SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD A book for school executives and teachers, being an exposition of plans that have been evolved to adapt school organization to the needs of individual children, nor- mal, supernormal and subnormal. By WILLIAM H. HOLMES, Ph. D. Superintendent of Schools, Westerly, Rhode Island THE DAVIS PRESS WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS 1912 "3 ,\ Copyright, 1912 By William H. Holmes £d.A327l89 To Louise Macdonald Holmes and to those teachers, a small but growing company, who have experienced the joy of teaching boys and girls as individuals, this book is dedicated with the hope that it may be a means of helping to inspire other teachers to know and follow the new and better way of individualized education. Part One NORMAL CHILDREN FOREWORD Within the past few years we have been coming to meas- ure education by a new standard, the standard of individual achievement. This means that we have begun to differentiate the abilities of children, and to estimate the success of school work, not in terms of a general standard, but in terms of what each individual is able to do within the range of his own ability. This new standard has made necessary a modi- fication of school organization, and there now appear schools for gifted children, for ordinary children, for slow and back- ward children, and for mentally defective children, and with- in these groups there are various forms of procedure for meeting more efficiently the needs of the members of each group. The present volume undertakes the task of presenting in a somewhat detailed manner the various plans that have been evolved to make school organization fit the needs of the boys and girls both normal and abnormal that are enrolled as pupils in the public schools. The part of the book dealing with plans of classification and adaptation brings together information from many different sources, information that every school executive must have to make his work intelligently efficient. In interpreting such a large mass of material, doubtless, mistakes have been made; the writer hopes that they are not such as to interfere with the general usefulness of the book. The second part of the book, dealing with the treatment of abnormal children in the public schools, represents the first attempt to bring together information that the general school executive and special class teachers need in order to organize and carry on the work of so-called auxiliary classes 10 FOREWORD or schools for mentally defective children. The aim has been to make the presentation plain and clear, rather than learned and technical, to the end that school men and women may be able to know the needs of these unfortunate members of the community. It has furthermore been the hope of the writer to bring home to the general reader some under- standing of the great problem of the mentally unfit, some two hundred thousand of whom are members of our popula- tion, while only a few thousands, some fifteen thousand per- haps, have the custodial care that all should have if the great- est cause of crime, vice, poverty and degradation is to be made inoperative. The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to many superintendents, normal school principals and special teachers who have kindly furnished much special informa- tion. He is also under deep obligation for encouragement and aid to Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Dr. W. H. Burnham and Dr. Theodate L. Smith of Clark University, whose combined work in the interest of the better education of children deserves the gratitude of the whole world. Chapter One GRADING, CLASSIFICATION, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS Introduction The aim of this study is to present the fundamental principles of the various plans of grading, classification and instruction that have been worked out in the United States and some of the European countries for the purpose of better adjusting the organization of the schools to the needs of the individual children. Such a comparative study has never been made, and much valuable material on this vitally important topic of school administration is wholly unknown to many school officials and teachers and quite beyond the reach of many others. While the study will give due emphasis to the organization of special, or auxiliary schools and classes, it will place even greater stress on adequate provision for meeting the needs of the vastly greater number of normal boys and girls. There seems to be a rather gen- eral agreement that the number of really defective children (not counting imbeciles and idiots) is not less than one per cent, of the total school population. For such children special instruction in separate schools under specially trained teachers is an absolute neces- sity. It has been further estimated that an additional seven per cent. (Goddard says fifteen per cent.) of school children are so backward as to require somewhat different instruction from that given the abler children. This latter estimate is, of course, rather arbitrary. It 12 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD is, however, past dispute that there are many children who while they are not really defective yet lack the ability to make normal progress under the ordinary mass methods of instruction. For such children the ungraded class or supplementary individual instruction is a requisite to school progress. A full treatment of the organization and equip- ment of special and ungraded schools and classes as developed both in this and foreign countries will be given in the second part of this study. Turning now to the elementary or people's schools, we find that the idea that every human being should be educated simply because he is a human being, was first vitalized in the brain of Comenius. Luther and his followers advocated the education of man because of his immortal soul, and education was the spiritual- izing process by which this soul was to be saved, but Comenius looked upon education as the process by which all mankind should be humanized. "To Comenius," as Laurie states, "we owe the modern graded school, for his plan of gradation was so well devised that with slight modifications it is now the state system of Germany. " The system of class or simultaneous instruction is probably due to Canon LaSalle who in 1680 founded the society of Christian Brothers and imparted to them this method of teaching. The simultaneous or class method of instruction was, however, adopted very slowly, and Landon tells us the individual method by which the master called the pupils to his desk one by one to recite their lessons and receive explanations lingered late "even in the heart of Prussia and was in vogue in 5844 primary schools of France as late as 1843." It held sway in some of the leading schools of Scotland until well into the last quarter of the nineteenth century. GRADING, CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS 13 In our own country, Dr. Grimshaw writing in Barnard's Journal in 1855 deprecates "the time wasted by the old fashioned and false method of teaching in- dividuals instead of classes." "I notice," he con- tinues, "in my visits to the schools many pupils sitting idle; sometimes part of the school is asleep or what is worse, engaged in making a noise and disturbing the remainder who may desire to be industrious." The individual method was driven out of England by the monitorial systems of Bell and Lancaster; while, doubtless, the classroom system of the larger cities of the United States was imported from Germany. Pestalozzi himself tells us he was driven by necessity to class instruction. "Being obliged to instruct the children myself, without any assistance, I learnt the art of teaching a great number together; and as I had no other means of bringing the instruction before them than that of pronouncing everything to them loudly and distinctly, I was naturally led to the idea of making them draw, write, and work all at the same time." We see then that for centuries individual instruc- tion was the chief instrument of learning and that class, or mass, instruction is a rather modern invention. It is evident that so long as individual teaching prevailed the evils attendant upon the rigid classification of the modern school could not occur. Every pupil was a law unto himself, and the spur that comes from mental contact was scarcely known. During the middle part of the last century indi- vidual teaching fell into disgrace and with the rise of the factory city and the graded school the emphasis was placed on class teaching and class organization. Indeed, a careful perusal of the volumes of Barnard's Journal and of the early volumes of the proceedings of the American Institute of Instruction would almost lead one to believe that individual children scarcely 14 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD existed in the schools of those days, so little is said of their needs. Matters in America, however, began to change for the better in the seventies along with the intro- duction of the kindergarten idea and with Dr. William T. Harris's discussion of the principles of classification and grading in his reports as superintendent of the St. Louis schools. The importance of the individual child has since then been brought to the front slowly but surely, until now the principle is rather firmly established that the school should be organized to meet the varying needs of the individuals who comprise it. Under the plan of organization now general throughout this country the elementary school course of study is divided into eight yearly units of work called grades. By following such a course a normal child entering school at the age of six and making normal progress is able to complete the elementary school at the age of fourteen years. It is, however, a fact well known and one that has recently been brought home to school administrators by several investigations, notably those of Ayers, Cornman, Bryan and Thorndike, that a large number of pupils do not proceed normally through the grades. Many of the pupils in some of the very best of our city school systems, are one, two, three, and even four years behind what is called the normal age of their grades. Ayers' recent book, "Laggards in Our Schools," has, doubtless, done much to call attention to the vast amount of retardation and elimination of pupils in the public schools. Such a study, however, is only a beginning and, if really valuable results are to be ob- tained, more intensive studies of different cities must be made. Conditions in different cities are so various that one is led to doubt the value of inferences drawn GRADING, CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS 15 from the comparison of amounts of school retardation in two cities so different in their social and industrial make-up as Medford, Massachusetts, and Camden, New Jersey. These two cities stand respectively at the head and the foot of the list of cities which Ayers has chosen for his study of school retardation. Medford is largely a suburban, residential city with a relatively small foreign population, comprising people such as would naturally appreciate the opportunities afforded their children by the public schools and would co- operate in bringing about their regular attendance. Camden, on the other hand, has a relatively large foreign population, a condition affecting school retarda- tion in a marked degree. The lower grades in such a city are often filled with over-age pupils who have recently come from countries where they have had no educational advantages. Furthermore, the attendance of pupils from the class of homes we should naturally expect to find in Camden is often irregular, thus caus- ing the pupils to fall behind their classes, resulting finally in demotion and retardation. Again, the struggle for existence among families of this class is so severe that it is the tendency of the children to leave school at the earliest possible moment to help increase the family income. Elimination from the upper grades naturally results. Furthermore, the matter of child labor laws, school attendance laws, and provisions for their enforcement must be taken into account in any really scientific study. The normal age limit for the different grades chosen by Ayers seems open to question. By his standards all children who are eight or more years old at the end of the first school year are counted as retarded. By such a standard many of the children in Kansas City, Missouri, for example, would be counted retarded. Under the school laws of Missouri no city can expend 16 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD public money for the education of children under six years of age. Because of this law a great majority of the six year old children who take advantage of kindergarten instruction would enter the first grades some months after their seventh birthday and would inevitably be counted at the end of the year as retarded or over-age children. Ayers' contention would prob- ably be that the general tendency in most sections of the country is for children to enter school at five or six years of age ; still, if there is anything of value in the theory of physiological age and psychological age as distinguished from chronological age, as manifested in different children of the same racial stock and in the children of different racial stocks, it would seem that it might be pedagogically correct to find children with a difference of two or even three years in age engaged upon the same grade of work. Ayers' study loses much of its significance for a great many cities and towns if his normal age limit is raised one year for each grade, thus making it eight years for the first grade and fifteen years for the eighth grade. In view of the fact that the best teachings of physiological science would support the practice of not sending the child to school before the age of seven or eight years, it would seem that the age limits chosen by Ayers might be open to question. The greatest value of his study lies in the fact that it shows the vital need of more intensive studies in single communities or groups of communities presenting similar social and economic conditions. Let us look now a little more specifically at the inner workings of the school. While a detailed dis- cussion of the course of study would be out of place in the present exposition, still it may be remarked that the degree of difficulty in the course of study at various stages of the child's advancement is intimately con- nected with his progress and retention in the school. GRADING, CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS 17 It would probably not be far from right to argue that the large amount of retardation in the lower and middle grades of the schools of Kansas City, Missouri, is closely correlated with the difficulty of the course in arithmetic. An examination of this course reveals difficulties al- together beyond the powers of many normal children in these grades. The children of the first grades are required to add and subtract and even to multiply and divide fractions. There are, of course, many children who can learn to do this even at the age of six or seven, yet a great number find it beyond their powers and must inevitably fall behind. That arithmetic is the stumbling block of many children all along the line is well known. In Providence, Rhode Island, number work is not studied except in an incidental way until the third grade, and yet even here, according to the statement of the late Superintendent W. H. Small, it is the cause of many failures. This leads one to ques- tion the wisdom of postponing all work in arithmetic until the third year of school life, lest the added amount of pressure necessary to learn the fundamental proces- ses in the third and fourth years should cause many pupils to fail who might have gradually mastered many of the simpler number ideas in the first two school years. Smith has well said that it is a mistake to exclude rational work in number from the first school years unless it is certain that there is something better for the child to do. It is probable then that work in arithmetic made too difficult at first or postponed too long, may in either case result in the retardation of pupils. Superintend- ent Ella Flagg Young points out that the desire of many first grade teachers to show wonderful results by having their pupils all read in second readers, may result in the neglect of pupils who might well do the normal work of the first grade. There can be no doubt 18 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD that the bright pupil fetish has held sway in many of our schools to the disadvantage, as some think, of these superficially quick pupils and to the much greater disadvantage of the slower pupils, who in the B, C and D divisions have been neglected and allowed to come on as best they might. The former superintendent of public schools of Medford, Massachusetts, Mr. C. H. Morss, when asked the reasons why Medford made the best showing in Ayers' list of cities having different amounts of retardation in the schools, made the state- ment that one of the reasons was that no test in arith- metic was required during the first three years of school life. Even a glance at the courses of study of many cities will reveal the fact that both in reading and arithmetic in the lower grades and in nearly all the studies of the upper grades too much is being demanded of children in the way of knowledge acquirements. Coupled with this is the fact that in many places children are held back in the upper grades for failures in such studies as oral reading and geography. The writer has in mind a rather able girl who was compelled to repeat a year's work in an eighth grade because of failure in these two subjects, although she had done passing work in all the other subjects of the grade. It was later discovered that the girl's difficulty in reading was due to eye defect and that her apparent listlessness in the geography work was due to defect in hearing. The absurdity of such a demotion is evident when we consider that in the upper grades neither reading nor geography is a sequential subject, that is a study like arithmetic in which certain principles mastered at one stage are necessary to progress in the next. The chances are that the girl in question would have done much better work in these two subjects and in all others under a new teacher and with work on new material. Such GRADING, CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS 19 failures are not rare in school systems where progress is rated by certain arbitrary standards. That school officials who stand for such conditions lack pedagogcial insight goes without saying. The fixed promotional examination set often by persons not in touch with the schools although it has long since been tabooed in school systems guided by common sense and intelligence, is still in force in a large number of cities and towns. Camden, New Jersey, which makes the worst showing in the matter of retar- dation in Ayers' list of cities has such examinations. This chance method of promoting children is bound to leave many worthy children branded with the mark of failure. There is little doubt in the minds of those who know the system of Regents' examinations of New York State, that these examinations are responsible for much of the retardation and elimination which Commissioner Draper has shown exists in the schools throughout that state. Mr. C. B. Gilbert when in charge of the schools of Rochester, New York, pointed out the evils of this system in a clear way, and Rochester was led to abolish the examinations in the elementary schools to the immense advantage of both pupils and teachers. A rational course of study adapted to the real ability of the normal pupils in the different grades is one of the prerequisites to any plan of grading and classi- fication or instruction that is to meet the needs of the individual pupils. The attempt to work out such a course was made in Chelsea, Massachusetts, under the late Superintendent B. C. Gregory. In that city the core of the course of study in all subjects consists of such principles and information as all normal pupils will be able to succeed in mastering. Facts and prin- ciples of value within the range of the normal pupil's comprehension are made fundamental in the course 20 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD of study. The course is based on the theory that power gained through success in doing many less difficult but essential things is as valuable as the same power gained through failure to do difficult things. There is a truth of great educational value here that needs to be carefully worked out. The courses of study in our high and elementary schools, following the lead set by higher institutions, are based on the philosophy of failure. The spectre of failure looms up at every stage of the course, and a great many pupils soon realize that failure for them is inevitable. Such a philosophy may be and probably is the right one upon which to base the work of fairly mature students who are pursuing studies that are beyond those required for the common business of life. It is extremely doubtful if such a philosophy should form the basis of the work of children in the elementary schools. The great success in the ungraded rooms and in the special schools for backward children has been due to founding the work of such schools on the philosophy of success. In such schools each child is bound to succeed up to the full measure of his ability, and it is to this fact more than to any other that the remarkable progress of some of the pupils in these schools is due. There is no doubt that working on the same principle much can be done to arrange the course in the regular schools so that the attainment of success will be possible without constantly keeping in sight the black flag of failure. A rational course of study, the subjects of which are so selected and so co-ordinated that every normal child is fairly sure of passing through the eight elemen- tary grades without failing, is one of the prerequisites to the realization of school success among elementary school pupils. PROMOTION INTERVALS 21 Chapter Two PROMOTION INTERVALS The frequency of regular promotions of pupils from class to class has been a topic of earnest discussion among school men in the United States during the past thirty or thirty-five years. The war has been against the yearly promotion interval which prevailed everywhere in this country before 1870 and which prevails to-day in a large number of cities and towns in the different states. The yearly interval prevails also in England and in Germany. It has, however, caused little dis- cussion in those countries. We shall discuss briefly the advantages and dis- advantages of the yearly interval and then follow with a discussion of the half-yearly intervals and also of the still shorter intervals of promotion. Yearly Promotions — Advantages 1. The chief advantage of the yearly interval comes from the ease with which it fits the school organ- ization. The course of study is graded by years and it is natural that the pupils should begin the work of a grade in September and complete it the following June. The practice is probably inherited from the colleges which have always followed the yearly interval of classification. 2. The yearly interval allows the pupils to remain with the same teacher a full year, thus enabling the teacher to become acquainted with the pupils and to adjust the work to their individual needs. 22 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 3. It enables the teacher in the higher grades to have one class in the room instead of the two or more which are necessary under the half-yearly or shorter interval, thus allowing for quiet study periods, during which time the teacher may work with individual pupils. Yearly Plan — Disadvantages The chief disadvantage connected with the yearly interval is its lack of flexibility. Under it, as ordinarily administered, no provision is made for the superior pupil to progress rapidly without skipping a whole year of work, a leap too great for any except the very few ; nor is any provision made for the slow or retarded pupil, who, if he fails, must lose a whole year, repeating a considerable amount of work that he has already done. These objections are valid so long as the yearly plan of promotions is unmodified and unsupplemented. It may be well to state here that many who hold to the yearly interval believe, and with some justification, that there is something more to the educative process than hurrying rapidly through a course of study. They hold that the rapid transit plans of grading tend in the main to superficial work and that the course of study should be both broad and deep as well as long. In this stand they are supported by the great majority of school men in England and in Germany. It is a fact of some significance that the three cities which show the least amount of retardation and elimination in Ayers' study have yearly promotions, while Camden has half-yearly promotions and stands at the foot of the list. Furthermore the six cities which Ayers regards as the most efficient in the matter of retaining their pupils through the elementary school course all have the yearly interval. PROMOTION INTERVALS 23 It would hardly seem safe to infer as does Ayers that "the first step toward mitigating the bad effects of failure in the schools is the system of half-yearly promotion. " The Half Year Interval In 1891, at the request of the United States Com- missioner of Education, Dr. E. E. White made an elab- orate study of promotions and examinations in graded schools. Considerable space is devoted in this study to a comparison of the different class intervals. The conclusion is that the half year interval seems to pos- sess the most advantages and the fewest disadvantages, especially for the elementary grades, with the exception of, perhaps, the first and second grades in which a shorter interval may be desirable. The half year interval is sufficiently short to facil- itate the promotion of individuals and sufficiently long to prevent a "too frequent readjustment of class work. " It also presents the most favorable times for transfers and reclassification of pupils; the beginning and the middle of the school year. As early as the middle of the year the upper classes of the elementary schools begin to be thinned out by the withdrawal of pupils for various reasons. The mid- year promotions help to keep the proper quota of pupils in these upper grades. It also makes room in the first primary grades for the entrance of beginners at the mid-year. It facilitates also the promotion of many pupils who although able to skip a half year of work would not be able to skip that of a whole year. Again it obliges pupils who have been demoted to repeat only a half year of work. The strongest objection to the half year interval is, according to Dr. White, the fact that it is not feasible 24 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD in the high schools of small cities and towns where the number of pupils in the different years is not large enough to make division of classes economical. Another strong objection to the half-year plan is the fact that it makes necessary two divisions in nearly all school classes. There is recitation by one division and study by the other throughout the day. Again and again in his different addresses Dr. Harris insists that this plan cultivates in the child the power of sustained attention. The pupil learns to study under distracting conditions. This idea is strongly affirmed in a recent study of half-yearly promotion made by Mr. W. W. Chalmers which appears in the school report of Toledo, Ohio, for 1903. In the same report, however, he quotes a prominent school official's opinion to the effect that under the half-year plan the pupils of the division not reciting learn a great deal from listening to the recitation of the pupils in the other division. This latter opinion would seem to be supported by the tradition that in the dis- trict school the younger pupils learned much from hearing the older pupils recite. Recent studies in Germany bear out the assertion that the best thought work is not done under the dis- tracting conditions of the classroom. Quiet study, a thing almost unknown under the two division plan, would seem so far as human experience goes to be a desirable thing to be cultivated in the schools. Concerning the half-year interval Dexter makes the following statement: "Some schools, though altogether too few, are already trying the plan of semi- annual promotions with the greatest success, except for its strain upon the administrative machinery." Such a statement concerning the success of the half-year plan it is impossible to verify. PROMOTION INTERVALS 25 The Term Interval The term interval by which pupils are reclassified every third of a year or oftener, makes closer grading possible than either the year or half-year interval. It is claimed that it almost entirely removes dis- couragement from pupils who fail, since they have only to repeat the work of a third of a year. It furnishes the most natural division of pupils into bright, mediocre, and dull. In the matter of defects it calls for more school machinery in the way of program-making and of keep- ing pupils who are at their seats profitably employed. It tends to bring together an accumulation of dull pupils in the lowest third of the class where they are likely to stay, since the teacher is chiefly concerned with pupils who can move forward. Usually it necessitates frequent changes of teachers ; and finally, it makes promotion, rather than honest, thorough work, the aim of the school. In concluding this brief discussion of promotion intervals it may be said that we have as yet in educa- tion very little, if any, evidence to show the real value of the short promotion intervals. Scientific studies are much needed here. Mere opinion has prevailed too long. 26 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Three PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION Several of the most important plans of grading and promotion in the United States are here presented. Since the short interval, or St. Louis plan, is really the parent of all plans of grading in this country it will be first considered. It will be followed by the Shearer, or Elizabeth plan, which is only a modification of the St. Louis plan. The concentric plan, the North Den- ver plan, and the group system will then be described, followed by the well-known Cambridge double-track plan and its modifications, the Odebolt and Le Mars, Iowa, plans. The Portland, Oregon, plan is briefly treated. Two German plans will then be explained: those of Charlottenburg and of Mannheim, the latter plan having been widely adopted in Germany. After a brief introduction, presenting the views of superintendents and normal school principals as to whether the all-class method of instruction is satis- factory as a means of reaching the individual pupils, an exposition is given of the three best known plans of individual instruction, the Pueblo, Batavia, and Newton plans, the section closing with a suggestive plan combining the good points of several that have been presented. It may be added that there are other plans of grading and of instruction that have attained consider- able prominence, but they are so similar in their main features to the plans here presented that it has not been deemed worth while to present them. PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 27 The St. Louis Plan The first comprehensive discussion of the subject of a plan to introduce flexibility into the classification of the graded school system was made by the late Dr. William T. Harris in his reports as superintendent of the St. Louis public schools, during 1868-69 and 1871- 72-73. In these discussions he explained the short interval system of promotion as carried out in St. Louis, by which plan pupils, in the lowest grades at least, were to be promoted every five or six weeks during the school year. These three reports aroused widespread discussion among school superintendents throughout the country, some opposing, some support- ing. In the report for 1873-74, Dr. Harris entered into a still more detailed discussion of his plan, quoting at length the opinions of several prominent school officials who favored the plan, and also of those who were opposed to the short interval system. As all the short interval plans are in a way modi- fications and adaptations of the St. Louis plan it will be well to discuss its chief features at some length. 1. Pupils differ greatly in their ability to do the work of the grades. A pupil entering the first grade at eight years of age can make nearly double the prog- ress that can be made by a pupil of five years of age. The bright, nervous child will be able to advance more rapidly than the one who is dull and stolid. 2. Unless the school provides for these different rates of progress by frequent reclassification, the bright pupils not being held up to work of which they are capable will acquire habits of carelessness and list- lessness, while the dull pupils being compelled to move forward at a too rapid pace, will become demoralized and disheartened. 3. Furthermore, the attendance of some pupils is far more regular than that of others, absence being 28 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 3 Q£ O u. O < LU >* H 3 o3 3 -o a o Si cc t/3 3 GP o CD ■ B o 3 03 V m q -3 o 3 +-> Tl 1-5 o a s 1 O 09 o 3 Tl o O O J-i U o £ .2 «« a5 « ° 2 S'S s OS £ 2 * ,3 -3 • "2 o 3 HS 6>0 cr ° _ .a a-g t; 3 73 ° 03 o | i ~ (-i rs 3 as > o g ''•■-3 c*. — -*> o >> 93 -3 3 . o3 * "o 0J S *§ '» 03 c3 3 73 O > 3 rj a> •a& 3 £ *Q -3 2 - 3 *3 o 03 & nssa 03 o3 ■3 W PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 29 due to sickness, necessity of working for a living, and other causes. 4. Because certain pupils are able to move for- ward over the course of study at a more rapid rate than their mates and because large numbers of pupils in the upper grades are constantly leaving, some pro- vision must be made to restore the proper quota of pupils to the teachers of the upper grades. This can be done, according to Dr. Harris's plan, by a reclassi- fication and promotion of pupils in the different grades every ten weeks "or once in a quarter or term." 5. Frequent promotion is not to be made by classes, the few best ones in each section or class are to be united with the class or section above. Such a promotion through the different grades will result in bringing together in each section or class pupils of fair, average, and poor ability, together with a few of supe- rior ability who at the time of promotion will stand at the foot of the class. "For a while, " writes Dr. Harris, "the average and fair scholars in the class will have the stimulus of being the best in the class. The poor ones will rank as 'middling' and the new pupils will begin as the poorest and slowly work up toward the top of the class. The advantage to the self-respect of the slower pupils which comes from standing in relation to their classmates as abler and better informed is not to be lost sight of." 6. Under this plan, where in a large building there are several large sections of the first or second grade, the bright pupils would change teachers several times in one year, but in the upper grades with their small enrollment, the bright pupils would be advanced from division to division, according to Dr. Harris, and still remain one year or more under each teacher. 7. By this plan of promoting the few best, rather than of demoting the few poorest, it is claimed that the 30 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD maximum of encouragement is attained since those remaining in the section after each special promotion do not feel that they have been "left back." 8. If promotions to the high school are made only once a year, the graded schools will be obliged to so arrange their upper classes as to conform to this order of things and the other grades from the first on must follow the same plan. A class finishing the work of one grade before the end of the year would not be able to begin the work of the next grade until the beginning of the new school year. "The utter want of elasticity in the classifica- tion of the upper grades of the district schools," to quote Dr. Harris, "arising from the lack of frequent promotions to the high school, works violence contin- ually to the interests of one-third of the pupils. All those delayed through sickness, the necessities of poverty, or inactive temperaments, either fall back a whole year, or else in a vain endeavor to make up their deficiency overwork themselves or get discouraged." In considering this plan one must bear in mind that it was devised by Dr. Harris as a means of filling up the upper grades of the St. Louis schools which were con- stantly being depleted by the withdrawal of pupils. It was primarily a plan for hurrying along the bright pupils. "The slow pupils," to use Dr. Harris' own words, "advance only when ready." It is easy to see that under such a plan the bright pupils would be the objective point of the teacher's exertions and the slow pupils would be allowed to drift along. There is reason to believe that even a slow pupil after being passed again and again by his more rapid-minded mates would at last wake up to the fact that he was "stranded" in the stream of progress. It is maintained that the only disadvantages incident to the plan are connected with the frequent PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 31 changing of teachers. This objection is dismissed by- asking the question if it is desirable to keep a pupil back in his studies in order that he may recite for a long time with one teacher. This answer is hardly- fair since there are ways of keeping pupils with a teacher, for a year at least, while still allowing them to make rapid progress. Yearly promotions to the high school are said to be detrimental to the interests of at least one-third. Yet there are school systems that have yearly promo- tions and that make little of " sectioning" the lower grades, where for five years the percentage of pupils failing to earn promotion from grade to grade in the elementary schools, has averaged each year less than seven. The best evidence of the efficiency of the plan would be from the records of the public schools of St. Louis. It is, however, a significant fact that after all these years with the short interval of grading, both in St. Louis and Kansas City, there exists a large amount of retardation in their schools. The Elizabeth Plan The Shearer, or Elizabeth plan, of grading was developed and perhaps best carried out during Mr. Shearer's superintendency at New Castle, Pennsyl- vania. The name, Elizabeth plan, came about from the fact that after Mr. Shearer left New Castle to assume the superintendency of the schools of Elizabeth, New Jersey, he put the plan into operation in the schools of the latter city, but the plan was never carried out in the latter place in any thorough-going manner and is not in use there at the present time. Under the plan each of the eight grades is divided into three or four sections according to the abilities of the pupils. Each of these sections is allowed to do just as much work and go forward just as fast as it is able. There are no 32 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD promotional examinations and as soon as a pupil shows ability to do the work of a higher section he is advanced to that section. Progress is gauged by the work in the sequential studies, reading and number in the lower grade, language and arithmetic in the higher grades. The advantages of the plan are stated in Super- intendent Shearer's own words. 1 "1. It makes possible a frequent reclassification which is the only means of preventing the sacrifice of the pupils of the graded school. When a pupil gets ahead or behind his own class, he is at once moved a short distance forward or back, where he can work to advantage. "2. An accurate grading of pupils, according to ability, into classes of from ten to fifteen, instead of herding them in classes of fifty, fur- nishes a practicable means of reaching each individual. "3. Every pupil is touched with hope and with enthusiasm; for the progress of each one depends entirely on ability and application. "4. Forty-two per cent, of the pupils in the highest grammar grade, having finished the work of that grade by January, at once started upon the work of the high school, and will be able to graduate in three years instead of four years. "5. By the end of the first year's trial of the plan, forty-five per cent, of the pupils below the high school had gained from one-fourth to two-thirds of a year's work, without any urging on the part of the teachers." The writer, after an experience of several years in schools graded under the plan, would make the follow- ing criticism of it: 1. It is not essentially different from the plan advocated and carried out by Dr. William T. Harris in the St. Louis schools from 1871 to 1873. 2. It is essentially a plan for enabling bright and often superficial pupils to move rapidly through the grades. 3. Because of this aim, the teacher puts her energies on the best pupils. The slow and dull pupils do not receive the attention that they need. 4. The number of divisions dissipate the energies of the teacher and poorer work is the result. 1 Discussion N. E. A. Proceedings, 1895, pp. 408-9. PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 33 5. Since there are so many divisions a large number of pupils are engaged for long periods in seat work, or "busy work," which is often rendered worse than valueless because the teacher has no time to supervise it properly. Two sections are all that any teacher should be obliged to look after. This plan has been widely advertised as the result of an article, "The Lock-Step of the Public Schools," 2 written by Mr. Shearer in 1897 for the Atlantic Month- ly and widely commented on by the press of the coun- try. It is also fully explained in a book, "The Grading of Schools," written by Mr. Shearer. The above- mentioned article and Mr. Shearer's book, together with many newspaper articles and addresses by him, have done a great amount of good in calling attention to the need of a better organization of the graded schools in order to adjust them to the needs of the individual child. The Santa Barbara Concentric Plan According to this plan children in each grade are divided into three groups so that each grade has A, B and C sections. "The sections do the work of the grade concentrically." The extent of the work so far as the fundamental principles are concerned is the same for each of the sections, but the B pupils do more extensive work than the C pupils and the A more than the B pupils. In arithmetic, for example, the C pupils would take only such work under a certain topic as would enable them to advance to a consider- ation of the succeeding topic; the B pupils would do more difficult work while the A pupils would approach the subject in a more thorough manner, learning, per- haps, short processes and methods of proof, things beyond the powers of a great many pupils. 2 Atlantic Monthly, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 749-757. 34 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 35 When the A pupils of any grade are ready for the work of the next grade they are transferred to the C section of that grade, while there may be constant transfer from section to section within the grade. This plan was carried out in the schools of Santa Barbara, California. Mrs. Burk 3 has made a very interesting study of the results of the plan, showing the number of sections covered by 835 children during a school year. No. of Sections... 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 No. of Children... 28 58 195 369 74 75 30 1 5 From this record it can be seen that if we adopt three sections of work a year as the normal, that 34% of the children made slow progress, 44% normal progress, while 22% made rapid progress. In this study it is shown that 35% of the slow children were absent over 20 days as compared with 33% of the normal and 23% of the fast children. It is also shown that in the first three grades 47% of the children were slow, 36% normal, and 17% fast. In the fourth and fifth grades 16% were slow, 53% normal, and 31% fast, while in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades 30% were slow, 50% normal, and 20% fast. This study would seem to indicate the truth of what a great many school men believe, that the course of study for the first two or three grades and that of the higher grades is too difficult for a large number of children. The study also takes the scientific point of view, empha- sizing the fact that "the normal child of one year is not the normal child of another year. " Other studies along the same line would do much to counteract the evil which many studies in school retardation are now doing by over-emphasizing the over-age problem of 'Educational Review, Vol. 19, p. 299. 36 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD the schools. The over-age problem in the school is not to be solved by lowering the compulsory attend- ance age from seven to six as Superintendent Maxwell of New York City seems to think. School attendance in the German cities where the compulsory age is six makes this evident. The problem of retardation and elimination is as great a problem with them as with us. The studies in retardation have doubtless done much to direct attention in the right way but they are lame and halt in many respects. They fail to take account of local conditions in their comparative estimates, judging by the same standard the city in which the children enter school at five years and another city in which the larger part of the children do not enter school until after they have reached the age of six. Cambridge Plan The plan of grading that has been most often described in books on school administration is the so- called Cambridge double-track plan. This plan was evolved and was in use in the schools of Cambridge, Massachusetts, for many years. It has now been replaced by a somewhat different plan. 4 It was applied only to the last six years of a nine-year course of study. Under this plan, running parallel with the regular six-year course, was a shorter course by which abler pupils might accomplish the regular work in four years. These four sections of the work were called the A, B, C, and D grades. A pupil entering and completing this course, saved two years in the nine-year course. There were, as can be readily seen from the accompany- ing diagram, two other ways of completing the course with a saving of one year in each case. A pupil could ♦ See Journal of Education, April 4, 1912, for description of new Cambridge Plan and also of the Maiden, Massachusetts, Plan. PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 37 a a 5 DQ < E E- i =5 ii A z <5 <0 I 1 «0 <© Ji i< I Mftfcf/ejcCourse. If II £1 <4£ £-&* *" $ I £° .3 flT en o a> Q & * 2 ~ m Oi «!"! S .2 CO s » ^ S o « o <4 53 u "oa £ M a © •- Jj Si » •S« « t> - °^ 12 < ^ (DO '-i ~& "£ S.I EC'S ... a 6 o _ H 3 O ■ I 3 H 3 O 38 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD complete the A and B grades in two years and then at the close of the year be promoted to the regular seventh grade, thus completing the course in eight years; or he might save a year by progressing regularly through the fourth, fifth and sixth grades and then, by being transferred to C grade, complete the work in the two succeeding years. The plan was carried out in this way. All the pupils began the fourth grade on, as it were, the same line of attainment. As soon as possible the pupils were separated into a slow and fast division, the slow division constituting the regular fourth grade and the fast division the A grade. The pupils of the A grade did the work of the fourth grade and about one-half the work of the fifth grade. The next year the slower pupils constituted the regular fifth grade while the faster pupils were promoted to the lower division of the sixth grade and during the year accom- plished the remaining half of the fifth grade work and also the work of the sixth grade, so that at the end of the year they were abreast of the regular sixth-grade pupils. In a similar manner the brighter pupils of grade six were promoted to grade C, and by doing a half-year of extra work each of the two succeeding years, finished the course in grade nine with the pupils who began the sixth grade three years previous. Under the plan there must be two divisions or classes for at least the major part of the time in the fourth, sixth, seventh and ninth grades. The regular fifth and eighth grades will be composed of the slower pupils and will work as one class. Objections to Cambridge Plan The following objections to the plan are presented by a Cambridge teacher: 1. "In order to make fast or skipping classes large enough to make them worth while, it is necessary PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 39 to place in them children who cannot do the work as it should be done. 2. "The children in these skipping classes go over the work so rapidly that they do not get the thorough, systematic drill that they need. 3. "The selection of the best pupils from the regular classes leaves an accumulation of slowness and the teachers complain of the dullness of their classes. 4. "It allows for promotion only once a year." There seems, however, to be no good reason why in buildings employing sixteen or more teachers this plan could not be fitted to the half-year interval plan of promotions. This could be done by dividing the course of study into two parallel courses: a longer one of 18 sections and a shorter one of 12 sections. The transfer point would occur just twice as often as under the yearly plan. Le Mars, Iowa, Plan The Le Mars plan is the Cambridge plan applied to the nine grades instead of only the last six grades. The courses of study are made out covering the same amount of ground but differing in the time re- quired to do the work; one requiring six years, the other nine years. These courses run parallel with each other and are so arranged that they articulate with each other at different points along the line. Classes are so graded that they come together at different points, thus allowing for a transfer of pupils in either direction without a loss of any portion of the course of study. The short course of six years is divided into three two- year cycles and the long course of nine years into three three-year cycles. The end of each cycle is a transfer point. The grades of the short course are designated by the letters A to F; those of the long course, by the figures one to nine. The plan is worked out in this 40 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 'JO < • s s £3 » & a • . a> V © o V © 3 to © X >* * >4 ►« >4 © X ** c ♦» c 4* fl £ g o © c ■s V 3 V ■s © o X o § 1 S3 i V CO f w 1 « 03 1 t 1 «4 CO OS, >4 W © t> o V © © © K a 01 M CD n M en in >4 B 3 (4 3 t-. 3 3 U 3 3 3 3* M M o o O O O o o o w w cj u O W O u o o 01 / Oi / 2 © 1 1 (4 f« o < O 3 •s u u « o 1 14 S t> w h 3 o V 1 CQ £> ^ ■ 9) M o k 1 o k %0 c w as -/ « £-1 y A « 1 (4 © •s ca N o N " "8 < N ca < © «-< © 1 It O O * H W W O o PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 41 way: Grades 1 and A begin work together, but soon after beginning the work of the year the two grades or divisions begin to diverge in their work so that at the end of the year grade one has completed one-ninth of the work, and grade A one-sixth of the work. At the beginning of the second year the pupils of grade one are promoted to grade two, while the pupils of grade A are promoted to grade B and begin work in the room with the pupils constituting grade three. The early part of the work of grade B is more elemen- tary than that of grade three, but grade B with its abler pupils finally overtakes grade three so that at the end of the year the pupils of the two grades have finished one-third of the course. Results of the Plan In June, 1908, 60% of all the pupils in the Le Mars schools were promoted to the nine-year course; 40% to the six-year course; 48% of the promotions were transfers. In Odebolt, Iowa, where this plan is in use, at the end of the sixth year 54% of the pupils were in the nine-year course and 46% in the six-year course. The record of promotions made in the Odebolt schools for the four years ending June, 1908, is as follows : Regular promotions in the six-year course. . . 34.5% Regular promotions in the nine-year course. . 28.3% Transfer promotions 35.5% Non-promotions 1-7% For this period 29% of the pupils worked alto- gether in the six-year course; 22% altogether in the nine-year course, while 49% worked in both courses. The lines in the diagram represent the different actual courses as the resultant of the two parallel courses 42 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD articulating. Course 1 is the regular nine-year course. Course 2 takes a pupil through grades 1, 2, 3, C, D, E, F, completing the work in seven years. Course 3 carries pupils through grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, E and F, completing the work in eight years. Course 4 carries one through grades 1, 2, 3, C, D, 7, 8 and 9 in eight years. Courses 5 and 6 are each seven years in length. Course 7, eight years, and Course 8 is the regular six- year course. Thus, besides the two regular courses there are three seven-year courses and three eight-year courses. Under the plan there are four kinds of pro- motions: the "regular" promotion by which a pupil is passed from one grade to the next higher in the same course, the "transfer" promotion by which a pupil is placed in the next higher grade of the opposite course occur at the end of the year. The "advanced transfer " promotion by which a pupil is transferred, as 4 to D, out of course to the next higher grade of the opposite course (such a transfer necessitates skipping certain portions of the work) and the "retarded transfer" promotion by which a pupil is placed in a lower course and given the benefit of a review before taking up advanced work (but without loss of time), may occur at any time during the year. The intervals that separate the different classes may be seen from the following table: Table of Intervals Between Classes Between Grades. Time. Interval. 4 and C, Beginning of year, Zero 4 and C, End of 3rd month, 4 weeks 4 and C, Middle of year, 6 weeks 4 and C, End of 6th month, 8 weeks 4 and C or 5 and C, End of year, 12 weeks 5 and C or 6 and D, Beginning of year, 12 weeks 6 and D, End of 3rd month, 8 weeks PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 43 Between Grades. Time. Interval. 6 and D, Middle of year, 6 weeks 6 and D, End of 6th month, 4 weeks 6 and D, End of year, Zero The table shows that the interval between two classes throughout the course is never more than twelve weeks and for most of the time only four to eight weeks. Thus opportunity is afforded frequently to adapt the courses to the needs of both the slow and the quick child. The pupil of superior ability is not compelled to mark time. The pupils of slower development are not compelled to hurry over the work. The course is pliant at all points. The pupil is promoted on the estimate of the teacher and as soon as the work at any point in the course becomes too hard or too easy for a pupil, such pupil is reclassified. Portland, Oregon, Plan A unique system of classification and promotion has been in use in Portland, Oregon, since 1897. It superseded the orthodox eight-grade system with semi- annual promotions. The course of study is divided into fifty-four parts covering in time eighteen terms of five months each. Promotions take place at the close of each term. A unit composed of three terms is called a cycle. While classes are permitted to go forward at the rate best suited to their powers, the two standard rates are three parts per term for the slower divisions and four parts per term for the faster divisions. The normal class interval at the beginning of a cycle is three parts of the course of study measured not in time but in work. In large schools the class interval is often only two parts of the course. Sometimes in the lower classes only one part of the course separates the classes. 44 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD fcTH CYCLE 5TH CYCLE PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 45 At the beginning of a cycle such pupils as have reached the same point of progress in the course of study are classified in two divisions; the first division is to advance at the rate of four parts per term while the second division is advancing three. It can be readily seen that by going forward at the same rate, at the end of three terms, the first division will have covered twelve parts of the course and the second di- vision will have covered nine. At the end of each cycle each first division will have reached the same point in the course as the second division next above. Again a reclassification will take place and the first and second divisions will begin another cycle and so on in like manner until the fifty-four parts of the course are completed. The pupils who remain in the first division throughout the course will complete the work in seven years. Those who remain in the second division throughout will complete it in nine years. North Denver Plan of Instruction Superintendent James H. Van Sickle, now of Springfield, Massachusetts, devised a plan while super- intendent of the North Side Schools of Denver, Colo., for producing "greater flexibility in class management, especially in the grammar grades." He contended that "the short and varying intervals in the primary grades together with the half-year interval in the upper grades were sufficient for the ordinary class organiza- tion of the school. The finer adjustments in individual cases should be made within the class. No mechanical plan of grading can adjust itself to the individual differences of the pupils." "The child," says Van Sickle, "who is strong in arithmetic may show less strength in language, while another, good in both, may need more time in geography or history, and so on in great variety, — while the average strength of the 46 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD individuals composing the class may not vary greatly. No matter how carefully we grade, we find these differences. " The ordinary recitation is ill adjusted to the vary- ing gifts of the pupils; if the bright pupils' ability is made the standard of class speed, the average and the slow are hurried on too fast; and bright pupils lose interest and develop wasteful habits, if the standard is adjusted to the abilities of the average and slow pupil. "Is it not possible," says Dr. Van Sickle, "to retain the manifest advantages of the class recitation, so often set forth by Dr. Harris, and yet as the recita- tion progresses allow individual pupils to drop out and do other work more profitable than simply main- taining the semblance of attention?" Aims of the Plan 1. To secure a more profitable use of the pupils' time. 2. To train each pupil to use his own judgment by co-operating with the teacher in deciding what he had better do at a given time. 3. To lead the pupil in this way to put forth more willing effort in the mastery of the less agreeable studies, such effort aiding to keep the pupil up to the level of the class. 4. To secure more study time in school and thus do away with the need of keeping after school ("stay- ing after school," says Van Sickle, "is quite a different matter"). 5. To enable the pupil to demonstrate his fitness for special promotion. 6. To bring about conditions that will awaken enthusiasm for improvement in efficiency and in knowl- edge, by emphasizing the fact that it is individual power, the excelling of one's self, that counts, rather PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 47 than class marks, special seats, or the other school rewards given for excelling one's mates. The main aim is thus to develop individual initi- ative and responsibility by leading the pupil to decide for himself when he is ready to do certain work or when he has finished such work, and to develop the will power necessary to do a piece of work alone. Under the usual plan of organization the teacher makes all the decisions; the pupils have no opportunity to develop independence of power that comes through making choices of real value. It is for this reason that the schoolroom is often inferior in its educational power to the athletic field; in the schoolroom the pupil is too often being developed; on the athletic field he is developing himself. It is the self-activity — the sub- jective power— that counts for most in education. Procedure in Carrying Out the Plan There is a certain minimum requirement in all studies to which all pupils are held. While the pupils who need all the assigned time to complete a particular study are engaged upon such study, the more capable pupils "are, by process of natural selection, detaching themselves temporarily from the class in order to work on some study in which they are weak, or for broader or deeper study of some topic by means of reference books, gathering illustrative material, or following out some line of interest approved by the teacher." (In North Denver each room was provided with a carefully-selected reference library of from fifty to seventy-five volumes.) Those pupils who have been excused from the recitation may at any time be called back to the recitation to help in the clearing up of some point for the other pupils, being in this way at all times held responsible for the work that is being done. In case 48 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD such a pupil fails to respond at any time either in advance or review work, such failure is held as indic- ative of the fact that he has not attained such a degree of efficiency in the minimum requirement as to permit of a continuance of his release from the regular class work; this release is therefore canceled. Such experi- ences tend to stimulate the pupil to make his mastery of the subject more permanent, not for the day only. In this way the pupil's judgment is developed. "A pupil may at any given time find the minimum in arithmetic or geography all that he can do while at the same time he is making a fuller study than some of the rest, of a period in history." For this privilege he is willing to work more energetically in the subjects in which he is less able. It is easy to see that here there is an opportunity for the school to foster in a systematic way the bent of individual pupils. Individual pupils may be called upon from time to time to give the results of their extra reading or research to the class. In this way may be cultivated the desire for social service. The pupil gives the results of his work to the class. He is making himself socially useful. "His success awakens a desire in others to be able to make creditable contributions of the same kind; thus all are stimulated to do independ- ent work in spare moments and to find spare moments for independent work. They learn how to find things in books. This is perhaps the most useful accomplish- ment that we can cultivate in a child. Books must always be his chief reliance after leaving school." Characteristics of the Plan It is not a rapid transit plan for hurrying pupils over the course of study. The class is ready "with an even front" to attack each new lesson. PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 49 The new lesson is first developed with the class as a whole. One pupil does not travel faster than another, but he may get more. The road is wide as well as long. "It is not so much to the pupil's advantage to go through the grades rapidly as to get all that he is capable of getting while he is going through." "The plan tends to even up the pupil in the vari- ous studies, since making pleasant excursions in favor- ite studies is conditioned upon fair attainment in all studies." The additional study time makes less home work necessary. The teacher has more time to devote to the less able pupils without injury to the others. It tends to develop the latent powers of the pupils. It gives the teacher an opportunity to judge of the fitness of individual pupils for promotion to the next higher class. It thus gives opportunity for really able pupils to be promoted whenever they show the requisite ability. In a class that is well graded every pupil will find some study from which he may be released now and then. The plan is thus a source of encouragement to all. It stimulates steady growth in the pupils. The motives held out of spending one's time profitably, of increasing one's store of knowledge, of being socially useful, and of gaining the power of self-mastery, are of the greatest value. The plan demands of the teacher more thought and a somewhat broader preparation than the old plan. But there is compensation for the extra expenditure. The "active spirits" in the room are kept profitably employed with self-imposed tasks. The spirit of work thus gained solves nearly all problems of discipline. The plan requires that the pupils be given more free- 50 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD dom than is customary but, as Van Sickle points out, the seeming perfect order of the old-time schoolroom with everybody sitting up straight, no whispering, no moving about, is not indicative of a good school if everything is done on the initiative of the teacher. Below are some of the results as shown by the work for one year: "In the eighth-grade class this year, 4 have finished, or will have finished, the eight-year course in less than six years, 7 in six and one-half years, 21 in seven years, and 24 in seven and one-half years. Able pupils are not kept marking time, but are advanced whenever they show the requisite strength. The half-year interval does not prevent this. The year interval would add materially to the difficulty. "In the two buildings in which this plan of class management has been systematically tried there has been apparently greater attention to individual needs than in the other buildings. One hundred and sixty- one pupils finish the work of the eighth grade this year in three buildings. In one building, 573^% finish in eight years or less; in another, 623/2%, and in the third, the one pursuing the ordinary plan, only 37J/£%." This would seem to indicate that the plan tends to conserve the interests of individual pupils. There are many points of excellence in the plan that can be used under any system of classification. The greatest difficulty that the writer has experi- enced in getting teachers to apply the main principles of the plan to their work lies in the fact that they have been trained in the normal school to think that all pupils must be engaged upon the same task at the same time. They cannot see that there can be class unity without class uniformity. The principles of the North Denver plan tend to do away with class uniformity and to promote class unity. Under it the ambitious PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 51 pupil is given an opportunity to add to his spiritual wealth and while so doing to cultivate initiative and responsibility, powers that the modern school is charged with failing to develop. The Group System, which will be described in the next chapter, is in reality only a modification and extension of the fundamental idea of the North Denver plan. The Group System The Group System of teaching has been given more or less attention by school men and has attained success in the schools of New York City. According to one writer the Group System has certain points of resem- blance to the Elizabeth and to the Batavia plans. It is asserted that while in no sense is it the plan of the old ungraded school yet it does apply to the modern school all that is good in the ungraded plan. It pro- vides a different rate of progress for children of differ- ent abilities. It succeeds according to certain of its advocates by placing emphasis on the old-fashioned drill by translating the humdrum of this drill into independent study. The aim is to cover the work assigned in such a manner that every child has a chance to do the work well. The essential aim is not the rapid advancement of the bright pupils, although by its use a bright child may advance as rapidly as he can cover the work with thoroughness. Its real merit lies in the fact that it enables the slow and backward pupil to keep up with his grade. The plan may be carried out in two ways: on the basis of the Constant Group or on the basis of the Shifting Group. Under the Constant Group the pupils of the class are formalty divided into groups to be maintained for a definite period. The promotions from group to 52 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD group occur only at stated times. The pupils are classi- fied according to their ability to advance. There are usually two or three groups. This method of grouping requires divisions in nearly all the subjects of the course of study and the pupils in the most advanced group may pass to a higher grade, although they may be unprepared in certain subjects. Under the Shifting Group, the children are divided according to their power really to grasp a new point. "Thus the teacher may have as many groups as she deems advisable in as many subjects as she chooses. The pupils may not be grouped in all subjects nor is the membership of the groups constant. Pupils may be promoted from group to group any time. There may be two groups in reading for example, and three in arithmetic or language. Occasionally, bright pupils may be promoted to a higher grade but this is not the main aim of the Shifting Group. The aim is to make the bright child do thorough, careful work and to bring the slow child up to the grade standard, while the aim of the Constant Group is to advance the bright child as rapidly as possible." The advantages of the Constant Group may be summed up as follows: 1. It is economical. The bright pupil goes along from grade to grade as fast as he is able, thus making room in the lower grades for the admission of new pupils, thus lessening the demand for more rooms and more teachers. 2. The bright pupil, not being compelled to mark time will retain a greater interest in his work. 3. Standards of scholarship will thus be improved and the membership in the higher grades will be increased. 4. Because of the small groups the teacher will be able to reach individually those pupils who are weak PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 53 in one subject and thus enable such pupils to advance with their grade. Certain disadvantages are mentioned: 1. Rushing children through the grades tends to superficiality and lack of thoroughness and is likely to undermine the health of nervous ambitious pupils. 2. The formality of the Constant Group tends to cause the teacher to lose personal touch with the pupils. 3. Acquirement of a certain amount of kno wedge is made the standard of advance and undue stress is likely to be placed on tests and examinations. 4. The dull and slow children are likely to be misunderstood and neglected. The advantages claimed for the Shifting Group are as follows: 1. No child is slighted or neglected. The bright child does thorough work and is kept up to the mark by reviews and drills. 2. He learns how to study and has time to form habits of study. 3. Children in the slow group are given more time for instruction and thus brought up to grade, and pass with their brighter fellows to the next higher class, although they may not have covered as much ground in all subjects. 4. Every child receives personal attention and instruction from the teacher. 5. Since this does not require grouping in all subjects, certain branches may be taught to the class as a whole, thus retaining the advantages of having the class recite together. The studies for grouping are usually reading, arithmetic and grammar. The method of carrying out the Group System is somewhat as follows: 1. The new lesson is presented to the class as a whole. A short test following the lessons reveals such 54 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD pupils as have not mastered the new points and so need further instruction. 2. At the next recitation only those pupils are called to the class who failed to grasp the points at the previous lesson. The others, whom we may call Group A, remain at their seats to do extensive study. Those who have been called to the recitation, whom we may call Group B, again go over the lesson of the previous day, attacking it from a new point of view. A test at the end of this period will probably reveal a small number of pupils from this group who have as yet failed to grasp the essential points of the lesson. 3. This group, called Group C, will come to the recitation for a third period of study on the lesson, while Group B will be assigned study work similar to that assigned Group A, on the previous day, and the latter group will be given new work. 4. After the pupils in Group C have grasped the work, the class is reassembled and another section of new material is presented to the class as a whole. According to one writer, the main objection to the plan is the difficulty in arranging for seat, or study work. Unless such work is carefully planned for and is care- fully supervised it tends to foster habits of slovenliness and idleness. Rightly planned for and supervised it cultivates that most valuable of all habits, the power of independent work. GERMAN PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 55 Chapter Four GERMAN PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION The Charlottenburg Plan Charlottenburg, the largest suburb of Berlin, has lately reorganized its school system to make it better meet the needs of the children. The school officials have come to the conclusion that a rigid course of study, which all the children are required to pursue, while it may meet the needs of the children in the smaller cities and towns, is not adapted to the needs of the children of a great city, whose mental and physi- cal endowments are the result of such varied influences in both the home and in society at large. They have sought to meet these conditions by adjusting the school organization to the abilities of the children. The six-year-old children, who are unable to meet the demands of the regular school classes, are placed in small preparatory classes of 24 pupils each and given instruction that partakes largely of the nature of the kindergarten. Regular instruction for the abler children who begin school work is given in classes of not over 45 pupils each. Those children who cover the course in this class are promoted to Class Six, the lowest regular class of the six-grade course; those pupils who fail are given the opportunity of entering a class only a half-year below in point of progress. For the backward pupils the course is so arranged that on finishing the Grund-klasse they enter Class 56 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Six B. The course for the B classes is divided into half-year sections, thus making promotion or demotion easy. The membership of the B classes is limited to thirty. These B classes correspond to the furthering classes of the Mannheim system. They are separate from the special auxiliary schools which are for children with mental defects. By means of the selective process in these B classes it is easy to determine the children who need the aid of the auxiliary schools. The Charlottenburg plan makes it possible to individualize instruction at every step of the course and to treat the child according to his ability and his present needs. As can be readily seen, the Charlottenburg plan is not different in its essentials from many of the plans which have been worked out in our own schools. The two important features of the plan are the special provisions for private help for such children as are failing in their studies, three hours a week being devoted to this work; and second, readjustment of the course of study by diminishing the amount of abstract memory work and placing greater stress on the concrete things in the child's environment, on drawing and allied work. The Mannheim System In Berlin, from 1896 to 1899, only about 61% of the children reached the highest classes of the Volks- schule; in Charlottenburg, from 1890 to 1900, some 50% of the pupils left school, having covered only a part of the elementary school course. In other city systems of Germany the conditions were still worse. In Mannheim during the last two decades of the last century only about a fourth of all pupils were being carried through the highest grade. GERMAN PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 57 These failures were attributed to overcrowded classes, to over-difficult courses of study, to child labor, to absence, and to frequent changing from school to school. These reasons did not constitute the chief cause in the minds of many school officials; among them was Dr. Sickinger, superintendent of the schools of Mannheim. He attributed the failures to the fact that the school did not take account of the differences in the learning ability of the children. The children in the schools were being treated as if they all had the same powers of mind, hence, the failure of large num- bers to profit by the instruction offered. The Mannheim system of school organization was established in 1899 and is an attempt to remedy the difficulties pointed out above, by adapting the organ- ization of the schools to the needs of individuals. The Mannheim plan consists of a system of special classes running parallel to the regular classes of the Volksschule. In these special classes or "furthering classes" as they are called, are placed those pupils who, for one reason or another, show themselves too weak or too slow to do the work of the regular classes. Such pupils are grouped into classes that form seven grades running parallel to the seven regular grades. These classes are organized on the same plan as the regular classes and do much the same work, although less extensive. It has been found, however, that a special course of study should be arranged for these seven grades. It would appear from the accounts of the Mann- heim system that have been written in English that there is a constant interchange of pupils between the regular classes and the "furthering classes." This is not the actual condition of things in Mannheim. During the year 1907-8, out of 2,354 pupils enrolled in the "furthering classes," only seven gained extra- 58 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD THE MANNHEIM PLAN OF GRADING Sp.vinJvinJ t Sp.vii vn| " L vii | t i §p.VI VI | ">& A*|\|Lvi $V>?\ v| 5Lv| P ml iii 5. H I OC II 5 iv I Qt'iv «3F nil £1 m t e. THE CLASS ORGANIZATION OF THE VOLKSSCHULE IN MANNHEIM A. Regular classes, constituting eight grades. Sp = Language classes for gifted pupils. Sp P = Preparatory language classes. P = Preparatory classes for pupils wishing to enter the Gymnasium, the Realgymnasium, the Oberrealschule and the Reformschule. B. Furthering classes, constituting five, six or seven grades, the distinguishing feature of the Mannheim system. L = Leaving or Finishing classes for pupils who will soon reach the limit of compulsory school attendance. F = Furthering classes for slow pupils. Auxiliary classes for mentally defective pupils. A = Auxiliary classes. A P = Preparatory class. I = Institution for idiots and imbeciles. C. Destination of regularly promoted pupils. Destination of demoted pupils. The blocks representing the different grades also represent a school year in time. I = Idiot Asylum. G = Gymnasium Rg = Realgymnasium O = Oberrealschule R = Reformschule Higher Schools. GERMAN PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 59 ordinary promotions within the school year to a higher grade of the regular classes, and only seven to a higher grade of the " furthering classes." At the end of the year only 123 pupils from these classes were promoted to higher grades of the regular classes. 1,741 were promoted to " furthering classes" of a higher grade, 103 to a "furthering class" of the same grade; 18 were sent to the auxiliary classes and 359 withdrawn from school. It is clear that the " furthering classes" are almost exclusively for a special class of children who have little hope of gaining the regular classes, only 5.2% of the number enrolled being able to accomplish this end. In commenting on these figures Dr. Sickinger writes in his yearly report for 1908 as follows: "These results are a confirmation of the view previously pre- sented of the character and object of the 'furthering classes. ' The deficiency which is peculiar to the pupils in the 'furthering classes,' shows itself chiefly, not as a gap which has arisen through conditions of neglect in the course of instruction but as lack of ability inherent in the nature of the children." "The capacity of the children for school work," according to Dr. Sickinger, "is in consequence of physiological, psychological, pathological and sociological conditions so variable that it is impossible, as promotion statistics show, to carry forward on a level through the same course of study and within the compulsory school age, from six to fourteen, all children obliged by law to attend the folk-schools. " On this conception the differentiation which char- acterizes the Mannheim organization is built up. The pupils are separated, according to their individual endowments, into three groups. The men- tally defective, who under ordinary conditions must be sent out from the lower grades as illiterates are assigned 60 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD to the auxiliary schools which represent in their organ- ization the first four grades of school work; next, the normally endowed children who are expected each year to be capable of gaining a promotion, are assigned to the regular classes of the regular eight-grade course; then those children, who while not abnormal, still are classed as below the average, are placed in the so-called "furthering classes." These classes are the main feature of the Mannheim system. Instead of being carried along with the regular classes, about 10% of the children enrolled in the folk-schools are segregated and taught in these " furthering classes," numbering not more than 38 pupils each. Not all German school men are in favor of the Mannheim system. The chief argument against it seems to be that so much extra machinery is not necessary to give the best results both to the bright pupils and also the backward. Pretzel, writing in the Die Deutsche Schule, makes a strong point of the fact that the gifted pupils are needed in the classes to spur on the backward by their example. A writer in the Pddagogische Zeitung of August, 1906, criticises both the Mannheim and the Charlottenburg plans. He says that the fault in the system of schools lies in a too difficult course of study which is causing an overtension of the powers of all the children, quick as well as slow. The remedy for this is not a division of pupils into classes according to their mental ability as has been done in Mannheim and Charlottenburg, but a simplification of the course of study so that all but the very few can accomplish it. For these few a second year in a grade will not be a detriment but a benefit. The " furthering schools" are to him unneces- sary. " Where," he asks, "is the division of pupils into mental groups to stop? In Mannheim there are three divisions, but Charlottenburg has gone a step GERMAN PLANS OF CLASSIFICATION 61 further and established a four-fold division, the very- bright at the top, then the normal, then the backward and finally those who must be taught in the auxiliary school." The criticism closes with the admonition that among all these charitable arrangements in the school system the normal child must not be lost sight of. 62 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Five THE CLASS VERSUS THE CLASS=INDIVIDUAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION Opinions of Superintendents and Principals Within the past few months (1910) I have sent to many of the leading superintendents and normal school principals in every state to gain first-hand information as to what was being done in the way of training teach- ers to recognize and meet the needs of individual children; and second, to find out what was actually being done, and also what ought to be done in the schoolroom in this direction. The results of these returns are to be considered more at length in another section of my study. One question asked of both normal school prin- cipals and superintendents was this: "Are you fully satisfied with the all-class method of school instruction and if not, how would you modify it to meet the needs of slow and backward or other needy individual pupils?" Of the 54 superintendents and normal school prin- cipals who answered this question 45 expressed them- selves as not satisfied with the all-class method. One expressed himself as fully satisfied with the method, while eight gave answers that could not be interpreted either for or against. It will be interesting to read several of the answers as they will form a sort of intro- duction to the discussion of several plans of individual instruction. CLASS VERSUS CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 63 1. "I do not approve the all-class method. A part of the time of the teacher should be given to individual instruction." 2. "I believe that in every school from half an hour to an hour per day should be devoted to work with individuals and that this hour should be during school hours. " 3. "I am not satisfied with the all-class method and am not using it but a part of the time. " 4. "I would suggest that the pupils be given more time for independ- ent study, during which time the regular teacher should work with the slow and backward pupils, asking such questions and offering such suggestions as will stimulate them to their best effort. " 5. "No, give individual attention to such pupils as need it, which includes most of every school." 6. "The class method of instruction has its obvious limitations. I should not want to abandon the class work, but supplement it with individual instruction." 7. "I know of no more well developed plan than the Batavia one. But suspect by a more thorough study by a larger number of experts still better results may be reached." 8 "I suppose the ideal way in which to attack this problem is to work for smaller classes. If this is not practical, then a special teacher to each group of six or eight classes may be the next best thing. Other- wise in a closely crowded system of large schools each under a single teacher, I believe the best plan to be an unequal division of the class into two sections so that each of the slower pupils may receive a larger measure of the teacher's time than would otherwise be the case. 9 "I would not modify the class recitation. It is, properly conducted, the best educational instrument the teacher has. Individual pupils should have the teacher's attention outside of recitation." 10. "No, I like an adaptation of the Batavia system." 11 "A bit of personal experience may be in part an answer to the question and it may interest you. In 1896 the school committee of Waltham made arrangement with the Normal School at Frammgham by which students who had finished their junior year might become assistants in different schools in the city whose need was greatest, to work with backward children. They were paid twenty-five dollars per month. Besides these workers we had an unassigned teacher of ability in the two large grammar schools whose work was with back- ward children and in doing substitute work in case of absence of any regular teacher. This plan was very successful in reducing the non- promoted children from a yearly average of about 20% to one of bye to seven per cent. But in this work we never lost sight of what Dr. Harris and Dr. White call the 'community interest,' of the class as a whole. We need the ' community interest and not factional or group interests.'" 12. " The all-class method is not satisfactory or adequate. This is coming to be universally conceded. We are setting apart periods for individual work. I should judge there might be some merit m the New York City plan of grouping." 64 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 13. "Every teacher should use every effort to help the unfortunate, even if it takes much extra time. I have not been able to devise a panacea for a recognized evil." 14. "If classes could be made small, not over thirty pupils to the teacher, and ungraded classes could be formed, whenever necessary, for deficient children, I should be fairly satisfied. I think that back- ward children should have a measure of individual help but any scheme which devotes a disproportionate amount of effort to the dull pupil in an effort to make him accomplish as much as the brighter member of the class is both futile and dangerous." 15. "I am fully satisfied with class methods. There is no 'the class method' for there are several. A class method that really develops, a method in which the teacher's aim in any given subject is to separate the subject into its elements, to arrange these elements in logical order, and then to bring the class face to face with these elements one after the other in this proper sequence and in proper time, is the quickest and surest means of reaching the so-called backward, or slow child." It is thus evident that probably a large majority of school men are in favor of, and earnestly seeking for, some plan of meeting the needs of the individual chil- dren. The opinion last read expressing approval of the all-class plan was rather the prevalent one ten years ago. It is encouraging to know that the trend of opinion is in the opposite direction. We shall next consider three plans of school in- struction that have placed great emphasis on individual instruction: first, the Pueblo plan; second, the plan in use in Newton, Massachusetts ; and last, the Batavia system of class-individual instruction. The Pueblo, or Search plan, makes instruction almost wholly indi- vidual and is in a way a return to the old ungraded school ; the Newton plan has retained many of the good features of the Pueblo plan and eliminated many of the questionable ones; while the Batavia plan is more sys- tematic than either of the other two in that it assigns a definite amount of time on the daily program which is to be devoted to individual instruction and presents a rather definite technique which such instruction is to follow. CLASS VERSUS CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 65 Plans of Instruction for Reaching the Individual Pupil The Pueblo Plan The Pueblo or Individual Plan of instruction was de- veloped by Mr. Preston I. Search while superintendent of schools in Pueblo, Colorado. The plan is essentially a return to the individual organization of the school which prevailed for centuries until La Salle late in the seventeenth century dis- covered the value of class instruction. Indeed, the individual method existed in Scotland as late as 1886 in some of the very best schools. Under this plan each pupil is a class going ahead as fast as he is able or thinks he is able. The teacher hears every pupil recite that portion of the work that he has been able to prepare. The Pueblo plan was applied in both the high and elementary schools. The working day in the high school was divided into six periods each one hour long. One regular period each day was given to physical training in the gymnasium, while on alternate days another period was devoted to manual work. This arrangement allowed ±y 2 hours each day in which to do the work in the regular high school studies. To quote from Mr. Search, " Three periods a day are definitely assigned to the three literary studies carried on together; the additional l l A hours is regarded as extra to be spent wherever the pupil needs it most, or in some cases according to his indi- vidual bent. In the lower classes the assignment of this extra time is left to the teacher; in the two higher classes it is left to the student. In the high school the work is conducted by departments and hence a field program is followed. In grades below the high school, the work is entirely by flexible programs, excepting as certain studies are arranged so as to systematize the time of certain teachers. The studies do not 66 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD always come in the same order and hence all studies can share in the advantages of the stronger hours of the day. The time is not apportioned by rule, but is left entirely to the judgment of the teacher. The working periods are longer than is usual elsewhere. In the primary grades the methods are largely those of the kindergarten. Indeed, it may be added that the entire plan of the school finds its keynote in the application of the principles of the kindergarten to every depart- ment of school work." The class recitation as ordinarily conducted was abolished because it reflected on the honesty of the pupils' preparation and because it wasted so much of the pupils' time. The school was transformed into a sort of laboratory; the office of the teacher was to pass from desk to desk, inspiring, directing and correct- ing each pupil at his work. The recitation and exam- ination are wholly individual and each pupil, to use the words of Mr. Search, "actually and absolutely recites every chapter and line of his Latin, every section of his other studies, and passes his examination in the most thorough manner." The class exercise is used by the teacher at the beginning of a working period for pre- senting new principles and for giving general directions. In the elementary schools the plan is somewhat different. The work of a given class is concerned with some subject, as percentage. Some of the pupils will do a minimum amount of work, while others will accomplish much that is supplemental. There are no fixed methods; each teacher is allowed to attack the work in her own way. The subjects of the course of study are so arranged that those of each succeeding grade are anticipated in such a manner in the preceding that to pass from the working section of one grade to that of the next higher is not difficult. The flexibility makes promotions from grade to grade an easy matter. CLASS VERSUS CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 67 "The plan," according to Superintendent Search, ' ' is intended to care better for the so-called ' backward ' pupils. The system of grading that compels the pupil who is behind his class to drop out of sight is not right. Somewhere along the line there must be a place for every pupil, be his advancement or progress what it may. Teachers are instructed to provide carefully for the discouraged pupil and to give more time to the lower half of the school, remembering that the bright ones may always be cared for by supplemental or advanced assignment of work." The advantages and results of the plan, as summarized by Supt. Search, are as follows: "1. Better health. "The pupils do their work in school; the other hours of the day are devoted to recreation and the relaxation that comes from change of work. "2. It results in making trained, independent, self-reliant workers. The pupils have definite work to do, a definite time to do it, and they work under the direction of trained teachers and they are obliged to render an accurate account of the work done. Such work tends to beget self-reliance and independence. Each pupil stands or falls on his own merits. The work is all done at school, no parental help and no helping by fellow pupils. "3. There is more work accomplished and it is more thoroughly done. "4. There is more enthusiasm in the work. The dull and listless recitation with the time consumed listening to dull and poorly prepared pupils is done away with. Each pupil realizes that he has a chance to do his best and to advance according to his ability, hampered in no way. He develops a love of work and is filled with the enthusiasm that results from real accomplishment. 68 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD "5. There is less discouragement. Every boy and every girl has a place in the school and a chance to do his or her best. There is no such thing as failure to be promoted. Each pupil is promoted each day. "6. There is more opportunity for additional and outside work. There is time for pupils to read good books, attend lectures, and to do many other things outside of school that are as much a part of education as school work itself. " Individual work of the kind mentioned calls for strong teachers, teachers who are more than lesson- hearers, who are masters of their subjects, and ready to point the way to the pupil at any stage of his prog- ress." We have discussed the individual plan somewhat in detail because school men in general have been somewhat disposed to ridicule it. The plan, however, as worked out by Supt. Search has so many points of excellence that it is worthy of serious study. That in seeking to obviate the defect of the graded school, Supt. Search was led to slight certain well- established points of excellence in the class-method of instruction and organization, cannot be doubted. Individual Work at Newton, Massachusetts We find in the school system of Newton, Massa- chusetts, the nearest approach to a realization of the ideals for which Search rightly contends in his book, "The Ideal School." Of course, individual teaching is not carried to the extreme which makes it destructive of what there is good in class work, but the individual child is made the focusing point of the whole school system and toward the middle point the teaching power is directed. The work at Newton, under Dr. F. E. Spaulding, is based on the thesis that "such a modification of the rigid system of gradation and pro- CLASS VERSUS CLASS INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 69 motion is necessary as will make it possible— nay necessary — for each pupil to work as hard, as actively, and as independently, and to advance as rapidly as his sound and well-balanced development requires. It means, equally, a modification which will insure that no pupil be dragged suddenly and kept perpetually beyond his depth in the ocean of knowledge, but that each one, by his own actual efforts, build a stable foundation on which he can advance and rise securely, if ever so slowly." The plan of reaching the individual is made effec- tive by the employment of unassigned teachers. The unassigned teacher has no regular class. Her work is supplementary to the class work of several teachers. "The day's work of an unassigned teacher may be something like this. For the first half-hour in the morning there comes to her room a little group of a half-dozen children from a third grade. The third- grade teacher has selected these children because they are all having difficulty, beyond that experienced by their classmates, with some process in arithmetic, perhaps it is multiplication or division. The unassigned teacher has previously been informed as fully as possible concerning the condition and needs of these children. The half-hour is spent in discovering still more accurately the peculiar difficulties of each one, and in giving each just the assistance and practice which he requires. This work is individual so far as need be; at the same time the group can usually work together advantageously. "At the end of the half-hour these children return to their class, and a group of children come from the seventh grade; perhaps there are only four in this group. They are not having unusual difficulty with any subject. Quite the contrary; they need more work and more difficult work than their class as a whole is capable of. Yet they are not fitted to pass at once successfully into the class next above theirs. The unassigned teacher prepares them for this long advance step. She takes them through the essentials which separate the work of their present class from that of the class which they are preparing to enter. To-day, and perhaps for several days, the work is in arith- metic. Other days it will be history, or geography, or grammar. "When the period is over, these children give their place to a group from a fourth grade. The members of this group are neither having unusual difficulties nor are they capable of more than their classmates. They are temporarily behind the work of their class. There has been an epidemic of measles in their room and they have been kept out for several weeks on account of illness or exposure. The unassigned teach- er's work with these will be similar in purpose to that with the last 70 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD group; she will take them rapidly over the essentials covered by the class during their enforced absence. "The unassigned teacher's fourth period is occupied with a full division, perhaps twenty pupils, of children of the fifth grade. They come from a large class composed of two grades, the fourth and the fifth. To relieve the regular teacher of some of her many recitations, the unassigned teacher takes the work in arithmetic with the fifth-grade division. "The fifth period is devoted to a single child. He does not belong to any grade, judged by the evidences of ability which he shows when assigned any definite task. So he probably comes from a class in which he is not too conspicuous on account of his size. The unassigned teacher tries patiently to determine just what the serious obstacles in the child's advancement are. He may have to be sent to a special class for backward children. Possibly, with sufficient individual atten- tion, he can work into some regular class." Thus the work of the unassigned teacher goes on throughout the periods of the school day. Sometimes she works with pupils who are trying to gain a grade, more often with those who are behind in their work and need special aid to catch up with the class, or again, she works with individual children whose peculiarities of mental endowment place them out of adjustment with regular school work. In Newton there are also unassigned teachers in the high school. The great drawback to this kind of work is the difficulty in securing experienced teachers who are fitted for this special work. The ordinary teacher by training and experience is so thoroughly imbued with the idea of class teaching that it is hard for her to realize the significance of individual teaching. The work in Newton is done by the most promising graduates of the normal schools, who, according to Supt. Spaulding, take up the work much more readily than do experienced teachers. This would seem to suggest a fault in our present methods of training teachers, in that they are given no abiding conception of what individual teaching means. It also suggests a fault in our present system of school organization which is usually so ordered that CLASS VERSUS CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 71 the teacher comes into contact with the class mind to such an extent that she forgets the individual units and does not possess the ability to reach these lesser units. At Newton the endeavor has been to eradicate from the minds of teachers and principals the idea that every pupil must begin the work of a grade in the fall and complete it the following spring, and that every pupil who fails must repeat the work of the grade where the failure occurred. The fact has also been emphasized that real pro- motion is not a thing which takes place at stated periods but that it is continuous from day to day, if the work of the school is properly individualized. Promotion is by subjects, rather than by grades. The range of variation among the different pupils of a class in the different subjects may be several months. In no case is it more than a year. Frequently the same teacher has charge of a class for two years, while often it is found advantageous to transfer individuals or groups from one teacher to another. The funda- mental idea of the whole system is the best good of the individual, not his rapid passing through a number of grades. "Better grasp of subject-matter, better training in independent thinking may mean slower advancement for one pupil than for another." Yet when the pupils and the parents understand that honest and independent work is what counts and that the school is so ordered that individual achieve- ment is made possible at every point in the course, it is safe to say that as much progress will be made by all pupils as under the plan of rigid promotion and that the progress of the majority, so far as real education is concerned, will be vastly increased. Thus it is seen that at Newton there is no uniform plan of organizing a class for individual work. "Such a plan," according 72 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD to Supt. Spaulding, " would defeat the very purpose of this work. In some subjects the pupils work in con- stantly changing groups, there being two, three, and sometimes even four groups within a class in some particular subject. Individuals are ministered to according to their needs but the individual works alone only until he can be classified with some group." Class-work occasionally takes the nature of ex- planations and discussions on new topics, more fre- quently the nature of class drills on mechanical work; or again, topics which have been studied by the class- members individually may be taken up in review by the class. The problem work is largely individual, each pupil depending on his own efforts and solving as many as he can. As a means of advancing from a lower to a higher group, a pupil may do the work of both groups in certain sequential subjects. The actual working out of this plan is described by principal Charlton D. Miller of the Hyde School District in Newton: "1. One class, a combination of first and second grade pupils, is composed of fifteen of the most promising pupils of a large first grade in September and the B, or lower section, of the second grade. In all probability, most of the first grade class will enter on third grade work during the early part of the next school year. "2. In the fourth grade, a group of seven will probably reach the sixth grade in June or early autumn. The plan for accomplishing this is simple and the work not unreasonably hard for the teacher. Arith- metic requires no extra time on the part of the teacher, as the pupils work ahead individually during the regular period for that subject. Language admits practically of the same handling. In reading and geography there are separate divisions. "3. A group of six pupils from the A section of the sixth grade, working under special provision, will, doubtless, complete the work of grades six and seven and take up eighth grade work soon after, if not at the opening of school in September. "The entire class is considerably in advance of the grade work. Seventh grade geography will be completed by all members of the class. "With the arithmetic taken care of by the individual classification, only history and grammar remain to be planned for specially, which is easily accomplished by the teacher without any outside work. CLASS VERSUS CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 73 "Grammar is given on alternate days; and the lessons being corre- spondingly longer, the ground can be covered. Advanced history is given while the rest of the class do language work. "4. Seven pupils from the A section of the seventh grade are work- ing for an early promotion to grade nine. There is every indication that this will be accomplished in time for the completion of ninth grade work by the end of the next school year. "Here again the work will be conducted by the teacher in regular school hours, with the exception of geography which is being taught by the special assistant. These pupils have nearly completed seventh grade work in some subjects, and are working in separate divisions in history, geography, and grammar, preparing and reciting on alter- nate days. History and geography may not be entirely completed by June; and, in that case, study continues during the summer or early autumn, and examinations are taken. "5. There have been the following cases of recent, individual promotions. "A pupil has been promoted from the A section of the second grade to grade three, because of conspicuous ability as shown in class work, with evident capacity for advanced work. "Two pupils have received a promotion from the fourth grade to the B section of the fifth grade because of the same conditions. "Another typical promotion of this kind was that of a boy from the A section of the fifth grade to the A section of the sixth grade. In a case of this kind, there is some sixth grade geography to be made up. This is directed by the teacher who promotes the pupil." 74 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Six THE BATAVIA PLAN Class=Individual Instruction Class-individual instruction, better known as the Batavia System, had its origin in the town of Batavia, N. Y. The history of this origin is very interesting. There was an over-crowded room of some sixty pupils in one of the Batavia schools. By a fortunate sug- gestion on the part of Superintendent John Kennedy it was decided to relieve the congestion by putting an additional teacher into the room instead of taking a class out. This teacher was Miss Lucie Hamilton and to her rare personality and superior teaching power is due largely the initial success of class-individual instruction. Miss Hamilton was not an assistant to the room teacher. Her rank was co-ordinate but her work was entirely different. It was to be wholly with those pupils who for one reason or another were behind their class. She was to work with these pupils individually until they were able to work with the other members of the class. She was to work with the laggards until they were able to work with the leaders. From this individual teacher, class-individual instruction took its rise. For the first time in the history of education a teacher had been ( assigned to deal with backward pupils in a humane way. Up to this time they had been neglected or else classed by themselves in rooms for backward pupils and with the spur that comes from THE BATAVIA PLAN 75 an aggregation of dullness they were supposed to suc- ceed. Now they were to be kept with their fellows and given the opportunity to succeed. And they did succeed. After a few months of class-individual instruction, it was evident that a marked change had taken place in the first of two-teacher rooms. Pupils who had been considered very dull began to improve, and some of them were soon up among the leaders. There was only one way to explain the really marvelous change. The reason lay in the work of the teacher, who hour after hour, and day after day, had called the retarded and backward pupils to her side to find the difficulties, and to encourage them to overcome these difficulties. There was a change not only in the working ability of the pupils, there was a change in their attitude as well. The whole atmosphere of the room was changed. All were happily at work. There were no bright pupils with nothing to do, and no dull pupils who could do nothing. The standard of work was gauged by what the ablest pupil could do, and all the pupils were soon well up to the standard. So the good work went on in that room, and then the test came. Would the plan get similar results in other over-crowded rooms? Additional teachers were placed in other overcrowded rooms, and the results were as good as those of the original two-teacher room. It was thus shown that the success of the plan was not due to the personality or ability of a specially gifted teacher. The success of the plan was so great that the superintendent and school officials began to think that the two-teacher room, with the combination of class and individual instruction, was the only solution of the problem of the dull and backward child. But after the two-teacher plan had been in successful operation 76 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD for a year, it dawned upon Superintendent Kennedy that success was due not to the two teachers but to the two kinds of teaching. It was the happy blending of individual with class instruction that was obtaining the results. So after thinking the matter out very carefully, he announced to the teachers of the regular grade rooms that they also were to give individual instruction. He tells us that they looked astonished and asked how it was to be done. His answer was that half the school time was to be taken for individual instruction and half for class instruction. Some of the teachers doubted; some protested, saying they could not get the pupils along by giving all the time to class work and to expect the work to be done by de- voting one-half the time to the dullards was simply preposterous. "Well," said the superintendent, "the only way to tell is to try it. We have the old school plant intact. We have torn nothing down ; and if the new plan proves a failure it will be an easy matter to go back to the old way. All I ask is that you give the new plan a thorough trial. " And they did — and no teacher went back to the old plan, and no teacher has ever wanted to go back. In this way the Batavia System had its birth. Its success in the single-teacher rooms was as marked as that in the two-teacher rooms. It met with like success in the rooms where one teacher taught two grades, and it has met with success in schools where the teacher has many grades. Briefly, then, class-individual instruction is a systematic plan for helping slow and backward pupils to help themselves. We know that it has wonderful power to open the minds and hearts of children, both large and small, and cause them to unfold and grow. Col. Parker has said that the best result of the Quincy THE BATAVIA PLAN 77 idea was a more humane treatment of little children. The best result of class-individual instruction is a more humane treatment of all children, large as well as small. We have been sacrificing millions of our children to the machinery of the graded school system. We have been trying to mechanize education. Class- individual instruction seeks to humanize this mechan- ism. It is only sympathy and common sense combined. For years we have been writing and talking about the individual child but we have been doing very little for him. Class-individual instruction does something for the individual child. The idea of the system is really very beautiful. Here is an intelligent, sympathetic teacher, studying her flock to find the needy ones. She calls these needy ones to her side, one after another, and talks with them, and encourages them, points out their difficulties, and leads them to master these difficulties. She points the way, — she leads; they work and gain the power. The thing most needed in our schools is systematic, sym- pathetic individual help as an aid to class instruction. The plan we are considering gives this systematic, sympathetic, individual help. What has the plan done for the children of Batavia? It has given them the spirit of work and the power to work. The spirit of work is everywhere in all rooms. The pupils, all of them, attack difficulties with confi- dence and self-reliance. You know there is a saying that "he who can is king. " The children of Batavia can, they have power; they can do things ; they are kings of their work. They attack difficulties without shrinking or cringing; and they master things usually. In case they are not able to master a difficulty, there is someone ready to point the way to mastery. The individual teacher is a leader rather than a helper. She has travelled the road and 78 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD knows the way. She says to the pupil, "This way, follow me." The pupil follows but does the climbing himself; there is no boosting by the teacher. The person who thinks that individual instruction means doing the work for the pupil misses the point entirely. The teacher works with the pupil, not for him. She gives him sympathy in his difficulties, but she never becomes so sentimental as to do his work for him. She encourages him by telling him that the difficulties he is meeting are such as all who have traveled the road of knowledge have met and mastered, and they are such as he may master if he will put forth the effort. The successful teacher under the class- individual instruction plan is a sympathetic, patient, courageous leader and as such she develops sympathy, patience and courage in her pupils. The late Professor Hinsdale, in his excellent book, "The Art of Study," tells us that nowhere in this country is the art of study adequately taught. He then tells us that children must learn to study by study- ing under intelligent direction. The intelligent direc- tion is the teacher's work. It means directing in the right way, time, and place. Teaching is causing the pupils to learn through intelligent direction. The pupil must do the work, do the studying himself. The pupils at Batavia know how to study and they study. They work and are happy. They have time for study and they use it for study. The great cry all along the line is, that children do not know how to study. How can they know if we do not give them the oppor- tunity to learn? Direct them intelligently, give them something definite to study and then hold them respon- sible for the work assigned and you will find the chil- dren will develop the power to study. The fault with most teachers is that they help either too little or too much. In one case the result THE BATAVIA PLAN 79 is discouragement; in the other it is loss of power. To let a pupil wrestle with difficulties that he cannot master, is bad ; to help him over difficulties that he can master with proper direction, is, perhaps, worse. Indi- vidual instruction aims to teach the pupil how to study by giving him something definite to study, with proper direction in case of need. The children at Batavia have the power of inde- pendent work. There is no deception on the part of the pupil, no trying to tell something that the pupil does not know is right, in the hope that it might happen to be right. This habit of bluffing is perhaps the worst trait possessed by school children to-day. It is the at- tempt to get credit for something that is not the pupil's own possession. It is the direct result of the present system of class teaching, when the teacher is a tester and not a true teacher; where it is a disgrace to confess ignorance and to say, "I don't know." If a pupil in Batavia does not know a thing, he says so frankly, and is either told to look it up, or at the next individual period he is taught what he does not know. There is no premium placed on superficial word repetition. There is no attempt to deceive the teacher; such an attempt would fail because the teacher knows her pupils. Her work is teaching not testing. She tests, of course; but she tests that she may teach; she does not teach that she may test. There is a great difference between the two kinds of work. The pupils are work- ing for knowledge and power, not a high per cent, on report cards. If the plan did nothing more than elim- inate deception from class recitation it would be a great blessing. Some of the chief merits of class-individual in- struction are its provision daily for a definite amount of individual instruction and its insistence that this time be given to those pupils who are most in need. 80 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD It also lays stress on the fact that instruction is to be given at the point of greatest need rather than on the daily lesson. This is one of the main principles of efficient individual teaching, yet it is the one that is the hardest to get teachers to apply. Real individual teaching goes back, back until it reaches solid ground and there it begins to build. The plan also provides the supervised study-period. The plan has been criticised because it devotes too much time to the backward pupils. It does devote a large share of the time to the backward pupils because they are the most needy, but in case the bright pupil shows that he needs individual instruction he receives his share. Opinions of Teachers on Individual Instruction It is interesting to read what teachers who have used individual instruction systematically in the school- room for a period of several years say as to the relation be- tween pupil and teacher brought about by its use. Here are some bits of testimony from teachers of Westerly, R. I., where individual instruction is a regular part of the daily work. A department teacher of the seventh and eighth grade writes : "The strongest argument that I know of in favor of individual work is the opportunity it gives the teacher to win the confidence and understand the personality of the pupil. Especially is this true in departmental work, where, as in my case, there are upwards of one hundred thirty dispositions with which to deal." Another seventh-grade teacher writes: "There is closer sympathy between teacher and pupils. The pupil is reached in a way that no other method reaches him." A fifth-grade teacher: "Teacher and pupil understand each other better, are drawn closer by questioning, and oftentimes a study THE BATAVIA PLAN 81 once looked upon as a bugbear becomes one of pleasure and much profit. " A departmental teacher in geography and science: ' ' I have observed a much more perfect understand- ing of pupil by teacher and vice-versa. Many cases of discipline have been most pleasantly adjusted through the use of this period. Many unpleasant happenings have been avoided by a timely talk, a suggestion given, or the case at hand clearly put before the pupil. When the way is clearly pointed out many follow carefully. In the case of new pupils, I have reached many through individual periods, have had them interested and reciting well in a short time, where- as I would not have established an acquaintance so soon had it not been for the individual periods. This is especially noticeable in the case of children who are timid, who come from other schools, or from environ- ments quite different from that of an average pupil. " A fourth-grade teacher: "There is no doubt about individual instruction bringing pupil and teacher into closer relations. It broadens the sympathies of the teacher for the pupil. By it, the real difficulties and problems of the child are discovered. I have found children failing from poor sight or hearing, some whose minds were dis- tracted from their work by regularly frequenting the "cheap show," and some who were purely lazy and needed to feel the pressure of compulsory work. I do feel that the opportunity that individual instruction gives me to know my children is very valuable. The personal contact with the teacher should and does mean much to the pupil." Teacher of a third and fourth grade: "As a result of this work there is a pleasant atmos- phere in the room. Pupils do not become discouraged. They know they will be cheerfully helped. The 82 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD teacher is able to know the pupils better, and pointing out his weak points to him while he is near her at the desk is more graciously received than if done in the presence of the whole class. I have never had a pupil who did not accept the individual help in the right spirit. " Teacher of mixed room: "I think as a result of the individual system, the teacher and pupils become better acquainted with each other. There is a closer sympathy and a better understanding. The teacher sees more clearly the obstacles the child has to encounter, and the child learns to think of his teacher as a friend who will help him." First grade teacher: "I think that the pupil and teacher are brought more closely in touch with each other by this system than by any other. I would not have missed the close relationship for a great deal. " These bits of testimony are chosen at random from a considerable number. They represent fairly well the testimony of almost all the teachers who have used individual instruction for any length of time. In presenting these views no claim is made as to the superiority of the Batavia System over many other plans. It has, however, the one advantage of being systematic. Under it the work is done daily. It is based also on certain definite principles, which must to a large extent be common to all plans of individual work that are effective, and which if carried out intelli- gently cannot fail to win success. A Little Girl's Improvement Under Individual Instruction "Little Elizabeth B. attends a country school of three grades in the town of Westerly, R. I. She is a THE BATAVIA PLAN 83 subnormal child and would not ordinarily be regarded as a case to be benefited by individual instruction. She entered school in the spring of 1902 and I well remember her teacher's saying to me that Elizabeth would never be able to do anything with the work of the first grade. At that time I examined Elizabeth's work very carefully and told her teacher that I thought we ought to try to persuade the mother of the child to send her to an institution for defective children. The little girl, how- ever, kept on at school doing little or nothing with the work. The next September she returned and started in with the first grade again. She was utterly unable to keep along with the other children. The following November the Batavia System was introduced into all the schools in Westerly. Elizabeth's teacher began to give her individual attention each day. Improve- ment was slow but improvement there surely was. On each of my successive visits to the school I could see that she was gaining ground. Toward the end of the year she was able to take part in the reading class on almost equal terms with the other members. At the present time she is reading with the others and a person who did not know, would have hard work to pick her out from the others, her work is so good. In number and written language, while her work is not up to the standard, the improvement has really been remarkable, and I believe that in time she will be able to do all her work well. The child herself is really a different being. Her face is certainly lighting up with intelligence. She is happy and enthusiastic in her work. She is very proud of the fact that she is able to do her work so well. Now the point I wish to make is this: If this remarkable change can be wrought on a subnormal child, can we not with patient, intelligent, loving, individual work hope to save every normal child who 84 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD for one reason or another has been retarded in his work? This it seems to me is not too much to expect. If we do not save all these normal children, we may be sure that something is wrong either with the system or the teacher." x This girl is now, May 1912, in Grade Seven of an eight-grade system, the number of grades having been changed from nine to eight. She is doing good work and has never missed a promotion since individual instruction gave her a start- Suggestions for a Plan of Classification and Instruction A plan approaching the ideal would be a synthesis of the excellent features from many of the plans that have been presented. The work would be based on what might be called a course of study in the funda- mentals: this work would be so graded as to be within the powers of all normal children, both quick and slow. To it would be added a course in optional topics to be studied by the abler pupils largely by themselves, in order to develop initiative and self-direction. A record of such work would be made in the pupil's personal record book which should accompany him through the grades. Beginning, perhaps, at the sixth grade the work would be somewhat differentiated without in the least breaking up the class organization. For two hours a week on alternate afternoons, as in Switzerland, certain of the pupils would take work in a foreign language while the rest of the pupils could take hand work. The aim would be to keep the classes small, not more than thirty pupils in each of the two lower grades and not more than thirty-five in the other grades. In order to get the number of » Reprinted from Educational Work, Vol. I, 1905-06. THE BATAVIA PLAN 85 pupils in the two lower grades, large classes of forty to sixty pupils would be divided, one-half coming in the morning, the other half in the afternoon. This plan of half-day sessions for the two lower grades has been carried out with success for years in several places. The first grade and perhaps the second would be divided into two divisions of ten or fifteen pupils each. This would reduce the seat work and its supervision to a minimum. Often in the second grade and in all the grades above, the class would recite and study as a whole and during the study periods the teacher would help individual pupils, usually singly, sometimes in groups of two or three, but rarely more. The chief feature of the plan would be the supervisor of individual work. This teacher would be in charge of the work of four or six rooms. In her hands would be the school welfare of all the individual pupils in these four or six rooms, but she would care especially for the abler pupils and also for the slow and backward. She would spend an hour or more every day in each of the rooms under her charge, teaching needy pupils, whether quick or slow. When an abler pupil had been promoted out of course she would see that he was adjusted to the work of the new grade. She would also look after pupils coming from other schools to see that they did not lose time by their change. Accom- panying the pupils as she would through a series of years, she would come to know each pupil's peculiarities and be able to protect him from the injury that so often comes from a change of teachers. This teacher would, furthermore, have special knowledge of mental defects and be able to advise with teachers and parents, in regard to children with such defects. She would combine with her other work that of the friendly visitor, and thus bring the school and the home into closer co-operation. 86 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Such a teacher could work under almost any plan of grading. The plan of having such a teacher has been anticipated in a way in many places, with this difference, the individual teacher has often been a woman of little experience both in teaching and in life. What is wanted is a woman of maturity — a real school mother, who has a cosy corner in her heart for every child, who is imbued with the missionary spirit, and is bound to have every boy and girl under her charge have a fair chance. With our schools so organized as to grading, fol- lowing in the main this fundamental course of study, with both the class teacher and the individual super- visor doing individual teaching, and what is still better, personal work, both inside and outside of school (and with the really defective pupils in auxiliary schools), there would be little need of such separation of pupils as that at Mannheim, and there would be the best chance for every pupil to become a self-respecting, successful American citizen, one who could look the world in the face and say, "I am the master of my soul. " EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION Chapter Seven HOW TO GIVE EFFECTIVE CLASS=INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION To carry out class-individual instruction success- fully, two things are necessary: A. The right spirit. B. The right method. A. The right spirit is the motive power that sends the teacher along the way of right- method to victory over slow and retarded minds. The right spirit comprehends many essentials, but the chief are three in number: 1. Cheerfulness. 2. Sympathy. 3. Patience. Let us consider briefly each of these essentials. 1. Cheerfulness is social sunshine. It is infec- tious. A smile on the part of the teacher will breed a whole room full of smiles; and a cheerful, " Let's work this difficulty out together," from the teacher, will cause the sluggish mind and heart to respond as nothing else will. A smile and a word of approval if the pupil succeeds, and a smile and a word of encouragement if he fails, these things are necessary. An atmosphere of cheer- fulness must pervade the room and the main source of this atmosphere must be the teacher's heart. 2. Sympathy is feeling for others. It is seeing things with the eyes of others; feeling things with the 88 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD hearts of others; it is the ability to know things from the point of view of others. It is putting one's self in the place of another. It sees difficulties as others see them. It is the power that enables the adult to be a child again and the teacher to be as many children as she has enrolled under her charge. The sympathetic teacher says to the slow boy: "This difficulty has puzzled many before you. I think it puzzled me. But you have the power to overcome the difficulty. Come, let us work together." Sympathy is especially necessary in dealing with boys and girls in the last two years of the elementary school and in the first two years of the high school. At this stage of development these boys and girls, silent, unresponsive, and seemingly unappreciative, crave the loving, sympathetic help that a mature mind can give. The teacher who feels for these boys and girls and goes to them is doing good that can never be esti- mated. 3. "He that can have patience, can have what he will." This is especially true in giving individual instruction. For days, weeks, and months, the teach- er may work with some backward child with no apparent improvement. But there has been improve- ment and the teacher who has the patience to keep on will surely win. It is well to bear in mind the story of the old Jewish teacher. To a slow boy he had repeated one of the proverbs four hundred times; then finding that his pupil had not mastered the lesson, he repeated it four hundred times more. In giving individual in- struction the teacher must have patience like in degree, if not in kind, to that of this old Jewish teacher. The teacher must not only be patient in waiting for results, she must be patient in her daily work. There will often be the tendency to say to some pupil, EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 89 "Oh, we've been over that again and again and now you don't know." Such a teacher should restrain herself by saying, "What others have done I can do, if trying will do it. I will go over the matter again and again and still again." To a teacher who really schools herself to this attitude of mind, failure is al- most impossible. Patience, sympathy, and cheerfulness, these are all essential to the right spirit in giving individual instruction. Let no teacher who wishes to succeed underrate the value of any of these essentials. The Right Spirit is to be sought first. The teachers of the future will be those who believe that teach- ing is most of all a spiritual thing, a contact of mind with mind, of heart with heart. B. The Right Spirit must take the Right Direc- tion, or follow the Right Method with reference 1. To Individual Work, 2. To Class Work. In the preceding paragraphs the aim has been to show that by creating the right atmosphere in the room and the right atitude in herself, the teacher must seek to win the pupil's heart, and through his heart lead him to exert his will; for, as Dr. Harris well ob- serves, it is weakness of will rather than weakness of intellect that is the cause of the slow progress of the great majority of backward children. This leads us to the first step in the Right Method of Individual Instruction. The Pupil is Called to the Desk I. The teacher calls the pupil needing assistance to her side at the desk. Here the pupil is apart from the class but still in its presence. Here the teacher and child are comfortably seated side by side. Each is now ready for work. 90 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD The Teacher Works to Remove the Most Elementary Difficulty II. In a low voice and with perhaps a pleasant word of encouragement or suggestion the teacher directs the mind of the pupil to some difficulty that is retarding him. This difficulty may be the result of failure to grasp some point that should have been grasped years before. For an eighth grade pupil, it may be a point that should have been mastered in the third grade. On this point, however far away it may be from the regular class work, the teacher must focus the mind of the child and her powers of teaching. Until these fundamental points are master- ed there can be no true progress. Under the all class method, the teacher rarely if ever finds out the diffi- culties that are retarding individual children. She knows that some of her children are slow and back- ward, but the reason for this slowness and backward- ness she does not know, nor can she ever know by using the all class method of instruction. The Pupil is Made Self=helpful III. The teacher leads the pupil to master the difficulties himself: 1. By not telling him anything that by judicious questioning he can be led to discover for himself. If, however, the teacher finds the pupil has not the data in his mind from which to draw right conclusions, she tells him the necessary facts at once and does not waste precious time in trying to draw water from a dry well; telling at the right time is teaching. 2. By not doing the pupil's work for him. Too often teachers show their pupils how to do things and wonder why the results of the showing are so poor, forgetting that the fundamental principle of education EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 91 is self activity, that the pupil is educated only through what he does for himself. It is an easy thing for a teacher to say, "Don't you see how simple this matter is?" at the same time solving a problem or explain- ing a paragraph to the pupil, but it is quite a different thing to find out just what the pupil knows and with this knowledge as a basis lead him to see his way, and to do the work himself. One method is real teaching, the other is its counterfeit. It Teaches Pupils How to Study IV. Individual instruction furnishes an oppor- tunity to teach pupils how to study. Many pupils fall behind their classes because they do not know how to select the essential parts of a printed paragraph. They have never been taught to see the difference between the important and the unimportant. For this reason they cannot read intelligently ; they cannot recite intelligently in geography and history; and they often have difficulty in arithmetic because they cannot get the thought of the problems out of the "verbal husk." Through proper individual instruction they can be trained or led to master the printed page. Individual Instruction Should be Wholly Individual V. Individual work should be done with one pupil at a time. Group teaching, however small the group may be, is class teaching and has the defects of class teaching; namely, (a) the inability of the teacher to know that she is reaching each child's peculiar difficulty, (b) the tendency to regard difficul- ties as common to several children when in reality different phases of the same difficulty may be retard- ing as many different members of the group; where this is the case, every minute spent with one pupil 92 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD trying to lead him to solve his phase of the difficulty is just so much time lost for the other members of the group, (c) and the reluctance of all children and especially of sensitive children to admit that they can- not see what their companions have said they could see. Group instruction will never enable the teacher to get close to the heart of the child and lead him to reveal himself. The presence of an audience has made many an able man seem to know almost nothing. "Stage fright" may be retarding some of your strong- est minds. Timidity has caused many a pupil to fail. The encouragement and aid that come through individual instruction will make many a timid pupil self-reliant. How the Teacher May Find the Pupils Who Need Individual Aid VI. During the class recitations the teacher should make note of the pupils who seem to fail be- cause they do not understand certain points. At the next individual period these pupils should be called to the desk for consultation and help. By examina- tion of the daily written work and of the tests that may be given from time to time, the teacher will be able to find the weak spots that must be strength- ened through individual work. A word of caution is here necessary. The teacher is to be the judge of who needs aid. She is not to wait for the pupils to ask for aid. If she pursues the latter plan, she will aid those who should be made to do the work them- selves and neglect those who really need the aid but who will never ask for it if left to take the initiative. Time to be Given to Individual Instruction VII. a. Rooms with an enrollment of less than forty-five or fifty pupils are taught by one teacher. EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 93 Half the time may be given to individual work and the other half to class work. During the individual period the teacher will work with pupils in those sub- jects in which they are the weakest. Reading, arith- metic, English, geography and history will demand most of the time. b. In rooms of two or more classes half the time may be given to individual instruction and half to class work, the pupils reciting one day and receiving individual instruction the next. The Order of Individual Periods in the Daily Program VIII. Individual and class periods should alternate, a recitation period in a subject following an individual period in that subject although this order is not essential. When the teacher is giving individ- ual instruction the class should be preparing assigned work on an advance lesson. Teachers must take care to see that plenty of profitable work is assigned in advance. This does not mean, however, that after a pupil has properly prepared his day's task in one subject, he should not be allowed to take up some other subject, but in general the pupils will have all they can do to prepare for the regular lessons. The teacher must not make the error of thinking that the pupil she is holding out of class for individual work is losing ground. He is, in reality, gaining ground; for unless the difficulties that retard him are removed, he will never be able to take part in the class work on an equal footing with his mates. It is not the number of pages covered that indicates progress in class work, but the power on the part of all the pu- pils in the class to master the new problems that are presented each day. 94 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Record of Work IX. The name of each pupil who receives aid should be recorded in a record book. Such a record will keep the teacher on the right track and will enable her to recall the steps by which she led a re- tarded mind from darkness into light. The Relation of Individual Work to Class Work I. Individual instruction makes for good class teaching. The late Dr. Hinsdale tells us in his "Art of Study" that "teaching is causing another to know." It is neither lesson hearing nor lesson presenting and the teacher is something more than a lesson hearer, or a lesson presenter. The teacher is the one who causes the pupil to know. The red schoolhouse days were days of the school-keeper or lesson hearer. The duty of the school-keeper was to hear the pupil recite assigned tasks; if the pupil knew his lessons, the knowing was the result of his own efforts; he was his own teacher; if he did not know, as was often the case, the lesson hearer passed him by with a reprimand or a blow. It was not the lesson hearer's duty to teach; he was to hear what the pupil knew. The lesson hearer, or school-keeper, has passed from the better class of schools and in his place we find the lesson presenter, a higher and better type and one whose work is founded, to a certain extent, on scien- tific principles. The lesson presenter cuts up knowl- edge into units and presents these units to the class. The class in turn is supposed to re-present these units in the recitation-lesson, or in the test, or examination. This presentation work is usually done with the class as a whole. After the teacher has presented the work he assumes that the different members of the class EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 95 know the work or will know it after they have studied it. If failure results, this failure is assumed to be the fault of the individual pupil, and such failure is considered, in general, a disgrace and is usually pun- ished by detention after school. The aim of these after school periods is, in general, to teach the pupil that he must not fail. He must get his lessons somehow, by hook or by crook. So long as he can recite the teacher is satisfied; rarely does a teacher take pains to find out how the pupil prepares his lessons. Such an inquiry would often reveal the fact that many pu- pils are doing little or no independent work. The pupil's aim is to recite the day's lesson and get a good mark. Someone else may have done the work of preparation for him. It makes little difference to the teacher; her business is to present the lessons not to find out what effect the presentation has had on the individuals. This practice of ending the teaching process with the presentation of the lesson has resulted in a vast number of failures among pupils and in a vast amount of deception on the part of pupils. The pupil soon comes to see that the road to success lies along the way of good marks and he employs very ques- tionable means to obtain them. Now this practice of presenting lessons has been going on for a long time in our schools. Pupils of receptive minds and retentive memories have responded to it and they have been receiving the marks that signify excel- lence or efficiency in work, and a good many pupils of deceptive minds have been receiving these marks. While on the other hand, the pupils who are not quick to respond to class teaching have often found them- selves hopelessly wrecked and stranded. With the class method the pupil must either swim with the others or sink by himself. The helping hand of the 96 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD teacher is rarely held out to him. If help is proffered after school hours it is given in the spirit of punish- ment rather than in the spirit of sympathetic help. The idea of giving this assistance as a regular part of the school work during school hours has dawned upon the minds of the very few in education. Where it has dawned the teacher is teaching and the pupils are being led to know and the aim is to teach so as to cause all to know. The presenter of lessons is like the planter who sows good seed on a field that has been poorly prepared for the sowing; some portions of the ground may re- turn a fair yield, while others will return almost none at all. Sowing double the amount of seed will not increase the yield. Attention must be given to the sterile and unfertile portions. These portions must be worked over and made fertile, and different por- tions will need different kinds of attention. By studying his soil and working it over the planter may produce a fairly uniform yield from all portions of his field, but such a yield will be the result of time and attention. In like manner the skillful and sympathetic teacher by studying the different members of her class can so cultivate the individual minds through individual work as to secure fairly uniform results from nearly all the pupils of the class. In short they will be ready to learn when she is ready to teach. Until they are so ready, class teaching will involve much waste. II. Individual instruction makes for good reci- tations. 1. By making spirited recitations possible. 2. By making class recitations possible. 1. The end of individual instruction is to bring the different members of the class into line so that all may participate profitably in the class work. A EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 97 recitation to accomplish results must be full of life, must move along toward some definite end, with every member of the class contributing to its progress to the full extent of his ability. In the recitation as ordinarily conducted, a great deal of time is wasted by the teacher in hearing pupils recite who are not prepared to recite. These pupils may be unprepared from different reasons, chief among which are in- sufficient study, failure to understand different points of the day's lessons, and inability to grasp the lesson because of failure to master previous lessons. The pupil who fails because of insufficient study should not be allowed to take class time to stumble along through a recitation, neither should he be given much time at the individual period. He, perhaps, needs a reprimand, perhaps, some good advice. This repri- mand or this advice should come early. The teacher should not allow the really able pupil to get be- hind before reminding him of his poor work. The point that needs to be emphasized here is, that often a teacher fails to distinguish between laziness and and some legitimate cause for lack of preparation. Find out if a pupil is really lazy before pronounc- ing him such. If the pupil is reprimanded it should not. be done before the class except in rare instances. The second cause is the failure to understand certain points in the day's lesson under consideration in the recitation. Ordinarily when the teacher finds such a case, he stops the recitation and proceeds to teach or explain the points that the pupil does not under- stand, wasting thereby the time of all the class for the sake of one pupil, and making the recitation a dull, devitalized and uninteresting affair. The correct way is to note the failure, if it is a serious one, and call the pupil up for individual instruction at the next individ- ual period, or if the failure is on a minor point, the 98 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD teacher should call for a recitation from some pupil who can explain the difficulty. The third reason for the unpreparedness of the pupil is his incapacity. He is not able for one reason or another to do the work of the class. The teacher knows he is not able and the pupil knows it also. Notwithstanding this knowledge on the part of both, the teacher still continues to call the pupil for recita- tions knowing beforehand that he will fail. This course is a source of mortification to the class, to the teacher, and especially to the pupil. Everybody who has the least human sympathy suffers. Much precious time is wasted; no good results. A great deal of harm does result. No pupil was ever brought up to the class line by this method; many a pupil has been forced out of school. With the pupil who is far behind his class the teacher should have the greatest sympathy and patience. At first little class time should be given him. The teacher should, however, take pains to ask him such questions as she thinks he can answer, exercising great care not to let the pupil know that she is asking these questions because they are easy. But when the individual period comes it is with this pupil who is seemingly hopelessly behind that the teacher should work week after week and day after day. She must not, however, let him clog the recitation period with his inability. He will, if given proper individual attention become better able each day to take part and appreciate what is being threshed out in the class; and in time will, very likely, come to be one of the able members of the class. If, however, he should not show marked improvement, the teacher should not be discouraged; for by getting into sympa- thy with the pupil and by letting him know that some- one sympathizes with him and is ready to help him, the pupil, even though he should leave school, will EFFECTIVE CLASS-INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION 99 leave a different pupil, with a different attitude toward the school, and toward mankind in general, from that he would have had if he had been crushed down and pushed out merely as one who was unfit to continue. This bringing the pupil into the right attitude is one of the greatest benefits of individual instruction. The teacher, then, will see that no class time is wasted by the lazy pupil, by the pupil who fails oc- casionally or by the pupil who fails chronically. The individual period is the time at which to deal effectually with these three classes of pupils, especially the two last named. 2. Individual instruction makes a class recita- tion possible. In the ordinary class the pupils are constantly falling out of line. In the class where effective individ- ual instruction is employed the pupils are constantly being brought into line. Pressure is constantly being removed. The recitation is for all who are able to take part and all are being made able to take part. In the ordinary recitation a large part of the reciting is done by the active, motor-minded pupils. These pupils are the joy of the teacher's heart. They have receptive and retentive memories and can repeat all that the teacher and the book have taught them. They do from a half to three-fourths of all the recitation work in the majority of schools, and they usually constitute from a tenth to an eighth of the class membership. The teacher working with these few pupils thinks her work is a success because the pupils know. The other pupils do not need to know, and they soon find it out. Under these circum- stances it is really surprising that the mass of pupils come out of school knowing as much as they do. But with the teacher who uses individual instruction effectively it is different. She knows each pupil, 100 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD knows where he is weak and why he is weak, and she gives him an opportunity to become strong by allow- ing him to take part as soon as possible in the recita- tion work up to the full extent of his ability. She teaches the class that the recitation is for all and that all must be ready on every point, to continue, correct, or elaborate the discussion. All who are not able are candidates for individual instruction until they are able. There is during the recitation, no scolding, no nagging, no scoring of pupils who fail. If the pupil does not know he should say so and be commended for so saying. The teacher should bear in mind that when she is working with the four or five " brightest" pupils in her class, she is really doing the poorest kind of individual work in the poorest kind of way. These pupils do not need her attention, and still they are getting nearly all of it. The other pupils are really doing nothing for the larger part of the recitation period. Instead of being a class recitation period it is really an exhibition period for a few of the quicker minds. In a grade of thirty pupils not long ago, the writer heard a recitation in history in which four pupils did almost all the work. Not more than ten of the pupils in the class took any part. The other twenty sat for twenty minutes and apparently listen- ed. A great many of them were far away in dream- land. By the ordinary observer this recitation would have been rated successful, and the teacher would have been congratulated on her bright class of pupils. This recitation is but a type of the majority of all the recitations in the public schools. The larger part of the classes take little or no part and they go on day after day and week after week in this way. The teacher never diagnoses the individual cases. With her the pupils are either " quick," "slow," or "medi- TRAINING CLASSES FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 101 ocre"; and the mediocre and slow continue so because they have no one to help them to become otherwise. Individual instruction is the complement of class instruction. It makes class teaching possible by pre- paring each individual mind to receive the instruction; it makes the class recitation possible by giving all the individuals the power to participate in the class dis- cussions. 102 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Eight THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING The teacher must know the child in order to teach him. This is one of the fundamental concepts of educational philosophy and we have only to point to the great teachers, Pestalozzi and Froebel among the others, to confirm its soundness. Knowing the child is vastly different from knowing about the child. This latter knowledge is an efficient aid to real teach- ing and should not in any way be slighted, but it is not enough; there must be also that contact of soul with soul, which brings teacher and pupil together and makes teaching a truly vital and vitalizing process. One of the chief needs of the schools to-day is such personal knowledge of the child on the part of the teacher as will tend to meet his individual needs. In order to show that this need is a real one, a set of questions was sent to superintendents of schools of many representative cities and towns throughout the United States. The object of one of the ques- tions was to ascertain the opinion of the superintend- ents as to whether the teachers as ordinarily trained in the normal schools know how to reach i. e. teach individual children. If superintendents generally answered this question in the negative, it would be fair to assume that the training of teachers in normal schools was inadequate. If they answered in the affirmative, then the assumption would be that the fault lay in the application of the teaching force in TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 103 the schools themselves or in other words, in a mis- application of the power that the normal schools had supplied in the way of trained teachers. These questions were submitted to superintend- ents of recognized standing and of considerable experience in the work of school administration, representing communities all the way from the city of several hundred thousand in population down to the town of only a few thousand. Thus the re- plies represent every kind of condition in public schools. To the question: "Do you think that the teachers as ordinarily trained in our normal schools know how to reach the individual child?" fifty-six an- swers were received. Thirty-four of these were in the negative, i. e., to the effect that the teachers as ordinarily trained in the normal schools do not know how to teach individual children. Fourteen of the answers were not interpreted either for or against, although several might be interpreted as implying that normal school training was more or less defective in the line of emphasizing the value of individual teaching. Seven of the answers were interpreted in the affirmative to the effect that normal school training is adequate. These replies represent the opinions of superintendents from thirty states and the District of Columbia. They include the largest states in all sections of the country. The opinion of the superin- tendents represented is overwhelmingly that the normal schools are not training the teachers for indi- vidual instruction. There is good reason to believe that a more extended inquiry would bring practi- cally the same results. It is worth while to study some of these replies. Such a study will be of aid in forming a proper con- ception of just what the need is along the line of train- 104 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD ing for individual work and of what ought to be done to meet this need. First let us present the observa- tions of superintendents who think that the normal school is not training teachers so that they know how to meet the needs of individual children. A superin- tendent from a representative Massachusetts city writes : 1. "I am sure that they (the teachers) do not understand how or realize the importance of reaching the individual child. It seems to me that this matter should be an essential part of their training from the practical as well as the theoretical side." 2. "I think," writes another superintendent from a large city in the same state, "the teachers generally, no matter where they are trained, do not know how to reach the individual child. I think that the atmosphere of the normal schools and also of the schools themselves in which the teachers are engaged is in both cases unsympathetic so far as the importance of the individual child is concerned. The individual is the very basis of the Froebelian idea and when I get teachers trained in a kindergarten training school I almost always get the right attitude towards this question. However, as most superintendents and prin- cipals look upon this subject, it does not take long to knock that idea out of the teacher. "There is another difficulty, and that is the radical, and as I hold them, unpractical views of those who do advocate concentration on the individual. A teacher cannot, in a class of fifty, in the ordinary arrangement of that class, jump to the ideal; but usually the agitator says that she can, and she therefore sets him down as impractical. But she can do something. She can divide her class into two, three, or four parts, or she can have special pupils for special consideration, and she can gradually lead up to an individual consideration of pupils. " The observations of these two superintendents bring out clearly the need of individual training, also the attitude of both the normal schools and of many superintendents toward individual work. The second statement is sound in stressing Froebelian principles as the basis for giving the teachers the right idea of the child's individuality. The division of classes suggested is, of course, in line with the special plans of grading suggested in another section of this study. The writer has in mind a city superintendent who forbade one of his teachers to give individual TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 105 instruction to needy pupils on the ground that it made such pupils dependent. He failed, of course, to dis- tinguish between coaching and teaching, and deprived the teacher of the opportunity of doing much good. 3. "I should say," writes a superintendent from Indiana, "that the teachers, as they come from the normal school, have only a theoreti- cal preparation for work with individual children. I find even after they have practiced under a skillful teacher for a half year, that they still are slow in applying their psychological and pedagogical knowledge. This, of course, is not at all strange and only experience directed in such a way that the individual is emphasized can strengthen this weakness." A superintendent from Alabama writes: 4. " Normal training is deficient in this respect. " One from California: 5. "Not nearly as well as they should (be trained)." A Connecticut superintendent, a recognized au- thority on school administration, has this to say: 6. "Only the teacher of natural teaching disposition ever cares for the individual, which is the essence of good individual teaching. Normal school training tends to destroy this love for persons, but does not always or even often destroy it." A superintendent of a large city in Illinois writes as follows: 7. "Of course it depends upon the normal school, the instructors in some giving considerable attention to the individual child idea, but I think the majority fail in this respect and either never acquire this ability or else the first year is spent floundering about in a vain endeavor to adapt themselves. One difficulty with normal teachers is that they are so well satisfied with themselves that they are unable to appreciate the peculiar needs of individual pupils in the public schools." 8. "I have to state," says a Kentucky superintendent, that the teachers as ordinarily trained in our normal schools scarcely ever know how to deal with the individual child." Again from a Michigan superintendent comes the statement : 9. "I am quite strongly convinced that our normal schools do not train teachers sufficiently in the direction of reaching the individual child. The emphasis, as I observe it, is placed almost exclusively on class instruction. While this is important it should not exclude in- struction in individual work." 106 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Another Massachusetts superintendent observes : 10. "Our normal courses are too short to give their students any great skill in handling any but the generally normal child and their methods are bound to be crude. They are not skillful in their work. If they know thoroughly the underlying principles, they will in time become skillful in adapting them to the need of the pupil. " In criticism of this opinion it may be said that experience has shown that very few experienced teachers have any adequate idea of what individual teaching means and that the more experience they gain in class work the further away they find them- selves from the right idea of individual teaching. Furthermore very few of the normal schools give any knowledge of the underlying principles of individual instruction and still fewer give any opportunity for the apprentice-teacher to apply such principles under skilled supervision. It is unnecessary to give more opinions from super- intendents who think that teachers are not adequate- ly trained in our normal schools to do individual teach- ing. The opinions quoted show the general tendency of thought in this direction. There are, on the other hand, a few superintendents who think that our normal school teachers are ade- quately trained. It is only fair to give them a hearing. A well-known Massachusetts superintendent gives this answer to the question we have been considering: "It is a very difficult matter for a normal school to make veteran teachers in a two years' course. It can do little more than put the young teachers on the right road and trust to experience under proper supervision to keep her there. I think that the Massachusetts normal schools are working in general along right lines." Another Massachusetts superintendent of ability and long experience replies: "Judging from the work of the Normal School I answer 'Yes.'" A Colorado superintendent writes of these teachers that "at the time of their graduation they are just TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 107 beginning to know": while the superintendent of a large New England city answers emphatically: "I most certainly do." Out of the fifty-six opinions, there are only seven that would seem to endorse the present training of teachers in the direction of reaching the individual child. It may be stated that the author of the first of the four opinions just given is a firm believer in class in- struction and it would be natural for him to think that teachers trained wholly for class work were sufficiently trained for individual teaching. The three other superintendents who express opinions favorable to the present system of training are, however, strongly in favor of individual work as an aid to class work. It is gratifying to know that these few superintend- ents, at least, have found their teachers prepared to give individual instruction. A visit to schools in different parts of the country will, however, convince anyone who has a correct idea of what individual teaching means that not only does the young teacher fresh from the normal school have little idea of the methods and aims of individual instruction, but the teacher of experience is, in ninety- nine cases out of every hundred, even more ignorant. Nor is this strange when we take into account that the principles governing the technique of individual teach- ing have not been taught to the normal school graduate nor are they available in printed form to the older teachers. What the Normal Schools are Doing in the Way of Training Teachers for Individual Work The next step in the study is to find what the directors of normal schools are doing and thinking along the line of preparing teachers to meet the needs 108 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD of individual children. To this end questionaires were sent to many of the normal school principals in the different states. They were asked to answer along with several others this question: "What is done in your normal school to train pupil-teachers to teach pupils who for one reason or another need individual aid?" The principals replying to this question represent nor- mal schools in thirty different states, so it is safe to assume that the facts stated present conditions as they exist in all parts of the United States. It is worth while to consider some of these answers as they pre- sent information that is nowhere else available. A number of these replies are here given. 1. "Instruction in child study has dealt especially with these (pupils): a room (practice training) for backward children has been maintained; girls in regular practice training rooms are especially charged with work with such pupils." 2. "The students spend twenty weeks in the public schools. During that time they are constantly required to give individual help to backward pupils. 3. "In the course in school economy, the normal student's atten- tion is called to the class of children referred to above. Their needs are discussed and suggestions are made for meeting these needs. In the training department such pupils are taken out for individual tutoring, and that seems to be helpful. They are examined as to their eyes, ears, and teeth as well as for adenoid growths, and recommendations are made to the parents for their correction. When such corrections have been made, the attention of the student teacher is called to it so that she may watch results. " 4. "In my own course in pedagogy, I place a good deal of emphasis on the needs of individuals, and discuss with my students several plans for individual instruction that have been most favorably received by educators. In addition to this we give as much attention as possible to individual instruction in the practice school but not in a particularly systematic way. In the school in this city, each of our seniors has an opportunity to work one week under the group and individual system." 5. "A great deal of attention is given in the practice school at , to the individual, both by himself, in groups, and in his class. Individual pupils are assigned to pupil teachers. The pupil teacher has groups of children, and she works with divisions and with a whole class. This is what the principal of the practice school says upon this point: 'The pupil teachers in the practice school begin work with individual pupils as soon as they begin their practice school work, and TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 109 continue it throughout the course. At the same time, however, they have an opportunity to work with a division, or an entire class at times that they may develop power to handle a class and get a standard of good grade work." 6. "As part of her psychology work, each pupil makes several minute studies of individuals. In the training school, she will assist individual pupils as occasions arise for such help." 7. "We have individual instruction where the needs of the pupils require it and make some adapted applications of the Batavia system." 8. "They (apprentice teachers) are taught theory and given practice." 9. "In our training schools there are not enough defective pupils to need the individual aid that you mention; at the same time we con- stantly assign pupil teachers to the business of bringing up pupils who are back in their work, due to sickness or absence or any other reason : it is very interesting to us how normal pupils are as regards their per- sonal qualifications and progress." 10. "We assign such pupils to training teachers who give them individual instruction and make special study of their cases." 11. "The pupil teacher is directed by the critic-teacher and the superintendent of the practice school as to the best way to aid the back- ward pupil; sometimes this is done in class hours; sometimes out of class. We are giving more emphasis than ever before to training pupils in the fine art of study, especially those who seem never to have dis- covered how." 12. "Personally I do not believe in training to the extent that it seems to be believed in by New Englanders and by some of the new and youthful professors of education in teachers' colleges of universities. I think the dog and pony show illustrates the "high water mark" of training. Our effort here is to secure high intelligence and the greatest possible adaptability so as to accustom students to rely upon their own initiative for difficult situations. We, therefore, do very little of train- ing for the instruction of individual children." It is hard to see just how the conclusion here given follows from the premises. 13. "Very little more than is done or attempted in any school where the inadequacy of the 'all class' method is appreciated, but no systematic or organized effort is made to meet the need. We do pro- vide for some of the kind of work suggested in your next question but it has not been done in a very general or regular way." 14. "The Critic Teachers and Principal make a close study of individuals and their needs when they are in the practice schools, and advise with the 'Pupil Teachers' concerning these matters, sometimes suggesting and sometimes directing that individual help be given where needed. Our senior normal students teach during the entire senior year, both class and individual teaching being their portion. We thus endeavor to habituate them to a thoughtful and systematic procedure in relation to the 'one' not the 'many,' although, of course, the latter is ever a problem in schools everywhere." 110 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 15. "We follow substantially the plan you suggest in '2' and I believe it good for both pupil and teacher." 16. "The work in psychology has this in mind. The pupil teach- ers are given turns at such kind of practice teaching. The supervisor of practice looks after this as well as the regular class teaching by pupil teachers." 17. "We stress this kind of work. Some student teachers give a large part of their time during the spring term to this kind of work. The children are taken to a separate room and given this kind of work while others are reciting to supervising teachers or some other teacher. " 18. "Study, observation, and some practice in connection with Chapter XIV, Bagley's Classroom Management, also a consideration of Pueblo, Pocatello, Shearer, and New York City group plans. We give special aid at the study lesson and special attention at the recita- tion lesson. "Small groups of such pupils are formed wherever necessary and students teach them under the direction of critic teachers." 19. "Special effort is made to help individuals in our training schools and a large part of it is done by students of the normal school who are practicing in the various grades. The aim is to have each child advance as fast as possible." 20. "Additional student teachers are assigned so that they may be taught to give individual instruction and that it may be given in the least time possible, consistent with thorough work." 21. "In the first place our student teachers understand that in the lower grades in the elementary schools, pupils should be taught to some extent individually even when they are taught in classes, and that some of the class instruction should be individual direction and guidance at their seats or at the teacher's desk. Besides, especially in the elementary grades, we usually have two or three groups of pupils who need a great deal of individual attention. Certain students are assigned a group of pupils to be taught by them individually in quite small groups. 22. "We have no systematic organization to train teachers to teach retarded pupils. We train them to recognize retarded pupils and to group them and to help them individually all that is possible in order that they may be given something helpful, but we have no systematically developed room for this specific purpose. I am inclined to think it may come to that, but on the other hand it looks to me as if the general public school teacher had to be trained to recognize these pupils and to arrange their work so that she may be able to give them individual aid. With the exception of the large cities, special teachers for retarded pupils are not going to be employed, at least in the near future, so we shall have to work it out along with the regular pupils that are of normal standard. 23. "General study of conditions which lead to defective work in individual children is made a definite part of their (pupil teachers) last term of psychology. Each student is given certain special students (pupils) to study while teaching in the training schools. Determined effort is made to interest each student teacher in backward and special TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 111 24. "i. Particular attention is given to the psychology of individual differences as stated in Thorndike's Principles of Teaching. "ii. Even small classes are usually sectioned on the basis of ability and practice teachers are enabled to help in this sectioning. "hi. The meeting of individual needs of backward pupils is as- signed to practice teachers. "iv. This individual coaching is closely supervised." A summary of the foregoing statements reveals indications of progress in the line of attention to the needs of individual pupils. The needs of such children are studied in courses in child study, pedagogy, school economy, or in psy- chology at several of the normal schools. One normal school makes a special study of the various plans that have been devised for better adapting school work to the needs of the individual. One, at least, has the teachers pay particular attention to detecting physical defects of eye, ear, nose, or throat of the pupil, and when such defects have been remedied, the pupil teachers watch for results in the improvement of the work of such pupils. Two of the schools report that each of the pupil teachers makes a detailed study of several individual children. In some schools the pupil teachers are taught to reach the individual by breaking the classes into small groups; in others the pupil teachers take needy pupils to other rooms for special help; in still other schools, a modified use of the Batavia System is in vogue, under which the pupil teacher teaches individual pupils in the regular class room while the room teacher is engaged in class work, thus antici- pating the plan advocated in another section of this study. In a few schools serious thought seems to have been given to this question which as one school man puts it, is the "central problem" of school instruc- tion. In such schools the individual work is care- fully planned for and as carefully supervised. Some normal-school men confuse individual teaching with tutoring and coaching. Individual teaching if rightly 112 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD done is neither tutoring, nor coaching. Tutoring and coaching consist largely in helping the pupils along, in doing their thinking for them; individual instruc- tion never does this; if rightly employed, it helps the pupils to help themselves by developing power to think. The former kind of work makes for weakness, the latter, for strength. A Plan for Training Teachers It is clear to those who have given the problem much study that if real progress is to be made in the way of training teachers to reach individual pupils effectively some definite plan of procedure must be mapped out for attaining the desired end. Such a plan is suggested in the following question which was one of those in the questionaire to superintend- ents and also in that sent normal school principals. It reads thus: "Would not the plan of having the pupil teachers, as a part of their training for a few months at least, do individual work with the needy and backward pupils (such work to be done during the regular school hours while the room teacher is at work with the class) result in giving such teachers a broader and better idea of the teaching process and bring them into closer sympathy with children in general?" Of the fifty-six superintendents who replied to this question forty-eight answered in the affirmative; i. e. to the effect that such a plan of procedure would result in training pupil-teachers to better meet in- dividual needs. One superintendent answered in the negative and seven gave answers too indefinite to be interpreted either for or against the plan. Of the thirty- four normal-school principals answering the question, twenty-one answered in the affirmative, three in the negative, while ten answers were such as " probably" TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 113 or indefinite explanations that could not be counted either for or against the plan. It is plain that even if we should count the answers rated as " indefinite" as negative, a large majority of the superintendents and the normal school men are in favor of some such plan for giving the apprentice teachers more definite training in dealing with individual children. Many of these answers are worth quoting. A number from each group are given: 1. "The plan suggested is in some measure carried out in our practice school. I am in hearty accord with the idea." 2. "Certainly." 3. "Doubtless." 4. "It would be an excellent plan to give each pupil teacher some practice in giving individual instruction to pupils whether backward or not. A clearer view of the psychology of learning would thus be revealed to the teacher." 5. "In my judgment the plan suggested would result in great gain to the slower pupils. In fact, I have much admired the Batavia plan in this respect." 8. "Yes: I think such work could be done with the practice teachers and we often do some of this work with practice teachers. A pupil teacher is detailed to do work with a backward pupil because of some defect, having lost time, defective eyes, ears, or brain. Some- times two or three pupils of this sort are given instruction together. " 7. "The normal schools find it difficult to secure facilities for prac- tice under which they can train teachers to handle individual pupils as well as classes. Not one practice school in forty in America is suffi- cient to the situation." 8. "Certainly. All normal students should come to understand that many pupils in every school require considerable individual in- struction and that the teacher must know her pupils individually and adapt her instruction to them. Even though a class should be as well graded as practicable, the fact that a dozen or twenty pupils are taught together in a class should not obscure the duty of the teacher to know the individual needs and progress of her pupils and have individual help and guidance in view." 9. "Certainly We've tried it. " 10. "It would be a capital idea. We cannot do it for lack of room." 11. "Yes. This is what we do. We stress this idea, 'Teach children, not books.'" 12. "We do this very thing. This individual work of the pupil teacher precedes her class work. " 13. "Yes, undoubtedly." 114 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 14. "We do this and encourage our student teachers to do all they can along that line. " 15. "It is a very excellent idea and it is practical." 16. "I think the plan would yield good results. We have found it does whenever we have been able to work in that direction. " 17. "Our plan suggested above provides for this; but we do not limit the work to the 'backward.' We endeavor to make the matter of classification of pupils flexible in the better sense; therefore many of the pupils are able to earn an extra promotion by receiving a little help . It does not seem desirable to limit the teachers so-called extra help to the Retarded or to the Born-shorts; the important thing is to keep each child educatively busy up to the limit of his powers and capabilities, — not merely 'busy/ however. In my judgment the Normal School that does not provide for this kind of training of its students falls short, very short, of a fairly good ideal." 18. "My answer is: Perhaps so. But the nature of our situa- tion here is such that we could not get very many students to participate in giving instruction to individual children. Students here are very independent. They, up to the present time, get the best positions in the profession throughout a territory about one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles in extent. They have to leave us before any such specialization is attainable. Moreover, the health and general tone of the children in our part of the state are so good and the means of classi- fication such that there would be little call for the special training which your question refers to. And even if such special instruction were necessary in the actual school, I do not see how we could attain very desirable results by such training. In our academic classes we occa- sionally call weak students or very bright ones aside and have them individually coached a httle; and pretty nearly every day some of our teachers have some students remaining after school hours to receive special help, but this practice is quite common in the schools of Missouri, and does not, as it seems to me, need very much attention in the Nor- mal School. It is such a natural thing. It results from good intelli- gence and sympathetic attitude towards those taught." It may be said by way of comment on the views just expressed, that the occasional help referred to is in the great majority, i. e. almost all schools, so occasion- al as to be of slight account. Furthermore the intelli- gence and naturalness attendant upon keeping pupils after school to learn what the school during the regular hours has not given them a fair chance to learn, may well be challenged. The teacher who has been well trained in the principles of individual instruction will be able to find a more natural as well as a more intelligent way of reaching needy pupils than by keep- ing them after school hours. TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 115 19. "I see no objection to your proposition to have a teacher assigned to the needy and backward pupils. At the same time our experience would lead us to think that the number of needy and back- ward pupils is not very large in the majority of schools and that the conception of a need of individual instruction is very easily exaggerated. The best plan that we have found is to classify each student in work that he can take in the elementary schools according to his progress and ability in each subject. This is possible if one has a uniform pro- gram so that arithmetic is taught all at the same hour and other sub- jects likewise." 20. "No. The great need of girls who come to this Normal School to become teachers is a broad, comprehensive knowledge of chil- dren as a whole, — as a type of mankind; not unusual children in any respect, peculiar or subnormal children, but plain, matter of fact, every day children. It is correct neither psychologically nor pedagogically, to have beginners in any form of learning, take up, at first, exceptions. You people who think so are not educationally sound. Neither the race nor the individual works upon these fines. Pupil teachers have no breadth of view. They are selfish, egotistical, and provincial in their interests. When they have been taught general conceptions concerning children, let them begin to take up the peculiar work of the care of the needy and backward children." 21. "No. — Just the contrary. The pupil teacher needs contact with numbers of children rather than with a few individuals." 22. "I do not believe in this method to any large extent." The Technique of Individual Instruction The real artist gets close to his canvas and a knowledge of the technique of his art enables hirn to give an effective touch now here, now there, and to bring his whole work nearer the ideal. He works now on this individual part, now on that, with a view to the greater unity of the whole. It must be so with the artist teacher. The knowledge of the technique of the art of teaching must lead him to touch now this pupil now that pupil in such a way that each may be brought unto unity with the class. In this way class work may become a harmonious work of art. There is a technique of individual teaching, a knowledge of which, combined with the knowledge of the technique of class teaching, will enable the teacher by intelligent practice to so touch the minds of the individuals in the class as to make the class work a unity. Some of the important principles 116 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD governing the technique of individual instruction have been rather definitely formulated. These prin- ciples must be mastered by the teacher who would do effective individual work. Here are a few of these principles : 1. First, the aim of individual teaching is to develop power in the mind of the pupil taught, without reference to any standard other than the pupil's own best good. This, of course, must be the only aim of individual teaching in the special school for defective children. In the regular school, however, this primary aim may be supplemented by the secondary aim: to bring about class unity. Class unity is very different from class uniformity. Class unity does not mean that every pupil will be able to do what every other pupil in the class can do. It merely means that each pupil is so taught that he can pursue the class work with profit. 2. Individual teaching must begin where the pupil has real knowledge. It is to go back until it finds the pupil's preperception or apperception mass and there begin to build. Recognition of this prin- ciple is fundamental to success in individual teaching; yet failure to recognize it is the most common fault of teachers who employ individual instruction. They are so anxious for the pupils to progress rapidly that they help them on the lesson of the day, and, as the pupil has no sure foundation on which to build, such individual teaching is largely a waste of time. The teacher who would really teach a needy child must go back, back, back until she strikes the rock of real knowledge in the mind of the child. Thus a teacher may need to teach an eighth grade pupil some principle that should have been mastered in the fifth, fourth, or even the third grade. This is what many individual teach- ers fail to do, and this is why they fail. There must TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 117 be a solid foundation before there can be a permanent superstructure. 3. The teacher must lead the pupil to master the difficulties for himself. This is done by not telling him anything that he can be led by judicious questioning to discover for himself. If, however, the teacher finds the pupil has not sufficient data in his mind from which to draw right conclusions, she tells him the necessary facts at once. Telling at the right time is true teaching. Furthermore, the teacher does noth- ing for the pupil that he can do for himself. It is, of course, much easier for the teachers to show pupils how to do certain things than it is to lead their pupils to do the things for themselves. To say to a pupil — "This is the way. Don't you see how it is done?" at the same time doing the work for the pupil re- quires little effort from the teacher. Such procedure gives the teacher practice but leaves the pupil weaker than before. It is quite a different thing to find out just what a pupil knows on some point and with this knowledge as a basis, lead him to master some new and more difficult thing. It is hard and often slow work, but it counts. The development method is true teach- ing; the showing method is its counterfeit. 4. The teacher must discover the pupils who need aid; she must not wait for the pupils to ask for aid. If the teacher's work is wholly individual she must hold frequent conferences with the regular class teacher with regard to the needs of different pupils. She may also now and then spend the whole or a part of the recitation period watching the regular class work in order that she may see just what the different pupils are doing in class work. This will give her a better basis for individual work. The class teacher will, of course, keep a list of those pupils whom she is to refer to the individual teacher with 1 18 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD notes as to their difficulties for the guidance of the individual teacher. Examination of the daily written work, and also of the tests will reveal the weak points of many pupils. It is really astonishing how little the ordinary class teacher knows of the weak points of the individual members of her class. This lack of knowledge results from not studying the pupils indi- vidually. Such individual study is a requisite to effective teaching. There are, of course, many other ways to dis- cover the deficiencies of different pupils. The chief thing is, however, for the individual teacher to find those pupils who most need her aid. If she pursues the policy of waiting for pupils to ask for aid she will find herself aiding many pupils who really need no aid and neglecting others who need aid most but will never ask for it, if left to take the initiative. It may, however, be well at some period during the day, or perhaps at two or three periods during the week, to give opportunity for any pupil to ask for aid. Such periods may do much to combat the idea that the individual periods are for the slow pupils only. 5. The teacher must take a positive, patient, sympathetic attitude towards the pupil to be helped. There is no greater motive to effort in any line than to have someone say "I believe in you." The teacher must believe in the pupil, must believe that he is going to improve and must be on the watch for even slight manifestations of improvement; yet she must not be impatient if these improvements are not appar- ent even after weeks or months of work. The sound- ness of this principle is proved by the work with men- tally defective children whose improvement is often due to years of patient endeavor on the part of the teacher. It is the positive, patient, sympathetic attitude that does much to make the individual work effective. TRAINING TEACHERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TEACHING 119 6. Individual instruction as a rule should be given in the regular schoolroom, in the presence of the class but apart from it. The individual teacher calls the pupil needing aid to her desk; she does not take him from the room. He works in the presence of his mates and after a few minutes of work he returns to his seat among them and another pupil takes his place at the individual teacher's desk. In this principle is in- volved the psychology of class membership with all that it means to the individual pupil. The pupils who are sent from the room for individual help are differen- tiated from the other members of the class and they feel it. The classroom is the child's school home and he should be kept in it so far as possible. Furthermore, the teacher who receives pupils for individual instruc- tion in a room apart from the regular classroom can- not know the pupils as she can by seeing them and working with them in the regular classroom. Of course, it must be admitted that individual instruction given by a second teacher outside of the regular classroom will be productive of valuable results; yet, we believe that the contention above made will be borne out by facts gained from experience. 7. The teacher should as a rule help only one pupil at a time. This is the only way to give real individual instruction. Two or more pupils make a class and unless they are weak on exactly the same point, one must wait while the other works. These are some of the fundamental principles which must be observed if a teacher is to succeed in individual teaching. The significance of these principles is rarely if ever understood by teachers in general. The normal schools must teach these prin- ciples and emphasize their importance, if the graduates of these schools are to be effective individual teachers. 120 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Nine ADJUSTMENT OR UNGRADED CLASSES When our schools are adjusted to the needs of individual children there will be, in addition to the regular classes which will care for the great majority, Rapid or Promotion Classes for the gifted pupils and Adjustment or Ungraded Classes for the retarded or slow, but not abnormal pupils. Goddard's study showed that about 15 per cent, of the pupils in the first six grades of the public school system he investi- gated were in need of adjustment classes. The individual supervisor, or as someone has called her, the class mother, or life-saver, will be the mediator between the regular classes and these special classes, taking care to see that no pupil is out of adjust- ment. The Mannheim system, as we have already pointed out, makes provision for the slower pupils in a special division of so-called parallel classes, and this plan has been adopted in some other cities in Germany and in a few other countries. Associate Superintendent Straubenmiller of New York City suggests in the New York City School Report for 1910, a modification of this plan for New York City. The general plan, however, in this country is to provide for such pupils so-called Ungraded Classes, corresponding very closely in organization to the old country school. These ungraded or adjustment classes, when they are properly organized, are for the normal pupils only. The aim should be primarily to enable the pupils placed ADJUSTMENT OR UNGRADED CLASSES 121 in them to strengthen their weak points so that event- ually they can be returned to the regular classes; these classes should also be attended by such pupils as may be a little out of adjustment, due, perhaps, to sickness or a change of residence. There can be no better name for them than adjustment classes. The teacher of such a class is the regular adjuster and the individual teacher or supervisor, is the special adjuster. There has been a loss somewhere, somehow, and these skilled adjusters are making it good. In a large school there should be at least two of these " adjustment classes"; one composed of pupils representing the first four grades, the other of those of the last four grades. It should be kept in mind that these adjustment classes in no way correspond to the so-called ungraded classes in New York City which are really classes for mentally defective pupils and would much better be called ' ' accommodation classes " ; in them the school work is arranged to accommodate men- tally defective pupils. In the ' ' adj ustment class ' ' the pu- pils are being fitted to work in the normal classes, while in the Promotion or Rapid Classes of which we have spoken elsewhere, the gifted pupils are trying to cover the course of study in less than the regular time. It is unfortunate that so much confusion exists in the nomenclature of special classes. The Schoolroom for the Adjustment Class. It hardly need be said that a room in order to be a place of hope and opportunity should be large, clean, bright and cheerful, and well-equipped with the necessary books and apparatus. Too often such a class is assigned to some dark, dingy, ill-equipped room ; and the class which needs the most gets along with the least. The time is coming when the school houses will be planned in such a way that these rooms will be 122 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD provided. A building planned to accommodate eight regular classes should have at least eleven classrooms. Number of Pupils in the Adjustment Class If a single teacher must handle the ungraded or adjustment class there should never be more than 25 pupils, and 20 is a better number ; 25 can be accom- modated if the individual teacher can spend at least an hour a day in the room, while 30 or 35 pupils may do superior work in such a room if there can be an individ- ual teacher who can devote a half day or more to the needs of individual pupils. Indeed, the opinion is ventured that such a room can never become a true place of hope and encouragement until there is one teacher to do the class work and another to do the individual work. Then things really move and results are accomplished. The writer has had the supervision of such a room at Westerly, Rhode Island, for several years, where two teachers, one doing class work, one doing individual work, have worked with from twenty-five to thirty pupils (a few of the pupils being subnormal). The results in this room have fully justified the added expense of the extra teacher. One boy who started in the lowest division of this room (a first grade) four years ago was this year, owing to the start he received there, promoted to the eighth grade. Under the reg- ular class plan he would doubtless just be entering a fifth grade. The writer is almost convinced that an ad- justment class cannot really become an efficient instru- ment until it has the individual teacher to aid the class teacher in strengthening the weak places in the class. The Teacher The teacher of the adjustment room must believe in her own power of accomplishment as a teacher and ADJUSTMENT OR UNGRADED CLASSES 123 in the ability of even the slowest child to make progress. She must be rated plus on humanity, sympathy, pa- tience, and cheerfulness. In addition she must be a skillful teacher in all that the phrase implies, a learner whose mind is ever open to new truth. She must know the human mind, especially the child mind, and how it unfolds and in order to know that she must know the whole nature of the child; she will then have a genetic view of life from its very beginning. To such a teacher, the work of guiding children will never seem a narrow, tedious grind. Such a teacher can inspire, can teach, because her own soul is aflame. The equipment of the individual teacher has been described elsewhere. Course of Study The course of study for the Adjustment Class need not differ materially from that for the regular classes except that the pupils' weak subjects should be stressed; and, if need be, a pupil should be allowed to drop a given study for a time in order to put more time on work in which he may be weak; or a pupil may have "gone stale" on a certain subject and thus need to drop it for a time until he can take it up with new zest. The writer knows of a case where a bright boy became dull in arithmetic. His mother consulted a well known psychologist who advised that the boy drop arithmetic for a time which he did with the result that later he took up the work again and carried it along with success. Sometimes the ding-donging process needs to be modified. Adjustment Classes in New York City In addition to the so-called "ungraded classes" which as we have seen are really auxiliary or "accom- 124 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD modation" classes for mentally defective pupils), New York City provides three types of specially graded classes called C, D and E classes. The C classes are for non-English speaking children who need to be taught English as rapidly as possible in order that they may take their places in a regular class; D classes are for "certificate pupils" who are soon to be fourteen years old, (the minimum age limit for school attendance in New York) and will then leave school to go to work. In the D classes such pupils are given instruction in the "essential" subjects in order that they may reach the legal requirements as to scholarship before leaving. E classes are for over-age pupils and are designed to enable these pupils to make more rapid progress than they could in the regular grades, and thus be able to gain extra promotions. An interesting study, show- ing the efficiency of the D and E classes is made by City Superintendent W. H. Maxwell in his annual report for 1910, pp. 97 to 103. Adjustment School in Syracuse, N. Y. The ungraded or adjustment school of Syracuse, New York, according to the late Superintendent A. B. Blodgett "suitably provides for the needs of children who are overgrown, that is, large for the grade in which they would necessarily have to recite, and are backward from such causes as absence from school, and sickness" ; pupils who find it necessary to work a part of the time, those who are out of adjustment through change of schools; some pupils who can do the work in less time than the pupils of the regular grades. To this school are admitted only pupils of the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. The teacher of this school, Miss Falvey, writes that so far as she knows there is no other school like this in existence. ADJUSTMENT OR UNGRADED CLASSES 125 Miss Falvey thinks that some sort of tests of a practical character would be of advantage to determine the mental status of some of the pupils whose parents expect them to do more work than they are capable of doing. Such tests would show the parents what to expect of their children. She is also of the opinion that work done in such a way as "to call the physical activities into play helps with the mental: e. g., pupils accomplish more when working at the blackboard than when set the same tasks at their seats." For the adjustment class Miss Falvey would select a teacher "with an infinite amount of tact, enthusiasm, determination, energy and optimism. Perfect health and no 'nerves' are very essential. The teacher should have had a varied experience, including dealings with the various classes. " Adjustment Schools in Los Angeles That these schools have been a valuable means of diminishing suspensions and corporal punishments is shown by the following table taken from the report of Assistant Superintendent M. C. Bettinger of Los Angeles : "To show the influence of these rooms in the re- duction of corporal punishment and suspensions, I feel that it is worth while to reproduce my tabulation of last year's report, and to add to it the corresponding items for this year. Year Suspensions Corporal Punishments Enrollment 1902-3 218 494 30,909 1903-4 199 483 34,326 1904-5 132 441 37,877 1905-6 116 377 1906-7 72 254 42,998 126 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Other influences have been at work to assist in this movement of diminution of undesirable features of our work, but the ungraded room has been the main agency." The Ungraded Rooms of the Los Angeles, Cal., school system during the school year 1907-8 enrolled 1006 pupils; of this number 392 were admitted on account of age and size, 236 as a means of correcting deportment, 187 because they "had been out of school one year or more and could not enter a grade." It would seem, however, that the best good of all the children would demand that the "adjustment class" be not used for disciplinary purposes, especially in large cities where there are enough pupils to form regular disciplinary classes; such special classes, it seems to me, might be designated as "training classes." PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 127 Chapter Ten PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS Democracy should not keep talent in the quaran- tine of mediocrity. Thus the discovery and fostering of talent and the setting it to work in the interests of society should be one of the main aims of education in a republic. Society is just beginning to see that equality before the law must not be confused with natural equality. This confusion has doubtless led to some delay in society's concern for the highest development of its human resources. In the old form of caste education, the son could not rise above the station of his father. The fear that a differentiated education would develop caste has, doubtless, led many to assume that in a democracy all should be educated alike. This fear is well founded if the development of superior powers leads, in general, to a drain upon society in the way of wasteful luxury, inordinate pleas- ure-seeking, and immoral example, evidenced by a degenerate, ease-loving progeny. But democratic so- ciety is coming more and more to see that this following of false ideals of life by some of its members is due to its own failure to provide proper educational opportuni- ties for all its children. The people's schools have all along been cheap schools, far too cheap to be education- ally efficient. This fact has led Dr. C. W. Eliot to assert that American schools can never do their work well until the people make some approach to paying for public education what many parents are now willing to pay for the private education of their children. Dr. 128 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD John Dewey never said a wiser thing than this : " What the best and wisest parent wants for the education of his child that should the community want for all its children." Some writers and speakers, more promi- nent than wise, are forever dinning our ears with state- ments concerning the vast sums the nation is expending for education, which in the aggregate seem amazingly large, nearly $400,000,000 for 18,000,000 children; an expenditure, however, when looked at from the indi- vidual side, of less than twelve cents a day per pupil. Almost no American community spends twenty-five cents a day per pupil for education; yet even the moderate-priced private schools charge at least a dollar a day per pupil for tuition alone. Public schools can be made better than the best private schools for a reasonable expenditure, but to be reasonable it must be much greater than the present expenditure for school purposes. In many places school officials are kept in office because they can man- age the schools on a small expenditure of money, not because they can make the schools more efficient. Why should it be a matter of surprise for a man of means to send his sons and daughters to the public schools? The reason why public education often gets such scant attention at the hands of legislators, both state and national, is because the leaders in such bodies often have little real personal interest in public educa- tion because their own children are in private schools. Witness the penurious policy of Congress toward the National Bureau of Education in its recent attitude toward appropriating some $75,000 for establishing special lines of educational research. Society can never suffer from the evils of the caste system if it is willing to provide proper education, not cheap education, for all its children, to the extent of conserving and developing human power wherever PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 129 found. Under this scheme normal, subnormal and supernormal members of the community will each be provided with educational opportunity, and encouraged and aided to develop up to the full extent of individual ability. Our educational scheme has been organized to fit the average normal child. Until very recently it had never occurred to educators to differentiate the educational scheme to fit different degrees of mental endowment. In speaking of the establishment of special schools in America, a German writer in Die Hilfsschule states that their development has been slow because their establishment was thought to violate the democratic ideal of human equality. This ideal has had to give way before the advance of scientific knowledge, espe- cially in the realm of the psychology of the feeble-minded. It is now generally accepted that these mentally weak members of the human family can never by any human means become normal men and women. They can, however, by specially organized schools with a special curriculum and specially trained teachers be vastly im- proved in their mental, moral, and physical condition, and to a greater or less degree made self-supporting, and by proper supervision made less a menace to society. Society has of late years given a great deal of study to the subnormal or feeble-minded child, although much remains to be done even here. No doubt much will be done in the next few years in the line of investi- gating the pathological causes of mental retardation in normal children. Lugaro 1 points out that "Investigation into sub- jects in whom the mental deficiency is very slight, into the so-called deficient or backward children, would be of especial interest because they already present from 1 Modern Problems in Psychiatry, p. 234. 130 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD the clinical and psychological sides many differentiating signs which in all probability are dependent on ex- tremely diverse pathological processes. " We may thus some day discover the neural causes of backwardness. On the other hand almost nothing has been done to investigate psychologically or in any other manner the possession of superior mental endowment by cer- tain children. We do not know how many such children there are in the average community. We do know that about 1% of the children of school age in a given com- munity are so feeble-minded as to need special schools, that from 7 to 10% more (Goddard says 15%) are so backward as to need supplementary teaching in the way of individual help either by special individual teachers (Batavia Plan), by Parallel Classes (Mann- heim System), or in the ungraded room (Adjustment Class). We do not know, however, of the 85 to 90% of the school children who remain, how many are gifted with superior mental powers to such a degree that instruction should be differentiated for them. Dr. F. G. Bonser 2 thinks that " perhaps the worst type of retardation in the schools is withholding appropriate promotion from those pupils who are the most gifted, therefore of the most significance as social capital." This statement is made as a result of a study of the reasoning ability of children of the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Dr. Bonser found that many children of the fourth grade had mental powers superior to many children in the sixth grade, yet the graded system made no provision for the adequate develop- ment of these powers. Dr. G. M. Whipple of Cornell, it is reported, will soon open a clinic to be especially devoted to the study 2 The Reasoning Ability of Children of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth School Grade. Teachers College, 1910. PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 131 of the supernormal child. In commenting on the fact, Dr. J. E. W. Wallin 3 makes the assertion that the super- normal child has been most neglected of all, due, he thinks, to the fact that the children on the plus side of the efficiency curve are not so numerous as those who constitute the retarded group, and to the fact that they do not trig the wheels of the school machine. "But the supernormal, or precocious child, is the incipient genius." Dr. H. H. Goddard 4 in his recent study of some 2000 school children of a certain school system is authority for the statement that about 4% of the children in the public schools possess mental power so superior to the average child as to demand special opportunities in the way of special classes and courses of study for their development. For ascertaining the degree of mental ability, or mental age, the Binet-Simon tests were used. Children whose mental age was more than two years above their chronological age were considered as possessing mental power sufficient to entitle them to be designated as "gifted." It is to be doubted, however, whether a child who exhibits power to answer the questions three years above his mental level could thereby be considered so gifted as to require special educational advantages without further tests. The child's previous environmental conditions may have played an important part in giving him knowledge sufficient to answer many of the Binet-Simon questions. The suggestions of Meumann 5 along the line of determining the degree of mental endowment (Bega- bung) by finding the relation between practice and 3 See article, Clinical Psychology and the Psycho-Clinieist, p. 123 Journal of Educational Psychology, March, 1911. 4 See article, Two Thousand Children Measured by Binet Measur- ing Scale of Intelligence, Ped. Sem. June 1911, p. 236' 6 See Vorlesungen, Vol. II, pp. 375-6. 132 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD ability to execute, by establishing norms of perform- ance by which we may measure marked general or special ability in individual cases and by ascertaining the degree of spontaneity that characterizes certain activities and what is closely related, the natural impulse to certain kinds of work, will doubtless result sometime in standards of direct use to schools. Dr. William Stern of Breslau says in a recent article that society cannot afford to neglect the super- normal or gifted children. He does not mean by the supernormal the genius in the sense of Galton and Baldwin, but the child "that possesses in quanti- tatively superior forms capacities that are generally exhibited by individuals at large." According to Stern there are two types of gifted children, the speci- fically, and the universally supernormal. To the first type belong children who are exceptionally gifted in any one line such as music, mathematics, drawing, or painting, the technical arts ; or in the learning of lan- guages; to the second type belong children who seem to be endowed with superior mental powers in all lines of activity. "Those who belong to this group are the great intellects." Stern cites the investigation which Kerschen- steiner carried out on some 50,000 Munich school children to discover those who had marked artistic ability. The children were asked "to make freehand drawings of specified objects, both from memory and from nature." In this way were discovered some children, in most cases the children of poor parents^ who showed remarkable talent, that had in the majority of cases not been properly appraised by the school. Kerschensteiner saw to it that these children were assigned to art schools or arts and crafts schools where they would have the opportunity to develop these latent powers. "But," observes Dr. Stern, "what PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 133 would have become of these children had not Ker- schensteiner chanced to make his experiment? And how much similar talent may smoulder unrecognized in other places where no one thinks of making such tests?" Stern protests against the practice of prematurely developing children who show marks of talent. These " child prodigy monstrosities" are "often prematurely developed gems of human talent, " a sacrifice to the "avarice and passion for fame of deluded parents." "Quiet, harmonious, general development," should be the lot of all children. J. Petzoldt, in a pamphlet entitled Sonderschulen fur hervorragend Befahigte, 6 advocated the establish- ment of special schools for the exceptionally gifted. He also, according to Stern, suggests that in a large city like Berlin, the twenty most gifted pupils from Quinta (the second-year class in the Gymnasium) (age ten to eleven years), should be sought each year and placed in a special class. "If," says Stern, "suitable teachers are found for such classes and schools, and if they are not made too large, their achieve- ment may be quite extraordinary." Groszmann 7 classifies exceptionally gifted children as pathological and non-pathological. The latter type may, as a rule, he says, be permitted to progress in school at their own rate, but there are special times, e. g., certain growth periods, such as puberty, when certain nervous tensions may develop, so that the physical health of such pupils needs careful watching. Under the pathologically gifted, Groszmann includes "the genius, the Wunderkind, and the idiot-savant." A real genius is a Wunderkind grown up. Leonardo 6 Teubner, Leipsic, 1905. 7 See article The Exceptionally Bright Child, Proceedings, Grosz- mann School. 10th Anniversary, pp. 103-112. 134 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Da Vinci was a genius of the general type; Mozart of the particular type. Mozart was clearly a pathological genius. Dr. Groszmann thinks that the following remark of young William James Sidis, the eleven-year- old prodigy who is said to lecture to Harvard professors on the fourth dimension, indicates that he is warped somewhat in his mental make-up. "He remarked one day: 'I wonder whether school children in future generations will celebrate this as a holiday because it was the day on which I began the study of the physical sciences '"(!) Barr 8 intimates that "backwardness and precocity in early childhood are indicative of an abnormal ego." Dr. G. E. Shuttleworth would appear not to favor the attempt to. develop the gifted, for he thinks that a marked departure from the normal in one generation in the ascending direction is but too apt to be com- pensated for by a corresponding deviation downward in the next, or at any rate, in succeeding generations. Nature dearly loves an average. Galton 9 thinks that the real genius is bound to rise in spite of all obstacles. He says that the best care that a master can take of a genius is to leave him alone. Hirsch 10 and Baldwin 11 both state that the influence of education upon genius may be important. Says Baldwin, "Many a genius owes the redemption of his intellectual gifts to legitimate social uses, to the victory gained by a teacher and the discipline learned through obedience. And thus it is, also, that so many who in early life give promise of great distinction fail to achieve it. They run off after a phantom, and society pronounces them mad." 8 Mental Defectives, p. 125. 9 Genius and Heredity, p. 34. 10 Genius and Degeneration, p. 107. 11 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 162. PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 135 Provisions for Gifted Pupils in Germany, France, and England The Realschule and the Gymnasium, which the German boy enters at nine years of age and in which an annual tuition fee of about $25 is charged; the Lycee, which takes the French boy at ten or eleven and in which he lives, the annual charge being from $80 to $200; the great English boarding schools, which also receive their pupils at about ten and charge for tuition and board about $1,000 a year, are founded on the principle that a certain proportion of a nation's youth needs special educational advantages. These schools provide an opportunity, especially in Germany, for pupils with special gifts to make an earlier differentia- tion in their educational choices than is possible in the more democratic American schools. This doubt- less leads to more scholarly foundations, and to a more efficient training in preparation for certain lines of professional work; this is especially true in the learning of languages. A boy of ten stands the monotony of the drill incident thereto much better and masters the difficulties of pronunciation much easier than does the boy of fourteen, the age at which the average American boy begins such work in the high school. The German Volksschule has been said by some to lead into a blind alley, but provision is being made in some of these schools, notably those of Charlotten- burg and Mannheim, for giving the abler pupils an opportunity to get an education commensurate with their powers. Ziegler 12 puts much emphasis on the right of the child to become something better than the father and different from him. He also says that the upper ranks of society need the new life and fresh blood from the lower social ranks to keep them from 12 See his Allegemeine Padagogik, Teubner, Berlin, 1905, p. 13. 136 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD degenerating. On the other hand, Ziegler thinks that the schools should be so administered that the rank of the father should not be the means of gaining for the son a cultural or professional education when the abili- ties of the latter have marked him for an education in some trade. He says: "To advise that the son of Mr. Uppermost or Mr. President of the Govern- ment Board become a skillful watchmaker or cabinet- maker would (by the father) be regarded as a down- right insult, as it was when I advised a father to allow his son to become a gardener. " Yet the good of society demands that this be done in order to avoid producing a "cultured proletariat." Provision for the Gifted Pupils Under the Mannheim System For many years the pupils of the Volksschule in Mannheim 13 have had the option of receiving French instruction three afternoons a week after regular school hours from 4.15 to 5.15 o'clock. There were certain objections to this plan; the chief one was the fatigued condition of the children after the long school day. This led the school authorities to do away with French instruction out of school hours and to arrange for special divisions in the upper grades of the free Volks- schule, for such pupils as had shown themselves fitted for the extra study by their industry and the quality of their work, especially in language, and whose parents desired them to take up the extra language. Those pu- pils were chiefly considered who intended to go into com- mercial work and would later attend the commercial continuation school where instruction in French is given. The basal idea of the Mannheim system is the "adaptation of the means of education to the educa- 13 See Mannheim Jahresbericht der Stiiditschen Schulen 1908-9, pp. 21-22. PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 137 bility of the individual pupils. " This new arrangement for meeting the needs of the more gifted pupils is in line with this idea. The plan went into effect in the spring of 1909 and is carried out according to the following regulations : 1. The curriculum of the classes in a foreign language of the Volksschule is, including the number of hours per week, exactly the same as that for grades VI-VIII of the Burgerschule. 2. Pupils composing these classes are chosen from the VI, VII and VIII grades of the Volksschulen of the entire city, including the suburbs, and receive their instruction in school houses centrally located in the Altstadt. 3. A one-year language course with four hours of instruction weekly, given out of school time (after four o'clock in the afternoon) must be taken by all fifth-grade pupils who wish to enter upon the work of the regular foreign language classes. These prelim- inary courses are given at the regular schools, the pupils taking such courses being members of the regular classes. 4. Such pupils of the fourth grade as have been regularly promoted and have received good reports throughout may be assigned to this preliminary course at the close of the fourth year. 5. At the close of this one-year preliminary course such pupils as have made good progress in French and are also above criticism in the other sub- jects studied, in the matter of attainment, industry, and conduct, are admitted to the regular foreign lan- guage classes. 6. Pupils whose work in the foreign language classes does not come up to the standard are sent back to the regular classes. 138 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Schools for Gifted Pupils in Baltimore, Maryland Pupils who have done superior work in the sixth grade are permitted (with the sanction of their parents) to pursue additional subjects of high school grade while engaged upon the regular work of the seventh and eighth grades. The studies generally taken are Advanced English, German, and Latin; in a few cases pupils have been permitted to take some of the first-year Mathematics. Pupils selected for this work attend a school so located that enough pupils may be brought together to make it feasible to carry on departmental instruction. One such school was started in Baltimore in 1902 with 173 seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. There were in March, 1910, four such schools in Baltimore, enrolling 571 pupils of the two upper grades. Selected pupils are allowed to remain in these schools for an extra year, thus being able to complete their high school work in two years. The great majority of pupils from these classes graduate from the high school in three years, their work in the preparatory classes saving them a year in their high school course. Supt. Van Sickle writes thus of the practical working of the plan: "By June, 1910, 236 (preparatory pupils) in all will have graduated. Of these, 41 were in the high school proper but two years; 120 were in high school three years and 75 four years. While these 75 pupils who, in the early days of the plan, spent four years in the high school did not save any time, they enjoyed marked advantages. They earned 13,050 credits or an average of 174 each; whereas the number required for graduation was only 150. " The high school records of these selected pupils, both as to honors taken and as to ability to cover the course in less than the required PROMOTION CLASSES FOR GIFTED PUPILS 139 time, show that the preparatory work has been of value to them. "The fact," says Van Sickle, 14 " that teaching can not be economically provided for less than three classes makes it necessary to organize the preparatory classes in selected centers." Obstacles to the plan: Some parents do not understand it. Some teachers are not in sympathy with it because it takes away their able pupils. Some pupils are reluctant to go to a strange school. Owing to these reasons only about a third of the pupils selected as eligible for the preparatory school actually go. Plans similar to that in Baltimore are in use in Boston at the Latin School; in Providence, R. I., at the Hope High School; at Worcester, Massachusetts; at Ports- mouth, New Hampshire; at Richmond, La Porte, Crawfordsville, Goshen, Madison, Indianapolis, Indi- ana; at Joliet and Aurora, Illinois; at East Saginaw, Iron Mountain, Kalamazoo, and Grand Rapids, Mich- igan; at York and Lincoln, Nebraska; at Lead, South Dakota; at McAlister, Oklahoma; at New Orleans, Louisiana; at Lake George and Warrensburg, New York, and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. These plans 15 practically carry out what is known as the "six and six plan"; six years of elementary school work and six years of high school work. 14 Gifted Children in the Public Schools, The Elementary School Teacher. April, 1910, pp. 357-366. 15 See article on Pre-academic School, in Report of the Committee on School Organization to New York City Teachers' Association, New York, 1910. 140 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Eleven TRAINING OR DISCIPLINARY SCHOOLS In East Orange, New Jersey, a room is set apart in a central school for the "uneasy boys" from the third to the seventh grades inclusive. Superintendent Davey writes, "We have so few hard cases that it has not seemed proper to call this an incorrigible or parental room. Out of 1200 boys in these grades we generally have six or eight in this room, where they remain until their conduct has been entirely satisfactory for four weeks." In Elizabeth, New Jersey, there is an "ungraded" class with a man in charge to which are sent boys whose conduct is a detriment to the children of the regular classes. This is known as the Parental School. In writing concerning this school, Superintendent R. E. Clements says, "Some of the boys sent to this school are almost beyond control, are profane, indecent, unclean, and altogether unfit to associate with the 'average child.'" Many of them are to a great extent reformed after a longer or shorter period in the special school, and are sent back to their regular classes, their places being taken by others who may be on the "waiting list." A few seem to be unable to reform and are continued in the parental school from term to term. The training schools in Providence, R. I., are called "schools for individual work." There are seven such schools in the city. TRAINING OR DISCIPLINARY SCHOOLS 141 The largest disciplinary school 1 in the United States is School No. 120, New York City, of which Miss Olive M. Jones is principal. DAILY PROGRAM OF A TRAINING CLASS, SCHOOL NO. 82, BALTIMORE, MD. Time. 9.00-9.15 9.15-9.30 9.30-9.50 9.50-10.10 10.10-10.30 10.30-10.45 10.45-11.00 11.00-11.10 11.10-11.30 11.30-12.00 Grade II. Forenoon Grade III. Flash Spelling. Prep. Reading. Study Spelling. Silent Reading. Number, (seat work). Grade IV. Class. Opening Ex- ercises, Mem- ory Gems, Music. Literature, History, Geography, Nature or Physiology. Study Spell- Study ing. Spelling. Silent Study Geog. Reading. or History. Reading, Write tables, (with teacher). Study tables. Write tables. Present Study tables. New Topic in Arithmetic. Rapid Calcu- lations. Written Spelling. Recess. Phonetics. Language, Seat Arithmetic. Seat Arithmetic, (with teacher). Chair Caning, Basketry, Raffia Work, Bent Iron Work, or Cardboard Construction. 1 See article describing organization of this school in detail, ceedings N. E. A., 1908. pp. 361-365. Pro- 142 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Daily Program of Training Class, School No. 82, Baltimore, Md. Afternoon Time Grade II. Grade III. Grade IV. Class. 1.30-1.45 Penmanship 1.45-2.00 Seat Arithmetic . Oral Lan- guage. Oral Lan- guage. 2.00-2.20 Reading. Written Written (with teacher). Language. Language. 2.20-2.30 Physical Culture. Recess. 2.30-3.30 Wood-work. Comment by teacher: "This program is subject to frequent changes, as unforseen conditions arise. A few words of explana- tion will, perhaps, give the reader a better idea of the method used in planning the various lessons. "The period from 9.15 to 9.30 is devoted to Liter- ature, Nature, History, Geography, or Physiology. These subjects are carefully planned, as every phase of the English for each grade, phonetics, spelling, reading, language, dramatization, and memory gem, grows out of the morning lesson. One subject extends over a period of a week, each day's lesson being but a step in the development of the whole. The music and some form of construction, when practicable, are also corre- lations of the same subject. "Shortly after a boy becomes a member of my class, I have an interview with one or both parents, either at school or at the home. I then learn whether the child will eventually return to a grade, or will obtain employment directly after leaving the ungraded class. The lessons for each child are planned accord- ingly. In the former case, the child is prepared for a higher grade; in the latter, his studies tend to fit him for the business world, and for the examination required in order to obtain an employment permit. With every child, individual instruction is given to overcome any weakness which may exist." DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING 143 Chapter Twelve DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING There are many educators, Dr. C. W. Eliot among others, who believe the individual good of the pupils is best promoted by organizing the teaching of certain grades of the elementary school on the departmental plan similar to the organization in the high school. By this plan, instead of having one teacher teach all the subjects of a certain grade, the teachers of several grades or classes apportion the work so that each teacher makes a specialty of teaching some one principal sub- ject. Thus, the writer has in mind a school in which the teaching of the four classes composing the seventh and eighth grades is organized according to this plan. The teaching is done by five teachers including the principal, who is the departmental teacher of History. He has no room assigned to his charge. The teacher of English has charge of Grade VIII Class I ; the teacher of Mathematics has charge of Grade VIII Class II. The two classes composing Grade VII are looked after by the teacher of Geography and Science and the teach- er of Reading, respectively. The teacher in charge of a class is called the class teacher and as such she makes out the reports, is re- sponsible for the general discipline of the room, and teaches the minor subjects such as Drawing, Penman- ship and Spelling. When departmental work began to be introduced into the elemental schools about fifteen years ago, 144 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD some schools organized the teaching in the four or five upper grades on this plan but now the consensus of opinion seems to be that the best results are obtained when the use of the plan is confined to the two upper grades. The chief advantages of the plan are these: 1. Each teacher is a specialist. 2. The teacher's daily preparation is better be- cause she has only one or two subjects. 3. More thorough scholarship on the part of the teacher is thus encouraged. 4. Thorough knowledge on the part of the teacher tends to more inspiring teaching. 5. The curriculum is enriched intensively— the teacher knows her subject. 6. The teacher is thus enabled to present what is worth while. 7. It tends to secure better equipment in the way of books, apparatus and other appliances, as each teacher makes a study of what is best adapted to make her work effective. 8. It tends to promote the physical comfort and health of the pupils by having them change from room to room. The chief disadvantages are these: 1. Teaching special subjects tends to narrow teachers. 2. The teacher teaches subjects and thus forgets the individual, it being much harder to look after the individual need of 150 pupils than of 40. 3. The departmental teachers are inclined to demand too much work of their pupils. 4. It is impossible to arrange departmental pro- grams according to hygienic principles so that the studies will come at a time conducive to the best results. DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING 145 5. It tends to poorer discipline; one weak teacher may be responsible for demoralizing the discipline of a series of rooms. Associate City Superintendent Haaren of New York City finds ' ' that many of the diffi- culties of department instruction are encountered during the first term of the Vila grades. The pupils of this grade being new to the plan, become confused at having to recite to so many teachers ; they also abuse the larger liberty that is given them. " Superintendent Haaren 1 thinks also that if "the defects of discipline, of habits of study, or of any of the things that should mark the good students" are corrected at this point, largely by the closer supervision of the principal, they will not be likely to reappear in the higher grades. Superintendent Haaren also points out, that a "single departmental circuit should not have more than five teachers." Kilpatrick 2 would make six teachers the limit. Kilpatrick 3 further makes the rather sweeping statement, which is certainly debatable, that the plan of having the teachers go from classroom to classroom to teach their specialties, the "Peripatetic Method" as he calls it, instead of having the classes change rooms is open to serious objection, so serious that "it is questionable whether departmental teaching should be tried at all" where it is necessary to follow this method. Kilpatrick also stresses what he calls the "Common Subject Plan" of departmental teaching. Under this plan each of the department teachers would teach English to his own class and his special subjects to all the classes of the "departmental circuit." 1 Report of School Division VII in Twelfth Annual Report of the City Supt. of Schools New York City for 1910, p. 281. 2 See his Report on Departmental Teaching in Report of Com- mittee on School Organization of New York City Teachers' Association, 1910, p. 13. 3 See his Departmental Teaching, Macmillan, N. Y. 190S, p. 112. 146 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Specimen Program. Teacher. Common Subject. Departmental Subject. A English Mathematics B English History — Music C English Geography Science D English Manual Training Drawing Perry 4 makes the statement that in order to enable "the graduating teachers to correlate and round out the work" of the different teachers in the previous grades "it would seem best to omit the highest grade from the departmental plan." This idea would, however, not be favored by those who have studied the plan most carefully. The two upper grades are best adapted for carrying out the plan. 4 The Management of a City School, Macmillan 1908, p. 192. REPORT OF COMMITTEE 147 Chapter Thirteen SUMMARY OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMIT= TEE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION TO THE NEW YORK CITY TEACHERS' ASSO= CIATION AND THE BROOKLYN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION This report gives the result of a study of the popu- larity of the best known plans of grading and promo- tion among about 1,000 superintendents, principals and "teachers of teachers" in the different states of this country. A return postal card was sent to 2,000 educators. They were asked two questions in regard to each of thirteen plans of grading and promotion. 1. Have you tried? 2. Do you favor? The following is a brief summary of the answers to the questionnaire. Number who Did not Had favored favor tried 1. Cambridge Plan. 241 120 75 Bright pupils may be transferred to shorter course; slow pupils to longer course. 2. Elizabeth Plan. 351 98 276 Opportunities are provided for frequent promotion. 3. Pueblo Plan. 284 155 207 *Each individual child progresses as fast as he can and is promoted at any time. 4. Batavia Plan. 145 259 138 *Two teachers are employed to teach one large class. [Interpretations wrong or partially wrong.] 148 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Number who Did not Had favored favor tried 479 149 465 5. Departmental Teaching. Seventh and Eighth Grades taught similarly to the high school method. 6. Group Teaching. 534 62 539 Class is divided into two or more groups for study and recitation. 7. Pre-academic School. 119 269 46 Seventh and eighth years organized as a separate school. 8. Extension Classes. 238 122 57 Short commercial or industrial courses used to supplement ele- mentary course. 9. Special classes of over-age or foreign born children. 553 43 296 10. Ungraded Classes. 590 37 276 *Classes organized for defectives or incorrigibles. 11. Promotion by Points. 196 187 73 A proposition to advance by subjects and not by grades. 12. Chicago Plan. 244 157 111 Teachers can promote entire class as soon as grade work has been com- pleted. 13. North Denver Plan. 227 164 169 Bright pupils help other pupils. Summary of Report of Committee "The individual child has been ignored largely" because our usual plan of school organization following the "line of least resistance" has made it extremely difficult to properly place the individual. Our present system has directly hindered self-initiative, self-mas- tery, courage of conviction, and individual independence and forcefulness. The child has been led too often to feel that the only thing that really counted was to become mediocre. Such a course always secured pro- motion and equal rank with the best pupils. * [Interpretation wrong or partially wrong. REPORT OF COMMITTEE 149 "In all of the thousand and more replies received, only one or two challenged the urgent need of protecting the individual pupil through better school organiza- tion." 1 Each of the plans has something of value. Any plan must be more or less modified to suit local condi- tions. 1. Aim of School Organization. — To give each child a chance to work up to the full measure of his capability. A school providing such opportunity pre- sents ideal conditions. 2. Means of Providing this Opportunity — Flexibility of school organization. The course of study, the program, the equipment, grading, and promotions should all be planned to meet the needs not of the "average child" but of the individual children. 3. Classification and Grading. — Attainment should be the basis of classification. A pupil should be rated on the points or units of work he has actually accomplished, irrespective of what other members of the class or school have accomplished. 4. Promotion. — Promotions should be made at any time when the individual pupil completes satis- factorily a given portion of the course. He should be given credit for this amount of work and allowed to go on to new work. This is promotion by points rather than by classes. The pupils should be made to see that not change of teacher and classes, but attainment as evidenced by power to attack and solve new problems is the essential element of promotion. 5. Study. — School organization should provide time for independent study. Such study time should furnish opportunity for the pupil to make up lost work and to do work that may help him to advance more 1 N. Y. Rep. p. 3. Van Evrie Kilpatrick. Chairman Com. on Organization. 150 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD rapidly. The study period will be ineffective unless the pupil can be made to see that the work done really counts toward his advancement. 6. Course of Study. — The course of study should be written in sections, each covering the work that could be done by the normal child in one or two months. Credit should be given for each unit of work as it is accomplished. It is not possible to modify the course of study by elimination; it must be done by individual election, one pupil electing "language enrichment" another " industrial enrichment." 7. Methods of Teaching. — Interest should be stimulated by the best physical conditions and by keep- ing the class at work as individuals, giving each child abundant opportunity to express himself. Concert recitations are " taboo. " 1. Instructing the class; 2. giving opportunity for study and reflec- tion; 3. giving opportunity for individual expression and advancement; 4. examining and recording; all four phases are elements of good teaching. The study phase has been too much neglected. 8. Records and Equipment. — A pupil's attain- ments should be properly recorded. (The French cahier might be a valuable means of spurring a pupil on to higher attainments. This personal record book goes with the pupil from grade to grade. In it are recorded his successes and failures.) Each pupil should have his own individual school equipment. In this way responsibility and initiative are developed. 9. School Sessions. — The all-the-year-round school should prevail. Vacation schools and summer schools for review work, as at St. Louis, are forerunners of the change that is to come. Teachers should teach and pupils should be compelled to attend a minimum number of days during the year. report of committee 151 10. Mass Teaching must give way to Class- Individualized Teaching. — Each pupil of the class group must feel free to work ahead up to the full measure of his ability and be encouraged and shown the way to succeed. This is the end of true education: not to pass through the grades, eight, sixteen, or twenty-four, but to pass through a process of self- development so stimulated and fostered that the best good of both the individual and society will result. The report contains much valuable information in the way of opinions from different educators through- out the country. The monographs on the various plans are, however, too short to give any real grasp of the working of the plans and some of the writers, notably the writer of the monograph on the Batavia plan, show lack of grasp of the fundamental principles of the plan described as well as marked hostility to it. A vote such as was taken can mean very little in regard to the success or real merits of a particular plan. The writer happens to know that in all New England the Batavia System has been given a fair trial in but three school systems. The heads of these school sys- tems and the great majority of their teachers favor the plan. He also happens to know that the Group Meth- od referred to in the questionnaire is entirely different from what is generally called the Group System in most sections of the country, which is nothing more than the St. Louis or Elizabeth Plan. In the question- naire many voted for or against one thing and were recorded as voting for or against another. The report will do much good if it will stimulate school men and women to thoroughly study all plans of grading in a scientific spirit with the idea of knowing the strong points and the weak points of each one. No universal plan of grading will ever be evolved, but there 152 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD doubtless are several plans that will accomplish good results when they are intelligently administered in the interests of the individual children. We need to study in all cases the individual abil- ities of the pupils. Dr. W. Franklin Jones 2 sums up the matter very well in the following sentence which closes his valuable Study of Grading and Promotion. "Classification and promotion should be made on the basis of personal acquaintance with the abilities and needs of the specific subjects, rather than on the basis of the formal examina- tion covering any or all subjects." The provision for bringing about this personal knowledge of each pupil will do much to evolve a rational plan of grading and promotion. We must know the child before we can meet his needs. 2 See Psychological Clinic, June 1911, p. 117. MANU-MENTAL SCHOOLS 153 Chapter Fourteen MANU=MENTAL SCHOOLS No attempt will be made to treat here the subject of trade schools and classes preparatory to such schools. This phase of the subject has been extensively treated by many different authors. Many cities have, however, within the last two years started schools for the average and retarded pupils, boys and girls that are stranded in the lower and middle grades and will soon reach the limit of compulsory school attendance and will then leave school with the merest elements of an intellectual education. The school as ordinarily organized has made no provision for the manu-mental training of these mentally slow, sometimes only bookishly slow, boys and girls. These boys and girls need the manu-mental work that has been so potent in developing the race, work that is closely allied to the everyday struggle for making a living. Such work may be the foundation upon which later a trade training is built. If so, well and good, but it must be recognized that many of these slow boys and girls will never learn a trade; they will be ordinary day laborers in the different industries and commercial enterprises, yet they need this practical training that the manu-mental school can give, to make them more skillful ordinary workers, and what is equally important to make them, both boys and girls, better prospective home-makers. The man and the woman who have been trained to use their hands in the many ways that they can be so trained in these 154 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD special schools just coming into being, will make better, more provident and happier citizens, who know how, because of this practical training, to take care of them- selves and their homes as well as to render more efficient industrial or commercial service. Differentiated courses for such pupils in the upper grades have been worked out in some school systems, notably that of New Britain, Connecticut, and of Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Superintendent S. H. Holmes, of New Britain in his report for 1911, writes as follows of the differentiated courses in the Grammar School : "This plan has now been on trial for a full year. Up to September, 1910, the Grammar School had offered to its pupils only one course of study calculated to prepare for entrance to the High School, whether they were planning to enter the High School or not. "The work of the school as arranged for the past year and at the present time consists of four different and differing courses, each one of which may lead to the High School if the pupil maintains creditable standing in his work." These courses are as follows: Course A. — The General Course — designed to prepare particularly for the English and classical courses of the High School. Course B. — The Household Arts Course for Girls — designed to prepare for (a) The Domestic Science Course of the High School: (b) The Trade School for Girls, and (c) the duties of home making and house- keeping. Course C. — The Practical Arts Course for Boys — designed to prepare for (a) The Mechanic Arts Course of the High School: (b) The Trade School for Boys. Course D. — Business and English Course for Boys and Girls— designed to prepare for (a) The Com- MANTJ-MENTAL SCHOOLS 155 mercial Course of the High School; (b) The Business College : (c) also intended for those pupils who go direct- ly from the Grammar school into positions in stores and offices. "The choices in September, 1910, were as follows: Grade VIII. Course A — Boys 83 Girls 90 173 Course B — Girls 22 22 Course C — Boys 37 37 Course D — Boys 22 Girls 25 47 Total number in grade 279 Grade IX. Course A — Boys 93 Girls 84 177 Course B — Girls 10 10 Course C — Boys 12 12 Course D — Boys 4 Girls 11 15 Total number in grade 214 "At the close of the year, allowing for such with- drawals from the school as usually occur and for such changes in choice of courses as were permitted where reasons seemed adequate, the numbers in the courses stood as follows: Grade VIII. Course A — Boys and Girls 179 Course B— Girls 23 Course C— Boys 30 Course D — Boys and Girls 42 Total number in grade 274 156 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Grade IX. Course A — Boys and Girls 180 Course B— Girls 9 Course C — Boys 10 Course D — Boys and Girls 18 Total number in grade 217 "One of the most noticeable and satisfactory results of the new plan of organization is its effect in preventing the large percentage of loss which has formerly been experienced in the grammar grades. "Any reasonable plan that serves to hold the pupils in the school until they have finished the year's work is worth all that it calls for in added difficulty of organ- ization or cost of administration. "Some of the advantages which may reasonably be expected from such a plan of differentiation of courses may be briefly stated as follows: 1. Prevention of loss in membership. 2. A better quality of work, because individual abilities, tastes, interests and purposes are considered. 3. Closer connection with Trade School and High School courses and better preparation for life work for those who leave school at the end of the Grammar School course. "The choices of courses for the school year opening September, 1911, have resulted as follows: Grade VII. (Formerly Grade VIII.) Course A — Boys 94 Girls 100 194 Course B — Girls 35 Course C — Boys 44 Course C — Boys 31 Girls 34 65 Total number in grade 338 MANU-MENTAL SCHOOLS 157 Sficie tys Sfeeds- Teachint mmtrce. Skilled. Household Trades Managers Unskilled Workers Hz natergrarfen. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SECONDARY AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NEW BRITAIN, CONNECTICUT 158 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Grade VIII. (Formerly Grade IX.) Course A — Boys 79 Girls 107 186 Course B — Girls 16 Course C— Boys 21 Course B — Boys 18 Girls 22 40 Total number in grade 263 Practical Arts School of Fitchburg, Massachusetts The Practical Arts School of Fitchburg, Massa- chusetts, offers the following four courses for the pupils of the seventh and eighth grades - 1 Courses of Study Commercial Course, 30 hours per week. 123^ hours to literature, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathematics, geography, history and science. iy special schools. The backward or slow child of otherwise normal faculties should not be taken away from the regular school to which he belongs and care must be taken to limit admission to those c^ldren who are mentally defective and not merely slow. On the other hand imbecile 34 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD or demented children who cannot profit by school instruction at all should not be admitted, because they are not amenable to the ordinary educational influences. The home or the asylum is the proper place for those unfortunates. The admission of children to the special schools should be in the hands of principal and teacher who make the recom- mendation, and the supervisor of defective schools, whose indorsement should be subject to the approval of the Superintendent of Instruction. " In addition to this an expert physician should examine each case. The last work that Superintendent Soldan ever did was on the course of study for these special schools. The program for these schools, according to Super- intendent Soldan, should be flexible but definite. The teacher should carefully plan her lessons. Children should be grouped for work and frequently reclassified. The small number of children to a teacher will make individual teaching possible. Subjects: Singing is of mental and physical importance ; it expands the lungs and develops the vocal organs and has a good effect on the emotional life of the child. Piano music will be an aid in marching and in the physical exercises. Great attention should be paid to spoken language and the children should be encouraged in every way to talk about things. In the conversation lessons the teachers should keep careful watch to see if the children are interested. There should be memorizing of simple poems. The work in reading and spelling should be adapted to the abilities of the children and reading lessons should be frequently acted out. There should be work in paper cutting, drawing and writing. General information talks should be emphasized. Very likely Superintendent Soldan would have added certain work along the lines of manual training for the boys, and domestic science for the girls, but the course of study was lying unfinished on his desk when he was stricken by sudden death. The schools advocated by Superintendent Soldan were established the following year under the special SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES 35 supervision of Mrs. Cunningham. The following quo- tation from her report concerning the work is of interest. "In our effort to help our charges, we have endeavored to reach them in a different manner from that pursued with the normal child. These defective children have been in the grades two, three, four, and some as many as six or seven years. Efforts to teach them to make simple arithmetical calculations have failed, under most skillful hand- ling. The children have become discouraged. They have acquired a distaste for these subjects. Our aim was to interest them in these things when they were ready for them. They were taught number through the manual training work, through the improvised steel and toy money, the measures, the clock face, the games and other concrete material. The reading is helped and language as well by excursions to parks, markets, and stores. The child upon his return has some ideas that he is anxious to communicate to others. "Hand work and particularly manual training we found of great importance. It was sometimes surprising to see the boy who labored patiently with a simple little problem in numbers take up his saw and plane and forthwith become apparently regenerated. He was a new boy ; his intellect did not lag even when signs of physical fatigue became but too evident. The defective boy or girl is happiest when he or she is making something, be it good or bad when finished. Success has been achieved through the effort to make something. "Our work is as yet new to us; we are not all agreed as to which is the defective and which is the backward child : we are not sure as to what is exactly the proper treatment of the backward child when we have defined him . But we are convinced that opportunities for psychological research are present on every side. The teacher in this work comes to realize that a proper valuation of the abnormal child aids in the develop- ment of the normal. And thus I hope the study of and the desire to help these poor unfortunate members of our community may be a true help to the strong as well." There is a special medical adviser connected with the schools and all children proposed for admission are examined with great care to prevent sending to these schools such children as should remain in the regular schools. The cost of these schools is $130.00 per year per pupil, for teachers, books, supplies, inci- dentals, and rent. Of the success of these schools, Superintendent Blewett said in an address before the National Educa- tional Association, "At the end of a year and a half of experience we know very definitely that we have helped most of the pupils to a happier, healthier life." 36 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Special Classes in Baltimore, Md. The city of Baltimore reports two classes for epilep- tic children, two for mental defectives, and nineteen classes for backward children. Baltimore was the first city in the United States to establish special classes for epileptic children. These two classes have (1910) a membership of only eight or ten pupils each, it being found difficult to persuade parents to send their epileptic children to these schools. It is probable that the Board of Education of Baltimore will bring the membership of these schools up to twelve or fifteen by allowing mentally deficient children to be admitted to them, although the wisdom if not the econ- omy of this plan may well be questioned. According to some authorities, however, the fits or spells of the epileptics do not disturb mentally deficient children as they do normal children, hence the mentally deficient and the epileptic may be taught in the same class. As can be seen from the number of classes reported, no adequate provision is made for the instruction of mentally deficient pupils in Baltimore. Arrangements have been made whereby pupils who are thought by the teachers to be mentally defi- cient may be examined at a clinic established at Johns Hopkins under the Phipps Donation. The classes for backward children as arranged at School No. 20 at Baltimore resemble very much the so-called "furthering classes" of the Mannheim system. Special Classes in Washington, D. C. Much has been done in the last few years to develop the special class system in Washington, D. C. The schools for the mentally defective pupils are in rented dwelling houses. While these houses have, of course, not all that could be wished for in the way of SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES 37 appointments for school needs, yet they serve the pur- pose for which they are intended very well and the pupils are much better off in these school buildings than they would be if assigned to quarters in one of the large public school buildings. Nearly all of the centers are equipped with special rooms for manual training and domestic science, the equipment along these lines being the best that the writer has observed in his visits to the special schools of several cities. It has been found in Washington that the children of both the auxiliary classes and the disciplinary classes are very much in- terested in learning to use the typewriter. The devel- opment of the muscles of the fingers brought about by practice on these machines is thought to have a direct effect on the mental development of the child. A great many typewriters have been supplied to the special schools and a special supervisor of typewriting has general supervision of the work. The teachers of the schools are very enthusiastic over the benefit the chil- dren have derived from this work. It would seem as if Washington had discovered a valuable means in the typewriter for training the mentally defective child. Special Classes in Providence, R. I. The first public day schools for mentally deficient children in the United States, according to most writers on the subject, were started in Providence, Rhode Island, in December, 1896. A second class was opened in December, 1897, and a third in the same month in the following year. They are called " schools for back- ward children." The number of these classes has not increased since 1898. The membership of each class averages about fifteen pupils. The ages of the pupils Tary from seven to fourteen years. The largest number of the pupils are classified as doing the work of the first of lowest primary grade. In 1909, out of a total en- 38 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD rollment of forty-one in the three schools, twenty-seven were in the first grade, six in the second grade, six in the third and only two in the fourth. These schools are under the special supervision of the director of kindergartens. Some attempt is made to have the children entering these classes exam- ined by a specialist in mental diseases, yet these exam- inations do not seem to have been conducted in such a way that the data obtained is available for the guid- ance of the class teacher. It would appear that a sys- tem of blanks similar to those in use in the ungraded classes in New York City would be helpful in making the data obtained in the examinations of use to the class teacher. The director reports that the teachers of these special classes derived help during the year 1909 from a discussion of Maennel's "The Auxiliary Schools of Germany" in their teachers' meetings. These schools are housed in special buildings, there being usually one or more disciplinary classes in the same building with the special class. Some hand work, basketry, weaving, simple woodwork and the like is done by the children. The equipment for this work is meagre. The work along the line of muscular training seems poorly de- veloped. In fact, although Providence was the first city to inaugurate the special school movement in the United States, her work in this direction is far behind that of several other cities. Special Classes in Boston, Massachusetts The special classes for mental defectives in Boston were organized in 1898. The first class work began in January, 1899. These classes are held, as a rule, in the public school buildings. The sessions of these schools are from nine to one o'clock. The class mem- bership is limited to fifteen. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES 39 A child who is thought a fit case for a special class is reported to the physician in charge of these classes. The teacher of the special class nearest the home of the child visits the parents of the child and seeks to persuade them to allow the child to attend the special school. If they are willing, the child is admitted to the class for a probationary period of a few weeks during which time the teacher closely observes his mental and physical condition. At the end of this period she makes a report to the physician as to whether she thinks the child should remain in the special class, be sent to an institution, or returned to the regular school. The physician then gives the child a careful examination, usually confirming the opinion of the teacher, but his disposition of the case is final. The teachers of the special classes must all have experience in teaching feeble-minded before they can be emploj^ed in the special classes. It is not too much to say that Boston has some excellent teachers in her special classes. The classrooms of the special classes are each equipped with three manual training benches. The last hour of the school day is spent in manual work, the larger girls and boys working at the benches, while the smaller children have work in weaving, sewing, knife work, clay modelling and work along similar lines. Physical development is emphasized. Each teacher keeps a careful record of all the children. Bos- ton has no after care committee and thus there is no means of knowing what has become of the children who have left the school during the past ten years. The specialist in charge of the schools, Dr. Jelly, has the right idea as to what children should be placed in the special classes. Only the tractable feeble-minded children are admitted. Imbeciles, both moral and mental, are excluded. There are only eight special 40 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD classes in Boston. This number should, of course, be increased several fold in order to take adequate care of the feeble-minded children among Boston's school population. The work also needs to be more carefully organized with a specially qualified supervisor in charge. Special or auxiliary classes have been organized in many cities throughout the country. The work is new and crude, but the need of these classes is being recognized and their adequate organization will slowly, perhaps, but surely follow. WHY THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL IS NEEDED 41 Chapter Four WHY THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL IS NEEDED It is plain to be seen that children who are mentally defective cannot be kept in the regular classes of the public schools. Such a procedure is unjust to them, for they receive little benefit for the time so spent; it is unjust to the normal pupils, for they are deprived of the time which the teacher must devote in undue amount to fruitless attempts to teach the abnormal child. It is furthermore unjust to the regular class teacher to expect her to teach and control children so excep- tional in their mental development as to require special- ly trained teachers to effectively instruct them. The laissezfaire method of free education has been developing a large body of feeble-minded left-overs as the result of its attempt to treat all children alike. These children have grown up and married and in many cases their feeble-minded progeny are now the misfits in the educational scheme of mass methods. But society has slowly been waking up to the fact that it must protect itself from its own unwise endeavors to educate its members by the process of elimination. It has come face to face with the fact that it must, for its own protection, either educate all its members up to the measure of self-support or else furnish cus- todial care for those who are not self-supporting. The auxiliary school has arisen as a means of helping society to solve this problem. Undoubtedly, the time will come when the great majority of children who are now considered fit candi- 42 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD dates for the special class will be assigned, at least after they have reached adolescent years, to custodial homes. It may be that the option will be given to parents of choosing between having their feeble-minded off- spring asexualized and allowed to remain at home or sent to a custodial home. Havelock Ellis 1 writes in the Eugenics Review: "Sterilization of men can be effectively achieved by simple vasectomy, or section of the vas deferens, and of women by the almost equally simple and harmless method of ligature of the Fallopian tubes (Kehrer's method as advocated by Kisch). It would appear that both these operations may be effected by skilled hands in a few minutes with a minimum of pain and inconvenience and they possess the immense advantage that the sexual glands are preserved, and no organs removed from the body. No doubt, it may be said, the necessity for seclusion in the absence of steriliza- tion would exert a gentle but firm pressure in emphasiz- ing the advantages of the operation. There need be no objection to that. "It is probable, also, that the method of steriliza- tion by X-rays may some day acquire practical im- portance. In this case there is no operation at all, though the effects do not last for more than a few years. This might be an advantage in some cases." Society is only beginning to arouse itself to the seriousness of this great problem. In fact, even the great majority of physicians have not the knowledge that would enable them to sense the menace of the feeble-minded to the community. Johnstone has stated that most of our states are now spending from a quarter to a third of their revenues to support penal and charitable institutions. The bur- 1 The Sterilization of the Unfit. The Eugenics Review, October 1909, pp. 204-5. WHY THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL IS NEEDED 43 den is great, but it will be greater unless efforts are put forth to stop the sources from which these institutions are fed. The feeble-minded, we are just beginning to learn, furnish one of the chief of these sources. Paupers and criminals are sure to be prolifically bred, wherever the mentally defective are allowed to go untrained and unsupervised either by after care committees or, pre- ferably, in custodial homes. The special school is one of the most important preventive agencies. By its means, when it becomes generally established, a census can be made of the mental and moral defectives in the community. Through it these children can be classified and the worst cases can be sent immediately to custodial homes; the majority may be trained to intelligent habits of self-control and work and given the rudiments of a moral, aesthetic and intellectual education. Goddard found three per cent, of the children enrolled in a certain city school system which he inves- tigated were four years or more below the mental level corresponding to their age. " These pupils," says Goddard, "are feeble-minded. It is unfair to normal children to keep these mentally defective children in the regular classes. They should be segregated and given a special teacher who understands their case and is allowed to train them as their mental condition will permit. Of course, ultimately, they ought all to go to the institutions for the feeble-minded where they will be cared for and prevented from contaminating society ; but until this can be done, the special class for defectives is probably the wisest solution." 44 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Five CHILDREN WHO MAY APPEAR AS CANDIDATES FOR MEMBERSHIP IN AUXILIARY SCHOOLS OR CLASSES Morons, Imbeciles and Idiots The membership of auxiliary classes and schools should be made up of children between the ages of six and sixteen who are so markedly abnormal or subnor- mal that they cannot profit by the instruction given to normal children. These children stand midway be- tween the normal "dullard" and the imbecile. This class is defined in the English Defective and Epileptic Children Act of 1899 as those children who "not being merely dull and backward, are defective, that is to say, by reason of mental (or physical) defect are incapable of receiving proper benefit from the instruction in the ordinary public elementary schools, but are not in- capable by reason of such defect of receiving benefit from instruction in such special classes and schools as are in this Act mentioned. " Such children represent those afflicted with the mildest or feeble-minded grade of amentia and would in general be given the name, recently coined, of morons, (derived from the Greek word meaning to be foolish). Such a person when mature is, according to the Act just mentioned, "capable of earning a living under favorable circumstances, but incapable from mental defect existing from birth or from an early age, (a) of competing on equal terms with his normal CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 45 fellows, or (b) of managing himself and his affairs with ordinary prudence." Morons may be classified as low, middle, and high grade, representing in mental age a range from seven to twelve years. Imbeciles represent the next lower grade of mental defect and are defined by this Act as "those persons who, by reason of mental defect existing from birth or from an early age, are incapable of earning their own living, but are capable of guarding themselves against common physical dangers." The imbecile does not generally know the names of common objects and can give no account of their uses, neither can he recognize and name things repre- sented in pictures. His speech generally shows little intelligence. He often cannot be trusted to execute the simplest commands. An imbecile boy who was sweeping off a sidewalk against the wind complained because the wind blew the dirt back on the walk. He had not common sense enough to see that if he swept from the other side of the walk the wind would help take the dirt away. This lack of common sense is the most marked characteristic of the imbecile. Imbeciles may be of low, middle, or high grade of de- fective and represent a range of mentality correspond- ing to that of normal children from three to seven years of age. The idiot represents the lowest grade of amentia, or feeble-mindedness, and is so defective "that he is unable to guard himself against common physical dangers." Idiots are classified in three grades similar to morons and imbeciles. Their range of mentality does not exceed that of a two year old child. Dull and Backward Children The special or auxiliary schools and classes as organized and carried on in Germany, France and 46 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD England are for mentally defective, abnormal or, as some writers have chosen to call them, subnormal children. The merely " dull and backward" children have no permanent place in such classes. Such chil- dren are normal. In many cases their intellectual gifts are extremely meager; in others intellectual develop- ment has been retarded through neglect or sickness. Tredgold 1 states that in some parts of Somerset- shire, England, "dull and backward" children consti- tuted five per cent, of the school population; in other parts as high as fifteen or twenty per cent. According to him, there are two classes of such children: (1) those who are dull only in their school studies and (2) those whose dullness extends to all the mental faculties. The former class are, as a rule, readily distinguished; but in the latter, diagnosis may be a matter of much difficulty. (1) Tredgold 2 cites as examples of dull and backward children of the first class two brothers, ten and twelve years of age, who were referred to him for examination by the teacher of a large country school. They were both pupils of Standard II and the examination showed they were not capable of doing the work. They had, however, "a very good knowledge of many details of country and farm life — of the cows, the corn, and the bird nesting"; and "they were by no means backward on the playground. In fact, I had little difficulty in demonstrating to the teacher that, although these boys could hardly do the simplest sum and could only read and write words of one syllable, yet they had plenty of common sense, and were by no means mentally deficient." According to Tredgold, such dullness runs in fam- ilies. Children of this type "cannot or will not" 1 Mental Deficiency, p. 141. 2 Mental Deficiency, p. 141. CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 47 (Tredgold thinks it is a little of each) "make progress in the school studies, yet in play or in the streets they are keenly intelligent." It is a mistake to regard such children as even mildly defective as would some observers. Their family inheritance has no taint; they are physically well developed, and able to hold their own with the average child in everything but book-knowledge. They are, therefore, not defective but only retarded in the development of certain of their mental faculties, a condition due to the humdrum manner of life of generations of ancestors. Inability to advance in school work is not neces- sarily an indication of mental defect in Dr. Tredgold's opinion. He would thus be averse to accepting the dictum of Binet and Simon as promulgated in this country by Dr. Goddard that a child who is three years behind the normal age of the school grade in which he is enrolled may be regarded as mentally defective. In fact, as we have said elsewhere, Dr. Tredgold thinks that many of the children now enrolled in the English special schools belong to this class of "dull and back- ward" children. He cautions medical examiners, therefore, not to give too much weight in their diag- nosis of candidates for special classes to school records. (2) The children just considered are dull only in school work. There are other children who are dull in both work and play; their stupidity pervades every thing that they do. Yet even these children are, ac- cording to Tredgold, not suffering from mental defect. The defect is not pathological but physiological. These constitute the perplexing cases for the medical examin- ers to decide. Certain things will help in this decision. If the family history reveals pronounced morbid heredity, the case is probably one of real mental defect. A 48 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD thorough examination of the child for stigmata of degeneracy and abnormal nerve signs is important. These are not generally found in the dull and backward. Such children are generally well nourished and of good physical development in contrast to the real defectives who in most cases are undersized, thin and poorly nourished. But most important of all is the mental examination. If in this examination the child reveals a good knowledge of the common things about him, and shows good common sense in his answers to ques- tions as to what he would do under different circum- stances that he would meet in the common walks of life, he has probably sufficient mental ability to follow some line of work with fair success and to look after his interests with ordinary foresight. If this is the case, he is not mentally defective. Children of Retarded Mental Development Tredgold calls attention to a group of children whose mental development is only temporarily retarded. Children in this condition are found oftener in towns and cities than in the country and their condition is so like that of real mental defect ' ' that for a time diag- nosis may be impossible." This temporary retarda- tion may be caused by improper or insufficient food, by lack of pure air or warmth, and by the general con- ditions of neglect which are so common in the densely populated industrial centers. As Tredgold says, "In real mental defect it is the seed that is blighted, while in the condition we are con- sidering it is the soil that is unfertile. The condition may not be inaptly compared to the late opening of the flower-buds in consequence of chill winds and absent sun. It may be described as a late spring, and the characteristic of these cases is that under more congen- ial surroundings, the brain rapidly recovers, and the CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 49 child soon regains the normal standard. These chil- dren often experience a very sudden mental awakening to the surprise of everyone about them. Such children may be placed temporarily in a special school in order to be given the individual attention that they need, but their condition should never be confounded with that of the real mental defective." As has been said, these cases are sometimes ex- tremely difficult to distinguish from those of real mental defect, and it is only by placing them in the special school that a decision is sometimes at all possible. Tredgold is of the opinion "if the examination re- veals an entire absence of morbid inheritance, if there are no stigmata of degeneracy nor signs of irregular nerve action, and if the state of nutrition is poor and the environment is known to be bad, that then there are grounds for suspecting that the case is one, not of arrested, but of retarded development, and the diag- nosis must be provisional." Dullness caused by Disease Children may be dull through lack of vitality and nervous energy, due to disease. Such children are often mistaken by teachers for mental defectives. Defects of eye, of ear, or of the speech organs may be responsible for the dullness of the child; physical and mental energy may be sapped by tuberculosis. There is also the child who may be dull because of extreme nervous exhaustion. Such a child is listless and in- attentive, is loath to answer questions, fails on simple sums in arithmetic. His memory is poor, co-ordination imperfect, and he may be subject to tremor. "His head may be small and asymmetrical and his lower eye- lids are baggy and relaxed." An investigation will reveal the fact that the dull- Bess is comparatively recent and that the child previous- 50 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD ly may have been of ordinary or of more than ordinary mental ability. In such cases the child is probably suffering from neurasthenia. Such a child often has violent headaches, usually due to over-pressure. Many such children become insane in later life. Such cases of dullness in general may recover their normal powers under proper care, otherwise the dullness may increase until the child loses its mentality. In older children this condition may be due to masturbation. Tredgold points out that while a mentally defective child may have fits, epilepsy may be the cause of temporary mental dullness. "In most of these cases there will be a history of fits, but they may be nocturnal only, and unknown to the parents." Such cases are characterized by loss of memory and alternating states of brightness and dullness which are not common in cases of real mental defect. Such cases may, however, develop into amentia, and later dementia may develop. The tendency now is to place epileptic children in schools by themselves. England has done most in this direction. The Moral Defective The moral defective may be defined as a person who displays "from an early age, and in spite of careful upbringing, strong vicious or criminal propensities on which punishment has little or no deterrent effect." Tredgold says that the mind of the average normal man is characterized by "four chief 'senses' or sentiments, — the moral or social, the logical or intellectual, the re- ligious, and the aesthetic." The moral sense is that complex of experiences which causes the possessor to appreciate the obligations which he owes to his fellows. It has its basis in human sympathy which has held society together from the beginning. CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 51 The logical or intellectual sense enables us to see the connection between different mental concepts and to refer each new percept or idea to the proper related group of ideas, or mental concept. The religious sense inspires us with a feeling of a relationship to a power superior to man. The aesthetic sense enables us to see the harmonies of form, color, and sound, which we call beauty. As is well known a person may be deficient in one or more of these senses. If such a person is deficient in the intellectual sense he belongs to one of the three grades of amentia which we have just been discussing. This may take the form characterized by Storring 3 as intelligent feeble-mindedness (intelligente Schwach- sinnige). Such a feeble-minded person, according to Meumann,may succeed tolerably well in passing through school and even the university but in practical life discovers his inability to judge among the conditions which surround him and to govern himself according to these conditions. Such a person may give the im- pression of being a highly gifted man, and often nothing of his weakness is noticed until, all of a sudden, his inability to pass judgment on some point shows itself. This most often reveals itself in a total indecision in the face of the enticing stimulus of a fleet- ing desire. This indecision is due to weakness of judg- ment. Reasons opposed to the case in hand are not drawn from the person's previous experiences. The physical basis for this weakness of judgment is not known. It is not necessary to characterize persons who lack the religious sense nor those who fail to appre- ciate the beauties of form, color, and sound. Those persons who have no moral sense, no con- ception of the obligations which are due their fellows 3 Meumann's Vorlesungen — Experimentelle Padagogik Vol. I, pp. 412-3. 52 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD are called moral defectives. Tredgold 4 divides them into two classes: (1) The Latent Moral defective and (2) the True Moral defective. 1. Latent moral defectives are those persons who although "they have no feelings of repugnance or shame at the thought of a criminal or immoral act, and although they cannot appreciate the ethics of the Decalogue," yet have intelligence enough to fear the consequences of breaking the civil or moral law, that will come in the way of civil punishment or social ostra- cism. They have intelligence enough to hold the moral defect in check. Such persons may be called potential criminals. Such persons are not mental defectives for their intellectual powers are intact. If they commit crime, it is with a full sense of its consequences. It is because persons of this class lack the moral sense that they often exhibit so little feeling after they have been caught in some criminal or immoral act. 2. True moral defectives are those persons who have no moral sense and in addition are probably lack- ing in the intellectual sense so that the fear of punish- ment or social censure seems to exercise no restraining influence upon them. They commit, repeatedly, im- moral and criminal acts, and punishment seems to have no effect. From these persons the habitual and instinc- tive criminal class is largely recruited. The well-known Jesse Pomeroy is a moral defective. He had, as Dr. Fernald tells us, at the time of the commission of his notorious crimes, been accepted for admission to the Massachusetts School for the Feeble-Minded. He has a keen intellect in many respects. This manifestation of intellectual power has led many to affirm that there 4 Mental Deficiency, p. 294. CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 53 was no mental defect in such persons. The lack of control of such persons over their evil propensities even when they know that severe punishment has followed and is sure to follow, would indicate what Meumann 5 has characterized as a partial arrest of development of the judgment centers of the cerebrum. Moral defectives should ordinarily not be assigned to special classes for the mentally deficient. The spe- cial disciplinary class is the place for them so long as they remain in the public schools ; they should, however, be assigned as soon as possible to a custodial institution. Miss Margaret Bancroft is of the opinion that special education of the moral defective from the earliest age up to the age of twenty-four, always having in view the elimination of the particular defect, would finally result in the elimination of moral deficiency. She would have, for example, a boy or girl who is untruth- ful and unwilling to do assigned work, set to work per- forming exact measurements: measure just three inches; make a three-inch square; fit the ends correctly. Persist in having everything done exactly as it should be done even if the child has to be shown how "a thousand times." Perseverance in all this work will in the end be the "open sesame" to the abolishment of moral deficiency. After control had been gained over the child's habits through years of endeavor, Miss Bancroft 6 would complete the training by a course in the sciences, "especially in zoology and botany, and those branches which require microscopic investigations." Most educators who are experienced in the train- ing of the mentally defective do not take such an op- timistic view of the education of the moral defective. 5 Vorlesungen Vol. I, p. 413. 6 Light Through Broken Windows, p. 3, reprint from Journal of Psycho-Asthenics, December, 1904. 54 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Dr. Fernald 7 says that while the acts of childhood due to this " slight degree of imbecility," (moral defect) may, under the guidance and protection of a good home, be of a harmless nature yet acts due to the "temptations of adolescent and adult life are quite another matter." He finds that moral defectives who have been put early in childhood or youth under permanent training and protection are far different in their conduct from those who have lived in towns and cities with only the re- straints of home. The former cases "trained from childhood and youth may be taught habits of industry and comparatively good behavior, and after twenty- five years of age a large proportion of them settle down to a condition of ostentatious pride in the virtues which they unwillingly practice." Undoubtedly the custodial home or farm colony is the only safe place for the moral defective. Epileptic Children Only a little has been done in this country to estab- lish schools or classes for epileptic children. There were two classes established in Baltimore some years ago but the attendance was so small that the School Board was led to doubt the expediency of maintaining them; it was finally decided not to limit their member- ship to epileptic children only, but to admit other mentally defective children, it being the opinion of some medical experts that the spasms of the epileptic children had no injurious effect on the non-epileptic children. In general, however, it would seem best to exclude from the regular and also the special classes children who are subject to frequent epileptic spasms. Such children should be taught in classes organized especially for them or sent to epileptic colonies. 7 The Imbecile with Criminal Instincts, Reprint from American Journal of Insanity, April 1909, p. 747. CANDIDATES FOR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 55 We have tried to characterize in the foregoing pages the children who will be likely to appear as candi- dates for admission to the auxiliary or special school or class. Where these schools or classes have reached their best development they are exclusively for those pupils suffering from mental defect but of such a degree that there is hope that by proper instruction and training they may become capable of supporting or partially supporting themselves. These schools are for children suffering from the lightest degree of feeble-mindedness or amentia. They are for ' 'morons," not for either imbeciles or idiots, nor are they for normal pupils except in those cases where the degree of retarded development is for a time closely allied to mental defect. In such cases the special class with its individual teach- ing is probably next to an individual teacher at home, or a very good private institution, the best place for such retarded children. Children who are stutterers or stammerers but who are mentally normal should not be placed in the special class for defectives, They should be sent to a special school where they may receive instruction for a few hours a week in methods of correcting the defect. It may be pointed out, however, that in many small cities and towns it will be difficult, at first, to form class- es composed only of mentally defective pupils. In such cases, the endeavor should be to form special classes to which may be assigned both the mentally defective and the backward pupils. In this way the worth of such organization can be demonstrated and a stricter classification can follow later. 56 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Six THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING AND ITS EQUIPMENT As auxiliary schools and classes become better organized the tendency is, in general, to place them in buildings especially adapted to their needs. By vote of the London County Council, buildings and rooms designed for such schools and classes must be construc- ted and arranged to meet certain requirements in order to obtain the special money grant. The site must be approved by the department of education. School- rooms must have twenty square feet of floor space for each pupil. There must be adequate play-grounds, drill rooms, and lavatories. All rooms must be on the ground floor and must be equipped with individual desks. Fernald 1 states that the cost for construction of these buildings has averaged about one hundred dollars per pupil. The enrollment at these schools is from 60 to 80 pupils. Several sketches of the floor plans of these buildings are given in the appendix. Schulze 2 maintains that since the school is for many of the unfortunate children who attend it, the only place of love, joy, friendliness and sunshine that they know, it should be a model in its material equip- ment, being an example of good light, good air, cleanli- 1 See pamphlet, Mentally Defective Children in the Public Schools, p. 3. 2 See article, Ausstattung des Schulhauses und des Schulzimmera. Handbuch der Heilpadagogik, p. 242. AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT 57 ness, and order, things that are wanting in most of the homes from which the children come. In addition to the regular schoolrooms the build- ing should have an assembly-room large enough to seat all pupils and a goodly number of friends and parents. In this room should be held the general exercises, de- votional exercises in the morning and the exercises on special days. It should have a projecting lantern and a piano, or better a player-piano, thus enabling the children to see good pictures and hear good music. The walls should be adorned with a few good pictures that appeal especially to children and from time to time the meaning of the pictures should be explained to the children. There should be a clinical room in which the school physician may keep his testing and measuring apparatus and make his examinations. This room should have a small dark-room for making examinations with the mirror, of the eyes and the throat; it should have a microscope for making bacteriological examinations, and instruments such as the spirometer, stethometer, cephalometer, and dynamometer, different types of which are described by R. Schulze in his Aus der Werk- statt der experimentellen Psychologie und Padagogik and in Whipple's Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. There should also be a sterilizing apparatus for disinfecting the instruments, and an emergency case containing the necessary materials for extending "first aid" in case of accidents among the pupils, and a dis- infection apparatus for disinfecting the schoolrooms in case of an outbreak of contagious disease. The lava- tory of the room should be equipped with both hot and cold water; a photographic apparatus is essential for taking a photograph of the pupils at their entrance to the school and at different times during the course of their membership in the school. 58 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD There should be a rest room equipped with a couch or cot for the use of children who are taken sick suddenly, or in case of accidents, or spasms. Manual training rooms, equipped for work in wood and iron, should be given ample space. The girls should have rooms assigned for their work in sewing, cooking, and laundering. The writer has seen a very good equipment for this work in some of the special schools of Washington, D. C. It has been suggested that a suite of rooms, consisting of kitchen, dining-room, bed-room, and sitting-room be connected with each center in order that the children, especially the girls, may be given correct ideas of a simple, well-arranged, house equipment and learn how to care for it. The bed-room could serve for the rest room described above and the sitting-room for a recep- tion room for the school. There should, of course, in every building, be sep- arate rooms for the director of the school and the assist- ant teachers. Schulze suggests that the school building be pro- vided with an observation tower from which the chil- dren may be taught the topography of the surrounding country. He also thinks a gymnasium fitted out with the necessary apparatus for correcting physical de- fects is essential. Hygienic considerations demand that there should be baths supplied with both hot and cold water. The simple shower-bath is not thought sufficient by some writers, although its greater cleanliness would strongly recommend it. A covered walk or portico should be pro- vided where these children, who need pure air so much, can take their recreation in unpleasant weather. It is also probable that in the near future the outer walls of all schoolrooms will be so arranged that they can be opened and the schools made practically open-air schools. AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT 59 The school grounds should be large enough to furnish space for a school garden in connection with which there should be a place for the keeping of animal pets. The school grounds should have shade trees under which are sand piles, swings and teeters, and other simple playground apparatus of such a nature that the likelihood of accident is reduced to a minimum. The schoolrooms should be equipped with modern adjustable desks and seats. There should be closets and cabinets sufficient for the storage of books and apparatus. The rooms should be light and airy, supplied, of course, with properly warmed air from a modern system of heating and ventilation. Sand tables, aquaria, and telluria form important parts of the equipment of such a room, as do wall charts and maps and other illustrative apparatus. 60 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chapter Seven SCHOOL SESSIONS AND THE DAILY PROGRAM If the children attending the auxiliary school or class have to come considerable distances to attend the school, and especially if a meal at noon cannot be served them, one session each school day is probably better than two sessions. The auxiliary schools in many of the American cities have the one session day. Frenzel states that on hygienic grounds one session is better than two because it saves the time and energy of the pupils, since they must go to and come from school only once a day. Thus, in summer, with the one session plan the long walk home and back in the heat of the day is avoided, and also in winter the walk home after dark. Of course, these objections would not be so pertinent in case the children were transported by teams or street cars as is often the practice. It is also urged that the intermission at noon is not long enough to enable the pupils to recover from the fatigue of the morning and they are thus unfit to take up the work of the afternoon. "By the abolition of the afternoon session," writes Frenzel, 1 "the children will have more time for the preparation of school work, for recreation, and for occasional help from parents. " "In certain cases, " he continues, "it would seem best to recommend, on moral grounds, that the children be kept busy at the auxiliary school in the afternoon rather than left to 1 See article, Studenplan. Handbuch der Heilpadagogik, p. 1672. SCHOOL SESSIONS AND THE DAILY PROGRAM 61 themselves to spend the time in vice and idleness or be employed for profit by unscrupulous persons." After- noon sessions for this purpose have been successfully conducted at Breslau and Leipsic. Such a care-school is also carried on in connection with the state auxiliary school at Budapest. Place and Length of Instruction Periods The harder subjects should come early in the day, but difficult studies should not immediately follow each other. An easier study should intervene. It would seem that American schools are inclined to give more varied programs than are the German schools. They also have shorter lesson periods, aver- aging from fifteen to thirty minutes for the regular studies, such as reading and arithmetic, while the Ger- man school still clings to the idea that there must be longer periods in order to make the instruction efficient. There is, however, a tendency among German educa- tors to shorten these periods. Offner, in his " Mental Fatigue, 2 " cites Heller as authority for the statement that a half-hour ought to be regarded as long enough for a school exercise with feeble-minded children, and that the rest periods for non-compulsory activity (especially in the open air) or for taking a moderate amount of nourishment should be longer for feeble-minded children than for those who are normal. Daily Program, Auxiliary Class Boston, Massachusetts. Time. 9.00 Psalm and Lord's Prayer 9.05 Morning Song 9.10 Weather Observations 9.15 Oral Spelling and Written Sentences 9.30 Primer Class in Reading 9.45 Second Class in Reading, First Readers 2 English Translation by Whipple, pp. 81 and 86. 62 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Time. Daily Program, Auxiliary Class — (Continued) 10.00 Third Class in Reading, Second Readers 10.15 Fourth Class in Reading, Third Readers f Swedish 10.25 Light Calisthenics 10.35 Number Classes 11.00 Luncheon 11.15 Recess j Wand Exercises I Horizontal Bar ( Striking Bag Miscellaneous 11.30 Work varied from day to day Nature Work Drawing Writing Music Cutting Paper Weaving Paper Folding • Word Matching Blackboard Drawing Dominoes Telling Time Measuring Compass Work Thursdays: Kindness to Animals; Band of Mercy Work 12.00 Gymnastics, Hopping, Skipping, Trotting, Deep Breathing, Wands, Dumb-bells 12.10 Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays Basketry Weaving Sewing Crocheting Outlining Cane-seating Knitting Bench Work in Wood for older pupils Thursdays, Clay Modeling 1.00 Dismissal SCHOOL SESSIONS AND THE DAILY PROGRAM 63 1 & 3 -H> 03 03 O Ph'So Ger- man Writ- ing Free h- i h HH h >> 03 h v o •a «g < a * 9 0) 03 o a 3 3 dj £c» HH HH HH HH HH Ph MHHW 1— IH - mhhPh H- IH n hhh(h H HHHH HH HH >> 03 T3 H H H 3 03 03 o a Jt.S •a « > 03 -o DO 05 3 H ■Ji a 03 "3 s o o O Ph'So hKEJCL, a a < a i 3 03 03 o a 3 H< Q3 W & Ph cf-3 a; HH HH. 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CI o 43 3 CO 3 CO 01 1 <-> o IS ^^ CJ •o m oj — :. fVO T3 03 s 3 03 ai > 01 tH 3 j? HI - 2 CO -.i - -= X ^ 01 J ^ I ? •— J< a CO CO 7 CO s o G *j it 9 SI a ■8 .2 S o o o g a i c— ' t- ** WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 129 supporting, to find out how far they are morally re- sponsible and how many of them have children either legitimate or illegitimate, and, finally, to help those capable, to find work although, as has been noted above, the Employment Bureau of the Committee has been discontinued. The Committee's methods of work are interesting. Each member looks after seven or eight children, visiting them from time to time. These visitors are persons who, so far as possible, have made the ac- quaintance of the children while they were still in school. Five or six visitors are assigned to each special school where they make the acquaintance of the children who are soon to leave and get valuable information concerning them from their teachers. The sub-committee holds three conferences a year. At each conference each member makes a re- port on a special blank concerning each child under his charge. The form asks for information concerning the child's "age, special school training, the length of time in a special school, regularity of attendance, school record; if employed, the name and address of employer, occupation and special aptitude of child, whether occupation is regular or not, the average wages, whether the child has been in an institution, workhouse or asylum; names of parents and their occupation; whether mother was at work during preg- nancy; home conditions, including over-crowding, gen- eral poverty, insufficient nourishment for children, the number of children at work, at school, or at home; whether friends are willing and able to support the mentally deficient child; whether it lives at home or with friends; whether useful at home or not; whether it has been in trouble with the police; information as to character, conduct, health and marriage; character of the family; its eccentricities; whether there are 130 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD criminal tendencies; whether the family is in constant receipt of poor-law relief, and whether the family is specially talented." Persons who have had defectives in their employ fill out another form which shows what the defectives have been able to do towards earning a living. Another form contains data which show whether the child should be sent to an institution. Cases of especial difficulty are discussed by the members at the conferences and the information contained on the forms is preserved for future reference. In her report to the Birmingham Education Committee in June 1910, Mrs. Hume Pin- sent makes the following observations: "An investigation of the statistics previously given shows that out of 316 feeble-minded persons who have left school and are still alive and whose wherea- bouts are known, only 36 per cent, are earning wages at all; only 6.6 per cent, are earning as much as 10 shillings ($2.43) a week and less than 1 per cent, are earning 15 shillings ($3.64 a week). "We have already explained that if the numbers 'lost sight of had been included, the percentage of wage-earners would be much lower and we have proofs that the "lost sight of' belong to a class who rarely become wage-earners. The After-Care Sub-Committee, therefore, after nine years' experience with defectives, would like again to repeat their conviction that for a large percentage of the feeble-minded permanent care and control is necessary for the following reasons: 1. "To enable them to contribute towards their own support: 2. "To save them from harsh treatment at home and in the streets: 3. "To prevent their becoming drunkards, crim- inals and prostitutes; WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 131 4. "To prevent their giving birth to children who must almost certainly grow up to be a burden on the community. "As a corollary to this, we feel we ought to add that when legislation has established the continuous control recommended by the Royal Commission on the Care and Control of the Feeble-Minded, then, and then only, will the expenditure of large sums of money on special schools be justified." To give these children an expensive training and then as soon as they reach the age of 16 to turn them out on the streets is, according to Mrs. Pinsent, a waste of time, money and energy of the community. She further points out, that until England is willing to provide for the continuous care of the mentally defective, the money spent for special schools is largely being thrown away, for the children are allowed to go out into the community and marry and reproduce their kind in ever increasing numbers. Dr. Anne Moore 3 in her report to the Public Education Association of New York City, under the title "The Feeble-Minded in New York," presents some very valuable and striking information. The section on Feeble-Minded Children in the Public Schools is especially pertinent to the subject of after- care. In opening this section, Dr. Moore makes some significant statements. She shows that New York makes no legal provision for the education of feeble- minded children, that the Compulsory Education Law, while in spirit it recognizes the right of every child to receive an education, curiously exempts from school attendance children who are "physically or mentally unfit," thus leaving it to parents whether they will send to school these children who need to have their 3 The Feeble-Minded in New York, Anne Moore, Ph. D. Published by the State Charities Aid Association, New York, June 1911, 111 pages. 132 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD small powers developed. She further shows that, although the Board of Education of New York City- has established special ungraded classes for mentally- defective children, and has placed the responsibility of reporting such children to the Inspector of Ungraded Classes on the school principals, yet "a year or two ago, out of 370 principals in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Richmond, 168 failed to report any children not making normal progress. This indicates either serious inability to recognize mental deficiency, or an indif- ference to the subject." The lowest estimates place the number of mentally deficient school children at about 1 per cent, of the school enrollment, while Goddard's study would indicate as high as three per cent. Basing our com- putation on the lowest estimate, there were, in 1910, out of the 606,568 children enrolled in the elementary grades and kindergartens of the New York public schools, probably some 6,065 mentally defective children needing special class instruction. Dr. Moore states that in 1911 there were 125 un- graded classes in New York City enrolling some 2,000 defective children. A comparison of the actual en- rollment with the number that should be enrolled, brings out vividly the lack of provision in our largest American city for this class of unfortunate children. Dr. Moore points out that the children enrolled in these classes, are greatly benefited by the training they receive, but that the training is allowed to lapse after the children leave school. If such training "were continued under proper supervision, many of these children could be made useful and happy, and at least partially self-supporting. ' ' A proper segregation law would remove from these classes the following hampering conditions: WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 133 1. "Lack of power to enforce attendance upon defective children who might profit by special training. 2. "Lack of provision to continue the training of defective children after they have reached the school age limit of 16. 3. "Overcrowding of classes with cases that prop- erly belong in custodial institutions, to the detriment of the interests of the less backward children. 4. "Unintelligent opposition." We give in the following pages the "after-history" of some fifty persons who have been in the ungraded or auxiliary classes of the New York schools. These facts were compiled by Dr. Moore, who thinks that they indicate that "much of the benefit of the training received there (in these classes) is lost through lack of subsequent training." Twenty of these persons are of Jewish parentage, 10 of German parentage, 6 Italian, 5 Irish, 1 Swiss, and 7 are children of native-born Americans. Out of the whole number, only two seem to be able to hold permanent positions; "5 worked steadily for a few weeks at an average wage of $3.50; 12 have worked at odd jobs for a few days at a time; a few help at home. The majority are utterly incapable." These persons left the ungraded class: 1. "Because of the necessity of entering some institution, penal or custodial; 2. "Because, having reached the limit of school age, they could be no longer retained; 3. "Because their parents insisted upon their going to work. The small number of cases and the in- completeness of individual histories prevent sweeping conclusions, but the facts disclosed indicate: (1.) "That such individuals are incapable of earning their living without supervision : 134 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD (2.) "That they are a menace to the community when unrestrained; (3.) "That they are subjected to temptations which tend to lead them into a penal institution; (4.) "That in an educational or industrial insti- tution, they might lead a useful and happy life. They further indicate that, after discharge from the ungraded class, individuals should be followed up by some competent authority to the end of knowing : 1. "To what extent they received lasting benefit from their training in the public schools; 2. "What is the best method of dealing with them after they leave the school ; and 3. "Where the center of infection which they represent is located." STATISTICAL TABLE Feeble-minded Children Formerly in the Ungraded Classes op the Public Schools of New York City Fifty Typical Cases 4 Case Sex m m m m f Age 19 18 17 13 20 Home Family Characteristics 1 Poor; 10 in 4 rooms. 8 children in family; 6 abnormal. Carrier for clothier at $5.50 a week; night school. 2 1 brother ab- normal; out of em- ployment. Smokes; steals; lies; nothing to which he can turn his hand; peddler for a while; lost job. 3 Fair $5.00 a week. 4 Good Steals; very stout, once hired, for a pittance, to exhibit himself as fat boy; arrested 4 times; in re- formatory since leaving school; incapable. 5 Good 1 sister, 18; fm. 6 Incapable; at home; does nothing. 4 Table 6 f. m.= prepared by Dr. Anne Moore, feeble-minded. WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 135 Case Sex m m m m m Age 18 16 17 16 Home Family Characteristics 6 Fair Bad temper, "cranks;" rov- ing streets; employed for a short time in soap fac- tory, lost job; arrested once, paroled. 7 Poor Adenoids, defective speech; shuffling gait; papers made out for Syracuse; working at pasting, $2.00. 8 Hydrocephalic; pulled threads in a tailor shop for a while. 9 Paralytic; on streets most of the time. 10 Bad Tb; 6 defective eyes; cleft palate; smokes; steals; roams streets; unable to care for himself; idiotic. 11 m m f f f 16 17 15 17 Poor Idiot; burned to death be- cause he was too stupid to walk away from the fire. 12 Easily led; can do neither mental nor physical work ; transferred from Ran- dall's Island to Syracuse, came home on vacation, overstayed time, parents will not pay for return. 13 Poor Parents alco- holic. Defective teeth; fond of boys; worked few weeks in factory; mother wants to place her in service. 14 Epileptic; immoral; attrac- tive; "looking for work." 15 Poor Housework at home for a time; niching, six weeks, $3.50; mother would like to have her taught to work; walks the streets at night with her "lady friend." «Tb=Tubercular. 136 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Case Sex m m f m m m f m m Age 17 14 16 13 16 18 17 16 Home 1 Family Characteristics 16 Defective eyes; no co-or- dination; stubborn, in- capable, disobedient; ar- rested many times; has worked occasionally on moving vans or at paint- ing; is usually discharged after half a day. 17 Poor Brother fm. ; 9 children; shiftless. Has sold papers; cannot hold job; loses it at once. 18 Poor Ill in infancy; repulsive; was on Randall's Island; withdrawn because moth- er was lonely; easily led. 19 Partially paralyzed; was on Randall's Island; with- drawn to help father in saloon. 20 Poor; 3 in 1 room. Mother al- coholic; on Blackwell's Island. Club-footed; peg teeth; quarrelsome; has been in Catholic Protectory twice. 21 Poor Mother fm. Enlarged glands; bad teeth; has tantrums; steals; crim inal tendencies; sometimes peddles. 22 Fair Does housework at home; papers have been made out for Newark, parents object because of possible earning power; will prob- ably injure someone in temper fit. 23 Mother fm; mother's father fm. Incapable; run over by ex- press wagon ; sometimes runs errands or does odd jobs. 24 Fair Scarlet fever; heart disease; rheumatism; defective vision; incapable; at home; does no work. WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 137 Sex Age f 16 m 18 m m 17 13 m 11 m 16 m 16 m 15 m 16 f 16 f 17 m 16 Home Fair Poor Poor Fair Family Father tb. Sister fm, married. Mother fm; Bister deaf mute Brother fm ; sister back- ward. Family irre- sponsible. Characteristics Helps with housework and care of children; once worked in saloon; "ex- pects to marry." Has been arrested; never worked. Runs errands. Low-grade idiot; self-abuse; runs streets. Bad language ; corrupts smaller children; violent; runs streets; incendiary tendencies. Has been in the House of Refuge and in the Truant School. Steals; runs streets; has been arrested five times. Worked a few weeks, had trouble with employer; high grade, capable of work. Worked two weeks in laun- dry. Immoral : needs constant supervision; violent tem- per; in candy store a few weeks filling boxes; spends evenings on the streets or bridge. Epileptic; at home, incap- able of doing any work. Self-abuse ; papers made out for Rome, family refused at last moment; engaged to be married. 138 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Case Sex m f m m m m m f m m Age 17 17 18 16 18 18 17 12 16 Home Family Characteristics 37 Parents dead; lives with sis- ter. Vagrant; imbecile. 38 Large; ill-shaped; pretty face; at home, incapable of doing any work. 39 Bad Father tb. Scarlet fever; odd jobs; ped- dling; arrested for ped- dling without license; in jail two days, mother paid fine. 40 Good Defective speech; violent; at home. 41 Fair Rickets, palsy, paralysis; large head; incapable of work, at home. 42 Arrested May, 1909, black- mail, blackhand extor- tion; suspended sentence. 43 Arrested July 29 for steal- ing transfers; sent to Catholic Protectory. 44 Bad Brother fm. At home. 45 Bad; 9 in 3 rooms 8 children; 1 crippled. Eighth child; truant; smokes; run streets. 46 Poor Mother fm; 5 children all fm; two sisters have ille- gitimate children. Moral degenerate; smokes; cruel ; vicious ; delivery boy, 25 cents a day; father objected to his work; at home helping mother; various attempts made to get him committed balked by mother; called "Fire" in a moving pic- ture show and caused panic. WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 139 Case Sex m f f f Age 16 17 10 Home Family Characteristics 47 Parents alco- holic; mother dead. Relatives support him with difficulty; for a time in a factory; for a time ped- dled ; cannot work steadi- ly enough to earn living. 48 Parents alco- holic; mother fm; 4 members of family on Ran- dall's Is- land. On Randall's Island. 49 Quiet and good; housework at home. 50 18 children in family; 4 living. Truant; steals; now in House of Good Counsel, White Plains. Under present conditions the managers of institu- tions for the feeble-minded are often powerless to hold serious cases that have been committed to their care because of a paternal request for discharge, even though experience shows that feeble-minded individ- uals who may improve under the discipline of an in- stitution lose the benefits of the training they have received when they leave it, and again become de- pendent, or drift into crime or immorality. After=Care in Germany and Switzerland. "The experiences" says Bottger, "in cities far different in character, prove that in Germany from 70 to 80 per cent, of the auxiliary school pupils are capa- ble of earning a living." 7 7 See Article, Berufswahl der Hilfsschuler, Handbuch des Heil- padagogik, p. 264. 140 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Gardening and farming are recommended as the best occupations for auxiliary school boys, but, unfor- tunately, the greater number of the auxiliary school pupils live in large cities and cannot, for this reason, easily enter agricultural occupations, and usually the parents are unwilling to allow them to go away from the city to enter into the unknown and unaccustomed conditions of agricultural pursuits. In the cities, the simplest occupations open to them are those of street and of common laborer. Such work the former auxiliary pupils perform well under proper direction and oversight. They also perform well many lines of work in the textile trades, as much of this work demands only mechanical activity with little thought, a constant, uniform, punctual repetition of the same manipulations. Bottger states that many feeble-minded workers are able to do this manual work just as well as their normal fellows, and often show much zeal and perseverance. The best occupation for girls directly after leaving the auxiliary school, is housework at home, and aid in the care of the younger children, under the supervision of the mother; also knitting, darning, mending, and sewing. They may be able to earn their board as servants or waitresses in families where a calm and patient housewife herself works with them, and can give them the necessary directions and encouragement. Only after such a preparation will they be able to fill positions as housemaids. Others earn their living as tailoresses, laundresses, or in similar positions, and others in the textile trades. Of the 74 boys and 59 girls who left the 12 auxiliary schools of Hamburg, 14 boys secured apprentice places as gardeners, bakers, cabinet-makers, tinsmiths, ma- sons, and barbers, 17 went into the country as ser- vants or garden-workers, 22 became errand boys in WAGE EARNING AND AFTER CARE 141 Hamburg. Of the 14 apprentices only one could be provided for in Hamburg; the others went to master- workers in the smaller cities or larger villages. Of the 26 girls, 2 went to homes, 1 to a school of house- hold science, 14 secured places as servants in the city, 6 in the country, 4 went to work in the industries ; 2 are undecided as to positions. After-Care Societies have been formed during the last fifteen years in Leipsic, Konigsburg, Breslau, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Zwickau and other cities of Germany. These societies appoint a guardian for every boy and girl. This guardian acts as an adviser and helper in co-operation with the teachers, school physician, and parents, in the choice of an occupation for the child, and in seeking a reliable, intelligent master of trade or employer who will guarantee a thorough trade training. They seek to guide the con- duct of their charges in a kindly manner, to prevent, by advice, frequent changes of occupation, and seek to pro- tect them from exploitation and dangers, which, because of their weakness, threaten them in public life. By the payment of apprentices' premiums, they gain the right to concern themselves for their charges during the apprenticeship, and their advice and instructions find in the apprentice-masters willing listeners. The societies also pay premiums to such masters as have trained mentally defective boys in their trades. In Saxony it has been the practice since 1865 for every master to receive, on his application, after the completed apprenticeship of a mentally defective boy, a premium of 150 M from the Minister of the Interior. In Switzerland, the "Albert Fisler Fund" serves this purpose, paying premiums to masters of a trade; textile overseers and others who succeed in training for some permanent work a mentally defective apprentice after his dismissal from an institution or special class, 142 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD to such a degree that he can earn his living, such premiums being in recognition of their proven skill and patience. In the same commendable manner the Konigsberg, Berlin, and other After-Care Societies (Fursorgevereine) carry on their work. One is not able to explain why more than twice as many auxiliary pupils are able to earn their living in Germany as in England. It may be due to the fact that there is more demand in the former country for the coarser kinds of labor, or it may be due to the su- perior patience of the German people and very likely the premiums just mentioned may be an incentive for the employers to keep the mentally deficient in their employ. We have, however, much to learn as to the best way of dealing with these unfortunate boys and girls after they have left the auxiliary schools. APPENDIX APPENDIX 145 Appendix A REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE ORGANIZATION OF AUX- ILIARY SCHOOLS IN BERLIN* The auxiliary schools shall so serve the interests of the children of the community, who, on account of mental and physical defects, can- not pursue the instruction of the regular school with success, that they may either be returned to the regular schools or may obtain in the auxiliary schools a suitable preparation for later life. The auxiliary schools are departments of the public Volksschule. Admission to the Preliminary Class (Vorklasse) Such children as have attended without success the lowest class of the regular school for a year, and after the work of the year must still remain in the lower division of the class, may be assigned to one of the preliminary classes for the instruction of mentally retarded children. To the preliminary class may be assigned before the close of the year, such children as proved themselves unfitted for the work of the regular school. The direction of these classes is given to an experienced auxiliary school teacher. The methods of instruction to be employed and the number of pupils to a class, shall be the same as for the lower grades of the aux- iliary school. The number of recitation hours per week shall, as a rule, be 20. The school board determines the time of admission. The necessity for admission to these classes will be decided upon by the teacher of the regular class in question, the school physician, the principal and the school inspector. Those children who, after attending the preliminary class for one year, pass the examination for the second class of the regular school, or make such progress that their advancement in the regular schools seems probable, shall be promoted to these schools. At first, only one preliminary class is to be opened in a school district. When they have proved themselves, their increase will be con- sidered as need is shown, but for this increase, the approval of the dis- trict board will be necessary. *These regulations are severely criticised by auxiliary school teach- ers in Germany as being a compromise measure in that they hold out the false hope that auxiliary school pupils may be able to do the work of the regular schools. See Zur Neuordnung des Berliner Hilfsschul- wesens, Dressier, Die Hilfsschule, May 1912, pp. 125-131. 146 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Admission to the Auxiliary School The children who have attended the Vorklasse for one year with little or no advancement, are to be thoroughly examined to see whether they shall be transferred to the auxiliary school, or in case they have had a long period of sickness during their attendance in the preliminary class, a still longer trial in the same class is to be recommended. No child is to remain more than two years in the Vorklasse. Children who are undoubtedly feeble-minded may be assigned at once to the district auxiliary school. Children who are pronounced idiots, shall not be sent to the auxiliary school, but if possible shall be transferred to an idiot asylum. In the examination of children of the Vorklasse, the teacher of this class, the principal of the district school with which the class is con- nected, the director of the auxiliary school, the school physician, and the school inspector are to take part. On a day designated by the school board, the teacher of the Vor- klasse shall hand to the school board through the principal of the school, a list of pupils of the Vorklasse with a short sketch of each and his recommendations in regard to promotion into the regular school, or to the auxiliary school. The decision is left to the school inspector. Children who, on account of deafness, are retarded in the regular schools, shall be assigned directly to a special division of the auxiliary schools designed for children who have defective hearing. For an ex- pert opinion on children with defective hearing, an ear specialist may be called in consultation. Admission to the class for children with defective hearing shall occur, as a rule, only in April. Organization 1. Whenever it is any way feasible, the existing supplementary classes (Nebenklassen) will be united, forming an auxiliary school of five graded classes. The fifth and the fourth classes form the lowest grade (Unterstufe), the third and second, the middle grade (Mittelstufe), and the first class, the highest grade (Oberstufe). Generally, pupils remain at least two years with the same teacher. In the lowest grade of every auxiliary school, parallel classes may be formed. 2. The supplementary classes not organized in independent aux- iliary schools, consist of classes of the lower and middle grades, and from them the larger children of whom a longer school walk may be required, are transferred when ready for advancement to the nearest auxiliary school. These supplementary classes are under the charge of the principal of the district school with which they are connected. 3. The departments of the auxiliary school for pupils with de- fective hearing, are to be so organized, if possible, that they shall have at least three graded classes. 4. The membership of the classes of the lower grade shall be 18: of the middle grade 20; of the higher grade 22; and of the classes for children with defective hearing 12. 5. In the supplementary classes, the principle of co-education of the sexes, is to be carried out. 6. The dismissal of pupils shall be attended to by the office of the school board, not by the school commission. APPENDIX 147 7. Children of the Vorklasse and of the auxiliary schools, who are mentally deranged or markedly epileptic, may be excluded from these schools, and may be assigned to a corresponding city institution or, by order of the school board, may receive private instruction at the expense of the city. 8. The auxiliary schools are, as a rule, carried on in the district schoolbuildings, and are independent departments of the district schools, the principals of which have the office of building supervisor. Scope of Supplementary Class Instruction 1. The auxiliary schools give instruction in the same essential subjects as the regular schools, and have besides manual work as a required stud}' for boys and girls. For children afflicted with speech defects, a special course in articu- lation is arranged. 2. For instruction in the supplementary classes, an outline of a course of study is taken as a basis, which aims for a unity of structure in the most important subjects for the general supplementary class system. By this outline, the teaching corps is granted so much freedom that wide latitude in the development of method is in no way restricted. Practical experiences gathered from the teachers will later serve to give to the outline the more permanent form of a course of study. Until then, the now current division of studies remains in force. The classes for deaf children carry out their instruction in the regular subjects according to a special outline of studies. 3. The promotion of the children in the supplementary classes occurs at Easter. Promotion is made if the pupil has attained the aim laid down for the class in German. In number and manual work the children are grouped in special classes, according to their ability. The Teaching Corps As fit candidates for the office of auxiliary school teachers, only such persons are to be considered as have shown themselves capable in the work of the regular schools, have attended a training course for auxiliary school teachers, have developed skill in the line of manual work, and, finally, have shown evidence of a personal inclination toward psychological studies and social work. 1. For the direction of the classes for children with defective hearing, those teachers are favored who have passed the examination required for teachers of the deaf and dumb. 2. The teachers for the auxiliary schools are chosen by the school board from the regularly appointed district teachers, on the recommendation of the school inspectors. 3. The teachers of the auxiliary schools, of the schools for deaf children, and of the Vorklassen have, along with the instruction and training of their pupils, to consider the special care of the children a duty pertaining to their office. 4. The teachers receive the legal salary as district teachers, and are obliged, in case of need, in addition to instruction in the supple- mentary classes, to give a sufficient amount of instruction in the regular classes, to bring their whole number of hours of service up to that re- quired of the regular teachers. While engaged in the work of the regular 148 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD schools, they are under the direction of the principals of such schools . These teachers receive an annual personal remuneration of 300 M. After a five year probationary period in the auxiliary school, this is changed to an official remuneration of the same amount, which entitles the holder to a pension. The school board reserves the right to transfer auxiliary teachers to the regular schools with withdrawal of the addi- tional salary. In case the teachers during the five years of probationary service have to give up their teaching and be replaced, their pay ceases from the first of the month following the time of their withdrawal until their return. The Director of the Auxiliary School The directors of auxiliary schools are appointed by the city council from a list of auxiliary school teachers selected by a conference of school inspectors, and recommended by the school board. The conditions for appointment are that the teachers have at least five years of successful experience in auxiliary school work and have made efforts to continue their education as auxiliary school teachers; that they further have thoroughly mastered the subject of manual work, and possess the necessary qualifications for a school director. They bear the title of chief teacher, and must have the approval of the royal provincial board of instruction. The director of an aux- iliary school exercises over the classes and teaching force placed under his charge the authority of a principal of a regular district school. He gives weekly 16 hours of instruction, of which 12 hours must be in the class directed by him. He must also regard as his special duty the care of the children assigned to the auxiliary school placed under his charge. He must give his attention to careful keeping of the personal record sheets of the auxiliary school pupils, and take care that at the end of each half-year copies of the personal record-sheets and certificates of the pupils about to leave, are sent to the Identification Commission, and that the director of the Continuation School for mentally defective pupils receives at the same time a full statement concerning all the boys and girls who are leaving. He has to carefully preserve the rec- ords of the children for a period of ten years. He receives in addition to the legal salary of the district teacher, an official remuneration of 600 M. per year. Transfers from the Auxiliary to the Regular School One month before the close of the winter semester, the director of the auxiliary schools must report to the school inspector, whether there are any children who may very probably do the work of the regular school. The director of the auxiliary school and the principal of the dis- trict school in the rooms of which the auxiliary school is carried on, will test the children recommended and report their findings to the school inspector, for his decision. In this decision the findings of the school physician recorded on the personal record sheet are to be consid- ered; in case of need, this official is again consulted before the decision is made. In making this decision, according to the official decree of April 6, 1901, it is to be taken into consideration that when it is a ques- APPENDIX 149 tion of a promotion to the lower grades of the regular school, such pro- motion is not to be recommended in the case of children who are already over-age. If, therefore, in an individual case, it is not possible to transfer the over-age child to the middle grades of the regular school, then the trans- fer is to be given up, if under the circumstances there is no probability that the child would succeed in completing the middle grades before the expiration of the compulsory age limit. Very carefully to be con- sidered is the return of those children to the regular school who have successfully finished the work of the highest class of the five grade aux- iliary school, and still have at their disposal one school year, or who would like to attend school in accordance with the wish of the parents after the expiration of the compulsory limit. The plan for examining these children is the same as that used in examining the children of the regular schools who are recommended for promotion to higher classes. 150 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix B PROGRAMS OF WORK IN SPECIAL CLASSES SPECIAL SCHOOL NO. 2. PHILADELPHIA. Program. First and Second Years. Disciplinary Class A. M. 9.00- 9.15. 9.15-10.00. 10.00-10.15. 10.15-10.30. 10.30-10.45. 10.45-11.00. 11.00-11.15. 11.15-11.27. 11.27-11.42. 11.42-11.57. P. M. 11.57-12.17. 12.17-12.30. 12.30- 1.05. 1.05- 1.25. 1.25- 1.40. 1.40- 1.55. 1.55- 2.00. Opening Exercises. Sloyd and Handwork. Number Teaching Period or Table Drill. Arithmetic [Practical Work]. Study and recite Spelling. Recess. Write Spelling and Dictation. Music. Second Year, Reading. First Year, Busy Work. Penmanship. Drawing, three days. Word Drill, two days. Copy Home Work and Correct Spelling. Lunch. Language. First Year, Reading. Second Year, Busy Work. Physical Exercises. Dismissal. SPECIAL SCHOOL NO. 2. PHILADELPHIA. Program. Third Year. Disciplinary Class A. M. 9.00- 9.15. 9.15- 9.25. 9.25- 9.50. 9.50-10.02. 10.02-10.15. 10.15-10.45. 10.45-11.00. 11.00-11.45. Opening Exercises. Dictated Spelling and Dictation. Written Rapid Work. Written Arithmetic. Music. Teach new Spelling Words. Sounds. New Reading Words. Language. Recess. 12 boys, Sloyd. Remaining boys do Chair Caning, Raffia Work, Basket Making, Hammocks. APPENDIX 151 1 1 . 45-1 2 . 00 . Study Reading Lesson so as to reproduce story or facts at the beginning of Reading Lesson in the afternoon, p. M. 12 . 00-12 . 15 . Physical Training. Sense Training. 12 . 15-12 . 30 . Penmanship. 12 . 30-12 . 35 . Copy Lessons. 12.35- 1.05. Lunch. 1.05- 1.25. Reading. 1.25-1.45. Geography, two days. Drawing, three days. 1 . 45- 1 . 55 . Teach new Arithmetic. 1.55- 2.00. Dismissal. SPECIAL SCHOOL NO. 2. PHILADELPHIA. Program. Third Year. Fourth Year. Fifth Year. Disciplinary Class A. M. 9 . 00- 9.15. Opening Exercises. 9.15- 9.25. Dictated Spelling. (Dictate to 3 classes at one time.) 9.25-9.30. Rapid Work. All Classes. 9.30- 9.55. Written Arithmetic. Monday teach new work to 3rd year. Tuesday teach new work to 4th year. Wednesday teach new work to 5th year, etc. During this period mark Spelling papers, Home Work books, and return. As boys finish, mark Arithmetic papers and return. If time, have work corrected. 9 . 55-10 . 10 . Physical Exercises. 10.10-10.30. Geography. Monday, Wednesday, Friday. Drawing. Tuesday, Thursday. 10.30-10.40. Penmanship. 10 . 40-10 . 45 . Examine Corrected Work. 10.45-11.00. Recess. 11.00-11.30. Language. Monday, Reproduction or Picture Story. Tuesday, Correct Expression. Wednesday, Study of a Poem. Thursday, Nature Work. Friday, Current Events, Reviews, Biog- raphies, p. M. 11.30-12.30. Sloyd and Handwork. 12 boys, Sloyd. Remaining boys have Raffia Work, Basketry, Hammock Making, etc., in classroom. Individual training in regular les- sons during this period given to those boys needing it. 12 . 30-12 . 35 . Speech Training. 12.35- 1.05. Lunch. 1.05- 1.15. Copy Home Work. New Lessons. 1.15- 1.27. Music. 1.27- 1.47. Reading. 1 . 47- 2 . 00 . Physiology or History. 2 . 00. Dismissal. 152 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD SPECIAL SCHOOL NO. 2. Program. Third Year. PHILADELPHIA. Fourth Year. a. M. 9 00- 9.15. 9.15- 9.30. 9.30- 9.45. 9.45-10.00. 10.00-10.25. 10.25-10.40. 10.40-10.50. 10.40-11.10. 11.10-11.30. 11.30-11.55. 11.55-12.00. 12.00-12.30. P. M. 12.30-12.40. 12.40-12.52. 12.52- 1.05. 1.05- 1.45. 1.45- 2.00. 2.00 Backward Class Opening Exercises. Written Arithmetic. Oral Arithmetic. Oral Arithmetic. Written Arithmetic. Physical Exercises. Oral and Written Language. Recess. (During this recess dictated spelling to boy not able to do 3rd year spelling.) Spelling and Dictation. Reading. Other boys correct Arithmetic papers or Busy Work. Correct Arithmetic or Busy Work. Reading. (Four boys go to Sloyd Room 11.15 to 11.45.) Drawing, three days. Geography, two days. Sense Training. Recess. (Superintend lunches.) Penmanship. Music. Copy and Recite Home Work. Four boys go to Sloyd Room. Remaining boys have Raffia Work, Reed Work, Chair Caning, etc. During this period hear two 6th year boys recite History, two days, Geography, two days, Physiology, one day; also, Grammar and Spelling of boy who cannot write. Speech Work. Dismissal. SPECIAL SCHOOL NO. 2. PHILADELPHIA. Program. Second Year. Third Year. Fourth Year. Backward Class a. m. 9 . 00- 9.15. Opening Exercises. 9 . 15- 9 . 25 . Dictated Spelling. All classes. 9.25-9.35. Copy Home Work. Teach spelling for next day. 9.35-9.45. Mental Arithmetic. All Classes. 9 . 45-10 .13. Written Arithmetic . All Classes. During this period boys needing individual work in Arithmetic are helped. Any remaining time is spent in marking Home Work, Spelling, and as the boys finish working examples, their papers are marked and any errors are corrected by them. 10.13-10.25. Music. All Classes. 10.25-10.40. Recess. 10 . 40-10 . 55 . Fourth Year Reading. 10 . 55-1 1.10. Third Year Reading. (Four boys go to Sloyd Room from 11.25 to 11.45.) APPENDIX 153 1 1 . 10-1 1 . 25 . Fourth Year Geography. 1 1 . 25-1 1 . 40 . Penmanship. 11.40-12.00. Physical Exercises. P. M. 12 00-12 . 10 . Boys Eat Lunch in Room. 12.10-12.30. Recess. 12.30-12.45. Drawing. Monday, Wednesday, Friday. Third Year Geography. Tuesday, Thursday. 12 . 45- 1 . 05 . Language. 1 .05- 1.45. Four boys go to Sloyd room. Remaining boys have Basketry, Raffia, Hammock Making, etc., in classroom. 15 minutes given to Second Year Reading. After this, individual work in sense training, or in regular grade work is given. 1 . 45-2 . 00 . Speech Training. 2 . 00 Dismissal. 154 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix C TEACHER'S REPORT OF A BACKWARD BOY A REMARKABLE CASE G . Address : — Father's Name: — C Occupation : — Paperhanger. Date of Entrance: — Sept., 1908. Age: — 9 years. Transferred from: — Arnold School. Cause of Transfer: — Backwardness. Body: — Undersize in height, but is well nourished. Head: — Circumference:— 19 inches. Overhead to ears: — 11 inches. Face: — Good healthy color, dark eyes and hair, oddly shaped mouth. Ears: — Normal hearing. Nasal Pharynx: — Enlarged tonsils. Adenoids. Has had two operations for adenoids. Eyes: — Very nearsighted. Wears glasses. Can see very little without them. Fixation : — Poor. Visualization : — Good . Expression : — Very dull and apathetic at first, but before many weeks was noticeably brighter. Hands: — There was a great lack of muscular co-ordination. He could do very little handwork at first, but is now making an Indian basket and has made several Sloyd models. Nerve Signs:— Had chorea. There is still a little nervous twitching of the face at times. Physical Health and Nutrition: — He had a normal birth, but when two months old had marasmus. For two years he required constant care and nursing. He was scrofulous. The family physician says that there is a strong tubercular tendency. When quite young he had convulsions and would scream until exhausted. An aunt was subject to convulsions similar to these and died in one of them. As he grew older he grew stronger, but he has always been delicate. Has had frequent attacks of acute bronchitis, also ton- silitis. The tonsils were very much enlarged and there were ade- noids. Tonsils were removed and there have been two operations for adenoids, and it seems as though a third operation will be necessary. He had measles several years ago, which caused serious eye trouble. He is so near-sighted that he "cannot see to put on or take off" his shoes without his glasses. He had almost a double row of teeth, which were very irregular and decayed quickly. This caused indigestion. He has been in APPENDIX 155 the care of a dentist for about two years, who has removed some teeth and is straightening others. This last year (1908-1909) his health has been better than ever before, but he has had frequent severe colds in his head. The mother said that their physician told her that G was feeble-minded, and at times, even yet, she notices that he has "moody spells," and while in one of them shows a strange dislike for his father, who is always kind and good to him. At other times he seems to care for his father, and at school frequently says, " My father says" etc. He has shown no signs of these spells in school, but when he has a cold or is not feeling well, he is more than ordinarily dull. School Report: — Entered Special No. 2., Sept. 1908, from the Arnold School, at the age of 9 years. He started to school at 6 years of age and had never been promoted from the First Grade. During the summer of 1908, he was taken to Dr. Witmer's School for Backward Children at the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Witmer examined him and pronounced him an "idio-imbecile," and told the mother that the boy was feeble-minded. At this time he would sit in the class with open mouth and a vacant expression on his face, taking no interest in anything. He frequently had violent crying spells. At Dr. Witmer's advice, the adenoids and tonsils were removed, eyes examined and fitted with glasses, and he was placed under the care of a dentist. He was also put on a diet. This caused him to lose several weeks of the class instruction in Dr. Witmer's school, which at that time was in the care of our Principal, Miss Calwell. On his return to school from the hospital a decided change was seen. He took more interest in things, and when the school closed, he had learned a few words and a few of the combinations of numbers to ten. There was a great lack of muscular co-ordination which was plainly shown in all the handwork, but more especially in the Sloyd work. At the close of the summer school, Dr. Witmer said that he had come to the conclusion that G was not feeble-minded, but was backward from physical defects, and was a case for a Special School, where, under proper care and training, he ought to be able to do school work. He was sent to Special No. 2. the following September, and has required a great deal of individual care and training. March, 1909: — G is interested in everything in the school. The ordinary things about which a child of 5 or 6 years of age usually asks numerous questions, he has been noticing the last few months, and they have been the subjects of many questions from him. The beginning of the term he would sit idly waiting to be told to do his work, but now he is always busy. In arithmetic he has learned all the combinations from 1 to 10, and is now working on those from 10 to 20, and can read and write to 100 with few mistakes— makes and works small number "stories" in addition and subtraction. Visualization in reading is good. The sight words he learns easily and remembers them very well. He is good at "sounding" 156 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD the new words too, which, no doubt, is due to his daily drill in speech training. There is a little peculiarity in the way he "sounds' a word the first time, as, for example, in the word scour — Instead of sounding the sc and then our, he will say, "our, cour, scour." At first I would insist on his "sounding" it the proper or usual way, but he would become confused and had great difficulty in getting the correct pronunciation. So I have allowed him to use his own method, which rarely fails him. The speech training also helps him in spelling, but he can only learn from three to five words a day and no more. Penmanship is poor but plain, and he has a fair amount of speed. In language, he could not remember a story to reproduce it orally at first, but now he not only tells it well, but also does fairly well at writing it. This he is not required to do, but he asked to do it for "busy" work. In five months he learned 148 words, which he knew by sight, could spell, and use in sentences and in making little number stories. The speech defect, which was very decided, is gradually disappearing under the course in speech training. The daily drill on sounds and in articulation, and also the straightening of the teeth, have been very beneficial. In the manual work there is improvement also. He has made several models in Sloyd, and has an Indian basket nearly completed, which is decidedly the best handwork that he has ever done. Feb., 1910: — At the February promotions G was promoted to regular high 2nd year work, remaining under the same teacher. In all the work, he is doing well. He was under the care of a sub- stitute teacher for several months, who, necessarily, could not carry on the work with him as planned by the regular teacher, so he probably did not make the usual progress for that time. He is very anxious to get along in his work and was so pleased with his promotion that he wanted to learn long division with the 3rd year class. As he knew most of the multiplication tables, and was able to take up the extra work, I taught him along with the other boys and now he is able to work examples with two figures in the divisor and not more than three figures in the quotient. He had very little difficulty in learning this, which sometimes is rather difficult for normal children. April, 1910: — G has worked along with the other boys in regular class work for several months. He has very little individual atten- tion any more and gets along well in all his work. For some time now he has had ten words in his daily spelling lesson and soon will be able to take fifteen. The Principal was discussing the advisability of sending him back to the regular school in September, 1910. There is much reason to believe that in the coming years of his school life, if his health permits, he will be able to recover much of the time lost by the retardation of development caused by phy- sical defects. By the removal of these physical obstructions at the age of 9 years, his intelligence was awakened, and, at 9 years he had to begin the school work of a child of 6 years of age. In the last two years G has done the work of a child from 6 to 9 years, but APPENDIX 157 while in school work he is several years behind his grade, yet his general intelligence is nearly that of a normal boy of his age. At present, his condition seems to be that of a normal child, and he ought to be able to make the same rate of progress as is expected from the average normal boy. General Remarks: — G 's father is a graduate of Girard College. Both parents are much interested in the boy's welfare and have made great sacrifices to give him proper care and attention and to secure medical treatment for him. G is the eldest of three children. His sister also has adenoids, but G is the only abnormal child. The parents were very much grieved over their boy's condi- tion and had done all they could to help him but to no avail. In the spring of 1908, the mother, at a "mother's meeting" at the Glenwood school, heard Dr. Witmer of the University of Penn- sylvania deliver a lecture in which he spoke of the care that back- ward children should receive. She immediately had the father take G to Dr. Witmer, with the results mentioned above. The parents are delighted with the progress he has made and fully appreciate the efforts put forth in his behalf. When he first come to our school he did not take much notice of anything, but gradually things would attract his attention, and he never tired of asking questions and making remarks about them, some of which were very original. G is gentle and quiet in manner and gets along well with the other boys. He is obedient and has strong affections. This has been a most interesting case, as an opportunity has been given to watch the awakening and development of a mind that was almost a blank. Jessie G. Myers, Teacher. 158 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix D AN INTERESTING CASE OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Roy . Address : — Father's Name: — John. Occupation : — Clergyman. Date of Entrance: — December 1908. Age: — 16 years. Body: — Nearly normal development of trunk and upper limbs. The lower limbs are normal from hip to knee, but below the knee they are undersize and not well developed, probably from disuse. Face: — Features well proportioned and general expression fairly in- telligent. Ears: — Normal. Eyes : — Normal. Nasal Pharynx:— Adenoids. Probably slight paralysis of upper part of throat. Physical Health and Nutrition: — A case of congenital paralysis, but the parents being unused to children, (this being their first child) did not realize at first that anything was wrong. As he grew older they gradually noticed that he was not like other children, and finally found that he could not walk. A number of physicians were consulted and they pronounced it a case of " spastic paralysis" with no hope of recovery. A nurse was secured for him who gave him different kinds of treatments, and devoted much of her time to trying to teach him to walk. One time, she succeeded in having him walk across the room once, but this never happened again. He can stand upright, but seems unable to balance himself and is very nervous, fearing that he will fall. He has learned to walk on his knees and can get around quite well, even being able to go up and down stairs by himself. His general health is good, and his body is well nourished. It seems that the motor area is the only part of the brain that is affected, as he seems to be of nearly normal mentality for a boy of his age. School Report: — Not being able to walk, Roy was not sent to any school, but tutors were employed to educate him at home. As he grew older, he craved the companionship of other boys so his father sent him to a boarding school. Children in this condition, physically, are usually more or less feeble-minded, and such was the case in this boarding school. As Roy's mentality is nearly normal, under those conditions, his boarding school life proved a failure. In the autumn of 1908, Dr. H was lecturing in Phila- delphia, at this time they lived in C , Mass. While here he visited Temple University to see if it would be a suitable school for Roy. Dean McKinley of the University would not take him but sent Dr. H to see the Principal of Special School No. 2. Dr. H was favorably impressed with the school and in December. APPENDIX 159 1908, brought his family to Philadelphia and located near the school where Roy was sent at once. In all oral work, Roy was well advanced. He could spell well, had studied history and geography, was fond of reading, but on account of a speech defect, caused probably by some paralysis of the throat, had great difficulty in reading aloud. He could not write at all, not being able to use his hands. Immediately, upon entering school, exercises to strengthen the muscles of his legs were given him and he was urged to walk up the room between the forms, supporting himself by the desks. This was very great exertion, but this practice is kept up daily. He had never been able to use a pen or pencil at all, indeed it seemed almost impossible to bring about the proper co-ordination of muscles necessary to bring the pencil to the paper. Heavy manila paper and a thick heavy pencil were given to him and, after repeated effort, he succeeded in learning to make all the figures — then he began the letters, singly at first, and then in words. Every day he is given about an hour's work in the Sloyd room. The Sloyd teacher has taken great interest in him, with remarkable results. At first he worked standing on his knees, then sitting on a stool, but finally he came to use an iron frame-work which held him upright on his feet, supporting him around the waist. He is strapped to this but has free use of his arms in an almost natural standing position at the work bench. He first learned to use the plane, then to bore holes, hammer nails and to use a saw. The Sloyd teacher also put up a heavy rope from one end of the room to the other and had Roy walk the length of the room. The rope hung very loosely, so that while it would save him from falling, yet he would have to depend upon his own efforts to some extent to keep his balance. Finally he could walk several yards without any support. May 1, 1909: — Roy now can write words and has written a few short sentences, and works his Arithmetic lesson on paper every day. He had the adenoids removed a few weeks ago. He reads a- loud with much less difficulty. This, no doubt, is due to the daily drill in articulation and regular speech training. He is very anxious to improve and in school willingly and cheerfully does all that is required of him, but his father says that at home he will not practise writing or walking unless urged to do so. His father seems to think he lacks will power and is decidedly weak in that respect, but I do not think his school work shows that. He certainly must have considerable will power to do the things he does. May 4, 1909: — Roy came to school to-day and very joyfully told us that he had walked across his room six times. He tried to show that he could do it again at school but while he failed to walk quite that distance, yet he proved that he could walk alone. Development of the muscles of the lower part of the leg by suitable exercises, and confidence in his own power will, in time, probably enable him to walk enough to get around the house and will make him less dependent on others. He is still very much pleased with the Sloyd work, and has made ten articles, among which are a boat, a small wheel-barrow and a tabouret. 160 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD June, 1909: — Left for summer home in New Hampshire. Sept. 22, 1909: — Received card stating that Roy would return to school in October. Oct. 8, 1909: — Returned to Special No. 2. to-day. Noticeable im- provement in speech. His regular work has not suffered from the vacation from school. Nov., 1910: — Marked improvement in all work. Is doing regular 6th year history and geography. April, 1910: — Improvement continues. Has written a grammar lesson. Has regular 6th year grammar. Is very much interested in his history in the study of the Civil War. Studies lesson from large history at home. Has never been able to make any hand- work articles, except the Sloyd, until this week. He has just completed a 6-inch reed mat. He says that every day he walks from one end of the second floor to the other. Has had five boils lately. Just lost three days from school on account of one which was on the right leg above the knee. This has caused him to lose some of the exercise in walking. Works arithmetic lessons on paper every day, also has some written work in language, or some other written lesson daily. General Remarks: — Roy's father is a Congregational minister from New England. He has quite a bright, interesting family of four children, of which Roy is the only abnormal one. Nothing has been spared to make Roy's condition better. He has an attendant who brings him to school in a rolling chair. I think, perhaps, it would be better for Roy not to have so much attention, as he would then be compelled to use his arms and hands more, and do more for himself. He seems to be of a cheerful disposition, but he has told me that he often gets discouraged and wonders why he could not be as other boys. He seems to fear, too, that people will think that he is feeble- minded. He wears wooden-soled shoes with long leather leggings, heavily padded, which are a hindrance to him when he walks on his feet, but which are a protection when he walks on his knees. I think he should not wear them at all, and not be allowed to walk at all except on his feet. He is just a little lazy and inclined to give up too soon, but is trying to overcome this. He has enjoyed being in school with other boys, and is always delighted when he can enter a class and does not require individual work. He is very much afraid of taking the "lion's share" of the teacher's time. He is exceedingly polite and well bred, and is kind and thoughtful. When he first came to our school one of the boys had to "feed" him at lunch time. Now he can "feed" himself, but "makes crumbs" as he says, but he is so glad that he can brush them up himself. This he always will do and will not allow anyone to do it for him. This has been one of the most interesting cases that we have had. Jessie G. Myers, Teacher. APPENDIX 161 Appendix E PHILADELPHIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS BACKWARD CHILDREN INVESTIGATION RECORD BLANK NAME SCHOOL DIST. NO GRADE DATE of BIRTH EXAMINED MENTAL DEVELOPMENT YRS Ill 1 Nose, eyes, mouth. 2 It rains. I am hungry. 3 Repeat 7, 2. 4 Picture (enumerates). 5 Name. IV 1 Boy or Girl. 2 Key, knife, penny. 3 Repeat 7, 4, 8. 4 Lines. 1 3 and 12 grams. 6 and 15 grams. 2 Square. (Draw on back of blank.) 3 Patience. 4 Counting four pennies. VI 1 R. Hand. L. Ear. 2 We get up in the morning; after breakfast we work; at night we go to bed. 3 Prettier? 1 & 2. 4 & 3. 5 & 6. 4 Fork Horse. Table Mama. Chair 5 Key on chair: shut door: bring box. 6 How old? 7 Morning or afternoon? VII 1 Lacks eyes, nose, mouth, arms. 2 Fingers R. Hand? L. Hand? Both? 3 Write from copy. (On back of blank.) 4 Copy diamond. (On back of blank.) 5 Repeat 4, 7, 3, 9, 5. 6 Describes picture. 7 Counts 13 pennies. 8 Penny, nickel, dime, quarter. VIII 1 Memories. Time of reading. 2 Counting stamps. 111222. 162 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 3 Red, blue, green, yellow. Time. 4 20-1. Time. 5 Dictation. (Write on back of blank.) 6 Butterfly Wood Paper Fly Glass Cloth IX 1 Date. 2 Days M. T. W. T. F. S. S. Time. 3 25c. 9c. 4 Definitions. (See VI 4.) 5 6 memories. (VIII 1.) 6 Arrange weights. 1. 2. 3. Time X 1 Month J. F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. O. N. D. Time. 2 Money 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 1, 2, 5, 10. 3 Sentence, Phila., Money, River. 4 1. 1 2. 2 3 3 4 5 XI 1 a. Unfortunate painter. d. R. R. accident. b. Three brothers. e. Suicide. c. Locked in the quiet. Time. 2 Sentence Phila., Money, River. (X. 3.) 3 60 words in three minutes, (over.) 4 Charity, Justice, Goodness. 5 a. We started at a good hour for the park. b. I have asked my teacher to correct my exercise. c. A good dog defends his master courageously. XII 1 Repeat 296437 5. 928516 4. 169584 7. 2 Rhymes, day, spring, mill. 3 Repeat. "Children, it is necessary to work very hard for a living. You must go every morning to your school." "The other day I saw in the street, a pretty, young dog. Little Maurice has got spots on his new apron!" "Ernest is praised very often for his good conduct." "I bought at the store a beautiful doll for my little sister." "There occurred on that night a frightful tempest with lightning. My comrade has taken cold. He has fever and coughs very much. ' ' 4 Problems: (a) Frightened at night. (b) Neighbor's visitors. XIII 1 Cutting paper. (Draw on back of blank.) 2 Reversed triangle. (Draw on back of blank.) 3 Pleasure and honor. Poverty and misery. Evolution and revolution. Pride and pretension. Event and advent. APPENDIX 163 Appendix F TESTS USED IN PHILADELPHIA INVESTIGATION "A" Test. — Pupil is to cross out all the A's. GAAQYEMPAZNTIBXGAIMRUSAWZAZWXAMXBDXAJZ ECNABAHGDVSVFTCLAYKUKCWAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH UOLJCCAKSZAUAFERFAWAFZAWXBAAAVHAMBATAD KVSTVNAPLILAOXYSJUOVYIVPAAPSDNLKRQAAOJLE AKNAAPLPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK UPDSHAAQGGHTAMZAQGMTPNURQNXIJEOWYCREJD TXWAMQEAKHAOPXZWCAIRBRZNSOQAQLMDGUSGB FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO SNZMWAAAWHACAXHXQAXTDPUTYGSKGRKVLGKIM JACINEVBGAOFHARPVEJCTQZAPJLEIQWNAHRBUIAS YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL OYKFIUDBHTAGDAACDIXAMRPAGQZTAACVAOWLYX WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF Recognition op Words 3* 4* 5* is bird could man vest country see give field you read butterfly boy dear milkman girl letter become the want around big love scold ball home leave like her yellow 164 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD WORD TESTS. Memory op Related Words. Memory of Unrelated Words. A B School Kitchen teacher stove book fire desk wood pen coal read hot write kettle add boil spell water word tea A Book tree door pillow letter button nose fish plant B Long run dress knife friend break green arm toy room Associated Ideas. Tell something that is high empty soft narrow cold loose new bitter smooth level red heavy round woolen clean bright bent wet deep good 8* Tell something opposite of high light noisy hard kind old small plain cross stout •See Personal Record Sheet for other tests, p. 166. that is the ^ja ° III S .1 z B-a| S r -3 •* H eo ca > K -> J A 03 CO »f« too 1 -' »:3 oj .- fll fl 4?H = ■3 J O H ©55 v JJ3 a s •2 W 03 a s S -c .a a " 2 9 1 • "S "S 5 I .a - 1^1. ©•^J m °a^ H.S •1.2.5 = £*° a i a .2 a ■L CO •I- •!• XX XX I I I I s« .> 3 2^ ^^ .2 -O — 0) >>iafl 3d. 2— -feo £« • >» O CD OH. hSHu o « So3^ _ o w M ^ s£o i WSJ caa S zo 10 «s ++ >> a> 03 £> 3 a -§s ++ t- 0) II 5 -? o3 03 5 § « o.2 § -a M a « ah Z n K ¥ ° CO £ S O > 03 £•- a h oj a . ° S 3 W 3 t Jgo-g S 6 a I S S o£o ! CJ 63 o o 32 33 o .'£ .— OT *" (U _-3* T3 o M.S —'A o £? «3 SB •° H"2 Eg K o Qj 00 " (U M gS S'S 9 s K H p, o .-*= O « H B B3 t« - 5 _J 03 °1 eg o a ,. a S3 i d O o CO .0. O fa d 15 o 41 4 ■3 f _ c c] o .2 ° >> •O 4) P ®3 CI *» « we- 'd 4> c 9 4> a 1 £ 4) «tt: ao o** 53 □ 4> "to •o xt o 41 4) a 03 Physical defects.— (Infantile paralysis.) Physical defects. a a lis www O^ O .Sg.3 >*> > Q 4) C s w. CO +9 □ s a ■8 9 D c CO - c «£ . v . OQ-Tl Q) «— c eS 4) »•« T3 S a — 4) .s * >> 9 Ph Z crj i "3 ft. E c e ■v. "3 '5! >. -c Cm as - 41 o ~5 £ > 4) .2 > T3 41 ■s« Is rt l to | . >> S "5 I a "3 h £ o 8 73 J= O o 41 a CO so -** 41 "S T3 "3 cs >. _= Ph w 03 03 PQ < 3 Ph ►J g a w ft, ei o o w Q CO <] J— < B w cu co aoijoogissBO^ 3 P X i » _ ^ ■d w a 5 M Q 03 pq T3 w a ft M o n T3 T & i u t ea e PQ PC — T3 a 05 3 Q a p Q CO PC -a S o ca PQ "5 n a I M o CJ CQ •a w OS 08 P5 w ca is ,5 o CJ pa "3 P 13 u 03 05 ai eaoaj^ | IN £ S X 3! 3 eo ^ ■* CN ,_, CN CO X f 0) X aouBApv jo fn«H m CN CN m ^x > in US V, 10 ># c IN i «o 1 ■* 3 ro M CO in CM IQ "* CO IN -x 115 >x. CN IO CN m in x^ m CO CO •x. CI 10 m CN CO m paqeiidraooDy 3ap«jQ IN s H I-H ^ •8 eo CM < CO J 806T - »*»S m ■* 1 IN 05 < CO < CN P5 co < < CO PQ CO < CO < CN 8061 •qa.l < CN PQ C Q 1 < - 1 . CN OS c o < s ■ o • IN -x. ■ os » 00 = \ h to X. "X. o r* 00 O >s to IN » to 3 © x. -^ •x ^^ ■o to tx o tx CN) V. 09 CO o >n ~^ co o s lO x^ IN CO o -t" 05 OS o ^x CO CN V. 00 O 00 \ oa o x^ m x^ CN o \ ^x to 5 tx C-) x^ CO O ^x IX ■x. OS o ~x. 00 jooqog jsji^aH O tx CO W CO to co CO X ■* 10 W IN CO CO to aoaoApy }0 31BH — lO A m x» ^x in cn N O O DO o ^ o lO K3 co o m "x. CN in" in 0^ o O CO x, CN CO s m to ■x. CN paqBiidtnoooy sapain rH CN IN o o o « H O CN 01 o O CN - « (N pe^Vaay il«|*l* (N m tx to OS OS ~x ~x |x o x^ -v rt m IN o> ts \ ^ 00 r* \ \ to OS V. oo 0? 03 ix IN O V, 03 ■V. CN tx 0) tx OS s X 10 OS OS ^x ~^ m os ^ ^x m •* a ■x, ^x tx CO CN m OS OS ^x co x^ CO 1 ft, L « PS ii 6 o 1 a a <-> M M 1 1-3 i-s p 1 I f CO I < CO O CO <-> > 168 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix hi GODDARD'S RECORD BLANK FOR REVISED BINET TESTS EXAMINED MENTAL AGE NAME BORN ADMITTED Ill 1 Points to nose, eyes, mouth. 2 Repeats "It rains. I am hungry." 3 Repeats 7, 2. 4 Sees in Picture 1. 5. 2. 6. 3. 7. 4. 8. 5 Knows name. IV 1 Knows sex, boy or girl, (girl or boy.) 2 Recognizes key, knife, penny. 3 Repeats 7, 4, 8. 4 Conpares lines. V 1 Compares 3 and 12 grams. 6 and 15 grams. 2 Copies square. (Draw on back of this sheet.) 3 Repeats, "His name is John. He is a very good boy." 4 Counts four pennies. 5 "Patience." VI 1 Morning or afternoon, (afternoon or morning.) 2 Defines fork horse table mama chair 3 Puts key on chair; shuts door; brings box. 4 Shows R. Hand. L. Ear. 5 Chooses prettier? 1 & 2. 4 & 3. 5 & 6. VII 1 Counts 13 pennies. 2 Describes Pictures. (See III 4.) 3 Sees picture lacks eyes, nose, mouth, arms. 4 Can copy diamond. (On back of this sheet.) 5 Recognizes red, blue, green, yellow. (Time 6".) 169 APPENDIX iu ^ VIII 1 c " (Th !fW 2* gs 4 Counts stamps. 111222. (Time 10 .) 5 Repeats 4, 7 , 3, 9, 5. IX 1 Makes change 20c— 4c. 2 Definitions (See VI 2.) I Mo°nIhs dat j e : F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S.. O. N D. 0*- ^> 5 Arranges weights. (2 correct; V mm. each.) 1. 2. 3. 1 Money lc. 5c. 10c. 25c. 50c. $1. S2. $5 $10. 4 ^PS 20 "' (2nd lri=) e20 " ) ( ?. OU J ? } ;^ a (Late to school) t sss^s™**) • fans** c. (Broken somethmg) c. (F°;^pSn) e. (Actions vs. words) 5 Sent ence: Philadelphia, Money, River. (Time 1') XI 1 Sees absurdity. (3 out of 5) (Time 20 a. Unfortunate painter. d. K. K. accioem. b. Three brothers. e. Suicide. c. Locked in room. „ v ,. ^ 2 Sentence: Philadelphia, Money Rlv f R pp ^e X 50 3 Gives sixty words in three minutes. (Record on bade; 4 Rhymes (Time l'each) (3 Rhymes with each word) day 5 PutsScted sentences together. (Time 1' each) b. XII 1 Repeats 2, 9, 6, 4, 3, 7, 5. 9,2,8,5,1,6,4. 1,3,9,5,8,4,7. 2 Defines Charity Justice 3 Repeat^-fSw in the street a pretty little dog. He had curly brown hair, short legs and a long tail. ,456 t S^^Hing^fromlimb. 2 (b) Neighbor's visitors. _ 170 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD XV 1 Interprets picture. 2 Change clock hands. 6.20 — 2.56 — 3 Code. COME QUICKLY. 4 Opposites. 1 good 3 quick 5 big 7 white 9 happy 2 outside 4 tall 6 loud 8 light 10 false ADULT 1 Cutting paper. 2 Reversed triangle. 3 Gives differences of abstract words. 4 Difference between president of a republic and a king. 5 Gives sense of a selection read. APPENDIX 171 3 a 8. H C -i- rt 3 «"a fe ° 2 2 O o-H W 3 .or W ° to BS a 2 — < 6 » J* 2 ► -S3 — o 172 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix H, 2 Distribution curves showing variations from normal of 1,547 chil- dren tested by the Binet-Simon scale (solid line) and 14,762 children in 28 cities rated by their progress through seven grades (dotted line). Curves based on relative figures showing distribution of 1,000 cases of each kind. From Dr. Leonard P. Ayrea's "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence Some Criticisms and Suggestions." Bulletin No. 107, Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. APPENDIX 173 Appendix I. FORMS USED IN SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY Form A OBSERVATIONS ON CHILD Proposed for an Ungraded Class P. S Borough Name Address Age Grade Nationality F M Yre. in U. S. Home Conditions Health Record : Nutrition Bone Dis Enl. Gl Teeth Throat Nose Vision R L Hearing R L Nervous Disease School Record: Kn'dg terms 1A terms IB terms 2A terms 2B terms 3A terms 3B terms Sp'c'l terms. School Att Cause of Irreg Absence in last two terms Attention Memory Oral Exp Hand Work Phys. Tr Number Reading Writing Sp. Tastes Disposition Behavior Habits Peculiarities Other Information 19. Principal. 174 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Form F NEW YORK CITY SPECIAL MEDICAL EXAMINATION P. S Borough 19. Name 1. General Condition A. Anatomical Cranium Facial Asymmetry Palate Teeth Tongue Lips Eyes Ears Limbs Skin Body in General B. Physiological 1. Motor Function Tics Tremors Epilepsy Nystagmus Promptness Co-ordination Prehension R L Gait Speech Fatigue 2. Sensory Function EyesR L Ears R L 3. Condition of Heart Pulse C. Physical Balance Proportion Moral Sense Attention Memory Will Peculiarities D. Development — Att. Diseases E. Family History: Births Miscar Deaths Cause of Diseases F M Medical Examiner. Recommendation Inspector Ungraded Classes. APPENDIX 175 Form Q NEW YORK CITY MEDICAL RE-EXAMINATION P. S Borough 191. Name. General Condition Nutrition 1. Motor Function Tics Tremors Epilepsy Nystagmus Promptness Co-ordination Prehension, R L . Gait Speech 2. Sensory Function Vision, R L Hearing, R L 3. Condition of Heart Pulse Throat Remarks. Medical Examiner. 176 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Form H NEW YORK CITY PEDAGOGICAL RECORD P. S Borough. 19. 19 Name. Sept. Dec. Mar. June Sept. Deo. Mar. June 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Sense Training Taste Smell Touch Sight Hearing Physical Train, (imitation) " " (command) Writing Industrial Training Language (oral) " (written) Reading Arithmetic Nature Study Personal Habits Self Control Effort Gen'l Information Power of Attention APPENDIX (Form H— Continued] 177 Power of Memory Judgment Gen'l Health Fatigue Attendance Teacher 178 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix J FORMS USED IN FRENCH SCHOOLS AUXILIARY CLASS— MEDICAL CARD Street Name of Pupil. Date and Place of Birth. Dates of Examinations Height ! . Weight Vision Hearing Teeth Sickness of different kinds and especially of the nervous system: Observations on general condition (Information by the teacher from observations of certain troubles which give cause for suspicion.) Additional Remarks. Date (Yellow card) Doctor AUXILIARY CLASS— CARD OF ADMISSION Street Name of Pupil Date of Birth Schools attended Grades Number of absences *Examination 1. Pedagogical Reading Retarded years Arithmetic Retarded years Spelling Retarded years Retardation in school work 2. Psychological Failed on the tests of the year Mental retardation Date (Red Card) Examiners. * See chapter on Vaney-Binet Tests of Instruction. APPENDIX 179 Appendix K FLOOR PLANS OF SPECIAL OR AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILD- INQS IN LONDON, ENGLAND 180 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Appendix L RECOMMENDATIONS OF NEW JERSEY COMMITTEE ON PROVISION FOR THE FEEBLE=MINDED AND EPILEPTIC* (a) Medical inspection of school children is now required in every school district. (Chap. 92 of laws 1909.) The medical inspec- tion should go farther than merely to detect contagion, sanitary condi- tions, etc. Eye, ear, nose, throat and teeth should be carefully exam- ined and all remediable conditions corrected. (b) The primary children of every school district should be examined by the Binet Measuring Scale of Intelligence or something equally effective, and as soon as possible a method should be adopted which shall be uniform throughout the State. (c) In every school district in which there are ten or more children who are four or more years behind grade there should be established special classes. (This has been accomplished, Chapter 234, laws of 1911.) (d) Backward and feeble-minded children should be placed in such special classes as long as it is safe to keep them in their homes, and the training should be largely industrial and manual. This will relieve the State and the community of a great deal of the expense of their maintenance. (e) All feeble-minded children of every grade (including morons, imbeciles and idiots) who cannot properly be kept in their homes and sent to the special classes should be sent to the Training School at Vineland, where in so far as possible they should be trained for the lives they will live when they become men and women in years. (f) All feeble-minded women of every grade (including morons, imbeciles and idiots) should be provided for at the State Institution for Feeble-Minded Women, where they shall find proper care and be given such profitable occupations as they are able to follow, such as small fruit and poultry raising, gardening and floriculture in summer, and needlework of various kinds, the weaving of stockings, underwear, carpets and rugs in winter; supplying not only their own needs, but also those of other wards of the State. (g) All feeble-minded men of every grade (including morons, imbeciles and idiots) should be provided for at the State Village at Skillman, where they shall have proper care and be given such profit- able occupations as they are able to follow, such as farming and even manufacturing on a small scale. (h) All of the epileptics of every age and grade should be cared for at the State Village at Skillman, where there should be every facility for their scientific study, care, treatment and occupation. (i) The scientific departments at the State Institution for Women and the Epileptic Village should have every encouragement, for the time for mere custody is past. This is the day of preventive measures, and nowhere is there such an opportunity to study means of prevention as in the institutions themselves. These recommendations embody the most progressive ideas along the line of provision for the feeble-minded and epileptic. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 BIBLIOGRAPHY Part One GRADING AND SPECIAL PLANS Adams, Jessie B. The Working Girl from the Elementary Schools in New York, Charities and Corrections, Vol. 19. Oct.-Apr., pp. 1617 to 1623. New York, 1907-8. A study of 78 girls who left school before completing the elementary grades. Anschutz, C. Die 25 Jahrfeier des Sprachheil-Unterrichts in den offentlichen Schulen. Zeitschrift fur Kinderforschung, Vol. 15, pp. 114-119. 1908-9. Out of 8,000 pupils, 63 stutterers and 23 stammerers were found. Ayres, L. P. Laggards in Our Schools, Charities Publication Com- mittee, New York, 1909. 236 pages. Treats retardation and elimination of pupils in the public schools. Bagley, W. C. Classroom Management. New York, 1907. 322 pages. See especially Chapter Fourteen. "The Batavia Sys- tem of Class-Individual Instruction. Barnes, Earl. The Public School and the Special Child. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1908. pp., 1118-1123. Barnes, Harold. The Group System of Teaching. Unpublished study. Bettinger, M. C. Discussion of Ungraded Classes, in Report of the Los Angeles Public Schools, 1906-7. p. 63. Brahn, Max. Die Trennung der Schuler nach ihren Leistungs- fahigkeit. Zeitschrift filr Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 7 und 8, pp. 385-398, Hamburg, 1897. Burk, C. F. Promotion of Bright and Slow Children. Educational Review, Vol. 19, pp. 296-302. 1898-99. Explains method of grading used in Santa Barbara, Cal. Burnham, W. H. The Group as a Stimulus to Mental Activity. Science, N. S., Vol. 31, No. 803, May 20, 1910. pp. 761-767. A valuable article, showing the value of class work. Burt, George F. The Batavia Method in Latin and Greek. Educa- tional Work, Vol. 1, pp. 61-65. Call, Arthur D. Dr. Dawson's Inductive Study of Children. Psy- chological Clinic. May, 1912. pp. 61-68. Gives an interesting account of the valuable work in examin- ing children, done by Dr. G. E. Dawson in the Henry Barnard School District of Hartford, Connecticut. 184 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Chase, Lydia Gardner. Public School Classes for Mentally Deficient Children. Charities and Corrections, 1904, pp. 390-401. Historical account of the development of public school classes for the mentally deficient in the United States and in foreign countries. Class-Individual Instruction, or the Batavia System. The magazine Educational Work, Vols. 1 and 2. 1906. Published by Edu- cational Work Co., Worcester, Mass.; devoted to expositions of Class-Individual Instruction. It contains many articles by exponents of the plan. Collar & Crook. School Management and Methods of Instruction, Macmillan & Co., 1905. 336 pages. Advocates yearly promotions, p. 37. Crampton, C. Ward. The Influence of Physiological Age on Scholar- ship. Psychological Clinic, June, 1907. pp. 115-121. See also Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1908. Deuchler. Uber das Mannheimer Schulsystem. Zeitschrift fur Pdda- gogische Psychologic, Pathologie und Hygiene. Vol. 10, No. 6. Leipzig, 1908-9. pp. 384-421. Contains an excellent account of the Mannheim System. Dewey, John. The School and Social Progress (in his School and Society). University of Chicago, pp. 15-40. "Argument for reorganization of our school system, for the development of individually strong members of society. " Dressler, Henrich. Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Kinder- sprachforschung. Die Deutsche Schule. Vol. 5, pp. 760-771. Leipzig, 1905. Edson, Andrew W. Group Teaching in the Elementary Grades, (in Report of Proceedings of 63d Annual Meeting, New York State Teachers Association). Education Department Bulletin, No. 457, pp. 307-311. Contains suggestive programs for carrying out work. The Education in Public Schools of the Deaf, Cripples and Men- tal Defectives. Education, Vol. 28, p. 351-55. Boston, 1908. Special Plans for the Promotion of Backward Pupils. Kinder- garten Magazine, Vol. 19, 1906-7. pp. 397-403. Elson, W. H. Intermediate Industrial Schools in Bulletin No. 10. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, pp. 172-179. Published by National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York City. Article contains statistics as to the amount of retardation and elimination in the schools of Cleveland, O., also an account of the school established in that city to meet the needs of over-age boys and girls. Enderlin, M. Die Neuorganisation der Volksschule in Mannheim, Die Deutsche Schule. Vol. 8, pp. 24-37. Leipzig und Berlin, 1904. See also Vol. 8, pp. 86-100. Zur Mannheimer Schulreform. Die Deutsche Schule. Vol. 9, pp. 137-149. Leipzig and Berlin, 1905. Concluded in Vol. 9, pp. 201-215. Findlay, J. J. Principles of Class Teaching, Macmillan, London, 1902. Garber, John P. A Rational System of Classification and Promotion in Elementary Schools. Education, Vol. 27, pp. 288-302. Bos- ton, 1907. BIBLIOGRAPHY 185 Gates, Charles I. Individual Instruction in History and Geography. Educational Work, Vol. 1, pp. 61-65. George, Anne E. The First Montessori School in America. Mc- Clure's, June, 1912. pp. 177-187. Article by Miss George, the translator of Dr. Montessori's book, The Montessori Methods. It shows plainly that the Montessori methods must be modified to meet the needs of American children. Gesell, Beatrice C. and Arnold. The Montessori Kindergarten, Appendix to The Normal Child and Primary Education, pp. 323- 340. A critique of the pedagogical aspects of the Montessori Kin- dergarten. The Normal Child and Primary Education, Ginn & Co., Boston, 1912. Contains an interesting chapter on the evolution of the racial hand. Green, J. A. A Note on Backward Children. The Journal of Experi- mental Pedagogy. (London.) Vol. 1, No. 2, Nov., 1911, pp. 158-159, and Vol. 1, No. 3, Mar., 1912, pp. 223-226. Two excellent short articles showing the necessity for better meeting the needs of the great number of backward children in the schools of England. Advocates a plan similar to the Mann- heim system for large cities. Hall, G. Stanley. Educational Problems, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, Appleton. See Chapter VIII on "Industrial Education" and Chapter XXII on "Some Defects in our Public Schools." Hall, G. Stanley and others. Aspects of Child Life and Education. Ginn & Company, Boston, 1907. See, A Study of Dolls, by Hall & Ellis, pp. 157-203. Hamilton, Lucie. Education of the Backward Child. Educational Work. Vol. 1, pp. 6-8. An interesting article by the original teacher under the Batavia System. Harris, Wm. T. Class Intervals in Graded Schools. N. E. A. Pro- ceedings, 1900. p. 332-340. Hutton, Thomas B. Classification and Gradation. School Review. * Vol. 16, pp. 543-550. Chicago, 1908. Le Mars, Iowa Plan. An application of the so-called Cam- bridge plan to all the grades. Jahresbericht iiber den Stand der dem Volksschulrektorat unterstellten Stadtischen Schulen in Mannheim in Schuljahr, 1908-09. Mann- heim, 1909, p. 86. Contains a full account of the Mannheim Special Class System. • Jones, Olive M. Teaching Children to Study. The Group System Applied. New York, 1909. Jones, W. Franklin. Study of Grading and Promotion. Psycholog- ical Clinic, May and June, 1911. pp. 63-96; 99-120. p Kennedy, John. The Place of Individual Instruction in Secondary Schools. Educational Work. Vol. 1, pp. 154-156. Contains a valuable bibliography on Classification and Grad- ing. 186 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Klamer, C. S. Die zuriickgebliebenen Kinder in der Volksschule. No. 77 Pddagogischen Abhandlungen. A. Helmich, Bielefeld. Contains suggestions for dealing with the less gifted by ar- rangements within the classes. Opposes the Mannheim System. Ladd, Edwin A. (Principal Batavia High School.) Individual Instruc- tion in High School Work. Educational Work. Vol. 1, pp. 8-10. Landon, J. School Organization. London, 1889. Lange, K. Die Schwachen in der Schule. Pddagogische Studien, 1901. Vol. 22. Opposes the Mannheim System. Leather, Herbert. England and Her Retarded Children. The Elementary School Teacher. Vol. X, No. 7, March, 1910. pp. 326-333. Levine, Michael. Treatment of Stuttering, Stammering and Lisping in a New York City School. Psychological Clinic, June, 1912. pp. 93-106. Has a bibliography of 25 titles. Mahony, John J. The Problem of the Poor Pupil. Education. Vol. 28, 197-212. Boston, 1908. Treats the problem of the backward child and the failure of the schools to reach him. May, Maude G. The Montessori Method. The London Journal of Education. September, 1909. Perry, W. H. A Study of the Batavia Plan in Westerly, R. I. N. E. Journal of Education, Feb. 9, 1911. Vol. LXXIII, p. 146. Petzold, J. Sonderschulen fur hervorragend Befahigte. B. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1905. Pretzel, C. L. A. Gegen die Mannheimer Schulorganisation. Die Deutsche Schule, Vol. 8, pp. 603-18. Prince, J. T. School Administration. Appendix E on Special Schools and Classes, pp. 290-93; and Chapter 11, pp. 220-225, Schools for Defectives and Delinquents, Syracuse, 1906. Richman, Julia. A Successful Experiment in Promoting Pupils. Educational Review. Vol. 18, pp. 23-29. New York, 1899. Special Classes and Special Schools for Delinquent and Back- ward Children. Charities and Corrections, 1907. p. 232. Rigler, F. Principles of Classification, in The Thirty-Sixth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Portland, Oregon. 1909, pp. 107-113. Scripture, E. W. Treatment of Hyperphonia (Stuttering and Stam- mering) by the General Practitioner. The Medical Record, March 21, 1908. Search, P. W. An Ideal School. Appleton, New York, 1902. 357 pages. The Pueblo Plan. Educational Review. Vol. 7, pp. 154-170. Smith, Theodate L. Dr. Maria Montessori and her Houses of Child- hood. Pedagogical Seminary. December, 1911. Stern, William. The Supernormal Child. Journal of Educational Psychology, March, 1911 and April, 1911. Stevens, Ellen Y. Montessori and Froebel— A Comparison. The Elementary School Teacher, February, 1912. Swift, Edgar James. Mind in the Making. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1908. 329 pages. Advocates Individualized Education. BIBLIOGRAPHY 187 Taylor, Chas. K. Retardation in the Elementary Schools of Phila- . delphia. Psychological Clinic, May, 1912, pp. 79-90 and June, 1912, pp. 107-121. A valuable discussion of the sociological factor in retardation. Thorndike, Edward L. Promotion, Retardation and Elimination. Psychological Clinic, Vol. 3, pp. 232-40. Jan., 1910. Tozier, Josephine. Articles on the Montessori Schools and Methods, in McClure's Magazine, May, 1911, December, 1911, January, 1912. Warren, A. B. Individual Instruction in Chemistry and Physics. Educational Work. Vol. 1, pp. 244, 245. Individual Instruction — The Pupil. Educational Work. Vol. 2, pp. 91-93. Watson, E. S. The Problem of Grading and Classification in Rural Schools. Proceedings of American Institute of Instruction, 1908. Winch, W. H. Notes on German Schools, Longmans, Green & Co. London, 1904, 264 p. Opposes freedom of classification. "My suggestion that some children might advance two stand- ards in one year was by no means favorably received and I incline to the German view that a double promotion in one year is rarely advisable. Some ten years ago, in England, freedom of classification by the teacher was permitted by the Day School Code. There was much hopeful promotion of the brighter chil- dren, but experience has revealed unfortunate results, and now, almost universally in English schools, two standards in one year are no longer attempted, except with a very small proportion of the abler pupils. Inspector of Schools." p. 87. Winzer. Die Mannheimer Schulorganization, Zeitschift fur Phil- osophic und Pddagogik. Vol. 13, pp. 355-363, 1906. Report of Dr. Sickinger's lectures before the teachers at the Summer School at Jena, 1905. A very good presentation. Wyllie, John. Disorders of Speech. Edinburgh, 1894. Young, Ella Flagg. Grading and Classification. N.E. A. Proceed- ings, 1893. pp. 83-86. For further information see articles in volumes of Proceedings of National Educational Association and in the magazines: The Psychological Clinic, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Education, Educational Review and Education. 188 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD BIBLIOGRAPHY Part Two SPECIAL OR AUXILIARY SCHOOLS AND CLASSES Bancroft, Margaret and Farrington, E. A., M. D. Manual of the Course of Study of Bancroft Training School for Mentally Subnormal Children, Haddonfield, New Jersey, 120 pages, 1909. Ware Bros. Co., Philadelphia. Contains an excellent course in sense-training, also many other valuable suggestions for teachers of mentally defective children. Barr, Martin W., M. D. Mental Defectives: their History, Treat- ment and Training. Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1904. 368 pages. Has bibliography of the Writings of Edward Seguin, p. 338. Also very full bibliographies on the different kinds of mental defect. The Career of a Moral Imbecile. The Alienist and Neurolo- gist, July, 1911. Basedow. Was kann in unterrichtlicher und erziehlicher Beziehung geschehen, um den schwachbegabten Kindern in kleinen Gem- einden zu helfen? Zeitschrift fur Kinderforschung. Vol. 15, pp. 246-250, 1909. A large task of society consists in extending the arrangement of auxiliary schools to the rural districts. Of the 120,000 feeble- minded children in Germany, 1 to l}i% of the school population, only 24,000 are receiving special instruction. Suggestions for establishing universal institutions. Becker, Sophie C. The Training of Defective Children from a Principal's Standpoint (in Report of Proceedings of the 63d Annual Meeting, New York State Teachers Association) Edu- cation Department Bulletin, No. 457, pp. 99-114. Bicknell, G. H., M. D. The Influence of Defective Sight and Hearing on Mental Development. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics. March- June, 1907, pp. 27-30. Berry, D. Mentally Defective School Children in School and After- wards. Journal Royal Institution Public Health, London, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 333-341. Binet, Alfred. Les Enfants Anormaux, Paris, 1907. Written to aid teachers and physicians to determine what children should be admitted to special schools and classes. Les Idees Modernes sur les Enfants. Flammarion, Paris, 1909. See especially Chapter 5, part 2. La Mesure de 1 'Intelligence and Chapter 2, part 2, La Mesure du Degre d' Instruction. BIBLIOGRAPHY 189 Bolton, F. E. Public Education of Exceptional Children. Educa- tional Review. Vol. 44, No. 1, June, 1912. pp. 62-69. A summary of what has been done for exceptional children in the United States, suggesting lines of development. Boodstein, Otto, Dr. Die Erziehungsarbeit der Schule an Schwach- begabten. 432 p. G. Reimer, Berlin, 1908. Busch, W. Ausbildung der Hilfschullehrer. Zeitschrift fur Behand- lung Schwachsinniger, etc., p. 134. Dresden, 1905. Chotzen, F., Dr. Die Bedeutung der Intelligenzprufungs — Methode von Binet und Simon fur die Hilfsschule. Die Hilfsschule. Vol. 5, No. 6, June, 1912, pp. 153-162. Gives a summary of the work of Bobertag with the Binet and Simon tests. Clerc, Ed. M. Les anormaux en Suisse. V Educateur, Lusanne August, 1909. Cornell, Walter S. Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. F. A. Davis & Co., Philadelphia, 1912. In the chapter on Mental Deficiency, holds to the view cham- pioned by Witmer that "malnutrition, adenoids, home illiteracy, or foreign parentage may be the cause of a retardation of two or three years evidenced by the Binet tests." Dawson, George E. A Characterization of the Prevailing Defects in Backward Children and a Method of Studying and Helping Them. Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 16, pp. 429-36. December, 1909. Physical Study of the Child. Charities and Corrections, 1907. pp. 243-250. Contains valuable suggestions for the determination of defects in children. Decroly et Degand. La mesure de l'intelligence chez des enfants normaux d'apres des tests de Binet et Simon. Archive de Psychologic Jan., 1910, pp. 81-108. Edson, Andrew W. Bibliography on Training of- Backward Children. 1. Special classes, special treatment for mental defectives, 35 titles. 2. Special classes, special treatment, backward, truant, and disciplinary classes, 25 titles. 3. Medical inspection and treatment, 27 titles (in Report of the Proceedings of the 63d Annual Meeting, New York State Teachers Association). Education Department Bulletin, No. 457, pp. 114-116. Ehrig, C. Die Fortbildungs-schule der Hilfsschule fur Schwachbe- fahigte in Leipzig. Zeitschrift f. d. Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1907, No. 67, p. 99-110. Advocates special continuation schools adapted to the ability and needs of the pupils leaving the Auxiliary Schools. Eltes, M. Die erste Hilfsschule in Ungarn. Zeitschrift fur Kinder- forschung, Vol. 14, pp. 374-5, 1909. Evans, Elizabeth G. and Dewson, Mary W. Feeble-Mindedness and Juvenile Delinquency. A Study from Experience (in Report of Trustees of the Lyman and Industrial School. Public Docu- ment, No. 18, State of Massachusetts, p. 11, Dec, 1908. 190 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Farrell, Elizabeth E. The Educational Organization and The Work of the Special Class. Chapters IV and V of The Special Class for Backward Children, see under Witmer. See also Miss Far- rell's article in N. E. A. Proceedings, 1908. Fernald, W. E. The History of the Treatment of the Feeble-Minded. Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correc- tions, 1898. Ftjchs, A. Hilfsschulliteratur. Die Deutsche Schule. p. 389, 1905, Leipzig. Goddard, Henry H. Bibliography of Mental Deficiency, 156 titles. The Training School, Vol. 6, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 11-19. Vineland, N. J., 1909. How Shall We Educate Mental Defectives? The Training School, May, 1912. pp. 42-45 and June, 1912, 56-61. A sane plea for manual training for the mental defective in farm and industrial colonies, showing the folly of drill in the three R's for these children. Height and Weight of Feeble-Minded Children. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, April, 1912. A valuable contribution, a result of the study of 10,844 cases: 5,923 males and 4,921 females, showing that among morona growth is practically normal during the immature years with a somewhat earlier arrest than in normal persons. The Form Board as a Measure of Intellectual Development in Children. The Training School, June, 1912, pp. 49-52. Goddard says: "We have in our Laboratory no other test that shows us so much about a child's condition in so short a time as the Form Board." What is Being Done in Studying Mental Defectives. Proceed- ings of Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1909. pp. 98-100. Groszmann, Maximilian P. E. Exceptional Children Not Needing Segregation. The Classification of Exceptional Children as a Guide in Determining Segregation. Reprinted from the Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine. Vol. 10, No. 5, Oct., 1909. Some Phases of Eccentric Mentality in Children. Education. Vol. 28, pp. 90-96. Boston, 1907. Grothe, A. Uber Schuleinrichtungen fur schwachbegabte Kinder. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege. No. 10, pp. 557-59. Hamburg, 1900. Gives a history of founding of .the first Hilfsschule in Halle, 1859. Healy, William. The Mentally Defective and the Courts. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics, September and December, 1910. Vol. 15, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 44-57. An earnest plea for the recognition of the seriousness of the problem of the feeble-minded by the medical profession. Urge» the appointment of a commission to define mental deficiency and to evaluate generally usable diagnostic tests. Hedger, Caroline. Physical Examination of Below-grade Children. Illinois Medical Journal. Vol. 15, pp. 433-39, 1909. BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 Henderson, Charles R. Physical Study of Children. Charities and Corrections, 1907. pp. 251-55. Gives results of Swiss census of defective children of primary school age. Henz, W. Leitfaden der gesamten Heilpadagogik. A. S. Shroedel, Halle, 1909. 178 pages. Contains an historical account of the establishment of auxiliary schools and also suggestions as to their organization. It also treats courses of instruction for the blind and deaf and for stut- terers and stammerers. Hough, C. A. A plea for the enforced examination of backward school children and for the treatment of remediable conditions. Ohio Medical Journal. Vol. 5, pp. 72-74. 1908. Columbus. Huey, E. B. Backward and Feeble-Minded Children. A Clinical Study in the Psychology of Defectives, with a Syllabus for the Clinical Examination and Testing of Children. Warwick and York, Baltimore, 1912. 213 pages. An excellent and readable book of clinical cases of 37 morons. A valuable book for special teachers to own. Retardation and the Mental Examination of Retarded Children. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics. Sept. and Dec, 1910. Vol. 15, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 31-43. An important contribution, showing the need of tests to de- termine retardation above the level of feeble-mindedness. "Be sure that defectives above the mental level of twelve years are the trouble makers and the trouble receivers. They are present- ing the most serious of the problems of society. We must care for them." Johnson, G. E. Contribution to the Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-Minded Children. The Pedagogical Seminary. Vol. 3, 1894-96, pp. 246-291. Johnstone, E. R. The Functions of the Special Class. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1908. pp. 1114 to 1118. The Social Side of the Question of Special Class Children (in Report of Proceedings of the 63d Annual Meeting, New York State Teachers Association). Education Department Bulletin, No. 457, pp. 95-98, Oct. 15, 1909, Albany, N. Y. The Welfare of Feeble-Minded Children. Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 16, pp. 447-49. Dec, 1909. The Summer School for Teachers of Backward Children. Jour- nal of Psycho- Asthenics. Vol. 14, pp. 122-128. Description of the school for special class teachers at Vineland , New Jersey, under Principal Johnstone and Dr. Goddard. Keen, Dora. Defectives among Juvenile Delinquents. Charities and Corrections, 1906. p. 566. A plea for establishing special kindergartens and special day school classes for the backward children in order to get hold of the backward children as young as possible. Kirmsse, M. Die Zunahme des Schwachinns in England. Zeitschrift fur Kinderforschung. Vol. 15, p. 349. 1909. Klemm, L. R. A Separate School for Dullards, in his European Schools. p. 77, New York, 1889. Describes the object, organization, methods and means of 192 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD instruction in one of the first special schools, that of Elberfeld in Germany. Kotscher, L. M. Geschlechtliche Preversitaten bei Schwachsinnigen Eos. Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 1-16. Kuhlmann, F. A Reply to Dr. L. P. Ayres' Criticism of the Binet and Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics. Vol. 16, No. 2, Dec, 1911. pp. 58-67. This reply shows clearly that many of Ayres' criticisms are not well founded. Binet and Simon's System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics. Vol. 15, Nos. 3 and 4, March and June, 1911. pp. 76-92. The only translation of the Binet-Simon tests containing the detailed comments on the tests by Binet and Simon. The Present Status of the Binet and Simon Tests of the Intelli- gence of Children. Journal of Psycho- Asthenics. Vol. 16, No. 3. March, 1912. pp. 113-139. An excellent summary of the work done with the scale by Binet and Simon, Goddard, Terman and Childs, Decroly and Degand, Johnston, and Bobertag. Has a full bibliography of some 37 titles. Ktjnze, H. Die Hilfsschule zu Halle. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesund- heitspflege. No. 2, pp. 85-97. Hamburg, 1901. The best description of the Halle Hilfsschule, p. 86 et seq. Lapage, C. P. Feeble-mindedness in Children of School Age with an appendix on Treatment and Training by Mary Denby. Manchester, 1911. One of the best books for the general reader. The chapter on speech defects is especially valuable as is the part of the book on the education of the mental defective by Miss Denby. The glossary of technical terms is helpful. Contains a bibliography. MacDonald, Arthur. Experimental Study of Children, including Anthropometrical and Psycho-physical Measurements of Wash- ington School Children in U. S.— Education, Comm's of Report, 1897-98. Vol. 1, pp. 985-1204. Maennel, B. The Auxiliary Schools of Germany. Six Lectures translated from the German by F. B. Dressier. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 3, 1907. 119 pages. Appendix on Special Schools by Dr. L. R. Klemm. Maier (Hans Wolfgang). Uber Moralische Idiotie. Journal fur Psychologie und Neurologic Vol. 13, p. 57. 1908. Meumann, E. Der Gegenwartige Standt der Methodik der Intelli- genzpriifungen mit besonderer Rucksicht auf die Kinder- psychologie. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Paldagogik, 1910. pp. 68-79. Morrow and Bridgman. Delinquent Girls Tested by the Binet Scale. The Training School, May, 1912. pp. 33-36. The article shows that of the sixty girls in the State Training School at Geneva, Illinois, only six tested "normal," yet all will be set adrift at twenty-one years of age. Newman, Matilda Vance. Backward Children — Some Experiences and Suggestions. Western Journal of Education, Vol. 13, pp. 513-516. San Francisco, 1908. BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 Norsworthy, Naomi. The Psychology of Mentally Deficient Chil- dren. Teachers College, Columbia Univ., 1906. Ill pages. The study seeks "to determine: 1. Whether the mental defects of idiots are equaled by the bodily, (2) whether idiots form a species or not, and (3) whether the entire mental growth is retarded." Report of the Royal Commission on the care and control of the Feeble- Minded, Vols. 1-8, Wyman & Sons, London, 1908. Reviewed by H. H. Goddard. American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 3, July, 1909, pp. 456-7. Goddard says it is the most important contribution to the literature of Mental Defectives that has appeared for many years. Commission of 11 men and 1 woman appointed by King Edward in 1904 to consider the existing methods of dealing with idiots and epileptics, and with imbecile, feeble-minded, or defec- tive persons. Report of the Committee on Special Education, Committee on Pro- fessional Work, Philadelphia Teachers Association, 1909. 16 pp. Contains a report of the census of the backward and feeble- minded children in the schools of Philadelphia and suggestions and plans for properly educating these children. Richman, Julia. Special Classes and Special Schools for Delinquent and Backward Children. Charities and Corrections, 1907. p. 232. Risley, S. D., M. D. Is Asexualization Ever Justifiable in the Case of Imbecile Children? Journal of Psycho- Asthenics, Vol. 9, No. 4, June, 1905. pp. 92-97. Takes the affirmative side. Rogers, A. C, M. D. Borderland Cases. Journal of P sycho- Asthenics , March and June, 1907. pp. 19 to 24. Rosenfeld, Jessie. Special Classes in the Public Schools of New York . Education, Vol. 27, pp. 92-100. Boston, 1907. Rotges, E. Les classes d'anormaux a Bordeaux. L'Enfant, Vol. 18, No. 169, 20 Feb., 1909. pp. 22-27. Schmid-Monnard. Die Ursachen der Minderbegabung von Schul- kindern. Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 10, pp. 552-56, Hamburg, 1900. Seguin, Edouard. On Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physiological Method, NewYork, 1866. Reprint Teachers College, Columbia University, 1907. Ireland, W. W., says of Seguin, Journal of Mental Science, Vol. 53, p. 833: "The principles of education laid down by him in different treatises are still the basis of all teaching of the feeble-minded, and, indeed, are useful in ordinary pedogogy." Sherlock, E. B. The Feeble-Minded — A Guide to Study and Prac- tice. Macmillan, London, 1911. 327 pages. A scholarly and readable book. Advocates permanent cus- todial care for the mental defective in industrial and farm colonies. Sherman, E. B. What the Regular Class Teacher Should Know of Mental and Moral Delinquency. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1908. p. 943. 194 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Shields, T. E. The Making and the Unmaking of a Dullard. Cath- olic Education Press, Washington, D. C, 1909. 287 pages. Tells the true story of the awakening of a dull boy. Shuttleworth, G. E. and Potts, W. A. Mentally Defective Children: their Treatment and Training. Third edition, Philadelphia, 1910. 236 pages. This standard book has much information of direct value to the teacher of special classes. It contains specimen forms to be used by physicians and special class teachers and specimen class programs. It has a good bibliography. Smart, Isabelle Thompson, M. D. Medical Examiner for Ungraded Classes, Board of Education, New York City. Some Urgent Needs for Advancement in the Education of Mentally Defective, p. 1143, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1908. Smith, Margaret K. The Psychological Aspect of Training Backward Children, in Report of Proceedings of the 63d Annual Meeting. New York State Teachers Association. Education Department Bulletin, No. 457, pp. 85-94, Oct, 15, 1909, Albany, N. Y. Stotzner, E. Zur Hilfsschule fur Schwachsinnige. Zeitschrift fur Behandlung Schwachsinniger, p. 30. 1905, Dresden. Terman, L. M. The Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence. Impressions gained by its Application upon Four Hundred Non-Selected Children. Journal of Psycho- A sthenics, Vol. 16, No. 3, June, 1912. pp. 103-112. Tredgold, A. T., Dr. Mental Deficiency (Amentia). Wood & Co., New York, 1908. 391 pages. Probably the best single volume on the subject of Amentia. Van Sickle, J. H., Dr., Witmer, L., Dr., and Ayres, L. P., Dr. Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools. Bulletin No. 14, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1911. 92 pages. A valuable monograph by three experts. Contains a sug- gestive chapter on the selection and training of teachers. Vogt, H. and Weygandt, W. Handbuch der Erforschung des jugend- lichen Schwachsinns. Fischer, Jena, 1912. Vogt, Heinrich. Die Epilepsie, im Kindesalter. Karger, Berlin, 1910. 222 pages. Contains an account of establishment of public schools for epileptics. Williams, T. B. Psycho-prophylaxis in Childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 194. Treats of the recognition of incipient mental defects in children by teachers. Wilson, A., M. D. Unfinished Man. A Scientific Analysis of the Psychopath or Human Degenerate. London, Greening & Co. 1910. 372 pages. Has a readable chapter on The Problem of Heredity. Witmer, Lightner, and others. The Special Class for Backward Chil- dren. The Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia, 1911. 275 pages. An account of the experimental special class con- ducted at Summer School at the University of Pennsylvania, under the charge of Miss Elizabeth E. Farrell. Inspector of Ungraded Classes, New York City. A valuable study. BIBLIOGRAPHY 195 Ziehen, Th. Die Prinzipien und Methoden der Intelligenzpriifung. Karger, Berlin, 1911. 94 pages. The third edition of a book of tests for determining the presence of mental defect. Several hundred titles were collected that bore more or less closely on the work of the auxiliary schools and classes. It has been deemed wise to present only those given above. For students and teachers who are interested to study the problem further, the German magazine , Die Hilfsschule, the organ of the Association of German Auxiliary School Teachers, will be found helpful, as will the Enzyklopddisches Handbuch der Heilpddngogik. Many significant articles and special reports will be found in the recent volumes of Proceedings of the National Educationa I Association, and of the magazines: The Psychological Clinic, The Journal of Educational Psychology, The Training School and the Journal of Psycho- A sthenics . INDEX INDEX 199 INDEX TO PART ONE Able pupils, 49, 55. Abnormal children, treatment of, in public schools, 9. Accommodation classes, 121. Adjustment or ungraded classes 120-126; course of study, 123 in New York City, 121, 123-124 in Syracuse, 124-125; number of, in large schools, 121; number of pupils in, 122; schoolroom for, 121-122; teacher of, 122- 123. Adjustment schools in Los Ange- les, Cal., 125-126. Admission, age of, 16, 36. After school, keeping of pupils, 114. Age limit, normal, for grades, 15. Age limits, Ayres', open to ques- tion, 16. Age, of entrance, 16; physiological, 16; chronological, 131. Alexander, Charles S., 158. All class method of instruction, 90, 109. American Institute of Instruction, 13. Apperception mass, 116. Arithmetic, omission of, in lower grades, 17. Arithmetic, testing in, Medford, Mass., 18. Attention, 46; individual, 53. Auxiliary school, 60; special, 56. Ayres, L. P., 14. B Backward children, 61; individual instruction for, 64; room for, 108. Backward pupils, 55, 74, 108; number of, 120. Backwardness, neural causes of, 130; and precocity, 134. Baldwin, J. Mark, 134. Baltimore, Md., schools for gifted pupils, 138-139. Bancroft Training school, 189. Barnard's Journal, 13. Barr, M. W., 134. Batavia system, 63, 74-86, 151; applications of, 109; origin of, 74. Bettinger, M. C, 125. Binet, orthopedic exercises of, 189. Blodgett, A. B., 124. Bluffing or deception on part of school children, 79. Bonser, F. G., 130. Books, use of, by pupils, 48. Bright pupils, 31, 52, 53; fetish, 18; work with, 100. Brooklyn, Report of Teachers' Ass'n Committee on School Organization, 147-152. Bryan, E. B., 14. Burk, Mrs. C. F., 35. Cahier (French) personal record book of pupil, 150. Cambridge plan, 36-39; teacher's objections to, 38; and half-year- ly promotions, 39. Caste system, 128. Chalmers, W. W., 24. Charlottenburg plan, 55-56. Charlottenburg provision for able pupils, 135-136. Chelsea, Mass., graded course, 19. Chicago classes for stutterers and stammerers, 176-178. Child study, instruction in, 108. Childhood, houses of, 186, 188; rules for, 187. Chronological age, 131. 200 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Claiborne, J. Herbert, 182. Class-individual instruction, 74- 86; essentials of, 87-101. Class instruction, emphasis on, 105. Class, marks, 47; membership, psychology of, 19; origin of, 12; Pestalozzi's use of, 13; recita- tions, 85. Class versus class-individual plan of instruction, 62-73; opinions of superintendents and princi- pals on, 62-64. Classes, size of, 55, 64, 84. Classification, plans of, 26-54; Harris' discussion of, 14. Classification and instruction, sug- gestions for plan of, 84-86. Clements, R. E., 140. Cleveland Elementary Industrial School, 161-172. Clinic for study of gifted children, 131. Coaching and teaching, 105. Comenius, 12. Community interest in class, 63. Compulsory age of attendance, 36. Concentric (Santa Barbara) plan, 33-36. Conradi, Edward, 173. Constant group, 51; advantages of, 52; disadvantages of, 53; formality of, 53. Cooper, Frank B., 175. Co-operation between school and home, 85; of pupil with teacher, 46. Cornman, O. P., 14. Cost of public and private edu- cation compared, 127-128. Course of study, elementary school, 14; differentiated, 154- 158; in fundamentals, 84. Credit, 150. D Davey, V. L., 140. Da Vinci, Leonardo, 134. Deficient children, ungraded clas- ses for, 64. Demotion unwise, 18. Departmental teaching, 143-146. Dexter, E. G., 24. Dewey, John, 128. Differentiated Courses of Study, 154-158. Disciplinary or training schools, 140-142; program of, 142. Dolls, value of, in practical teach- ing, 194. Double-track plan, 36. Draper, A. S., 19. Drills, 53; old-fashioned, and inde- pendent study, 51. Dull and slow children, 53; a- mount of time devoted to, 64. E East Orange, N. J., schools for un- easy boys, 140. Education, cheap, 127. Education, boys', cost of, in Ger- many, France and England, 135; and social position, 136. Elementary or people's schools, 12. Elementary school course of study, 14. Elimination, 15. Eliot, C. W., 127, 143. Elizabeth, N. J., Parental School, 140. Elizabeth plan, 31-33. Environment and ability to pass tests, 131. Examination, fixed promotional, 19. F Failure, philosophy of, as basis of course of study, 20. Failure of pupils in German schools, causes of, 57. Failures among pupils, 95. Farrington, F. E., 189, 191. Feeble-minded children, number of, 130. Fernald, W. E., Dr., 189. Fitchburg, Mass. Practical Arts School, 158-161. Foreign language work for elemen- tary pupils, 84. Freeman, Virginia W., 177. Froebel, F., 102. Fundamentals, a course of study in, 84. Furthering classes, 56. INDEX 201 G Galton, Sir Francis, 134. Genius, 133; incipient, 131; influ- ence of education on, 134; rela- tion of teacher to, 134. German plans of classification, 55-61. Germany, school system of, 12. Gifted children, 60; clinic for study of, 131; mental age of, 131; non-promotion of, 130; number of, 130; promotion classes for, 120, 127-139; in Germany, France and England, 135-139; schools for, in U. S., 139 Gilbert, C. B., 19. Goddard, H. H., 11, 120, 130, 131, 189. Goddard's study of 2,000 children, 131. Graded school, origin of, 12. Grading, classification and in- struction, principles of, in Uni- ted States and Europe, 11; personal knowledge of child necessary to, 152. Gregory, B. C., 19. Grimshaw, Dr., 13. Groszmann, M. P., 133, 134. » Group help, 85. Group method, 151. Group system, 51-54. Group teaching, 91. Gutzmann, H., 174, 183. B Haaren, Supt., 145. Hailman, W. N., 164. Half-day sessions, 85. Half-year interval, 23, 24. Hall, G. Stanley, 173. Hamilton, Miss Lucie, 74. Harris, Wm. T., 24, 27, 29, 30, 89 197. Hinsdale,' B. S., 78, 94. Hirsch, Wilhelm, 134. Holmes, S. H., 154. Home study, 49. Hughes, James L., 196. "Ideal (The) School" by Search, 68. Ignorance, confessing by pupil, 79. Improvement, a little girl's, under Batavia Plan, 82-84. Independence developed, 91. Idiot-savant, 133. Individual, aid, pupil's need of, 92; child, 105; children, needs of, discussed, 108; expression and advancement, 150; help, 85, 108; importance of, 14; initiative, 47; instruction, 13, 91; method of instruction in Prussia, 12, in France, 12, in Scotland, 12; neglected, 148; time to be given to individual instruction, 92-93; periods, or- der of, in program, 93 ; power 46, pupils, 46, 108; study of, 109; relation of individual work to class work, 94; supervisor, 120; teaching, training of teachers for, 102-119; unrecognized by normal trained teachers, 105; weak points of, discovery of, 118; work, habits of, 54; record of, 94; Individualized instruction, 56. Individuals, minute studies of, 109. Infant schools for tenement houses, 186. Initiative, pupil, 51; and self- direction, 84. Interchange of pupils under Mannheim Plan, 57. Jones, Olive M., 141. Jones' study of grading and pro- motion, 152. Jones, W. Franklin, 152. Judgment, development of pupils, 48; training of pupils in, 46. K Kansas City, Mo., retardation in, 17. Kennedy, Supt. John, 74. 202 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD Kerschensteiner's investigations of gifted children in Munich, 132. Kilpatrick, Van Evrie, 145, 149. Kindergarten, 55; idea, introduc- tion of, 14; instruction and over-age children, 16. Kussmaul. Adolf, 178. Landon, J., 12. Language classes, special, in Mannheim, 136; regulations for admission to, 137; foreign, drill in, 135. LaSalle, Canon, 12. Laurie, 12. Lazy pupil, 99. Leeds, England Practical Arts School, 161. Left-handedness and speech de- fects, 183. Le Mars, Iowa plan, 39-43; re- sults of, in Odebolt, Iowa, 41. Liebmann, A., 179, 180, 181, 185. Lugaro, Ernesto, 129. Luther, Martin, 12. M McCready, E. Bosworth, 182, 183. MacMahon, Courtland, 184. Makuen, G. Hudson, 173. McHattie, Thomas J. T., 175, 182, 184. Maiden, Mass., grading plan, 36. Mannheim system, 56-61; de- ficiencies peculiar to Mannheim pupils, 59; differentiation under, 59; division of pupils, 60; men- tally defective pupils under, 60; modification of, suggested for New York, 120; number of pupils attending furthering clas- ses, 60; opinions opposed to, 60; promotions under, 59; pro- vision for able pupils, 135-136. Manual work, 84. Manu-mental schools, 153-172. Marks, working for, 95. Mass methods of instruction, 12. Mass teaching versus class-indi- vidualized teaching, 151. Maxwell, W. H., 36, 124. Medford, Mass., testing in arith- metic, 18. Memory work, abstract, 56. Mental endowment, Meumann's suggestions to ascertain, 131- 132. Mentally defective children, 9, 10, 11, 56. Meumann, E., 131. Miller, Charlton D., 72. Milwaukee, Wis., classes for stam- merers, 175. Missouri school laws, 15. Monitorial systems of Bell and Lancaster, 13. Montessori methods, 186-197. Montessori, Maria, 187, 191, 192, 194. Morss, C. H., 18. Motor-minded pupils, 99. Motor-sensory training, 191. Mozart, 134. N New Britain, Conn., differentiated courses in, 154-158. Newton, Mass., individual work at, 68-73. New York City, Report of Teach- ers' Ass'n Committee on School Organization, 147-152. New York City disciplinary school, 141. Normal child, 35, 61. Normal progress, 14. Normal school pupils, class and individual teaching by, 108, 109. Normal school training for indi- vidual work, opinions of super- intendents on, 102-107. Normal school training of teach- ers, 50. North Denver plan of instruction, 45-51; aims of, 46; and class organization, 45; and flexibility in class management, 45; and half-yearly interval, 45; disci- pline under, 49-50; difficulty of carrying out 50; procedure in carrying out, 50. North Denver reference libraries, 47. INDEX 203 o Optional topics, course in, 84. Ordinary class recitation, 99. Orthopedic exercises of Binet, 189. Over-age problem, 35-36. Parallel classes, 120; in Volks- schule, 57; special course of study for, 57; number of, 57. Parental School, Elizabeth, N. J., 140. Parker, F. W. Col., 76. Pearse, Carrol G., 175. People's schools, 12, 127. Per diem cost of education in U. S., 128. Peripatetic (departmental) meth- od, 145. Perry, A. C, 146. Personal record book, pupil's, of work accomplished, 84. Pestalozzi, 13, 102. Petzoldt, J., 133. Physiological, psychological and chronological age, 16. Portland, Oregon, plan, 43, 45; rates of progress under, 43, 45; class intervals in, 43. Power, comparison of, developed in athletic field and schoolroom, 47. Practice training rooms, 108. Preperception mass, 116. Pretzel, 60. Prodigies, child, 133. Progress, by arbitrary standards unwise, 19; lack of, due to physical defects, 18; rates of, 53. Promotion, or rapid classes, 121 ; classes for gifted pupils, 120, 127-139; under Mannheim sys- tem, 59. Promotion intervals, 21 ; scien- tific studies of, needed, 25. Providence, R. I., 17; training schools, 140. Public education, cost of, com- pared to private, 127-128; lack of interest in, by legislators, 128. Pueblo plan, 65-68; and the un- graded school, 64. Pupil teachers, individual instruc- tion by, 109; in and out of class hours, 109; initiative of, 109. Pupils, individual study of, 118. Q Quincy idea and Batavia plan compared, 76-77. R Reading and arithmetic, demands in, 18. Reasoning ability of children, 130. Recitation, class, advantages of, 46; best educational instrument, 63; in relation to pupil's abili- ties, 46; period, 100. Records and equipment, 150. Reference libraries in North Den- ver, 47. Regents' examinations, relation of, to retardation and elimina- tion, 19. Regular class work, 90. Responsibility, pupil, 47, 51. Retardation, 14, 15, 16, 35, 36, 129; amount of, in St. Louis and Kansas City, 31 ; forcing pupils in lower grades a cause, 17; worst type of, 130; and elimina- tion, 14; in German cities, 56; and yearly interval, 22. Reviews, 53. Rewards, 47. Rowe, Stuart H., 173. S St. Louis plan, 27-31; parent of short interval plans, 27; chief features of, 27-30; provides for dull and bright pupils, 27; stimulus to average and fair scholars, 29; and change of teachers, 29; and promotion to high school, 30; and slow pupils, 30; disadvantages of, 30-31. Santa Barbara plan, 33-36; pro- gress of children under, 35. School-keeper and individual teacher compared, 94. School organization, differentia- tion of, to fit individual needs, 129. 204 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD School organization, Report of Committee of N. Y. City Teachers' Ass'n, 147-152; criti- cism of, 151; result of question- naire to 1,000 superintendents, 147-148; summary of, 148. School sessions, 150. School system of Germany, 12. Scripture, E. N., 184. Search, Preston W., 65, 66, 67, 68. Seat or study work, 54. Seattle, Wash., school for stam- merers and stutterers, 175. Sectioning of lower grades, 31. Seguin, methods of, 189. Self -activity of pupil, 47, 91. Self -development of pupil, 151. Self-satisfaction of normal trained teachers, 105. Sequential studies, 32. Shearer plan, 31-33. Shifting group, 52; advantages of, 53. Shuttleworth, G. E., 134. Sickinger, A., 57, 59. Sidis, William James, 134. "Six and six plan," 139. Sixth grade, differentiation of work in, 84. Size of classes, 55, 64. Small, W. H., 17. Slow pupils, 49, 55, 88; and indi- vidual instruction, 63. Smith, D. E., 17. Social service by pupils, 48. Society of Christian Brothers, 12. Spaulding, F. E., 68, 72. Special auxiliary schools, 56. Special promotion, 46. Stern's study of supernormal children, 132. Straubenmiller, Supt., 120. Stammerers and stutterers, classes for, 173-185. Stammering, 178-179; treatment of, 181; kinds of, 178. Stuttering, 181; causes of, 181- 182; inheritance of, 182; as re- lated to right or left-handedness, 182; treatment of, 183-185; kinds of, 178. Study, art of, 53, 91, 109; taught at Batavia, 78; course of, 150; habits of, 53; in school and after school, 46; independent, time for, 149; period, supervised, 80; sessions, 150. j Study, course of, rational, prere- quisite to grading and classifica- tion in Chelsea, Mass., 19; course of, within the powers of all normal children, 84. Subnormal children, study of, 129. Success, philosophy of, as basis of school work, 20. Summer schools for review work, 150. Supernormal child, 131; number of, ascertained by Binet-Simon tests, 131. Supervisor, individual, 120; a friendly visitor, 85; a woman of maturity, 86. Supervisor of individual work, 85. Supervisor, special, for group of small classes, 63. Talamo, Edoardo, 186. Teaching, methods of, 150; pro- cess, 95; real method of, 91, and testing, differences between, 79. Tenement house infant schools, 186. Term interval, 25; advantages of and objections, 25; and progress in St. Louis, in Kansas City, 31. Thorndike, E. L., 14. Thoroughness, 53. Timidity of pupil under class instruction, 92. Training or disciplinary schools, 140-142. U Unassigned teachers, 63, 69; in high school, 70; work of, 69-70. Uneasy boys, schools for, in East Orange, N. J., 140. Ungraded classes for deficient children, 64. Ungraded or adjustment classes, 120-126; for normal pupils only, 120; object of, 121; organiza- tion of, compared with common school, 120; size of, 122. INDEX 205 Uniformity, class, 50, 116. Unity, class, 50, 116. Unpreparedness of pupils, reasons for, 96. V Van Sickle, James H., 45, 46, 50, 138, 139. Vienna school for stutterers, 174. Vineland, N. J. School for Feeble- minded, 189. Volksschule, parallel classes in, 57. W Wallin, J. E. W., 131. Westerly, R. I., Individual Work in; opinions of teachers on, 80. Whipple, G. M., 130. White, E. E., 23. White's study of promotions and examinations, 23. Wunderkind, 133. Y Yearly promotions, 22, 31. Yearly interval, prevails in Eng- land and Germany, 21; advan- tages and disadvantages of, 21-23. Young, Ella Flagg, 17. Ziegler, 135, 136. 206 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD INDEX TO PART TWO After-Care Association, 124-125. After-Care Committee of Birming- ham, England, 125. After-care visiting committee, 129. After-care guardians in Germany, 141. After-care, in Germany, 139-141; in Switzerland, 141-142. After-care returns, analysis of, 128. After-care societies in Germany, 141-142. After-history of children leaving New York special schools, 133- 139. Afternoon care-school, Budapest, 61. Alphabet, sandpaper, 72. Amentia, 44. Aments, grades of, 29. Apprentice premiums, 141-142. Arithmetic, 82-83; Vaney's test in, 120-121. Attention, habits of, 81; power of, training, 69. Australia, special schools in, 24. Austria-Hungary, special schools in, 12-15; at Vienna, 12; Buda- pest (state), organization of, 13-14; after-care, 14; city aux- iliary schools in, 15; Imperial Physiological Laboratory in state building, 14; libraries for pupils and teachers, 14; vaca- tion course for teachers in, 14. Auxiliary school, admission pro- cedure in Germany, 8; begin- ning of, in England, 10; begin- nings of, in Halle and Dresden, 5; building and its equipment, 56-59; candidates for, 44-45; conditions in organization of, in Germany, 8; corporal pun- ishment in, 64; discipline in, French, 66; early history of, in Germany, 5-6; French, rewards in, 66; in Elberfeld, 6; need for model building, 56; need of, 41- 43; official decree recognizing, in Prussia, 6-7; one-session plan, 60; pay of teachers in, 8; slow progress in establishing, in Ger- many, 6-7; special buildings in London, 56; two-session plan, objections to, 60; type of teach- er for, 65; work of Stotzner for, 6. Auxiliary schools and classes, development of, in foreign coun- tries, 5; in Germany, 5; kinds of, 1; need of, 2; types of chil- dren for, 1. Auxiliary school boys, occupa- tions best for, 139-140. Auxiliary school girls, occupations best for, 140. Ayres, Leonard P., Dr., Ill, 172. B Backward boy, teacher's report of development of, 154-157. Backward pupils, teacher's role in determining, 114. Baltimore, Md., special classes, 36; for backward children, 36; for epileptics, 36; for mental defec- tives, 36; inadequate provision for mentally defective, 36. Bancroft, Margaret, 53. Belgium, special schools in, 15-17; first schools at Brussels, 15; medical supervision in, 17; number of defectives excluded from, 17; number of pupils in class, 16; organization of school in Ghent, 17; society for pro- INDEX 207 tection of abnormal children, 17; special classes for pedagog- ically retarded children, 17; time-table and program at Brussels, 16. Benstead, George, 83. Berlin auxiliary schools, 145-149. Binet, Alfred, 19, 47, 75, 123. Binet and Vaney's tests of instruc- tion, 114-123. Binet scale, criticisms of, 110-113; revised, explanation of, 106-109; revision of, 103; revision by Goddard, 104-106. Binet-Simon graded tests, 1905 series, 91-94; 1908 series, 94- 102; chart showing results of, 171-172; credit for answering, 94; pictures used in making, 96; record blank used in Philadel- phia, 161-162; revised, God- dard's record blanks for, 168- 170; used in Philadelphia schools, 97-102. Birmingham Education Com- mittee, report of, 130-131. Birmingham, England After-Care Committee, 125, 127-131. Bjorkman, Frances Maule, 65. Blank forms used in special schools, 173-178. Blewett, Ben, Supt., 35. Body building, 80. Boncour, 66. Boston, Mass., special classes, ad- mission, procedure of, 39; daily program, 61-62; equipment for manual training, 39; imbeciles excluded from, 39; in public school buildings, 38; inadequate provision for mental defectives, 40; qualifications of teachers for, 39; sessions of, 38; size of, 38; special classes, 38-40. Bottger, R., 139, 140. Breathing exercises, 79. British Central After-Care Com- mittee, 126-127. British Royal Commission on Care and Control of Feeble- Minded, 125. Budapest afternoon care-school, 61. Chance, Sir William, 127. Coaching classes in New York City, 29. Color sense, development of, 69. Comparison of work in regular and special schools, 167. Competitive exercises, 76. Cornell, Walter S., Dr., 31. Corporal punishment, in auxiliary school, 64; in Brussels auxiliary schools, 65. Cunningham, Mrs., 35. D DeCroly, O., 81. Defective and Epileptic Act for auxiliary schools, 9. De Garmo's language books, 83. Denby, Mary, 75, 78; her work, 12. Denmark, special schools in, 23. De Sanctis' tests, 88-91. Dictation, Vaney's tests in, 121- 122. Dietary for feeble-minded chil- dren, 78. Discipline in auxiliary school, 64-66 in France,; 66. Dramatic reading, 82. Drawing, work in, 86. Dressier, 145. Dull and backward children, 45- 48; auxiliary classes not for, 46; caused by disease, 49-50; num- ber of, in school population in England, 46; types of, 46-48; Dynamometer exercises, 76. E Edson, A. W., Supt., 29. Eliot, C. W., Dr., 68. Ellis, Havelock, 42. Eltes, M., Director, 13. Employment bureau, 125. England, special schools, 9; age limits, and law, 11-12; com- pared with German, 10; course of study, 9; for older boys, 11; kinds of, 10; manual work in, 11; medical provision, 9; nor- mal pupils in, 10; number of, in, 11; number of school hours, 208 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD 9; number of teachers in, 11; nurses in, 11; provisions for admission to, 9, 12; qualifica- tions of teachers, 9, 11; school buildings for, 9; size of classes, 9, 11; wage-earning the aim, 9. Epileptics, New Jersey Committee recommendations for, 180. Epileptic children, 54-55; colonies for, 54; need of special classes for, 54. Examinations, treatment of chil- dren in, 118. Excursions, 85. Exercises in practical life, 84-85. F Farrell, Elizabeth, 27. Farrington, E. A., Dr., 71, 74. Fatigue in feeble-minded children, 61. Feeble-minded, asexualization of, 42; classes of, 93-94; classifica- tion of, under English Defective and Epileptic Children Act of 1899, 44; cost of supporting, 42; custodial homes for, 42-43; fatigue in, 61; menace of, 42; New Jersey Committee recom- mendations for, 180; pauperism and crime, 43; progeny of, 41; sterilization of, 42; special school as a preventive agent, 43; tests for, 93-94. Feeble-minded boy, 77. Feeble-minded children, in New York, Dr. Anne Moore's report of, 131-139; leaving New York schools, statistical table of, 134-139. Feeble-minded school children, number of, Goddard's estimate, 132; in New York public schools 132 Fernald, W. E., Dr., 52, 54, 56, 83. Floor plans of English special school building, 179. Fod6r6, 64. Form, ideas of, 70. Formboard, 72. France, auxiliary schools of, 19-22; first recognized need of special classes, 19; French Auxiliary School Law, 19-22; pioneer work with mental defectives, 19; schools in Paris and Bour- deaux, 22. Frenzel, Fr., 60. G Geography, work in, 87. Glasche, K. G., 64. Goddard, H. H., Dr., 3, 43, 47, 88, 95, 103, 132. Goddard's record blanks for re- vised Binet tests, 168-170; work with Binet tests, 94-95. Guardians, after-care, in Ger- many, 141. Guggenbuhl, J. J., Dr., 64. Guggenmoos, K. G., 64. H Haupt, 5. Healy, W., Dr., 3, 11. Hearing sense, development of, 70. Heller, Theodor, 19, 61. Henz, W., 5, 6. History, work in, 87. Holland, after-care in Rotterdam, 18; first school at Rotterdam, 18; organization of, 18; special schools in, 18-19. Home visits by teacher, 78. Huey, E. B., Dr., 91. Idiots, 44-45; classes of, 91-92; tests for, 91-92. Imbeciles, 44-45; classes of, 92- 93; tests for, 92-93. Immobility, exercises in, 75. Instruction, tests of, Vaney and Binet's, 114-123. Italy, special schools in, 24. Itard, J. M. G., Dr., 64. Jelly, Dr., 39. Johnson, Katherine L., 113. Johnstone, E. R., 42. INDEX 209 K Kern, K. F., Dr., 5, 6, 64. Kerr, Dr., 124. Kirmsse, M., 65. Klemm, L. R., 25. Kuhlmann, F., 97. Laissez faire method of education, 41. Lancashire and Cheshire Society for the Permanent Care of the Feeble-minded, 12. Language, 83-84; books, 83. Lapage, C. P., Dr., 78, 124, 125. Leathers, H., 12. Leipsic course in arithmetic, 82. Lepage, M. Leon, 15. Ley, Dr., 17. London County Council, Report of, 10. Long Division, difficulty of, for feeble-minded, 83. Lunches, school, 79. M Maennel, B., 5, 19, 38. Manual work, 80-81; in London special schools, 80. Maudsley, 81. Meals in special schools, 78-79. Mental defect, early discovery of, 9. Mental defectives, encouragement of, 76. Mental orthopedy, 75. Mental tests, 88-113. Mentally defective, difficulty of determining, 10. Mentally defective boys, residen- tial home for, in England, 11. Mentally deficient children, ad- mission of, to special schools in Germany, 3; census of, in Phil- adelphia, 4, 31; city and county institution for care of, 2; cus- todial care of, 3; census of, needed, 3; education of, 43; Goddard's plea for custodial care in America, 3; in regular classes, 41; inadequate provi- sion for, in Boston, 40; lack of custodial care in England and Germany, 3; number of, 43; number of, in England, needing permanent care, 10; number of, in German institutions and auxiliary schools, 8; number of, in parochial schools, 4; out of place in regular class, 2; per- manent care for, 2; Philadel- phia effort for custodial care for, 33; proportion of, in Germany, 7 ; punishments recommended for, 65; segregation of, 43; self- support of, 3; socializing effect of normal pupils on, 30. Meumann, E. Dr., 51, 53, 88. Montessori, M., Dr., 90. Moore's (Anne Dr.) report of feeble- minded children in New York, 131-139. Moral defective, 50-54; latent, 52; menace of, 54; special education of, 53; true, 52. Morons, 44-45; classes of, 93-94; special classes for, only, 55. Motor ability, 75. Motor development, interesting case of, 158-160. Muscular control, 76-77. Muscle-sense, 72-74. N Nature cabinet, 86. New Jersey Committee recom- mendations for feeble-minded and epileptics, 180. New York City special classes, 26-30; admission to, 27; course of study in, 28 ; in regular school buildings, 26, 29; in separate buildings, 26-29; individual treatment of children in, 28; medical examination, 27; men- tal tests, 27; organization of, 27; size of, 28; types of, 26; ungraded class a misnomer, 26; Normal child, school progress of, 114. Norway, special schools in, 23. Number machines, 82. Nyms, 17. 210 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD O Object lessons, 85-86. Occupations best for auxiliary school boys, 139-140. Occupations best for auxiliary school girls, 140. Offner, M., Dr., 61. Orthopedic exercises and Mon- tessori methods, 76. Orthopedic exercises of Vaney and Binet, 75-76. Pain sense, 70. Periods, place and length of, 61. Personal record blank, pupil's, 165-166. Philadelphia investigation, test used in, 163-164. Philadelphia special class, 30-33; census, in mental defectives, 31; in regular school buildings, 32; in special building, 30; need of specially trained teachers, 33. Philippe, 66. Physical training, 77-80. Physically defective, classifica- tion of, in England, 10. Pictures used in making Binet tests 96. Pinsent, Mrs. Hume, 125, 130. Pressure sense, 71. Probst, 65. Program, daily, in Boston, Mass. 61-62; of three grade German auxiliary school, 63. Program of work, 67-87. Programs of work in special class- es, 150-153. Providence, R. I., special class, 25, 37-38. R Rauschburg, Paul, 14. Reading, course in, 119-120; meth- ods in, 81-82; Vaney's 119-120. Record blank for Binet-Simon test used in Philadelphia, 161-162. Retardation, standard of, in France, 117. Retarded mental development , children of, 48. Rickoff, A. J., 25. Rotges, M., 22. Rouma, 69. Russia, special schools in, 24. Saegert, K., 64. St. Louis special schools, 33-35; admission to, 33-34; free trans- portation for children, 33; in special buildings, 33; medical examination, 35; program of, 34; special supervisor, 33; work of Supt. Soldan for, 34; Sandelbridge, permanent home at, 12. Scale of instruction, value of, 123. School sessions and the daily program, 60-63. School tramps, 79. Schroter, 8. Schulze, R., 56, 57, 58. Scotland, special schools in, 22. Seguin, E., 19, 67. Seguin's educational method, 67, Sense-room at Waverley, 75. Sense training, 67 ; exercises in, 68- 75; value of, 68. Sessions, school, 60-63 ; one session plan in auxiliary schools, 60. Shop lesson method for feeble- minded, 83. Simon, Theodore, 47. Smart, Isabelle Thompson, 27. Smell, sense of, 74-75. Soldan, Louis W., Supt., 33. Special classes, programs of work in, 150-153; provisions for, in small cities and towns, 55. Special schools, blank forms used in, 173-178; number of, in Eng- land, 124. Special schools in U. S., 25-40; Cleveland, 25; compulsory at- tendance laws, 25; New York City, 26-30; Providence, 25; slow development, 25. Stammerers and stutterers, 55. Statue exercises, 75. Stereognosis, 71-72. INDEX 211 Stoning, G., 51. Stotzner, H. E., 5, 6, 64. Sweden, special schools in, 24. Switzerland, special schools in, 22. Taste, sense of, 74. Teacher's role in determining backward pupils, 114. Temperature-sense, 74. Terman, Lewis M., Dr., 110. Test used in Philadelphia inves- tigation, 163-164. Toscano, 90. Touch, complex of senses, 70-74. Trade training for mentally de- fective children, 141. Tredgold, A. F., Dr., 46, 47, 48, 49, 50. 52. Typewriter, use of by mentally de- fective, 37. U Ungraded classes in New York City, 28. Vacation, rural, for feeble-minded children, 79. Vaney, V., 75, 80, 114, 118. Vaney and Binet's tests of instruc- tion, 114-123. Vaney's, reading test, 119-12U scale of instruction, 115-117 test in arithmetic, 120-121 test in dictation, 121-122. Visual sense, exercises in, 68-69. W Wage earning and after care of mentally defective children, 124-142. Wage earning ability of feeble- minded children, 125. Walks with pupils, 85. Wallin, J. E. W Dr., 109, 110. Washington, D. C, special classes, 36-37; in special buildings, 36; manual training and domestic science, 37; use of typewriter, 37. Waverley sense room, 75. Whipple, G. M., Dr., 57. Will power, development ot, 8U. c 111 i< I hi : !"l? 1 fttllMI 1 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 364,341 1