LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Gfjnji.P..... Cojt^riB^! ^a. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 4i. 'M\1^Z-^- V^ .V^^> ^.^M r;u^ THE NEW POTATO CULTURE As developed by the Trench System, by the judicious use of Chemical Fertilizers, and by the Experiments carried on at the Rural Grounds during the past sixteen years. BY ELBERT S. CARMAN, Editor of The Rural New-Yorker, Ori^nator of the Trench System and .^^ of the Potatoes Nos. l, 2 and 3. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. -r -^^ ^>^^ 10 1893 ) 1893. ^-^^„lASHmSi2^\ The Rural Publishing Company, V 2 9 {^ L/ I.Mi:S BUILDING, NEW YORK, Copyright 1893, by The Rural Publishing Company. 9\\ ELECTBOTYPED AND PRINTED BY THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, TO MY FRIEND SIR JOHN BENNET LAWES BART., LL. D., F. R.S., F. C. S., THIS LITTLE VOLUME IS RESPECTFULL Y AND AFFECTIONA TEL Y INSCRIBED BY PRIVATE LETTER, BY HIS NOBLE EXAMPLE. AND BY MANY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE JOURNAL I HAVE EDITED DURING THE PAST FIFTEEN YEARS, HE HAS ENCOURAGED AND INSPIRED ME TO TRY TO DO AS HE HAS DONE, THOUGH WITH FtEBLE SUCCESS. E. S. C. INTRODUCTORY. rOR the past fifteen years, during the growing season, I have given a part of my time to potato experimen- tation, in the hope that I might throw some additional light \ipon the various questions involved in the central prob- lem, ''How to increase the yield without proportionatel)- in- creasing the cost of production." It often happened that, in the soil of m}^ home grounds, some hills would 5deld enor- mously, while others would yield little. What was this owing to? What kind of manure or culture — what preparation of the soil would insure the maximum crop ? Would stable or cow manure, hen manure, or a compost of the three?' Would lime, plaster, salt, muck, wood ashes, muriate or sulphate of potash, bone, phosphatic rock, fish, flesh, blood, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, separate^ or in any combination, effect this? Would it be possible so to fit the soil as materi- ally to increase the yield ? What would be the best depth to plant the seed ? How much seed should be planted — single eyes, two, three, or four eyes ; half potatoes, whole potatoes, stem-ends or seed-ends ? Should the manure or fertilizer be placed under or over, and how much should be used? Should the soil hit firmed o'c rendered as loose and friable as possible? 6 Tlie New Potato Culture. These were the individual questions suggesting themselves which made up the central problem, "How can we increase the yield of potatoes without proportionately increasing the cost of production?" As experiments were carried on from 3^ear to 3'ear, it was found that the 3^ield from this experiment plot was increased at the rate of from loo to 600 bushels to the acre ; that por- tions yielded at the rate of over 1,000 ; that certain hills and certain varieties, treated apparently the same as the rest, yielded over 1,500 bushels to the acre. Would it be possible to ascertain what the exact conditions were which gave such yields ? Would it be possible to approach them on acres in- stead of plots ? Would ii be possible to furnish equivalent condi- tions to acres in an eco?io?nical way ? The reader who has the patience to consider with some care the following pages, may judge for himself whether any ap- proach to a positive answer has been made by the results of the work herein placed before him. River Edge, Bergen County, New Jersey. CONTENTS. PAGE Chapte rI 13 The Origin of the Trench System of Raising Potatoes. The ' ' Potato Contest. " How it Came About The ' ' Contest " Plot. The Planting Begun and Finished. The Fertilizer Used. The Trenches. How far Apart. Hilling up Avoided. The Varie- ties Planted. Notes of Progress. A Perfect Stand. Incessant Rains. The First Intimation of Something Wrong. The Vines Die Prematurely. Applications of Various Insecticides. The Cucumber Flea-beetle Discovered to be the Cause. Not Con- fined to any Limited District. Previously Attributed to "Blight." Insecticides of no Effect to Kill the Insect — But they Hurt the Vines. Previous Treatment of the " Contest " Plot. The Re- sult. The Plot Measured by the Committee. Yield of the Sev- eral Seedlings. No. 3 Failed. Otherwise the Yield would have Exceeded the Rate of 700 Bushels to the Acre. Report of the Judges. Chapter II 20 Failures, but Instructive Failures, The Second "Contest" Plot. Modifications. Favorable Conditions in Every Way. Notes of Progress. Flea-beetles in Great Numbers. All Sorts of Insecticides Used Without Avail. Foliage Injured. The Kinds Planted. Premature Death of the Vines. The Yield. The Tubers not Half Grown, and a Large Proportion Decayed. Chapter III 24 Another Failure on a Larger Scale, with its Teachings. Learn by Failures as well as by Successes. A Half-acre Trial on a Poor Soil. General Opinion that such Large Yields cannot be Produced'on Extended Areas. May we not Double our Crops without Doubling the Cost of Raising them ? The Enemies of Great Yields. Potatoes Checked in their Growth never Yield Maximum Crops. The Fitting of the Half Acre. Plowed in the Fall and Potash and Phosphoric Acid Applied. Why Ni- trogen was not Applied in the Fall. The Trenches Depth to Plant. Covering. Conservation of Moisture. Hilling-up to be Avoided. Why. Shallow Cultivation. Spring Work. A 8 The New Potato Culture. PAcfe Late, Cold, Wet Spring. An Injudicious Decision. AdditJoSSSl P"ertilizers Applied. Frost-bitten Seed. One-eye Pieces Planteitl of Necessity. Number of Potatoes to the Barrel. The KsKMlte Planted. The Mulch. The Forms and Quantity of Nitrogea Applied. Partial Failure of the Seed. The Yield. The Cfl'm. Chapter W .... jt Mr. Terry's Views. Expectations not Realized. The Yield]!; from Small Plots Deceptive. Mr. Minch's Great Yields Queried, The Author's Yields due to other Causes than the Trenches. Mr. Teriry cannot see any Benefit from the Use of Fertilizers on hki Land. The Advantages of Level Cultivation Set Forth. Few- er Green Potatoes. Reply to Mr. Terry. Evident reasons wh}?- as Large Crops cannot be Raised on Acres as on Selected Plots. Just as much to be Learned from Trials on Small as on Con- siderable Areas. The Small Plot may tell us Just what the Acre Needs.- Why Farmers Prefer to "Hill-up." How Trenches Direct the Rainfall. Mr. Minch Explains. The Economy of Large Quantities of Manure. Chapter V 39 Some Heavy Yields by the Trench Method. The "Women's National Potato Contest." Over i,ooo Entries. Prizes Award- ed. The Yields of the Prize-takers. The Trench System takes the First Prize in a full Acre Contest, The Prize won was $i,ioo — the Yield was 738 Bushels. Chapter VI . 42 Conservation of Moisture. Importance of Rainfall. Inef- fectiveness of American Experiment Station Work. Sir J. B. Lawes, When and How first Induced to Write for the Ameri- can Farm Press. Governmental Action Precipitated thereby in the matter of Establishing Experiment Stations. Fundamen- tal Weakness of American Stations as at Present Conducted. Political Influences. ' 'Available " rather than ' ' Capable " men too often Chosen as Officers. Uncertain Tenure of Office. Conducting the same Experiments Year after Year Impracti- cable. Farmers are Solicited to Try the Effects of Mulching in a Small Way. Objections to the Trench Answered. Tread- ing on the Seed Pieces Condemned. Roots do not Issue from the Seed. Seed Potatoes, unlike true Seed, need a Loose, Mellow Soil. Chapter VII 47 Experiments with Different Fertilizers, First Season Single or Special Fertilizers. Fertilizers should not be Condemned because Fertilizer Constituents, used Separately, fail to In- crease the Crop. How to Find Out what your Land Needs. The Elements Deficient in the Soil must be Supplied. Whert-in Fertilizers Differ from ?.lanure Tlv Neer's of this Particular Co7iie7its, 9 PAGE bo jJFlainly Shown. The Soil will Answer Questions it put in the Right Way. The Natural Soil Yields. The Specially Fer- tilized Soil Yields. The Complete Fertilized Soil Yields. Tables and Comparisons. Second Season's Trial on different Land with the same Fertilizers and Fertilizer Constituents. A Soil that will "Not Grow Beans " without Manure. A Hungry Soil. Tables. A Summary of Results. Third Season's Trial on a Change of Plots with Essentially the same Fertilizers and Fertilizer Constituents. To what Extent do Small or Thrifty Tops Correspond to the Crop of Potatoes ? Ratings Rarely Fail to Indicate. When they (the Ratings) do Fail. Well Balanced Fertilizers never give a Luxuriant Growth of Vines without a Corresponding Growth of Tubers. Better Land than that of Preceding Trials and more Variable Results. The Land still Replies : "Give Me All Kinds of Food." A Letter from Sir J . B. Lawes respecting the Effects of Different Fertilizers. Artificial Feitilizers Profitable, if Judiciously Applied, in Po- tato Culture. Nine crops of Potatoes in succession Grown at Rothamsted. The Kinds and Amounts Fed. The Results of Nitrate Nitrogen and Ammonia Nitrogen the Same. The Loss of Nitrogen and the Necessity of a Liberal Supply. The Re- sults of Mineral Fertilizers alone only One-half those when Nitrogen is Added. The Quantity of Potash Required is very Large. The Color ot tne i^eaves and stems as Arfected by Ni- trogen, by Minerals and by Both. Explanation. A Larger Crop of Potatoes Obtained with Minerals alone than with Ni- trogen alone. Wheat an Exception. Why. Instructive Tables ; Study them. Thf^ Minerals may Remain for Future Crops — the Nitrogen is Lost. Results of Experiments made at Roth- amsted on the Growth of Potatoes for Twelve Years in Succes- sion on the Same Land, as set forth by Dr. Gilbert. Twelve Years of Potato Culture without any Manure or Fertilizer. The Yield as Great, under this Exhaustive Treatment, as the Aver- age Yield of the United States. Nitrogenous Manures alone Barely iiicrease the Yield. The Slow Action of Farm-yard Ma- nure. The Marked Effects of an Addition of Nitrogen to Farm- yard Manure. Disease does not Increase by Continued Growth from Season to Season. Specific Gravity of the Potato an In- dication of Quality. Cook Potatoes with their Skins on. Chapter Vill . = 69 The Effects of Differen: Quantities of "Complete" Fertil- izers on Potatoes Fertiiizsrs against Manure. Telling Effects of Fertilizers on Potatoes. They Increase the Yield more than .., ...does Stable Manare, Trial upon One-tenth of an Acre that had not been .Iviauured in 15 Years. Sm:;other Potatoes from the Fertilizer. The Vital Question which each Farmer must Solve for Himself or be Left Behind in the Procession. The Yields from 22O; 440, 880, 1,320, 1,760, 2,200 pounds of Fertilizer to the Acre. Sulphate of Iron Harmful. Averages. A Differ- ence of over 138 Bushels per Acra. In what Way is the Reader to turn the Results to His Own Advantage ? lO The New Potato Culture. PAGE Chapter IX 79 Shall the Fertilizer be placed Under or Over the Seed Pieces ? Its Importance Depends on the Method of Culture. Tables. Averages. The Second Year Results. General Summary. The Difference in Favor of the Fertilizer Oz'e?- 9.68 Bushels per Acre. Chapter X - . » 83 Results of Planting Potatoes in Trenches of Different Depths. First Trial. Planted from Two to Ten Inches Deep. Second Trial. Third Trial. Summary of Averages. Chapter XI 87 Nitrogen, especially Nitrate Nitrogen as in Nitrate of Soda. Its Effects when Applied Alone. May Farmers derive a Profit from its Use when Applied to Land Indiscriminately or as Farm Manure is Applied ? Joseph Harris's Views and the Author's Answer. Experiments. The Results, in a Partial Way, Justify Mr. Harris's Conclusions that the Average Potato Fertilizers of To-day are too Low in Nitrogen, in so far as this Particular Soil may be Taken as a Guide. See to it that the Land is well Supplied with Minerals, and then Add Increasing Doses of Ni- trogen in an Experimental Way. Chapter XII 100 Sundry Experiments. Potatoes Raised in Half Barrels. First, Pure Sand ; Second, Garden Soil ; Third, Three-quarters Garden Soil, One-quarter Cut Straw. Results. Experiment with Three Barrels. Barrels Half Filled, the Seed Potatoes Planted and Covered with a few Inches of Soil. As the Shoots Grow the Barrels are gradually Filled, Leaving the Seed Pieces 16 Inches Below the Surface. Where would the Tubers Form? The Root and Tuber-forming Growth. Blight. Results. Seed Potatoes Treated in Various Ways, and Fertilizers. Excessive Manuring, Effects of Salt. A New Way to Mulch Potatoes. "Valley Mulching." Pieces Placed on Top of the Soil and Covered with Mulch and Fertilized. Trenches Mulched, Fer- tilized and Not. Doubts Expressed as to Reported Yields. As High as "at the Rate" per Acre of over 1,800 Bushels, as Es- timated from a few Hills. The easy Method of Computing Yields with Accuracy. The Best Distance Apart for ' ' Single- eye " Seed. Different Number of Eyes to a Piece, from Single to Four Eyes to a piece. Different Sized Pieces without Re- gard to Number of Eyes. Experiments to Determine how Much Flesh each Eye should Have. Seed-end against Stem- end. Shall the Distance Apart, of the Seed Pieces Planted, be Proportionate to the Size of the Seed ? Contents j j Chapter XIII 115 Size of Seed. Generalizations. Habit of the Variety to be Considered. Small Seed of some Kinds — Large of Others. No Positive Rule can be Given. Illustrations. The Loss from Missing Hills. Underground Development. Relations be- tween Few Eyes and Long Joints ; Bushy and "Leggy " Vines. True Roots and Tuber-bearing Stems. Absurd Names. Seed and Stem Ends might more Properly be Called Tip and Butt, or Top and Bottom. Potato Growth. How Stems are Modi- fied by Light and Air ; by Soil and Moisture. Limiting the Space for the Growth of Nodes and Tubers. Increase the Root System by Deeper Planting and a Mellow Soil. A Ten-story House may Occupy the same Ground Area as a One-story House. Again, as to ♦■he Size of Seed-pieces. Every Variety differs in Number and Potency of Eyes, and must be Cut and Planted Accordingly. Chapter XIV 123 Analysis of the Tubers and Vines. The Effects of Special or Single Fertilizers, and in Various Combinations. The Ef- fects of "Complete" Fertilizers. Stimulants. "Complete" Fertilizers not Necessarily Effective. A Familiar Talk with Farmers. Erroneous Conclusions as to Fertilizers. W^hy Farmers Condemn them. Food in the Soil, previously Inert, Rendered Available by Salt, Plaster, Lime, Etc. Forcing Land. Lashing it into Temporary Productiveness. "Complete" Fertilizers which Analyze the Same may Give very Different Results. Their Agricultural Value. Irrational Conclusions. How Money is Thrown Away. Farmers Conjured to use High- grade Fertilizers Adapted to the Needs of their Land. The Potato's Needs. The Difference. A Distinction without a Difference. Chemical Fertilizers arg simply Concentrated Manures. Chapter XV 135 Seedling Potatoes. How to Gather the Seeds, Plant them and Treat the Seedlings. Every Gardener and Farmer should Raise his Own Varieties. How to Select. Should we save Seed Potatoes from the most Productive Hills ? Why the same Variety Varies. Millions of Dollars spent for New Varieties that might Just as Well have been Raised at Home. Seed Balls or Fruit. Salection of Seed. Glass Structures not Necessary. A Sunny Window will Do. How to Transplant. After care. Avoid any Poisonous Application. Mosquito Netting. How we should Select the Seedling Potatoes. Immature Seed will give a Degenerated Crop. Immature Cuttings will Produce Comparatively Feeble Plants. Bud Variation. Select Seed- ling Tubers of the Shape Desired. How Seedlings from the same Seed may Vary. 12 The New Potato Culture. Page Chapter XVI 14^ Care of Seed. Exposing Sound Seed to Light and Sun Before Planting. How to Detect "Blind" Eyes. Lime as a Preserver. Handling. Poisoning. Ho^v a Perfect Stm 1 may be Secured. The Views of Several Correspondents. Tne Importance of Shallow Cultivation and a Mellow Soil Emphasized. Paris . Green. Mix it with Plaster, not with Water. Why ! Absur- dity of Picking off the Potato Beetles by Hand. Chapter XVII 149 E.Kperiments During a Dry Season and in a Variable Soil. First Series. Comparison of Nitrate of Soda with Nitrate of Potash. Vine Growth. Second Series. Comparison of Stock- bridge with Nitrate of Soda. Vine Growth. Third Series. Comparison of Sulphate of Potash with Bradley. Vine Growth. Fourth Series. Comparison of Fertilized Trenches with Unfer- tilized. Vine Growth Fifth Series. Effects of Snuff as a Fertilizer. The Effects of Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash, Used Separately and in Various Combinations. Vine Growth. Averages of Yield of the Several Nitrate of Soda Trenches. Chapter XVIII 178 Another Talk About the Use and Effects of Chemical Fertil- izers. A Maximum Crop of Potatoes Means an Ample Supply of Potato Food. Diluted Bordeaux Gives Unmistakable Benefits. Chapter XIX . . . . , 183 Miscellaneous. The Objections to Hilling-up. Mr. Hersey's Views as to Seed-end and Stem-end Seed : as to Shape, An- swered. Brevities. Difficulty in Crossing Potato Flowers. Seed Sold by Sesdmen as "Hybrid" Seed, not Hybrid. Hvbrids Between the Alkekengi and Potato Sterile. Prof. Bailey's Ex- periments in Grafting the Potato on the Tomato, and vice versa. Ark Explanation of the Effects and Non-effects of Plasters. Questions and Answers. Killing th^ Tops Lessens the Yield. Keeping Potatoes. Largest Yielders. How Much Seed to the Acre ? Does it Pay to Buy Fertilizer Constituents and Mix them at Home ? Index. CHAPTER I. Origin of the Trench Method. IN THE back part of our home grounds is a garden-plot of about an acre. When we built upon the property (two acres in all), nearly twenty years ago, it was designed that this garden-plot should be given to small fruits — grapes, strawberries, raspber- ries, blackberries, currants, etc.— around the borders, while upon the central area it was proposed to raise potatoes and other vegetables for family use. This was somewhat before I had thought of "experi- ment grounds" or had associated myself with the farm paper with which I soon after became and have since been connected. The soil was a mellow loam that might well be defined as "just right" or, in more specific description, one that, while retentive of moisture, was yet well drained and neither too much inclined to an impervious clay nor, on the other hand, to a leachy sand. Of the fertility of this soil, nothing was known further than that it had been cropped for many years without manure — fertilizers were practically unknown. Our first season's essay proved to be a decided failure, though, in so far as we knew, our instructions were well carried out by the gar- dener. The potato "seed" (Early Rose) was planted in hills two by three feet apart without manure. The plot was fairly well cultivated, and the plants hilled-up according to the then popular way of raising potatoes. It was our hope (a confident hope, too,) to beat our neigii- bors, between whom, in the matter of all early vegetables, a friendly rivalry existed. The tops grew vigorously enough, and anything like a failure of the tubers was not thought of. That this plot should have yielded not over seventy -five bushels to the acre is a fact that I have often pon- dered over, while anything like a satisfactory explanation has never • (13) 14 The New Potato Culture. occurred to me. Assuming, at any rate, that this land was not ovei'- well adapted to potatoes, their cultivation was not attempted for sev- eral seasons thereafter. At length, having engaged in farm journalism, and desirous of test- ing the new varieties of potatoes then announced in unquahfied terms of praise in the seedsmen's catalogues of the day, I determined to ascertain what could be done in this uncongenial soil, and the " Trench System " was among the first of the experiments which were suggested. From that time until now this plot has been given to raising, in small trial-lots ranging from three or four to a dozen "hills," all the new varieties of which " seed " has been procurable. Probably the average number of trials during all these years would not be found to be less than seventy five kinds for each season. The yields of these Httlg lots varied remarkably — all the way from 150 to over 1,800 bushels to the acre. All were treated essentially ahke, and reports were duly printed as to size, shape, color, yield and quality. The reports of the new kinds which gave a low yield were rarely made use of by the seedsmen, or others originating or introducing them, while the stupen- dous yields were given the most conspicuous publicity, greatly to my mortification in many cases. One of the most startling of these an- nouncements declared that 1,3915^ bushels per acre of the Green Mountain potato, had been raised by me. The truth was, that there were but three pieces (hills) planted, which yielded 17^ lbs., or at the rate of 1,391.50 bushels to the acre ! So it transpired that the anoma- lous yields reported from season to season were doubted by many good people, and it was to prove what the trench method was really capable of doing that a "contest" was announced, the results and every step of which were to be open to public investigation.- Be it said here that I have never claimed that this method is preferable in all sorts of soils, for the excellent reason that I have not tried it in all sorts of soils. Reasoning from what is known of the potato during its period of growth, the trench system would not increase the yield in a sandy, leachy soil in which the level of the ground water is low, as nothing can be gained by rendering the soil less capable of securing the needed store of moisture through the osmotic action which the trench modification helps to assure in more retentive soils. We have repeatedly, side by side, with and without fertilizer, tried this method and the usual wa}^ of raising potatoes, with the invariable Origin of the Trench Method. 15 result that the trenches have given a decidedly larger yield. More than this, in our trials any decided increase of fertilizers, by the new- method has given, as will be shown further on, a greater increase in yield than the same amount of fertilizer by the old way, which of it- self is an important consideration. It shows that in the one case the plant is able to appropriate the food supplied to a better advantage than in the other. Furthermore, as the results of liberal prizes offered in 1888 and again in 1889, it has been demonstrated that by far the heaviest yields on record have been produced by this method, which, in theory at any rate, seems to secure to the potato all that it needs in so far as it is in the power of man to do so. HOW THE '' contest" CAME ABOUT. During the winter of 1888 I made the statement in print that if I could not raise at the rate of over 700 bushels of potatoes to the acre on a given plot in my experiment grounds by what is known as the Rural Trench System of cultivation, let the season be favorable or unfavorable, I would forfeit ^50 if any one would pay the same amount in case of my success — the money in either event to be donated for some charitable purpose. The challenge was accepted by Mr. Wilmer Atkinson, the editor of the Farm fournal^ of Philadelphia, Pa. THE ''contest" plot. Owing to the lateness of the season, the "Contest" plot was not planted until April 20. The planting was begun at 7 a. m. At 8 a. m. a shower began which continued until the work was finished, causing the soil to become muddy on the surface. Previously (April 9th) the seed potatoes were spread out singly in a warm room. The eyes of the " seed end " soon pushed, forming short, warty shoots. The eyes of the other portions of the potatoes grew but slightly. The object in placing the seed potatoes in a warm, light room was to secure the most vigorous seed. All potatoes, the eyes of which seemed dormant or feeble — "blind" as they are commonly called — were rejected. They were cut accord- ing to the number of strong eyes developed, the object being to have, at least, three to a piece. On April i8th, the trenches were dug with 1 6 The Ngu' Potato Odture. a spade, about seven inches deep and a full foot in width. As we had not from experiments made determined whether it was better to strew the fertilizer laide?^ or vveriYve "seed,'' it was sown both under and over. Eight hundred and eight}- pounds were first evenly sown in the bottom of the trench, and incorporated with the soil by a Hexamer pronged hoe. On this, an inch or so of soil was raked, and the seed- pieces were placed exactly one foot apart, the trenches being three feet apart, measuring from the middle of each. These (the seed- pieces) were covered with another inch of soil, and powdered sulphur was scattered upon it at the rate of 400 pounds to the acre. Then an additional spread of the fertilizer (Mapes's Potato), at the rate of 880 pounds to the acre, was given, making in all 1,760 pounds to the acre. The trenches were then refilled wiJi the soil taken out, winch, being looser than the rest, left the soil of the trenches higher than that between them. We have always been careful not to compact the trench soil any more than can be helped. The ridge left soon settles to the general level, and is so preserved during the season, as all hilling up is care- fully avoided. The plot was planted to the following varieties — aU seedlings of my own: No. 2 33 pieces — one trench. No. 3 66 " — two trenches. No. 4 66 " — ■' NOTES OF PROGRESS. May 15th. — Up to this time the rain-fall had been all that was needed. No. 3 was the first to appear above ground ; No. 4 next, and No. 2 last. Frost occurred the 17th, and cold, constant rains followed up to May 30th. The soil was drenched. Lima beans and melon seeds rotted in the ground. There was a perfect stand of potatoes in the "contest '' plot. My note book of June ist says: "Sifted Paris green and plaster — one pound of the poison to 200 pounds of the plaster. Soil compacted from incessant rains ; frost this morning." June 3d : "The plot cannot be cultivated /;^ pounds per hill it would aggregate a yield of over 700 38 The New Potato Cultiire. bushels per acre. Unless the potatoes are closely planted, where manure is used so excessively the growth will run largely to vine, and the yield will be comparatively trifling." [This depends upon the size of the vines, does it hot ? The Early Ohio, for instance, might well be planted lo inches apart, but we should hesitate about plant- ing such varieties as the Blush, White Elephant, etc., less than a foot or 14 inches apart. — E. S. C] "Deep planting in the soil described allows double setting of the tubers ; often triple sets are found — one at the bottom of the trench, one at the top, and one between these. The largest yields can never be obtained where there is ne- glect of any of the essentials of success in the culture. I cultivate well before the plants appear, and as little as possible afterward. Too much after culture is a serious injury to the potato, and will largely reduce the product. My purpose has been to test the economic part of the problem, and so far the heavier use of fertilizers has been best. I find that fewer acres and more manure, accompanied with a careful study of the requirements of successful culture, afford better results than the cultivation of a large area with a smaller average yield. " Mr. Carman is doing a good work and will come out successful in the potato contest. Should this coming season be favorable, I will invite Mr. Terry to see a few potatoes. Should there be failure from any cause, I will^cheerfully chronicle my defeat.'' CHAPTER v.. Some Heavy Yields by the Trench Method, IN 1888 an offer (through the paper I then controlled) of some thing over ^1,000 (in sums of ^150 and less) was made to the wives of American farmers for the largest yields of potatoes to be produced on not less than one-fortieth of an acre. The en- terprise was known as the Women's National Potato Contest, and the interest shown from the outset until the close was certainly- worthy of the name. There were over one thousand entries. Nearly ail of the prizes for the heaviest yields were awarded to those who adopted the trench system, and the crops, as figured per acre, ranged from 1,062 bushels (the highest) to something over 300 bushels. The first prize (one- twentieth of an acre) was awarded to Mrs. Selinda E, Jones, of Chautauqua county, N. Y., and the variety of potato was the White Elephant or Late Beauty of Hebron — they are the same. The yield was S?>t2 bushels — 2,735 pounds of marketable and 450 pounds of unmarketable potatoes, or at the rate of 1,061% bushels to the acre. The second prize was awarded to Mrs. Eliza Day, of Johnson county, Wyoming. The plot was one-twentieth of an acre — variety Early Vermont, yield 48 bushels 33 pounds of marketable, and two bushels 14 j^ pounds of unmarketable, or at the rate of 1,01 5A bush- els to the acre. , The third prize was awarded to Miss Mary Rusk, of Madison county, Illinois. The plot was one-fortieth of an acre, or thirty- three feet square ; the variety was Chicago Market, and the total yield was 24 bushels and 16 pounds, or at the rate of 970.66 bushels to the acre. (39) 40 The New Potato Culture. The fourth prize was awarded Miss Emma Hissam, of Steele county, Minnesota. The area was one-twentieth of an acre, variety Late Rose; yield 46 bushels, one peck, or at the rate of 925 bushels to the acre. The fifth prize was awarded to Mrs. M. T, Covell, of Erie county, Ohio. The area was one-fortieth of an acre ; varieties Green Mountain and Rural Blush; the yield was 1,380 pounds, or at the rate of 920 bushels to the acre. The sixth prize was won by Mrs. Agnes C. Cameron, of Texas county, Missouri. The area was one-fortieth of an acre ; the va- rieties Rural Blush and Beauty of Hebron ; the yield 1,282, of which 1,260 pounds were marketable, or, at the rate of 854% bushels to the acre. The seventh prize, and the last we need here record, was awarded to Mrs. Mary E. Warren, of Fairfield county, Connecticut. The area was one-fortieth of an acre, the variety White Flower ; the yield (total) was 1,215 pounds, or twenty bushels and one peck, being at the rate of 810 bushels per acre. THE TRENCH SYSTEM FINALLY GIVES 738 BUSHELS TO THE ACRE. Contemporaneously with the above recorded Women's Contest, though announced afterwards, another was being conducted by the owners of the America^i Agricultio'ist^ supported by a number of en- terprising firms. The prescribed area was not less than an acre or, if less than an acre, no allowance was to be made for the shortage. The first prize, ^1,100, was awarded to Mr. C. B. Coy, of Presque Island, Maine. The crop was raised in strict accordance with the trench system, as will appear by the following note in reply to my inquiry : January 10, i8go. Dear Sir : I was induced to use the trench system in planting my prize acre by seeing a report of some very large yields raised by that method, in the Bowker "Fertilizer company's hand-book. The large yields I refer to were raised by you on the Rural Experiment Grounds, I shall plant all my potatoes that way another year. I think the system a grand success. Presqiie Isle, Maine. Chas. B. Coy. The yield was 738 bushels on the acre, or rather it was a fraction Some Heavy Yields. 4^ less than an acre, tne exact deficit having escaped my memory. The particulars, in so far as they need be stated, were as follows : Eleven hundred pounds of the Stockbridge potato manure were scattered along the bottom of the trenches, after they had been laid off for the seed, and were well mixed with the earth in and about the trenches by hand with the hoe before planting. The balance (gco pounds) was applied June 12th at the time of the first hoeing, etc. The land was laid off in trenches two feet nine inches apart. The seed was dropped 12 inches apart. It was covered by the hoe to a depth of two or three inches. Only such tubers were selected for seed as had strong, green sprouts at the time of planting. The seed was taken from the cellar about six weeks before plant- ing and spread thinly on the floor of a dry and warm room in the house. There is nothing else in the cultivation of this magnificent crop that needs to be noted except that the acre was plowed during the preceding summer (August) ; again plowed (cross-plowed) the next spring and thoroughly harrowed two weeks after. The variety raised was Dakota Red. CHAPTER V Conservation of M)isture — Importance of Rainfall — Ineffective ness of American Experiment Station WorJi. ABOUT the time that the proposed Women's National Potato Contest was being discussed, Dr. Lawes, the world-renowned experimenter of Rothamsted, England, favored me with the following brief but suggestive letter. As another and more lengthy communication appears from this grand man — to whom the entire world is under a load of indebtedness, which it but imperfectly recognizes at present, but which it surely will more adequately recog- nize in the future — I may be pardoned for saying that it was through my repeated solicitations that he was first induced to write for the American farm press, and that it was to his work and influence more than to all other causes that I was induced to commence experiment work — experiment stations were then virtually unknown in America — the results, in so far as potatoes are concerned, being for the most part placed before the reader in this book. I am by no means alone in assuming that it was in a great measure owing to the publicity thus given to farm experimentation in this country that, let my own parti- cipation be reckoned, as it should be, of comparative insignificance, governmental action in favor of State stations was precipitated. Up to this time, however, these experiment stations have been of trifling service to the people they are intended to help, and, it may well be feared, they never will be of service at all proportionate to their cost until their fundamental weakness is recognized and repaired. The director is, as a rule, chosen through political influence, with little re- gard to his fitness for the position. His assistants are appointed not because they are capable men, but because they are available men (42) The Iinporta7ice of Water. ^3 who, out of employment, are glad to accept of salaries which capable men could not afford to accept. Their tenure of office is, from the na ture of the case, uncertain, and it is soon ascertained that the reward of devoted services is, if not gobbled up by their superior, at least un- duly shared with him. The few exceptions to this disheartening state of things, made by bright, ambitious young fellows, soon lead to better offers from agricultural colleges or other (for the time) better conducted stations, and the promising young fellows quit the work which is but fairly begun, to plunge into work of a necessarily different character owing to the needs of a different locality, soil and climate. Necessarily, therefore, while such a state of things exists, there is little hope that the station employees of this country may ever work out those or cognate problems which, at Rothamsted during the past forty-five years, have received the patient, unremitting study and toil of trained hands, enthusiastic hearts and competent heads. IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO THE POTATO CROP. "If you want to grow large crops of potatoes you must be liberal in your supply of water as well as of food. The following table will give you some idea of the importance of rainfall even when the pota- toes have abundance of food. We grow potatoes continually upon the same land, using the same manures, viz : 300 pounds of sulphate of potash, soda, magnesia, superphosphate, with, in one experiment, 400 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, and in another, 550 pounds of nitrate of soda. The potash and phosphate are in excess of the requirements of the largest crop grown, so they are accumulating in the soil. The nitrogen is also largely in excess of what the crop takes up, but this does not accumulate. Rainfall in inches May to October, 5 7nos. Bushels per acre. 1881, I3>^. 482 1882, 12)^. 387 1883, 13. 401 1884, 9. 222 " In 188 1 the rainfall was better distributed over the season than it was in 1883. Of course, I do not advocate the use of irrigation unless for the purpose of experiment, but merely wish to point out how im- 44 The New Potato Culture, portant an abundant supply of rain is. The rainfall last year was fairly abundant for all other crops, but not for the potato. "J. B. Lawes." Sir J. B. Lawes's letter, received at a time when hundreds were pre- paring to try the new method, seemed to emphasize the importance of any kind of culture which gave promise of a conservation of moist- ure. THE TRENCH METHOD OF CONSERVING MOISTURE, The potato plant, before the tubers begin to form, never suffers from drought any more than do young corn plants ; but when the tubers are forming, their supply of moisture must be unfailing, or a check in their growth must follow — and a check means a small crop, or, if growth should be resumed, a prongy crop. We would ask our readers to compare the weight of the tubers produced by a given plant and the weight of the haulm (stems and leaves) of that plant. The tubers must grow and mature during a few weeks. They are nearly three-quarters water, and the leaves and stems and fibrous roots, which together generally weigh less than the potatoes, are taxed to their utmost to supply this water and the food it holds. It does not matter in the least how rich the soil is, without moisture the food is unavailable. We have already explained how the " trench " system is supposed to conserve moi.sture. We wish now to urge our readers also to try, at least in one trench, the effects of mulching. In our early tests, given in detail further on, the mulched trenches in- creased the yield over the unmulched trenches 88 bushels per acre, both fertilized with essentially the same quantity and kind of fertili- zers. Two inches of cut straw, coarse hay, or wheat, rye, barley or oat chaff, will serve the purpose, and if by its use, the yield can be increased during dry seasons our farmers may well afford to apply it. The drawback is that it is impossible to predict whether the season will be wet or dry. The trench system will be found not to require the additional labor and expense that many suppose. But in the other case, if the in- creased yield will more than repay the cost, why not adopt it ? Let every one of our farmer or gardener readers bury his incredulity or prejudices for the once, and give the method a careful, exact trial. The Iinporia7ice of Water. 45 A common plow may be used to form the trenches by plowing both ways, forming an open or dead furrow — or a shovel or listing plow may be used. Let the bottom of the trenches be 10 inches wide at least. This bottom should be mellowed, and the seed potatoes placed one foot apart. Cover them with two inches or more of soil. Then apply the mulch, scattering it evetily over the surface-soil of the trench, and then sow the complete potato fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds (or more) to the acre. Finally, fill the trench as lightly as possible with the return soil, and give level cultivation. OBJECTIONS TO THE TRENCH. Several friends, as did Mr. Terry, have asked this question : " If I thoroughly prepare my field so that all of it is the same as the trench, what would be the use of plowing a trench ?" There would be no use whatever in so far as the mellowness of the soil could increase the crop. The trench, however, would still enable the farmer to place the fertilizer just where it is most needed for that crop and it would further enable him to plant deeper, a consideration, as we believe, of the first importance. In practice, however, it may be repeated, we have never seen a field so well prepared that plowing a trench and re- filling it would not still further mellow the soil. Again, the objection to the trench and to level culture has been made that more tubers become exposed to the air, becoming green and worthless. Such an objection will never be made by those who have given it a thorough trial. Having plenty of soil in which to form without being crowded, they rarely grow above the soil. Another ob- jection is that it costs more to harvest trench than hill potatoes, an objection that is valid enough if the increased yield from the trenches is not enough to pay for the extra labor. It is not the work that a farmer puts on his crops, neither is it the cost of the manure that must first be taken into account. The question is, " will it pay f Treading on the seed-piece after it has been dropped into the hill or drill is approved of by many thorough-going farmers because it in- sures a closer contact of the piece with the soil. But this is quite at variance with our ideas of trench culture. If the design were to smash the piece of potato or to injure the eyes, it would be more or less effective, no doubt. If the roots grew out of the potato there 46 The New Potato Culture, might be some sense in it. But the soil has nothing to do with the starting of the roots any further than it provides moisture. The roots grow out of the stem which is for a time supported by the seed potato itself. The sprout, shoot or stem makes its way through the soil, and the contact of the mellowest soil is sufBciently close. To keep it mellow — not to compact it — is the problem, and this problem is solved more nearly,, in our opinion, by the trench than by any other method of potato culture known to-day. CHAPTER VII. Experiments with Different Fertili:(^ers on Potatoes. FIRST SEASON. THESE tests with different fertilizers, and with various combi- nations of them, seem to the writer to be as instructive as any similar experiments can be that are not repeated from year to year. Many experiments of this kind are altogether contradictory, for the reason, probably, that the soil in which they are made is not so far impoverished that they will show what food is really needed. Many farmers who have tried plain superphosphates alone, raw bone alone, or potash alone, or any two, will see from these tests that they ought not condemn so-called chemical fertilizers because any one, or even any two, should fail to give a marked increase of crop. If a soil needs all kinds of plant food and is supplied with but one, no matter how large the quantity may be, the crops will not be materially benefited. Thus it will be seen that m these tests, potash alone did no good ; dissolved burnt bone, which furnishes phosphoric acid only, did no good. Nitrogen increased the growth of the vines, which, for want of potash and phosphoric acid in the soil, gave, it is assumed, no increase of tubers. But the complete fertilizers— those which fur- nish all three — gave an increase of crop in every case. Study this question, farmers. It will pay you to do so. If you don't know what your land needs, use complete fertilizers, with a fair per cent, of the three essential constituents, until you find out. You CAN find out by making just such experiments as those which are given. When we hear farmers say that they have tried kainit, or superphos- phate, or sulphate or muriate of potash, without the slightest effect, we earnestly desire to explain the thing to them as we ourselves un- (47) 48 The New Potato Culture. derstand it. Let it be borne in mind that five tons, or a greater or less amount, of potash or plain superphosphate of Hme, or both, might be spread upon an acre without any result. But let us even the next season, or possibly ten years afterwards, supply nitrate of soda or salts of ammonia plentifully, and the farmer would no longer say that fertilizers were worthless upon his soil. Plants, like human creatures, need a complete food, and if the soil does not supply it, we must feed the soil with the deficient element. If the soil from exhaustion needs every element, we must supply a " complete " food, complete in the quantity as well as in the number of food components. Let us further consider that farm manure, aside from its mechan- ical effects, is precisely the same as the so-called concentrated ferti- lizers, except that it is less soluble. That is to say, if we could burn farm manure, and still preserve all of its nitrogen, the ashes would show just exactly what we may furnish \.::> the land in chemical fertili- zers. It is very plain, however, that the mechanical effects of bulky manure can never be supplied by fertilizers. We are not, just now, advocating the use of fertilizers at all — neither are we discussing the question as to whether, at their present price, we can afford to use them. We merely wish to show that they do furnish the elements of food to plants the same as stable or farm manure or composts of leaves, muck, straw or any other sub- stance furnishes them, and that we have but to supply the elements which our soil needs to render it fertile. As shown in the tests given in detail as we proceed, there is in the main no positive contradiction in the results. All the plots tell, if averages be considered, about the same story, and that is, that this particular worn-out .loam needs complete fertilizer — that is, phos- phoric acid, potash and nitrogen. Nitrogen alone, while it gave greater growth of tops of a deeper green color than the others, could not sustain the plants to a full maturity. The tops therefore died, and the yield was poor. The disparities between individual plots are such as may be looked for in any system of experimentation that is not carried on for years in succession in the same way and upon the same soil. Plot 27, which gives by far the greatest yield, received less fertili- zer than either plots 12 or 17. It may reasonably be concluded, therefore, that this is owing to the two inches of short-cut timothy Experi7neiits zvith Different Fertilizers. 49 hay which was spread as a mulch. The pieces were covered, as were all the others, with two inches of soil. Upon this the hay was evenly spread across the trench, and upon the hay 500 pounds (per acre) of potato fertilizer and 50 pounds of kainit were strewn. The early part of the season was so dry that it was thought that all of the potatoes received a check. It was then, no doubt, that the mulch of hay per- formed its best service. These experiments were designed to test the effects of the various concentrated constituents of which commercial fertilizers are com- posed, separately and in various combinations. The soil of the plots selected was, as stated, a worn out sandy loam, level and naturally well drained. There was no air stirring to interfere with the even distribution of the fertilizers ; the soil was mellow and moist without being wet, and with ample assistance the entire work of sowing the fertilizers, planting and finishing the plots, was accomplished between 7 in the morning and sunset of April 14th. The seed had been cut several days previously, the White Star having been selected as, by its season of maturing, keeping qualities and vigor, well suited to such tests. Potatoes of nearly the same size were cut in halves lengthwise, the seed end of each having been cut off and rejected. The seed conditions were made still more equal by using the same weight of seed pieces to each plot. Trenches had been dug several days previously, two spades wide and six inches deep — the trenches six feet apart so that the roots of one trench should not reach and feed upon the fertilizer of the adjacent trenches. Later, two inches of soil were raked into the trenches, and upon this the pieces (cut surface down) were placed one foot apstrt, April 14th, as stated above. Two inches of the soil were raked over them and the different fertilizers applied as shown in the table further on. As regards the yield per acre, the two extremes may be given — first, the mulched plot (No. 27) which received fertilizer and kainit ; and, second, the average yield of the plots not fertilized. It must be borne in mind that the trenches were six feet apart. Very likely they would have yielded nearly as well had they been three feet apart, the dis- tance usually allowed. At six feet apart the yield of the mulched plot (No. 27) was at the rate of 172.33 bushels to the acre, or 344.66, were the yield to be estimated from trenches three feet apart, which, for ready comparison with the later trials, has been preferred. 50 The New Potato Culture. The average yield of the plots 7iot fertilized, at six feet apart, was at the rate of 69.66 bushels to the acre — or had the trenches been three feet apart, double that amount, or 139.32 bushels to the acre. If we take the average yield of all the plots which did not receive "complete" fertilizers, we find it to be at six feet apart at the rate of 79.75 bushels to the acre — or at three feet apart 159.50 to the acre. The special fertilizer therefore increased the yield, only 10 bushels to the acre, if we reckon at six feet apart ; and 20 bushels, if at three feet apart, as compared with the jiatural soil ; while the complete fertilizer and hay mulch increased the yield, over the natural soil, 102.69 bushels to the acre, if planted six feet apart, and 205.38 bushels to the acre, if planted three feet apart. With the complete fertilizer (potash, nitrogen and phosphoric acid) and zvithoiit the hay mulch (plot No. 17), the yield was increased over the natural soil or unfertil- ized plots, 58.67 bushels to the acre at six feet, and at three feet 117.34 bushels to the acre. With the complete fertilizer of plot No. 12 the yield was increased 38.50 bushels if planted six feet apart, and 77 bushels if three feet apart. POTATO FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS. Showing the comparative yield per acre, the fertilizers used, and the relative size of vines. Fertilizer. Vine Bus. of FERTILIZER USED. Pounds per Growth potatoes acre. June i6. to acre. No. I. Nitrate of soda 200 9 124 66 No. 2. Sulphate of ammonia 120 8.50 124.66 No. 3. Dissolved bone-black 400 5 122.83 No. 4. No fertilizer 5 100.83 No. 5. Sulphate of potash (50 per cent.) .. 300 5.50 154.00 No, 6. Plaster 400 5.50 141. 16 Experiments imth Differ e7it Fertilizers. 51 Fertilizer. Vtne Bus. of FERTILIZER USED. Pounds per Growth Potatoes acre. June i6. to acre. No. 7. Lime 2,000 6 161.83 No. 8. Nitrate of soda •. 200 Dissolved bone-black \ 400 9 170.50 No. 9 No fertilizer .... : 5 135.66 No. 10. Nitrate of soda i 200 Sulphate of potash \ 300 9 232.83 No. II. Dissolved bone-black ; 400 Sulphate of potash S 300 5.50 174,16 No. 12. Nitrate of soda 1 200 Dissolved bone-black . • \- 400 10 216.33 Sulphate of potash j 300 No. 13. Fine ground bone 1,000 6.50 157.66 (No plots between Nos. 13 and 16) No. 16. No fertilizer 5 172.33 No. 17. Mapes potato manure 800 10 256.66 No. 18. Farm manure, two years old 20,000 8 221.' No. 19. No fertilizer 5 141. if No. 20. Sifted coal-ashes 40 bus. 5 141. 16 No. 21. Kainit 880 lbs. 5-5o 159.50 No. 22. Kainit 1,760 5.50 188.83 No. 23. No fertilizer 5.50 154.00 52 The New Potato Culture. Fertilizer. Vine Bus. of FERTILIZER USED. Pounds per Growth, potatoes acre. June i6. to acre. No. 24. Unleached wood-ashes from burnt brush 41^ bus. 5.50 165.00 No. 25. Hen manure 55 bus. 9 176.00 No. 26. No fertilizer 5 154.00 No. 27. Mapes potato manure \ 500 lbs. Kainit V 50 8 344. 66 Hay mulch ) — It must be explained that the "vine growth" as exhibited in the second column of the preceding table is intended to show the size and vigor of the plants as they appeared at the time noted, June 16. Such observations have been carefully made in most of these potato experiments, the aim being to see in how far the yield of tubers ac- cords with the growth of vine. Ten is the number to denote the maximum of vigor, lower numbers indicating less vigor and size. It has been found a very trustworthy way of guessing at the yield ; that is to say, the yield of tubers is generally proportionate to the develop- ment of the vines.* SECOND year's TRIAL ON DIFFERENT LAND WITH THE SAME FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZER CONSTITUENTS. Here we have a soil that will not "grow beans," or even a good crop of weeds without manure. Though cropped year after year, this part of the field has received neither fertilizers nor manure for many years. It was, therefore, very hungry, and ready to show its' appreciation of a full meal, which rich soils never do. What did the soil need, was the question again asked ? Was it bone, or potash, or .-immonia — one;, two or three ? Would ashes or hen manure or farm *The potato fertilizer used (Mapes) had the following guaranteed analysis : 1.46 Nitrate soda. .85 Ammonia. 1.60 Organic. 3.90 Soluble phosphoric acid. | 4.32 Reverted " " Potash 7.32. 2.54 Insoluble " " | Experiments with Different Fertilizers. 53 manure or plaster give a good crop ? Would fertilizer give a larger crop than manure ? Would ground fish yield a good crop ? Would nitrogen alone in excess help the crop ? Would a large quantity of nitrogen alone produce a paying crop ? Would phosphoric acid or potash, or the two combined, prove sufficient for a profitable crop ? Could a well balanced "complete" manure for potatoes be made from dissolved rock, nitrate of soda and muriate of potash ? How would the same compare with the highest priced " complete" potato manure offered by dealers ? All these questions we hoped to answer by this series of experiments. The land was plowed April 10. The work of planting was begun at eight o'clock, April 14, and finished at 5.30, three men being em- ployed. The " Calico" potato (a seedling of my own) an early va- riety, was the "seed" planted. In the previous year's trial it was the White Star, as noted — an intermediate kind. There was, as in the previous trial, scarcely a breath of air moving to interfere with the even distribution of the fertilizers. The season was favorable to a maximum yield from first to last. In the following, as in the preceding tables, the heavy lines show the rate of yield per acre and are drawn to a scale — one-eighth of an inch representing 10 bushels — one inch equal to 80 bushels. All the potatoes were weighed, regardless of size, and 60 pounds rated as a bushel. Pounds Vine Groivth Yield Plots. Fertilizer. applied May 27, bushels per acre. 10 maximum, per acre. No. I. Nitrate of soda 200 3 141 No. x\. Natural soil 2 88 No. 2. Sulphate of ammonia 120 4 132 Fo. 3. Dissolved bone-black 400 4 103 No. 4. Natural soil 2 97 No, 5. Sulphate of potash 300 2 95 54 The New Potato Otlture. Pounds Vine Growth Yield Plots. Fertilizer. applied May 2y, bushels per acre. lo maximuni. per acre No. 6. Plaster 400 i go No. 7. Natural soil 2 68 T^T Q i Nitrate of soda 200 ) No. 8. -^ \ 2. no ( Dissolved bone-black 400 No. g. Farm manure, two years old 20,000 4 147 T.T \ Nitrate of soda 200 ) No. 10. -] \ 7. go ( Sulphate of potash ^00 ) No. II. Sulphate of potash 300 j Dissolved bone-black , 400 \ \ Sulphate of potash 300 ) 2 ai i Nitrate of soda , 200 No. 12. -| Dissolved bone-black 400 ^3 84 ' Sulphate of potash 300 This plot was affected by the roots of a tree. No. 13. Raw bone 1,000 4 77 No. 14. Farm manure, two years old 20,000 4 100 No, 15. Natural soil i 5g No. 16. Hen manure 1,440 4 81 No. 17. Mapes' potato manure 800 g 176 No. 18. Farm manure, two years old 20,000 6 i6g No. ig. Mapes' potato manure 1,200 g 273 ( Acid phosphate 700 \ No. 20. - Nitrate of soda 200 I 6 156 ' Muriate of potash 120 ) Experiments with Different Fertilizers . 55 Pounds Vine Growth Yield Plots. Fertilizer. applied May 2j, biishrls per acre. lo maximum, per acre. No. 21. Acid phosphate 700 3 no ,T. ( Nitrate of soda 210^ ^ ^^^ No. 22. - , r 3 139 ( Muriate of potash 120 ) No. 23. Ground fish 400 7 124 No. 24. ]N'[apes' potato manure 1,200 8 323 The seed pieces mulched with old straw, Rural trench mulch system. No. 25. Natural soil 2 59 No. 26. Hen manure 2,880 7 147 i Blood \ No. 27. ■] Nitrate of soda !- 1,100 8 183 ' Sulphate of ammonia ' No. 28. Mapes' potato manure, 1,200 lbs., with the following nitrogen mixture added : Blood 1 Nitrate of soda \ ^ ^^ ^^- \ 600 10 235 Sulphate of ammonia J Mulch was used same as 24. No. 29. Same as 28, except that a mulch of 1 old straw was spread over seed \ 8 224 pieces J COMPARATIVE AVERAGE YIE'LDS. , Average yield of the trenches with neither manure nor fertilizer : 74 bushels per acre. 56 The New Potato Culture. Average yield of the trenches with incomplete fertilizers : 112 bushels per acre. Average yield of the trenches with hen manure : Average yield of the trenches with ground fish Average yield of the trenches with farm manure 114 bushels per acre 24 bushels per acre. 139 bushels per acre. Average yield of the trenches with complete potato fertilizer : 22-1 bushels per acre. The largest yield was given by trench No. 24, which received the complete fertilizer and a mulch of old straw which had been exposed to the weather during the entire winter. This was spread two inches deep in the trench directly on the potato pieces after they had been covered with an inch of soil and the fertilizer used for that trench. The yield was at the rate of 323 bushels to the acre, or 50 bushels more than where the same quantity of the same fertilizer was used without mulch in trench No. 18. When, however, the trenches Nos. 28 and No. 29 are compared, it appears that the mulch did not in- crease the yield. While in trench No. 27 an excessive dressing of ni- trogen alone (in three forms) seems to have raised the yield log bushels per acre over the natural soil yield, it seems to have lessened the yield when added to the complete fertilizer 44 bushels, as com- pared with trench ig. While, therefore, an excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizers alone may be supposed to increase the yield by acting upon the latent potash and phosphate of the soil, an over-dose in addition to an ample supply of complete fertilizer seems to be in- jurious. While it is plai'n that this series of experiments, as do the first series, show that a complete fertilizer alone will produce a maximum crop in this soil, the action of partial fertilizers is in some cases con- tradictory and in maii\' cases 11 . Sulphate potash 300 " j 13. Raw-bone 1,000 " 14. N. Y. manure forked in the bot- tom of the trench and the seed- pieces placed on top 10 tons 15 No manure 00 lbs, 16. Hen manure ...2,640 " 17. Mapes's potato manure 3oo " 18. N. Y. manure spread on the top of the covered seed-pieces. (Mulch system) 10 tons ig. Mapes's potato manure (ammonia 4.50; phosphoric acid, 8.00; potash, 6.00) 1,200 lbs. 20. Acid (S. C. rock) phosphate. . . . 700 " "j Nitrate soda 200 ' ' [• Muriate potash 120 " I 21. Acid phosphate 700 ' ' Yield bushels per acre. 235 256 30 f 266 242 272 225 260 354 433 • 376 245 348 290 280 272 323 332 348 511 381 229 Experiments with Diffej-ent Fertilizers. 59 24. Pounds fertilizer per acre. Nitrate soda 200 ' ' ) Muriate potash 120 " ' Nitrogen mixture, viz : equal parts sulphate of ammonia, nitrate soda and dried blood, 200 pounds of each, per acre, was spread on top the seed- pieces after they had been lightly covered with soil, and 10 tons N. Y. stable manure spread on top of this for a mulch No manure Floats (finest S. C. rock) .' 1,000 lbs. Peruvian guano 400 " Hen manure 5, 280 ' ' No manure Y'ield bushels per acre. 323 476 269 289 264 363 246 AVERAGES. No manure plots average 253 Single chemical constituents 263 Two " " 324 Three " " 364 Potato fertilizer 421 Stable manure • 354 Hen manure • • • 343 Fish 323 THE PROMISE OF YIELD AS INDICATED BY THE VINES JUNE 27TH. As in preceding years, we rated the growth and general appearance of the vines, with the view to ascertaining in what degree the yield of potatoes would correspond with the promise thus indicated. Ten (10) is the hi^hQ^i possible rating. 6o The Neiv Potato Odture. Plot I Rated 2 tV^ ... " 2 2 " ^ " 5 A ... ' ' 2 6 " 2 7 " 2 8 ' ' A 9 " 5 lO ' ' A II " 3 " K T 3 ... " 4 14 " 4 Plot 15 Rated 3 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 One often hears of immense tops, and yet a very small yield. This has occurred in my pxptnience, though in more fertile soil ; first, when large quantities of unleached ashes were used, and, second, when farm manure alone was used, plowed under the preceding fall. With well balanced chemical fertilizers alone it has never occurred ; indeed we believe, though we do not know, that with well balanced complete fertilizers a heavy growth of tops is an almost unfailing indication of a large crop of tubers, even though as high as two tons of fertilizer to the acre be used. THE LAND. The land of the plots was, as is plainly shown by the good yields without manure, much more fertile than that of the plots experimented with in previous years. The change was made because there seemed no longer any reason for continuing the poorer land trials, since the result of two seasons of trial proved beyond a doubt that the soil needed all kinds of plant food, and that a decidedly increased yield could not be secured without them. They were therefore given up in favor of richer land, though of the same character, a loam inclining a trifle to sand rather than to clay. It will be seen that the results are variable, though complete ferti- Experiments with Different Fertilizers. 6i lizers still give largely increased yields over special constituents, and the valuable lesson taught in this case, as in the previous trials, is that for potatoes, it pays well on this land to use them in preference to partial fertilizers or even to hen, fish or stable manure. The manure was from New York stables, well decomposed, and of apparently ex cellent quality. The Peruvian guano contained an undue weight of stones and we do not regard the trial as a fair one. The variableness of the yields is probably due in a measure to two causes, viz : (i) po- tatoes were raised upon the same land the year before, fertilized in the drill, and (2) corn was raised two years before, manured in the hill. A LETTER FROM SIR J. B. LAWES RESPECTING THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FERTILIZERS. Having presented the results of our own experiments touching this very important question in regard to the effects of fertilizers (complete and special or partial) on the growth of potatoes, I may conclude the subject with the following valuable communication which I have re- ceived from Sir J. B. Lawes, of Rothamsted, England : "Although I consider that the use of complete artificial manures involves 100 great a cost for their employment in the growth of ordi- nary farm crops, perhaps an exception may be made in regard to potatoes, a crop which requires a large supply of both potash and nitrogen. "At Rothamsted, we have grown nine crops of potatoes in suc- cession upon land which for 16 years previously had received no yard manure, and the average yield of the last three crops has been 400 bushels per acre, calculating the bushel to weigh 50 pounds. The manure used each year has been 300 pounds of sulphate of potash, 350 pounds of superphosphate of lime, and 400 pounds of salts of am- monia, while in another experiment, instead of the salts of ammonia, 540 pounds of nitrate of soda were applied. The produce from both manures has been almost identical. "The sulphate oi potash supplies about 130 pounds of potash — and we find very nearly the same amount in the crop. The phosphoric acid, on the other hand, is much in excess of the requirements of the crop, and it might be reduced one-half. The salts of ammonia and the nitrnte each supply about the same amount of nitrogen — 87 pounds 62 The New Potato Ctdtiire. and of this the crop does not take up more than 50 pounds ; there is, apparently, therefore, a considerable loss of this substance ; but, at the same time, any reduction in the amount of these manures would be followed by a reduction in the crop. The loss of this costly manure ingredient is a most serious matter, as unfortunately there is but little prospect of recovering, in succeeding crops, any appreciable amount of the 37 pounds not taken up by the first. By means of the same mineral manures alone, we have grown — over the same period — one half the crop we obtained by the application of minerals with nitrogen, the soil having supplied a sufficient amount of that substance to give a product of 200 bushels ; but one-half of the minerals applied remained inactive in the soil ; these, however, might be made available to the crop by an application of nitrogen. " The quantity of potash removed in potatoes is very large. In the 400 bushels it amounts to about 130 pounds. Compare this with the amount removed by animals. An ox, weighing 1,400 pounds, which was killed for the purpose of analysis, contained only two and one-half pounds, in the whole carcass and offal. Hay is another crop which takes a good deal of potash from the soil, and farmers in England rarely grow either hay or potatoes for sale, unless there are facilities for the purchase of town dung. Artificial manures are certainly not used alone, by practical farmers, in the growth of their crops. "In our experiment field, the character of the manures is always represented in the stems and leaves of the plant. Ammonia and ni- trate, without minerals, give a low stem and greenish-brown leaves, which in the evening appear almost black. Minerals without nitro- gen, give a thin, low stem and yellowish-green leaves, while miner- als and nitrogen together give a luxuriant, and sometimes an over- luxuriant, stem with leaves of a bright green. There is no difficulty in accounting for these peculiarities. A plant takes up whatever food is most abundant in the soil, with the hope, as I sometimes put it, that sooner or later it may find the food which suits it best. In the dark green leaves the nitrogen is in excess, but starch cannot be formed without potash, and the supplies of potash are not sufficient to use up the nitrogen. It is far more easy to change yellowish- green of the mineral-manured potatoes into a dark green, than it is to lighten tlie color of potatoes which receive nitrogen ; a solution of nit'"'-^ of soda will effect the one in a very few days, but as both Experiments ivith Different Fertilizers. 63 potash and phosphoric acid form insoluble compounds with the soil, they are much more slowly taken up by plants. "We always, however, obtain a larger crop of potatoes where we apply the mineral manures alone, than where we apply the nitrogen without the minerals, though in the next field, salts of ammonia, ap- plied without minerals for 39 years in succession, have grown larger crops of wheat over the whole period than mineral manures with- out ammonia. To explain this apparent inconsistency we must con- sider the great difference in character of the two crops. "Wheat in England is sown in the autumn, and being a deep- rooted plant, it has a greater range of soil to obtain a supply of min- eral food than the spring-sown potato. The relation between the potash and the phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the two crops is also very different. In the wheat crops grown by salts of ammonia alone, mixed samples, taken over a period of 10 years, give the products per acre of the total crop — straw and grain — as follows : nitrogen, 36 pounds ; potash, 23 pounds ; phosphoric acid, 13 pounds. The rela- tion, therefore, between these two important minerals and nitrogen is as I to I. " In the potato crop, on the other hand, the proportion of nitrogen to the minerals is nearly i of nitrogen to 3 of minerals, the demand upon the soil for potash bemg much greater in the case of potatoes than where wheat or barley is grown. It must be a very large wheat crop indeed which removes 50 pounds of nitrogen from the soil, but in some of our potato crops we carry off more than 100 pounds of that substance per acre. "As very few soils could furnish so large an amount as this from their own resources, when potatoes are continuously grown, it becomes necessary to furnish a supply of potash either in dung or chemical salts. The following table gives the products of the crop grown in 1883, being the ninth in succession without any change in the manures TABLE. Potatoes per acre in long to7i. Cwt. 14 tons of dung 6 Minerals without nitrogen 5 Nitrogen without minerals 3 3 Minerals and ammonia 8 19 Minerals and nitrates 8 2 64 The Nezv Potato Cidture. Amount of mineral matter and nitrogen per cent, in dry tubers. Mhieral matter. Nitrogeti. 1 3-5 109 2 3-86 0.73 3 2.64 1.47 4 3-67 i-o8 5 '■ 3-86 1.37 " The character of the manure is most clearly shown in the compo- sition of the crop. In No. 2, manured with minerals, the minerals are more than five times as high as the nitrogen ; while in No. 3, where ammonia or nitrates are used, the minerals are considerably less than double the amount of nitrogen. In both cases there is a waste of power, shown by small crops, and unused manures. The loss, however, is not equal in both cases, as the minerals remain in the soil, to be taken up at some future time, while the nitrogen is probably lost." RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED (ENGLAND^) ON THE GROWTH OF POTATOES FOR TWELVE YEARS IN SUCCESSION ON THE SAME LAND. Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Dr. Lawes's associate, in a lecture before the Royal Agricultural College speaks at considerable length on the above subject. His special object was to show the general requirements of the crop, both actually and as compared with other crops, and the actual and comparative characters and composition of the product obtained. He draws his illustrations mainly from the -results of field experi- ments on the growth of the potato by different manures, for a num- ber of years in succession on the same land, at Rothamsted, and from those of collateral investigations into the composition of the produce, made in the Rothamsted laboratory. The average produce over twelve years without manure is not quite two tons per acre ; and there was considerable decline from periodic period under this exhausting treatment. Nevertheless this low yield without manure for twelve years in succession on the same land, is about as much as the average produce under ordinary cultivation Experiments ivith Different Fertilizers. 65 in the United States, and nearly two-thirds as much as in some im- portant European countries. By superphosphate of Hme alone, the produce is raised from an average of scarcely two, to nearly 3^ tons ; that is, to very little more than by the superphosphates alone. It is evident, therefore, that up to this amount of production, the character of the exhaustion induced by the growth of the crop on this land, which was, agriculturally speaking, in a somewhat exhausted condition, was much more that of available phosphoric acid than of potash, or the other bases. It is remarkable that there is much less increase of produce of potatoes by nitrogenous manures than by mineral manures alone. Thus, by ammonium salts alone there is an average produce of scarcely two tons six cwts., or only about six cwts. more than with- out manure ; and with nitrate of soda alone there is an average of only two tons i2j^ cwt. per acre. The better result by nitrate of soda than by ammonium salts is doubtless due to the nitrogenous supply being more immediately available, and more rapidly dis- tributed within the soil, and so inducing a more extended develop- ment of the feeding root. These negative results by the nitrogenous manures alone, confirm the conclusion that by the continuous growth of the crop on this land it was the valuable supply of mineral constituents within the root range of the plants, more than that of nitrogen, that became deficient. The last two lines of the table show that, with the mixed mineral manure and ammonium salts together, there was an average of about six tons 14^ cwts., and with the mixed mineral manure and the same amount of nitrogen as nitrate of soda, an average of six tons 13 cwt. ; that is, nearly twice as much as with the mineral manure alone, and much more than twice as much as with the nitrogenous manure alone. The fact is, that it is only the comparatively small proportion of the nitrogen of farm-yard manure, which is due to the liquid dejec- tions of the animals, that is in a readily and rapidly available condi- tion ; whilst that due to more or less digested matter passing in the faeces, is more slowly available, and that in the latter remains a long time inactive. Hence, the addition of nitrogen as nitrate of soda to the farm yard manure had a very marked effect. P.— 5 66 The New Potato Culture. The summary shows that the proportion of diseased tubers was file greater, the greater the amount of nitrogen supplied. Upon the whole, it is obvious that in the case of this somewhat agriculturally exhausted arable land, mineral manures alone had more effect than nitrogenous manures alone ; but that, mineral con- stituents being adequately supplied, the further addition of nitroge- nous manures was essential to obtain anything like full crops. It is of interest to observe that the amount of disease was not en- hanced by the continuous growth of the crop on the same land, as is frequently assumed to be the case. But little is definitely known of the special function of individual mineral constituents in vegetation. It is, however, pretty clearly es- tablished that the presence of potash is essential for the formation of the chief non-nitrogenous matters — starch and sugar. The pub- lished results of experiments at Rothamsted have shown that the proportion of potash in the ash of wheat was the greater, the better matured the grain — that is, the larger proportion of starch it con- tained ; and here in the potato we find a greatly increased amount of potash in the heaviest crops, that is to say, in those in which the largest amounts of starch have been formed. The accumulation of phosphoric acid, on the other hand, is more directly connected with the assimilation of nitrogen and the forma- tion of the nitrogenous compound. It will be remembered that the quantity of farm-yard manure an- nually applied per acre was estimated to contain about 200 pounds of nitrogen, besides a very large amount of mineral constituents. Yet, in no case was the increased yield of solid substance in the crop so great as was obtained by an artificial mixture of mineral and nitro- genous manure, supplying only 86 pounds of nitrogen, but in a more readily available condition. Nor was the increased assimilation of any of the individual constituents so great under the influence of the farm- yard manure, as when they wereapphed in the rapidly available condi- tion, as in the artificial mixtures. In the case of other crops it has been found that only a small por- tion of the nitrogen of farm-yard manure was taken up in the year of application. But these results seem to indicate that the potato is able to avail itself of a less proportion of the nitrogen of the manure than any other farm crop. Yet, in ordinary practice, farm -yard manureis Experiments with Differ e7it Fertilizers. 67 not only largely relied upon for potatoes, but is often api)lied in larger quantities for them than for any other crop. It is probable, that independent of its liberal supply of all necessary constituents, its beneficial effects are in a considerable degree due to its influence on the mechanical condition of the soil, rendering it more porous and easily permeable to the surface roots, upon the development of which the success of the crop so much depends. Then, again, something may be due to an increased temperature of the surface soil, en- gendered by the decomposition of so large an amount of organic matter within it ; while the carbonic acid evolved in the decomposi- tion will, with the aid of moisture, serve to render the mineral re- sources of the soil more soluble. In countries where the potato is largely grown for the manufacture of starch, the specific gravity serves as an important indication of quality. The higher the specific gravity, the greater, as a rule, is the proportion of dry matter, and the greater the proportion of starch. Indeed, tables are constructed for the calculations of the percentage of dry matter, and of starch from the specific gravity of the tubers. The general conclusion to which these calculations as to the dis- tribution of the various constituents of potato tubers leads is, that from 80 to 85 per cent., or even more, of the total nitrogen of the tu- bers may be in the juice, and that about the same proportion of the total mineral matter also may be in the juice. Further, that about the same proportion — 80 to 85 per cent. — of the total potash, and about two-thirds of the total phosphoric acid, are in the juice. And when it is borne in mind that two-thirds, or more, of the nitrogen ex- isting as albuminoids is in the juice, it is obvious that if the mode of cooking the potato is such as to exclude the constituents of the juice from the final food product, there is considerable waste of nutritive matter ; and that, indeed, the proportion of albuminoid matter in the food is exceedingly small. When potatoes are used as a mere ad- junct to an otherwise liberal diet, the general practice is to cut off the rind, and to put the peeled potatoes into cold water, by which a large proportion of the soluble albuminoid matters must be washed out, before the temperature of the water becomes sufficiently high to coagulate and fix them. A very large proportion of the potash must also be washed out under such circumstances. When, how- ever, potatoes constitute an important item in the diet, as in the ru 68 The Neiv Potato Culture. ral districts of Ireland, for example, it is usual to boil them in their skins, or, as it is said, in their jackets. Under such circumstences, certainly a much larger proportion of the albuminoid matt.er will reach the stomachs of the consumers ; and doubtless much more of the potash and phosphoric acid also. Still, it is obvious that a potato diet must be very deficient in the proportion of nutritive nitrogenous compounds. The produce of dry substance of tubers was, without manure, i>353 pounds per acre ; with purely mineral manure, 2,384 pounds ; and with the mixture of the mineral and nitrogenous manures ("complete") more than 4,000 pounds per acre. Potatoes are reckoned to contain on an average more than 21 per cent, of starch. The produce of starch per acre is 1,120 pounds without manure, and 1, 988 or nearly 2,000 pounds with purely mineral manure — that is without nitrogen. The amount with purely nitrogenous manure is not so great as that with purely mineral manure. But with both nitrogenous and mineral manure (" complete") the quantity of starch is raised to an average of about 3,400 pounds, or about i>^ ton |jer acre. CHAPTER VIH The Effects of Dijferent Quantities of FertUi:(ers and Manures. FERTILIZERS VERSUS MANURES. N NO other crop have we had such telling results from the use of chemical fertilizers, as compared with farm manure, as upon potatoes, and this has been the case during the past twelve years without any exception that is now recalled. This seems to have been the experience of many other farmers. Upon oats and corn, and vegetables of various kinds, fertilizers have occasionally failed to increase the crop, while farm manures in contigu- ous plots have produced marked effects. The experiments which we now have to record are no exceptions, though all the conditions seemed favorable to a decided and impartial test. The land (a sandy loam) had never received any chemical fertili- sers, and, for 15 years at least, no manure of any kind. Tv/o plots were measured off, one-tenth of an acre each, that is 132x33 feet. The first received three tons of stable manure, or at the rate of 30 tons to the acre in October. The seed potatoes (Great Eastern) were cut to two eyes each and planted April 22, in drills 2)4 feet apart, and 14 inches apart in the drills. Both plots were cultivated once and hoed twice, the soil being kept level without any hilling up about the plants. The yield was 24 bushels and 3 pecks, or at the rate of 247.50 bushels to the acre, of which 80 per cent, were market- able. The second plot received instead of the stable manure 200 pounds of potato fertilizer, or at the rate of one ton to the acre, the seed pieces, distance of planting and treatment being iust the same as (69) yo The New Potato Cultiire. with the fi.rs-t plot. The yield was 27 X bushels, or at the rate of 275 bushels to the acre, of which go per cent, were marketable. The po- tatoes were smoother and brighter and less injured by wire worms than those of the manure plot. The cost of the manure delivered was three dollars per ton, or nine dollars for the plot. The cost of the potato fertilizer was ^48 per ton, or ^4.80 for the plot. The guaranteed analysis of the latter was, ammonia, 4.50 to 5 per cent; phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent; potash, 6 to 8 per cent., magnesia, lime, soda, etc., forming the rest. The season was unfavorable throughout. If potatoes had been raised on the same plots the next year with- out fertilizer or manure, possibly or even probably the manured plot would have outyielded the fertilized plot, because if for no other reason, the nitrogen of the latter, being soluble, would have passed through the soil, while the farm manure would have yielded nitrogen for that and subsequent seasons. THE EFFECTS OF INCREASING QUANTITIES OF FERTILIZERS ON LAND MORE OR LESS IMPOVERISHED. What amount of potato fertilizer can I use profitably on my land for this crop ? By potato fertilizer is meant that which is sold as such by leading fertilizer manufacturers, costing from $40 to $45 per ton, and analyzing about four per cent, of nitrogen, ten per cent, of phosphoric acid, and seven per cent, of potash. It is a question which a farmer must answer for himself, and that the question may be answered it is the object of these experiments to show. My experi- ment land, as has been shown, needs all kinds of plant food. Noth- ing less than a " complete " potato fertilizer will materially increase the crop. For example, if the above fertilizer be deprived of either potash, nitrogen or phosphoric acid, no matter in how great quantities the remainder is applied, no material increase in the crop will be given. This is true of this particular land. Upon other farms, any one or two might increase the yield as much as if all were used, in which case the cost of the omitted ingredients would be saved. Whether special or complete fertilizers will prove more profitable depends entirely upon what the land needs, and this vital question is what each farmer must find out for himself. Effects of Different Quantities of Fertilizers. 71 The trenches were dug about a foot wide and four inches deep, as in most of the potato experiments herein recorded. The seed pieces were placed in the bottom, exactly a foot apart, and lightly covered with soil, and the various quantities of fertilizers as stated in the fol- lowing tables were evenly strewn in the trenches. The fertilizer used in this series of experiments was the " Stockbridge Potato Manure,' the. analysis and cost of which are approximately given above. The variety planted was the Rural Blush. FIRST SERIES. • ■• No. I. 220 pounds to the acre. The yield was at the rate of 276.83 bushels to the acre. No. 2. 440 pounds of fertilizer to the acre. Yield, 330 bushels to the acre. No. 3. 880 pounds of fertilizer. Yield, 397-83 bushels to the acre. No. 4. Natural soil. The yield was at the rate of 163.16 bushels to the acre. No. 5. 220 pounds of fertilizer to the acre (duplicate of No. i). The yield was at the rate of 245.66 bushels to the acre. No. 6. 440 pounds of fertilizer to the acre (dupUcate of No. 2). The yield was 370.33 bushels to the acre. No. 7. 880 pounds of fertilizer to the acre (duphcate of No. 3). The yield was at the rate of 476.66 bushels to the acre. Averaging the two separate trials, we have : 220 pounds fertilizer. Yield 261.24 bushels. 440 " •' " 350-16 880 " " " 437-24 Natural soil. " 162 16 It appears, then, that 220 pounds of this fertilizer strewn in the tfenches, as above explained, increased the yield over the unfertil- ized soil at the rate of 98 bushels to the acre : 440 pounds, 187 bushels ; 880 pounds, 274 bushels. The above experiments show that thus far 880 pounds of the fer- tilizer may profitably be used to the acre. How much more than that amount can be profitably used will be shown in the next trials m which the comparative results of stable manure are also given. The prom- ise of the yields, as judged by the growth and appearance of the 72 The Neiv Potato Cultiire. vines, is shown by ratings made by two persons, June 27. Ten (10), as in trials previously reported, was fixed as the highest rating. Plot I, rated June 27 (220 pounds fertilizer), 4. " 2, " " 440 " " 6. " 3, " " 880 " " 8. " 4. " " 000 " " 2. DUPLICATES. Plot 5, rated June 27 (220 pounds fertilizer), 5. " 6, " " 440 " " 7. " 7, " " 880 " " 9. SULPHATE OF IRON HARMFUL. In this experiment Williams, Clark & Co.'s potato fertilizer was used, the minimum guaranteed analysis being ammonia four per cent., soluble phosphoric acid five per cent., potash eight per cent. No. I received at the rate of 19,800 pounds of New York stable manure per acre. The yield was at the rate of 328.16 bushels to the acre. No. 2 received neither manure nor fertilizer. The yield was 212.66 bushels to the acre. No. 3 received 440 pounds of the fertilizer. The yield was 245.66. No. 4 received 880 pounds. The yield was 330 bushels. No. 5 received 880 pounds of the fertilizer and at the rate of 440 pounds to the acre of sulphate of iron. The yield was 309.83 bushels to the acre. No. 6 received 1,320 pounds of the potato fertilizer. The yield was at the rate of 388.66 bushels to the acre. No. 7 received 1,320 pounds of the potato fertilizer with 440 pounds of the sttlphate of iron. The yield was 379.50 bushels. No. 8 nothing. Yield 264.00 — the highest yield ever made in this particular soil without manure or fertilizer. No. 9 received 1,760 pounds of the potato fertilizer. Yield, 443.66. No. 10 received 2,200 pounds to the acre of the potato fertilizer. The yield was nearly the same as No. 9, viz., 443 bushels. No. 11 received 2,640 pounds. The yield was 480.33. No. 12 received at the rate of 880 pounds of the potato fertilizer and also 200 pounds of gi'ound fish, 660 pounds of kainit, 440 of bone Effects of Different Quajititcs of Fertilizers. 73 flour, and 440 pounds of nitrate of soda — 2, 640 pounds to the acre in all. With this excessive application of all kinds of plant food, but especially of nitrogen, the yield was 361.16 bushels to the acre. In this experiment the yield is profitably increased by this fertilizer up to 1,760 pounds to the acre. The tabulated figures are : 440 pounds fertilizer 245.66 bushels. 880 " " 330.00 1,320 " " 388.66 1,760 " " 443.66 " ' 2,200 " " 44300 2,640 " " 480.33 " That No. 8 without any fertilizer should have yielded more than No. 3, which received 440 pounds to the acre, cannot be accounted for. That 2,200 pounds gave no greater yield than 1,760 pounds, while 2 640 pounds largely increased the yield over either, is also in- explicable. The copperas decreased the yield in both trials. As in previous trials of the several plots, as judged by the growth and appearance of the vines, the promise of yield is shown by ratings made by two persons June 27, ten (10) being the highest. No. No. Rated Rated 3 10 10 10 1,980 lbs. stable manure. Nothing. 440 fertilizer. 880 880 1,320 " 1,320 fertilizer. 440 sulphate of iron. Nothing. 1,760 fertilizer. 2,200 2,640 " 2,640 mixed fertilizer. how much fertilizer may be profitably used tor potatoes on an impoverished soil that needs ''complete" fertilizer? The soil on which these experiments have been carried on for the past two years is so im.poverished that the yield by the most careful trench culture without fertihzer is less than 150 bushels of potatoes 74 The Nczv Potato Culture. to the acre, while paying crops of corn or vegetables of an / kind are out of the question. Fertilizer has been used from 40(j to 2,200 pounds to the acre for two seasons on this particular plot, and for four other seasons on two other fields, and the results have been essentially the same, whether the weather has been wet or dry. The variety was the Rural Blush. The season was the wettest ever known. FIRST SERIES. Plot Natural soil 161.33 bushels per acre 440 pounds fertilizer 190.66 880 " 212.66 1,320 . " 278.66 I-760 •' 330.00 2.200 " 308.00 SECOND SERIES. Plot 7. Natural soil 154.00 bushels per acre. " 8. 440 pounds fertilizer. . 187.00 9- 880 " 216.33 '' 10. 1,320 " .245.66 '" II. 1,760 " 297.00 " 12. 2.200 " 330.00 THIRD SERIES. Plot 13. Natural soil 1 17. 33 bu " 14. 440 pounds fertilizer 128.33 '' 15. 880 " 198.00 '^^ 16. 1,320 " 282.33 '•''■ 17. 1,760 " .300.00 " 18. 2.200 " 344.66 hels per acre. FOURTH SERIES. Plot 19. Natural soil 146.66 bushels per acre. ^^ 20. 440 pounds fertilizer 165. ' 21. 880 " 238.33- " 22. 1,320 " ■ 304-33 ^' 23. 1,760 " 249.33 ' 24. 2,200 " 363.00 Effect of Different Quantities of Fertilizers. 75 AVERAGES. Natural soil 144 bushels per acre. 440 pounds fertilizer 168 880 " 216 1,320 " 278 " 1,760 " 294 " " 2,200 " 336 Rot prevailed more than ever before. The rotten potatoes were not estimated. The vines were injured by the flea-beetle and died nearly one month earlier than usual. The tubers seemed to be about three-quarters of the normal size. It would seem that farmers cultivating impoverished land should learn a valuable lesson from these experiments, which have been con- ducted long enough to prove that there is a reasonable chance of raising profitable crops of potatoes by the liberal use of high-grade fertilizers. The guaranteed analysis of the fertilizer used is as follows : Ammonia 4/^ per cent. Phosphoric acid 8 to 10 " Potash 6 to 8 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT QUANTITIES OF FERTILIZERS ON POTA- TOES GROWN IN A VARIABLE SOIL. Plot 30— 220 " 36- 220 " 40— 220 " 31— 440 " 37— 440 " 41— 440 " 32— 880 " 38- 880 " 42— 880 " 33— 1,320 " 44— 1,320 " 34— 1,760 " 39- 1,760 " 43— 000 " 35— 000 pounds, yielded at the rate per acre of 258.50 bushels. 205.33 .172.33 .298.83 253- •253- .282.33 .227. 231. .228.16 ,242. .280. .242. .161.33 .132. 76 The New Potato Ctilture. SUMMARY. The average crop of the plots that did not receive any fer- tilizer was at the rate per acre of 146.66 bushels. 220 pounds gave 212.05 440 " " 268.28 880 " " 246.78 1,320 " " 285.08 1,760 " " 261. The variety planted was the Rural Blush. Some of the vines were greatly, some lightly, and a few not at all, injured by the flea-beetle. The fertilizer used was the Stockbridge potato manure. ON AN ADJACENT PLOT. These trials as to the effects of increasing amounts of fertilizers were again carried on during the past season — i8go. The season was remarkable for the amount and frequency of rainfall and for comparatively few potato beetles. Flea-beetles were less numerous and blight less destructive than during the two preceding seasons. The plots have never (so far as the writer can ascertain) received any manure or fertilizer of any kind prior to the last three years, when these potato experiments were begun on this particular land. The soil is variable, being in parts a stiff clay while in other portions it is more of a loamy character. Mapes' potato fertilizer, the analysis of which has been given, was used in quantities at the rate of from 220 to 1,760 pounds to the acre. The trenches and culture given were the same as in preceding trials, the variety Rural Blush. Plot I 6 220 pounds to the acre yield 156 bushels. " 139 " 187 " " 176 ' " " 229. 16 " " 210.83 ^ " 313 220 2— 440 7— 440 3— 880 8— 880 4 — 1,760 9 — 1,760 5 — Nothing 298.80 196.16 Effect of Different Quantities of Fcrtiiizers. 77 AVERAGES. No fertilizer gave per acre ig6. 16 tiushels. 220 pounds fertilizer gave per acre 147.50 440 " " " 181.50 880 " " " 219.99 1.760 " " " 30590 TOTAL AVERAGES. No fertilizer yielded per acre 187.77 bushels. 220 pounds fertilizer yielded 206.93 440 pounds fertilizer yielded 242. 72 880 pounds fertilizer yielded 290.00 1,320 pounds fertilizer yielded .317-25 1,760 pounds fertilizer yielded 326.14 10 tons (nearly, viz., 19,800 lbs.) stable manure yielded .328.16 30 tons stable manure yielded, in a less favorable season, 247.50 Average of stable manure 287.83 In what way is our friend, the reader, to turn the above experiments to his own advantage ? Were his land the same he would naturally reason in this wise: "The natural soil, I find, may be relied upon to give 188 bushels to the acre. To be on the safe side I will estimate their market value at 50 cents the bushel. That would give ^94 worth of potatoes to the acre. Now, 220 pounds of fertilizer costing ^4.40 (or ^40 per ton) gives an increase of 19 bushels, which at 50 cents the bushel are worth ^9.50. I am a gainer, for the use of the fertilizer, of ^9.50 per acre, less ^4.40, or ^5.10 per acre. If I use 440 pounds of fertilizer I am, by the same figuring, a gainer of $27.50. If I use 880 pounds of fertilizer I gain ^51.00 ; 1,320 pounds, $64.50 ; 1,760 pounds, $69.00, not to consider the advantage which will ac- crue to succeeding crops by excessive applications." But the chances are largely against the assumption that his land is the same, or so nearly the same, that he would be safe in adopting the above conclusions as safe to work upon. There is not one to ad- 78 The New Potato Culture. vise him wherein he should proceed differently. Analysis of his soil would not be an infallible guide. The brightest agricultural chemist in the world could give him no positive information as to the kind and quality of fertilizer which might be most economically used. Mani- festly, therefore, he must become his own teacher, and he can do this in no other more effective way than by instituting a similar set of ex- periments on his own fields, guided by the intimations which stable, farm-yard, hen or other manure, ashes or other partial manures may have in past seasons afforded. In effectually carrying on such a series of simple investigations, subsequent parts of this book may be of assistance. CHAPTER IX. Shall the Fertiliser be Placed Under or Over the Seed Pieces ? IT IS not known to the writer that any effective experiments have been made to solve this seemingly important problem. If the old way — or ordinary way — of planting potatoes be pursued, viz., placing the pieces in a shallow plow-furrow and then throwing the furrow soil back, it may have little significance one way or the other. But if the trench system be followed, there might reasonably be expect- ed a decided difference — a difference modified of course by rainfall — whether the applied food be below or above the pieces. The experi- ments were begun ten years ago for a single season, and resumed four years ago. The following plain tables will set forth the outcome up to this time. Evidently the trials should be made not only in light, medium' and heavy soils, but for many years ere an emphatic answer could reasonably be looked for. The trenches were dug about five inches deep, three feet apart, and a foot wide. The Stockbridge * potato fertilizer (880 lbs. to the acre) was spread under and over the pieces (Blush), separated from them in either case by two inches of soil. The season was favor- able, being neither too wet nor too dry. FERTILIZER UNDER. No. I, per acre 359 33 bushels. " 3. " " 31333 " 5, " ■' 412.50 " y_ " " 330.00 * The average analysis of this fertilizer is given as ammonia, five per cent , phosphoric acid, 10 per cent ; potash, six per cent. (79) 8o The New Potato Culture. No. 9, per acre 310.20 bushels. " ii> " " 335-50 " 13. " " 297 00 " 15. '■ " 392.33 " 17, " " -, 289.66 " 19, " " 289.66 3,329.51 bushels. Or at the average rate of 332.95 bushels to the acre. FERTILIZER OVER. No. 2, per acre 359.33 bushels, " 4. 339- 16 " 6, " " 33916 " 8, " " 322.66 " 10, " " 419-83 '' ^' 12, " " 322.66 " " 14, " " 311.66 " " 16, " ■' 365.00 " " 18, " " 35450 3, 133.96 bushels. Or at the average rate of 348.21 bushels of potatoes to the acre. We have thus far a difference of over 15 bushels m favor of placing the fertilizer above the seed pieces, UNDER AND OVER EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED FOR THE SECOND YEAR. The trenches were dug the same depth, viz., five inches. In the 'fertilizer itnder'' trials, the fertilizer was strewn in the bottom of the trenches and the seed pieces (Blush) placed on or in contact with the fertilizer. In the "fertilizer over'' trials, the pieces were placed in the bottom of the trenches, and the trenches filled to within one inch. The fertilizer (the same as that used in the experiments recorded above) was then strewn on this soil in the trenches, at the rate of 1,300 pounds to the acre, and the remaining inch of the trench filled in and the soil leveled. Fractions are omitted in the results. The season was wet. Fertilizer U?ider or Over the Seed Pieces. 8i Plot I, fertilizer under 293 bushels per acre. "2, " over 293 "3, " under 205 "4. " over 293 "5, " under 213 "6, " over 275 "7, " under 176 "8, " over 176 "9, " under 279 "10, " over 260 " II, " under 242 "12, " over 308 AVERAGE. Under 235 bushels per acre. Over 268 bushels per acre. SHALL THE FERTILIZER BE PLACED UNDER OR OVER THE SEED PIECES ? THIRD YEAR (1890). The trenches were dug this times six inches deep. In the "ferti- lizer under " trials, the fertiHzer was strewn in the bottom of the trenches, and the seed pieces (Rural Blush) placed on (in contact with) the fertilizer. In the "fertilizer over" trials, the pieces were placed in the bottom, as with the others, and five inches of soil were returned. Then the fertilizer was sown on this soil, the remaining soil (one inch) being replaced to fill the trench. No. fertilizer under ; yield per acre 232.83 253 " " " " 269.50 255.65 254.83 No. Average yield per acre 253. 16 2, fertilizer over ; yield per acre 214- 50 225.50 218.16 245.66 265.83 Average yield per acre , 233.93 82 The New Potato Culture. A difference in favor of placing the fertilizer imder^ of 19.23 bushels per acre. The fertilizer used in this and the preceding trial was the Mapes' potato, at the rate of 1,000 pounds to the acre. The season was wet throughout, one of the wettest remembered. IN THE SEASON OF l88g, which was also a wet season, and when the crop was thought to be lessened by the flea-beetle and blight, the average results were as fol- lows, as above recorded. Under yielded an average per acre of . . . . 235 bushels. Over " " " 268 A difference of 33 bushels per acre in favor of placing the ferti- lizer over. DURING THE SEASON OF 1888, Stockbridge potato fertilizer was used at the rate of 800 pounds to the acre, as also stated. The season was favorable as to rain-fall, it being neither too much nor too little, while the tops were not harmed by flea-beetles or blight : Under yielded an average per acre of , . . . 332.95 bushels. Over " " " .... 348.21 We have a difference of 15.26 bushels per acre in favor of placing the fertilizer over. A GENERAL SUIVL^ARY of the averages for the three years shows as follows : Fertilizer over, per acre 283.38 bushels. " under " 273.70 " Difference in favor of fertilizer over. . 9.68 '' CHAPTER X Results of Planting Potatoes in Trenches of Different ^Depths, FIRST TRIALS. THE soil of these plots, naturally variable, was made exceed- ingly so by grading, the soil from the higher parts having been carted to the lower places. It is in some parts a sandy loam, in others a clay loam, and in still other parts a stiff brick-clay, all impoverished by years of cropping without any manure of any kind. These potato experiments were in previous years made on plots of notably uniform soil, so impoverished that anything short of a "complete" fertilizer failed to materially increase the crops. This was proven so conclusively that there seemed to be no reason why the trials should be continued upon them. The following exhibit, as might well have been anticipated from the variability of the soil, seems to show that the depth of planting should be governed by the character of the soil. At the rate of 800 pounds of Stockbridge potato fertilizer was sown in the trenches after the seed pieces were lightly covered. The trenches were three feet apart, measuring in this trial, as in every other, from the middle of each. Plot 21, 4 inches deep yielded 403. 33 bushels per acre. " 23, " " " 348-33 " "27, " " " 36300 This gives an average, for four-inch deep planting, of 371-55 bushels to the acre. Plot 20, 8 inches deep yielded 38500 bushels per acre. "22, " " " 300.66 " "26, '• " " 355-66 " -29 •• •' " 311.66 •• 84 'j^he New Potato Culture. This gives an average per acre, for eight inches deep planting, of 338.24. Plot 24, 10 inches deep yielded 267.66 bushels per acre. ' 25, " " " 381.33 " 28, 384.16 This gives an average per acre, for ten-inch deep planting, of 311.05 bushels. SUMMARY. Ten-inch planting 311-05 bushels Eight-inch planting 338. 24 " Four-inch planting 371-55 The variety planted was the Rural Blush. Some of the vines were greatly, some slightly, and a few not at all injured by the flea-beetle. IN 1889, one of the wettest seasons known, the average results, much reduced by blight and the flea-beetle, were as follows : Two inches, per acre 226 bushels. Four " •' " 220 " Six " " " 185 " Eight " " " 177 " Ten " " " 148 TRIALS OF l8gO. The trenches were dug two, four, six, eight and ten inches deep, and the fertilizer was sown at the rate of 1,000 pounds to the acre in the trenches after the seed pieces had received an inch covering of soil. The fertilizer used was the Mapes potato, analyzing as follows ' Ammonia, 4.50 per cent.; phosphoric acid, eight; potash, six; the minimum quantities guaranteedc The soil of these plots is naturally poor and thin — a loam inclining rather to clay than to sand. It has never received any manure in so far as the writer has been able to learn — certainly not within the past ig years. The season was wet throughout. There were so few potato-beetles that it was necessary to apply Paris-green but once. Then it was sifted upon the vines — ■ lYi pound to 200 pounds of plaster, thoroughly mixed together on a Results of Planting at Various Depth. 85 light board floor. The mass of plaster was first spread over the floor about two mches in thickness. The poison was then as evenly as possible sifted over this. It was then mixed by the use of a steel rake, shoveled into a heap, spread out again and raked, etc., until the distribution of the poison seemed to be perfect. There were few flea- beetles and no blight, though last year on this same land, flea-beetles destroyed the vines several weeks before their time of maturity. The variety, as in all previous trials, was the Rural Blush. Bushels Inches. per acre. 2 30^- 4 297. 6 30433 8 247.50 10 276.83 No I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II. 12 13 14 ^5 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2 : 249. 4 287.83 6 302.50 8 265,83 10 : 287.83 2 260. 4 238.33 6 278.66 8 223.66 ID 269. 50 2 260. 4 261.83 6 267.66 8 227.33 10 236.50 2 280. 50 4 278.66 6 315-33 8 300. 10 240. 16 242. .293. 6 254.83 8 , • 293. 10 269.50 S6 The New Potato Culture. Bushels ' No. Biches. per acre. 31- 2 .. 258.33 32- 4 284. 17 33- 6 247. 50 34- 8 251.16 AVERAGES. Two inches depth yielded, per acre 265 40 bushels. Four " " " " " 277.26 " Six " " ' 281.56 Eight " " " " " 258.35 Ten " " " " " 263.38 The difference between the greatest yield — six inches depth — and the smallest yield — eight inches depth — is 23.19 bushels to the acre. The difference between the eight inches depth and the ten inches depth is but five bushels to the acre. Had the season been dry we should naturally have looked for a larger yield from the deeper trenches. As it was, the difference does not at all pay for the extra cost of a depth of planting beyond six inches. AVERAGE OF TOTAL RESULTS. Two inches, per acre 245 .70 bushels. Four " " ' 289.60 Six " " " 233.27 Eight " " ■' , 257.86 Ten " " " 240. 81 It will be seen that the four-inch trenches give the largest yield as the average of three years during which these experiments have been conducted. When it is considered that the eight-inch trenches give the next largest yield, we have evidence that the experiments have not been carried on long enough to warrant any positive generaliza- tions. CHAPTER XI. Nitrogen, especially nitrate nitrogen as in nitrate of scda. Its effects when applied alone. May farmers derive a profit from its use when applied to land indiscriminately or as farm manure is applied ? Joseph Harris's views and the author's answer. Experiments, I HAVE always taken the view; with or without sufficient data for intelligent guidance, that unless the farmer or gardener by actual test, has found out that his land is poor in nitrogen and fairly sup- plied with potash and phosphoric acid, conditions which are known rarely to exist, he cannot afford to use the nitrate of soda alone except in a small, experimental way. The same may be said of sul- phate of ammonia. This view I have taken pains to emphasize from time to time in several of the leading farm papers of the day. In a prominent horticultural magazine Mr. Joseph Harris, of Moreton Farm — the author of several interesting and very instructive books on farm topics — has criticised these opinions, as may be seen by the following remarks : MR. Harris's criticisms. "Mr. Carman says: 'It is much to be regretted that certain writers are advocating the use of nitrate of soda. Unless the land is well supplied with potash and phosphoric acid and needs nitrogen alone, nitrogen will not materially increase the crop.' " This is a self-evident proposition. And the same thing might be said of soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid and iron. All these ingre- dients of plants are absolutely essential to healthy plant growth. "There are people who contend that to maintain the productive- (87) 88 The New Potato Culture. ness of our land it is necessary to return to the soil the amount of plant food that the crops remove. They overlook the fact that a cer- tain amount of plant food is rendered available each year from the store of plant food lying dormant in the soil. If this is sufficient we need use no manure. If any one element is deficient, we must supply the deficiency or be satisfied with a deficient yield. The weakest link in a chain determines the strength of the whole chain. If we find out the weakest link and strengthen it, then some other link would be the weakest. As a rule, for most garden crops our soils are deficient, ist, in nitrogen ; and when this is supplied, they are deficient, 2nd, in phosphoric acid ; and when this is supplied they are deficient, 3rd, in potash, and so on through every link in the chain. ' ' For forty years or more, efforts have been made to find out what ingredients of plant food are. most likely to be deficient. It was pro- posed to analyze the soils. . This v/as found to be practically useless. The idea was then advanced that the amount of plant food in the crops would tell us the amount necessary to apply in manure. Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, over forty years ago, demonstrated the fallacy of this idea, but every now and then it shoots up again and grows as vigorously and perniciously as ever. "What we need, especially in garden crops, is not 'soil tests,' but experiments that will show what plants require a 'sap of the soil' specially rich in nitrogen or in phosphoric acid or potash. In other words, we want to ascertain the weakest link in the supply of food for different plants ; and there is no way of getting at the facts ex- cept by actual experiments. > "When Mr. Carman says it is much to be regretted that we are advocating the use of nitrate of soda, he overlooks the fact that we advocate the use of superphosphate with equal earnestness, and, in some cases, of potash also. The object of these articles was to show that when gardeners use the ordinary commercial fertilizers, they spend a great deal of money for plant food that their crops do not need. For instance, if they want to apply 100 pounds of nitrogen on an acre of land, and 50 pounds of phosphoric acid, and buy a fertilizer guaranteed to contain 2 per cent, of nitrogen and 12 per cent, of phos- phoric acid, they will have to sow 5,000 pounds to the acre, and this will furnish twelve times as much phosphoric acid as is required. What we contend for is that they should buy the necessary phos- The Use of Nitrogen. 89 phoric acid in the cheapest and best form find be sure to use enough of it, but not too much. To put on twelve times as much soluble phosphoric acid as is needed, in order to get the necessary nitrogen, is folly. If you want nitrogen as well as phosphoric acid, buy the nitrogen in the cheapest and best form. If we reco«imend nitrate of soda to those who wish to buy nitrogen, it is because the nitrogen is in the best and most available form, and because, at the present time, it is the cheapest source of nitrogen. "-There are enormous beds of it in South America, and its use in Europe is rapidly increasing, while with us it is almost unknown. It certainly is well worth our while to see if, especially in our dry and sunny climate, we cannot use it to great advantage. "Mr. Carman further says: ' In experiments made at the Rural Grounds during two seasons, to ascertain the effect of nitrogen on potatoes, it was found that additional quantities of nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia, or blood, or all three, beyond what was supplied by the ' complete ' fertilizer, did not increase the yield in any case. * -sf * From 1,200 to 2,000 pounds of the fertilizer was used, guaranteed to contain 3 J per cent, of nitrogen, 12 per cent, of phos- phoric acid and 6 per cent, of potash. It appears, therefore, that the amount of nitrogen supplied by the fertilizer was amply sufficient for the crop's needs, and that the added nitrogen was so much money thrown away.' " Mr. Carman made better experiments than his allusion to them above would indicate. Our own personal objection to them is that they were on too small a scale to carry conviction to an old farmer and gardener. The plots were only -^\^ part of an acre each. One good feature, however, was that four plots were left without manure. These plots produced at the rate of 88, 97, 68 and 59 bushels per acre each. The variation in the land, therefore, was 38 bushels per acre. Bearing this fact in mind, let us look at some of the more im- portant results bearing on the subject we are discussing. "RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES BY E. S. CARMAN. Bushf Is per acre. "I — No manure (average 4 plots) 74 2 — 300 pounds sulphate of potash 95 3 — 400 pounds superphosphate 103 go . The New Potato Culture. • Bushels per acre. ' '4 — 200 pounds nitrate of soda 141 5 — ^1,100 pounds blood, nitrate of soda and sulphate of am- monia 183 6 — 10 tons two-year-old farm manure 139 7 — 200 pounds nitrate of soda \ ^-q 120 pounds nitrate of potash \ 8 — 200 pounds nitrate of soda \ 120 pounds muriate of potash - ^5° 700 pounds superphosphate ' " There is certainly nothing in these results contradictory to the principles we have advocated. Mr. Carman states that the soil had been cropped for many years without manure of any kind, and that it ' would not grow beans, or even a good crop of weeds without manure.' And yet it will be seen that nitrogen alone, on plot 5, pro- duced 183 bushels of potatoes per acre, while on plot 8, 1,020 pounds of a ' complete manure ' produced only 156 bushels, or 27 bushels less than nitrogen alone. Why is this ? Did the phosphoric acid and potash do harm ? No ; there was not nitrogen enough. The phosphoric acid and potash could not increase the crop for lack of nitrogen. " Mr. Carman tells us that he used from 1,200 to 2,000 pounds of a complete fertilizer, guaranteed to contain 3 j^ per cent, of nitrogen, 12 per cent, phosphoric acid and 6 per cent, of potash, and that when he added viol's nitrogen, it did no good. Why should it ! Oats are good for horses, but when a horse has all the oats he will cat, throwing more oats in the manger will not increase his strength or improve his appearance. If the ton of complete fertilizer furnished all the nitrogen the plants wanted, more could do no good. But for the sake of getting 70 pounds of nitrogen, what folly it is to use a ton of fertilizer that contains a greal deal more phosphoric acid, costing 8 cents per lb., than the crop can possibly want ? This is the point we wish to impress on our readers. And it is a matter of surprise that so clear-headed and able a man as Mr. Carman does not see that his own experiments demonstrate, if they demonstrate anything, that, so far as the production of potatoes is concerned, this worn out soil, that was so poor that it v/ould not grow a good crop of v»-ccds, was more dsficient id. available nitrogen than in any other constituent The Use of Nitrogen. 91 of plant-food. Superphosphate and potash, without nitrogen, did no good. They could produce no effect from lack of nitrogen. Thirty- two pounds of nitrogen per acre, in the form of nitrate of soda, raised the crop from 74 bushels per acre (or possibly 59 bushels) to 141 bushels per acre. The same amount of nitrogen on plot 8, in 1,020 lbs. of ' complete manure ' produced 156 bushels, the 820 lbs. of superphosphate and potash only increasing the yield 15 bushels per acre — not as much as the difference in yield of the unmanured plots. Niirogen alone, on plot 5, produced 183 bushels per acre. It is clear, therefore, that a complete manure, like that used on plot 8, containing about 3X per cent, of nitrogen, is a very costly and ' badly balanced ration ' for potatoes. It does not, for Mr. Car- man's poor, worn-out soil, contain half nitrogen enough. It is true that by using enough of it you could grow a large crop, but it would be done at a fearful and .unnecessary expense. We feel perfectly safe in saying that a ton of it per acre would produce no larger a crop than half a ton that contained double the amount of nitrogen. " A complete manure, such as that used on plot 8, would probably cost ^40 per ton. The 200 lbs. of nitrate of soda in the mixture can be bought for ^5. In other words, the phosphoric acid and potash in the ton of this complete manure cost ^35. Leave half of it out and double the nitrate and you will, in my judgment, get quite as large a crop at far less cost. There is nothing in Mr. Carman's experiments, or any other, to lead me to suppose otherwise. '''■Moreton Farm. Joseph Harris." REPLY TO JOSEPH HARRIS. Mr. Joseph Harris's views are no doubt as sound as a dollar in the general principles which they advocate ; but the instances which he cites in proof of his conclusions are possibly open to criticism. For a year or so past certain writers have advocated a more gen- erous use of nitrate of soda, in a way to lead those who have given little thought to chemical fertilizer questions to assume that it is in itself a fertilizer which will inoure a profitable increase of crop, re- gardless of the needs of the soil. I have therefore repeatedly cautioned my readers not to use nitrate of soda (or nitrogen in any soluble form) unless it is known that the land is already proportion- ately supplied with available phosphoric acid and potash. Nitrogen 92 The New Potato Culture. is neither more nor less valuable to the gardener or farmer than is either of the others. It is by far more costly, and, while the phos- phates and potash remain in the soil for subsequent crops, nitrate of soda leaves us even before the current crop is harvested. We do not need to tell our distinguished critic this. He knows it, and has taught it in his writings for many years. And yet we place Mr. Har- ris among those who, while cracking up nitrate of soda, has not, in every case or in most cases, emphasized sufficiently the insuperable importance of a corresponding supply of minerals. Mr. Harris assumes that the chemical fertilizers of to-day contain too small a quantity of nitrogen ; that the minerals (potash and phos- phate) are the strong links, and that a deficiency of nitrogen is the weak link of the chain by which the crop, in due proportion, will be diminished. This is true without a doubt in a majority of cases, and it is well that it is true, for if the farmer is to lose a part of the money he pays for fertilizers, he would better invest it in food con- stituents of a lower cost which will remain in his soil, than in nitrogen at a higher cost, which takes its leave after a single season of service. If a farmer, from experimentation, is fairly confident that his land is especially short in nitrogen, let him buy fertilizers with a high ratio of nitrogen ; but if he knows nothing about it, the very best thing he can do is to buy high-grade complete fertilizers and use them until by experiment he finds that more nitrogen will profitably augment his crops. Then he may wisely add nitrate of soda, salts of ammonia or organic nitrogen, as he, by trial in an inexpensive way on small plots here and there, may find them serviceable. The advocacy of the use of one-sided, low-priced fertilizers on the part of the mixers (" man- ufacturers ") and their agents, has done incalculable harm in the way of inducing those who till the soil to purchase fertilizers which do not furnish the full or partial meal which their land demands. The con- sequence is that they denounce fertilizers in toto. Thus, bone or South Carolina rock, kainit, superphosphates, ammoniated superphos- phates, sold under high-sounding, taking names, and prices far below those of high-grade brands, are tried and condemned, not for what they really are, but as '-'• fertilize7-s " which are assumed to furnish everything in the way of plant food that the name represents. So it is that in every case gifted and well-known writers, like Mr. Harris, whose words of advice are taken without question, should place all The Use of Nitrogen, 93 possible emphasis upon the economy of puicliasing eitlicr high-grade complete fertilizers, or of " incomplete " fertilizers only as the farmer or gardener has learned from experiment that his land responds fully to bone, to potash or to nitrogen, and that the other constituents are not at present needed. Mr. Harris says that it is a matter of surprise that I do not see that my own experiments demonstrate that, so far as the production of potatoes is concerned, my worn-out soil was more deficient in nitro- gen than in any other constituent of plant-food. ' ' Superphosphate and potash, without nitrogen, did no good. They could produce no effect without nitrogen. Nitrogen alone on one plot produced 183 bushels per acre," or, I may, add, 105 bushels above the average of the plots of natural soil wz"//2(9z// fertilizer. It is true that if this single trial be taken as a basis for comparison, Mr. Harris's reasoning is logical enough. It should be stated in fairness, however, that this little nitrogen plot yielded more for some reason than any other nitrogen- plot either of that year's experiments or of those of preceding years. Another plot which received not only the same quantity of nitrate of soda per acre (200 pounds), but also 200 pounds of sulphate of potash, produced but 90 bushels of potatoes to the acre, or 12 bushels above the natural-soil plots. Again, raw bone (i, 100 pounds), furnishing perhaps three or four per cent, of ammonia, gave but 77 bushels per acre. Again, in our similar experiments of the year be. fore, nitrate of soda (200 pounds) gave a yield but little more than the average of the natural-soil plots. The several no -fertilizer plots yielded an average of 143 bushels to the acre. Nitrate of soda (200 pounds) yielded but 125 bushels, sulphate of ammonia (120 pounds) yielded the same, nitrate of soda (200 pounds) and dissolved bone- black (400 pounds) yielded 168 bushels. Nitrate of soda (200 pounds) and sulphate of potash (300 pounds) gave 233 bushels per acre. Nitrate of soda (200 pounds), dissolved bone-black * 400 pounds), sulphate of potash (300 pounds) — a complete fertilizer — gave 217 bushels. The Mapes potato manure (800 pounds, gave 257 bushels to the acre, while in the later experiments quoted by Mr. Harris, 1,200 pounds of the Mapes (3.70 nitrogen guaranteed) gave a yield of 273 bushels to the acre. From a glance at the experiments carried on during the season to which Mr. Harris nlhidp«, it \'^ ndmitted that nitroren plone pave a 94 The New Potato Culture. greater increase over the unmanured plots than either potash oi phosphoric acid or both. It is just as evident, withal, that in no in- stance was a large crop raised except when a high-grade complete fertilizer was used. Whether a smaller quantity of the fertilize;' and an additional dose of nitrogen would have given as large a crop we have no proof one way or the other. If we were striving to raise the largest possible yield per acre, we would not use nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda alone, but in the blended forms of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, urate of ammonia and other organic salts of ammonia found in Peruvian guano, all of them solu- ble, but in varying degrees. Moreover, we should supply them, especially on light and fallow land, in minimum quantities consistent with experience, on account of their expense and the liability of loss by leaching. It is easy to supplement nitrogen to a growing crop by top-dressing, if it is thought that it v/ill prove serviceable, as, es- pecially in the form of nitrate, it is exceedingly prompt in its action. On a portion of the same impoverished field upon which the potato trials alluded to were made, the effects of a dressing of 150 lbs. tc the acre of nitrate of soda on corn were plainly visible 50 feet away, three days after the application, in the darker color of the leaves as compared with the rest of the field which had received potash and phosphoric acid only. Our great authority. Sir J. B, Lawes, grew potatoes on the same plots for nine consecutive years, from 1876 to 1884 inclusive. The average yield from the use of 400 lbs. of ammonia salts alone was 103 bushels per acre ; that from 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda was 104 bushels. The same amount of ammonia salts, with the ash elements added (complete), produced an average for the nine years of 325 bushels per acre. Nitrate of soda (550 lbs.), with the ash elements added, gave 300 bushels per acre. Farm-yard manure (16 tons) — an average of six 5^ears — gave a yield of 253 bushels per acre. Mr. Harris remarks that the 200 lbs. of nitrate of soda used in several of my experiments to form complete fertilizers, can be bought for ^5. We agree with him that for potatoes it is an ill-balanced fer- tilizer in most cases, not, however, because it contains too little ni- trogen necessarily, but because it does not exist in ^•aried forms and also because the potash is too low by half for soils deficient in potash. Where a large crop is anticipated it is always safer I0 use nn excess The Use of Nitrogen. 95 of food constituents, particularly of those that do not waste by leach- ing. Phosphoric acid is, next to nitrogen, the ingredient oftenest de- ficient in soils. Nine-tenths of the fertilizers used in England and America are mainly phosphoric acid. Potash in many soils, how- ever, is present in liberal quantities, and it would be unwise to supply it in full rations unless a known deficit exists. If you err at all, gardeners and farmers, it is better to err on the side of economy. Phosphoric acid will rtmain with you to feed sub- sequent crops. So will potash. Know that 3'our soil needs more ni- trogen before you apply it in liberal doses. Nitrogen costs a lot of money, and the higher the price of experiment ingredients, the less the farmer should apply it without due discriminatioi). We say give the soil all the phosphoric acid you choose. You will rarely overdo it. Give it potash according to its needs, as nearly as you may. But be gentle and conservative in the use of nitrogen, unless you are positive it will give you full returns. It is a ruinous luxury. We may every one of us bear in mind that if phosphates ma- terially increase our crops, we have evidence, to a certain extent, that nitrates are the less needed at present ; if potash increase the crop, here is evidence that nitrates are the less needed. If both phos- phates and potash fail, then let the experimenter add nitrates in vary- ing quantities from 100 to 300 pounds to the acre, and thus in a safe, inexpensive way find out approximately what his land needs. THE EFFECT OF NITROGEN IN VARYING QUANTITIES UPON POTA- TOES EFFECTS OF INCREASING QUANTITIES OF FERTILIZERS. This question of how much nitrogen farmers or gardeners may with profit give to the soil is one manifestly of the first importance. Mr. Harris's position may be repeated and emphasized in the follow- ing words : " It is a matter of surprise that Mr. Carman does not see that his own experiments demonstrate that, so far as the produc- tion of potatoes is concerned, his worn-out soil was more deficient in nitrogen than in any other constituent of plant-food." It was to throw more light upon this question that the following trials were made during the past season (1890). Mr. Harris con- tends that the chemical fertilizers of to-day, as a rule, contain too small a quantity of nitrogen ; that the minerals (potash and phos- g6 The New Potato Ciiltiire. phate) are the strong links, and that a deficiency of nitrogen is the weak link of the chain by which the crop, in due proportion, will be diminished. An injudicious advocacy of the good effects to be de- rived from nitrate of soda, on the part of many writers, has had a decided effect upon those who have not studied chemical fertilizer problems to induce them to jump at the conclusion that it will insure a profitable increase of crops regardless of the needs of the soil. Nitrogen (it may well be repeated) is neither more nor less valuable to the farmer or gardener than is either potash or phosphate. It is far more costly and, while the phosphate and potash remain in the soil for subsequent crops if not used up by the current crop, nitrate of soda, unless supplied in repeated doses, often fails to carry a late crop through to maturity. The plots (23 in number) were planted April 26, by the trench method, so often described. The variety was the Rural Blush, the fertilizer was the Mapes, with the following analysis : Ammonia 4.5010 5 per cent. Phosphoric acid 8 to 10 " Potash 6 to 8 Bushels per acre. No f ertihzer of any kind 207. 50 440 lbs. potato fertilizer to the acre 214.50 and to the acre of nitrate of soda potato fertilizer and nitrate of soda potato fertilizer and nitrate of soda potato fertilizer and nitrate of soda Plot I. No 2. 440 " 3- 440 55 " 4- 440 no " 5. 440 220 " 6. 440 330 249-33 249-33 284.17 309-83 In the above experiment it is plain that the yield increases (with (jne exception, when they are the same) as the quantity of nitrate of soda increases. It must be borne in mind that but 440 pounds to the acre of the potato fertilizer was used in any one of the above six trials. The Use of Nitfogen. 97 Bushels per acre. Plot 7. No fertilizer of any kind 260. 8. 880 lbs. potato fertilizer and \ 55 " nitrate of soda f 880 " potato fertilizer and ) .,.,,., \ 315- no nitrate 01 soda \ 880 " potato fertilizer and •\ 220 " nitrate of soda \ 880 " potato fertilizer and ■ ^ 330 " nitrate of soda \ 880 " potato fertilizer without any 1 nitrate of soda f Here it would appear that there are indications that the larger amount of potato fertilizer gave the crop nearly all the nitrogen needed, since 880 lbs., without additional nitrate, gave as large a yield (315 bushels) as did the addition of no lbs. of nitrate of soda, as in plot 9, It is true that plot 10, with 230 lbs. of nitrate, gives the heaviest yield, offs3t by the yield of plot 11, which received 330 lbs., yielding but 308 bushels. Bushels per acre. Plot 13. 1,320 lbs. potato fertilizer, no nitrate of \ ^ soda 14. 1,320 " potato fertilizer and 55 " nitrate of soda " 15. 1,320 " potato fertilizer and | no " nitrate of soda \ 403-33 375-83 1,320 " potato fertilizer and | 220 " nitrate of soda 353-83 " 17. 1,320 " potato fertilizer and 330 " nitrate of soda The above results, as will be seen, are contradictory. It is evi- dent that 1,320 lbs. of the potato fertilizer should furnish, of itself, all the nitrogen which the crop could use. Nevertheless, an addition of 55 lbs. to the acre of nitrate of soda gives the largest yield of any. Larger quantities seem to reduce the yield more or less, though the addition of 220 lbs. gives the next heaviest yield. On a different part of the field, where the land is a trifle lighter and apparently more uniform, nitrate of soda in varying quantities was used without any potato fertilizer. The following are the results: p.— 7 98 The New Potato Culture, Plot i8 19 " 20, Bushels per acre. 55 lbs. of nitrate of soda 403.33 no " " " 302.50 220 " " " 352. 330 " " " 315. Here it will be seen that the small amount of 55 lbs. to the acre of nitrate of soda, without any potato fertilizer, gave as large a yield as plot 14, which received the same amount of nitrate of soda and 1,320 lbs. of the potato fertilizer. In the two following experiments a fertilizer high in ammonia, 7.50 per cent ; high also in potash, 10.50 per cent, but low in phosphoric acid, 4.50 per cent., was tried. The results were as follows : Bushels per acre. Plot I. 440 lbs. to the acre 279. " 2. 880 " " " 330. SUMMARY. We may summarize in this way : Average of plots that did not receive either potato fertilizer or nitrate of soda alone, 233.75 bushels to the acre. With 440 lbs. of potato fertilizer, nitrate of soda, from 55 to 330 lbs. to the acre, increased the yield over the no-fertilizer plots 39.41 bushels per acre. With 880 lbs. of potato fertilizer, nitrate of soda, from 55 to 330 lbs. to the acre, increased the yield over the no-fertiUzer plots 87.50 bushels per acre, or but 6.25 bushels over the plot which received the same amount of potato fertilizer (880 lbs.) without nitrate of soda. With 1,320 lbs. of fertilizer, nitrate of soda from 55 to 330 lbs. to the acre, increased the yield over the no-fertilizer plots 148. 50 bushels to the acre, or 35.65 bushels over the plot which received the 1,320 lbs. of fertilizer alone. The results of the above experiments would seem, though in a feeble way, to justify Mr. Harris's conclusions that the potato fertili- zers of to-day are too low in nitrogen. Still we would as urgently as ever advise farmers not to depend upon nitrogen for a profitable in- crease of crops, but rather to see to it that the land is well supplied The Use of Nitrogen, 99 with minerals, and to experiment with the costly nitrogen, using on different portions of the same field, as we have done, all the way from 55 to 320 lbs. to the acre — an experiment which, conducted on small plots, involves neither much trouble nor expense. Remember that what you do not recover of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia in the crops of the season, you will never recover. But the phos- phates and potash that one crop may not use will remain for the next. CHAPTER XI 1. Sundry Experiments. POTATO CULTURE IN HALF-BARRELS. GEMENT barrels were sawed through the centre and the half- barrels, or kegs, used. Beauty of Hebron Potatoes, of equal weight, were selected for seed and cut in halves, the seed-end-half alone being used. They were planted in the morning of April lo. No. I. Pure Sand. — Seed piece planted six inches deep. This keg (half-barrel) gave the strongest, tallest plants, and the leaves were the darkest color of any. July i8, the tops being dead, the barrel was broken apart, leaving the sand the shape of the barrel so that the tubers and roots could be carefully examined. The roots pene- trated to every portion of the sand. The box was watered with horse-manure water, and small quantities of nitrate of soda, dissolved bone and potash were sprinkled upon the surface of the sand and scratched in. The tubers of the yield v/eighed 45^ ounces. They were 35 in number, of the average size of hens' eggs and uniformly so. Eight of the best weighed one pound. All were clean, bright and smooth. The seed piece was so decayed that little but the skin remained. No. 2. Garden Soil. — Seed piece planted four inches de^. Watered as often as needed with rain water. Yield, 40 ounces. There were 43 tubers, one larger than in No. i. Eight of the best weighed 12 ounces. Tubers not so shapely or smooth. Roots penetrated to every part of the soil. Seed piece quite decayed. No. J. Three- Quarters Garden Soil^ Ojte- Quarter Sand. — The seed piece was placed upon the soil and covered with the sand. Watered (100) Sitndry Experimoits. loi with rain water. The yield was 21 ounces, 38 tubers. The best eight weighed io>^ ounces. Clean and shapely, as in No. i. Seed piece decayed. No. 4. Three- Quarters Gardcit Soil, 07ie' Quarter Cui Straw. — The seed piece was placed upon the soil and the half-barrel filled with the straw. Watered with rain water. The yield was 1 1 ounces. Twenty clean, shapely tubers formed almost in a ball about the seed piece, which still retained its form plump and solid, and was still pushing new buds. Upon cutting it open, the flesh was watery and semi- translucent, as if exhausted of starch. This seed piece which, as above stated, was the seed-end-half of Beauty of Hebron, was cut in two and each piece again planted in the garden, but the sprouts, if indeed any grew, did not appear above the soil. The roots of this barrel penetrated to every portion of both the soil and straw. THE THREE BARRELS. Ou April loth, 1889, three barrels of the same size were provided with perfect drainage, and filled to within 16 inches of the top with garden loam and sand — half and half — thoroughly mixed. While mixing the sand and loam together, potato fertilizer was added — one quarter of a pound to each barrel. In the first barrel a single tuber (medium size) of seedling No. 2 was placed upon the loam and sand, being 16 inches below the top of the barrel. In the second barrel a single tuber of the same size, of seedling No. 3 was similarly placed. A single tuber of the seedling No. 4, of the same size, was placed in the third barrel. These potatoes were then covered with about three inches of the same sand, loam and fertilizer, the distance from the top of the soil being now about 13 inches. As the shoots of the growing potatoes appeared above the surface, more soil and sand were added, until the barrels v/ere filled to within an inch of the top, and the tops were then allowed to grow as they would, being at length supported by a platform raised to the height of the barrels. The seed was planted April 10, and the shoots of all three appeared above the soil May 18, there being scarcely ten hours difference. Planted 16 inches deep, where would the tubers form ; near the bot- tom, midway, or in tiers from the bottom to the top ? This is what the experiment was designed to show. It was also designed to show 102 The New Potato Cutturc. the root and tuber- forming growth of plants raised under these peculiar conditions. The plants were watered as water was needed. It was not necessary to apply poison, as the potato beetles seemed to prefer a lower plane. In the earlier part of the season the leaves showed no flea-beetle perforations, and few were seen upon them. Later they injured the leaves as much as those growing in the plots near by. This is noted because it has been stated that the cucuml:)er flea-beetle confines itself to within a foot or so of the ground. It was the design to have sawed the barrels lengthwise, in halves, and to have removed the soil and sand just as the vines began to show maturity, but while yet the potatoes would cling to the stems. Thus the root and tuber-bearing systems could have been well shown after the sand and soil had been carefully washed out by the use of a hand-pump and hose. The vines "blighted, " however, in mid- July and were quite dry and dead before the services of a photo- grapher could be secured. The cut shows fairly well in what part of the barrel the tubers grew, apparently from 4 to 12 inches below the surface, yet while washing out the sand and soil, several fell from their places. The reader must bear in mind that back of those shown in the illustration, other potatoes were covered and concealed in the sand and soil. The yield was as follows : No. 2 yielded 13 marketable potatoes, 8 small and 2 rotten, weighing six pounds. The decayed tubers were not weighed or taken in the account. Allowing three square feet to the hill, as in field cul- ture, the yield would be 1,452 bushels to the acre. No. 3 blighted earlier than the others and the yield was 20 very small potatoes weighing 14 ounces. No. 4 yielded 13 marketable and 3 small tubers. Not less than ten were rotten and not estimated. The}^ weighed 4^ pounds. SEED PIECES VARIOUSLY TREATED. Test No. 26. Queen of the Valley was cut to two-eye pieces and placed in a spade-wide furrow, or trench, four inches deep in mellow garden soil. They were then covered lightly with soil and the furrow nearly covered with straw. On this, chemical potato fertilizer was thrown at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre, and the furrow was then I04 The New Potato Culture. leveled with soil. The yield was 907.50 bushels to the acre. Best five weighed six and one-quarter pounds. Large and small, 135,520 to the acre, or 9^ tubers to the hill. Test No. 27. Same variety, planted in the same way as in No. 26. The pieces were covered lightly with soil, then with a liberal spread of hen manure, which was covered lightly with soil ; then a second spread of hen manure, and finally the furrow was filled with soil. The yield was at the rate of 705.83 bushels to the acre. Best five, four pounds one ounce. Large and small, 116,160 to the acre. Test No. 28, Planted as above, and a heavy spread of salt — 40 bushels to the acre — strewn over the. pieces, which were first lightly covered with soil. The seed pieces rotted in the ground. Test No. 30. These were manured with chemical fertilizers at the rate of 1,000 pounds to the acre without straw mulch. The yield was 665. 50 bushels to the acre. Best five, five pounds. Large and small, 101,640 to the acre, or seven potatoes to the hill. Test No. 31. These pieces (Peerless, as in Nos. 29 and 30) were covered lightly with soil, and the trench filled with stable manure (the same as No. 26 was filled with cut straw). No fertilizer was used. The yield was 907.25 bushels to the acre. Best five weighed three pounds eight and one-half ounces. Large and small, 217,800 to the acre, or an average of 15 to the hill. This yield was about the same as in No. 26, but the potatoes were smaller and much in- jured by wire-worms. Test No. 32. These pieces (Peerless) were first covered with soil lightly, then salt at the rate of 15 bushels to the acre, then a mulch of stable manure as in No. 31 ; then a spread of hen manure, at the rate of 20 bushels to the acre, and finally unleached ashes at the rate of 15 bushels to the acre. The object of this trial was to ascertain, first, whether a surfeit of manure would increase the yield, and sec- ond, whether the salt would have any effect to keep wire-worms away, as compared with No. 31, which received only stable manure. The yield was 826.83 bushels to the acre. Best five, five pounds. Large and small, 179,080 to the acre, or 12I to the hill. They were eaten as badly as in test No. 31. Sundry Experhnents. 105 A NEW WAY TO MULCH POTATOES VALLEY MULCHING. Mulching potatoes is sometimes very successful, and at other times useless, or harmful. The effect depends upon the soil or season. When the early spring is backward and wet, the mulch keeps the soil cold ; the seed pieces are delayed in sprouting and an imperfect stand is the result. What is wanted is a mulch that will conserve moisture and yet not intercept the warming rays of the sun. The "valley" system it was thought might accomplish this. Whether it is practi- cable or profitable, we are not prepared to say. The soil (an impoverished, sandy loam) was plowed, raked and leveled the same as if grass shown by line «, Figure 2. The seed pieces (two eyes) ^§^^m^mm^^m!imW\ 6 ^^^re then placed on the soil one foot apart in rows three feet apart, as shown at b. These pieces were ^ ounces. Single strong eyes of White Star gave a yield at the rate of 171.45 bushels ; two strong eyes, 252 bushels ; three strong eyes, 282.50 ; four strong eyes, 322.86. DIFFERENT SIZED PIECES \V1tHOUT REGARD TO NUMBER OF EYES. Trench No. i. Rather small potatoes were cut into four pieces. Yield per acre, 230.41 bushels. There were 193 marketable potatoes and 56 small. The vines were rated June 27, as six, 10 being best. Trench No. 2. Half potatoes were used in this trench. The yield per acre was at the rate of 256.66 bushels. There were 165 market- able — 282 very small, none very large. The vines were rated June 27, as six. Sundry Experiments. iii Trench No. 3. Whole Potatoes. — The yield per acre was at the rate of 278.66 bushels, of which 236 were marketable and 310 small. It will be seen that whole seed gave 48 bushels per acre more than quarter pieces and 2.2 bushels more than half pieces. But the num- ber of unmarketable potatoes increased with the size of the seed — the whole pieces giving the greatest number, the half pieces next and the quarter pieces fewest. POTATO SKINS CUT TO SINGLE EYES. May 26th were planted in well prepared ground, 37 pieces of po- tato skins — each having a single strong eye — six inches apart in the drill. The 37 pieces weighed two ounces. Three grew, and the yield was half a dozen potatoes as large as marbles. The experiment was made to test the value of a positive assertion on the part of a " well known " farm writer that such eyes would yield as well as those to which flesh is attached. EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH FLESH EACH EYE SHOULD HAVE WHEN PLANTED TO PRODUCE THE MOST PROFITABLE CROP. Test 46 A. The seed potatoes were selected all of the same size, and peeled, all eyes being cut off except the strongest near the mid- dle — that is, whole potatoes were peeled so that but one eye was left with a ring of skin about it. It would be equivalent to cutting out all the eyes but one, and then planting the whole potato as if it were a seed piece with a single strong eye. The variety was the Peerless ; the amount of chemical potato fertilizer used was 1,000 pounds to the acre. They were planted one piece (four inches deep) every foot in trenches (spade wide) three feet apart ; cultiva- tion flat. The yield was at the rate of 806.66 bush- els to the acre. The best five weighed 3 pounds 3 ounces. There were of large and small potatoes at the rate of 140,560 to the acre, or ^% to a hill. Test 47 A. The pieces were cut as shown by figure 3, and of that size. They were planted, as in 46 A, three inches deep. So many of the pieces either failed to sprout, or died after the sprouting, that no estimate could be made of the yield per acre. 112 The New Potato Culture. Test 48 A. In this test cylindrical pieces were cut through the po- tato as shown at Fig. 4, with a strong eye upon one end, and planted four inches deep. The yield was at the rate of 211.75 bushels to the acre. Of large and small there were at the rate of 87,120 potatoes to the acre, or six to a hill. In order to ascertain how much flesh should be left to an eye or to the eyes of seed pieces, it would doubtless be necessary to repeat the tests hundreds of times in different soils, and with dif- erent varieties. ' ' Enough is as good as a feast,' but what would be enough in a wet spring might prove too little in a dry one ; what might serve in a rich soil might prove insufficient in a poor soil. The quantity of flesh which should go with each piece, is, theoretically, that which without unnecessary waste, will best support the eyes until, by the growth of the roots, support from the flesh is no longer required. SEED END vs. STEM END IN A RICH SOIL. The seed end of Early Rose yielded 710.82 bushels to the acre. Largest five weighed 2 pounds 9 J ounces. Large and small, 214,170 to the acre, or 14I to the hill. The shoots ap- peared before those of the stem-end seed, and the tops were nearly twice as large. The stem end of Early Rose yielded at the rate of 620.10 bushels to the acre. Best five, 3 pounds 8J ounces. Large and small, 170,610, or I if to the hill. The seed end of the Rural Blush yielded 282.33 bushels to the acre. Best five weighed i pound 6 ounces. Large and small, 116,- 120 to the acre, or 8 to a hill. The shoots appeared before those of the stem end. The stem end yielded 937-71 bushels to the acre. Best five, 2 pounds 5 J ounces. Large and small, 232,320 to the acre or 16 to a hill. The seed end of the Queen of the Valley yielded 363 bushels to the acre. Best five weighed 2 pounds 15-J ounces. Large and small. Fig. Sundry Experiments. 113 67,760 to the acre, or over 4^- to a hill. The shoots appeared before those of the stem end. The stem end of Queen of the Valley yielded 393.21 bushels to the acre. Best five, 4 pounds \\ ounce. Large and small, 72,600 to the acre. Judging from these tests alone, we should select the stem end of the Blush and Queen of the Valley, and seed end for the Early Rose, ex- cept that in the latter case the potatoes averaged smaller. The seed potatoes were cut in halves, one for the seed, the other for the stem end. It would appear that with some varieties it is better to plant stem ends, and such tests should be made with every variety. SHALL THE DISTANCE APART OF THE SEED PIECES PLANTED BE PROPORTIONATE TO THE SIZE OF THE SEED? ». Mr. T. B. Terry, in commenting upon the experiments made by several stations, as well as by myself, which seemed to show that small (one or two-eye) pieces were not profitable, expressed the opin- ion that experimenters should plant small seed closer together, in order to make the condition:; equal. We were, therefore, induced to resume our trials during the past season (i8go), in the hope of throw- ing more light upon this really important problem. As a single ex- periment it is not worth much except as continued trials, season after season, in different land and with different varieties, may confirm the outcome, and give data for generalizations. All the potatoes used for seed were of medium size. It may be said that the tubers from the whole seed were smaller than those from any of the smaller seed. The record showing the comparative size was unfortunately lost. This trial was made in an impoverished soil of a clay loam, fertil- ized with 1,000 lbs. to the acre of the Mapes potato fertilizer, of which an analysis has been given on previous pages. The pieces were placed in trenches four inches deep, and three feet apart measuring from the middle of each, on a plot of one-fortieth of an acre — 33 feet square. It will be seen that we have on this plot 1,089 square feet, which divided by three gives 363 seed pieces, if planted one foot apart in the trenches. No. I. 132 pieces, single eyes, yielded at the rate of 187 bushels per acre. The pieces were placed three inches apart, p.— 8 114 ^^^^ New Potato Culture. No. 2. 66 pieces, single eyes, yielded at the rate of 209 bushels to the acre. The pieces were placed six inches apart. No. 3. 66 two-eye pieces, yielded at the rate of 227.33 bushels to the acre. The pieces were placed six inches apart. No. 4. 33 half potatoes, yielded at the rate of 227.33 bushels to the acre, the same as plot No. 3. The half potatoes were placed one foot apart. No. 5. 33 whole potatoes, yielded at the rate of 282.33 bushels to the acre. The tubers were placed one foot apart. It appears, therefore, that whole potatoes of medium size, placed one foot apart, in trenches three feet apart, yielded over 95 bushels per acre more than single eye pieces placed three inches apart ; 73 bushels more than single eye pieces placed six inches apart, and 55 bushels an acre more than either two-eye pieces or half potatoes. CHAPTER XIII Si:{e of Seed. Generall\ations, Habit cf the variety to be considered. Small seed of some liinds — Large of others. tN^o positive rule can he given. Illustrations. The loss, from missing hills. Underground development. Rela- tions between few eyes and long joints, ^iishy and " ^^SSy ' ' 'vines. True roots and tuber-bearing stems. THE SIZE OF SEED. rIG. 5 shows how potatoes usually sprout in a dark cellar when not in contact with other potatoes or with any damp substances. It will be seen that the buds ("eyes") of the " seed-end " have alone sprouted. We have found that in many varieties these are the only buds which do push, either in the cellar or ivhen planted. The ' ' eyes " of the other parts seem ' ' blind " or impotent. The pieces rot in the ground. With other varieties every " eye" will sprout, though those cf the " seed-end " are almost always the strongest and the first to sprout. Hence it would appear that the size of the " seed " to be planted should be determined by the habit, so to speak, of the variety and not by any fixed rule to use one, two, three eyes, half or whole seed. Hence it is, too, that reports of experiments to settle this vexed ques- tion are so contradictory. We will guarantee that an experiment of this kind with my No. 2 Seedling would show that one-quarter of each tuber, including the " seed -end " would give a greater yield than three-quarters of the tuber without the "seed-end." And we are further confident that if the seed of this variety were cut in halves, one-half being "seed-end" the other " stem-end," the stem halves (1^5) ii6 The New Potato Culture. would fail to sprout in about six cases out of seven, were using Wall's Orange or any otrier similar variety hav- ing many and prominent eyes, we should reject the seed- end and cut the rest to two or three eyes, depending upon the size of the seed tubers. The loss of the yield from " missing " hills is not well con- sidered. In many a thrifty field of potatoes it is not un- .common to find 20 per cent, of missing hills. One-fifth of the crop is thus sacrificed ; or if the actual yield be 200 bushels to the acre, the loss would be 50 bushels. ABSURD NAMES. Why call the ends of the potato "seed" and "stem" ends? These parts might bet- ter be called the top and bot- tom, since they are the top and bottom of a potato, the same as there is a top and bottom or an apex and base to a leaf, to a twig or a branch. We might even better say "butt" and " tip/' as of the ear of corn. The seed-end of a potato is just as much the top of a po- tato as the topmost bud on a branch is the tip or top, and the stem end is the bottom or base, simply because it is the lowest portion. As in any Fig^ Again, if we Potato Seed and Vines. 117 rooted cutting and as in most established plants, the top buds swell and grow first ; so the ' ' eyes " of the ' ' seed " or the top of the potato push first. POTATO GROWTH. In my poor way I have studied during late years the underground development of the potato dur- ing its several stages from the sprouting of the seed piece to the development of the tubers, and would ask my readers' patience while I endeavor to explain it as best I may. It seems that the distance between the joints of a potato vine (nodes) as well as the dis- tance between the eyes, or nodes, or joints, of the under- ground shoot is proportionate to the number of eyes on a potato fX — their nearness together. / That is to say, few-eyed pota- toes will give a vine with fewer joints (longer internodes) than many-eyed potatoes. Suppos- ing this to be true, one would infer that the fewer- eyed tuber would give the greatest length of vine and the least compact or bushy habit. A many-eyed potato would give closer- joint- ed stems and a greater propor- tionate amount of foliage. To a certain extent, therefore, the nu7nber of eyes of a given vari- ety is a guide both to the dis- tance apart to plant and the ■pj^ g depth to plant. ii; The New Potato Culture. The first true roots issue not from the seed potato in any case, but from around ihQ eye or bud ; from the growing shoot, which is tne de- velopment of the eye or bud. These underground shoots make an effort to produce leaves at their nodes or joints which, being underground, die. From their axils the true fibrous roots grow which support the plant. From every node or joint, also, issue stems which at their ends thicken or may thicken into tubers. Above-ground leaves develop at the nodes or joints, and between them and the main stem (that is in the axil ) secondary stems o r branches grow. Under- ground, the leaf is suppressed and we have a leafless stem or slender shoot (provided with eyes or buds all the same) which at the tip or just behind it enlarges to formthe tuber. The tip it- self is a suppressed leaf, and the suppression seems to m- duce the swelling of the stem. Fig. 6 (p. 117) shows a seed potato which I lifted from a six-inch trench just be- fore the sprouts had reached the surface soil. It will be seen that fibrous roots have grown from all the lower nodes of the shoots, and that Fig. the tuber-bearmg nodes have not yet developed. Fig. 7 shows a potato taken from a barrel of potatoes in the cellar. The potatoes were moist and decaying, which gave the conditions essential for the growth of fibrous roots the same as if it were growing in the soil. Now if this condition of moisture and decay had not existed, the shoots would be like those of Figure 5, and they would continue to grow until the seed or parent tuber became exnausted of its nutriment. In Potato Seed and Vines. 119 a lighter place leaves would grow from the nodes, but neither fibrous roots nor tuber-bearing stems would appear. What we want is to provide those conditions economically that shall induce the greatest number of nodes to send out fibrous roots and tuber-bearing stems. In the usucl system of raising potatoes, they are plant- (Ideal.) ed in V-shaped furrows scarcely three inches deep and covered ; they are cul- tivated both ways and usually hilled up. We have tried to show that the sprout which is the growth of the "eye" changes into green leaves and vines above the ground in the air and sun- light, and that belovi^ it remains of a whitish color and sends forth roots and tuber-bearing stems. In the old method all the tubers must form in a compara- tively narrow, cramped space. Be- tween the seed-piece and the air there is but a length of perhaps three inches of stem — the portion which is to fur- nish the fibrous roots for the plant's support. There is, withal, only a single node or so, or several crowded together, and it is from these that the tuber- bearing stems issue. The plar.t may give a great amount of foliage, but it Fig. 9. The Trench. (Id il.) I20 ■ The New Potato Culture. cannot give a maximam amount of tubers, because the space for them to grow is too Hmited, In the trench the conditions are different. The seed -pieces are four, five, or even six, inches below the surface and three or four nodes, well separated, send out their fibrous roots and tuber-bearing stems. The root system is thrice as great. It is as if there were three or four tiers, or planes, for the growth of pota- toes, a virtual extension of the area planted, the same as a ten-story house may occupy the same area of ground as a one-story house. Food is supplied in abundance. The roots grow deep and help to carry the plants through droughts. This they cannot so well do in shallower planting, being nearer the surface and more at the mercy of heat and droughts. Fig. lo (p. i2i) shows a Thorburn (early) potato carefully lifted June 12 ; it was planted May 2. It will be seen that several tubers are beginning to form, while others are an inch or more in diameter. Some of the roots were thus early eighteen inches in length. In the old way these roots would have extended for the most part laterally on either side of the furrow or hill, having no mellow trench soil to go down into and spread out in all directions. In the trench the roots grow from the bottom as well as near the top. They prefer to go down, that being the easiest course ; while there too they find the most food and moisture. AGAIN, AS TO THE SIZE OY SEED-PIECES. I beg to remark here that my experiments during the past fifteen years ought to throw some light upon the important question of the size of seed. As a result, my belief is that no one can say or will ever be able to say, whether it is better to use whole potatoes or any given number of eyes, or sizes of pieces, as a guide for all potatoes and different soils. The number of sprouts desirable to have in a hill depends to a great extent upon the distance apart of the hills, and upon the vigor of the vines. Last year I dug up seed-pieces of different varieties planted ten days previously. Any one who will do this at such a time, will find that the size of the seed must be determined by the member and vigor of the eyes. For example, the R. N.-Y. No. 2 has not only few eyes, but those of the seed-end alone were pushing, notwithstanding the seed potatoes had been exposed to the light and heat for a week or •'. •;,*, c^ .^ff ^ Fig. io. 122 The New Potato Culture. more before planting. Half pieces of this variety were planted My No, 3 has also few eyes, yet from every eye planted a sprout was growing. Does it not follow that smaller pieces of the No. 3 than of the No. 2 should be planted ? The Everitt potato has many eyes, and a peculiarity is that all seem equally sensitive or ready to grow. Let us take 50 different varieties of potatoes — all of the same size — and cut them to two eyes. We shall find that some of the varieties will give a perfect stand, and yield a large crop of marketable pota- toes, while others will give a very imper- fect stand and a poor yield. The same will be the case if whole seed is planted. Some varieties will send up a dozen shoots, others only a few. The yield of the one may be a large crop of small potatoes ; of the other, a large crop of large potatoes. The farmer can judge what sized seed to plant, when he sees and knows his potato, how the seed has been kept, and how it will act in his soil, and not until then — and there is no ex- periment station that can tell him.* My experience has led me to answer all inquiries : ' ' Use large sized pieces con- W taining two 07- three strong eyes,'" and that is the nearest I can come to any fixed rule. The advice to use ' ' whole seed " is very bad indeed. I feel assured if followed out with certain varieties, a yield of small tubers will result every time, while with other varieties the ad- vice may be as sound as a silver dollar. The results at certain experiment stations, as well as my own, which show that the best yields come from whole seeds, prove simply that seed of some varieties, preserved in a certain way, and planted in a certain soil and situation, will give the largest crops for the particular varieties tried, and they prove nothing more. * Varieties of potatoes which grow so closely together that they may be thrown out with ■)er -bearing stems. In varieties like This is shown at Fig. 11. The stem one turn of the fork have, and necessarily so, short tuber -bearing stems. In varieties like The Rural Blush, that "straggle," the stem is long if straightened out would be a foot in length. CHAPTER XIV Analysis of the tubers and vines. The effects of^ special or single fertilisers and in various combinations. The effects of " Complete " fertiliiers. Stimulants. Complete fertilisers not necessarily effective. A familiar tall with farmers. The result of 70 analyses of the tuber, by various chemists, em- bracing a great many varieties and modes of culture, are summed up in the following table : Minimum. Maximum. Average. Water 68.29 82.88 75-77 Nitrogenous substance . 0.50 360 1.70 Crude fat o-05 o-8o 0.18 Non-nitrogenous extractive ) 12.05 26.57 20.56 substances, starch, sugar, etc. S Fiber 0-27 1-40 0-75 Ash 042 1-46 0-97 As the result of 53 analyses of the ash of the tuber, we have the following : Minimum. Maximum. Average. Potash ...^ 43-97 73-6i 60.37 Soda o-oo 16.93 2.62 Lime 0.51 6.23 2.57 Magnesia i-32 i3-58 4-69 Ferric oxide. ., o ••• o-04 7-i8 1.18 Phosphoric acid 8.39 27.14 i7-35 Sulphuric acid o-44 14-89 6.49 Silica 0.00 8.LL 2.17 Chlorine 0-85 10.75 3-ii (123) 124 ^^^^ New Potato Culture. Six analyses of the tops give the following average results : Potash, 21.78 ; soda, 2.31 ; lime, 32.65 ; magnesia, 16.51 ; ferric oxide, 2.86 ; phosphoric acid, 7.89 ; sulphuric acid, 6.32 ; silica, 4.32 ; chlorine, 5.78. Potash and phosphoric acid are therefore predominating in- gredients of the ash of the tuber, and soda and silica are evidently quite unessential, since they may be entirely absent ; soda may also be wanting in the tops. From these figures it may be estimated ihat in a crop of 150 bushels, weighing 9,000 pounds, and 600 pounds of tops, we should re- move, of the three most valuable ingredients of plant-food, the quantities per acre given in the following table, omitting fractions. For the purpose of comparison, we give also the quantities of these three substances gathered by a crop of wheat, 25 bushels, and straw, 2,500 pounds ; and of Indian corn, 50 bushels, stover 4,500 pounds, and cobs, 60 pounds. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. Potatoes : Tubers 26 15 53 Tops 4 II Total 26 19 64 Wheat : Grain .... 30 13 8 Straw 12 6 17 » Total 42 19 25 Indian corn : Grain 48 20 12 Stover 22 23 41 Cobs 2 4 Total 72 43 57 From these figures it appears that to produce the potato crop, potash is required in larger proportion than either nitrogen or phos- phoric acid, and that more is required for this crop than for either wheat or corn, notwithstanding that the latter is such a gross feeder. When we come to consider the comparative exhaustion of the soil by the two crops, remembering that of the corn crop, only the grain with 12 pounds of potash is liable to leave the farm, while of the potato crop the tubers, with 53 pounds of potash for every acre, are usually exported, the usefulness of potash manures in potato culture would appear to be very plainly indicated. To the quantity of nitrogen Analyses and Fertilizers. 125 gathered by the potato crop, as given in the table, something must be added for the tops, with reference to which we find no determinations of this element. Making due allowance for this, the best manure for the potato would seem to be a " complete " one ; that is, one contain- ing all three of these substances — nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, with a large proportion of the last. I have for years endeavored to call attention to the fact that many of the experiments made by farmers, and even by the officers of agricul- tural experiment stations, for the purpose of finding out what ferti- lizer constituents their land most needs, are delusive. If a given piece of land needs potash and nothing else, then that piece of land, year after year, will not yield maximum crops without potash. If it hap- pens to need phosphates only, then full crops cannot be raised with- out some fertilizer which furnishes available phosphoric acid, as bone, fish, etc. If it stands in need of nitrogen only, nitrogen must be used. Here we have a plain case. The one ingredient needed is suppHed in either trial and the land responds by giving the fullest crops of which it is capable. Each of the three farmers may truly say, "my land needs potash " — " mine phosphate " — "mine nitrogen." But suppose in the first example phosphate is needed as well as potash ; in the second potash is needed as well as phosphate ; in the third either is needed as well as nitrogen, what will probably be the result of the ex- periments ? That the first piece of land will not give an increase of crop from the use of potash ; the second will make little or no re- sponse to the phosphate, and the third none from the nitrogen. The experimenters jump at the conclusion that their land does not stand in need of the special fertilizers applied. A fourth example may be given : The land needs all three of the fertilizers. The farmer spreads on one plot or field burnt bone (phosphoric acid only), on the other sul- phate of potash, on a third nitrate of soda and potash, on a fourth potash and burnt bone. It is possible that not one of these fields or plots will yield a full crop, and the experimenter arrives at the erro- neous conclusion that chemical fertilizers are worthless upon his land. His land needs all three and is not satisfied with any one or two. If we would ascertain whether a given piece of land needs a special or complete food, a complete fertilizer should be used on one plot, and upon another, a fertilizer from which one or another of its constitu- ents is omitted. And it may be necessary to repeat this several 126 The New Potato Culture. years. A comparison then between the several crops would be likely to answer the question whether the omitted constituent was the one most needed or not at all needed. But there is still another cause which might mislead farmers as to the effects of chemical fertilizers, or other chemicals used as such. We allude to the action of certain substances which are either not plant-foods or incomplete foods. Such, for example, are salt, plaster, lime, sulphate or muriate of potash, nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, etc. The fact that any one of these has greatly increased crops would not prove that the land needed it ; it would not even prove that the substance was a plant-food. The increased crop might be due to food in the soil, pre- viously inert, rendered soluble by the salt, plaster, lime, nitrate of soda, or potash. In other words, their action was essentially that of a stimulant, because the land has been forced to yield up what it was otherwise powerless to have done. So it is that certain more or less impoverished soils may be lashed into yielding abundantly, while every year becoming poorer, until they become so exhausted that they have nothing more for the time to give. Everything has been taken from them, and now every thing must be supplied. A neighboring farmer ten years ago told the writer that his father had " brought up " his farm by lime, and that he (the son) proposed to continue its use. He has since changed his mind, for the reason that he cannot raise paying crops without m_anure or fertilizers, no matter how much lime is used. How many readers have had a similar experience ? We may here call attention to the fact, not generally considered, that two ''-complete'" fertilizers which analyze the same, may yet give very different results, not because the food of the one is more available than that of the other, as when leather or shoddy is employed to furnish nitrogen, or undissolved South Carolina rock phosphoric acid, but because in the one different forms of the same constituent may be used. Thus, for example, in a potato fertilizer, if the nitro- gen were furnished by bone and blood, both slowly soluble, we should not look for so large a yield as if nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia were added. What is needed is food adapted to the plant from the beginning to inaturity^ so that it shall not suffer during any period of its growth^ in so far as abundant and assimilable food can prevent. And these facts, which are positively known to be facts, we would gladly, by iteration and reiteration, if necessary, impress upon those Analyses and Fertilizers. 127 readers who, through perfunctory investigations or from merely jumping at conclusions without any rational data to guide them, de- nounce concentrated fertilizers as worthless. HOW MONEY IS THROWN AWAY. Suppose, as has previously been said, we should separate farm ma- nure into three parts, viz, : phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen, the three constituents which, as we have had it drummed into us for many years, all plants must be supplied v/ith, and which impoverished soils do not furnish in available forms. Suppose that we give a crop a large quantity of one of these constituents, and that the crop shows no benefit from the application ; would that prove farm manure to be ineffectual ? Not at all. Suppose we sow super-phosphate or potash, or nitrogen, upon our soil — only one, or even two — and the crop is not appreciably better ; would that prove that the so-called chemical fertilizers are of no use ? It would prove just exactly as much in the one case as in the other. It would only prove one of two things ; first, that the soil was rich and needed no plant food, or second, that the soil was so impoverished that it needed all. If farmers buy bone ash, which furnishes only phosphoric acid ; or sulphate or muriate of potash, which furnishes only potash ; or ni- trate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, which furnishes only nitrogen, and spread it upon a poor soil which needs all three, they will get no adequate increase of crops — and they may rely upon it. But they must not, therefore, condemn the use of concentrated fertilizers. In this connection, let me ask the reader again to refer to the effects of the various fertilizers upon potatoes raised upon my "worn-out" soil. Is not the lesson taught by them conclusive ? Potash, as it ex- ists in kainit, applied at the rate of two tons to the acre, gave no in- crease in the yield. Burnt bone had little effect. Nitrogen was not effective, except (in most cases) to make an early promise which was broken later. But the complete fertilizers gave large yields. I conjure you, farmers (and I would repeat it again and again), un- less you desire to throw your money away — do not buy special or low grade fertilizers, unless by actual tests you happen to know just what your land needs. A cheap fertilizer means one that supplies a low per cent, of plant-food ; or else it means a special or comparatively 128 The New Potato Cutt7C7^e. worthless fertilizer, like ground leather, hair, wool, plaster, salt or bometliing of the kind. Suppose you apply i,ooo pounds of bone- flour to your land each year for lo years. Finding it of great service for five years, it is con- tinued. But the farmer finds, later, that it does not increase his crops at all. He might naturally, though erroneously, call his land "bone-sick." Now, let him apply potash and the land responds at once, giving the finest crop ever raised upon the farm. The trouble was, not that the land had too much bone or phosphoric acid, but too little potash. The crops had appropriated all the available potash and could not live on bones alone. So, in like manner, land might seem to become "potash-sick." In such a case bone-flour would prove a specific cure. Farmers should not overlook the fact that when an imperfect food alone is furnished to plants, they cannot thrive unless the soil supplies the constituents which the imperfect food does not supply. In the course of time the land yields up its present store and a perfect food must be supplied. A TALK WITH FARMERS ABOUT CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS. The following is almost a verbatini report of talks I have had with farmers living about us. It may serve to emphasize what has pre- viously been said upon the rational use of fertilizers. See also Chapter XVIII. FARMER A. " How did your potatoes turn out ?" Farmer A.: "Those manured with farm manure plowed in last fall yielded 200 bushels to the acre. Those upon which I used 'phos- phates ' yielded about 150." "What was the 'phosphate' ?" A.: "I don't know. I bought it for $20 a ton." " Did you ever try a higher grade of fertilizer ? " A.: "Yes. Last year I paid ^30 a ton, and spread it on rye at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre. I left a piece about 50 feet square without any 'phosphate '. This piece was just as good as the rest. Once I tried kainit, but it did not increase the crop of corn. There IS nothing like farm manure, if I could only afford to buy it. Lime is the best fertilizer for me. It has done my land more good than all your 'phosphates.'" Analyses and Fertilizers. 129 "What do you understand by the word 'phosphate' ?" A.: "I understand it to mean chemical fertihzers." "And what are the chemical fertilizers made of ?" A.: "Of 'phosphates', I suppose." ' ' Here we have a ' phosphate ' that costs ^45 per ton, and here is an- other brand for ^20. Why is it, think you, that many farmers pre- fer the ^45 ' phosphate ' ?" A.: " I cannot say. I should 'feel that I was throwing av/ay my money. My idea was to experiment with the low-piiced fertilizer first and if I found it increased my crops, I then proposed to try a higher- priced article. But my opinion is that ' phosphates ' don't pay on my farm." FARMER B. "Do you use chemical fertilizers ?" Farmer B.: "No. I use lime. My father before me brought up this farm with lime, and I use it in preference to anything else, ex- cept manure." " Do you buy manure ?" B.: "No. I use what we make from our two horses, four cows, from the pigs and poultry. My farm consists of 70 acres." " Do you raise wheat ?" B.: "No, we cannot raise wheat any more. Besides, rye pays better. The straw always brings a good price." " And why cannot you raise wheat ?" A.: " Oh ! the climate seems to have changed, or at any rate the farm does not seem to be adapted to it any longer." "And how about corn ? Can you raise as much corn as you could years ago ?" B. : " Field corn is no longer a paying crop with me. I raise sweet corn, manuring it in the hill, and send it to market. Sweet corn, lima beans and tomatoes pay me best. All are well manured in the hill." " Do you raise clover ?" B.: "Yes, we seed to timothy and clover after sweet corn. But clover is uncertain now-a-days. Sometimes we get a catch, oftener not. The same change of climate seems to be the cause. Years ago, we could raise peaches here in abundance. Now they are of no ac- count, and so it goes." P_9 130 The New Potato Culture. " Do you think that Hme suppUes to the soil all the food that plants take from it ?" B.: "That's an old story. No, probably not. But I believe that the soil is practically inexhaustible, and that lime makes its food solu- ble as our crops need it. My belief is that chemical fertilisers pass through the soil, so that nothing remains after the first season." " Probably you are av/are that J. B. Lawes, of England, has raised crops with fertilizers alone for over 45 years, and that he harvests as large crops as by the use of farm manure, which for the same length of time has been applied to other plots of the same crops." "Does it pay him ?" " The money equivalent is about=the same upon both plots." B. : "I believe that all editors of farm papers advocate the use of fertilizers. They seem to have great faith in quack medicines also. I receive probably fifty free specimen copies every season. They are full of all sorts of fraudulent advertisements. In one column they advocate temperance ; they declare that they will not insert unreliable advertisements at any price. In other columns I find advertisements of bitters, which are alcohol in part ; of positive clires for consumption, fits, deafness, cancer; of mines and land schemes ; of British claim agencies and all sorts of frauds, which are frauds upon the face of them. You editors can't afford to tell the truth about these things. You would lose your advertising patronage. Editors run their papers to make money, and you must crack up chemical fertilizers." " Do you read the daily or religious papers ?" B . : " Yes, I read the weekly issue of the daily papers and a weekly religious paper.'' "And do you find that they are more careful to exclude unreliable advertisements ?" B.: "Not at all. I have no faith in the integrity and sincerity of editors. There is no class of teachers so given to lying ; no class that so set themselves up on a high pinnacle of morality, that are so ready to bob up or down according to the pay they receive." FARMER C. Farmer C: "I have never tried chemical fertilizers, but think of doing so. Which make would you advise me to buy, and what price to pay ?" Analyses arid Fertilizers . 131 " The price depends upon the quaHty of the fertih.zer. All reliable manufacturers charge about the same price for the same quality. Which gives the most plant food for the money can only be ascer- tained by chemical analyses, and these do not always show the agri- cultural value. One article might show as high a per cent, of nitro- gen as another, while in one case the nitrogen is in leather or hair, and not available as plant food, and in the other the nitrogen is in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, which is in a soluble form. The phosphoric acid in one may be in bone, in the other in raw South Carolina rock. The first is worth seven cents, the second only two cents a pound. The way to find out what fertilizer to buy is to find out what kind your land needs. This can only be done by using the various constituents separately and in varying combinations. In the absence of this information, what are called complete fertilizers should preferably be used ; that is, those which furnish all kinds of plant food in which the soil is probably de^cient." C: " And what do they cost ?" " From the lowest to the highest price. One firm may sell a com- plete fertilizer for $20 a ton — complete because it contains one or the other forms of phosphate, potash and nitrogen — another may cost $60 a ton, because it contains a higher per cent, of the same con- stituents." C. : " Which am I to choose then ?" " It is merely a question of the cost of transportation and applica- tion. Here are two fertilizers, one costing ^25 a ton and the other ^50. We will suppose that the first contains just half the plant food that the second contains. You pay half price and have twice as much to spread on your land and twice as much to pay freight and carriage upon." FARMER D. Farmer D.: "I understand that you recommend a complete fer- tilizer if a farmer has determined to use fertilizers, and does not know just what his land needs. You say that a complete fertilizer means one that contains phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen. The land is supposed to have a supply of the rest. Do not raw- bone and potash make a complete fertihzer ?" " The word rornnlete is an unfortunate one as applied to fertihzerp. 132 The New Potato Culture'. the same as " phosphate,'' because both are misleading. A complete fertilizer could be made up that would be worth less than $5 a ton. Muck, containing a trace of each of the three plant foods, would be as complete in the mercantile sense as if it contained large percentages." D. : " Raw-bone contains phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Suppose we add potash in any form, would that not be a good complete fer- tilizer ?" " Not the best. Raw-bone is slow to decompose. Neither its nitro gen nor phosphoric acid is immediately available. Besides its per cent, of nitrogen is rather low, being less generally than three per cent. Probably the best fertilizers are made up of many different sorts of plant food. For example, the nitrogen may be supplied by fish, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, blood and guano. In such fertilizers, the nitrogen is available from the beginning to the end of the plant's life. First, the nitrate of soda is at once ready for the plant ; then the sulphate of ammonia ; then the guano, blood and fish. It is the same with phosphoric acid. This should be furnished by super- phosphate first, then by raw-bone, etc., so that the plant shall have a ready supply at every stage of its growth." D.: " How am I to be assured that I get all this, even though I buy the highest grades of fertilizers ?" "You can't. All you can do is to buy of reputable firms who agree to sell you what you ask for. The analyses, as published in the bul- letins periodically issued by experiment stations, are helpful guides ; the crops must show the rest." D.: " My neighbor used 600 pounds to the acre of high-grade ^40-fertilizer last season on his corn. The crop was very poor." " And the season was dry ?" D.: "Yes." " Have you never known farm manure to fail in such a season ?' D. : " Do you advise farmers to use fertilizers ?" " It is far beyond any one to advise in the matter, further than to say that farmers cannot use them to the best advantage, except by chance, unless they study the science of fertilizers as they would study a book, and then, with the light of such knowledge, experiment with them m their own fields. Each farmer would then be enabled to answer the question for himself. No one can answer it for him. Analyses and Fertilizers. 133 THE potato's needs. To sum up the demand of successful potato culture, a farmer must know, by actual trial on his own grounds, what varieties succeed best, in order to insure the best results ; also, if possible, at what season he had best plant his crop so that it may be supported by plentiful rain-falls at the time of the setting of the tubers ; also the fields best adapted to the growth of potatoes ; then he must act accordingly. In a series of years a rarraer, acting on such general principles, will be more likely to be successful than one who pants such sorts as he may have on hand, and at such times as best suits his convenience, without regard to the quality of the seed or its adaptedness to his soil, as it is now a well established fact that a variety that succeeds well in some localities, is comparatively worthless in others. A mellow soil, a moist soil well drained ; plenty of potash, nitro gen, phosphoric acid, lime, and possibly magnesia, sulphur and salt, for mechanical effects, or for an effect not understood ; give the seed pieces enough flesh to support them until the shoots can be sup- ported by their own roots. Plant them in depth according to the soil, whether inclining to clay or sand, from three inches to five inches. The distance of the hills or drills, and the pieces in them, should be regulated by the vigor and size of the varieties planted. Rank-grow- ing varieties, the same as tall-growing corn, will not yield well if planted too closely together, Hilling-up on well drained land never increases the crop. The fibrous roots extend from hill to hill, from row to row, and the soil should not be taken from them to heap it up about the stems where it is not needed. In hill culture, where the tubers crowd each other out of the ground, hilling-up is necessary only to protect the potatoes from the air and light. Broadcast ma- nuring is better than manuring in the hill, for the reason that it is the fibrous roots that need the food — not the tubers, which are fed by the fibrous roots. Kill the potato beetles before they have injured the foliage. Any injury to the foliage will impair the vigor of the plant, and less vigor in the plant means less crop. THE DIFFERENCE. It is unfortunate that the name "chemical fertilizer" should be generally accepted as something different from " manure.' They are 134 The New Potato Culture. precisely the same thing. That is to say, if we desire to answer the question, "What is manure ?" we must answer that it consists of just those constituents which by chemists are called nitrogen, sulphuric acid, gypsum, potash, copperas, ammonia, magnesia, silicon, etc. If we burn a quantity of straw, grass, wood, flesh or any other sub- stance, we have the ash constituents remaining. They are the so- called chemical fertilizers, excepting that the nitrogen, carbon, oxy- gen, hydrogen, etc., have escaped in the form of gas. If we take a rock and pound it to a very fine powder, we have a manure or fertilizer, and its value depends upon its content of those materials which plants need. We do not consider bone or South Carolina rock a chemical fertilizer /^-r se, and yet either is, in fact, just as much a chemical fer- tilizer as is nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, muriate or sulphate of potash, for the reason that they are valuable as a plant food only as they contain those substances. It is just the same with any kind of manure. The essential difference between farm manure and chem- ical fertilizers is that the former is bulky, slow to decay, yielding up to plants its nourishing elements not until they have become soluble by slow combustion. While, too, this bulk is decomposing, it exerts a mechanical" iniluence on the soil, making it lighter, admitting more air and moisture to the plants, which are hungry to avail themselves of either. It is with agricultural chemists as with other scientific individuals — they are not aware to what extent the employment of so-called scien- tific terms renders their work Greek to the mass of those they seek to instruct. If farmers were at once to understand that chemical fertil- izers are merely co7tce7itrated farm manure, they would not be so prone to regard a sufficient understanding of the action of these fertilizers as something beyond their comprehension without an amount of study which they believe themselves unable to give to the subject. Co?tce7i- /ra ted msLiiure and/anu manure would be the better names to give re- spectively to the waste products of the farm and to those self-same products which are now known only as " chemical fertilizers. ' CHAPTER XV, Seeaiing Potatoes. How to plant the seed and treat the seed- lings. Every gardener and farmer should raise his own varieties. How to select. Should we save tubers from the most productive hills ? Wlyy the same variety varies. IT IS NOW some fifteen years ago that I began to raise potatoes from seed. Previous to that time, raising potatoes from seed was supposed to be a very hard thing to do; there were "secrets about it known only to a few," I was told, upon inquiry of a leading seedsman of those days. The seed and seedlings needed "bottom heat," and thereafter even temperature and steady moisture, such as could be given only in glass structures fitted especially for such work. The truth is, as many of my readers are now aware, ibat potato seeds germinate somewhat more readily than tomato seeds, and, until set out in the open ground, may be treated in precisely the same way. From the time that I found this out up to this day, I have advocated seedling potato culture, through the farm press. New varieties of potatoes are absolutely necessary from time to time. All varieties, after a time, degenerate or "run out," as most farmers select their "seed."' MilHons of dollars have been spent for new potato "seed," that might just as well have been raised at home. SEED BALLS UR FRUIT. Let us gather the seed balls, apples, or whatever one chooses to can tnem, from the potato vines as soon as they begin to die. These (135) 136 The New Potato Culture. may be kept until they begin to wither or rot, when the flesh is parted from the seed and the latter dried and preserved the same as any other seeds, until sowing time arrives. The seed ball of a potato is the proper fruit, as the tomato is the fruit of the tomato plant. The tuber of a potato is merely a swollen underground stem, quite dis- tinct from the roots. Indeed, tubers often form above ground in the axils of the green stems, as no doubt readers have had occasion to notice. The so-called " eyes" of the potato tuber are buds which, as we also know, push and form stems and leaves feeding upon the decomposing flesh of the tuber itself. Potatoes may be, and are, grown from these stems, and in this way large quantities may be raised from a single tuber by pulling off the shoots and planting them as they grow. But this is a branch of the subject which is treated elsewhere. In times gone by potato plants fruited plentifully, and potato apples could be procured in unlimited quantities. It is different now. Many of our present kinds do not fruit at all — some of them do not even bloom. Twelve years ago I raised 62 different varieties and was unable either to procure any pollen for the purpose of crossing, or a single seed ball. The past season, of 50 different kinds, ten bore seed balls, one — Wall's Orange — in large quantities, a cluster of which is shown at Fig. 14, p. 139. When it is considered that potatoes have been bred and cultivated for the tubers alone, it is not surpris- ing perhaps, that the plants should incline to fruit less and less \vith every 3'ear. Some say that the yield of potatoes 50 years ago was greater than now, ana that, therefore, the potato is less productive now than then. This, while perhaps true in fact, is no doubt an erro- neous view as to the cause. If our ancestors had had our present varieties they would probably have produced very much larger crops. The buds or eyes of potatoes sometimes vary, as has been stated, producing potatoes that differ in quality, in color or in time of maturing. Thus we have the Late Rose, Beauty of Hebron, etc., from Early Rose and Beauty of Hebron. But potatoes never " mix in the hill " from contact, as some suppose. We can produce new varieties a: will only fiX'in the seed. Seedli7ig Potatoes. 137 SELECTION OF SEEDS. It seems hardly necessary to advise that balls from the best va- rieties should alone be saved — the best yielders, the best in quality, in shape'; the best keepers and those which are least liable to disease. If our own po- tato vines produce no balls, probably they may be found in our neighbors' fields or patches. If they too fail, we may write to friends in other states or localities or we may purchase them of seedsmen. We will suppose that the reader has neither green- houses nor plant frames of any kind. We should next require a sunny window facing the east or south or, better, southeast, and a room in which the temperature never falls below 35 degrees. Fig. 12. PLANTING. Provide well-drained flower pots, filled with mellow garden soil. Press- the soil firmly with the bottom of another flower pot. Then sow the seeds evenly half-an-inch apart and cover with one-eighth inch of soil, and again press the soil^ — this time lightly. Place these pots in pans or buckets of water so that the water comes up outside the pots nearly as high as the surface of the soil, and leave them until the surface soil begins to show it is wet. Remove them then to the sunny window and cover each with glass. So treated they will need no more water until germination takes place, which will be in about a week or ten days. The glasses may be removed as soon as most of the seeds have sprouted. It is better, however, to remove the glass gradually, first by raising it an eighth of an inch, then a quarter and finally lifting it off entirely. We prefer this method of supplying water to surface-watering for several reasons, chief among which is that the soil is not washed off the seed. The first leaves ap- pear as in Fig. 13 A, the later leaves as in Fig. 13 B. We should advise that the seeds be sown not until late February, or early March. The little plants will then be large enough to transplant to little pots (say three inches in diameter) by early April. A pocket-knife blade is as good as anything for the purpose of " pricking out " the plants, only one of which should be planted in each thumb-pot. 138 The Neiv Potato Culture. CARE OF THE PLANTS. Fig. 13. Thereafter their treatment By April 20 many leaves will be found to be of the shape and size of Fig. 12, while the plants will have reached the average height of four inches — some strong, some puny. The one thing now to be borne in mind is that these seedlings do not receive a check from over or in- sufficient watering, from too much or too little heat, or from any other cause, otherwise the swelling stems or little tubers will cease to grow or they will make a second growth. As soon as all danger of frost is over, we may now transplant our seed- ling vines to a warm, well prepared plot. Dig little holes with a trowel, one foot apart, in drills three feet apart, and thump the balls of earth, which will be held firmly together by the fibrous roots of the plants, out of the pots and set them firmly in these holes, will be the same as potato plants from eyes. If it be desired to raise the largest crop and the largest tubers from seed, and one has a greenhouse, the seed may be sown in January. As the little pots into which the seedlings are transplanted become filled with roots, they (the seedlings) may be thumped out and placed in larger pots. Set out in the open, as above described, after there is no longer danger of frost, the tops will grow as large as those of other plants, while many of the tubers will be found to be of market- able size. Our view has been that farmers may raise seedlings that will be found to be better adapted to their farms than most of the hundreds of kinds offered for sale. Then again in the case of a lucky hit, the variety might be sold to some enterprising seedsman for a price that would well repay the producer for all his time and trouble. The seeds will sprout about as readily as tomato seeds. The trouble begins when the little tender plants are set out in the open ground. The beetles attack both leaf and stem and destroy them in a few days. The seed- lings cannot be saved by any application of arsenic or other poisons. Seedling Potatoes. 139 Fig. 14. Fruit balls of Wall's Orange potato. The injury to the leaves and stems which the beetles or grubs will eat before the poison kills them will destroy the vines. Besides they are so tender that they cannot even stand the plaster alone — much less poisoned plaster. 140 The New Potato Culture. As soon as the seedlings are set in the garden, mosquito netting, one yard wide, is stretched lengthwise of the rows and supported above the vines by half-hoops or sticks, placed at intervals of four feet, like the rafters of a double pitch roof, and the peaks are con- nected by horizontal sticks tied to the peaks, or where the two sticks meet, giving all needed support to the netting above, while the edges on either side are held in place below merely by covering them with an inch of soil, or by narrow boards. We have now a two-pitched or oval covering, which is quickly made and at merely the cost of the netting. This protects the vines thoroughly until they fill the trian- gular or oval space, when they are large and strong enough to stand poisoned plaster, and the netting may be removed, to be used a second time the next season. SHOULD WE SELECT SEED POTATOES FROM THE MOST PRODJC- TIVE HILLS ? Some years ago. Dr. Sturtevant, the director of the New York Experi- ment Station at the time, stated that he found that potatoes selected for "seed" from the most prolific hills gave greater yields than the ''seed" selected from hills yielding the smallest number and weight of tubers. The late Peter Henderson, commenting upon this, took the view that "further experiments will show that this increased productive- ness will not continue to hold, because the reason for the greater or less yield was probably only an accident of circumstances, due to specially favorable conditions of the set made to form the hill, or to being highly fertilized, or to some such cause that gave it this tem- porary advantage ; and that the chances are all against any perma- nent improvement being made by such selections." This is certainly a very important question. A potato, it must be re- peated, is a peculiar stem, witli buds. Its peculiarity is that which gives it value as food, which is starchy, tender and wholesome. When these swollen stems are planted, the buds (eyes) grow, the same as any other buds, and from the underground portion of these shoots issue roots and other stems, the extremities of which swell, forming tubers. Some of these grow large and shapely ; others small and ill shapen. Still others are just beginning to form as the season ad- Seedling Potatoes. 141 vances, even as the vines die and the tubers are harvested. Every so-called variety of potato has, when all its needs are supplied, a cer- tain limit as to size and perfection. All tubers which do not so develop are retarded or injured in 07ie way or another. Some are harmed by drought or by too much moisture ; some by insects ; while the shape is modified by the heaviness or lightness of the soil, by stones or by growing too close together. Potatoes grown in pure sand, and fed with liquid food, are, as we have shown, always smooth and perfect in form ; that is, perfect, according to the standard of the particular vari- ety cultivated. It may well be thought that any irregularity in shape, due to stones or a too compact soil, etc. , would never be repeated and become fixed were such deformed potatoes planted again and again. It seems reasonable, however, to suppose that those tubers which are harmed by parasites, or rot, or insects, have thereby sustained in- juries which, decomposing the tissue, must weaken the virility of the buds and shoots. The smaller and smallest potatoes of a crop are those which have been dwarfed from some cause. The formation of more tubers than the parent plant could support is, perhaps, one cause ; and the formation of tubers too late to mature is, no doubt, another. It may be a matter of pure conjecture whether, in the former case, the dwarfed potatoes are possessed of as much vigor as the largest one. But, in the latter case, all analogies point to the conclusion that immature tubers, as well as immature cuttings of any kind, will produce comparatively feeble plants. This is well exem- plified by the weakened constitution of grape-vines grown from green wood. What is called " bud variation " is, as is well known, common enough. Thus it is we have many of our most prized orna- mental plants, as, for example, weeping and variegated trees, shrubs and house plants. The writer has in mind a willow, a few branches of which bore leaves splashed and striped with bright yellow. By starting cuttings from the variegated shoots for several generations, the variegation has become fixed, while the original tree has lost its variegation. Similar cases often occur with potatoes. We have now a purple- skinned potato that matured on a plant all the other tubers of which were buff-skinned, and the potatoes are notably different in quality. If such qualities may be fixed by selection, why may not ,r^lo.o iVoroocAd prnrlnrtn/ert'^Qq be fiy^d by selection ? Let u=; now 142 The New Potato Ctdture. speak of the variations which occur in young and seedhng potatoes, which, we fancy, will give emphasis to the view we have taken, viz : that productiveness may be increased by selecting, not only tubers from the best hills, but, it may be added, from the shapeliest and most perfect individuals in such hills. Let us sow seeds — true seeds from the fruit or seed-ball. Each plant may produce, let us say 15 tubers, varying in size from a pea to an egg. They will also vary in shape. Some will be round and smooth ; others pointed at the ends, others long and slender. Every experienced seedling potato grower knows that he can generally se- cure the shape desired by planting tubers of that shape and then again selecting the same shape for the next crop, until the variety is con- sidered established and ready to turn upon the market. From the same seedling plant, therefore, he can oftentimes propagate varieties which shall be round, flattened, cylindrical, or "kidney" shaped. Seedling potatoes often, also, vary in color, and ttie color can be fixed by selection, as just described. No less does the productiveness of tubers from the same seedling plant vary. This I have seen in my experience again and again. The tubers from an original seedling plant will vary in yield as much as they will vary in shape or color, or in depth of eyes. I do not know the practice of all originators of new potatoes, but I do know that soine of them select for the second planting those tubers which closely resemble one another in shape and general appearance without the least regard for or any knowl- edge of their different yielding powers. The next season selection is again made from these according to appearance, time of ripening, etc. Finally the new variety is ready to be sold. The tubers bring from 25 cents to ^i a pound, and single potatoes are sent all over the country. Is it surprising that many report that the new potato is immensely productive, while others report otherwise ? Further than this : I know of seedling potato growers that select tubers from mo7'e than one hill if the seed planted is the same and the appea?^a7ice of tubers of the different seedlings is the same. According to this, a dozen or more kinds differing in productiveness and in quality are sent out 2indcr the same name. Evidently we should gain in such cases by selecting the best tubers of the most productive hills. Evidently again, farmer Jones may find the new seedling of a better quality and a greater yielder than farmer Brown, who purchased the " seed " Seedling Potatoes. 143 from the same seedsman, and gave the same or even better cultiva- tion. The fact is that the two men plant and raise potatoes which are really different in quality and productiveness, though to all out- ward appearances they are much the same. LET IT BE REPEATED. Of seed \\^^\^^ ^ 9> 8f , 7t, 9/^ , 9l ; while the lowest yields, Nos. 79, 65, 74, 68, 78, etc. , were rated respectively : 4!, 5-4-, 6, 8i, 8J, etc. The natural fertility of the soil (in this third series) is shown by trenches Nos. 65, 74 and 79, averaging 281.72 bushels to the acre. In the first series the average fertility of the "no-manure" trenches was 209.91 ; in the second 263.38. Let us see how this corresponds with the average yields of the fertili?ed trenches : SERIES NO. T. Bus. Fertilized trenches 294.34 Unfertilized trenches 209.91 Yield of fertilized over unfertilized, per acre 8443 SERIES NO. 2. Fertilized trenches 326.66 Unfertilized trenches 263. 38 Yield of fertilized over unfertilized, per acre 63.28 SERIES NO. 3. Fertilized trenches 391-72 Unfertilized trenches 281.72 Yield of fertilized over unfertilized, per acre 110.00 For an account ci the land and how it was treated, see page 832 November 28, iSyi. Experifnents. 167 FOURTH SERIES. It is reasonably claimed that better crops may be raised from fer- tilizers made up of different forms of each of the three essential kinds of plant food than from those made up of one form of each. That is to say, it is better to give phosphoric acid, both as superphos- phate and phosphate, than either alone. So, too, as to nitrogen and potash. In this way, it is assumed, an available supply is more likely to be secured for the plant at all stages of growth. For example, if the fertilizer is supplied with nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia and blood, the roots will get their first nitrogen from the nitrate of soda and later from the sulphate of ammonia and blood, these being less soluble and so serving to keep up a ready diet during the entire growing season. Now, each dealer (manufacturer) of fertilizers claims a special value for his own goods owing to special treatment, combi- nation or methods, or the superiority of the raw materials used. It might be supposed, therefore, that a combination of all these excel- lencies would give larger crops than the fertilizer of any single manu- acturer. The following trials (96 to 103 inclusive) were designed to investigate this question : Trench No. 96. — 440 pounds of Mapes, Bradley and Stockbridge, i. e., 146)4 pounds of each, mixed together. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 306.16 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 62.33 Total yield, per acre 368. 49 (Four rotten.) No. 97. — 880 pounds of the three, 293^ pounds of each. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 276.83 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 84 33 Total yield, per acre 361. 16 (Two rotten.) No, 98. — 1,320 pounds of the three, i. e., 440 pounds of each. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 283.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 82.50 Total yield, per acre 365.83 68 The New Potato Cidture. No. 99. — 440 pounds of the three, no pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 251. 16 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 51 -33 Total yield, per acre 302.49 No. 100. — 880 pounds of the three. 220 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 293.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 44 Total yield, per acre 337-33 No. loi. — 1,320 pounds of the three. 330 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 320.83 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 42. 16 Total yield, per acre 362.99 No. 102. — No fertilizer. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 31533 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 38 50 Total yield, per acre 353-83 (Four rotten.) The average yield of the six fertilized trenches is at the rate of 349.71 bushels to the acre. The yield of the unfertilized trench was 353-835 or a- difference in favor of "no-fertilizers " of 4.12 bushels to the acre. The average fertility of the soil, as shown by the " no-ma- nure " trenches of the first series, was 209.91 ; of the second series, 263.38 ; of the third, 281.72, and of the fourth (present), 353.83 bushels to the acre. In the first series, the fertilized trenches yielded 84.43 bushels more than the unfertilized ; in the second, 63.28 more than the unfertilized ; in the third series, no bushels more than the unfertilized. And now in the fourth series, the iinfer'tilized trench yielded 4.12 bushels more than the fertilized. It must be considered, in partial explanation of the above shovving, that the natural soil fertility increases with every series, viz. : Series i 209.91 bushels per acre. Series 2 263.38 bushels per acre. Series 3 281.72 bushels per acre. Series 4 35383 bushels per acre. Experiments. ' 169 It will be seen, also, that the yield per acre from the effects of the fertilizers diminishes as the natural soil fertility increases. The entire plot is nearly square, the four sides facing north, south, east and west. The land slopes gently, almost imperceptibly, from east to west, and from northeast to southwest. Series I. occupied the northernmost portion, II., III. and IV. following in the order given. It was thought that the soil of Series I. was the driest, as it was a trifle the highest. A ditch on the west was dug three years ago (as already stated) to carry away the surface water, which in previ- ous years was held in a shallow basin, towards the west and southwest. VINE GROWTH. The condition of the vines was estimated as follows : - No. 96 ^yi No. 99 7>^ No. loi 9^ 97 8X " 100 8^ " 102. 98 9>^ FIFTH SERIES (Last). The results of using Mapes, Bowker and Bradley fertilizers sepa- rately and together, with and without added nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda and nitrogen, and potash in the form of nitrate of potash, are before the reader. In this fifth (and last) series of ex- periments the effects (i) of snuff are to be recorded and (2) the effects of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, used separately and in various com- binations. Trench No. 20. — No fertilizer. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 168.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 60.50 Total yield, per acre 229. 16 No. 21. — 1,760 pounds tobacco snuff. Yield, per acre, Large potatoes 185. 16 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 42.16 Total yield, per acre 227.32 No. 22. — 3,520 pounds snuff. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes ....'. 278.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 56.83 Total yield, per acre 335-49 yo ' The New Potato Culture. No. 23. — 3,520 pounds snuff. 440 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, pel- acre. Large potatoes 300.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 40-33 Total yield, per acre 340.99 No. 24. — 3,520 pounds snuff. 440 pounds nitrate /^/<7^//. Yield, per acre. Large tubers 394- 16 Yield, per acre. Small tubers 29.33 Total yield, per acre 423. 49 No. 25. — 55 pounds n'lirzie potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 311.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 3300 Total yield, per acre 344-66 No. 26. — no pounds n\ir2,ie potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 196.16 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 42. j6 Total yield, per acre 238.32 No. 27. — 220 pounds nitrate /t'/aj-//. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 209.00 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 33.00 Total yield, per acre 242 00 No. 28. — 440 pounds n\\.X3,ie potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 225.55 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 27.50 Total yield, per acre 253.05 No. 29. — 880 pounds n\tr2iie potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 227.00 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 27.50 Total yield, per acre 254.50 No. 30. — 55 pounds nitrate soda. 220 pounds dissolved bone. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 203. 50 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 44,00 Total yield, per acre 247.50 Experiments. 171 No. 31. — 55 pounds nitrate /(7/fl'j/z. 220 pounds dissolved bone. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 177-83 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 47.06 Total yield, per acre 224.89 N ;. 32. — 55 pounds nitrate /^/rj-^. 220 pounds fine raw bone. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 165.00 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 5500 Total yield, per acre 220.00 ^o. 33. — 55 pounds nitrate soda. 220 pounds fine raw bone. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 234.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 40.33 Total yield, per acre 274 99 No. 34. — Mo fertilizer. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 258.50 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 3300 Total yield, per acre 291 50 No- 35- — 55 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 245.66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 58.66 Total yield, per acre 304. 32 No 36. — no pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 264.00 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 55-co Total yield, per acre 319- 00 No. 37. — 220 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 266.71 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 44.00 Total yield, per acre 310.71 No. 38. — 440 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 280.50 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 55 or> Total yield, per acre 335- 50 172 The New Potato Cultui^e. No. 39. — 8S0 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 238.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 31 i5 Total yield, per acre 269 49 No. 80. — 220 pounds nitrate soda. (Same as No. 37.) Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 293.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes , 36.66 Total yield, per acre 3:9 99 (Fifteen rotten potatoes.) No. 81. — 220 pounds nitrate /^/flj/^ (Same as No. 27.) Yield, per acre. Large potatoes . . ^00 66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 47-66 Total yield, per acre 348. 32 (Eighteen rotten potatoes.) No. 82. — no pounds nitrate soda, no pounds ■Q.\ix2iXQ. fotash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 313-50 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 45.83 Total yield, per acre ; 359-33 (Eight rotten potatoes.) No. 83. — no pounds nitrate soda. no pounds sulphate potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 287.83 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 62,33 Total yield, per acre 350. 16 (Nine rotten potatoes.) No. 84. — no pounds nitrate /Tq 85,_i 10 pounds nitrate /^^'a^^. no pounds raw bone, no pounds dissolved bone. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 3i3-5o ^ Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 77oo Total yield, per acre 39o.5o (Nine rotten potatots.j j^o. 87. — no pounds nitrate soda. no pounds sulphate ^^/a^/z. 1 10 pounds dissolved bone. no pounds raw bone. Yield, par acre. Large potatoes . . • • • 333-66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 62.33 Total yield, per acre 395-99 (Nine rotten potatoes. ) j^o. 88 —no pounds sulphate /^^^z^/^. no pounds nitrate /<9/^^-5-/^ Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 271.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes •■■• 7^-50 Total yield, per acre • • • 342- 3 (See No. 84.) (Nine rotten potatoes.) ^o 89.— 1:0 pounds sulphate /^/«j/^ no pounds nitrate soda. (See No. 83.) Yield, per acre. Large potatoes • • 315-33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 4^-33 Total yield, per acre 355- (Three rotten potatoes.) ij^ The New Potato Culturt. No. 90.— 220 pounds sulphate /^/aj-//. 220 pounds xnixzX.^ potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 324.50 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 51-33 Total yield, per acre 375-83 (Six rotten potatoes.) No. gi. — 220 pounds sulphate /^/cj-/;. 220 pounds nitrate soda. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 353^3 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 60 50 Total yield, per acre 414-33 (Seven roiten potatoes.) No. 92. — No fertilizer . Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 293.33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 4033 Total yield, per acre 333-66 (Three rotten potatoes.) No 93. — 440 pounds svX'^'hzXQ. potash . 440 pounds nitrate potash. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 315- 33 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes .... 56.83 Total yield, per acre 372. iG (Two rotten potatoes.) No. 94. — 440 pounds nitrate soda. (Compare with No. 38.) Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 306 ji) Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 66. co Total yield, per acre 372. lO (Two rotten potatoes ) No. 95. — 440 pounds xAixz-iG. potash. 440 pounds nitrate soda. 440 pounds sulphate /tV<7j/4. Yield, per acre. Large potatoes 355-66 Yield, per acre. Small potatoes 29 33 Total yield, per acre 3S4.99 Experiments. 175 Contrary to expectation, there was not a rotten potato iu this trench. It is noteworthy also that the average size of tubers was the largest, with the fewest small ones. VINE GROWTH, As in the previous series, the condition of the vines was estimated on June 14, 10 denoting the maximum and one the minimum of size and vigor : No. 21 3K No. 33 ^Yi No. 85 6 "22 6 "34 5 "86 7 " 23 s% " 35 5>^ " 87 -jyi " 24 5% " 36 5^ " 88 5^ " 25 5J^ "37 6 "89 5% " 26 6 " 38 ^Yx " 90 6 " 27 6Y " 39 5% " 91 6X " 28 7 " 80 s% " 92 sH " 29 6X " 81 6 " 93 6^ " 30 6 " 82 6 " 94 6% "31 6>'s "83 6 "95 7 " 32 634: " 84 6)4 In this series the average product of the unfertilized trenches, Nos 20, 34 and 92, was 284.77 bushels to the acre. The position of the trenches from Nos. 20 to 39 was next to the highest land (Mapes); the position of the rest, Nos. 80 to 95, was nearly the lowest. No, 20 (no fertilizer) yielded 229 bushels ; No. 34, 291 bushels, and No. 92, 333 bushels, the yield generally increasing as the land declined, whether the trenches were fertilized or not. Now, let us compare the average yield of the trenches of the higher land (Nos, 20 to 39) with the average yield of the trenches of the lower land (Nos. 80 to 95, in- clusive). The average yield of trenches from Nos. 20 to 39, inclusive (higher land), was at the rate of 28^ bushels to the acre. The aver age yield of trenches from Nos. 80 to 95, inclusive (lower land), was at the rate of 368 bushels to the acre, an increase of 84 bushels to the acre for the lower and (supposably) moister land. When we began to write up the results of this laborious series of potato experiments, we were fearful that they would prove contradic- tory and worthless. The known variability of the land did not at all account for the gradual increase in the crop as we proceeded from the iy6 The New Potato Culture. northeast (higher land) to the southwest (lower land), because the grading had been done in such a way that, though marked differences in yield were to have been looked for as between two contiguous trenches, yet in a breast of 25 trenches, the average yield ought not to have been materially affected by the grading, since the same soil was used — some little parts (dishes) receiving more than other parts, some (hillocks) receiving less or none. The increasing yield as we go from northeast to southwest is not however, altogether attributable, it may be assumed, to a propor- tionate declination of the land. A careful examination shows that the subsoil of the northeastern portion is more sandy, and that 30 feet further north it runs into a pure, seemingly bottomdess sand ; while as we go to the south the subsoil becomes hard, and at a depth of three feet almost impenetrable. It is plain, then, that if the entire plot were level, the soil would retain moisture more and more as we go toward the southwest. It must not be forgotten that the season was the driest of many years. The reader may argue that in the moister portions of the plot, \hQ, fertilizers ought to have given larger yields, or a greater difference between the fertilized and unfertilized trenches. It is not difficult to understand, however, that while an exceedingly small quantity of soil moisture might support the plant, it might ytt be insufficient to dissolve the applied chemicals and render them fit for food. AVERAGES, The seven nitrate of soda trenches yielded an average of 320.18 bushels to the acre ; the six nitrate of potash trenches an average of but 280.14 bushels to the acre — a difference in favor of the nitrate of soda of about 40 bushels per acre. But the nitrate of soda trenches were Nos. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 80, 94, while the nitrate of potash trenches were further towards the northeast which, we are assuming, is less retentive of moisture than the trenches toward the southwest. The nitrate of potash trenches were Nos. 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 81. If we compare nitrate of potash trench No. 81 with nitrate of soda trench No. 80 (which were side by side), we shall see that the nitrate of potash outyielded the nitrate of soda by 18.33 bushels per acre. Trench No. 94, which received 440 pounds of nitrate of soda (twice as much as No. 81, which received 220 pounds of nitrate of potash) Experifnents. 177 yielded 372.16 bushels, or 23.80 bushels more than the nitrate of potash, but its position was 13 trenches nearer the lowest (or south- western) portion of the field. The interested reader may readily make further comparisons for himself, if he M-ill but bear in mind that the first breast of trenches begins with No. i and ends with the last tobacco trench. No. 24 ; and that this is the highest and driest land, growing moister from No. i to 24, or from east to west. As we further go to the south the trenches progress regularly in number u}) to the last. No. 102, which occupied the lowest part, the southwestern boundary of the entire plot. The whole difference, however, between the highest (northeast) part and the lowest (south- west) part is not over 18 inches. It miy be noted that the potatoes fertilized with snuff were brighter and smoother than the others. As there was no scab, it could not be ascertained if the snuff acted to prevent it. The number of what we considered large or marketable potatoes to a bushel of 60 pounds was 279, Tlie Rural Blush, as in the preceding experiments of these kinds, v/as the potato used. The above series of fertilizer experiments fairly point to one con- clusion, if to no other, viz., that the drought may be such that while there is insufficient moisture in the soil to dissolve chemical fertilizers and render them soluble, there may still be soil moisture enough to give a certain amount of nutriment to the plants. There is no such thing as plant growth without moisture ; but it is easy to see, as we have said, that an amount of moisture sufficient to keep the plant alive and growing might be quite insufficient to dissolve applied potash, nitrate or phosphate. It is quite within the experience of many of our readers that farm manure — even when applied in gen- erous quantity — has failed to give a large crop. In such cases, the failure is usually and justly attributed to the season. When fertilizers are used freely and the crop fails during a dry season, many are too apt to attribute the failure to the fertilizers and not to the drought. CHAPTER XVIII, Another talk about the use and effects of chemical fertilisers. Benefits of the 'Bordeaux mixture diluted. On page 128 several talks between farmers and the writer are placed before the reader. Since the first edition appeared, other farmers have visited us, and the following questions and answers embody such portions of our talks regarding potatoes as have not been well emphasized in other portions of this book : Question. You have been experimenting with potatoes for 15 years or more. As a consequence, do you feel competent to instruct your average potato-growing neighbor ? Answer. Yes, of late years our regular crop has far exceeded the crops of our neighbors. Q. With a proportionate increase in the cost of production ?. A. With less than a proportionate increase in the cost of produc- tion. Q. What new experiments do you propose to try this season ? A. None. Q. How is that ? A. We have tried all the rational (and many irrational) experi- ments we could think of, again and again, and there seems to be no reason for continuing them further. Q. You fancy, then, that you "know it all ?" A. We fancy that we do not know what further experiments to make with a view to a further economical increase of crop. Q. For your soil or for all soils ? A. Among the results of our experiments, it has been found that different soils require different treatment. Q. In all respects ? A. No, in minor respects. (178) Cheynical Fertilizers. 179 Q. Thea ill all essential respects, you think you know how to piu- dace a maximum crop of potatoes at a minimum cost ? A. With the present data for investigation, yes. Q. That is saying a good deal ? A. It is simply saying that we have tried every method of culture ue can think or hear of, often enough tj have received what we be- ieve to be trustworthy answers to the questions asked. It is perhaps lore a matter of belief than of absolute proof. Q. To what do you attribute the fact that your crops are much 1 Lrger than those of your neighbors ? A. To the fact that they do not fit their land properly, and are un- »v lling to use suitable fertilizers in sufficient quantity. Q. And wherein is their fittting inadequate ? A. The surface soil alone is properly fitted. Q. Hence it is you favor your trench system ? A. Yes. That helps to fit the soil to a depth of six inches or more, the same as the surface soil is fitted by harrowing. It is more important that the soil in which the tubers and roots form and grow nhould be mellow and uniform than that the surface soil, in which they do «^/ grow, should be so prepared. Q. Do you prefer fertilizers to farm manure ? A. Yes, for the one reason that farmers cannot afford, or think liiey cannot, to use farm manure in sufficient quantity to supply the needs of the potato during every stage of its growtfi. A maximum crop of potatoes means an ample supply of potato food, and this means a richer soil than one farmer in 100 has. Q. And do you think an ample supply of fertilizers can be fur- nished at a less cost with the same effect ? A. It can be supplied at a less cost for this year and next, and |)erhaps a third or fourth. Of two soils equally rich — one with fer- tilizer, the other with manure — we should much prefer the latter. Q. Why ? A. Because it exists in an equally soluble and less caustic form. Q. What do you mean by "caustic ?'' A. Comparing grape wine and grape brandy, the latter is the more caustic form of liquor. Q. Do you regard fertilizers, then, as stimulants ? I So The New Potato Culture. A. Not at all in the usual sense of the word. All foods in a con- densed form become stimulants — many nutritious foods become poisons if sufficiently concentrated. Q. Why do not farmers use fertilizers in sufficient quantity upon potatoes ? A. For several reasons. The cost is startling. Again, many farmers use inferior fertilizers because the price is low, which means cither that the fertilizer is low in soluble plant food, or that the food exists in a form regarded by the plant as ' '- persotia tion grata.'''' Farm- ers can not know just what fertilizers will give them maximum crops until they have learnt by experiment. Potatoes, as other plants, must be supplied with an abundance of suitable food. If the soil is deficient in potash and rich in phosphate and nitrogen, then an ample supply of potash renders the soil productive to its fullest capacity. If, however, this farmer buys an " ammoniated superphosphate," and fnids that it does not increase the crop, he must not assume that all fertilizers are frauds, as many farmers do. Q. You emphasize the importance of a sufficient supply of fertilizer. What amount do you consider a sufficient quantity ? A. That depends wholly upon the fertility of the soil. Upon our experiment land, impoverished by many years of cropping with little or no manure, we have found that 1,750 pounds to the acre of a high- grade potato fertilizer could be economically used. Q. What size of potato seed have you found it advantageous to use, and how deep should the seed be placed, and how far apart ? A. The size of seed depends upon the size of the tuber and the number of eyes. The fewer the eyes to a tuber, the larger the pieces may be. We use from two to three vigorous eyes, with all the flesh ])ossible. In our loamy soil, planting in trenches four to five inches is about the right depth. The distance apart also depends upon the variety used. Theoretically, potatoes should be planted so far apart as to admit of a full natural development of the tops. Early Ohio may, therefore, be planted closer than Beauty of Hebron or White Elephant. Q. Have your experiments taught you how to produce maximum crops in a droughty season ? A. No, that could be done only by irrigation. But we have found Chemical Fertilisers. i8i that our method insures protection against drought to a certain ex. tent. Our experiments have shown again and again that the finest tops, as a rule, give the largest yield of tubers. Any system of treat- ment, therefore, which increases the growth above ground may be trusted to increase the growth beneath. The trench conserves mois- ture, and this moisture retains the fertilizer or food in a soluble form longer than when it is applied in the usual way, that is, "in the hill,' or sown broadcast. Vigorous tops mean a vigorous root system, and vigorous roots penetrate the soil further and deeper in all directions than the feebler root system of smaller tops. As the root system in- creases, so do the tuber-bearing stems increase. Q. Is the quality of potatoes influenced by the manure used ? A. The work done here has never been designed to answer that question. From careful experiments carried on at the New Jersey Experiment Station, the answer would be emphatically " yes." It was found that both manure and fertilizer increase the water content of the tuber ; that thefonjt of potash used influences both the water and starch contents, kainit giving the most water and least starch ; next came yard manure, muriate and, finally, sulphate of potash, the last giving the highest content of starch excepting only the tubers raised without manure of any kind. As to quality, the difference in flavor was marked. Those raised with sulphate were decidedly su- perior to all others ; those from yard manure next, from the muriate next and, finally, those from the kainit ranked lowest. As io yield, muriate stood first, sulphate next, kainit next and yard manure last. Q. Have you derived any benefit from spraying with the Bordeaux mixture ? A. Not from the Bordeaux mixture of the original recipe. It in- jured the vines and decreased the yield ; but from a greatly diluted Bordeaux mixture, unmistakable benefits were derived. A plot of 33 feet square was selected for the trial. Half was sprayed three times during the season — in June, July and August — the other half not sprayed. The vines of the latter were somewhat injured by bhght, and died ten days earlier than the sprayed half, which was not touched by blight, Q. What formula did you use ? A. The simple formula of one ounce each of copper sulphate and quick lime to every gallon of water. 1 82 TJic New Potato Ciilturc. p. Did you use Paris-green separately ? A. No, with the Bordeaux. One level teaspoonful of Paris-green was stirred in every pail (two gallons) of water. Q. How did you apply the mixture ? A. With a hand " aquapult" pump, using a rubber tube lo feet long and a Vermorel or Cyclone nozzle. We preferred the former, because it is readily freed of any obstruction. CHAPTER XIX Brevities. The objections to hilling up, Mr. Hirsey answered. Difficulty in crossing potatoes. So-called hybrid seeds are not hybrids. Hybrids between the strawberry tomato and the potato. Prof, bailey's grafting experiments. Why plaster is sometimes effective, sometimes not. Questions answered. VE cannot in these days afford to plant potatoes with deep eyes, either for home use or market. It would be but Httle trouble to save out the best tubers of the most productive hills while digging the crop ; and if by so doing we can preserve the original vigor of the varieties, the trouble will be well expended. We find that there are 673 potatoes of average size in a barrel. If the potato pieces are planted in drills one foot apart, the drills l:>eing three feet apart, 14,520 will be required for an acre, or about 4 J barrels, if we make five pieces of each potato. What does the farmer hill up for ? Some do it to kill the weeds. Others hill up to increase the crop. This may increase the yield, but it also increases the proportion of small potatoes. The green stems, covered up by hilling, send out roots and tuber-bearing stems from joints or adventitious buds. The hill accomplishes only what the trench accomplishes far better, by giving a depth of soil below, instead of above, and a more uniform pressure on all sides to be overcome by the rapidly growing tuber. The practice of hilling up corn and potatoes is not only robbing Peter to pay Paul, but is worse than that. It is both robbing Peter (183) 184 The New Potato Cultuj^e. and injuring Paul. When corn is a foot high, the roots extend a foot on either side ; /. ^'., the plant is the center of a circle of roots at least two feet in diameter. Now, in order to hill up, we take away the soil from these root extremities to heap it about the stems where it is not needed for any purpose whatever. When the roots extend half-way or more between the hills or drills, it is worse. The roots are then in a measure deprived of moisture, food and shelter, while many of the ro .t ; ^ hi ;h tLo p'.ant r_ecd£ iie severed. The true seeds of potatoes will germinate if three years old. Be careful not to plant frost-bitten seed potatoes. Avoid ploughing potato land when it is not dry enough to crumble as it is plowed. It is a good plan, for late potatoes, to sow blood, nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia not until the sprouts s.how themselves above the ground. Cultivate shallow if you would avoid the worst effects of dry weather. Mr. Edmund Hirsey, of Massachusetts, has carried on a series of experiments with potatoes for several years. He arrives at some cor.clusions which are at a variance with the results of my own experiments. "The form of a potato," he says, " cannot as a rule be changed by the selection of any particular form." This may be true of well established varieties, but it is not true as to the selec- tion of the tubers which true seed produces. We have repeatedly selected differently shaped potatoes produced by the seedling plant, establishing varieties widely differing from each other in shape. (See Chap. XV.) Again he says : " The seed-end of a potato is better to plant than the stem end, because the plants start with more vigor and produce larger and more potatoes." Yes, the seed end does start earlier and more vigorously than the stem-end. It is true also that seed-end pieces will produce more potatoes than stem -end pieces — but they are smaller. The greater the number of eyes planted, the greater the number of sprouts and, consequently, the more potatoes are formed. But they are necessarily smaller. He further says that "two distinct varieties will not mix in the hill." This is a postulate and scarcely needs to be stated. There will always be farmers who Brevities. 185 believe that potatoes do mix in the hill, as well as farmers who believe that wheat changes to chess, oats to barley, etc. But until absolute proof of such changes has been furnished, we must be guided by what we know of the laws of plant growth. I HAVE never been able to cross potato flowers, for the reason that in spite of diligent search I have never been able to gather any pol- len, though no less than an average of 100 different varieties have been raised in small quantity every season. And yet, some of our seedsmen offer '-hybrid potato seed " for 25 cents the packet. In the technical sense, theie is no such thing as "hybrid" potato seed. If we were to cross a tomato or an alkekengi and a potato, the seed would then be true hybrids. But crosses between different kinds of potatoes produce cross-breeds merely, and it is a more correct word to use. Hundreds of new seedlings are announced from year to year, with both parents given in a positive way. We may reasonably believe that the parentage of many of our new potatoes, and the hybridizing of these "hybrid" seeds, are merely guessed at or are altogether fictitious. Of course, " seed balls" do form, and in such cases there must be pollen. But to find pollen and to apply it so that a cross is known to have taken place, is a task that no one can afford to do, unless, in place of 25 cents a packet, he were to charge 50 cents or more per seed. Speaking of 'hybrid ' potatoes, the following bit of experience may interest the reader. An attempt was first made to -cross the tomato upon the potato. This failed. Pollen from the alkekengi, or strawberry tomato, was then applied to the pistils of the potato flower, and one seed ball was the result. The several seeds were planted, four of which sprouted and grew. The plants resembled po- tatoes in all ways save two ; they did not blossom, and in the fall it was found, upon digging them up carefully, that not a tuber, nor the sign of one, had formed. In this connection, the results of grafting potato cions upon tomato stems, and vice versa, as effected by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, during the past season, may be mentioned. The potato plants with tomato tops produced good tubers even when no potato sprouts were allowed to grow from the root. The tomato tops in some cases produced good, large tomatoes also — two diverse crops 1 86 The Neic Potato Culture. frcm cue plant. But the one which produced most tomatoes bore no potatocG — the vigor had evidently all gone to the tomato fruits. The tomato plants with potato tops grew nicely, but produced no tubers. But the potato tops blossomed freely, but no balls set. I:,^ places where good wood ashes are cheap, farmers should never l.uy chemical fertilizers until the ashes have been tried. A first-rate supplement to unlcached ashes is fine raw-bone flour, being strong in phorcihoric acid, in which ashes are weak, and furnishing nitrogen, of which ashes are destitute. Through all times plaster has been regarded by many as a direct, and very valuable plant-food, especially for clover. By others it has been regarded as of no value, for the good reason that no visible effects followed its use. In the light of more recent knowledge, such contradictory phenomena are apparently well explained. Plaster sets the fixed or insoluble potash of the soil free. That is to say, the sulphuric acid of the plaster combines with the fixed potash of the soil, forming sulphate of potash, which is soluble. So, too, it may act upon the carbonate of ammonia of the soil, which is volatile, fixing it as sulphate of ammonia, until as such it is used by the grow- ing crop or passes through the soil in the drainage water. In most cases, it is probable that the lime of the gypsum has little, if any, effect in increasing the crop upon soils which are already supplied with lime, and yet it is often upon just such soils that gypsum shows at its best. In such soils there is little doubt that potash, either in unleachcd ashes, muriate or sulphate of potash, would have a more immediate and telling effect upon the crop. In this case the needed element (potash) is given to the soil in a soluble condition ; in the other, the plaster splits into two parts, so to say, the lime becoming fixed and the sulphuric acid seizing upon the inert potash, rendering it soluble. It will be seen that plaster is therefore what may fairly be called a stimulant — an excitant. How greatly soever it may increase the crop one season, we may look for a proportionate decline the next. THE KILLING OF POTATO TOPS LESSENS THE YIELD. D. F. S. Henderson, Texas. — Docs the killing of potato tops by late spring frosts diminish the yield or deteriorate the quality of the Brevities. I.S7 quently killed by frosts. We get a crop, of course, but is'iit it smaller than it would have been had not the frosts killed the tops ? Answc7\ — There can be httle doubt that the killing of potato tops by frost or any other cause lessens the yield materially and also im- pairs' the quality of the tuber. If the tops were killed a second time by the frost, what would be the effect ? It is true that potatoes may be raised from cuttings continuously. The cut tuber used for seed is itself a cutting. But the cutting must be a strong, healthy cutting. A plant injured by frost is weakened in every part. FERTILIZING POI'AIOES. C. J. M., Tom's River, N. J. — In the Rural trench system the fer- tilizer is applied above and below the "seed." Do you in general favor "hill and drill " or broadcast fertilizing? Am I wrong in broadcasting valuable (costly) fertilizers, that is, do I fail to get the most profitable immediate returns ? Answei'. — Above or below or both as one chooses. I have, as a rule, favored broadcast fertilizing. For potatoes I favor confining the fertilizers to the treitches if one foot or more wide. This is an opinion not founded on experiment. For corn, wheat and all crops the roots of which extend from row to row and plant to plant, we have no doubt that broadcast fertilizing is the most economical thing to dp. We find that the viass of roots of potatoes grow in the trenches and that, therefore, if the trenches are three feet apart, they will get at least twice as much fertilizer as if the same gross amount were dis- tributed broadcast. • KEEPING POTATOES. W. O. F., Greensburg, Ind. — What is the best plan for keeping po- tatoes over winter, especially early potatoes for seed ? Ajiswa\ — In northern sections the commonest way is to store the ^ubers in cool, well ventilated cellars. Opinions vary as to whether the potatoes should be packed in large bins or in smaller lots in bar- rels or boxes, but it would seem that most growers store in large masses. It pays, as all agree, to shovel or handle the seed potatoes over several times during the winter. We have often thought that potatoes coull 1 e stored xcry successfully in sacks, which could be emptied and refilled once each month, or six weeks, during the winter. 1 88 The New Potato Culture Many of the large growers "se pits for storing. The pit illustrated at Fig. 15 is described by W. W. Tracy, of Detroit. The potatoes are pui into the pit as soon after being dug. as possible, when they are covered v/ith straw or corn stalks for a few days. They are then covered with boards and earth, the ends of the pit being. left open. Later the ends are closed, and a small amount of ventilation is .af- forded by means of a wisp of stravv, which extends up through the center of the covering to the open air. In the illustration, a repre- sents a pole supporting the boards ; b^ six inches of earth ; r, eight inches of manure ; d, six inches of earth ; r, eight inches of manure ; y, a straw ventilator, and g, a space of eight inches between potatoes and boards. lefei ^ ^ct LARGEST YIELDERS. E. P. N., Albany, N. Y. — What varieties would you select, as likely to give the greatest number of bushels to the acre ? Answci'. — Silver Lake, Everett, Summit, Jewell, Columbia, Charter Oak, Morning Star, Early Gem, Snowflake, Late Vermont, White Elephant, or late Beauty of Hebron, White Star, Burbank, Empire State, Home Comfort, Early Maine, Cream of the Field, Dakota Red, R. N.-Y. No. 2, Brownell's Winner, Corliss's Matchless, Bonanza, Late Hoosier, Montreal, Green Mountain, Hodgman's Seed- ling, Nott's Victor, Pearl of Savoy, Early Puritan, Rural Blush, Min- ister, Tonhosks, Crown Jewel, Polaris, Delaware. Not all of these Brevities. i8g are of good quality, as grown at the Rural Grounds, but the quality may be good in other soils. ABOUT POTATO PLANTING. J. H. N., Aft.on, N. Y. — I am going to plant about 14 acres of pota- toes en a sandy loam upland. The White Star and Burbank arc the kinds mostly raised in this section ; would you advise me to plant those or some other varieties, and what kind would you advise ? 2. How many bushels shall I allow to the acre, and if cut, how many eyes to the hill ? 3. Would w^ood ashes be good as a fertilizer ? A7iswcr. — I. It will be safer on large areas to plant potatoes that you know do well on other farms near you, than to try experiments. New varieties ought always to be tried on small areas. 2. If you cut medium sized potatoes, having a medium number of eyes, to two eyes, and plant one by three feet apart, you will need 12 to 15 bushels. Not less than two strong eyes. Give all the flesh possible. 3. Yes, a splendid fertilizer, but one-sided. On your land, add fine raw-bone flour — 400 pounds to the acre. HOW MUCH SEED POTATOES. J. V. C, Lysander, N. Y. — In planting potatoes for flat culture, how many bushels of seed are needed per acre ? Answer. — The above question cannot be answered definitely. All depends upon the size of the potato, the number of eyes to be planted, the number of eyes in the variety of potato and the distance apart. The best way to find out is to count the potatoes in a barrel, and multiply the number by the number of pieces each potato will give. Then estimate the distance apart at which ^'^- is proposed to plant. If to be planted one by three feet apart, i f, 520 pieces will be required for an acre. W. G. S., Benedict, N. Y. — i. Why have we no potato balls now ? Is it on account of the Colorado beetle ? 2. How do potatoes " mix " in the hill ? Answer. — i. It seems to be 1 law of nature that as we change plants to our needs or "improve" tht'.i as we may, they deteriorate in other ways. Thus double flowers are produced -at the cost of FlfTTiens r)n:l pi^'ils. Many fruits — annlt-s. pears, orpnopq foT-pvin-n^'-> 190 The Neiv Potato Culture. — as they are increased in size become seedless. We grow potatoes for the tubers, and the plants having been propagated by tubers through generations, their nature is changed. We produce larger tubers and more of them. The energy of the plants, which genera- tions ago was divided between tubers and seed balls, is now directed towards tubers entirely. 2. Potatoes do not " mix " in the hill. It is impossible. Any variation in potatoes that appears in the product c f the same seed potato, is owing to bud variation — just the same as any green-leaved plant is liable to produce a colored-leaved shoot. These are called "sports " forwant of a better word. It seems probable, that " sports" are really the cropping out of foreign blood or owin^; to natural or artificial crossing or hybridization, the effects cf which, though dormant for years, finally become potent through peculiar conditions. HIGH AND LOW-GRADE FERTILIZERS. An Old Farmer, Monroe County, N. Y. — In The Rural oi October 25, mention is made of "low-grade" and "high-grade'' fertilizcrG. I would esteem it a favor if you would tell me what I am to under- stand by these terms. Does the high-grade contain something that the low-grade does not contain, or is there more of some valuable in- gredient in the high-grade than in the low-grade, and if so, what is it ? Or is the difference due to the quality, or solul/ility, or availa- bility of the ingredients ? Please give us an illustraticn of a higl. and low-grade. article, telling just what each contain:, and the Aalue and cost of each. I believe you are right, but many of my neigh lors prefer the lovv--priced fertilizers. Some of them are using dissolved South Carolina rock phosphate, and say that it produces just as good results as the higher-priced article. But perhaps they are not using what you term a "high-grade " fertilizer. Ar.zzvcr. — Here is a forcible question — from an experienced farmer, too, "Why use a high-grade fertilizer?"' Because ( i) it costs no more than a low-grade for freight. Because (2) it costs no more to spread it on 5'our land. Because (3) it costs the firm lhr.t mixes it no more than to mix a low-grade. Because (4) the per cent, of plant- food ingredients is (as a rule) higher in high-grades than in low- Brt JI(,MK-MlXi.L) iERTILlZEKS. C. S. A., Lansing, Mich. — Does it pa}^ to buy the chemicals and mrx them at home ? * A7ts'wa\ — Yes and no. Nothing pays that is not managed with in- telUgence. It is better to buy of a reputable firm, at a fair price, a standard brand of fertilizer than to buy a lot of coarse chemicals and nitrogenous waste and to mix them hap-hazard. It is probably cheaper in the rush of spring work to buy factory-mixed goods than to stop to order chemicals in small quantities and to mix them. In some places, and at exceptional times, factory-mixed goods may be sold at prices so low as to make it altogether more profitable to buy them than to buy and mix fertilizer chemicals. On the other hand, many farmers find it much to their advantage to buy for cash the same fertilizer chemicals that are bought by man- ufacturers, and to mix them for themselves, instead of buying for cash the factory-mixed goods. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES CLAIMED FOR HOME-MIXING ? a. It is easier to prove the quality of separate chemicals than of the mixture of them. It is said that it is quite beyond the chemist's power to certainly detect inferior forms of nitrogen, for instance, in a mixed fertilizer, but it is certainly very easy to detect them in sul- phate of ammonia, cotton-seed meal, dried blood and the like. b. By mixing his own fertilizers the farmer can perfectly adapt his fertilizer to his idea of the requirements of his land and crop, and any intelligent farmer is the best or only judge of these requirements. That opinions differ greatly as to the best mixture for any special crop will be very evident to any one who compares the composition of the leading brands of fertilizers specially designed for the potato or the onion crop, for instance. The chance to vary his formula and note the differences that result on the same field in the same year is worth not a little to any man who manages his farm " with ancient sinew and with modern art." c. It IS easier for farmers whose land ard crops are different, to club together and make an order for fertilizer chemicals large enough *I am indebted to Dr. E. H. Jenkins, of the Connecticut Lxperiment Station, for the ar.rv.T- t"; this rucstion. 192 The New Potato Culture. to secure wholesale rates, than it is to agree on one or two brands of factory-mixed goods which they will order in considerable quantities. d. Commercial fertilizers on most farms are not a substitute for manure, but a supplement to it, and it is often profitable to add to the dressing of manure only a single fertilizing ingredient, e. g., nitrogen to give an earlier start, phosphoric acid to favor early ripening, or potash to supply a known deficiency of the soil. This can be done with fertilizer chemicals, not with ready-mixed fertilizers. e. With ordinary business care in' searching the market, buying for cash, buying early before the usual sharp rise in chemicals takes place with the opening of the spring trade, mixing the chemicals on the days when out-of-door work cannot be done, while the help on the farm must be paid for just the same — under these conditions home- mixing has been found by many farmers to pay a large profit. Farm- ing can be successful only w^hcn business methods are used in every branch. The competition is close and the profits are small in Xew England farming, but so they are in every kind of business no less than in farming. The per cent, of really successful farmers is very small, but this is just as true of every other line of business. Care- ful study of the markets he buys and sells in and that he may buy and sell in will generally pay a farmer better than exclusive attention to the production of hi? crops. INDEX. PACK A-mmonia salts alone 65 Ashes as a fertilizer 186 "beetles, picking them off 148 Bone, Raw 132 Bordeaux mixture, Benefits pf . 181, 182 " " What to apply with 182 Brevities 183 Bud variation. What is known as 141 Gtiemical Fertilizers, A talk of use and effects of 178 " " Sufacient supply of , 180 Crops, large, wanted, use an excess of plant food 93 Crossing, Difficulty about 159 Experiment Stations 42 Eyes, blind. How to detect 144 " Potato 136 " what they are 136 Fertilizer above or below ttie seed 7'9, 187 " Chemical same aa manure 133 " Complete 47 " " a maximum crop 56 " constituents needed by land. How to find out 125 " experiments 52 High-grade 132, 190 " How much may be profitably used 73 " ingredients, Supplying more than crops require, folly 90 tables 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59 " under or over seed pieces, ' 79, 187 " " seed pieces. Difference in favor 82 Fertilizers alone, large crops 63 " best made up different sorts of plant food 132 '■ character represented in the plant 62 " chemical, A talk with farmers on 128 " com aiercial. Use of, money spent for food not needed .... 88 ** Farmers should study the science of 132 " different, Effects of 69 " " " Sir J. B. Lawes's experiments .,,,,. 6X (193) 194 '^^^ New Potato Culture. PAGE Fertilizers different, Experiments with 47 " High and low grade „ , , 132, 190 " Home mixed 191 " " " do they pay 192 " How money is thrown away on 127 " Increased quantities, effects 70, 95 " " " tables 96, 97 •' one-sided, low priced, Harm done by 92 " on variable soil. Effects of different quantities 75 " used by Mr. Minch 37 " -ys. manures for potatoes 69 Food, Perfect must be supplied .....'. 128 Grafting the potato and tomato . 185 Handling 145 Hilling up. Objections to 149 Hybrid between potato and alkekengi 185 " seeds not hybrid 185 Land impoverished, Increased quantities of fertilizer 70 " " that needs complete fertilizer, how much to use . . 73 " of the plots 60 " short in nitrogen, use fertilizers with high rate nitrogen 92 " what it requires. How to find out 125 Lawes, Dr 42 Lime as a preserver 145 " superphosphate alone 65 " to bring up the land - 125 " Use of, in the soil 130 Machinery, Digging by 146 Manure, Concentrated and farm, better names 144 " Farm 48 " " and chemical fertilizers, difference 134 " " concentrated 134 What is 133 Manures, different, Effects of 69 ' ' Mineral alone, large crops 63 Moisture, Method of conserving by trench system . 44 Mulch, A new, how prepared 105 " experiments 105 " Straw for potatoes 56 " Valley 105 Nirate of soda alone an ill-balanced fertilizer for potatoes 93 " " " yield of potatoes 93 <' " use of, Mr. Harris's criticism 87 " " " " " " reply 91 " " with corresponding supply of minerals 92 Index. 195 PAGE NitratG of soda, writers advocating the use of 87 Nitrogen and phosphoric acid needed, buy nitrogen in cheapest and bestf orm 83 " easy to apply top dressing 99 " effect in varying quantities 95 Effects of 47 " Farmers not to depend upon alone 98 " Gentle and conservative in the use of 95 " its effects when applied alone, 87 " not more valuable than potash and phosphoric acid 96 " only for one season 99 " Use blended forms of 93 " used without regard to soil 96 Nitrogenous manures alone. Negative result of 65 Paris green and plaster preferred 148 " " water, Objections to 148 " for potato beetles, Quantity mixed with plaster 84 Phosphoric acid, Effects of . . 47 Plant growth without moisture 177 Plants require food adapted to their growth 126 Plaster, Causes of variable effects of 186 Poisoning 147 Potash, Effects of 47 Potato balls, why so few 189 " contest, how it came about 15 " " Judges' report 18 " " plot 15 ♦' " " attack of flea beetles 17 ** " " notes of progress 16 " " " previous treatment 18 " " result 18 " " second 20 " " " kinds planted 22 " " " yield 22 ♦' " women's prizes awarded 39 " crop, conserving moisture by trench method 44 " " Importance of water to the . 43 '* cultivation, avoid packing soil 34 " " failures, instructive 20 " " on a larger scale 24 " culture, drought, to guard against .26 ♦' " fertilizers used by Mr. Minch 37 " " in half barrels 100 ♦' " " " preparation of soil, water, etc 101 " " " " yield 102 " " level 33 196 The New Potato Culture. wLiE " " Mr. Minch's yield, how obtained 37 " " on small plots, remarks 31 " " yielding medium for growth 33 - " Dakota Red, large yield 40 " Everitt, many eyes . . 123 " experiments at Rothamsted in succession ,..,.. Gl " " barrel in garden soil 100 " " at Rural Grounds, live scries 1-19-182 Potato experiments, barrel in pure sand ... lOO " . " " ^ garden soil, 34 sand 100 " " " " " 3^ cut straw „ .100, " " largest yield .56 " " on different land . 52 " " third year's tr.ial on different land 57 " eyes 130 " " blind, to detect 144 " " many, growth of vine 117 " " what they are 136 " fertilizer experiment tables 5U, 53, 54, 55, 50, 58, 59 " fertilizers of the day too low in nitrogen 98 " food, ample supply of 179 " growing cramped space for 119 " growth 117 " many-eyed, growth of vine 117 " nitrogen in the juice • • 67 " " taken up by the plant 66 " number of eyes a guide to planting 11 7 " to plot, half acre, fertilizers used 25 " mulch 27 " Nitrogen applied 28 " seed pieces 27 " yield 28 " " of poor soil 26 plots land of GO " which yields most 48 raising, usual system 119 seed and stem ends, absurd names IIG " cut to single eyes, the distance to plant . 108 " cylindrical pieces 112 " flesh to each eye for profitable crop Ill " pieces, different number of eyes 110 " " sizes, different 110 " " variously treated before planting 102 " planting . . 187 Index. 197 page! Potato seed, Selection of ^^^• " " size determined by number and vigor of eyes 120 u .c of 120, 180 " " whole ■'■■'^■'- " " " bad advice ^^^ " seedlings, care of ^^° " skins cut to single eyes 1^1 " starch in tbe ^^ " tests, difference between small plots and whole fields 35 " " on small areas ^* " tops, analyses of ^*??t " vines, growth of 155, 160, 166, 169, 175 Potato tops, any injury to decreases the yield i86 " " Immense " tubers, analyses of ^"f " yields as indicated by vines 59 " " computing, method 1^' " " heavy by trench method ^^ " " immense, two enemies " paying, to test : ^5 " " Reported, doubts expressed • i"' " " startling announcements 1* Potatoes, best yielders " Different fertilizers for experiments . . *;[_ " fertilized with snuff 1^' " Fertilizer over or under seed pieces '^ " Few-eyed, growth of J^^ " from seed '. \ ' '• ffrown in variable soil, effects of different quantities of ferti- ^ ,. 75 lizers " how much seed to acre ^^^ " in succession for 16 years . • ^1 153 keeping " mulching, a new way " Experiments in mulching . • J^^ " needs, farmer must find out |^^ " never mix in the hill on same soil for 9 years, Dr. Lawes's experiments 93 tt t4 a " " 12 years S4 planted eight inches deep u " four inches deep u u in four-inch trenches give largest yield 80 4. a " trenches of different depth, results 83 " " ten inches deep " quality of influenced by manure used • l«l 1 98 The New Potato Culture. PAGE Potatoes, what a crop removes from an acre 124 " yield of, nirate of soda alone used 93 Productiveness fixed by selection 141 Seed and stem ends, absurd names 116 " ball from Wall's Orange . . . 136 " balls or fruit 135 ' ' care of .... 144 " cut to single eye, distanced apart to plant "^OS " end vs. stem end 112 " experiments v^rith one piece 108 " " " two pieces 109 " " " three " 109 " " " four " 109 " Exposing it to light and sun before planting 144 " Fertilizer under or over, whiA 79 " Flesh to each eye for most profitable crop Ill " from productive hills, should we select 14o " how cut 49 " " much flesh to each eye Ill " " prepared 57 " pieces, different number of eyes 110 distance apart in proportion to size 113 cylindrical 112 of potato No. 2 115 sizes different 110 variously treated 102 " planting 137 " selecting the little tubers for 142 " selections of 137 " size determined by number and vigor of eyes 120 " " " " the variety 115 " skin of the potato Ill " whole potatoes HI " " " bad advice 122 Seedlings, care of ' 138 Soil, how to find out what it requires .125 " natural, yield of potatoes 77 " tests not needed 88 " what did it need? 52 " " it needs, how to get at 88 " impoverished, to lash into yielding 126 Straw mulch, how prepared 56 Sulphate of iron harmful 71 Tables 73, 74, 75, 76, 85 Trench, how to prepare 45 Judex, 199 PAGE Trench, method, about our , 35 " " advantages of 36 " " effects on of rainfall 36 " " means of conserving moisture 44 " " Mr. Cory's success with 40 *' *' " " yield 40 *' " objections to 45 " " origin of 13 " " trenches 20 " " yield of 40 Trenches, Average yield of the nitrate of soda 176 Tubers from the most productive hills 142 " save only those from most productive hills 143 Valley mulch 105 Varieties from the seed 136 Water for the potato crop 43 Yield, promise as indicated by vines 59 Yields, computing method • • 107 " large, doubts expressed 107 200 The New Potato Culture. INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Mulch, Valley 105 Potato, Blush, long-stemmed 122 " growth without moisture and decay = . = .,. .116 " growths 118 " pit, and how to construct 188 " seed lifted from a trench 117 " seedlings, first leaves 137 " " second leaves 138 " taken from barrel in cellar 118 Potatoes in the hill, ideal .... 119 " '* trench, ideal 119 " " " roots and tubers '.2L Seed ball of Wall's Orange potato 139 " piece, one eye only . Ill " potatoes, cylindrical pieces ... ^ .„„.... = ........ . 112 Tbe Grca^t Potzito Contest of tbe An)erica.p Agriculturist. In this Contest the Leading Potato Manures, including Mapes, Stock= bridge and Bradley, were used in competition with each other, and against Stable Manure, Mixed Chemicals, etc. "847X bushels of Potatoes with half ton of the Mapes Potato Manure on one measured acre." "The largest crop ever grown with fertilizers on manure." — From the Official Report of the American Agriculturist^ Dec, i8go. The Two Largest Crops Ever Grown with Fertilizers or Farm rianure were Grown with the flapes Potato flanure in Prize Contest, 1890, Cornpetition ip AroostooH County, A\^ine, op Ope A\easurecl Acre. Quantity Fertilizer. Bushels. Net Profit. Mapes Potato Manure 1,950 lbs 745 ^230.00 * * * *'s do. do 2,000 lbs 605 125.00 * * * *'s do. do 5,000 lbs 579 57.00 The American Agriculturist, in commenting on the Crop Contest in December, 1890, states: "Apparently it is not so much the quantity but the form in which the plant food is furnished that governs the yield, provided a reasonable amount is supplied." The Mapes Potato Mannre. "Its action Approaches Certainty and as near to it as any manure can be expected to do." — E. S. Carman, Riiral Nezv Yorker. ' ' The Mapes Potato Manure is certainly as good a fertilizer for the crop as we can expect to find." — J. T. Lovett, Orchard and Garden. ' ' Under average conditions, and in far the greater number of cases, we do not hesitate to name the Mapes Potato Manure as the Best and Most Profitable Fer- tilizer for Potatoes." — American Agriculturist. ' ' Our own experience with various commercial fertilizers has convinced us that with judicious use of the Mapes Manures worn-out lands can be Restored to Fertility Quicker, and with less expense, than in any other way." — American Ag- ricnltiiratist. Send for descriptive pamphlet on the Mapes* Manures — Potatoes, Truck, Fruits, Fruit Trees, Farm Crops. Mailed Free. t\dip^S Forroula and Peruvian Guano Co., 143 Liberty 5treet, fiew Yorh. COVERED LAYER OF VIBURNUM, SECOMD EDITION. THE NURS:BRY BOOK: A Complete Hand-Book of Propagation and Pollination. By L. H. BAILEY. This valuable little manual has been compiled at great pains. The author has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many experts in many directions. The book is ab- solutely devoid of theory and speculation. "^ y^\ \[ ^ J,fiLdJUUW/'^'Ji^//rc^/IIVI ldA'fZt^JILrniliI^ THE BoOK. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. Insecticide. Injurious Insects, with preven- tives and remedies. Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant Diseases, with preven- tives and remeaies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds etc., with preventives and rem- edies. Weeds. Waxes and Washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, Paints, etc. Seed Tables: i. Quantities re- quired for sowing given areas. 2. Weight and size of seeds of kitchen garden vegetables. 3. Longevity of seeds. 4. Time re- quired for kitchen seeds to germinate. Planting Tables: i. Dates for sowing or setting kitchen gar- den vegetables in different lati- tudes. 2. Tender and hardy vegetables. 3. Usual distance apart for planting fruits and vegetables. 4. Number of plants required to set an acre at given distances apart. Maturity and Yields: i. Time required for the maturity of kitchen garden vegetables. 2. Time required for the bearing of fruit plants. 3. Longevity of fruit plants. 4. Average yields of various crops. Method of Keeping and Stor- ing fruits and vegetables. Multiplication and Porpaga- tion of Plants: i. Method of multiplying plants. 2. Ways of grafting and budding, 3. Par- ticular methods by which vari- ous fruits are propagated. 4. Stocks used for various fruits. Standard Measures and Sizes : I . Standard flower pots. 2. Stan- dard and legal measures. 3. En- glish measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. XV. Tables of Weights and Meas- ures. XVI. Miscellaneous tables, figures and notes: i. Quantities of water held in pipes and tank. 2. Ther- mometer scales. 3. Effect of wind in cooling glass roofs. 4. Per cent, of light reflected from glass at various angles of in- clination. 5. Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. 6. Amount of various products yielded by giving quantities of fruit. 7. Labels. 8. Miscellanv, XVII. Rules: i. Loudon's rules of hor- ticulture. 2. Rules of nomencla- ture. 3. Rules for exhibition. XVIII. Postal Rates and Regulations. XIX. Weather Signs, and protection from frost. XX. Collecting and Preserving: I. How to make an herbarium. 2. Preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of plannts. 3. Keeping cut-flowers. 4. Perfumery. 5. How to collect and preserve insects. XXI. Elements, Symbols and Analy- ses : I. The elements and their chemical symbols. 2. Chemical composition of a few common substances. Analyses: (c) Fruits and Vegetables; Kb) Seeds and Fertilizers ; {c) Soils and Min- erals. XXII. Names and Histories: i. Vege- tables which have different names in England and America. 2. Derivation of names of vari- ous fruits and vegetables. 3. Names of fruits and vegetables in various languages. 4. Periods of cultivation and native coun- tries of cultivated plants. XXIII. Facts and statistics of horticul- ture and the vegetable kingdom. XXIV. Glossary of technical words used by horticulturists. XXV. Calendar. Price, cloth, $1.00 ; paper, SOc. THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, New York. HNNHLS OF HORTICULTURE. BY PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. As a work of reference for all students of plants and nature, this will be invaluable. No one who expects to keep up with the progress of the times can be without it. A feature of the volume is a census of cultivated plants of American origin, with dates of introduction and extent of variation under culture. This includes all ornamentals and all esculents, and will include hundreds of entries. It will form an invaluable contribution to the knowl- edge of the origin and variation of plants. The novelties of the year, tools and conveniences of the year, directories, lists of plant portraits, including all the leading journals of the world this year, recent horticultural literature, and other chapters, are each alone worth many times more than the cost of the book. 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The MOST TRUSTWORTHY of any paper of its class printed.— J. J. Harrison, President of the Storrs & Harrison Company. Everybody that /^ a body knows of the UNIQUE INDIVIDU- ALITY of The Rural along the lines of original experimental in- vestigation. — J. J. H. Gregory, The editor of The Rural New-Yorker has opened an entirely NEW FIELD OF INVESTIGATION, the possibilities of which cannot be conjectured. — Norman J. Colman. The Rural New-Yorker has DONE MORE FOR FARMERS than nine-tenths of all the land-grant Colleges and Experiment Stations. — New York Tribn7ie. We have seen on the farm of the editor of The Rural New- Yorker a crop of 134 bushels of shelled corn raised on one acre of land. — American Agriculturist. The Rural New-Yorker illustrates the PROGRESS made by the agricultural class, much of which is due to the inspiration of The Rural New-Yorker, and the papers which follow its example. — Lt. Gov. E. F. Jones. 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