^l .V'' Copyright, 1920, BY Thomas Woopy g)CU605128 PREFACE The advent of the Reformation brought with it many- new conceptions. Some of the most important dealt with the problem of education, its necessity for all citizens, and the duty of the state, principality, or city to provide edu- cational facilities for all of its members. Among the firmly established educational institutions, which clearly bear the impress of the Reformation's influence, were the Furstenschulen. These were first founded in Saxony, but were modelled on earUer Klosterschulen in Wiirttemberg. From a study of either of these types the student may gain a knowledge of the practical influence of the Reformation, which was working towards the establish- ment of a state system of public education. This monograph is prepared as collateral reading for students of the history of education, for the reason that the subject is only briefly presented in text books. I am indebted to my colleagues. Professors Frank P. Graves and John H. Minnick, for helpful suggestions. Thomas Woody. University of Pennsylvania, April, 1920. CONTENTS Page Chapter I Educational Reform Spirit in Germany 1 II Schools of Wurttemberg and Saxony 11 III Provisions of the Orclmmg of 1580 17 IV Rules Governing Conduct 34 V Summary: Later Development 41 Bibliography 45 Index 46 ILLUSTRATIONS Page School buildings at Meissen Frontispiece Specimens of manuscript of Luther and Melanchthon 5 Title-page from the Kirchenordnung of 1580 13 Philip Melanchthon 15 Reproduction of the first page of the regulations for the three Fiirstenschulen 19 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY AFTER THE REFORMATION CHAPTER I Educational Reform Spirit in Germany On coming to a study of the Filrstenschulen of Germany of the sixteenth century one finds many schools that were similar to them in a great many respects. In this period of Great variety the Reformation many different types of schools are to be established found which sprang up here and there, and whose character was determined in great measure by local conditions. But in addition to that which seems to be characteristic of the particular locality alone, there are also to be seen in all of them the decided stamp of the Reformation, the great empha- sis on religion and the authority of the church. Just to men- tion a few of the various types, there were Partikular schools, Latin schools, Stadt schools, writing schools, and a number of others which it is not necessary to mention here. Only those will be considered that had a very close relation to the church and bear a striking similarity to those established by the Princes. It is quite natural to inquire first from what source these schools sprang, from what authority, ecclesias- tical or secular, and by what means they were supported. The church schools before the Reformation were estab- oiginand lished and maintained by the means of the Catholic Church. S^schoois The Latin schools of the cities, however, were estabhshed by the secular head of the cities and were supported almost entirely at public expense. The German writing schools, 2 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY mostly private, were almost entirely dependent on the tuition of students for their revenues. The two last mentioned served largely for business purposes and it was therefore quite natural that those who expected to derive benefit from them should be required to pay certain stipulated amounts of money. The church schools, on the other hand, were educating men for the service of the church and could not justly demand money of those who were expecting to enter her service as soon as they had finished the work given in the schools. The advent of the Reformation, however, brought about a change in this state of affairs, for those who were to be educated were no longer merely the servants of the church; and, furthermore, there was a rapid growth of the conception Changing ^^^* ®^^^ sliould bc cducatcd in so far as his or her native oftheTcope endowments made it possible. How was it to be accom- of education piighcd? This chaugc in the thought of a people to a belief in public education was evidenced in the numerous Kirchen- und Schulordnungen that were issued, in which it was pro- vided that the various schoolmasters, as soon as they would incorporate religious instruction in their work, should receive reimbursement for their services from the public treasury. Thus the Braunschweiger Kirchenordnung of 1528 stated that the German schoolmasters should receive an amount yearly from the treasury for instruction in religious affairs. Schoolmistresses also were to receive the same. In like manner by the Pommer'sche Kirchenordnung of 1535 the schoolmaster was authorized to receive pay from the city treasury. The reason for this tendency is quite clear. It is easily understood that as long as money was required of the student EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 6 in order to pay the master, to keep up buildings, and for similar purposes, many were necessarily debarred from edu- cation on account of pecuniary circumstances. This fact payment of was realized, more and more, during the course of the six- civii teenth century, not only in the vernacular but also in the Latin schools. The first children to receive free education were those native to the town, and later those from other towns were granted the privilege. The Leisniger Kirchen- ordnung of 1523 forbade the master to receive money from the children native to the town, and that of Halle of 1526 provided that the teachers should be paid from the common treasury in order that the citizens might not be unduly burdened in sending their children to school. It makes a great difference whether the citizen pays money to the teacher in the form of taxes or whether he pays it to the teacher directly when he has to send the child to school. In the latter case it may be hard for him to decide to educate his child properly ; in the former the decision is made for him and there is nothing to do but send the child to school. Thus we find this tendency increasing until, in 1561 by the Ordjiunq of the Gymnasium at Stralsund it was forbidden to Frceeduca- . , ., , „ , tion for the receive money from the native children of the town and native chil- dren first everything was to be done that would make attendance at the schools as easy as possible. Again in the Ordnung of the Pedagogium at Heidelberg in 1565 it was forbidden to require any payment of money. But the question naturally arises, when it is seen that so many of the Ordnungen state that no money is to be required of the student, whence did the means for the maintenance of these schools come? The Catholic Church had means for such things in great measure, which had accumulated as Church 4 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY the result of the Church's doctrine of "good works," whereby Source of One might vitaHze his faith by works and lay up for himself income in . . ,,., Catholic rewards in eternity by making gifts towards the establish- ment of institutions such as hospitals and orphans' homes for the poor, cathedrals, churches, and schools. But with the advent of the new doctrine, that one might be saved by faith, there was naturally a weakening of the former. However, the new Evangelical faith was not for a long time without works, as is well known, and is adequately shown in the following pages. The lack of schools of the Evangelical faith was certainly not due to the teachings and beliefs of Reformation leaders, as is shown in the numerous letters and addresses by Luther — especially in his Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of all Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools. In view of all this, it becomes councilmen and magistrates to watch over j'outh with unremitting care and diligence. For since their city, in all its interests, life, honor, and possessions, is com- mitted to their faithful keeping, they do not deal justly with their trust, before God and the world, unless they strive their utmost, night and day, to promote the city's increase and prosperity. Now a city's increase consists not alone in heaping up great treas- ure, in building solid walls or stately houses, or in multiplying artillery, and munitions of war; nay, where there is a great store of this, and yet folos with it, it is all the worse and the greater loss for the city. But this is the best and the richest increase, pros- perity, and strength of the city, that it shall contain a great number of polished, learned, intelligent, honorable, and well-bred citizens; who, when they have become all this, may then get wealth and put it to good use.i Not only did Luther and Melanchthon so advise, but their influence is soon noted in the various Ordnungen issued 1 Painter, Luther on Educatio7i, pp. ISO f. 2 I < y. ! S X EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 5 widely throughout Germany. In 1535 according to the Pommer^sche Kirchenordnung the parsons were advised to tell people that they should make their wills and all bequests toward the establishment and the maintenance of schools. But to delay the establishment of schools until institu- tions could be founded was out of the question, and espe- cially so, since at that time people were not as willing to give toward their foundation as they had been during the Middle Ages. It was therefore necessary that the church — Evan- gelical — and the state seek means thereunto in different _ ° . The Evan- channels. When one considers the close relation which had geiicai sources of existed between the church and state in times before the means for Reformation, it is not strange that the secular authorities seized the church property; nay, it would have been strange if the state had not seized the property of the church for its own purposes. At any rate the fact is that we find stated in the various Kirchenordnungen of Leisnig, Stralsund, Halle, Braunschweig, Liibeck, MoUen, Hanover, Pommern, and many others, that schools shall be organized and teachers' salaries be paid out of the common fund or treasury, into which had flowed the income from the ecclesiastical proper- ties. At first this revenue was all that was expected to be See photographic reproduction of manuscript of Luther and Mel- anchthon on opposite page. S.D. Reverende vir et cariss{ime) f rater. Saepe cogitavi futurum esse aliquando hoc quod accidit, ut prindpes, (politica sapientia con- troversias ita toller ent). Bene etfeliciter vale die 4 Augusti. Philippus Melanchthon. G(ratiam) et pacem in Christo. Respondi tandem, mi Bucere, Helvetiorum Uteris: quas Smalcaldi reddidisti. Excusabis moram nieam. Ut qui scias mihi cadaveri praeter morbos et senectutem (impositas esse curas ecclesiae nostrae). Ipso die S. Nicolai, 1537. T. Martinus Luther. (From Jortin's Life of Erasjiius.) 6 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY used by the Evangelical churches, but, as will soon be pointed out, they were not long in making use of all church properties. Over and above all those properties that were absolutely necessary for its continuance the Catholic Church had also le property f thecath- amassed a great deal of other property — especially to be ihc Church *= . . . . noted was that consistmg of monasteries and nunneries. Now concerning the money that had accrued from the prop- erties above mentioned, there had been no question about the proper place and use for that; but about the disposition of monasteries and nunneries there was a difference of opinion. The monks and nuns, in many cases, had ceased to frequent them, since the Catholic Church had been cut off in the Evangelical countries, and the property was thus left almost without a master. The nobles and counts, in many places, and also the cities in the several regions, hastened to the'Noiks ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ property towards the satisfaction of their own needs. Much of it thus seized was, no doubt, devoted to the aid and support of churches and schools, but quite a considerable portion was used for personal purposes.^ It was due to the interference of the Evangelical church leaders that the major part of the property was not lost, so far as the schools and churches were concerned. Luther was one of the first leaders who demanded that the cloisters be again made to serve as schools, as they had done before. To this Efforts of end he wrote and delivered addresses in great number and ^BaveUm especially did he address himself to the secular princes and The'uL^of counts who had in their power to do with the property very schools 2 Attention is called to the uses made of the church properties in England, after the separation brought about under Henry VIII. Vide Leach, pp. 58 ff. EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 7 much as they pleased. The results of his work and that of others may be seen in the schools that were established by the princes in various places. There is no doubt that a great impulse was given to state control of education at this time. The princes had seized , . Church prop- the property outright and now there arose no uncertam erty restored Til • ,. 1 • • 1 ,, to the use of demand that they use it for the original purpose — schools, schools in some cases In many of the Kirchenordnungen it was demanded that even the property which had already been used for other purposes should be restored, and that close official oversight should be kept to see that it was used for the benefit of church and school. Examples of this may be found in the Sdchsische Visitationsartikel of 1533, the Pommer' sche Kirchenordnung 1535, and the Braunschweig-Liinehurg Kirchenordnung of 1564. As to the justice of the seizure and use of church prop- erty, it would be difficult to maintain the negative. Even in the cases where the secular princes had seized and used it for the affairs of state, it was justifiable (unless used for purely personal ends) ; and still more was it justifiable where the funds had been used for the establishment of schools of the Evangelical church. Why? Because the property which had been accumulated in the country by the Catholic p ^y Church had come from the people themselves; it had not peo°p"fre*° come from some outside source but was the result of their f^gf/f^-tif own toil and therefore it was right that they should use it to their best advantage. But the justification of these acts is not necessary here; suffice it to say that the property was taken over and certain schools were established. Among the secular heads there were some who maintained the same position as that of the 8 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY Some secular heads agreed that monas- teries be used for school purposes Legal steps taken by secular heads Supervision of schools by the Cath- olic Church before the Reformation Superficial nature of school supervision Evangelical church leaders. Mertz quotes from the words of the Saxon Counsellor, Dr. Komerstadt, wherein he said, concerning the means for the establishment of Fursten- schulen: Thus we might ordain the establishment of schools that the children of poor people might be well brought up and learned, some outside as well as those within our own land. . . . The cloisters were founded for that same purpose and if we can now turn them to that purpose again, we are sure of the approval of justice and of God. The above was made in form of a motion and was carried. Only two years later (1544) the Emperor himself gave the Protestants the legal right to regard as their own the church property which they found within their own territories. Something should be said concerning the management and oversight of schools prior to the Reformation, as it will aid materially in showing how it came about that Count Moritz and his successors in Saxony had such an important part in the organization and oversight of the Fiirstenschulen. During the Middle Ages the oversight of schools had been, almost without exception, in the hands of the authorities of the church and their underhngs — for the feudal state was not much concerned with the affairs of education. Only in the case of the Stadtschulen, which were established by the civic community, were the powers of oversight of the bishops and other ecclesiastics nearly excluded. But a thorough and well-ordered management and oversight of schools was never accomplished in the Middle Ages. The Visitatores of the Middle Ages were messengers of the Pope, or other high church officials, and their visitations were very irregularly made. There was no organized inspection which watched EDUCATONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 9 minutely the affairs of all schools ; but some special ones were singled out and irregular visits were made to the others. With the increasing influence of the Reformation there may be seen a distinctly new tendency, namely, towards a rather universal inspection of schools. This extensive Thorough ... 1 1 cc • -11 1 1 nature of the Visitation was a thorough anair as will be shown later by the newsuper- 1 -1 • -1 • • 1 • vision mmute details given concerning the organization and inspec- tion of the Fiirstenschulen at Grimma, Pforta, and Meissen. They were no mere formality, but on the contrary indicated the beginning of a strong tendency toward central authority in such matters. In all of the Schul-und Kirchenordnungen of the sixteenth century we feel the force of this ever-increas- ing tendency toward central control and oversight. The question whether the state or the church should have this complete control — which cannot be discussed here — was fought out bitterly, the church maintaining that it should be the successor to the realm of the Catholic Church. The final result was a more equitable distribution in which both the state and the church were closely related in the management church and '' ° state unite of school affairs. Luther himself believed that the church to deal with the affairs needed the aid of the state and, without it, could not hope to of schools carry on its work. But in later years he regretted the extent to which the interests of the secular and spiritual institutions had become united, fearing that as a result "both of them would go to the devil." Nothing further need be said here about this phase of the situation, but in the next chapter we shall note some instances in which the secular and ecclesias- tical authorities did labor together in the establishment and. direction of schools. 10 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY SUMMARY The Reformation brought a new conception of education which, in connection with local conditions, resulted in the development of various types of schools. According to Luther and Melanchthon, two of the stronger protagonists, education should be compulsory, without cost to the individ- ual, and a duty of the civil authorities. Through the energetic endeavors of these men, and others associated with them, this educational creed was spread throughout the German principalities. Their influence may be seen in the numerous Schulordnungen that were issued. Schools were often supported by the revenue from property that had belonged to the Catholic Church. In 1544 the Emperor himself gave assent to the appropriation of such property for the use of schools. The establishment of close super- vision, in the ease of schools here discussed, was of great importance. The church and state sought to co-operate in affairs concerning the welfare of education. CHAPTER II Schools of Wurttemberg and Saxony The Fiirstenschulen estabhshed by Count Moritz of Saxony, in 1543, were organized on a plan very similar to that g^^^^^ of schools set up at a slightly earlier date in Wurttemberg. fhooia simi- r^ o ^ ~ lar to earlier As the latter, as a matter of fact, furnished the model after 1?''.°°'^ '". ' ' _ Wurttemberg which the Saxon schools were fashioned it may be well to devote some time to them. The first Kirchenordnung for Wiirttemberg was drawn up by Brenz in 1535. According to this original plan one lesson per day, taken from the Scriptures, was to be given to all the inmates of the cloister. The stipulations of this plan, however, were not in operation for any length of time, jf/°f^„'';. and only thirteen of the cloisters became schools. For these thirteen cloisters a second Ordnung was drawn up by Brenz in 1556, under Duke Christopher, according to which Klosterschulen were established at Adelberg, Alpirsbach, Anhausen, Bebenhausen, Blaubeuren, Denkendorf, St. Georgen, Herrenalb, Hirsau, Konigsbrunn, Lorch, Maul- bronn, and Murrhardt. In these Klosterschiden, or cloister schools, boys of fourteen or fifteen years of age were admitted for a period of three years, after the expiration of which they were to continue their studies at the University of Tubingen. Among other Ordnungen for the Klosterschulen may be mentioned especially those of 1559 and 1582. According to 12 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY these a differentiation was made between the lower Kloster- Laterdif- ^^^^^^^"-called also grammatical Klosterschulen—whkh, ferentiated with reference to the studies, were comparable to the lower Latin schools, and the higher Klosterschulen which had practically the same significance as the Gymnasien. The former, the lower, received poor boys from twelve to fourteen years of age who were sufficiently equipped to enter the fourth year class of a Partikularschule. For entrance to the higher Klosterschulen it was necessary to have standing which would enable one to enter the fifth class of a Partikularschule. These regulations are found to be almost identical with those Regulations °^ ^^^ FurstenschuUn, stated in the Ordnung of 1580. After ^"^ and pro- ^^^^^^^S ^^^ courso of the lower Klosterschulen the students motion either entered the Padagogium or went to the higher Kloster- schulen and from thence to the University of Tubingen. According to the Ordnung of 1559 there were arrangements made whereby a student who passed certain examinations at Stuttgart was admitted to a free place in the schools. The pupils announced their candidacy for the examinations and, having passed, were placed on a waiting list, from which they were selected for the places according to their rank. Places were filled regularly as they became vacant. The Ordnung of 1559 provided that certain very bright children Provision ^^^^^ Complete their entire professional training in the sSs" higher Klosterschulen, while, according to the Ordnung of 1582, the professional study had to be completed at the University of Tubingen. The discipline was exceptionally strict at all of these Discipline schools, and practically the same as will be found a little later in the Filrstenschulen of Saxony. The clothing was to be cut according to the cloistral style. In all the reUgious ^gcborncnlgurjtm vnb germ / germ tKuguftcti/ rafftn m'JJdntigoi/by^arggt J'wrgaraffdi juSrtagPtburj/ eiiD ^hurfiJr|}oi/ Can&m-afftn in ©dntigcn/ by^arggraffcn ju iiJ^fijToi/ <4rt)nunc^/ ^i< cd m rcmcrC()urf. (B.^atdxn/i^cp bcngirc^cn/mic I»a((^rt)tib(J(rfition(cti/bff'9l(ic^oi inbtrfdbnt kiboi 'Snlutrfiutm / ^pnfU Ooricii / JilrjHn t>nC partuular @(^u(cii/ l^ifitation / Synodis, ©nt" ipw folc^tmaKfmmf^ratitangtt/gffealtfnwrrlitnJol, ' 5 8 o. Cumpriuilegio Ele>Aons Saxoni.r. The title-page of the Kirchenordnung of Saxony, ij^sued in 1580 SCHOOLS OF WURTTEMBERG AND SAXONY 13 service and preparation they kept continually in mind the future calhng of the student. The students in these Kloster- schulen, in contrast to those of the Fiirstenschulen, were all bound to pursue the study of theology. Teachers in the schools were unmarried. As we pass now to a discussion of the Fiirstenschulen, let us note the manj^ points of similarity between them and the Klosterschulen we have just mentioned. The former, also schuienin called Landesschulen, were first established in Saxony. They, like their prototypes, were founded and endowed with the possessions of secularized monasteries and were, in a majority of cases, established in the same old institutions, the cloisters. They were not established by and for the cities, but for the state and the church. Unlike the Klosterschulen of Wiirttem- berg, they did not require that the students who shared their benefits should be bound to pursue a course in theology. Nobles were admitted, and also poor boys that, otherwise, would have had no opportunity to get an education. This must surely have changed the ideas of some poor parents about sending their boys to school. The schools were con- ducted very much like monasteries. The food was plain and the boys were kept closely in cells when not at class or having a free period. Discipline was very strict and even the cut of clothes might have reminded one of the monks who formerly inhabited the cells. The Saxon Landes- or Fiirstenschulen form, as has already been stated, an almost exact imitation of the Wiirttemberg ^re^m'^nfo?" Klosterschulen. They bear a different name, for the reason of*church^ that they were established for the students of the whole ^nd state country and were to prepare young men for the service of both church and state. Instruction, lodging and all care 14 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY were given the student who was poor but capable — the same as provided in the schools of Wurttemberg. Children living outside the state, if admitted at all, were required to pay a stipulated amount. For entrance to the elementary- subjects, all individuals had to be from twelve to fourteen years of age. The establishment of these schools was the result of the Landesordnung issued by Count Moritz of Saxony on May 21, 1543. Duke Heinrich of Saxony died August 18, 1541 and was followed by his son Moritz, who continued to push for- ward the work of his father in that he extended the second Visitation to the realms of the Counts Schwarzburg, Stolberg, and Hohnstein.^ Further, on May 21, 1543 Moritz sent forth two mandates concerning weighty matters of church and state. These mandates were known as Landesord- nungen, though they were similar in nature to the Kirchen- ordnungen and dealt with the affairs of both churches and schools. They were printed for publication by Nickal Further acts Wolraben in Leipzig, 1543, and constituted the plan for the organization and government of the schools until 1580, when, according to a new Ordnung, they were reorganized. The status of the schools under the instrument of 1580 will be considered in later pages. Returning momentarily to the year 1543, let us notice the general spirit and purpose of the mandates of Moritz of Saxony. They bear a striking resemblance to the words of Pur ose of admouitiou offered by Luther. the Landes- Realizing that for the interests of law and order and also for all ordnung of •' a , i i c i 1543 Christian teaching and action, it is necessarj' that the youth of the land be brought up to the praise of God and in all obedience, and 1 Vide Sehling, Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts. PHILIPPUS MELANCHTHON 1479-1 or)0 Praeceplor Gennaniae SCHOOLS OF WtJRTTEMBERG AND SAXONY 15 that they be instructed in all the arts and languages and especially 5 , in the Holy Scriptures, and in order that as the years go on, we may not lack in learned people to be servants in the church and state, it is our purpose that from the property of certain cloisters and institutions of like nature, we should establish three schools, namely at Meissen, Pforta, and Merseburg.^ These schools were to be fully equipped. The entire meaning of this "full equipment" we are not able to deter- Proviaions 11 c • 1 1 c 11 for these mme exactly, but a part of it at least was to be as follows: schools for the one at Meissen there was provided a Master, two Bachelors or socii, a Kantor and sixty boys; the one at Merseburg, a Master, two Bachelors, a Kantor, and seventy boys ; the one at Pforta, a Master, three Bachelors, a Kantor, and one hundred boys. The Lehrplan is not given but the one outlined for 1580 will be considered in detail. Among the men, besides those who actually did the organizing and those who issued the "orders" for the Fiirsten- schulen, perhaps no one exerted a greater influence than did ' Joachim Camerarius. He was born at Bamberg, April 12, 1500, and became Professor of the Greek language at Erfurt in 1521. Then, after a short stay in Wittenberg, he went, at the desire of Melanchthon, as a teacher of Greek at the new Gymnasium Niirnberg. In 1535 he went as a teacher of Greek to the University of Tubingen and from thence was called to the University of Leipzig. From his position here he exerted a great influence on the formation of the Saxon Fiirstenschulen. He was a close friend of Melanchthon and Luther and cherished similar ideas about the founding of schools; through him may be seen, in part, their influence on the schools of Saxony. 2 Mertz, Das Schulwesen der Deutschen Reformation, 189. 16 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY The next chapter will deal with the reorganization of the three schools as was indicated by the Ordnung issued by Augustus in 1580. SUMMARY The Fiirstenschulen of Saxony were similar to the Kloster- schulen established in Wurttemberg. These "cloister schools" admitted boys of fourteen years and gave them three years' preparation for the University of Tubingen. Regulations for entrance were rigid; those who passed certain examinations were admitted to free tuition. Disciphne was strict. Students were to continue the study of theology, in contrast to the plan of the Fiirstenschulen which prepared men for the service of church and state. These Fiirsten- schulen were the immediate fruits of the decree of 1543, issued by Count Moritz. In this document, which gives detailed provisions for the schools, there is found a senti- ment similar to that expressed by Luther at an earlier date. Schools were organized upon this plan until 1580. CHAPTER III Provisions of the Ordnung of 1580 This chapter will be devoted to a detailed consideration of the Ordnung of 1580, which was issued by Augustus. This rather antiquated document begins with a very reveren- tial paragraph concerning Count Moritz of Saxony. He it was that issued the order of 1543 which gave life to the three schools.^ Realizing that the same reasons which caused him to issue those orders still existed, and that it was the duty of the ruling Prince to take care of the affairs of schools and churches. Count August caused Ordnungen to be issued for the schools of Meissen, Grimma, and Pforta, much in the same manner as the Ordiiungen issued for the Partikidar- schulen and the universities. Ordnungen, reasons the Count, are necessary, not because good and honorable people do not know what to do, and th^L'suance what is right and proper to do, but because human nature is ° ' """*^" weak and one can very easily forget. Therefore, it is best to have always at hand certain rules and regulations, written out, in order that no one may deviate from that which all will admit is the best. When one considers, later, the mul- titude of small details which were outlined, one can easily understand that the Count reasoned rightly, for it would be 1 The schools referred to are those at Grimma, Meissen, and Pforta. The school which, according to the Ordming of 1543, was to have been located at Merseburg was finally placed at Grimma. This assertion is substantiated by the Ordnung of 1580. 18 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY difficult to follow all of them without a written list of direc- tions. First may be noted the general recommendations con- cerning the office of the preceptors. The schoolmaster is to recommen- realize that he is not only in the place of a teacher but also that of a father to the boys. It is his duty to awaken the power and knowledge of the Holy Spirit in the boys that it "may serve as a light to their discipline." Furthermore, they must continually keep in mind their own weaknesses and make continual prayer to God that they may not labor alone for themselves but for the welfare of the boys who are intrusted to their care. They must remember the words of Christ that "he whoso vexes one of the least of these, who believes on me, the same would be better off if a millstone Duties of were hanged about his neck and he were drowned in the spiritual nature deepest sea." The preceptor must also keep himself under a most strict control, even as he does those under him, in order that he may set a good example and never be guilty of that for which he would punish a pupil. Thus they shall always be ready to rule among the pupils, maintaining their authority, but exercising it with all discretion in the best interests of the boys. They shall always conduct themselves in a friendly manner towards their pupils and not indulge themselves to rule by fear, for that will cause the boys to hate study; and the duty and purpose of teachers is to cause a keen interest and love for study. They shall teach only that which is useful and shall be „ . , careful not to try to teach too much at once — which is very Nature of -^ "^ instruction good advice — tliough he does make a rather amusing com- parison between the mind and a jug which, when it is filled too rapidly, will overflow at the mouth. Preceptors are CLXIIII Scfiulortiuma, ^on Dnfern ^xmn ||iir(leiv fc6ulcn / ^u itdi\\Jm / )^f<^x«x/ P»t> (Bninmc. 5l((f) t)em trciilatib bet ^ocf)c\cboi:uc -gurfl / 0c« 1^ bi^pri(j/>;(rliOt^ jii (:?iid)fcii/ 1(. (J'f)iirti5r(Vt>iifcr f" r(itiiD> p lKl;cr iicl'tr "XruDcr/ (5f)ri|tiiiiltcr vnt> fttioif r ^cPcc^fiiis/ "^vpn rc!i uerlcPiatcn tU(J(tfrii t'linD (:rfifftv)ui(ru Dreij ©itiilcii ^11 ^^iciiTeii/ Pfoitii viiD liVimuu / miffj^crid^tct / Cmrirv mil Pic }iicr be f(l)cl)(iuii V(ri>rtiiuna allcrPm^s Hdbcii, fon* Can / lucil auct) bci) Cicn|cIt>cn4i(l(rIci)ini|';braiicf>/iMiorCnuni^ fc^I t>i!Ci mangel Purcb Pic jiinoifi vnP bicuorii i^c()a(t(ii( Vifitationcs bt* finiPcu iDcrPcn/ l)abcii xvw glciclKr (jcftalt, ipic t»cp vn|crcii l rung fur<5cnonimcn/»iiPParau(TPiirrl)gclcrtccrfarcni>i>^«ij »piMhicriMClb(i)CinanPcriPof)» iicii fcHoi/ Pas man ciii gnpiffc ^orgcfchricbcnc j?ntc crPminoi5a> IC/ nac^ tPcU^cr allc Ping iv\i fief) ijrt'iirct v■ '' ' ' ' required the content of the text was considered to be of value to the beginner in the language. In the reading of Cicero especial attention was given to the form of the writing, and if in the Slight mcn- 28 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY work mention was made of fables of the heathen world — which were prohibited in their rooms — they must be related in the briefest manner, no further mention being made of tion'to be them than was necessary for the understanding of the lesson, heathen Special difficulties in the text that were a burden to the pupil and not worthy of the time they consumed, were to be ommitted by the teachers just as a farmer would drive around a stump which could not be removed without too great a waste of time and effort. The expenditure of a great deal of time in mere repetition was deplored, and teachers were enjoined repeatedly not to Method with mye long and iuvolved speeches, but rather to make them beginners o a r- 7 brief, that they might be easily grasped, and, if necessary, memorized by the pupil. The use of many words to mean one or nearly the same thing was discouraged especially in the earher classes. However, when the student reached the higher classes and learned to use the art of the poets and the orators, then study of the usage of many similar words was justified. Previous to the Ordnung of 1580 there was provision for but two classes in the schools at Grimma, Meissen and ^intodas^ Pforta. It was found, however, that many came into the schools who could neither decline Latin nouns nor conjugate the verbs properly, and for that reason the Ordnung of 1580 provided for three classes. Prima, Sekwida and Tertia. A survey of each class and its work will be presented. Originally it had been intended that those who had had the required work for the Tertia of the Partikidarschulen ''"'»<' would have the required standing for entrance. For that reason the work now placed in the Prima of the Fiirsten- schulen was made similar to that required in the Tertia of PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 29 the Partikularschulen. This secured a sort of review of the work of the last year of the Partikularschulen, for the student who had aheady had it, and furnished an easy step for the student who had less advanced standing. The course of study for the Prima, as organized in 1580, contained the following elements, 1. The catechism in Latin. Resume of 2. Declension and conjugation of nouns and verbs for the boys who just entered. 3. Letters of Cicero. a. Study of the formation of words. 4. Memorization of the Mimos publianos and the Canton. The works of Cicero and the poets were to be used, not only for reading, but as models for practice in the perfecting of style.2 As the Prima was nearly the same as the Tertia of the Partikularschule, so the Sekunda was very similar to the Quarta of the Partikularschule. The main elements of the Sekunda ijiay be summarized as follows : * 1. Grammar. 2. Order of repetitions, lessons, and exercises were to be the same _ „. , If in 7 Outline of as IS stated for the Partikular schools. the Sekunda 3. Elegantiis Ciceronis used for study. 4. Rules of syntax; Profidiam. 5. Epistles of Cicero, more difficult than those used in the Prima. 6. At times they were permitted to read the praecepta morum, Fabulas Aesopi, Bucolica Virgili, Elegia of Tibullo and from the books of Ouidi de Ponto. 7. Elementary study of Greek language was begun in this class. 2 For a discussion of the narrow Ciceronian education see Monroe, Textbook, pp. 372 ff. and Graves, Student's History, pp. 108 f. Tcrtia 30 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 8. Some of the best students of the class were allowed to study arithmetic and music. Much of the work of the Tertia was of similar nature to those just mentioned, with the exception that it was all more advanced. 1. A repetition of the Grainmatica mentioned above. Resume of 2. Complete Grammatica Philippi, as it was written by Philippus tll6 COUrSG &S . • 1 1 /~i • it was out- and revised by Lameranus. lined 2 Authors to be read were: Officia Ciceronis, de Senedute, de Amicitia, Quaestiones Tusculanae, Georgica, libri Aeneide, Virgin and Odae Horalii. 4. Greek: Isocratcm ad Demonicum, Theognidem, Aurea Carmina, Pythagorae, librum Lliados Honieri primum, Plutarchum de liberorum institutione — to be read. Some of the plays of Terence and Plautus were to be played each year by the boys, chiefly for the purpose of perfecting their speech. In reading the Latin and the Greek authors teachers were warned, again and again, that if anything was mentioned that was not in harmony with the religious faith, they should warn the boys against it and then pass it by as quickly as possible. 5. In this third class was also made a beginning in the study of Dialectic and Rhetoric, the manner of teaching being indi- cated in the Partikidarschiden. The purpose of Rhetoric and Dialectic in this place was to prepare for the study of Philosophy in the higher schools, if perchance the pupil should advance that far. 6. To a few of the most advanced the Rektor was required to teach the rudiments of Astronomy, so that they might, at least, have made a beginning for the work of the higher schools. No special attention was to be given to Theology, Law or Medicine, except as it occurred in the reading work. 7. The Hebrew language was to be taught to any of the pupils who were inclined to the study of Theology, provided there was a teacher who had the knowledge and the desire to teach it. This work was relegated to Saturdays, and does not seem to have had an important place. PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 31 In order that knowledge might be kept well in mind, great emphasis was placed on the value of frequent repeti- tion. Aside from this feature there were held, throughout the year at regularly stated intervals, extensive examinations to see what progress had been made and to test the memory of the pupil. The memory work was not made secure alone by the recurrence of examinations, but also by the immense amount of work that had to be learned verbatim every day. Their argument for the great stress on memory was stated in the following: "Of what worth is it to learn a thing if one immediately forgets what it is?" Those things Things to be -n 1^7- memorized to be learned by heart, especially, were the tatectiism, some of the Psalms of David, the Evangelia, and the rules of grammar, dialectic and rhetoric. In speaking and reading great emphasis was placed on the pronunciation. The memory work which played so great a part in reading and grammar was strongly emphasized also in writing. The style of an exercise was good, better or best according to the style of •^ D ; ^ o writing success with which it aped the style of Cicero or some of the exercise poets. It was not an individualistic natural style that was desired but the imitation of that of another. So the best pupil was the one who could imitate everything most suc- cessfully. The marking of the compositions was also definitely pre- scribed. It was not enough that whatever was absolutely ^^ ^^^^^ bad Latin be pointed out to the student, but also that changes of ^^^,F^'- ^ ' ° cise by the be recommended by the teacher that would make a finer master harmony of rhythm and sound. This, of course, was neces- sary if anyone was to learn to imitate the style of the Latin authors. Teachers were also advised that it was not wise to call attention to all mistakes at once, for in that way the 32 FURSTENSCIIULEN IN GERMANY pupil might become discouraged; but rather, they must emphasize a few at a time, those of most importance, so that the student would feel that his work was not all in vain and would therefore have a desire to correct his style, when he saw it was within his ability to do so. It is quite proper at this point, after reviewing the course of study and the manner of teaching it, to notice briefly the examinations that were given, and the reasons for giving them. The reasons which were put forth for them were substantially as follows: (1) In order that one might at stated intervals take note of his progress and be encouraged thereby; (2) the student, being aware that a day of reckoning was to. come would devote himself to his studies more zealously than otherwise; (3) the examination records were kept and thus the weaknesses of the individual student were found out and could be given special attention, whether the student was promoted or not; (4) examinations were necessary to help determine which students they should retain and those they should release. It seems from this description that the results of the examinations were really put to a good use, at any rate, to a better use than at present, when the mark is used chiefly to rate the student who often has no *theS other record than that made in the examination. The of promotion examination was the only basis of promotion provided by the Ordnung, though a close record of the other work was always kept, as has already been stated. SUMMARY The Ordnung of 1580 provided for reorganization of schools. Special attention was given to the character and training of masters, their duties, selection of pupils, super- Examina- PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 33 vision, punishment for offenses, and the relationship that should exist between members of the teaching staff. The purpose of the schools was stated as mental, moral, and religious discipline. Studies were extremely formal; a uniform method and routine of teaching were required of all. Discipline was strict. The required work for the three classes. Prima, Sekunda, and Tertia, was outlined in detail. Grammar was the basic study, preparing for a study of the orators and poets. Greek study was begun in the Sekunda, while those who desired could begin Hebrew in the Tertia. CHAPTER IV Rules Governing Conduct We shall now notice some of the rules that were to govern Rules gOTern- ^^g ^oys in their every-day activity. If perchance, up to activities qqw, oub may have entertained some belief that anything was left to choice of the individual, that behef will now be dispelled, for, in the Statuta, the minutest details were all covered. First, in regard to their attitude toward God and their relation to their teachers, they were to cherish a whole- some fear and love for the former, being careful lest they take His name in vain, and indulging in almost constant prayer to Him for the condonement of faults and aid in their ^''1ude"il various activities. To harmonize all this with the rest of wards God ^j^gjj. gchool life, they were to learn, as previously mentioned, the most important parts of the Bible and to try to exemplify its teachings in their own hves. They must shun all idolatry and heresy; and the only way to be sure that they were keeping in the narrow way was by prayer morning, night, and during the day, that God might keep them to the true hght. Not only must their relation to teachers be very respect- ful and kind, but they must always seek to have a charitable Attitude feeling for each other and shall all hve very peaceably to- teaXrs gether. No one was to presume to settle his own quarrel with another but must report the trouble to the preceptor and have it settled in a peaceable manner. The peaceable youngster was thus set up as a model for all the others. RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 35 Each student was a guard on the others, and if one did a wrong, another one could warn him and punish him. There towards each seems to be a contradiction between this last statement and the one mentioned above, that all affairs among the boys must be reported to the preceptor; the contradiction, how- ever, is only seeming, and in practice there was probably none whatever. The boys were probably allowed to settle minor matters among themselves, but the more obstinate cases had to be brought before the preceptor. In their command obedience 1 7-17 1 -TT ■ ■ was due to over the boys the preceptors, Kektor, and Visttatoj'es or aii teachers 11 1 1 1 - , andin- inspectors were all to be shown the same respect and obe- specters dience on the part of the boys. Special rules were provided for the boys in church. From the trend of these remarks concerning their behavior, it ^ , Conduct at appears that the orders might indeed have been designed for church a Sunday School on the East Side of New York City. The important details of the seven injunctions are here set down. 1. They must attend the church service in a quiet manner. 2. There shall be no quarrelling with each other about the seats. 3. They shall sing God's Praises, not only with mouths, but hearts. 4. They shall listen to the Word of God, as though to God himself. 5. During the sermon they shall not read, but listen. 6. They shall prepare themselves to receive the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 7. After the sermon is over they shall go quietly from the church, and not cause anj^one to stumble. The rules for the manifold daily activities and the manner of keeping their rooms were scarcely less exacting, and were ^^i^^ for very similar to those in many military academies, though leepmg'*^' in many affairs they were more strict. For the sake of """^^ brevity a resume of the essentials is given: (1) They shall rise early in the morning when the bell for prayer is rung. 36 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY and have their rooms open; (2) they shall make their beds and have their rooms clean and neat; (3) hands and face must be washed daily, hair combed, and shoes cleaned; (4) they must always have their proper books at hand at the proper time; (5) they shall not visit or chat in each other's rooms, nor even enter the same; (6) during study hours there shall be no singing or commotion of any sort that will disturb those who wish to study; (7) shouting and boisterous laughter are at all times forbidden; (8) no one shall have a burning light in his room; (9) no one shall throw aught out of the window; (10) all are required to go to bed each night at the appointed time; (11) before going to sleep, one must think over the things one has heard, seen, and spoken during the day; (12) on moving out one shall not remove anything from the room in which he has been. With a few exceptions, one might imagine that he had come upon the house-rules of a modern fraternity; but the exceptions mentioned would be hard to find in the rules of any modern house. There was Hkewise a list of rules for conduct at the table imels ^^ which a few are mentioned here. (1) At each meal a certain one shall offer prayer and another shall read a portion of the scripture in order that the minds may be refreshed as well as their bodies; (2) they shall be very attentive to the reading of the Book; (3) no one shall drink to the health of another; (4) no one shall carry meat or bread from the table or to school ; (5) further, they shall not gnaw the bones hke dogs nor shall they cut the bread to pieces and make schnidt hrodt of it. The propensities of boys in the art of cutting and carving seem to have been dominant as at present, for another rule forbade them to cut the table, plates or table- cloth, or mar the furniture in any way whatsoever. manners RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 37 Concerning the rules that were to govern them in classes a great deal could be said. Great emphasis was placed on Behavior at being at class promptly, listening attentively to the master when he was reading, speaking plainly and forcibly when called upon to speak, always keeping books, pen, ink, paper, and other utensils at hand at the proper time; further was urged the keeping of a permanent notebook in which was to be kept the previous sayings of the master, which they must learn to know themselves, so as to enrich their own speaking and writing vocabulary. Their speech, at all times, was to be closely guarded, keeping in mind that at some time they would have to answer for every word spoken. The Latin was to be used at all times, not only before the preceptor but among the boys themselves. They were forbidden to tell stories of shameful nature and above all were urged to be careful to say nothing that would cause a brother to stumble. For the sake of convenience to the reader, there is pre- sented a summary of certain rules to be followed by the boys a summary of rules each day. (1) The work of the day shall all be apportioned its alloted amount, so one may know what is to be done and when to do it ; (2) the first and last hours of the day shall be spent in reading the Holy Writ; (3) the boys shall not associate with the cooks or other servants; (4) neither at night nor in the day shall they absent themselves from the school premises; (5) cheap literature shall not be read, neither be kept in their possession ; (6) if invited to dances by people outside the school, they shall not accept; (7) he shall not be away from school over night without the permission of one of the masters ; (8) he shall send no secret messenger from the school; (9) he shall neither walk nor play except at periods when free to do so; (10) shall neither bemottle the walls nor 38 rURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY scratch the tables; (11) there shall be no playing of cards or dice; (12) without special permission they shall not borrow money, buy books or clothes; (13) they shall neither play for money nor books; (14) no strangers are to be brought to their rooms or meals without permission; (15) they shall not talk, out of school, about that which happens in school; (16) all teachers of the school shall receive due respect; (17) pupils shall carry no false keys. Duties of the The dutics of the famulus were numerous and varied, but he did not for that reason escape the minute regulations. The term famulus was applied to one who helped around the school, doing certain odds and ends that did not seem to belong to any one else. He was evident!}^ a ver}'^ common character in the schools of this type. Some of his duties were as follows: (1) he must ring the bell at stated periods as warning to rise, go to bed, and cease playing; (2) he must prepare the tables for the meals; (3) he was also subject to all other general regulations of the school ; (4) after the meal they were not all allowed to leave at once; (5) he must not bring apples, pears and nuts to the school; (6) must not bear secret letters from the school. It is also interesting to notice ■^of /amu?iL^ ^^^ graded series of punishments meted out for his offenses. For the first, his act shall be denounced and he shall be warned of future punishment; in the second place, he shall be made to eat on the earth; (third, regular food and drink shall be denied him; fourth, the rod; fifth, the Fidel; sixth, the Karzer; seventh, for the last and greatest offense he shall be discharged from the school. The importance of the position of the inspectors demands Inspectors^ that some mention of their work be made. The purpose of having inspectors, as was mentioned, was to see that all the RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 39 recommendations were carried out as desired. The inspec- tors, who were to attend to this work of supervision were to ^ ' 1 1 /• Inspectors be named by the secular authority, some being selected from °^J^ed.by the nobility and others from the learned classes. Not only authority the instruction was to be investigated, but also the economic conditions. The management of the kitchen was scrutinized as well as the dihgence with which the boys learned their lessons. It appears to have been a very thorough inspection, if the directions given may be considered a reliable guide. Especially was each boy to be examined in regard to the progress he had made and whether there was any promise for him in the future. After having completed the investigation of conditions j^^^^^^j^, in the school that he was concerned with, it was the inspec- ^pofts tor's duty to prepare a written report for the Oher-Con- sistorio. By this means the founders of the schools were kept in touch with them, and were enabled to give aid to those who needed it and showed by their standing that they were worth helping. Where certain conditions in the schools needed to be improved, the inspector made this clear in his ingp^^tor report and the correction was then made through the proper r°^ien. authorities. "^""""^ It would, indeed, be difficult to find anywhere a better spirit, as far as declarations are concerned, between the ad- ministrative and the teaching forces of an educational institu- tion. Of course, we can only judge the printed directions, but they appear remarkably well devised, both ideally and concerning practical details for that period when educational systems were in such a disorganized state. In the Ordnungen issued, many different types of schools were mentioned, and for all were given the same specific kind of directions, leaving 40 FtiRSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY no opportunity for avoiding a duty because of too general instructions. SUMMARY The conduct of pupils was regulated by means of defi- nitely prescribed rules, which left nothing to individual choice. Special lists of rules guided them at church, in their rooms, at school, and at mealtime. The duties of the famulus were Ukewise described in detail. Reverence toward God and unquestioning obedience to teachers was required. The secular authority named school inspectors who, after making thorough investigation concerning instruc- tion and the status of the school generally, were required to make a written report, with recommendations, to the Oher- Consistorio. CHAPTER V Summary: Later Development In the foregoing pages we have seen that many new types of educational institutions came into existence after the Reformation; among these were Klosterschulen, Fiirsten- schulen, Partikularschulen, and writing schools. Foremost among the factors at work which brought about this increased educational activity was the changed conception of the purpose and scope of education. The new purpose was to train leaders for the church and state, and to insure the spread of Christian knowledge by having all children taught to read. In its scope education was to reach all alike; rich and poor; noble and lowest countryman. This conception of education, making necessary the pro- vision of free education for native children, brought with it many difficulties. Chief among them was the problem of support for the new schools. As the Cathohc Church had possessed many foundations, suitable for schools, these were in many cases taken over in Protestant countries for tlie use of the newly founded schools; such was the case with many of the Kloster- and Fiirstenschulen. In 1544 the Emperor took official steps whereby he gave Protestants permission to make use of the church properties within their territory. Herein may be seen the beginning of co-operation of church and state to provide the benefits of education for all citizens. The Fiirstenschulen of Saxony^ were modelled, to a great degree, after the Klosterschulen of Wiirttemberg. The ' Among other Fiirstenschulen, which have not been mentioned, but which follow much the same outline as those treated more fully, are those at Tilsit, and Lyck in Prussia, Heilsbronn, Wiirttemberg, and others mentioned such as: Ansbach; Coburg; Stettin; Joachimstal. New con- ception of education Resultant difficulties; support; use of church properties 42 FURSTENSCHULEx\ IN GERMANY latter admitted boys to study for the ministry from twelve to fourteen years of age, preparing them for entrance to the Paedagogium; after leaving this institution they entered the University of Tubingen. Tuition was free for a few who passed certain examinations. Discipline was very strict; regulation clothing had to be worn. The function of the Landes- or Fiirstenschulen was broader than that of the Klosterschulen, being to furnish an education Function " of Fiirsien- for Capable boys whether they sought to enter the service of the church or the state. Poor boys were admitted; it was only necessary that they have superior ability. Strict dis- cipline, plain food, simple clothing, and restricted privileges characterized the life of the schools. Details of the schools' equipment, number of teachers, and number of boys to be admitted were all given careful attention in the Ordnungen. Detailed furthermore, detailed consideration was given to: the Rek- infhe'orders ^^^' ^^^ natural aptitudes, preparation, and duties as foster- issued father and teacher; the preceptors, their mastery of seK, and duty of instructing boys in the knowledge of the Holy Spirit; private pupils; choice of superior boys for the schools; expulsion of inefficient teachers; lesson periods; the exact manner of supervising work; expulsion of stupid and lazy pupils; study of the school regulations; manner of treating cases for discipline; inspection of quarters; religious instruc- tion; content of studies; special methods with beginners and those who were more advanced; organization of classes and studies to be covered in each; correction of exercises by the master ; aims of examinations and many other items of simi- lar importance. ' It is stated that the schools should definitely accomphsh these things : summary: later development 43 a. instill true faith in and knowledge of God ; b. furnish mental and moral discipline; be obtained c. and teach the boys to become learned and reasoning Bchoois men. The masters should be conspicuous for : a. great learning; 6. industrious habits and even temper; . ., Attributes c. and knowledge of the best methods of teachmg boys, of the master In addition to a rather detailed discussion of the points mentioned above, explicit regulations are given regarding: pupils' religious attitude; respect for teachers; harmonious living together; behavior during religious services; order in behavior their rooms and routine duties of the day; manners in the dining hall and in the class room. Inspection of schools was given an important place. Inspectors were chosen by the secular head and after inspec- gupgryision tion were required to submit written reports to the Oher- Consistorio. Realizing, as we do today, the great value derived through systematized supervision we are better able to evaluate the benefits arising from its early institution in the Fiirstenschulen. Later Development As previously stated, the chief purpose of this monograph is to present some of the more important features of the Fiirstenschulen at the time of their establishment, thus mak- ing clear some of the practical results of the Reformation. It will, however, be of interest to students of the history of education to note briefly the direction of their development, and also the nature of the present-day institutions whose progenitors they were. 44 FURSTENSCIIULEN IN GERMANY Originating at a time when the classical tendency was the marks beginning to assert itself, and being in such a large measure ciaasicai the result of the influence of men like Luther, Melanchthon, and Camerarius, we need not be surprised to find these institutions continuing to exert an influence in favor of classical studies. The feeling of intimate relationship be- tween this type of school and the labors of Luther, as well as the influence of classical ideals, is recognized in the following lines, taken from a toast proposed to St. Afra in 1863. St. Afra, Luthers Schelten Hat Deinen Grund gelegt, Hellas und Roma's Welten Dein stolzes Bauwerk tragt. Even until As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century the old F iirstenschulen stiW clung tenaciously to the traditional cur- riculum, a minute and formal study of the classics, laying great emphasis on the imitation of forms employed by classic authors. And in them was nurtured an antagonistic attitude towards the new humanism found in Gymnasien of the nine- teenth century. Student life in the Furstenschulen during recent years is still very similar to that at the time of their foundation, in that the minute regulations, characteristic of boarding Present stu- scliools, are everywhere in evidence. Their nearest counter- dent hfe ' "^ ... 1 (• J similar to part among English and American mstitutions mav be found the old * o o - in the Great Public Schools or the numerous private prepara- tory schools and military academies which furnish residence for their students. Especially have they developed parallel to the Enghsh Public Schools in regard to curriculum; both have adhered faithfully to the traditional classical course as the best means for fitting their charges for social usefulness. BIBLIOGRAPHY 45 BIBLIOGRAPHY Flathe, Theodor. Sanct Afra. Leipzig. 1879. Flemming, P. Geschichte von Schulpforta. Naumburg, 1900. Graves, F. P. A Student's History of Education. Macmillan, 1915. Jortin, John. The Life of Erasmus. Three volumes. London, 1808. Kirchenordnung zu Braunschweig und Liinehurg. Wolfenbiittel, 1569. Kirchenordnung zu Meckelnburg. Witteberg, 1554. Kirchenordnung zu Witteberg. Witteberg, 1559. Kirchner, C. Die Landesschide Pforta. Naumburg, 1843. Leach, A. F. English Schools at the Reformation. Constable, 1896. Mertz, G. Das Schidwesen der deutschen Reformation im 16. Jahrhun- dert. Heidelberg, 1902. Monroe, P. Textbook in the History of Education. Macmillan, 1905. Painter, I. V. N. Luther on Education. Lutheran PubUshing Society. Philadelpliia, 1889. Paulsen, F. German Education. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. Richter, A. L. Kirchenordnungen. Leipzig, 1871. Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. Longmans, 1905. Sdchsische Kirchenordnung. Leipzig, 1580. Sdchsische Kirchenordnung. Leipzig, 1568. Sehling, J. E. Die Evangelischen Kirchenordnungen. Five volumes. Leipzig, 1911. Vorbaum, R. Evangclische Kirchenordntmg. Giitersloh, 1864. 46 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY INDEX Aim of education, in Kloster- schulen, 12 f.; in Fiirstenschulen, 13 f., 24. Augustus, 17; recommendations of, 18. Camerarius, important work of, 15. Catechism, source for religious education, 24. Church property, seized by nobles, 6 f.; use of, for schools approved by Emperor, 8. Conduct, rules for, 34 ff. Count Moritz, 11, 14. Curriculum, 23 f., 27 ff. Discipline, in Klosterschulen, 12; in Fiirstenschulen, 25 f . Education, changing conception of, 2 f., 41; free for native chil- dren, 3. Examinations, uses of, 32. Famulus, duties, punishments, etc., 38. Formalism, characteristic, 24, 31. Free scholars, 12. Fiirstenschulen, in Saxony, 13; equipment, 15; function of, 42. Inspection, of rooms, 23; of schools, 39 f . Inspectors, duties of, 38 f . Klosterschulen, in Wurttemberg, 11; regulations in the, 12. Latin, to be used always, 23. Luther, on education, 4f.; urges use of church property for schools, 6. Masters, paid by civil authority, 3. Melanchthon, 4 f . Method, 18, 27 f., 31. Organization, of classes, 28 ff. Preceptors, duties, characteris- tics, etc., 18, 22, 26, 31; in- efficient to be removed, 20. Prima, resume of, 29. Private pupils, not allowed, 19. Pupils, careful selection of, 20 f . ; some asked to leave, 21. Rektor, duties, qualifications of, 19 ff. Religious education, 24. Schools, new types established, 1; origin of, 1 f.; union of church and state in affairs of, 9. School day, length of, 21. Sekunda, resume of, 29. Statuta, 21 f. Supervision of schools, by Catho- lic Church, 8f.; new super- vision, 9, 21. Suppo ^ of schools, 1 f., 41; source of in Catholic Church, 4; sources of in EvangeUcal churches, 5 f . Tertia, resume of, 30. Visitatores, duties of, 22. ii.