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The Volume here offered to the public, had its origin in tlie belief, that a Historical and Geo- graphical View of the World, united in one work, and constructed on the plan here adopted, would be an acceptable addition to the already multi- plied stock of books for general reading. The plan of the work is original, and is believed to offer many advantages. It divides Ancient and Modern History into twenty distinct periods, and then gives a detail of the events during each of them. At the end of every period is a detailed biography of many eminent individuals who flou- rished during the same, and a sketch is given of the progress of the arts, of science, and of litera- ture. Hence a clear delineation of the advance- ment of human society, and its various revolutions, is exhibited ; and the reader can easily trace not only the particular history of each country and people, but can keep in view, at the same time, the grand movements of the nations, regarded as one common family. In order to perfect the plan originally contem- plated by the author, the volume has been in- creased far beyond what was at first anticipated — nearly one hundred pages have been added ; an advance which, it is believed, will be gratifying to the patrons of the work, and sufficiently attest the wish of the publishers to make it in every way satisfactory to them. The System of Modern Geography is of course a condensed one — but it will be found fully ade qaate to the purposes for which it is attached to the volume. On the whole, as no expense has been spared, and as the Author, whose reputation as a histori- cal writer is of the first order, has bestowed un- wearied pains, upon the work, we commit the volume to the public, with much confidence that it will be received with favour. CONTENTS, Introduction. Benefits to be expected from histoiy, Sources of history, .... General Division Ten periods, ..... Antediluvian World, Distinguished Characters, Deluge, History of Assyria, China, Distinguished Characters, Period I. Period 11. Period III. History of the Hebrews, Canaanites, Greece, Egypt, continued, China, continued. Distinguished Characters, History of the Israelites, Canaanites, continued, Phosnicians, Greece, continued, Egypt, continued, Lydia, Italy, Distinguished Characters, Period IV. Period V. History of the Israelites, continued, Greece, continued, Macedon, Assyria, continued, Egypt, continued, Phoenicians, continued, Carthage, Italy, continued. Distinguished Characters, History cf tlie Romans, . Greece, continued, Israelites, continued, Jews, Nineveh, Babylon, . . Medes, Persia, Lydians, continued, Egypt, continued, Hiistuiguislied CharacterSj , Period VI, 39 40 42 43 43 44 67 64 66 67 68 68 69 70 72 72 73 CONTENTS. Period VII. Histiiry of Greece, continued, . . 75 Romans, continued, . . 84 Egypt, continued, . . 89 Persia, continued, , 89 Macedon, continued, . 90 Distinguished Characters, Period Vni 91 History o. Greece, continued, . , 94 Rome, continued. . 100 Sicily, , 103 Syria, , . 109 Jews, continued, , 111 Egypt, continued, , 112 Parthia, , 113 China, continued, 113 J distinguished Characters, Period IX. 114 1 [btory of Rome, continued, , 117 Syria, continued. . 124 Jews, continued. . 125 Egypt, continued, . 126 Partiiia, continued, . . 126 IHstinguished Characters, Period X. 127 ICistory of Rome, continued. , 128 Judea, continued, . - . 147 Egj'^pt, continued, , 147 Parthia, continued, . 149 Distinguished Characters, , 149 General Views. Antediluvian World. — Surface of the Earth, Seasons, Population and Longevity, Rehgion, Arts and Sciences, Government, Commerce, : : : 154 Assyria, (including Babylonia) — Government and Laws, Religion, Customs, Learning, Arts, : : : : : : : : 157 Cfiina. — Geography, Government, Religion, Sciences and Arts, : : 160 Egypt. — Situation, Name and Division, Cities, Monuments and Works of Art, Government and Laws, M3^thology, Education, Domestic Habits, Manners and Customs, Literature Snd Arts, Trade, Language, : : : : 162 Slebreirs. — Remnins of Ancient Works, Cities, Religion, Government, Manners and Customs, Learning, Arts, Commerce, : : : : 167 Cauaariites. — Customs, Manners, Arts and Sciences, Religicai, : : 170 Greece. — Appearance and Face of the Country, Situation, Extent and Division, * Names, Interesting Localities, Cities, Government, Military Affairs, Naval Affairs, Religion, Literature, Arts, Private and Domestic Life, : : 171 Phoenicians. — Country, Cities and Remains, Navigation and Colonies, Sciences, Arts and Manufactures, Religion, : : : : : 193 /.j/t/mns.— Country, Cities, Character, Customs, • : : : : 194 Romans. — Country, its Name, Situation and Division, Interesting Localities, Capital of Italy, and Seat of the Roman Empire, Political State, Religion, Military Affiiirs, Fleets, Agriculture, Amusements and Public Spectacles, Education, Literature, Arts, Domestic Life and Manners, Foreign Commerce, 195 %?7a.— Situation and Cities, Character of the Ancient Syrians, Language, : 216 C'arfAorg-c.— Eji tent. Government and Character, : : ; : 217 Parlhia. — Situation, &c. : : : : : . : 217 Persia. — Extent and Situation, Education, Punishments, Military Art, : 217 Mythology of Ancient Nations, :::::: 219 Discoveries. Inventions, and Improvements of Early Ages, . . 223 INTRODUCTION. 1. The term History comprehends a record of all the remarkable transactions which have taken place among the human family. It is the cohected result of individual experience in every age and na- tion ; and is, consequently, a source of practical wisdom to legislators and rulers, and of profitable reflection to private persons. The benefits to be expected from history deserve a few remarks in detail. When it is written with a proper spirit, and in strict agreement with facts, there is scarcely any branch of letters so well calculated to furnish an agreeable re- laxation to the student ; to improve his understanding- and enlarg-e his stores of useful knowledge ; or, in general, to subserve the cause of morality and re- lig-ion in human society. From the infinite variety of aspects in which history presents thedealing-s of Providence, and fi'om the immense number of characters and incident3 which it bring-s into view, it becomes a source of perpetual interest and enjoy ment. The novelist, with all the license he possesses to imagine such physi- cal and moral combinations as he pleases, cannot clothe his subject with halt the attractions which a reflecting- mind attaches to true narrative. The view of past ag-es" fills the mind with a sublime and pleasing- melancholy. We dwell with deep and tender emotion on the actions, sufferings, and changes of those who were "bone of our bones, and flesh of our flesh" — we reg-ret that some of them should ever have lived to disorder the world with their crimes, and that others should have died, to leave it without the benefit of their con- tinued active labours. History improves our understanding*, and enlarg-es our stores of useful knowledg-e, by bringing to our assistance the experience of others — the expe- 1 ience of all time ; by making- us acquainted with human nature ; by delivering" the mind from big-otry and prejudice — from narrow and sectional feelings ; by opening- to us the springs of human affairs, and the causes of the rise, great' ness, decline, and fall of empires. There is something in the picture of the generation* before us, of their achievements and projects ; of their manners, pursuits, and attainments ; of their mode of thinking and acting; of their religion, government, and litera- ture ; which, going beyond the gratification of curiosity, or storing the mind with mere ideas, teaches us wisdom, by the comparison of their situation with our own, and by a great variety of interesting reflections naturally suggested to our thoughts. From the whole that history presents us, we deduce conclusions that have an important bearing on hum'an happiness and virtue. This we consider as the most signal benefit derivable from the record of past ages. It gives us, in connexion with revelation, which furnishes a most interesting- portion of the world's history, a correct estimate of life and of hviman nature in all its va- riety. It shows us how man has acted according to his own pleasure, whether iiprightly or wickedly, and, at the same time, how God has conducted tho train of events to bring about the purposes of His wisdom and grace. Speaking in the way of aphorism, history is a record of what God has done, and of what he has cither enal:)led or suffered man to do, on the stage of the world. Even, therefore, without the direct comments of the writer, which nevertheless are due, we can derive important instruction from it; and can hardly help being impressed with the grandeur or solemnity of the movements of Providence, in the destiny of nations. S INTRODUCTION. In short, it is here that we are supplied with the most rational entertainment, and our faculties of imagination, memory, reason, and judgment, are pvat to a most agreeable and salutary exercise. It is here we learn political science and philosophy ; we ascertain the necessity of government, the blessings of civili- zation, the progress of reason and society ; and especially it is here we see " a God employed In all the good and ill that chequer life," and in all the events that have a bearing on the interests of true religion. 2. History is derived to lis from various sources, differing in de- grees of authenticity, but in general illustrating and confirming one another. The principal sources are the narratives of writers, whose knowledge of the events they describe may have been acquired by personal observation ; inspection of public documents ; poetic le- gends ; and oral tradition. In addition to these, tliere are several other sources that are highly valuable, supplying the want of direct and regular narrative, such as monuments, ruins, coins, &c. Monuments on the surface of the ground, such as pillars and heaps of stono or earth, since they are intended to perpetuate the knowledge of important events, throw some light on the proper subjects of history. Ruins indicate the existence of arts and wisdom in ancient times, which arc still astonishing to the civilized world. They afford a knowledge of antiquity, which description, in many cases, could never supply. Such are the ruins thai exist in Egypt, the Holy Land, Greece, and Italy, in their cities, temples, aque ducts, columns, &c. ■ Coins and medals offer very valuable means of historical information. They have often been examined and studied for that purpose, are abundant, and some of them possess considerable antiquity. The oldest known, belong to the 5th century B. C. Inscriptions on marble may be mentioned as another source of history. The Arundelian marbles, so called from the earl of Arundel, who brought them from Greece into England, ai-e the most celebrated collection of marbles bearing inscriptions, and thus communicating knowledge of antiquity. The Chronicle of Paros is the most important of these inscriptions, as it contains the chronology of Athens, from the time of Cecrops 1582, commonly put 1556 B. C -0 264B. C. ANCIENT HISTORY. GENERAL DIVISION. History may be divided into two great parts, viz. An cient and Modern. Ancient History includes a period of 4004 years, and extends from the Creation of the World to the Nativity of Jesus Christ. Modern History includes a period of 1829 years, and extends from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, to the present time. Obser-vations. Ancient History, which is the subject of this vo- lume, comprehending an account of the Creation, and the grand events connected with it ; of the fall of man ; of the deluge ; of the origin of nations ; and of the principles, achie^vements, manners, habits, religion, learning, &c. of the early race of mortals, is equally curious and instructive. Period I. will extend from the Creation of the World, 4004 years, B. C, to the Deluge, 2348 years B. C. This is the Antediluvian Period. Period IL will extend from the Deluge, 2348 years B. C, to the Calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. This is the period of the Confusion of Languages. Period HI. will extend from the Calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C, to the Departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C. This is the period of Egyptian Bondage. Period IV. will extend from the Departure of the Israel- ites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C, to the Dedication of Solo- mon's Temple, 1004 years B. C. This is the period of the Trojan War. Period Y. will extend from the Dedication of Solomon's Temple, 1004 years B. C, to the Founding of Rome, 752 years B. C. This is the period of Homer. Period VI. will extend from the Founding of Rome, 752 years B. C, to the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C. This is the period of Roman King?. 10 GENERAL DIVISION. Period VII. will extend from the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C, to the Birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C. This is the period of Grecian Glory. Period VIII. will extend from the Birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C, to the Destruction of Carthage, 146 years B. C. This is the period of Roman Military Renown. Period IX. will extend from the Destruction of Carthage, 146 years B. C, to the First Campaign of JuHus Cfesar, 80 years B. C. This is the period of the Civil War hetw^een Marius and Sylla. Period X. will extend from the First Campaign of Julius Caesar, 80 years B. C, to the Nativity of Jesus Christ, and the Commencement of the Christian Era. This is the pe- riod of Roman Literature. Observations. The characteristic, or title of each of these pe- riods, is derived from some prominent event, or striking pecuharity by M'hich it is marked. Thus, for instance, during the last period but one, Rome, which was beginning to be mistress of the world, was for a long lime disturbed by the contentions of rival chiefs. The period, tlierefore, is denominated that of the Civil War be- tween Marius and Sylla, as marking the most important event in the history of the world during that time. Thus, also, during the last, or 10th period, literature greatly flourished among the Romans, under the auspices of Augustus, It is, therefore, designated as the period of Roman literature, as being the most striking peculiarity of that era, among the nations. In the same manner, also, the cha- racteristics of all the others are derived. PERIOD I. The Antediluvian Period^ extending from the Creation of the World, 4004 years B. C. to the deluge, 2348 years B. C. The Bible affords the only authentic history of the first ages of the world. The events which it relates of those ages, are confirmed by the ajjpearances of nature^ and by legendary tradition. Section 1. All human records agree that men and em- pires fii'st appeared in the East. There, those demigods and heroes, who are the subjects of heathen fable, are repre- sented as having hved and acted. When, therefore, the Bible points to that quarter of the globe, as the cradle of na- tions and of the arts, and as the theatre of the most wonder ^ fill events, it only coincides AAdth the general belief of man- kind on this subject. The account contamed in that sacred book respecting the creation of the world, or the beginning of time, is equally worthy of credit. This, of course, is the first grand event which history presents to us. The cosmogonies of nations, that is, the schemes they have adopted respecting tlie forma- tion of the world, vary very much from one another, and most of them are manifestly absurd and incredible. That of the Hebrews, which constitutes the scriptural account, is the only one that deserves imphcit belief. 2. According to this account, it appears that about 5829 years ago, God called the visible universe into bemg, by the word of his power ; that a determina^^ length of time was occupied in the work, the various portions of the world bemg produced on six successive days ; that man was cre- ated on the last day of those six, and constituted the head of all the animal tribes ; that his happiness and increase were provided for by the institution of marriage, which was soon announced ; that God saw that all his work was good ; and that he rested on the seventh day, hallowing it, as a day to be devoted to rehgious solemiiittes. 12 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD I. § Tlie earth, immediately subsequent to its creation, was a fluid, dark, and shapeless mass of matter. The first thing done to bring it into a perfect state, was the creation of light. Then the firma ment expanded, to divide the upper from the lower waters. Succeeding this, the assembled waters retired to their destined bed ; and, at length, the dry land was seen, crowned with a rich profusion of herbage, fruits, and flowers. These great occurrences occupied the first three days. The following day was devoted to an illumination of the eartli, Tlie heavens were accordingly adorned with myriads of stars ; and the greater luminaries were so disposed, as to distinguish between day and night, and to divide the seasons of the year. On the fifth and sixth days, the waters were replenished with fish, the air was filled with birds, the meadows were stocked with cattle, and every part of the earth's surface was inhabited by its appropriate tribes. The last work of the sixth day was the creation of man. This was the crowning work of the whole. God formed him of the dust of the ground, breathed into his body the breath of life, or immor- tality, and hence man became a living soul. Woman Avas also formed, out of the side of the man, who was cast into a deep sleep for that purpose. After the creation of this helper for man, she was given to the lat - ter, and the sacred institution of marriage was ordained by the Creator himself. From this pair sprang all the various nations of mankind. As a matter of curiosity, and forming a perfect contrast to the ra- tional account of the Scriptures, we will mention a few theories ol philosophers and others, on the formation of the universe. It was the opinion of Zenophanes, Strabo, and others, that the earth, and the whole system of the universe, was the Deity himself! Pythagoras inculcated the famous numerical system of the monad, dyad, and triad ; and, by means of his sacred quaternary, eluci- dated the formation of the world, and the secrets of nature. Other philosophers adhered to the mathematical system of squares and triangles ; the cube, the pyramid, and the sphere, &c. While others maintained the great elementary theory, which refers the construction of our globe, and all it contains, to the combinations of the four material elements, air, earth, fire, and water, with the as- sistance of a fifth, an immaterial and vivifying principle. It is recorded by the Brahmins, in the pages of their inspired Shastah, that the angel Bistnoo, transforming himself into a great boar, plunged into the watery abyss, and brought up the earth on his tusks. I'hen issued from him a mighty tortoise and snake ; and Bistnoo placed the snake erect upon the back of the tortoise, and he placed the earth upon the head of the snake. The negroes of Congo aflirm that the world was made by the hands of angels, excepting their own country, which the Supreme Being constructed himself; that he took great pains with the inhabitants, and made them very black and beautiful ; and when he had finished the first man, he was well pleased with him, and smoothed him ovef 4004—2348 b. c. 13 tlie face ; and hence his nose, and the noses of all his descendants, oecame flat. Buffon, a modern infidel philosopher, conjectures that this earth was originally a globe of liquid fire, struck from the body of the sun, by means of a comet, as a spark is produced by the collision of flint and steel ; that at first it was j?urrounded by gross vapors, which, cooling and condensing in process of time, constituted, ac- cording to their densities, earth, water, and air ; which gradually arranged themseh.es according to their respective gravities, round the burning mass that formed their centre. Darwin, an infidel also, in accoujiting for the origin of the world, supposes that the mass of chaos suddenly exploded, like a barrel of gunpov/der, and in that act exploded the"^sun, which, in its flight, by a similar convulsion, exploded the earth, Avhich in like manner ex- ploded the moon; and thus, by a chain of explosions, the whole so- lar system was produced, and set in regular motion. 3. Adam and Eve, tlie names of the first human pair, were placed by the Deity, immediatel}^ subsequent to their creation, in tlie garden of Eden, with instructions to keep and dress it. They were allowed the free use of all the fruit of the grd'den. wdth a single reservation, which w'as designed as a trial of tlieir obedience. The penalty of death ^vas threat- ened if they should transgress the command of their Maker, Created pure and innocent, and placed in a state of unallo3"ed happiness, they had every mdiicement to do well, § Adam and Eve seem to have been created without the garden, and immediately afterv/ards brought into it. It is evident that Eden was east of Canaan, or of the wilderness where Moses wrote the sa- cred history. But the precise spot cannot now be ascertained. The most extravagant opinions have been entertained on this sub- ject ; and not only the four quarters of the globe, but even the air and the moon, have been conjectured to include this delightful abode. Follov/ing the Bible as nearly as we are able, and judg- ing from the well known names of the Kiddekel, or Tigris, and the Euphrates, we ma^^ determine, with some probability, that the Gar- den of Eden was situated in or near Mesopotamia, probably Diarbec, a part of that country. It is clear that P-loses intended to give an intelligible description of the situation of Eden to his countrymen, who might know it ex- actly, though we cannot ; and it is clear, also, that, though the face of the country may have been greatly changed by m.eans of the de- luge, the Tigris and Euphrates continued nearly the same course after that event as before. The tree, the fruit of which Adam was forbidden to eat, is called the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which intimates that, by abstaining from this fruit, the knowledge of good would be en- joyed, but, by eating it, the knowledge of evil would be fatally in- troduced. 14 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I. 4. The iimocence and felicity of the first paii* were of very sliort duration. They violated, with daring impiety, the sofe command of their Maker. The precise time of this transac- tion camiot be determined ; but it was probably only a few days after their creation. The woman, being deceived by the subtlety of Satan, in tlie form of a serpent, was the first in transgression ; and, by her means, Adam also sirmed. A sense of guilt and misery, unknoA\^i before, then pervaded their bosoms ; though they were preserved from despair by the promise of a Saviour. § The greatness of the sin of our first parents is no less evident than the subtlety of the Tempter. In their sin was involved almost every crime— ingratitude, sensuality, ambition, unbelief, distrust, malignity, pride, insubordination. The effect was decisive. The face of creation was altered. " Na-* ture gave signs that all was lost." Deatli was introduced into the system, and our first parents, from that moment, became liable to dissokition, with all their posterity. The seeds of death were then planted in their frame, and the moral qualities of their souls became wholly corrupt and sinful. The disclosure of their crime was in the highest degree distress- ing to the guilty pair. God called them to account, and his awful frown and displeasure, chilled and penetrated their souls. The ground was cursed for their sakes, and a great variety of evils was entailed upon them. The serpent, who was the instrument of the crime, received his doom, in connexion with the promise of a deliverer on ttie part ol man, who had been so fatally beset and overcome. The seed of the woman was eventually to bruise the Serpent's head — a declaration referable, in its full extent, only to Jesus Christ, the Saviour oJ mankind. The immediate expulsion of Adam and Eve from para- dise, was the natural conclusion of this dreadful and calamitous scene, after their Maker had first mercifully provided them with coats of skin, to cover their nakedness. Cherubims, and a flaming sword, which turned every way, placed at the east of the garden, prevented all access to the once happy abode, particularly to the tree of life. 5. In the first year of the world, 4004 years B. C. was l)orn Cain, the first begotten of the human family. The suc- ceeding year, Abel was born. These brothers not only fol- lowed different occupations, but possessed very different chet- lacters. The bitter fruits of the apostacy appeared at length in the murder of the one by the other. On an occasion of presenting an offering unto God, Cain, who was a husbandman, brought of the fruit of the ground ; Abel, who was a shepherd, brought of the firstlings of his 4004—2348 b. c. 15 flock. The offerers, being dissimilar in character, and their offerings having a dissimilar significancy, were not alike ac- cepted of Jehovah. Cain and his offering were rejected. This circumstance excited the indignation of Cain, who, taldng his opportunity when they were alone in the field, rose up against his brother and slew him. On account of his crime, Cain was forthwith punished by Jehovah. He was called to a solemn reckoning, and, hear- ing with anguish his doom pronounced, " a fugitive and a vagabond shalt thou be in the earth," he went out from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden. He, however, built a city, at length, and his family and de- scendants became famous as uiventors of useful and ingenious arts, though it does not appear that any of them were pious, and enjoyed the divine favour. § The murder of Abel occurred, it is generally supposed, but a short time before the birth of Seth, or about 130 years after the cre- ation. As Adam and Eve, in the mean time, must have had other children, the human family was no doubt considerably multiplied during 130 years. Hence the events that are recorded by Moses, in connexion with the murder of Abel, are easily accounted for, with- out supposing more than one human pair, from whom all the inha- bitants then on the earth were descended. After the death of Abel, Adam and Eve had many other children ; the eldest of the sons was named Seth, and his descendants, from their piety, were styled " the children of God," in opposition to the descendants of Cain, who were styled " the children of men." These at length mingled together, and thus prepared the way for the universal wickedness that afterwards prevailed. 6. After a short account of Cain and his family, the sa- cred historian informs us respecting " the generations of Adam ;" and recording the births of Elxios, Cainan, Mahalaleel, and Jared, he presents us with a brief but interesting history of Enoch. Being eminently pious, he is said to have walked with God, for the space of 300 years, and at the expiration of that time, to have been taken up to heaven, without pasa- uig through the scene of death. The sacred genealogy is carried on to the time of Noah, and his sons, and the date of the life of each one of the pa- triarchs is minutely given. - f § As Adam lived 930 years, he must have beheld a numerous pos- terity, and been conversant with many who survived till near the time of the deluge. Doubtless he must have been greatly affected, 16 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I. in view of the wickedness which so soon began to spread over the earth, and Avhich he had been the instrument of introducing. The place of his sepulchre is not mentioned in scripture ; yet va- rious conjectures (and they are mere conjectures) have been formed on the subject. St. Jerome stations his remains in the cave of Mach- pelah ; and the generality of the primitive fathers suppose him to have been buried on Mount Calvary, in the very spot whereon Christy the second Adam, shed his blood for mankind. The descendants of Seth, at first Continuing pin-e and uncorrupted, at length, by intermarriages with the family of Cain, became, v/ith the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. From these inter- marriages sprang the giants of those times, men of extraordinary strength and stature, and, perhaps, of m.ore extraordinary wick- edness. These became '• men of renown," heroes, conquerors, and chieftains. 7. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy of his creatures, determined to destro}^, by a universal deluge, the race of man, togetlier with the whole animal creation, ex- cept a very smaU remnant who were to restock the earth af- ter that catastrophe. One hundi-ed and twenty years, however, did he merci fully afford to the children of men, as a space for repentance^, durmg which time, Noah, " a preacher of righteousness," endeavoured to reclaim them fiom their wickedness, and warn* ed them of their doom. His zeal and labours seem to liave produced no effect. The earth beca.me at length filled with violence. From the trem.endous sentence v*diicli God liad pronounced, Noah and his family were excepted, he having "found grace in the e3'^es of the Lord." Connected with t]ie intimation which Noah had received concerning the approaching deluge, were several particular instructions, relative to his deliver- ance. This was to be accomplished by means of a large vessel called the ark, which he built during the intervening period, agreeably to the divine directions. § The ark was built of gopher wood, which some suppose to be the cypress tree. Its form was tliat of an oblong square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle. It consisted of three stories, eacli of which, excluding the thick- ness of the floors, might be eighteen feet high, and was divided into separate apartments. It was pitched within and without, to Keep it tight, and lighted from the upper part. It was, probably, well supplied with air ; and, though it had neither sails nor rudder it was well contrived for lying steadily on the surface of the water 4004—2348 b. c. 17 With this means of safety, Noah awaited the destruction which was fast coming upon tlie world. Distinguvshed characters in Period I. 1. Adam, the first of the human race. 2. Eve, the first woman. 3. Cain, the earhest born of mankind, and first murderer. 4. .Tubal, the first musician. 5. Tubal-cain, the earliest instructer in the mechanic aits. 6. Enoch, translated to heaven on account of his piety. 7. Methuselah, the oldest man that has ever lived, being 969 j^ears old when he died. § 1. Adam was created by the Almighty from the dust of the earth, on the 6th day of the creation. His Maker, it is said in Scripture, " breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became a living soul.^' He was thus endued with an immortal principle, and being placed in a probationary state, not only his own cha- racter, but the character of his posterity, was to be affected by his conduct. As he came from the hands of his Maker, he was pure, holy, and happy ; and he had every motive to persuade him to continued rec- titude of conduct. His outward circumstances also were favourable for this end. He was placed in a delightful garden, the easy tillage of which constituted his em.ployment. God imposed upon him but one test of obedience, and that was abstinence in regard to eating the fruit of a certain tree in the garden. Persuaded by Eve, who, having been tempted by Satan, had pre- viously transgressed, he partook of the forbidden food, and thus death entered into the world, and " all cur wo." His conduct in- volved the greatest impiety, and the consequences have been dread- ful in time, and will be so throughout eternity, in regard to multi- tudes of his offspring, who have imitated him in his disobedience, and repented not. It is highly probable that he, together with the woman, embraced an offered Saviour, immediately m.ade known, both having repented of their sin. He lived many years afterwards, having begot sons and daughters, and died at the advanced age of 930 years. For fur- ther particulars, see Genesis, 2d, 3d, and 4th chapters. 2. Eve was created " an help meet", for Adam, having been formed, by the Creator, from one of the ribs of Adam, which was taken from him in a deep sleep. Thus she became " bone of his bones, and flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. " She proved to be first " in the transgression." Satan, a fallen spi- rit, assuming the form of a serpeiit, and, through the organs of that animal, exerting the powers of speech, accosted her when alone, and interrogated her respecting the forbidden tree. Taking her by sur- prise, and securing h.^r attention and good will, he at length persuaded ner to disobey the express command of God. B2 18 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I. She partook of the fruit ; " and gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat." This event, in regard to the first human pair, is supposed to have taken place very soon, if not immediately after they were placed in the garden. Eve, as a particular punishment to be inflicted upon her, was doomed in sorrow to bring forth children, and to be subject to her husband. 3. Cain rendered himself famous by his wickedness. In an unpro- voked manner he murdered his brother Abel, and thus was the first who committed a crime which has ever been considered as the most atrocious that man commits. God directly punished him by an awful malediction ; and by causing him to become a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth. Going out " from the presence of iVe Lord," he dwelt in the land of Nod, on tlie east of Eden. He at length built a city, and called it Enoch, after the name of his son. Nothing is recorded of the time and manner of his death. He was most probably a person of great energy and enterprise, as has often been the fact with the wicked ones of the earth. 4. Jubal is spoken of in Scripture as " the father of all such as handle the harp and organ," as his brother Jabal is mentioned as ' the father of such as dwell in tents." From all accounts, both sar cred and profane, music must have been early known among man- kind, and its performers must have been among the earliest civilizers of the world. 5. Tubal-Cain is called " an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron." Probably he was so called from his having discovered the art of working in these metals ; the most useful of the mechanic arts, and lying at the foundation of all of them. j 6. Enoch lived 65 years before he begat Methuselah. He " walk- ed with God after he begat Methuselah 300 years, and begat sons and daughters. And all the days of Enoch were 365 years. And Enoch walked with God, and he was not, for God took him." Such is the simple and sublime record of scripture respecting a good man. It is an infinitely more precious memorial than the splendid marble monument, or the ever-during pyramid. 7. Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable for any thing except his age. He must have lived to the very year of the flood. The circumstance of the longevity of the antediluvians, was ex- tremely favourable to the communication of knowledge, by tradition. PERIOD II. 77ie Period of the Confusion of Languages, extending from the Deluge, 2348 years B. C. to the calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. § It may be observed here, that this period, in profane history, and even two or three others succeeding it, are what is ievmQ(i fabulous. Tlte events recorded are to be admitted with a great degree of cait- 2548—1921 B. c. 19 tioiij except so far as Scripture incidentally throws its light upon them. And it is well known, also, that there is a portion of the early history of almost every nation, which is but little entitled to credit. We shall adduce the common accounts, and when neces- sary, shall endeavour to distinguish between the probable and impro- bable events. Section 1. At the appointed time, God brought the wa- ters of the flood upon all the earth. For this pmpose, he broke up the fountains of the great deep, and opened the win- dows of heaven. During forty days and forty nights, with- out intermissioUj the waters Avere thus poured upon the surface of the globe. As the ark was completed, Noah, being 600 years old, went into it, together with his wife, his three sons, and their wives, taking with him all kinds of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs, and by sevens, agreeably to the divine direction. According to the antediluvian computation, Noah remained in the ark one year and ten days ; and on coming out, he built an altar, and offered a sacrifice to the Lord, who blessed Noah and his sons. They settled in the vicinity of mount Ararat, in Armenia. § The waters increased gradually during the space of five months, when they rose to the elevation of 27 feet above the summits of the highest mountains. Men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, thus being de- prived of the means of safety, all perished. The purpose of God being effected, he caused a wind to pass over the earth, in consequence of which the waters began to subside. The ark rested on the mountains of Ararat, on the 17th day of the 7th- month, or the 6th of May. The waters continuing several months afterwards, it was not until the 27t]] of the 2d month, or the 18th of December, that the inmates of the ark came forth in pursuance of the divine com mand. 2. The truth of the Bible respecting the deluge, is strikingly confirmed by the general voice of mankind, and by the phy- sical structure and appearance of the earth's surface. § The Chaldeans, Egyptians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Greeks, and other nations, all had some traditions respecting the deluge. Not to mention any that have been yet published, the author of this outline would state a fact once delivered to him by an intelligent adventurer, his countryman. Residing some time among the natives of the North West Coast ol America, he fell into conversation with one of them around the fire of his wigwam, on various topics. Among other things, the Indiem inquired of him, whether his people knew any thing concerning a great flood that had once taken place. 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD 11. The stranger resident affecting surprise, with a view to learn wliat notion the natives had on the subject, asked his inquirer, how long ago it happened. The Indian immediately scooping up a handful of aslies tliat lay before him, promptly replied, " as many moons as tliere are ashes here." In agreement with the universal voice of tradition, the surface of the earth, in various respects, indicates the occurrence of such a Ccb- tastrophe. Its broken state, the disposition of its strata, and the re- mains of marine productions on the tops of the highest mountains, are no doubtful evidence on this subject. 3. After the deliverance of Noah and his family from the flood, God established a gracious covenant with him, which is recorded at length in the 9th chapter of Genesis. Among other thmgs, he made a grant of flesh as food for mankind, and he engaged no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confii"mation of which he set his bow in the cloud. 4. Not long after this period, Noah, v/ho had engaged in the pursuits of husbandry, having been intoxicated , by the juice of the grape, was discovered in this disgraceful situa- tion by his youngest son Ham, vv^ho, with indecent levity, in- formed his brethren of the circumstance. The latter, however, tieated their father with the highest degree of filial decorum. This conduct procured for ,them the blessing of Noah, while that of Ham subjected him, m his son Canaan, to a dreadful curse. § Noah, v/e are informed by the sacred historian, lived 350 years aftei . the deluge, so that his entire age Avas 950 years. The Orientals have a tradition that he was buried in Mesopotamia, where they show his sepulchre, in a castle near Dair Abunah, or the " monastery of our fatlier." 5. The three sons of Noah were, of course, the first foun ders of nations. They peopled the several quarters of the globe, Shem, the east and south of Asia ; Ham, S3Tia, Ara- bia, and Africa ; Japheth, the north and west of Asia, and oiso Europe. § From the immediate descendants of Shem were derived the Ela- mites or Persians^ the Ass5a-ians, and the Lydians. By Joktan, the fourth in descent from Shem, the uttermost parts of the east were peopled, and perhaps America also, where, it is said, some traces of his name yet renxain. Joktan had 13 sons, and scripture says that the dwelling of Jokr tan's posterity " was from IMesha, as thou goest up to Sephar, a mount iu the East." From the sons of Ham, who is supposed to be the Chronos of the Greeks, were descended the Ethiopians, the Babylonians, the Egyp. 2348—1921 B. c. 21 tians, the Coldiians, the Pliilisthics, the Lybians, the Canaanites, the Sidonians, and the Phoenicians. From the sons of Japheth were descended the Cimbri, the Gauls, the Germans, the Scj^thians, the Tartars, the Medes, the lonians, he Iberians, the Muscovites, and the Thracians. From their sons vere derived other particular tribes, whose names need not here be rehearsed. 6. Duiing- 101 years after the flood, i. e. till the year 2247 B. C. all the descendants of Noah spoke but one language The occasion of a diversity of tongues in the v/orid, and of the origin of distinct communities, was the following'. At the time above referred to. the human family, in join neying from the vicmity of mount Ararat, arrived at length at a plain in the laml of Shinar. On this spot they began to erect a city and a ^ver, whose top might aspire to heaven, for tlie purpose of avoiding the dispersion of their households, and of acquiring a name. Such a purpose, and perhaps others still worse, being of- fensive to the Deity, he confounded their language, and thus the workmen, not being able to understand one another, de- sisted from their undertaking. The consequence was tlie dispersion of mankind into diiierent nations. The name given to the city was Babel, which signifies confusion. § In erecting tl:e tovv'er they made use of brick instead of stone, and the want of moriar was supplied by slime, or bitumen, of ^wiiich the region afforded ;ui abundance. The identicd materials of this fa- bric have been supposed, at different times, to have been discovered ; but this is uncertain. 7. Mankind having become separated into different com- munities or nations, their history must thenceforth be given accordingly. AYe shall commence with the Ass3'rian nation, and briefly ti-ace trie outline of its history, as also the history of other sovereignties that existed during this period. ASSYRIA. 8. Assyria, considered as afterwards including Babylonia, is the oldest of nations, and founded on the s])ot where the tower of Babel was erected. We may date the commence- ment of this empire not many years after the dispersion took place, or about 2229 years B. C. Its founder was Ashur, the son of Shem, wlio built Nineveh, its capital. It continued alone about 120 years, and then bemg united to Babylonia, became a mighty empire. 82 ANCIEPW HISTORY PERIOD II. § In the order of time, there were two empires of the Assyrians. The first is here spoken of, which lasted till the year 767 B. C. It is supposed by some that Babylon, which was built by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, the Belus of profane history, was, from the beginning, the capital of Assyria. But we rather follow those autho- rities that suppose Babylonia and Assyria to have been originally two distinct kingdoms, both founded about the same time, the former by Nimrod, the latter by Ashur. The Babylonians became, at length, tributary ; and Ninus, king of Assyria, having deposed Nabonius, united the two states into one. After his death, Serairamis, his widow, transferred the seat of govern- ment from Nineveh to Babylon. 9. Under Semiramis the Assyrian empire was greatly en- larged. She assumed the government during the nonage of Ninias, son of her husband, Nmus. She^^naUzed her name by enlarging and embellishing Babylon,'^d by her nume- rous military exploits. § It is said, that, in completing Babylon, she employed the labours of 2,000,000 men. This woman, after having enlarged her dominions, conquered a great part of Ethiopia, and invaded India, though with- out success, was murdered, as is supposed, at the instigation of Ninias. 10. Ninias, her successor, was a very msignificant sove- reign ; and the history of his successors, for more than 30 ge- nerations, is unknown. They must have been an kidolent and effemmate race. § Ninias, unlike his predecessors, being wholly intent on his plea- sin-es, kept himself secluded in his palace, and seldom appeared before his people. But, to retain them in their duty, he kept a cer- tain number of regidar troops, whom he renewed every year, con> manded by an officer on whose fidelity he could depend. This method he seems to have adopted, that the oflicers might have no time to gain the affections of the soldiers, or to form conspiracies against him. Not only are his successors unknown, as to their conduct or ex« Eloits, but even tlieir names, till the time of Sardanapalus, the last of lem, (who will be noticed in the proper place,) are a matter of con- troversy among historians. During this unrecorded period of the Assyrian history, Sesostris, king of Egypt, if his name may be here anticipated, who carried on his conquests into the East, must have overrun Assyria ; but, as his power was not supported by his successors, the Assyrians must have soon regained their former state. CHINA 11. China, it is not to be doubted, is among the most ancient empires of the world. Its records extend to more than 2200 years B. C. According to the most current opi 2348—1921 B. c. 23 nion, it was founded by one of the colonies formed at the dispersion of Noah's posterity, under the conduct of Yao, wlio took for his colleague Chun, afterwards his successor. Other accounts state Fo-hi to have been the founder of this monarchy, and many writers consider Fo-hi to have been Noah himself The Chmese pretend a much higher antiquity than is here assigned to them, but their pretensions are merely tlie effect of national vanity. § The sovereigns of China, from Chun to the present time, are di- vided into 22 dynasties, the first of which, that of Hia, began 2207 years B. C. Fovir, and a part of the fifth, of these dynasties, preceded the Christian era. The first dynasty was fomided by Yu, surnamed Ta, or the Great, whom Chun adopted in preference to his own children. It lasted 441 years, under 17 erhperors. Yu-ta was a great proficient in agriculture, astronomy, and the kindred studies. On the subject of the first, he Avrote an excellent treatise. He died much regretted, after a reign of 17 years. Kya, the last monarch of this dynasty, was greatly detested by his subjects. He was driven from the throne, and died after an igiK>- minious exile of three years. EGYPT. 12. Egypt claims, and certainly possesses, a high anti- quity. Its early amials, however, are so obscure, that scarcely any thing can be ascertained respecting its first kings, after Menes.* Menes is generally acknowledged as the founder of tlie Egyptian empue, and is supposed to be the same as Misraim, mentioned in scripture among Ham's sons, 21S8 years B. C His children divided tlie land ; whence arose four kingdoms, which subsisted separately during several centuries, and were successively united under one yoke. These four kingdoms are known by the names of Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. The people had attained to considerable civilization, but a period of barbarism soon after- * Some late writers, adopting- the Sajnaritan text of the Bible, which places the deluge several hundred years beyond the common era, compute the reign of Menes at about 2800 years B. C. With this they cause tlie other events ot the early period of the world to correspond. We mention this circumstance, because the computation which is thus made may possibly be correct, and it seems to derive some little confirmation from the history of the Eg-yptiana, both as touched upon in the Bible, and as gathered from their hiero^ypbie records. Still, however, we incline to the common accounts. 24 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II. wards succeeded, supposed about 20S4 5^ears B. C, under the shepherd kings,* which lasted more than two centuries. § In the time of Pilenes, the greatest part of the country was a mo- rass, till he diverted the course of the Nile, and founded the city ot I\Iemphis within the ancient bed of that river. He instructed the Egyptians in theology, introduced domestic luxury, and instituted magnificent feasts. It was under Timaus, one of hi« successors, that the government was subverted, and the country subdued by a multitude of ignoble persons, who came from the East, and treated in the most inhuman manner the ancient inhabitants. These invaders were called Hycsos, or shepherd kings, and, ac- cording to Manetho, held all Lower Egypt 259 years. In the kingdom of Thebes, a king by the name of Athothes I. is said to have reigned at a very early period. He was the same as was worshipped under the name of P^Iercury. After his death his two sons divided the kingdom; but nothing is known of their successors for a long period. In the kingdom of Thin, Venephes is said to have built some pyramids, and to have had his reign distinguished by a great famine, as that also of one of his successors was distinguished by a dreadful plague. In the kingdom of Memphis, Tosorthros reigned, not long after Menes. From tlie knowledge he had of physic, he is styled Escuia- pius. He is said to have invented the arts of building and writing. Of the last kingdom of Egypt, during this period, there seem to be no records, or none v/orth naming. Indeed, in regard to those of the others that have come down to us, there is extreme uncer- tainty. Distinguished characters in Period II. 1. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, 2. Ashur, who built Nineveh. 3. Nimrod, a warrior, and supposed to be the first king. 4. Menes, first king of Egypt, and civilizer of the East. 5. Ninris, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a large portion of Asia. (5. Semiramis, a female conqueror, and able sovereign. § 1. Noah is by some considered the Chronos of the Greeks, and is properly the second father of mankind. Little needs to be said of him, besides what has already appeared. His eminent piety pro- cured for him and his family an honourable exemption from the aw- fully destructive effects of the deluge. * These king-s, who were detested by the Egyptians, held the g-overnment when Abraham visited it ; but were expelled before the time of Joseph. This circumstance explains the remarkable fact, that Abraham, a shepherd, was very kindly entertained in Eg-ypt ; while, in a subsequent age, Joseph's bre- thren, because they were shepherds, were held in abhorrence by the inhabi- tants. We have here a pleasing confirmation of the truth, of tlie scriptural narrative. 2348—1921 B. c. 25 Having built the ark agreeably to the divine direction, he entered it at the age of 600 years, taking with him seven members of his family, together with the animals that were intended to restock the earth. Under the special care of God, he, and the various inmates of the ark, survived the desolations of a world, and leaving the ark in safety, at a little more than the expiration of a year, he built an altar, and offered sacrifice unto the Lord. Noah lived 350 years after the flood, was engaged in the tillage of the earth, and saw his descendants increasing around him. For an important incident in his life, which has already been meiitioned, we refer to Gen. ix. 20—28. 2. Ashur was one of the sons of Shem, and supposed to be the founder of the Assyrians. Scarcely any thing is recorded of him. The scripture asserts that he went out of the land of Shinar, and builded Nineveh, and the city of Rehoboth, and Calah. 3. Nimrod " seems at first to have exceedingly distinguished himself by hunting, which was then not so much a diversion, as a useful method of preventing the hurtful increase of wild beasts. This em- ployment required great courage and address, and thus afforded a field for ambition to aspire after pre-eminence, and gradually attached a number of valiant men to one leader." " From such a beginning, Nimrod began to claim authority, and enforce subjection ; and, in fact, is the first king we read of in au- thentic history ; and afterwards he took occasion to wage war, to extend his conquests, and to enlarge his acquisitions by violence and blood. Thus, casting off the fear of God, and acting in defiance of the divine prohibition of shedding human blood, he rendered himself notorious, and his name became a proverb." " Tlie beginning of his kingdom," says scripture, " was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." 4. Menes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshipped as a god after death. He appears to have been deservedly popular, liy his abilities and wisdom. He built the town of Memphis, as is generally supposed. If he was the same as Misraim, mentioned in scripture, as some assert, he was one of th-e sons of Ham. He is said to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower Egypt. 5. Ninus was a son of Belus. He was very warlike, and extended his conquests from Egypt to the extremities of India and Bac triana. He became enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one of Inn officers, and married her, after her husband had destroyed himseir, through fear of his powerful rival, or from jealousy. He reigned 52 years, and at his death, left his kingdom to the care of his wife, Se- miramis. 6. Semiramis possessed exquisite beauty, and an "heroic soul. It was on these accounts that the Assyrian monarch fell in love with her. In her infancy, it is fabulously said, she was exposed in a desert, but her life was preserved by doves one whole year. She was at length found by one of the shepherds of Ninus, and brought up by him as one of his own children. c 26 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. She was so tenderly beloved by her husband, Menones, that ho could not survive his expected loss of her, and the knowledge that Bhe was demanded by his sovereign. After the death of Ninus, whom she had married, assuming the reins of government in her hands, she immortalized her name by enriching Babylon with new works and embellishments. Of these, the principal were the walls of the city, the quays and the bridge; the lake, banks, and canals, made for draining the river ; the palace, the hanging gardens, and the temple of Belus. She also enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a large part of Ethiopia. Her greatest and last expedition was directed against India. She advanced towards the river Indus, and having prepared boats, Attempted to pass it with her army. The passage was for a long time disputed, but, after a bloody battle, she put her enemies to flight. Upon this she advanced "directly into the country, leaving 60,000 men to guard the bridge of boats built over the river. As soon as the Indian king thouglit her far enough advanced, he faced about ; a second engagement ensued, more bloody than the first. The Assyrians were routed, and Semiramis, after being twice wounded, was obliged to fly, and return to her country with scarcely ojie third of her army. Some time after, discovering that her son was plotting against her, slie voluntarily abdicated the throne, put the government into his **jmds, and withdrew from public life. •'She lived 62 years, of which 9CK icigned 42. Her character, in respect to those qualities that adorn a woman, seems not to have been highly esteemed. PERIOD HI. The Period of Egyptian Bondage^ extending from the calling of Abraham^ 1921 years B. C. to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C. HEBREWS. Section 1. The Hebrews or Israelites, commonly called the People of God, are derived from Abraham, the ninth in lineal descent from Shcm. His calling of God is a re- markable event in history, and was designed for purposes al- together religions. This took place 1921 years B. C. The nation of wliich he was the founder, though neither powerful nor refined, is one of the most interesting that ever existed. Their history instructs us in a Avay different fi'om that of all others, because it brings directly into view the Di- vine dealings with them. 921—1491 B. c. 27 Abialiam's family increased Yevj sloAvly at first ; but Ja- cob, his grandson, left a numerous offspring. Twelve sons l)eca.me the heads of as many separate tribes in the nation. § Abraham, according to the Lord's command, left the land of the Chaldees, his native country, and dwelt with his father Terah, in Haran. By the same command, after Terah's death, he went into the land of Canaan, which God promised to his posterity. They were at length to be included within the boundaries of that country. Tlie divine design in thus setting apart one family from the rest of mankind, was to preserve the true religion in the world, and to pre- pare the way for tJie great work of redemption by Jesus Christ. The earth had now begun to be overrun with idolatry. Abraliam having acquired a name by his wealth and piety, and having passed through various trials, died at an advanced age, leaving behind him several sons, of whom only Isaac was the child of pro- mise, ishmael, by tlie maid of Abraham's wife, became the proge- nitor of a distinct tribe or nation. Two sons were the progeny of Isaac, viz. Esau and Jacob, tlie former of wiiom sold his birthright to Jacob, who also by artifice obtained his father's blessing. In the line of Jacob, whose name was afterwards changed to Israel, were the Israelites descended. His t^^•elve sons gave the names to the several tribes of wliich the nation was composed. Esau Aras the father of the Edomites, or Idumeans. 2. Jacob closed an eventful life, 1689 years B. C, in mak- ing a prophetic declaration of the future state of his descend- ants, and the period of the coming of the Messiah. He had previously been brought out of Canaan, into Egypt, by means of his son Joseph, whom his brethren, through envy arid ma- lice, sold into that country. The diiferent occurrences by which Joseph became minis- ter to the king of Egypt, speak the immediate interposition of Divine Piovidence, wliich was preparing for the accom- plishment of the promises made to the patriarch Abraham. The history of Joseph, as recorded in Scripture, is unparalleled in beauty and interest. Some of the principal incidents are the fol- low^ing. Joseph, who was much loved by his father and hated by his bre- thren, upon a certain occasion which was presented, fell into the power of the latter, who sought to slay him. This horrid design, however, being providentially prevented, they availed themselves ol the opportunity of selling him to some Ishmaelite slave merchants^ who carried him into Egypt, where he was bought by Potiphar, an officer of the court. Here, at length, he was w^rongfully thrown into prison, by a false accusation of Potiphar's wife ; but, being proA^ed to be an interpreter I S6 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. of dreams, he was introduced to the notice of Pharaoh, who, on a cer tain occasion, wanted his services in this capacity. His success in interpreting the king's dreams, and his subsequent conduct, procured for him the highest distinctiun; and he became tlie administrator of the go^ ernment. During the famine, vxdiich he predicted, and wliich reached the land of Canaan, all his brethren, ex- cept Benjamin, came to liim to bu}' corn. Joseph knew them, allhougli they did not know him ; and by an innocent contrivance, having brought them into Egypt the second time, witli their brother Benjamin, he declared to them that he was Joseph whom they had persecuted and sold. Their surprise, mortification, and terror, were at first overwhelming; but their distressing apprehensions were at lengtli alleviated by his assurances of pardon and kindness ; and inviting his father and fa- mily into Egypt, he allotted them a j)ortion of the territory. Here they grew and multiplied exceedingly. 3. Joseph continued to rule over Egypt, after the death of Jacob. His own decease, wliicli occurred 1635 years B. C. left the Israelites wnthout a protector. In less than 40 j-ears from this event, tliey found a cruel tyrant and oppressor in another king, who knew^ not Joseph. This king, whose name was Pliaraoli,* seeing the He- brew's to be too numerous and mighty, resolved to enfeeble tliem ; and, therefore, condemned them to slavery, and or- dered his people to cast every new-born son among them into the river. The object in \\ew was defeated : for the people increased 111 an unexampled manner. God was with them, and, in the wonderfid preservation of Moses, and his education in the court of Pharaoh, was preparing for them a dehverer from their cruel bondage. § For the particulars of this persecution of God's people, we refer to Uie beginning of the book of Exodus. CANAANITES. Section 4. The Canaanites w^ere an ancient people. The country which they inhabited was called the land of Canaan, the name of Ham's youngest son, who settled it im- mediately after the dispersion at Babel. He divided it among his eleven sons. The general denomination of Cj^naanites included seven nations, Avliich are frequently mentioned in scripture. § The Canaanites seem to have laboured, in a particular manner, under the evil influence of the curse denounced against their proge- ♦ A name common to the king-s of Eg-ypt, 1921—1491 B. c. 29 nitof ; being doomed, in the end, to subjection, expulsion, or extirpa- tion, and being subdivided into so many little kingdoms. The beginning of their history is extremely dark. They are sup- posed, however, upon the increase of their families, to have possess- ed themselves of the Arabian side of Egypt, and there to have erected a kingdom coeval with that of Misraim. But they seem'at length to have been expelled from that region. 5. The first authentic account of this people applies to the inhabitants of the vale of Siddim, who. 1912 years B. C, were invaded by Chedorlaomer. king of Elain, and obliged to pay an annual tribute. When they afterwards revolted, they were punished with great severity. Fifteen years after this, a most terrific judgment was in- flicted on the inhabitants of Siddim, in consequence of their gross wickedness. Four cities in this dehghtful vale, Sodom, Gomorra^, Admah, and Zeboim, Avere at once destroyed by fire fronrheaven. The whole tract of countr}^ in their vicinity became a sea, called the Dead Sea. § The 18th and 19th chapters of Genesis contain an account of this catastrophe, and of its causes ; to these we refer the reader. At the present time, from the accounts of travellers, it appears that the sea and adjacent region are marked by several peculiarities wor- thy of notice. In a journal of one of our American missionaries in Palestine, of recent date, we find the following account. " The water looks remarkably clear and pure ; but, on taking it into my mouth, I found it nauseous and bitter, I think beyond any thing I ever tasted. " It has been said, that these waters are so heavy, that the most impetuous winds can scarcely ruffle their surface. Nothing cquld be more entirely without foundation. The waves ran so higii, that I found dilRculty in filling some bottles with water. My clothes were wet by the waves, and, as they dried, I found them covered with salt." Quantities of bitumen are gathered in the vicinity, which, in ap- pearance, resembles pitch, but may be distinguished from it by its sulphureous smell and taste. Pebbles are also found here which burn when held in a blaze, producing a very disagreeable scent, but they lose nothing of their size. 6. During this period, nothing more of much importance is recorded concerning the Canaanites. The compact of the Hittites with Abraham, respecting the cave of Machpelah, the selling of a piece of ground to Jacob, by Hamor, king of Shechem, and the massacre of his subjects by some of tlie .sons of Jacob, on account of an insult which the patriarch's family had received, are the only events transmitted to us. C2 30 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. GREECE. 7. The Greeks are an ancient people, whose origin 19 clouded with fable. All that we know, during the pi'esent or preceding period, of the descendants of Japhet, who peopled Europe, is comprised in the history of this nation. We date the commencement of the Greeks, as a commu- nity, from the founding of Argos by Inachus, who arrived in Greece, from Phoenicia, 1856 years B. C. Sicyon is by some thought to have been founded before ; but we inchne to the opinion that Egialtes, a son of Inachus, was the founder of Sicyon. § As much has been MTitten concerning the fabulous times in the history of Greece, we will here present a very brief account of that portion of its history. These fables, however, are supposed to be founded on facts, and the greater part of the deities woi^ipped by the Greeks, were princes by whom their progenitors had* been go- verned. Uranus, afterwards worshipped as the heavens, appears to have been one of the earliest of their princes. He married his sister Ti- thea, and migrated from Asia into Greece, where he founded a king- dom. He had many children, called Titans, who rebelled against their father and dethroned him. Saturn, or Chronos, succeeded his father Uranus, whom, with the help of his brethren, he dethroned ; and dreading lest he should be treated in the same manner by his own children, he ordered them to be shut up, or put to death, immediately after their birth ; but Jupi- ter was concealed by his mother, and sent to Crete, where he was educated. Jupiter began to reign in Thessaly, after having dethroned Saturn. The Titans, jealous of him, declared war against him, but were van- quished, and expelled Greece. He soon divided his dominions with his two brothers, Pluto and Neptune. The countries which he reserved to himself, he governed with great wisdom ; he had his palace, and held his court, on Mount Olympus, whence the poets gave this name to heaven, when Jupiter was wor- shipped as a god. 8. The ancient inhabitants of Greece were extremely rude and savage, scarcely one degree superior to brutes. They lived on herbs and roots, and lay either in the open fields, or,- at best, sheltered themselves in dens, clefts, and hol- low trees. An improvement of their condition occasionally took place ; out Greece, for some ages, was in a continual state of fluctu- ation. They were unacquainted with letters till the time of CJadmuSj who is hereafter to be mentioned. 19^1—1491 B. c. 31 § The general names by which the natives of Greece were known to old historians, were Graioi, Hellenists, Achsei, Pelasgi. But the most ancient name of all applied to this country, is generally admitted to be that of Ionia, which the Greeks derive from Ion ; but Josephiis derives it from Javan, son of Japheth. 9. The several states, except Argos and Sicyon, which ai length constituted Greece, had, at this time, no separate ex- istence. They sprang up afterwards, clurmg the latter part of the present period, as there will now be occasion to meiv tion. In Argos, the descendants of Inachus, having retained pos- session of the throne for more than 300 years, were deposed, 1511 years B. C, by Danaus, an Egyptian fugitive, who be- came the founder of a second dynasty, denominated Belidee, from his father, Belus. § At a much later period, Perseus, a sovereign of Argos, having built Mycenae, transferred the kingdom thither. It was at length conquer- • ed by the Heraclidee, and united to Lacedaemon. It may be here noticed, that only two of the Grecian states, viz. Lacedaemon and Messenia, appear to have been founded by native Greeks ; the rest were established by the various branches of the Celtic family of Uranus, with the exception of Athens, which owed its origin to an Egyptian. Prior to these establishments, and even long after them, almost every village had its petty tyrant, who bore the title of king. A name has occasionally escaped oblivion. Laws we do not find among them, before the times of the Athenian archons. Until that period, all depended on the will of the sovereigns ; only in perplexed cases, they consulted some oracle, of which the two most celebrated, were that of Jupiter at Dodona, and that of ApoUp at Delphi. 10. Cecrops, a native of Egypt, is universally allowed to have founded Athens, 1556 years B. C. At this time he arrived in Attica, mth a colony of his countrymen, and built twelve small villages or cities, of which Athens was one. He gave laws to the wild inhabitants, whom he divided into twelve tribes, and instituted marriage among them. The first altar in Greece was raised by him to Jupiter. § The history of Greece is can-led on for a time in this event Athens became the most illustrious of the Grecian states. The province of Attica having been destroyed by the deluge of Ogyges, remained desolate for more than two centuries, previous to the time of Cecrops. Athens, from its founder, first received the name of Cecropia, but afterwards that of Athenae, in honour of Minerva, its tutelary deity. The Arundelian marbles, which were brought from Greece by the 32 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. Earl of Arundel, and are now kept in England, begin their chrono logy with the founding of Athens, but place that event 26 years earlier, viz. 1582 B. C. 11. The successor of Cecrops was Cranaus. In his time happened the famous deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly. The third king of Athens was Amphictyon, who founded the cele- brated Amphictyonic council.* § The deluge of Deucalion owed much of its importance to the imaginations of the poets. It was probably only a partial inun- dation. In the reign of Amphictyon, a famine occurred, during which Ericthonius, said to be the son of Vulcan, arrived from Egypt with a supply of corn, and taught the natives the art of Agri- culture, for which he was raised to the throne in the room of Am- phictyon. 12. Corinth, another of the Grecian states, was founded 1520 years B. C, but did not receive the name of Corintli till it was rebuilt, 1410 years B. C. It originally formed a part of the kingdom of Sicyon, and was afterwards included in that of Argos, till Sysyphus, some time hi the following period, seized it for his possession. 13. Thebes, a state of Greece also, was founded by Cad- mus. The city, though begun by him, Avas finished by Amphion and Zethus. He introduced letters hito Greece, 1519 years B. C. The]3es he built a few yeais afterwards. § Cadmus is supposed to have been of Phoenician extraction. To him are ascribed 16 letters of the Greek alphabet. He thus essen- tially contributed to the literary distinction which Greece afterAvards attained. 14. Lacedsemon, or Sparta, another distinguished state of Greece, was founded by Lelex, 1516 years B. C, but received its name from Laced^mon, its fourth king. The goveri> ment continued in the family of Lelex till the return of tlie Heraclidse to the Peloponnesus, an event to be noticed in the coming period. § Sparta was called after the name of the wife of Lacedaemon, the great grand-dauglUer of Lelex. Sparta properly belongs to tlie metropolis— Lacedaemon to the kingdom at large. The Pelopon- nesus, in which Lacedaemon was situated, was the southern part of Greece. EGYPT. 15. The events in Egyptian history, during the present C|X)cli, refer chiefly to Nitocris and Sesostris, the one a fe- * See General Views. 1921—1491 B. c. as Mkle, the other a male sovereign. Nitocris began to reign over Egypt, 1678 years B. C, at Memphis. She afterwards united some other sovereignties to her dominions. The period when Sesostria began to i-eign cannot be easily fixed ; some place it before that of Nitocris. but others place it after her reign. The names of a few other kings appear, but little is known concerning their reigns. The successor of Sesostris is said to have been Pheron, and some thi;ik that Rameses-Tubaete was the king whose dreams Joseph Interpreted. Nitocris succeeded her brother, an Ethiopian, who was murdered by the P^gyptians, and meditating revenge for his untimely fate, put many of her subjects to deafh privately, and afterwards con- trived a building under ground whither she deluded the chief ob- jects of her vengeance to a feast, and, in the midst of their mirth, overwhelmed them with destruction, by turning a river upon them through a secret passage. Sh-e then eluded the rage of the popu- lace by taking refuge in a place well fortified with ashes. Her person is said to have been extremely beautiful, but her disposition was cruel. Sesostris was the most distinguished of all the Egyptian kings, and almost the only conqueror among them. Historians relate thai his father was warned by Vulcan, in a dream, concerning the future conquests of his son, and that, in consequence of this dream, he got together all the males born in Egypt on the same day with the prince, and had them nursed and brought up with him, upon the presumption that, being the companions of his 3- outh, they would prove the moat devoted warriors and faithful counsellors. Sesostris forming the design of conquering the world, set out with an army of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 armed chariots. His conquests were extensive, and he retiu'ned home laden wdth the spoils of various subjugated nations, and followed by a surprising number of captives. He rendered his power highly advantageous to his subjects, by enricliing their country with useful works, and mag- nificent edifices. His behaviour, however, was grossly insolent to the kings and chiefs of the conquered nations, v/ho waited upon him to present their tribute. He is said to have caused tliose princes, four abreast, to be harnessed to his car, instead of horses, that they might draw him to the temple. In. his old age he lost his sight, and then was so weak and wicked as to lay violent hands on himself. CHINA. 16. The*second dynasty of the Chinese emperors com- menced during this period, 1766 years B. C. It lasted 656 years, under 30 emperors. Like the first dynasty, it was te* minatcd by tlie vices of the last of them, 34 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. § Cliin^-tang was tho founder of this dynasty. He is said to h§fb had the most exceUent qualities. His modesty was ahiiost unparal- leled : lie was the only person in the empire who thought he was unfit for so important a trust. He was often on tlie point of resign- ing his crown, but his nobles would not consent to it. Tayvre, one of his successors, being once terrified by a prodigy, which made him apprehensive of a revolution, received the following impressive lesson from his minister. " Virtue has the poAver of tri- umphinir over presages. If j^on govern your subjects with equity, you Mill be beyond the reach of misfortune." Yutiung, another prince of this dynasty, after having for three years implored heaven to bless him M*ith such virtues as were suitable to his station, is said to have seen, in*a dream, a man represented by heaven to be his prime minister, whose features he Avell recollected wheu he awoke. Causing the man to be sought for, such a person was found in the condition of an obscure mason, working in a village, whence he was brought to court. Being questioned on a variety of points concern- ing government, he returned answeiis marked with so much wisdom as excited the highest surprise. The king, addressing him in a very proper manner, immedi- ately ap]winted him his ])rime minister, and received the great- est benefit from his prudent and skilful administration of goveriw meiit. Dhtinguished characters in Period III. 1. Abraham, the hniiicdiate progenitor of the Hebrew na- tion. 2. ]\Telchisedec, king of Saloni, and " priest of the Most High God." 3. Sesostris, an Egyptian hero and conqueror. 4. Joseph, the cliief ruler of Egypt under Pharaoli. 5. Cecrops, the founder of Athens. G. Cadmus, a Pha?nician, who built Thebes, and introduced letters into Greece. 1. Abraham Avas the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. He was 75 years of age when his father died. After this event he was commanded by God to enter upon the land of Canaan, which God promised to give umo his [losteritv. In the year following, a [li- mine in the land of Canaan forced Abraliam with his family to go into Egypt. In tiie same year, Abraham, with his nephew Lot, returned unto Canaan. They however parted at lenffth, because the land was in- sufficient for both of their fiocks. Lot went to Sodcnn— Abraham removed to Hebron. God blessed Abraham, and the promise of a posterity was confirmed to him again and again. In the 100th year of his age, Isaac, his son, was born to him, after his expectation had been long delayed. Passing through various 1921—1491 B. c. 35 scenes of life, he was at length called to the severe trial of offering up his son Isaac at the command of the Deity. All liis lofty hopes were reposed in that son, yet he hesitated not to execute the divine behest. Just at the moment, however, in which he stretched forth his hand, to take the life of his son, God interposed, and satisfied with Abra- ham's intention, accepted that in room of the deed, rescuing Isaac and connncnding the faith of the patriarch. Abraham died at the age of 175 years. 2. Little is known of Mclchisedec. When Abraham was returi-b- mg from the destruction of Chcdorlaomer and his confederates, Mclchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is the following: "And Mclchisedec, king of Salem, brought forth bread and wine ; and he was the priest of the Most High God. And he blessed him, and said, Blessed be Abram of the Most High God, pos- sessor of heaven and earth. And he (Abraham) gave him tithes of all." The aposlle says, in his epistle to the HebreAvs, " Now consider how great this man was, unto whom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth of the spoils." 3. Sesostris was a king of Egypt. His age is so remote from CA'ery authentic record, that many have supposed that the actions and con- quests ascribed to this monarch are wliolly uncertain and fabulous. The amount of wliat has come down respecting him, as has al- ready appeared in part, is the following. When he ascended the throne, he became ambitious of military fame, and accordingly, at the head of a numerous army, he proceeded to make the conquest of tlie M'orld. He subdued the most of Asia, and even invaded Europe, bringing the Thracians into subjection; and, that the fame of his conquests mightlongsurvive him, he placed columns in the subjugated provinces; and, many ages after, this pompous inscription was read in several parts of Asia: "Sesoytris, the king of kings, has conquered this terri- tory by his arms." At liis return home, the monarch employed his time in encouraging the fine arts, improving the revenues of his kingdom, erecting tem- ples, building chies, and digging canals. He committed suicide when he had become old and infirm, after reigning 44 years. His era was 1722 years B. C. 4. Joseph is celebrated in sacred history, and no one's life was more eventful in itself, or has been described Avith greater felicity tlian his has been, in scripture. It is imnecessary to say over again what has been said respecting this eminent person, espe- cially since the reference to scripture is so easy, and the reader who once begins the story of Joseph, can seldom ieel disposed to leave it until it be finished. The triumph of innocence, and the suc- cess of piety, in this instance, show the care of God over good men, and may well lead them to put their confidence more and more in him. 5. Cecrops was a native of Egypt. He led a colony to At- 36 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV tica, and reigned over part of the country. He married the dauf^hter of a Grecian prince, and was deemed the first founder of Athens. He taught his subjects to cuhivate the oUve, and was the first who raised an aUar to Jupiter, in Greece, and offered him sa- crifices. After a reign of 50 years, spent in regulating his newly formed kingdom, and in polishing the minds of his subjects, Cecrops died, and was succeeded by Cranaus, a native of the country. 6. Cadmus was a Phoenician. He laid the foundation of Thebes. This fact is very much invested with fable, which needs not to be de- tailed. If Thebes, according to some, sprang up at the sound of Amphion's lyre, i. e. by encouraging the workmen, still Cadmus built a citadel which he caUed Cadmea, and thus formed the com mencement of a city. Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of letters into Greece, though some maintain that the same alphabet was in ex- istence among the native inhabitants. This alpliabet consisted only of 16 letters, to which 8 were afterwards added. The wor- ship of several of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities was also introduced by Cadmus. His era is reckoned to be 1519 years B. C. PERIOD IV. The Period of the Trojan War, extending from the de partiire of the Israelites from Egppt, 1^91 years B. C. to the dedication of Soloinon^s temple, 1004 years B. C. ISRAELITES. Section 1. The history of tlie Israelites at this era assumes a very marked character. Oppressed by the Egyp- tian monarch, they cried unto God for deliverance, and a di- vine deliverance they experienced. Moses, selected as the instrument of saving his countrjrmen, was in due time called to his work ; and, after a series of mi- racles, which he performed by the divine assistance, he led the people out from before Pharaoh, into the borders of the pro- mised land. The consequence to many of the Egyptians w^as their de- struction ; for Pharaoh and his army pursuing the Israelites tliiough the Red Sea, were overwhelmed with its \vaters. After wandering in the wilderness 40 years, and frequently rebeUing against God, the Israelites were conducted by the hand of Moses in sight of Canaan, when he died, without en- tering it himself, 1447 years B. C 1491—1004 E. c. 37 § Tlie story of Moses, and of his agency ni delivering the Israehtes, ss verj'- interesting and instructive ; but we have no room for its par- ticulars. We will, however, mention some incidents, subsequent to the retreat of the Israelites from Egypt. The Israelites Avere no sooner delivered from the Egyptians, than they murmured against Closes, on account of the want of food ; to satisfy them, God sent first a great quantity of quails, and the next morning manna, which fell regularly every day, except on sabbath days, during the 40 years they remained in the wilderness. Again the people murmured for water, and Moses, by the Lord's command, made a supply to issue from a rock. At this junc- ture, the Amalekites attacked Israel, and were defeated by Jo- shua. The people soon after arriving at Mount Sinai, God gave them his law. During, however, the absence of Moses in the mount, they fell into idolatry, in consequence of which 3000 of them were put to death. In the course of the second year after the retreat from "Egypt, Moses numbered tlie children of Israel from 20 years old and up- wards, and there were found 603,550 men able to go to war, besides 'tlie Levites. About this time, 12 men were sent to spy the land of Canaan, who, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, reported unfavourably, which caused the people to murmur. Upon this oflfence, God con- demned all those who were twenty years old and upwards v/heii they came out of Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. As a punishment for their murmurs, the Israelites began to travel in the wilderness 14S9 years B. C. At this time Korah, Dathan, and Abirani, revolting against Moses, were swallowed by the earth, with 250 of their associates. In 1452 years B. C, the Israelites began their conquests, by the defeat of the kings of the Amorites, Bashan, i^Icab, &c. At the age of 120 years Moses died on Mount Nebo, in the land ol Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land. 2. The successor of Moses was Joshua, who conducted me people into the promised land, liaving, by the divine connnand, mostly destroyed the wicked nations that inha- bited it. After this event, the Israelites, with some intermission, were directed by leaders, called Judges, for the space of 35(5 years. They paid a high respect to these officers, and also to the priests, but they acknowledged no other king than God. As the people at length became weary with this state of things, and desired a king, so as to be like the nations around them, a king was, in the clivme displeasure, granted to them. § Joshua having led the Israelites to the banks of the Jordan, whose waters divided to afford them a passage, conducted them safely over D 38 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. it. He conquered 31 cities in the course of six years. He died 1426 years B. C. The people were perpetually inclined to forsake the worship oi Jehovah, and to pollute themselves with the abominations of the hea- then. For this they were repeatedly brought into bondage, and con- sequent distress. Their Judges were the instruments of delivering them on these occasions. One occasion was as follows. The Israelites, being brought into the power of the Midianites, after seven years of suffering, they cried unto the Lord, who sent an angel to Gideon to announce to him that lie was chosen to deliver Israel from their oppressors. By divine direction, Gideon retained of 32,000 men whom he had collected, only 300 men, and with them, each carrying a lamp con- cealed in an earthen vessel, to be broken at a proper opportunity, he so terrified the Midianites, that the}^ fled in confusion, and turned their swords against one another. Samson also, on another occasion, delivered his countrymen by a series of extraordinary efforts of strength and courage which we cannot particularly recount. It may be only mentioned, that, at the conclusion of his course, having been betrayed by his wife, and deprived of his strength— upon its return, he pulled down, by a sin- gle exertion of his muscular energy, the temple of Dagon on the heads of his enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the general ruin. Samuel, the last and most eminent of these leaders, and a prophet also, rendered signal service to his countrymen, especially by the moral influence v/hicli he exercised over them. When old, however, he took for his assistants in the government, his two sons, whose mismanagement occasioned murmurs among the people, and a de- sire to have a king. 3. Saul, the son of Kish, was the first king of Israel. Hav- ing been privately anointed by Samuel, he was afterwards publicly proclaimed, 1079 j^cars B. C. His reign was prospe- rous at first, but at length v*^as characterized by crime and ill success. He perished miserably. He was succeeded by David, who, though he erred in seve- ral instances, was a man of distinguished talents, bravery, and piety ; he raised his people to the highest pitch of national prosperity and happiness. The wise and rich Solomon was his son and successor. He laid the foundation of a magnifi- cent temple, 1011 years B. C. § Saul, having spent an unhappy life, and being at war with the Phi- listines, had his army routed, and three of his sons slain, and he him- self, having received a wound, and fearing to fall into the hands oi his enemies, took a swOrd and fell upon it. David had been previously anointed king, hut he at first reigned only over the tribe of Judah. But after the death of Ishbosheth, a 1491—1004 B, c. 39 son of Saul, who had assumed the government of the tribes, he reign- ed over the whole of Israel. He spent a very active and perilous life, and among the conquests he made were the Philistines, the Moabites, the Ammonites, and the Syrians. He had at length some domestic troubles, and was in danger from an insurrection of his subjects, but he lived to see his enemies destroyed, and he left a rich and flourishing realm to his son. GANAANITES. 4. The history of the Canaanites, and some of the neigh- bouring nations or tribes, is involved in that of the Jews dur- ing this period. They were mostly subdued by Joshua, but seemed to revive at different times, to the great annoyance of tiie Israelites. From the time of Solomon, they can scarcely be said to have had a national existence. The remnants of them, except the Canaanites, properly so called, who after- wards went under the appellation of Phoenicians, were swal- lowed up in the great monarchies that successively existed in Asia. PHCENICIANS. 5. The Phcenicians are known in history principally as a navigating and commercial people, among whom the arts were early cultivated. Their country was divided into seve- ral small kingdoms ; but the most considerable of thek sove- reignties were the cities of Sidon and Tyre. We know no- thing of the kings of Sidon till the present and succeeding pe- riods. Hiram v/as king of Tyre, and contemporaneous with David and Solomon. § Sidon, according to Josephus, was built by Sidon, the eldest son of Canaan. Tyre was founded by the posterity of Sidon. Herodotus gives to the older Tyi'e a great antiquity. The new city, reared op- posite to the ancient, on an island, is said, by Josephus, to have been built in the year B. C. 1255. The Phcenicians are regarded as the earliest navigators, merchants, and workmen, of the world. We learn from ancient records, that they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Medi- terranean, but even over the ocean, as far as England, whence they exported tin. The early kings are not known, except those who had some com- merce with the Jews. To Hiram, king of Tyre, both David and So- lomon applied when proposing to build a temple to the Lord. He helped them by furnishing, not only precious materials, but also a great number of workmen. After a glorious reign, Baleazar, his son, succeeded him. 40 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. GREECE. 6. The history of Giieece during this period is pu]*sued first in a few details, respecting some of its diileient sovereio-n- ties. The kings already named, who had governed Atliens, had raised it to a considerable degree of civilization. But the king ^dio laid the principal foundation of Athenian greatness, was Theseus. He united the 12 cities of Attica into one confede- racy. § Theseus is said to have founded a more perfect equality among the citizens, in consequence of wiiich, the state rather resembled a republic than a monarch}^ Owing to the inconstancj^ of the people, he was banished from the country, notwithstanding his many virtues. 7. Codrus. the last Athenian king, devoted himself to the good of his subjects. With him royalty was abohshtd, since the people thought no man v/orthy of succeeding him. This 3liange occurred tov/ards the close of the present period, viz. 1069 years B. C. § Codrus being engaged in a war with the Herachdae, was told by ;he oracle that the army would be victorious whose chief should perish. He, therefore, v/ith a chosen band, threw himself into the nottest of the battle, and turned the fortune of the day in favour of his countrymen, at the expense of his own life. A dispute for the succession arose between two of liis sons, and be- fore they could accommodate their difference, the Athenians abolish- ed royalty altogether, but placed JMedon, one of the claimants, at the head of the state, with the title of Archon. This ouice was for life luring more than 3 centuries; afterwards it was reduced to 10 years, ind finally to one year. 8. Corinth, having been seized by Sysyphus, was governed in his family 250 years. The last king of this race was de- posed by the lieraclidcc, .1099 years B. C. 9. The first great enterprise of the Greeks Avas the Argo- nautic expedition, 1263 years B. C. It was led by Jason, and is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad- venture. Its destination was to Colchis, the modern Mingre- lia, in Asia Minor. § According to some, the object was to open the commerce of the Euxine sea, and to secure some establishment on its coast. Ac- cording to others, Jason wished to avenge the death of his kins- man Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which had been seized by the king of Colchis. Hence, in the language of fiction or figure, it was the " Golden Fleece" that was the object to be re covered. 1491--1004 B. c. 41 This expedition was thought to be of so much importance, that all the heroes of the age were anxious to engage in it. Among the 54 renowned captains who were in the single ship of Argo alone, in which Jason embarked, were Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Pirithous, Laertes, Peleus, Oileus, &c. In the course of their voyage,, they attempted to land for refresh- ment in a part of Phrygia, but were prevented by Laomedon, king of Troy, for which they took ample revenge on their return, by pil- laging that city. On their arrival in Colchis, Medea, the daughter of the king, fell in love with Jason, and, through her assistance, the Argonauts ef- fected the object of tlreir voyage. On their arrival in Greece, Her- cules celebrated or instituted the Olympic Games. 10. A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes, be- tween the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, gave rise to a war that was terminated by single combat, in which both were killed. This is called the war of the seven captains, and oc- ciu-red 1225 years B. C. The sons of the commanders slain in this war renewed the quarrel of their fathers, about ten years afterwards. This is called the war of the Epigonoi, a subject celebrated by Homer in a poem now lost. 11. But the most celebrated event of this period, in the an- nals of Greece, is the Trojan war. It commenced 1193 years B. C, and terminated in ten years. Troy was taken and burnt to the ground. This war was undertaken by the princes of Greece to avenge the wrongs sustained by Mene- lauSjking of Lacedsemon, whose wife, Helen, had been seduced away by Paris, a Trojan prince. The details of this war are derived fi'om Homer ; but he is reasonably svipposed to have related facts, for the most part. § Troy, the capital of Phrygia Minor, was founded 1546 years B. C by Scamander, who led thither a colony from Crete. Troas, the fifth in succession from Scamander, either built a new city, or en- larged the old one, and named it after himself, Troy. The Trojans were a brave and warlike people. The number of the Grecian warriors is supposed to have been about 100,000. Nearly all Asia Minor was leagued with Priam, king of Troy. The Greeks, on landing at Troas, were warmly op- posed, and they spent the first 8 or 9 years in reducing such cities and islands as favoured the cause of Troy. At length the siege of that capital began, and the most heroic deeds were performed on both sides. At this juncture, the camp of the Greeks was visited by a pes- tilence, and a quarrel ensued between Agamemnon and Achilles, the Grecian leaders. The death of Patroclus, slain by Hector, impelled Achilles to D2 42 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. return into the Grecian camp. Hector was killed by Achilles, and Achilles fell by the hand of Paris, who was himself slain by an arrow At last the Greeks gained possession of the city by stratagem, and utterly destroyed it. No vestige of its ruins now remains. Such of the Trojans as survived sought new settlements in distant regions. Antenor established himself in Italy, Avhere he founded the nation of the Heneti. ^neas settled also in Italy, where he founded the kingdom of Alba. 12. Tlie war of the Heraclidee, among the Greeks, began about 80 years after the destruction of Troy. Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, sovereign of Mycenee* was banished from kis country, with all his family, while the crown was pos sessed by an usurper. After a period of a century, his de- scendants, called Heraclidee, returned to Peloponnesus, and subduing all their enemies, took possession of the states of My- cenee, Argos, and Lacedsemon. This return of the Heraclidfe is an event often spoken of in history. 13. A long period of civil war succeeded, and Greece, di- vided among a number of petty tyrants, became a prey to op- pression or anarchy. The difficulties of the times drove many of the Greeks from home, who founded important colonies, as we shall hereafter learn. EGYPT. 14. Concerning the Egyptians, during this period, very little is known with certamty. Apophis is thought to have l^een the Pharaoh who, together with his army, was drowned in the Red Sea. Amosis, Amenophis XL, and one or two others, were warriors and conquerors. § A few things may be subjoined respecting some of the Egyptian kings during this period. Moeris caused the celebrated lake, called by his name, to be dug, to receive the waters of the Nile, when the inundation was too abundant, and to water the country when it proved deficient. Hermes Trismegistes is celebrated for his philosophical writings. He added 5 days to the year, which before consisted only of 360. Amosis abolished the practice of human sacrifices, and conquered Heliopolis, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt. Actisanes, king of Ethiopia, united Egypt and Ethiopia under hi;9 government. He bore his prosperity with great prudence, and behaved himself in a most aflfectionate manner towards his new subjects. Having caused a general search to be made after the Egyptian robbers who infested the country, he commanded their noses to be cut ofi', and then banished them to the remotest part cf the desert, 1491— 1004 b c. 43 between Syria and Egypt, where lie built them a town, which, from the mutilation of its inhabitants, was called Rhinocolura. A Memphite of ignoble extraction was exalted to the throne. The priests characterised him as a magician, and pretended that he could assume whatever form he pleased. His Egyptian name was Cetcs, which the Greeks rendered Proteus. It was during his reign, that Paris and Helen were driven on the coasts of Egypt, in their passage to Troy, but when the Egyp- tian monarch understood the shameful breach of hospitality whicJi the young stranger had committed, he ordered him to quit his do- minions. LYDIA. 15. The history of the .kings of Lydia is very obscure. They were divided into three dynasties. 1. The Atydse. 2. The Heraclidce. 3. The Meminadee. The history of Atydee is altogether fabulous. Argon was the first of the He- raclidae, and Candaulcs the last. Argon reigned about 1223 years B. C. The Lydians are celebrated as merchants and traffickers. § Lydia is supposed to have been founded by Lud, son of Shem. It was, however, called Lydia, from Lydus, one of its kings. It was previously called ]\feonia, from IMeeon, also one of its kings. It was conquered at length by the descendants of Hercules, Lydia Proper was, strictly speaking, at first only that part of IMceonia which was seated on the ^Egean Sea ; but v/hen the Greeks or lonians settled .there, the ancient inhabitants v/ere driven to the interior. The invaders named the sea coasts where they settled Ionia, after the country whence they had emigrated, or rather, whence they had been driven by the Ileraclidae ; while the Lydians gave their name to tlie new countries in which they settled. Long before the invasion of the lonians, the natives of Lydia were devoted to commerce. The earliest instance on record of a gold and silver coinage is found in their history. They were also the first people who exhibited public sports. ITALY. IG. Italy appears to have been mhabited at a remote era. So early as 1289 years B. C we read of a king named Janus, who, having arsived from Thessaly, planted a colonj^ on the river Tiber. Four sovereigns succeeded him in La- tium ; during the reign of the last of wliom, viz. Latinus, arrived jEneas, the Trojan prince, in Italy. ^Eneas married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and succeeded him in the sovereignty. After iEneas there w^as a succession of kings to the tune of Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus and Eemus, the founders of Rome. 44 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV The history of these kings is, however, very obscure and confused, and very Kttle dependence can be placed upon it. Of the numerous petty kingdoms of which Italy was com- posed, those of Etruria and Latium alone deserve attention. 7'lie Etruscans are thought to have been a very polished peo- ple. The inhabitants of Latium were the immediate ances- tors of the Romans. A consideral^le part of Italy was doubt- less peopled by the Greeks. § Italy, afterwards the seat of the Roman power, was peopled at an early era, though we cannot deteranine the particular point of tune, with certainty as to the country at large. The colony on the Tiber, as we have seen, w^is settled nearly 13 centuries before Christ There is every reason to believe that a part of Italy was inhabited by a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman name was known. The Etruscans are justly considered as such a nation ; a fact which is indicated by the monuments in the fine arts which they have left, and some of which exist to this day. Their alphabet, re- sembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them to have been of eastern origin. Though many of the inhabitants of Italy originated from Greece and the east, yet a portion of them, it is believed, must have origi- nated from the Celtic or Gomerian tribes of the north, who entered Italy from that' quarter.* The story of Latinus and ^Eneas is briefly as follows. At the time of the arrival of the latter in Italy, Latinus was engaged in a war with the Rutuli ; and, on hearing of this arrival, he immedi- ately marched towards the strangers, expecting to find an unprinci pled banditti. But J^neas, though commanding a body of hardy veterans, heM out the olive of peace. Latinus listened to his melancholy tale, and pitying the misfortunes of the Trojan exiles, assigned them a portion of land, on condition of their joining against the Rutuli. -^neas eagerly embraced the oflfer, and performed such essential service in the cause of the Latins, that this monarch bestowed on him his only daughter, Lavinia, in marriage, with the right of suc- cession to the crown. Distinguished characters in Period IV. 1. Moses, the tirst Hebrew lawgiver and leader. 2. Joshua, a conqueror of Canaan, and pious military chieftain. 3. Orpheus, the father of poetry. 4. Museeus, a Greek poet. 5. Samson, a judge of Israel, and endowed with extraor dinary strength. ♦ See Edin. Rev. No. 80. Art. V. 1491—1004 B. c. 45 6. Sancoiiiatbon, a Phoenician, one of the earUest writersf of history. 7. David, a king of Israel, a warrior and poet. § 1. Moses, when an infant, having been exposed on the brink of the river Nile, in an ark of buh'iishes, the daughter of Pharaoh found the ark, saved the child, and had him educated as her own son. At forty years of age, having renounced the honours of Pharaoh's court, he endeavoured to join his oppressed countrymen, but they would not receive him. After this, circumstances induced hiin to flee to tlie land of IMidian, where he married, and enjoyed a retirement of 40 years. At the end of this period, God appeared to him in the mount of Iloreb, and ordered him to return to Egypt, v/ith a comnnssion to Pliaraoh, respecting his release of the Israelites from bondage. lie accomplislied this object only after the infliction of ten severe and awful plagues upon that monarch and his people. At length God saw fit, through Moses, to destro}^ Pharaoh and the flower of his military force in the Red Sea. From this period, Moses was employed in receiving the moral laAV from mount Sinai, in prescribing the form of the ceremonial v.'orship of the Hebrews, in regulating their civil polity, in con- ducting their military operations, and in leading them through the wilderness of Sinai, in which they were doomed to wander during 40 years. At the age of 120 he died on mount Nebo, in the land of Moal), having fir.st taken a view of the promised land. This occurred 1451 years B. C. Moses was a man of eminent piety and wisdom. 2. Joshua was the successor of Moses, and led the Israelites into the promised land, over tiie river Jordan, whose waters divided to afford them a passage. The first city which he conquered vvas Jeri- cho ; this v.-as follov\'ed by the speedy reduction of 30 others. Having divided tlie land of Canaan among the ten tribes, Joshua died, aged 110, 142G years B. C. 3. Orpheus was tlie son of (Eager, or, as some say, of Apollo, by Calliope. The fictions of poetry have put into his hands a lyre, whose entrancing sounds stayed the courses of rivers, moved moun- tains, and subdued the ferocity of Vvild beasts. Doulitless the effects of his song, though not of such a nature, were considerable, in that rude and early age, on the minds of untutored barbarians. By the power of his music, as fiction reports, he regained his wife", Eurydice, from the infernal regions, but lost her again in con- sequence of failing to comply wdth a certain condition, on which she was restored. The condition was, that he should not look be- hind to see her till he had come to the extremest borders of hell. Contrary to promise he did this, through the impatience of love, or by reason of forgetfulness, and she vanished from before his e5^es. Orpheus, according to story, was one of the Argonauts ; of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account. This, however, is doubted j and tlie poems that pass under his name, are, with rea- 46 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. son, ascribed to otlier and later writers. There is little cause to doubt that such a person as Orpheus existed, and that he was a great poet and musician. The period assigned for him is 1284 years B. C. 4. Musaeus is supposed to have been a son or disciple of Linus or Orpheus, and to have lived about 1253 years before the christian era. None of his poems remain. A Musaeus, Avho flourished in the 4th century, according to the judgment of most critics, wrote " The loves of Leander and Hero." 5. Samson was the son of Manoali, of the tribe of Dan. As he was raised up to avenge the Israelites of their oppressors, he was endow- ed with extraordinary strength. On one occasion, he slew 1000 Phi- listines with the jaw-bone of an ass. At various other times, he se- verely molested and distressed them. At length he was, through stratagem, betrayed by Delilah, and de- prived of his strength. It, however, soon returned; and he pulled down the temple of Dagon on the heads of liis enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the general ruin. Some parts of his cha- racter are very far from deserving imitation. His various exploits and follies are recorded, Judges xiv. xv. xvi. 6. Sanconiathon was born at Berytus, or, according to others, at Tyre. He flourished about 1040 years 13. C. He wrote, in the lan- guage of his country, a history, in 9 books, in which he amply treat- ed of the theology and antiquities of Phoenicia and the neighbouring places. This history was translated into Greek by Philo, a native of Byb- lus, who lived in the reign of the emperor Adrian. Some few frag- ments of this Greek translation are extant. Some, however, suppose them to be spurious, while others maintain their authenticity. 7. David was the son of Jesse, and anointed king of Israel, while keeping his father's flocks, by Samuel, the prophet. He was a valiant, prosperous, and warlike prince, and raised himself and people to great eminence and renown. His name began to be known and celebrated, from the time that he slew Goliath, the giant. His military operations were planned with wisdom, and executed with vigour. He was distinguished as a sacred poet and waiter of psalms ; no one in this department has ever equalled him. These inspired pro- ductions are marked by loftiness, vigour, and felicity of expression —abounding in the sublimest strains of devotion, and conveying the most important truths and instructions to the mind. This pious prince was left to fall into scandalous sins, in a few in- stances, particularly in the seduction of Bathsheba, and the murder of Uriah, her husband ; but he bitterly repented of them, and was restored to the divine favour. He died, 1015 years B. C., after a reign of 40 years. 1004—752 B. c. 47 PERIOD V. The Period of Homer, extending from the dedication of Solo» man's temple, 1004 years B. C, to the founding of RomCj 752 years B. C. ISRAELITES. Section 1. From the accession of Solomon to the throne of the Israelites, a period of profomid peace and prosperity was enjoyed by that people throughout his reign. The most important undertaking of this monarch, was the build- ing and dedication of the temple of the Lord at Jerusalem. This magnificent structure Avas completed in seven years. The dedication was performed by the king, with the most solemn religious rites, in presence of all the elders of Israel, and the heads of the various tribes. This prince exceeded in wisdom all who went before him ; but, in his old age, he took many wives and concubines out of the idolatrous nations aiound him, who corrupted his heart. The Lord therefore declared, by the prophet Abijah, that he would divide the kingdom after his death, and give ten tribes to Jeroboam ; which accordingly took place. §The temple at Jerusalem was a most sumptuous and costly edifice. The value of t?ie materials, and the perfection of the Vv^orkmanship, rank it among the most celebrated structures of antiquity. It was not very large, being httle more than 90 feet in length, 30 in breadth, and 45 in heiglit ; but was finely proportioned, and, together with a grand porch, was splendidly ornamented. Towards the close of his reign, as a punishment of his effeminacy and idolatry, the Lord stirred up certain adversaries against him : and, though the principal evil threatened against Israel, was not to occur during his day, yet he had the mortification of knowing that it would be inflicted under the administration of his son; and that his own conduct would be the procuring cause. . We cannot help believing that he repented of his aw^ful defection from duty, though nothing in the Bible is recorded concerning this point ; and all ought to be profited by the memorials which he has left of his wisdom, and general piety. 2. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, began to reign over the Israelites 975 years B. C. Having refused to hghten the yoke his father had imposed on his subjects, ten tribes revolt- ed, anil followed Jeroboam, an enterprising domestic of the king. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin alone remained 48 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. faithful to Rehoboam. From this time Jiidah and Israel are separate kingdoms. 3. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or the Tsraehtes, dm-- ing- this period, was gov^erned by a succession of vicious and idokUrous monarchs; and wars and feuds, treachery and mur- der, mark their history in a shocking manner. Jeroboam was their first king. § A few incidents in the lives of these kings may be noticed. Jeroboam, to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem to sacri fice, made two goklen calves, wiiich the people worshipped ; for whicli conduct, God declared that his whole house should be cut off. Zimri, the fourth after Jeroboam, enjoyed the crown only seven days. The city Tirzah, in which he was besieged by Omri, being taken, he burnt himself to death in his palace. Ahab, the sixth after Jeroboam, was the most impious king v/ho reigned over Israel. He married Jezebel, a daughter of a king of the Sidonians, who excited him to commit all manner of wickedness. Among other things, he wantonly murdered Naboth, for refusing to give up his vineyard to Ahab. Jehu, a captain under Jehoram, was anointf|gi king by the prophet Elisha ; and, though a wicked man, was the instrument of executing the Lord's vengeance upon his impious contemporaries. He killed Jehoram, and the 70 sons of Ahab ; and after having slain all the priests of Baal, he destroj^ed the miages, and the house of their god. Jehoasli was successful as a warrior. He defeated Benhadad, king of Syria, in three battles. In a war against Amaziah, king of Judah, he took him prisoner, broke down the v/all of Jerusalem, and plundered the temple and the king's palace. Pekah, the last king during this period, made war against Judah, with Rezin, king of Syria. Under his reign, part of the ten tribes were carried captive to Assyria, by Tiglath Fileser. 4. Several of the kings of Judah, during the present peri- od, were pious men, and adhered to the worship of God. Others of them imitated the profligate kings of Israel. The people whom they governed, and who have survived to the present time, are called Jews, in distinction from Israelites, the name once applied to the whole twelve tribes. § We will notice some of the transactions of their reigns. During the reign of Rehoboam, Sesac, king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and carried off the treasures of the temple, and of the palace. Jehoshaphat- carefully enforced the worship of God. The Mo- abites and Ammonites declared war against him ; but the Lord threw them into confusion in such a manner, that they destroyed one another. Ahaziah, directed by the councils of Athaliah, his mother, acted • wickedly. He went, with the vicious Jehoram, king of Israel, to war against Hazael, king of Syria. When Jehu destro3'-ed the 1004—752 B. c. 49 house of Ahab, he sought Ahaziah, who was hid in Samariaj and slew him. Joash reigned with justice as long as Jehoiada, the high priest, lived. After his death, having fallen into idolatry, Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, reproved him for this sin, and was stoned by the king's order. God then raised against him the king of Syria, who plun- dered Jerusalem. His own servants also conspired against him, and slew him in his bed. JJ^ziah made successful wars against the Philistines and Arabians. Intoxicated with prosperity, he went into the temple to burn incense upon the altar, and the Lord struck him with leprosy for his pre- sumption. Jotham, a pious prince, fought and overcame the Ammonites, and rendered them tributary. GREECE. 5. Greece, at the commencement of the present period, was in an unsettled state. By the emigration of many of Its inhabitants, colonies bad been. formed, particularly in Lesser Asia. Afterwards colonies were sent to Italy and Sicily. These, owing to the freedom of their governments, soon ri- valled their parent states ; a circumstance which induced the latter to put an end to despotism, and to adopt popular consti- tutions. In this work of reformation, Lycurgus, the legislator of Sparta, was distinguished. 6. It may be mentioned, in connexion with this subject and previously to an account of the reformation of Sparta, that the poems of Homer were introduced from Asia into Greece by Lycurgus. He met with them in his trayels in that region, carefally preserved them, and brought them home on his return, 886 years B. C. Their effect on the na- tional spirit and literature of the Greeks, was at length highly propitious. § Homer flourished about 900 years B. C. He was a poor blind man, and used to travel from place to place, singing his verses. But his genius was transcend ant. All succeeding ages have bowea to it ; and his poems have been taken as the model of all epic pro- ductions of any note written since his day. The present form of his poems is supposed not to have been the ancient form. They were probably produced in separate pieces and liallads ; and were united into continuous poems, it is said, by cer- tain learned men, under the direction of Pisistratus, king of Athens. The era of Grecian splendouv was several centuries after the time of Homer ; but by the preservation of his poems, the progress of the Greeks in arts and literature was effectually secured. 7. Lycurgus, by his peculiar institutions, raised Sparta BO ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV. ^ from a weak and distracted state, to superiority in arms over the other repubHcs of Greece. Sparta became tiulyrepubUcan in its government, though the form of royalty was retained. Its kings were merely the first citizens in the state, and ac- knowledged the superior authority of the Ephori and the people, to whom they were accountable. Tlieir privileges, however, sufficiently distinguished them from the mass of the citizens. With many things in his institutions that Avere commend- able, there was much that was pernicious. His sole object seems to have been, to render the Spartans fit only for war. The chronological date of the commencement of this refor- mation, is 884 years B. C. § After the return of the Heraclidae, Sparta was divided between the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who reigned jointly. The occasion of this was, that Aristodemus having been killed while his children were infants, their mother was unable to tell which of them was the first born, since they were twins. The Spartans consequently agreed that they should be joint kings. This double monarchy continued in the one line under 30 kings, and in the other line under 27 kings, during a period of about 880 years. Polydectes and Lycurgus were the sons of one of these kings. Upon the death of his brother, the crown devolved on Ly- curgus ; but his sister-in-law being Avith child, he resigned it. She hoAvever intimated to Lycurgus that if he would marry her^ the child should be destroyed immediately upon its birth. Lycur- gus, with a view to save it, desired that she would send it to him, and he would dispose of it. Accordingly, the boy, as soon as he was born, was s&nt to his uncle. Lycurgus was at supper with a large party when the royal infant arrived, but he instantly took it into his arms, and holding it to the view of the company, exclaimed, " Spartans ! behold your king." The people were delighted, and the boy was called Charilaus. Lycurgus, with a view to suppress the calumnies published against him by the faction of the queen, determined upon a voluntary exile. In his travels, he made it an object to acquire knowledge, and espe- cially to ascertain the best means of government. It was during this journey that he discovered the poems of Homer, as above men- tioned. Upon his recall to Sparta, he found things in so bad a condition, that \m set about a reformation of the manners of the people. He be- gan his labours by instituting a senate to make laws, and see that they were executed ; this senate was composed of 30 members, the kings being of the number He next made an equal division of the lands, so that all the Spar- tans shared it fairly between them. When he endeavoured to do the same with the furniture, clothes, &c. he found the rich very averse to 1921—1491 B. c. 51 his proposals. He therefore took another course. He substituted iron for gold and silver, as the medium of exchange. As this iron money was of no account among the neighbouring countries, the Spartans could no longer indulge in luxury, by pur- chasing foreign costly articles. The necessary arts of life he aUowed to be practised only by slaves. He then commanded that all persons, even the kings themselves, should eat at public tables, and that these tables should be served only with plain food. This regulation, more than any other, offended the rich citizens. They rose in a body and assaulted Lycurgus ; and one of them, pursuing him to a sanctuary, struck out his eye with a stick. Lycurgus no otherwise punished this offender, than by making him his page and attendant. In time, these dinners, at which they served up a kind of soup, called black broth, came to be much re- lished, and very pleasant discourse often enlivened them. An admirable part of the ceremony at these public meals was the following. When the company were assembled, the oldest man present, pointing to the door, said, " Not one word spoken here, goes out there." This wise rule produced mutual confidence, and prevent- ed all scandal and misrepresentation. The children were taught in large public schools, and were made brave and hardy. All the people were accustomed to speak in short pithy sentences, so that this style of speaking is even now called af- ter them, laconic ; Laconia being one of the names of Lacedaemon. When Lycurgus had firmly established his new laws, he ensured their observance by the following contrivance. He left Sparta, after having made the people swear, that they would abide by his laws, until he should return. As he intended not to return at all, this was to swear that they would keep his laws for ever. Lycurgus died in a foreign land. By some it is asserted, that he starved himself to death. His laws continued in force 500 years, during which time the Spartans became a powerful and conquering people. , The institutions of this legislator were impaired by many blemishes. The manners of the Lacedaemonian women were suffered to be shamefully loose. The youtli were taught to subdue the feelings of humanity. The slaves were t reated Avith the greatest barbarity. Even theft was a part of Spartan edr.cation. The object of this v/as to prepare their minds for the stratagems of'j war. Detection exposed them to punishment. Plutarch tells us of a boy, who had stolen a fox and hidden it under his coat, and who rather chose to let the animal tear out his bowels, than to discover tHe theft. Sect. 8. The first of the Olyiii'piads^ an era by which the events in Grecian history are reckoned, occurred 776 vears B. C. The Olympic games were first instituted about 1450 years B. C, but having fallen into disuse, were restored 62 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. at diflerent times, and from the period above mentionedj form a certain epoch in history. § The nature of these games will be described under the " Gene- ral Views," at the close of this work. MACEDON. Sect. 9. Macedon, a kingdom in Greece, and sometim?s considered distinct from it in its liistory, was founded bj^ Ca- ranus, an Ar^^ive and descendant of Hercules, about 795 years B. C. The government continued in his line G17 years, i. e. till the death of xllexander iEgus, the posthumous son of Alexander the Great. § The history of Macedon under its first kings is obscure, and pre- sents only some wars with the Illyrians, Thracians, and other neigh- bouring nations. It became, as we shall hereafter learn, verj'" power- ful, and under Philip overturned tlie liberties of the other states of Greece. ASSYRIA. Sect. 10. After a chasm of 800 years in the history of the first kingdom of Assyria, we find a few particulars re- specting one or two of its last sovereigns. P^d, who is men- tioned in scriptuFe, subdued Israel in the reign of Menahem, who became his tributary. This Pul is supposed to be the king of Nineveh, ^^ ho, Avith his people, repented at the preach- ing of Jon all. If this be the fact, he flourished about 800 years B.C.* § The object of .Jonah's preaching was to denounce the divine judgements against this people on account of their wickedness. The propiiet after great reluctance to obey the con\niand of God, and a signal chastisement for his disobedience, repaired at length to Nine- veh, and executed his commission. The Ninevites took the alarm, and humbled themselves before Jehovah, in consequence of v\-hicli they were delivered at that time .*i-om destruction. The Assyrian empire, of which Nineveh was the fapital, ended, howcA or, soon afterwards, as we shall now learn. Sect. 11. tSardanapaluswixs the last and the most vicious of the Assyrian monarchs. In his reign a conspiracy broke out, by which the kingdom was destroyed, 7G7 years B. C. Three monarchies rose from its ruins, viz. Nineveh, which * We have here followed Ushev, and not the authors of the Universal His- tory. Usher, as we tliiiJc, more consistently, supposes Pul to be the father of Sardanapalus. 1004—752 B. c. 53 preserved the name of Assyria^ Babylon^ and the kingdom of the Medes. § Sardanapalus was the most effeminate of mankind. He never left his palace, but spent all his time with his women and his eunuchs. He imitated them in dress and pamting, and spun with them at the distaff. Being besieged in his city, by Arbaces, governor of the Medes, he at length set fire to his palace, and consumed himself, with his wo- men, eunuchs, and treasures. EGYPT. Sect. 12. Egypt continued to be governed by a race of kings, concerning whom the common accounts seem not to be very satisfactory. The most consideraVjle or the best known of them were Shishak, Rhamses, Amenophis IV. and Thuo- ris. Shishak is mentioned in scripture, and he is by some authors considered the same as Sesostris. But we are dispo- sed to consider Sesostris as much more ancient, and have ac- cordingly spoken of liim in a former period. § Concerning Shishak, it appears that he built many temples and cities, dug canals, and among other conquests, took Jerusalem and .spoilt the temple. Rhamses possessed a very avaricious" disposition. Diodorus in- forms us, that he was never at any expense either for the honour of the gods, or the welfare of his people ; but that his sole delight was in the augmentation of his private treasure, which, at his decease, amounted to no less than 400,000 talents. Amenophis IV. is thought to be the same with Memnon, whose famous statue was said to utter a sound at the rising of the sun. The monument in which he was buried, is much celebrated for its mag- nificence. He acquired great renown by his expedition against ihe Bactrians. Thuoris lost the Egyptian possessions in the East ; and after his death, Egypt, reduced"^within its natural boundaries, was divided among several little kingdoms for about 44 years. PHOENICIANS. Sect. 13. The Phoenicians, during this period, were go- vei'ned by the successors of Hiram, of whom the first was Baleazar^ his son ; and the seventh from him was Pygnia- lion^ the brother of the celebrated Dido. The cruelties of Pygmalion obliged her to flee to Africa, where she founded a mighty sovereignty, as will now be mentioned. CARTHAGE. Sect. 14. According to the most probable accounts, it was 869 years B. C. when Dido arrived at Africa. The history E2 - -S' 54 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. of tbeCARTHAOJiNiANS is dated from tliis event. She fixedlier habitation at the bottom of a gulf, on a peninsula, near the spot where Tunis now stands. From this, Carthage arose, a city which afterwards became famous for its wealth and power, and from its connexion with the Roman wars. The early history of the people, who were called after the name of their principal city, is but little known. Its later history is involved in that of Rome. It is probable Dido might have found a few inhabitants in this place, whom its local advantages had induced to settle there ; but to her and her attendants, Carthage is doubtless uidebted for a regular foundation. The colony had the same language, and national charac- ter, and nearly the same laws, with the parent state. In the lieight of its splendour, it possessed a population of 700,000 inliabitants, and had under its dominion 300 small cities, bor- dering on the Mediterranean sea. § Pygmalion, wishing to possess himself of the immense riches of SichcEus, tlie husband of Dido, took an opportunity, while they were engaged in a chase, to run him through the body with a spear. The suspicion of his sister was awakened ; but, concealing her design, she requested Pygmalion to furnish her with men and ships, to con- vey her effects to a small city between Tyre and Sidon, that she might live there with her brother Barca. The king granted her request ; but Dido had no sooner' embarked her property on board, than her brother and others, who favoured her real design, set sail for Cyprus, whence they carried off a great number of young women, and then steered their course to Africa. The Tyrian monarch, thus defeated in his schemes, was about to send a fleet after the fugitives ; but the tears of his mother, and the threatening predictions of the oracle, prevented his intended revenge. ITALY. Sect. 15. In Italy, at the time of Numitor, about 775 B. C, there was a turn in events deserving our notice. Amtt liuSy the brother of Numitor, being ambitious of the throne^ usurped the government, and connected this act with the murder of the king's only son, and with compelling Rhea Sylvia, his only daughter, to become a vestal. He thus meant to prevent any from becoming claimants to the throne. The event, however, frustrated the hopes of Amulius ; for from Sylvia sprung Remus and Romulus, twin brothers, who, at length overcoming Amulius, replaced thek grandfather Numitor, on the thione. 1004—752 B. c. 55 § Amulius, hearing of the birth of Remns and Romiihis, so contrary lo his expectations, ordered the mother to be buried ahve, the pun- ishment of incontinent vestals, and the children to be thrown into the river Tiber. The latter sentence was executed, but the former M'as prevented by the intercession of a daughter of Amulius. The infants, though put into the Tiber, were saved, since the bas- ket in wdiich they v/ere covered, floated on the surface. It was borne to the foot of the Aventine mount, and there stranded. According to some accounts, a she-wolf sucklecT them, which is incredible. According to other accounts, the woman who preserved and nursed tliem, was called Lupa, and as Lupa is the Latin word for she-woif, this circumstance caused the mistake. Tlie two brothers became shepherds, were fond of hunting wild beasts, and at length turned their arms against the robbers that in- fested the country. Having been informed of their high birth, they collected their friends, and fought against Amulius, their uncle, and killed him. Numitor, after an exile of 42 years, was then called to the throne again, and was happy to owe his restoration to the bravery of his grandsons. Such were the youths who v^^ere destined by Provi- dence to lay the foundation of a city, which became the mistress of the world. Distinguished characters in Period V. 1. Solo7no7i^ endowed with extraordinary wisdom. 2. Horner^ the greatest of the Grecian poets. 3. Heslod, an eminent Greek poet. 4. Lycurgiis^ a reformer of the Spartan republic, and wise legislator. 5. Dido, a Tyrian princess, who founded Carthage. 6. Isaiah, the greatest of tlie prophetical writers. § 1. Solomon v/as the son of David by Batnsheba. He succeeded David in the kingdom of Israel. He was the wisest of m.ankind. In early life he appeared to be, exemplary in piety, but was afterwards guilty of great defection from the strictness of religion. It is be^- lieved, however, that he did not die an apostate. The temple which he erected at Jerusalem in honour of the God of Israel, has also ren- dered his name immortal. He wrote the books of Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, and the Canti- des, all inspired by the Spirit of God. He died 975 years B. C. aged 58 years, and having reigned 40 years. 2. Homer Avas not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but the earliest whose w^orks have survived the devastations of time. On these accounts he is styled the father of poetry, and indeed, so far as we can know with certainty, he is the most ancient of all profeiie classical writers. The place of his nativity is unknown. Seven illustrious cities contended for the honour of having given him birth. His parentage 56 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. and the circumstances of his hfe are also unknown, except in regard to the latter, it was agreed that he was a wafidering poet, and that he was blind. His greatest poems, (and they are among the greatest of uninspi- red books,) are the Iliad and Odyssey. Other works have been as- cribed to him, but without having been sufficiently substantiated. His poetry is characterized by sublimity, fire, sweetness, elegance, and imiversal knowledge. The poems of Homer are the compositions of a man, who travel- led and examined, with the most critical accuracy, whatever he met in his way. Modern travellers are astonished to see the different scenes which his pen described, almost 3000 years ago, still appearing the same ; and the sailor who steers his course along the ^gean, beholds all the promontories and rocks which presented themselves to Nestor and Menelaus, when they returned victorious from the Trojan war. The first appearance of Homer's poems in Greece, was about 200 years after the supposed time of the bard. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, was the first who arranged the Iliad and Odyssey in the form in which they now appear to us. The Arundelian marbles fix the period in which he flourished, at 907 years B. C. 3. Ilesiod js generally considered as having been a contemporary of Homer. lie was born at Ascra in Boeotia. His greatest production was a poem on Agriculture, which contains refined moral reflections, mingled with instructions for cultivating fields. - His Theogony, another poem, gives a faithful account of the gods of antiquity. Hesiod is admired for elegance and sweetness. Cicero highly commends him, and the Greeks were so partial to his moral poetical instructions, that they required their children to learn them all by heart. 4. Lycurgus flourished about 884 years B. C. He was regent of Sparta, until Charilaus, his nephew, had attained to mature years. Then leaving Sparta, he travelled in Asia and Egypt, for the purpose of improving his mind, and observing the manners, customs, and po- litical institutions of ditferent nations. Upon his return, he reformed the abuses of the state, banished lux- ury, and produced a system which gave rise to all the magnanimity, fortitude, and intrepidity which distinguished the Lacedaemonians. Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his country, and, by a voluntary death, rendered that event impossible ; thus securing, as far as in his power, the perpetuity of his institutions. 5. Dido, also called Elissa, was a daughter of Belus, king of Tyre, and married her uncle Sichaeus. Her husband having been murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, the disconsolate princess, with a number of TyrianS, set sail in quest of a settlement A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and there she founded, or enlarged a city, that became much celebrated in the annals of history. Her beauty, as well as the fame of her enterprise, gained her many admirers -, and her subjects wished to compel her to marry 1004—752 B. c. 57 larbas, king of Mauritania, by whom they were threatened with war. Dido requested three months for consideration ; and, during that time, she erected a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn sacrifice, to appease the manes of Sichaeus, to w^hom she had vowed eternal fidelity. ' Wlien her preparation was completed, she stabbed herself on the pile, in presence of her people, and by this desperate feat, obtained the name of Dido, valiant woman. The poets have made iEneas and Dido contemporaneous, but this is only a fiction, allowed perhaps by the rules of their art. 6. Isaiah was the son of Amos, and of the lineage of David. He prophesied from 735 to 681 B. C. during the reigns of several kings of Judah. He is the greatest and the sublimest of the prophets. lie reproved the sinners of his day with boldness, and exposed the many vices that prevailed in the nation. He is called the evangelical pro- phet, from his frequent allusion to, and prediction of Gospel times. He is said to have been cut in two with a wooden saw, bj^ the cruel king Manassch. PERIOD VI. TVie 2>Griod of the Roman kings, extending' from the founding of Ro?ne, 752 years B. C, to the battle of Ma- rathon, 490 years B. C. ROMANS. Sect. 1. Romulus began the buildlDg of Rome 752 B. C. His brother Reinus was indeed concerned in the projected un- dertaking', but a dispute arising between the ])rotbers respect- ing the place where the city should stand, they had recourse to arms ; in consequences of which, Remus lost bis life. Romulus, only 18 years of age, was thus left to pursue the enterprise alone. On the Palatine hill he fixed as the spot, and enclosing about a mile of territory in compass, with a wall, he filled it with 1000 houses, or ratlier huts. To this collection he gave the name of Rome ; and lie peopled it with the tumultuous and vicious rabble, wdiicli he found in th(i nefghbotwiiood. At first it was-nearly destitute of laws ; but it soon 'became a well regulated community. § The liberty of building a city on those hills, v.here the two bro- thers had fed their flocks, was granted to them b}' Numilor, thekhig. He assigned to them a certain territory, and permitted such of his subjects as chose, to resort thither in aid of the wor^ A division taking place, in regard to the particula^pct where tlie city sliould stand, Numitor advised them to watch the^fiight of birds. 58 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. a custom common in tliat ngc, when any contostrd point was to be scltltxi. They took their stations on ditlbrent hills, Kemns saw six vnltures ; Koniuhis twice as many ; so that each one thought himself victorious — the one having the lirst omen, the other the most com- plete. A contest was the result ; and it is asserted that Remus was killed by the hand of his brother. Jumping contemptuously over the city wall, he was struck dead upon the spot by Honnilus, who declared that no one should insult his rising walls with impunity. 2. Romulus, having been elected king, introduced order and disri[iliiie among his subjects, which gradually improved under his successors. He adopted many important regulations respecting the go- vernment and [K)licy of his newly acquired territory, the wis- dom of which has been sanctioned by time. As some of these, and other institutions that were afterwards added, are to be presented imdcr the General Views in this work, they need not liere be given. 3. Under the salutary regulations of Romidus, great numbers of men, fiom the small towns around Rome, flock- ed to the city, and every day it increased in power and ex- tent. The most important event under tlie administration of Romulus, was the Rape of the Sabine virgins, by which the Romans were supplied with wives, and wdiich caused the war that thence ensued between the Romans and Sabines. After concpiering some of the neighbouring kings, Romu- his was Ivilled (it is supposed) by the Senators, having reigned 37 years, ami was succeeded, a^the expiration of one year, by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, tli^ wisest and best of the Roman kings, 715 years B. C. § In the want of women, Romulus proposed intermarriages with the Sabines, liis neighbom-s. His proposal, liowever, was rejected with scorn. He then tried the effect of intrigue and force. Inviting the neighbourmg tribes to witness some magnificent spectacle in the city, he had the pleasure of finding that the Sabine^s, with their wives and daughters, were among the foremost ^o be present. .At the proper time, the Roman youth rushed in among them with drawn swords, seized the youngest and most beautiful of tlie women, and carrieil them off by violence. The virgins, at tirst offended by the boldness of the intrusion, at length became reconciled to their lot. The Sabines, as might be expected, resented the affront, and tlew to arms. After several unfortunate attempts at revenge, the Sabines, witli Tatius, thll^ king, at their head, entered the Roman territories, 26,000 men strong. Having by stratagem passed into the city, they 752—490 B. c. 59 continued the war at pleasure. At length the Romans and Sabines prepared for a general engagement. In the midst of the fight, however, the Sabine women who had been carried off by the Romans, rushed in between the combatants. ** If," cried they, " any must die, let it be us, who are the cause of your animosity ; since, if our parents or our husbands fall, we must» in either case, be miserable in surviving them." This moving spectacle produced an effect. An accommodation ensued. It was acrreed that Tatius and Romulus should reign jointly in Rome ; that 100 Sabines should be admitted into the senate ; and that the privilege-!? of Roman citizens, should be extended to such of the Sabines as chose to enjoy them. Tathis lived but five years after this ; and Romulus, taking advan- tage of this event, and elated by prosperity, invaded the liberty of his people. The senators opposed his encroachments, and at length, it is said, tore him to pieces in the senate hou.se. When the throne was offered to Numa, he wished to decline it ; and it was not until his friends repeatedly urged him to accept it, that he gave up his own wishes to theirs, and for the good of his country consented to become king of Rome. He was a wise and virtuous man, and, before his elevation to the throne, lived contentedly in privacy. He proved excellent as a mo- narch, and reigned 43 years in profound peace, inspiring his subjects with the love of wisdom and virtue. He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted dif- ferent cla.sses of priests, and a great variety of religious ceremonies. The Flamines officiated each in the service of a peculiar deity 3 the Salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the Vestals cherished the sacred fire ; the Augurs and Aruspices divined future events from the flight of birds, and the entrails of victims. 4. The third king of Rome was TuUius Hostilius, who was elected, and began to reign, 672 B. C. His disposi tion was \variikc. He subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neigh])ouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, became their most powerful enemy. Tulliua reigned 33 years, and, according to some accounts, he was killed by lightning. The most remarkable event during the reign of Tullius, was the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. In the war between the Romans and Albans, as their armies were about to engage, the Alban general proposed that the dispute should be decided by single combat, and that the side whose champion was overcome, should submit to the conqueror. To this the Roman king acceded. It happened that there were three twin brothers in each army ; those of the Romans were called Horatii, those of the Albans, Co- riatii ; all remarkable for their prowess. To tliesc the combat was 60 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. assigned. The armies were drawn up in due order, and the brothers took to their arms. The signal being given, the youths rushed forward to the encoun- ter. They were soon engaged hand to hand, each regardless of his own safety, seeking only the destruction of his opponent. The three Albans were severely wounded, and loud shouts ran along the Ro man army. In a few seconds, two of the Romans fell and expired. The acclamations were heard amid the Albans. The surviving Roman now saw that all depended on him ; it was an awful moment. But he did not despair ; he manfully roused his spirits to meet the exigence of the occasion. KnoAving that force alone could not avail, he had recourse to art. He drew back, as if flying from his enemies. Immediately were heard the hisses of tlie Romans. But Horatius had the felicity to witness what he wished. The wounded Curiatii, pursuing him at imequal distances, were divided. Turning upon the nearest pursuer, he laid- him dead at his feet. The second brother advancing, soon shared the same fate. Only one now remained on each side. The hisses of the Romans were turned into cheerings. But what was their exultation when they saw the last of the Curiatii stretched lifeless on the ground I What followed, it is painful to relate. When Horatius reached Rome, he saw his sister bitterly lamenting the death of the Curiatii, o'ne of whom she was engaged to marry. In the dreadful moment frf ungoverned rage, he killed her on the spot. Horatius was condemned to die for his crime, but making his ap-. peal to the people, he was pardoned, though his laurels and his cha- racter were forever tarnished. 5. Rome was governed by four other kings, in succession, viz. Anciiis Martins, Tarquinius Prisons, Servius Tullius, and Tarqninius Snperbus. A nous inherited the virtues of his grandfather, Numa, and was, besides, a warrior ; Tarquin enriched Rome with mag- \.:licent works ; Servius ruled with political wisdom ; but Tarquin the Proud pursued a course of systematic tjaanny. "With him ended the monarchical form of government at Rome, 509 years B. C. § Servius married his two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, and then having established good government, was preparing to quit the throne and live in peace and retirement. But these intentions were frustrated. TuUia, one of his daughters, preferred her sister's husband to her own, and he was disposed to reciprocate so vile an attachment. To answer their base purposes, they both killed their respective partners. As one wickedness too surely paves the way for another, these flagi tious wretches next plotled the death of Servius. It will be read with horror, that not only did the cruel Tullia re- joice, when slie heard that Tarquinius had murdered her father, but 752— 490 b. c. 61 that when she rode fortli in her chariot, to congratulate the base mur- derer, she would not permit her coachman to indulge even his hu- mility, who seeing the bleeding body of Servius lying in the street, was about to turn down another road, thinking, very rationally, that his mistress would be shocked to behold the mangled corpse of her old father. Tullia had expelled from her heart all natural feeling, and per- ceiving the hesitation of the coachman, angrily bade the man drive on ; he did so, and the chariot-wheels of the daughter's car were stained with the blood of her gray-haired father, Tarquin, surnamed the proud, upon this event, was made king ; but though at first he ingratiated himself with the lower classes ot tlie people, yet by his qipressive and tyrannical conduct, he at length became an object of universal detestation. His son Sextus having greatly indulged in detestable vices, became the occasion of his own and the king's ruin. ' This prince, and Collatinus a noble Roman, and some officers, when with the army besieging Ardea, a small town not far from Rome, in the height of a debauch, were boasting what excellent wives each possessed. Collatinus was certain that his was the best ; ' in their merriment, the young men mounted their horses, and set off for Rome, to discover whose wife was most properly employed in tfie absence of her husband. The ladies were all found visiting and passing the time in amuse- ment and mirth, except Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus. She wa-s nidustriously spinning wool among her maidens at home. Sextus was so taken with the good sense and right behaviour of Lucretia, that he fell in love with her, and wished her to quit her husband, hiduiging at the same time the most unwarrantable designs. Lucretia, shocked at his vile proposals, and unable to survive her dishonour, killed herself for grief, which so distracted Collatinus, tliat with Junius Brutus, and other friends, he raised an arm}'-, and drove Sextus and his infamous father from Rome. The people had suffer- ed so nmch under the tyranny of this king, that they resolved that he sliould never come back, and that they would liave no more kings. The cause of the interest which Brutus took in the death of Lu- cretia, was the follo^ving. His father and eldest brother had been slain by Tarquin, and unable to avenge their death, he pretended to be insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was called Brutus for his stupidity. When the infamous deed of the Tarquins was done, and the catastrophe which ensued was known, he seized the occasion of revenge. -if. Snatching the dagger from the wound of the bleeding Lucretia, he swore upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to the royal family " Be witness, ye gods," he cried, " that from this moment I proclaim myself the a\'enger of the chaste Lucretia's cause," &c. This energy of speech and action, in one who had been reputed a fool, astonished Rome, and every patriot's arm was nerved against Tarquin and his adherents— against Tarquin and royalty. F .62 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI. 6; ^f rem a monarchyj Rome now became a repulilic, with a gradual increase of the power of the people from time to time. At first the nobles had much the largest share in the government. The supreme authority was committed to two magistrates, chosen from the patrician order every year, who were named consuls. Their power was nearly or quite equal to that of the kings, only it was temporary. Brutus and Collatinus were the first consuls, who, Avith several of their successors, were engaged in hostility with the banished king. . § Tarqiiin, after his expulsion, took refuge hi Etrnria, where he enlisted two of the most powerful cities, Venii and Tarquinii, to es- pouse his cause. At Rome also he had adherents. A conspiracy having been formed to open the gates of the city to him, the republic was on the eve of ruin. It was however discovered in season, and the tAVo sons of Brutus having been concerned in it, he sternly ordered them to be beheaded m his presence. He put off the father, and acted only the consul — a dreadful necessity. Some time after, in a combat between the Romans and Tarquins, Brutus engaged with Aruns, son of Tarquin, and so fierce was the attack, that they both fell dead together. Brutus was honoured as the father of the republic. Tarquin now fled for aid to Porsenna, king of Clusium, who ad- vanced Avith a large army to Rome, and had nearly entered it. The A'alour of one man saved the city. Horatius Codes, seeing the ene- my approach the bridge Avhere he stood sentinel, and observing the retreat of tlie Romans, besought them to assist him. He told them to burn or break doAvn the bridge behind him, Avhilst he Avent forAvard to keep back the enemy. He then remained alone fighting in the midst of his enemies, and when he heard the crasli of the bridge and the shouts of the Romans, knoAving that no Avay of entrance Avas left for the foe, he jumped into the river and SAvam over to his friends in safety. In the war Avith Porsenna occurred another remarkable incident. TMutius Scosvola, a noble young Roman, upon leave obtained of the senate, disguised himself, and entered the tent of Porsenna. There he «aAV a man so richly drest that he thought he Avas the king, Avhom he eon^;rived to kill, but it Avas only the king's secretary. Wliile endeavouring to quit the camp, Mutius Avas seized and car- ried before Porsenna, Avho told him he AA^ouid severely torture him if he did not betray the schemes of the Romans. Mutius only ansAvered by putting his hand into one of the fires lighted near him, and hold- ing it steadily there. The king, seeing the courage and fortitude of this youth, leaped from his throne, and draAving the hand of Mutius from the flame, highly praised him, and dismissed him without farther harm. Peace was soon concluded upon this incident. 752—490 B. c. 63 7. The Latins, excited by Mamilius, Tarquin's son-in- law, declared war against the Romans, 501 years B. C. The common people, oppressed by the patrician order, had become disalTected, and refused to enlist into the service. In this crisis, the Romans resorted to the desperate measure of having a dictator, a magistrate with unlimited authority, for the pe- riod of six months. This was an effectual resort in times of danger. ;t> A few years after, the people, supposing their grievances not sufficiently redressed, rose in general insurrection, when the senate consented to create five, new magistrates, called tribunes, who were to be annually selected by the people, 'vj These were to ]3e sacred ; their office was to defend the oppressed, pardon ollenders, arraign the enemies of the peo- ple, and, if necessary, stop the whole machine of government. Tliey were afterwards increased to ten. The popular or de- mocratic constitution of Rome may be dated from this period, 49-0 years B. C. About this time, Coriolanus, a patrician and able warrior, bein* banished from Rome, for proposing the abolition of the tribunate, retired to the Yolsci, among w^hom he raised an army, and adv^anced to besiege Rome. Attacking the city, he would prol^ably have conquered it, but he was turned from his purpose by the prayers and tears of his mother, wife, and children. § A few particulars respecting Coriolanus must here be related. Passing over the circumstances of his banishment, we find that upon his entrance into th.e territory of the Volsci, he met a most friendly reception from Tulhis Aufidius, a mortal enemy to Rome. Having advised this prince to make war against the Romans, he marched at the head of the Volsci, as general. The approach of Coriolanus, at the head of so powerful an enemy, greatly alarmed the Romans, who sent him several embassies to re^ncile him to his He was deaf t^Rl proposals ; -and though each successive emhassy was made moii^fi^d more solemn and urgent, he bade tliem prepare for war. At Rome, all was now confusion and consternation. The republic was nearly given up for lost. Coriolanus had pitched his camp at only a very short distance from the city. As a last resort, it was suggested, tliat possibly his wife or mother might effect what the senate and the mini -ters of religion could not. Accordingly his mother, Veturia, and his wife, Vergilia, with his children, and the principal matrons of the city, undertook the last embassy. The meeting of Coriolanus and this train, was in the high 64 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. est degree tender and affecting. In the sternness of liis soul he had resolved to give them a denial ; but the authority of a mother, and the entreaties of a wife and of children, must be listened to. "My son," cried his mother, "how am I to consider this meeting? Do I embrace my son or ni}^ enemy? Am I your mother or your captive? How have I lived to see this day — to see mj^'son a banished man— and still more distressful, to see him the enemy of his coun- try ? how has he been able to turn his arms against tlie place that gave him life — how direct his rage against those walls that protect his wife, his children, and his gods ? But it is to me only that my country owes her oppressor. Had I never been a mother, Rome had still been free." With these and similar words, and with the tears and entreaties of his wife and children, his stern and obstinate resolutions were over- come. He was melted under them, and tiie feelings of a man rose superior to the honour of a soldier and the vengeance of a foe. The Volsci were marched from the neighbourhood of Rome, but the event fulfilled the sad prediction which he addressed to his mother, in re- plj'- — a prediction which only a Roman mother could hear — "O my mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." The act of Coriolanus, of course, displeased the Volsci. He was simimoned to appear before the people of Antium : but the clamours which his enemies raised were so prevalent, that he was murdered on the spot appointed for his trial. His body was honoured, never- theless, Avith a magnificent funeral by the Volsci, and the Roman ma- trons put on mourning for his loss. To show their sense of Veturia's merit and patriotism, the Romans dedicated a temple to Female Fortune. GREECE. 8. Greece, during this period, underwent several changes. After the institutions of Lycurgus had heen a number of years in successful operation, those of Athens began to re- ceive attention from s.ome of their wise men. The oihce of archoh had become decennial, at the beginning of tliis pe- riod. In 648 B. C. the archons were elected annuall)^ were nine in numbQii.and all had equal aiitliority. Under these changes the pi^le became miserable, and a reform was at- tempted, first by Draco, and 150 years afterwards by the illus- trious Solon, 594 years B. C. At the request of the citizens, they each fiunished, during his archonship, a written code for the regulation of the state. § Draco was a wise and honest, but a very stern man. His laws were characterized by extreme severity. Very trifling offences were punished with death, "because," said Draco, "small crimes deserve death, and I havcno greater punishment for the greatest sins,"— a plan ill adapted to the state of l:uman society. 752—490 B. c. 65 Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece. He established excellent rules of justice, order, and discipline. But, though possess- ed of extensive knowledge, he wanted a firm and intrepid mind ; and he rather accommodated his system to the habits and passions of his countrymen, thaii attempted to reform their manners. He cancelled the bloody code of Draco, except the laws which re- lated to murder ; and he abolished the debts of the poor by an act of insolvency. He divided the Athenians into four classes, of which the three first consisted of persons possessing property, and the fourth of those who were poor. All the offices of the state were committed to the care of the rich ; but those who possessed no property, were allowed to vote in the general assembly of the people, in whose hands he lodged the siv preme power. He instituted a senate, composed of 400 persons, (afterwards in- creased to 500 and 600,) who had cognisance of all appeals from the court of Areopagus, and with whom it was necessary that every measure should originate before it was discussed in the assembly of the people. In this way he sought to balance the weight of the po- pular interest. Solon committed the supreme administration of justice to the court of Areopagus. This court had fallen into disrepute, but So- lon, by confining its numbers to those who had been archons, great- ly raised the reputation of the body. The following anecdote of Solon and Thespis is worthy of remem- brance. Thespis was an actor of plays. Solon having at one time attended those shows, which were then very rude, called Thespis, who had been acting various characters, and asked him if he was not ashamed to speak so many lies ? Thespis replied, " It was all in jest." Solon, striking his staff on the ground, violently exclaimed, "If we encourage ourselves to speak falsely in jest, we shall run the chance of acquiring a habit of speak- ing falsely in serious matters." Such a sentiment is worthy of the wisdom of Solon. 9. Scarcely had Athens begun to enjoy the benefit of these new legnlations, when Pisistratus, a rich and ambi- tious citizen, usurped the supreme power, (B. C. 560,) wdiicb act Solon was unable to prevent. He and his posterity exer- cised it during 50 years. Hippias and Hipparchus, his sons, who succeeded him, en- joyed a peaceable crow^n for a time, but were at length de- throned, and democracy was restored. § Pisistratus secured the favour of the people by the following ex- pedient. Wounding himself, he ran into the market place, and pro- claimed that his enemies had inflicted the injury. Solon, with con- tempt, said to him, '• Son of Hippocrates, you act Ulysses badly ; he hurt himself to deceive his enemies ; you have done so to cheat your friends." P2 ,66 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. The populace, as is generally the case, being deaf to the voice of reason, Pisistralus became tyrant, or king of Athens. He secured tlie affections of the people by his splendour and munificence. He vas eminent for his love of learning, and the fine arts. He adorned Athens with many magnificent buildings. The restoration of democracy was undertaken by Harmodius and Aristogiton, who were citizens in middle life. They succeeded eventually, though tliey both lost their lives in the attempt. Aristo- giton Avas previously tortured, having fallen into the hands of Hip- pias. By the aid of the Laced8emonians the object was accomplish- ed, and Hippias, who at first escaped the fate of his brother, was at length dethroned. Passing into Asia, he solicited foreign aid to place him in the so- vereignty. Darius at this time meditated the conquest of Greece. Kippias took advantage of the views of an enemy against his native country, and Greece soon became involved in a war with Persia. 10. Under the institutions of Lycurgiis the Spartans had become a race of Avarriors. Being in the neighbourhood of Messenia, they were almost constantly at war with that slate. The first Messenian war began 743 years B. C. and lasted 19 years. There were two other periods of conten- tion between Sparta and Messenia, but the latter was final- ly subdued. The territory was seized and its inhabitants were enslaved. §Durhig one of these wars, the Lacedcemonians, it is said, bound themselves by oath not to return home till they had conquered the Messenians. Despairing, however, of ever returning, they sent or- ders to the women of Sparta to recruit the population, by promiscu- ous intercourse with the young men, who being children when the war began, had not taken the oath. The offspring of this singular and improper order were denomina- ted Partheniae, or Sons of Virgins. ISRAELITES. 11. The kingdom of Israel, towards the beginning of the present period, (721 B. G.) was subverted by Salmana- zar king of Assyria, or Nineveh. The Israelites were car- ]ied captive to Assyria, whence they never returned. This event occiured during the reign of Hosea, their last king. § Hosea had reigned nine years, when Salmanazar made him tribu- tary. But Hosea having revolted, the Assyrian king besieged Sama- ria,.the capital of the ten tribes, and after three years took and plun- dered it. Except a few, who remained in Canaan, the Israelites were disper- r^ed throughout Assyria, and lost their distinctive character. Those who remained in their native country became intermixed with stran- gers. The descendants of these mingled races were afterwards known by the name of Samaritans. 752—490 B. c. l^Ort Thus, in a little more than two centuries after the separation of the ten tribes from those of Judah and Benjamin, were they destroyed as a nation, having, on account of their great sins, previously suffered an awful series of calamities. JEWS. 12. The kingdom of Judah from the commencement of this period enjoyed but a doubtful existence. It was invaded at different times by the Babylonians, rendered tributary, and finally subdued. Nebuchadnezzar, within 115 years after the destruction of Samaria, took Jerusalem, and razed the city and its temple to its foundations. § During tJie latter part of the kingdom of Judah, the greater por lion of its kings were impious. Two or three of them, however, were eminently religious. Such were Hezekiah and Josiah. They were both of them reformers, and destroyed the altars of idolatry. The idolatry of Ahaz v/as punished by the captivity of 200,000 of his subjects, though the}^ were afterv/ards sent back upon the remon- strance of the prophet Obed. Manasseh, an impious and cruel prince, was carried to Dabylon, bound with fetters. This affliction, becom- ing the means of his repentance, God heard his supplications, and brought him again into his kingdom. 13. Under Jehoiachin, who was carried captive to Baby- lon, together with his people, commenced the Seventy 3^ears (Japtivity of tiie 3ews^ 606 B. C. The king Vv^as after- wards released, but remained tributary to -the king of Baby- lon. § In the reign of Zedekiah, the next but one in succession after Je- hoiachin, Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians, and entirely de- molished. Zedekiah, after seeing all his children slain, had his eyes put out, and was brought in fetters to Babylon. 14. The Jews having been in captivity to the Babylo- nians just 70 5^eai's, were permitted, by Cyrus, king of Persia, to return to their native land, 536 years B. 0. This Avas accomplished under the direction of Zerubbabel and Joshua, tlieir leaders. They soon began the rebuilding of the temple, but their enemies prevented them from making any progress. Seve- ral years afterwards they commenced the work anew, and completed it in the space of four years, 516 B. C. Upon this event thej^ celebrated the first passover. § The return of the Jews from their captivity happened the first year of Cyrus, who, as we shall soon learn, had conquered Babylon, and terminated the Babylonian empire. The influence of adversity on many of the Jews, seems to have 68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. been very favorable on this occasion. It brought them to repent- ance, and engaged them in the worship and ordinances of their re- ligion. The vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had brought with him from Jerusalem, were all restored by the Persian monarch. NINEVEH. 15. Of the three kingdoms into which the ancient Assy- rian empire was divided upon the death of Sardanapalusj Nineveh or Assyria oomes first in order. Its first king is supposed to have been Tiglath Pileser, 747 B. C. A few of his successors, during this period, were Sahiianazar, Sen- nacherib, Esarhaddon, Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar. Under the last of these kings the kingdom of Nineveh end • ed. Babylon, its capital, was taken by Cyaxares II. aided by Cyrus, and Belsb.azzar was killed, 538 years B. C. § Salmanazar v>'as the sovereign mentioned above, in the history of the Israelites. He destroyed the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. Of Sennacherib it is recorded in his war with the Jews, that having M'ritten a letter to Ilezekiah full of blasphemy against the God of Is- rael, God, in order to punish him, when he was just ready to take Je- rusalem, sent an angel, who in one night smote 185,000 men of his army. Covered with shame, he returned to his own country, and there his two eldest sons conspired against and killed him in the temple of Nisroch. About 108 years after this prince, Nebuchadnezzar began to reign over the kingdom of Nineveh. He signalized his reign by many con- quests, particularly of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. His heart being elated with success, God, to punish him for his pride, reduced him to such a state of insanity, that, wandering in the forests, he lived upon grass, like a wild beast. He recovered twelve months before his death, and, by a solemn edict, published through- out the whole of his dominions the astonishing things that God had wrought in him. Labynit, or the scripture Belshazzar, became peculiarly infamous, by profanely using the holy vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had brought out of the spoils of the temple. He was at length besieged by Cyaxares II. king of the Medes, in conjunction witli Cyrus. " During the siege he made a great entertainment for his whole court on a certain night; but their joy was greatly disturbed by a vision, and still more by the explanation which Daniel, the prophet, a Jew- ish captive, gave of it to the king, that his kingdom was taken from him, and delivered to the Medes and Persians. That very night Babylon was taken and Belshazzar killed. BABYLON. 16. Babylon, the next kingdom in order of the second em- 752—490 B. c. 69 pire of Assyria, continued separate not quite 70 years. Na- bonassar was its first king. After a few successive reigns, and interregnums, it was subdued by Esariiaddon, one of the kings of Nineveh, and annexed to his domhiions, 680 B. C. § The famous astronomical epocha at Babylon, called the era of Nabonassar, commenced from the reign of this prince. We are un- acquainted with the history of his successors, only Merodach seems to be the same prince who sent ambassadors to f lezekiah, to congra- tulate him on the recovery of his health. MEDES. 17. The last in order of the kingdoms tbat constituted the second empire of Assyria was that of the Medes. After the destruction of the first Assyrian empire, the Medes enjo)'- ed for some time the liberty they had acquired by their va- lour. They form.ed a repid^lic ; but anarchy having prevailed, the}' elected a king after 37 years. Dejoces, the first king, was elected 690 years B. C. The fourth king after him, viz. Cyaxares II. or Darius the Mede, having with his nephew, Cyrus, conquered Babylon, reigned over it two years in conjunction with Cj^'us ; after which the kingdom of the Medes, and indeed the whole Assyrian em- pire, was united to that of Persia, 536 years B. C. § Tlie Medes are supposed to be the descendants of Madai, the third son of Japhet, from ^diom they derived their name. They seem to have been independent tribes at first, and not to have been united under one monarchy till the time of Dejoces. They were governed by petty princes, and some are of opinion, that one of the four kings, who in the time of Abraham, invaded the southern coast of Canaan, reigned in Media. They were first brought into subjection to the Assyrian yoke by Ninus. Some time after t!iey had shaken off this yoke, they were govern- ed by kings of tlieir crwu, who became absolute, and were controlled by no law. Of Dejoces it is recorded, that he no sooner ascended the throne, than ho endeavoured to civilize and polish his subjects. He built the beautiful city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his empire. He then contrived a code of laws for the good of the state, and cau- sed them to be strictly obeyed. In a war with Nebuchadnezzar I. Iiis capital was plundered, and stripped of all its ornaments, and falling into the conqueror's hands, he was cruelly shot to death with arrows. Phraortes, his successor, was much more fortunate, and conquered almost all upper Asia. Cyaxares I. a brave prince, made war upon the kingdom of Nineveh, to avenge the wrongs inflicted by Nebu- chadnezzar. A battle etisued, in which the Ninevites or Assyriaas 7U ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. were defeated ; but a formidable army of the Scythians liaving invaded Media, Cyaxares marched with all his forces against them. The Medes, however, were vanquished, and obliged to make an alliance with the Scythians, who settled in Media, where they re- mained for 28 years. Finding that they could not get rid of their troublesome guests by force, they effected it by stratagem. The Scythians being invited to a general feast, which was given in every family, each landlord made his guest drunk, and in that condition massacred him. After this event, Cyaxares entered into a Avar with the Lydians, This war continued five years. Tlie battle fought in the fifth year, was remarkable on account of a total eclipse of the sun, which hap- pened during the engagement, and which was foretold by Thales, the philosopher. The Ptiedes and Lydians, equally terrified, immediately retreated, and soon after concluded a peace. Two more princes succeeded, viz. Astyages and Cyaxares II. Astyages married his daughter to Cam- byses, king of Persia, of which marriage Cyrus Avas the issue. After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the kingdoms of the Medes and Persians. PERSIA. 18. From the days of Cyrus the Great, 536 years B. C. the Persian empire holds a distinguished place in ancient history. It Avas originally of small extent, and almost un- known ; but after being founded by Cyrus, it included all India, Assyria, Media, and Persia, and the parts adjoining to the Euxine and Caspian Seas. It is sometimes called the Medo-Persian empire. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, and he obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions and splendid achievements. Having undertaken an expedi- tion against the Scythians, he was surprised and slain by means of an ambuscade from the enemy, 529 years B.C. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who is called in scripture Artaxerxes, and who added Egypt to his empire. Cambyses was succeeded by Darius, 522 j^ears B. C, the son of Hystaspes, who ]>y a stratagem obtained the sovereignty. § The first inhabitants of Persia were called Elamites, and descended from Elam the eldest son of Shem. During, however, more than 16 centuries we have little information relative to their history. Che- derlaomer, the only king of Elam recorded in history, conquered the king of Sodom, but was defeated by Abraham. This incident is mentioned in Scripture. Cyrus was born but one year after his uncle Cyaxares. The maiv ners of the Persians Avere admirable in those days, great simplicity of dress, and food, and behaviour, universally prevailed, so that Cyrus" 752— 490 b. c. 71 was plainly and wisely educated, as he was treated like other chil- dren of his own age. But he surpassed them all, not only in aptness to learn, but in courage and in address. When he was yet a boy, his mother took him to visit his grand- father, but the pride and luxury of the court of Media quite surprised and disgusted him. Astyages was so charmed with the sensible con- versation and artless manners of the prince, tliat he loaded him with presents. Cyrus, however, gave them all away to the courtiers, ac- cording to their merits, or their services rendered to himself.- Sacas, the cup-bearer, he neglected, because he did not let him visit Astyages when he pleased ; and when Astyages lamented his neglect of so good an officer, " Oh," said the young prince, " there is not much merit in being a good cup-bearer ; I can do as well myself." He then took the cup, and handed it to his mother with great modesty and gracefulness. Astyages admired his skill, but laughingly observed, " the young waiter had forgotten one thing." "What have I forgotten ?" asked Cyrus. " To taste the wine before you handed it to me and j^our mo- ther." " I did not forget that, but I did not choose to swallow poison." " Poison !" exclaimed the king. " Yes, there must be poison in the cup, for tlicy wlio drink of it sometimes grow giddy and sick, and fall down." " Then do you never drink in your country ?" inquired Astyages. " Yes, but we only drink to satisfy thirst, and then a lit- tle, water suffices." Many similar anecdotes are recorded of this prince, which may be learnt from larger histories. Having reduced all tlie nations from the iEgean sea to the Euphrates, he advanced tovv^ards Babylon, and at length entered it by stratagem. Having caused deep and large ditches to be dug all around it, he, on a certain night, when all the Babylonians were engaged in feasting and merriment, ordered the dams of the ditches to be thrown open, that the waters of the Euphra- tes might run into them. By this means, the channel of the river, which ran through the city, was left dry, so that the troops entered it without opposition. Tlie guards were surprised and slain, together \vi\h the king and all hi^s family. The kingdom of Babylon was thus destroyed for ever. Two years after this, Cyrus reigned over his vast empire alone during seven years, in the first of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews. Of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, it is recorded that he conquered Egypt, which remained under the Persian yoke 112 years. He made himself master of Pelusium, the key of Egypt, by the following stratagem. He placed in front of his army a great nimiber of those animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure them, made no opposition to the Persian army. After an impostor named Smerdis, who reigned 7 months, Dariust, a descendant of Cyrus on the mother's side, ascended the throne. In his time it was that the Jews were permitted to rebuild their tenv- pie. After a war against the Scythians, he turned his arms, as we fehall soon sec, against the Greeks. 72 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. LYDIANS. 19. In the history of the Lydians, the lasfof its dynasties, was that of the Mermnadae. Gyges, one of the chief officers of Candaiiles the king, having murdered the latter, became possessed of his queen and throne, 718 years B. C. He was the first of the Mermnadae race. The fourth prince after him was Croesus, so celebrated for his riches. His kingdom was conquered by Cyrus. § A circumstance worthy of record occurred in the contest between Cyrus and Croesus. After Croesus was taken prisoner, he was con- demned by the conqueror to be burnt alive. When the unhappy grince was led to the funeral pile, he exclaimed aloud three times, olon ! Solon ! Solon ! Cyrus immediately demanded, why he pronounced that celebra- ted philosopher's name with so much vehemence in that extremity, Croesus answered, that the observation of Solon, "That no mortal could be esteemed happy till the end of life," had forcibly recurred to his recollection. Cyrus was struck with the remark, and, as if in anticipation of his own tragical end, ordered the unhappy king to be taken from the pile, and treated him ever after with honour and respect. EGYPT. 20. Egypt, during the present period, was governed by the following kings — Sabbacon, Tharaca, Pharaoh-Necho, Psammenitus, and a few others. Under the last of these, 525 B. C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, king of Per- sia, to which power it was subject more than a century. § Sabbacon, a king of Ethiopia, it seems, conquered Egypt. . He killed Nechus, king of Sais ; burnt Bocchoris, another king, to death, and forced Any sis the blind to retire into the morasses. During his continuance in Egypt, he acquired a high reputation for wisdom and integrity. He finally relinquished the sceptre, and returned into Ethiopia, because he would not massacre the priests, agreeably to a suggestion said to have been imparted unto him by the tutelar god of Thebes. Tharaca, called in scripture Tirhakah, made war against Senna- cherib, king of Assyria. After him there was an anarchy of two years, and an aristocracy of twelve governors for fifteen years. Pharaoh-Nccho waged war against the Assyrians and Jews, killed Josiah king of Judah, captured Jerusalem, imprisoned Jehoahaz," and appointed Jehoiachim king. Psammenitus reigned only six months before the invasion of Cam- byses, and the subjection of his kingdom. He was kindly treated at first by the conquerer, but thirsting for an opportunity to revenge himself, he was condemned to drink bull's blood, and died wretch- edly. r52--490 B. c. 73 Distinguished Characters in Period VL 1. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome. 2. Sappho, a Greek poetess, inventor of the Sapphic verse. 3. ^sop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist. 4. Solon, a legislator of Athens, and one of the wisest men of Greece. 5. T hales, found-er of the Ionic philosophy. 6. Cyrus, a wise and successful prince, who conquered ?nost of the East. 7. Anacreon, a Greek poet, and father of the Anacreontic verse. 8. Pythagoras, a Grecian philosopher. § 1. Romulus was a son of Rhea Sylvia, and grandson of Numitor, king of Alba, and born at the same birth with Remus. His story has already been told. As the founder of Rome his name is immor- tal. His virtues were those of a military chieftain and adventurer in a rude age. He is not undistinguished as a legislator, though his institutions had almost exclusively a warlike tendency. After a reign of 37 or 39 years, he was killed, as is supposed, by the senators. The fable, however, on this subject is, that as he was giving instructions to the senators, he disappeared from their sight— an eclipse of the sun, which happened at -that time, being faA^ourable to the rumor that he was taken up to heaven. The Romans paid \\\m divine honours under the name of Quirinus, and ranked him among the twelve great gods. 2. Sappho w^as born in the island of Lesbos, about 600 years B. C. She is celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her tender attachments were extremely violent, and the conduct into M'hich they betrayed her must be reprobated by every virtuous mind. She con- ceived such a passion for Phaon, a youth of Mytilene, that upon his refusal to reciprocate it, she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas. She composed nine books in lyric verses, besides epigrams, elegies, &c. Of all these compositions nothing now remains but two frag- ments, one of which is preserved by Longinus ; though they were all extant in the age of Horace. Her poems were admired for their , sublimity, sweetness, and elegance ; yet they were highly objection- ' able, it is said, on account of their licentiousness. 3. iEsop flourished about 580 years B. C. Those entertaining and mstructive fables which he composed, have acquired for him a high reputation, and he is generally supposed to have been the inventor of that kind of writing. He was originally a slave, and had several masters, but procured his liberty by the charms of his genius. Fall- ing into the hands of an Athenian philosopher, he was enfranchised. He travelled over the greatest part of Greece and Egypt, but re- sided much at the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, by whom he was sent to consult the oracle of Delphi. In this commission iEsop be- 74 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. haved himself with great severity, and sarcastically compared the Delphians to floating sticks which appear large at a distance, but are nothing when broiight near. The Delphians, offended with his caustic remarks, accused him of some act of sacrilege, and pretending to have proved it against him, threw him down from a rock. He is said to have been short and deformed in his person. 4. Solon was born at Salamis and educated at Athens. After de- voting the early part of his life to philosophical and political studies, he travelled over the greatest portion of Greece ; but v/as distressed •with the dissentions that prevailed among his countrymen. Having, however, been elected archon and legislator of Athens, he made a reform in every department of the government. He institu- ted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws flourished in full vigour above 400 years. He died, as some report, in Cyprus, at foe court of king Philocyprus, in his 80th year, about 558 B. C. 5. Thales was born at Miletus, in Ionia. Like the rest of the an- cients, he travelled in quest of knowledge, and for some time resided in Crete, Phoenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of Memphis he was taught geometry, astronomy, and philosophy, and enabled to measure with exactness, the height and extent of a pyramid, by its shadow. His discoveries in astronomy were great, and he was the first who calculated accurately a solar eclipse. Like Homer, he looked upon water as the principte of every thing. In founding the Ionic sect of philosophy, which distinguished itself for deep and abstruse speculations, his name is memorable. He died in the 96th year of his age, about 548 years B. C. His compositions are lost. • 6. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against Crc?sus, king of Lydia, whom he conquered, B. C. 548. He invaded the kingdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by drying the channels of the Euphrates, and marching his troops through the bed of this river, while the people were celebrating a grand festival, Ke afterwards marched against Tomyris, the queen of tlie Massa- getre, a Scythian nation, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C. 530. The victorious queen, who liad lost her son in the previous encounter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, exclaiming, " Sa- tisfy thyself Avith blood, which thou hast so eagerly desired."' According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed many excellent traits of character. 7. Anacreon had a delicate wit, but he was certainly too fond of pleasure and wine. All that he wrote is not extant ; though his odes remain, and their sweetness, gayety, and elegance have been admi- red in every age. With " flowers, beauties, and pei*petual graces," they have a hurtful moral tendency. He lived to his 85th year, and after every excels of pleasure and debauchery, choked himself with a grape stone, and expired. His statue was placed in tiie citadel of Athens, representing him as an 752—490 B. c. Ta old drunken man, singing, with every mark of dissipation and in- temperance. 8. P3nhagoras vv^as born at Samos. In his 18th year he obtained the prize ftjr wrestling at the Olympic games. He afterwards tra- velled in Egypt, Chaldeea, and the east, and at length, in his 40th year, he retired to Crotona, in Magna Grsecia. Here his universal knowledge gained him friends, admirers, and disciples, and a reformation took place in the morals of the people. The world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th pro- position of Euclid, respecting tlie square of the hypothenuse. By his ingenious discoveries in astronomy he traced the true solar sys- tem. Tlie time and place of his death are unknown. PERIOD VII. The Period of Grecian Glory, extending from the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C. to the birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C. GREECE. I. The Greeks, soon after the expulsion of Hippias, the king of Athens, became involved in a war with Persia. Un- der°Darius, the Persians invaded Greece, 496 years B. C. His fi]-st fleet was wrecked ; but a second of 600 sail, con- taining 500,000 men, ravaged the Grecian islands, and an immense army poured down on Attica. Miltiades, at the head of the Greeks, met the Persian hosts, and defeated them on the plain of Marathon. The Persians lost 6300 men in that battle, while the Greeks lost but 190. The Grecian force did not exceed 10,000 men. The date of this engagement is 490 years B. C. and one of the most important in its consequences that history records. § Ambition and revenge in the breast of Darius, gave rise to his project of invading Greece. The Athenians had rendered assistance to the people of Ionia in attempting to throw off the Persian yoke, and had ravaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius soon reducing the lonians to submission, turned his arms against the Greeks ; w^hile the exile Hippias, basely seconded the plans of the Persian monarch. One expedition in a great measure failed ; and it was some time before another could be gathered and prepared to act, so that it was six years from the period in which the Persian invasion first com- menced, to the battle of Marathon. Previously to the descent on Attica, the Persians, under Mardonius, had attacked Thrace, Macedo- nia, and the neiglibouring provinces. Marathon, where the Grecian and Persian forces met, was a small town by the sea side. The Greeks were led by ten generals, each 76 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII. of whom was to command for one day by turns, and INIiltiades was to take liis turn as the others, aUhongh he was chief general. Aristides, (one of the ten,) had sense enough to see the evil of such a plan, and generosity to give up his honours, for the benefit of his country. \Ylien it was his day to command he resigned it lo JVIiltia- des, because, as he said, " Miltiades is the best general." The other generals saw the propriety of this conduct, and resigned to their commander in like manner. Miltiades, however, thought it his duty not to act till his proper day came round, but he probably made the necessary preparation. The armies engaged in a fierce and obstinate battle. Themistocles, a brave man, and the compeer of Aristides, fought nobly by his side. From the skill with which jNIilliades had placed his troops, as much as from the valour of those troops, the battle of Marathon was won by the Greeks. A soldier covered with the hli^d of the enemy ran to Athens with the news, and had just strength enough left to sa)^, " Rejoice ! the victory is ours !" and then fell down dead, from his fatigue and wounds. Not long after this service rendered to his country, Miltiades, who at first was loaded with honours, died in prison, where he was thrust by the Athenians, because he could not pay a fine which they order- ed him to pay. On a false pretence of treachery to his coimtry, this great general had been condemned to death, and afterwards the sen- tence of death was changed to the paying of a fine. Greece, particularly Athens, abounded with great men about this time. A little tale or two concerning Tliemistocles may be interest- mg here. At a time when he was great in power, he laughingly said, that " his son was greater than any man in Greece." " How is that ?" said a friend. " Why," replie-d Themistocles, "the Athenians govern Greece, I command the Athenians, his mother commands me, and this boy commands his mother." Themistocles was an able general, and saved his country in one mstance or more. But he was not an amiable nian. Ambition was his god. Plutarch relates that after the battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades gained so glorious a victory, Themistocles was observed to court solitude, and indulge in a profound melancholy. Upon inquiry made of him respecting the cause of his mental de- jection, he replied, that " the trophies of Miltiades would not permit him to sleep." Indeed all his feelings and conduct showed how completely ambition had gotten the mastery over him, and how much, consequently, he wislied to be master of Athens and of Greece. Yet under the ungrateful treatment, which he afterwards received from his countrymen, he would not betray the land that gave him birth, though he had an opportunity of doing it. 2. On the decith of Darius, liis son Xerxes prosecuted the war against Greece. Dining the early part of this war were fought the celebrated battles of Thermop}^?^ and Plataea on land, and those of the straights of Salamis and Mycale on water. 490—356 B. c. 77 The battles of Thennopylae and Salamis took place 4S0 years B. C. ; and those of Plataea and Mycale, 479. Leoni- das, Themistocles, Aristides, Paiisanias, and several others, distinguished themselves in the defence of Greece, and ac- quii-ed lasting renown by their achievements. Xerxes brought over with him 2,000,000 of fighting men, besides vast numbers of women and domestics — the largest army and assemblage of persons recorded iji history. This immense force was effectually resisted, dming two days, at the pass of Thermopylae, by 6000 Greeks. Their valour, though it could not finally arrest the progress of the Persian?, cost the latter the hves of 20.000 warriors. Athens was soon reached, which the Persians pillaged and burnt. The women and children, however, had been pre- viously conveyed to a place of safety, and the men betook themselves to theii* fleet. § Xerxes was a vain mortal. He ordered a passage to be cut through the high mountain of Athos. in Macedonia, and thus a canal was made for his ships. He is said to have written a letter to Mount Athos, in which he "commanded it not to put stones in the way of his workmen, or he would cut it do^m and throw it into the sea," and he ordered the labourers to be chastised to make them work faster. Wlien he saw, from a high hill, the plain covered with his soldiers, and the sea wiih liis ships, he at first, in the pride of his heart, called himself the most favoured of mortals ; but \vhen he reflected, that in u hundred years, not one of the many thousands whom he beheld would be alive, he burst into tears at the instability of all human things. Almost all the small cities of Greece submitted to the Persian king when he sent to them., as vras the custom, for earth and water; which M'as the same as to ask them, whether they would receive him as their conqueror. Sparta and Athens, with the small to\\Tis of Thespia and Plataea, alone refused to receive the heralds and to send the token of homage. Every thing gave way before the march of Xerxes, imtil he came to the pass of Thermopylae. On this spot Leonidas, one of the two reigning kings of Sparta, with his 6000 of brave soldiers, awaited his comhig. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously summoned him to give up his arms. "Let him come and take them," was the short answer of this true native of Laconia. The bravest of the Persian troops were ordered out against Leoni- das, but they were always driven back with disgrace. At last a WTetch went and informed the king of a secret path, by which he could mount an eminence which overlooked the Grecian camp. The Persians gained this advantageous post during the darkness of G2 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI] the night, and the next morning the Greeks discovered that they had been betrayed. Leonidas knew that it was in vain to expect his small army could conquer the endless forces of Xerxes ; he therefore sent away his allies, and kept with him only his 300 L-acedaemonians. He had been told by the oracle that either Sparta or her king must perish, and he longed to die for the good of his country. Xerxes marched his vast army against this heroic little band. Leo- nidas fell among the first, bravely fighting, and covered with wounds. Of the 300 heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news that her valiant warriors had died in her defence. Xerxes having arrived at Athens, found it desolate and deserted. He burnt down its citadel, and sent away its finest pictures and statues to Susa, the capital of Persia. The Athenians having man- ned their fleet, soon attacked that of the Persians, and put it to flight after a very short, but severe engagement. Themistocles command- ed on this occasion. Tlie Persian king had seated himself on a high mountain, that he might see his Persians overcome the Greeks, but when he saw the issue of the battle, so contrary to his expectations, he hastened with a part of his army across the Hellespont. A second overthrow awaited his army by land ; for Mardonius. his general, at the head of 300,000 Persians, was defeated with im- mense slaughter, at Plataea, by the combined army of Athenians and Lacedaemonians, amounting to a httle over 100,000 men, led by Pau- sanias and Aristides. On the same day with this battle, the Greeks engaged and destroy- ed the remams of the Persian fleet at Mycale. Thus gloriously to the Greeks, ended the celebrated expedition of Xerxes against Greece. ^ 3. From the time of the battles of Plataea and Salamis, the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an end. He left Greece suddenly, and his inglorious life was soon after terminated hy assassination. The military glory of the Greeks was now at its height. They were for the most part united in oppo- sing the common enemy. Their danger was the cause of their union, aud their union was the cause of thek prosperity. 4. About 10 years after the return of Xerxes into Asia with a part of his forces, Cimon, son of Miltiades, expelling the Persians fiom Thrace, destro5^ed the Persian fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, and landing liis troops, sig- nally defeated their army the same day. Some years afterwards he destroyed a Persian fleet of 300 sail ; and landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph by de- feating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 years B. C. Avtaxerxes, who had succeeded his father Xerxes, soon sued for peace. The terms were highly honourable to the Greeks. n 490—356 B. c. 79 § The prosperity and military glory of the Greeks continued 50 years ; after which, upon the return of the peace with Persia, the martial and the patriotic spirit hegan visibly to decline in Athens. Still, as will soon appear, the following age, called the age of Pericles, was an era of the highest splendour, so far as literature, taste, and the fine arts were concerned. Cimon was as renowned as his father Miltiades. He was joined with Aristides at one time in the command of the Athenians; yet, notwithstanding the important services which they rendered to their comitry, they were both punished by the ostracism,* and scarcely with any pretext. Before Cimon was banished, besides the victories he gained for Athens, he had greatly improved the city; he planted groves and shady walks ; he erected tine places for exercise and public speak- ing. The celebrated tragic poets, ^schylus and Sophocles were wont to recite their pieces before him. Cimon was not less devoted to his ungrateful countrymen after his return from banishment. His victories procured the peace above mentioned. In it, he stipulated for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia. Of Aristides, who was called " the just," many interesting aneo- dotes are recorded, but we have room for only two. Once when he was carrying a prosecution against his enemy, and sentence was about to be pronounced, before the accused had spoken, Aristides entreated that the man might be heard in his defence, and even helped him to make it. On another occasion, when he was judge, a trial came before him, in which one of the parties thought to irritate him against the other, by declaring that the other had said and done many injurious things against Aristides. " Do not talk about that," said Aristides, " tell me only what harm he has done to thee, it is thy cause I am judg- ing." 5. The authority in Athens became for a time divided be- ; tween Cimon and Pericles. In a few years', however, Peri- cles stood at the head of the Athenian republic. His will had almost the force of law. He adorned Athens with the most magnificent structures, and rendered it the seat of learning", taste, and the fine arts. He laboured, however, under the re- proach of having corrupted the manners of the people, by his luxuries. Under his administration commenced the Lacedaemonian war, 431 years B. C, which lasted 28 years. He died three years after its commencement, and was succeeded in tlifi government of Athens by Alcibiades, who ran a similar course, though with less integrity. Alcibiades repeatedly ex- * See " General Views." BO ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. perieiiccd the iii_::iTatitude of his coiintr3'nien — a conduct which he cag-crly retaliated. The Lacedaemonian war ended in tlie hiuiiiliation and Rulimission of Athens. The Athenians agreed to demoHsh their port, to hmit their fleet to 12 ships, and to nndertake for the future, no enterprise in war, hut under tlie command of the Spartans, 405 year B. C. I-ysander, the Spartan com- mander, signalized himself in this war. § Pericles was remarkable for the dignity of his manners, and the elegance of liis speech. For 40 years he secured an unbounded au- tliorily. Athens, at this time, was considered as in its highest state of refinement and knowledge, and with Sparta, ranked as the first of the cities of Greece. When some persons complained that Pericles spent too much ol the public money in beautifying the city, he went into tb^e assembly of tlie people, and asked, " whether, indeed, they thought him extrava- gant?" The people said, "yes."- "Then place the expense at my cliarge instead of yours," answered Pericles, " only let the new build- ings be marked Avith my name instead of yours." The people were either so pleased with the spirit of his reply, or were so jealous of the fame which Pericles might acquire, that they cried out, "he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasures." At a critical time in the Peloponnesian war, Pericles was taken off in consequence of the ravages of a terrible plague which then afflicted Athens. That plague was one of the most malignant and fatal which history relates to us. ]]eginning in Ethiopia, it swept over several countries in its course, and finally rested in Athens. It surpassed the efforts of the medical art to cure it. Few or no constitutions could withstand its attacks. The' nature of the disease was such that it threw its victim into a sort of despair, so that he was disabled from seeking or applying relief. It "was dangerous for friends to offer their assistance to the diseas- ed ; and the situation of the Athenians was such, in consequence of being shut up by an invading army, that the malignity of the pesti- lence was greatly increased. They fell down dead upon one another as they passed along the streets, and the dead and the dying were mingled togetlier in the utmost confusion. In this complication of distress, Pericles displayed a great soul. He was able to inspire courage into the drooping hearts of his eoun- trj^men ; but after some fresh plans of conquest adopted during a mitigation of the pestilence, he was himself cut off by the plague, which had broken out anew. On his death bed his friends attempted to console him, by recount- ing his glorious deeds, particularly his military successes, and the monuments he erected to commemorate them. " Ah," exclaimed tlie dying statesman and hero, " you have forgotten the most valuable part of my character, and now the most pleasant to my mind— that 490—356 B. c. 81 none of my fellow-citizens have been compelled, through any act of mine, to pnt on a mourning robe." The occasion of the Lacedaemonian war was as follows :— Corinth having been included in the last made treaty between Athens and Sparta, the Corinthians in waging war with the people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of their own, solicited the aid of Athens, as did also the people of Corcyra. The Athenians took the part of the latter — a measure which ex- ceedingly displeased the Corinthians, and was considered as viola- ting their treaty with Sparta. On this ground war was declared be- tween Athens and Lacedaemon, each being supported by its respec- tive allies. This war distracted and enfeebled Greece. Alcibiades, who bore a conspicuous part in it on the Athenian side, during the interval of a truce with Sparta, persyaded his coun- trymen to try the conquest of Sicily, and was sent as the general of the troops. 'When he was gone, his enemies raised an accusation against him, and the fickle people directed him immediately to re- turn. Alcibiades, fearing to return whilst the Athenians were so incens- ed against him, fled away secretly, and when he was told that for his disobedience, all his property was confiscated, and that he him- self was condemned to death, " I will show them that I am alive," he exclaimed. He first fled to Argos, and next to Sparta, where he gained all hearts by conforming to their plain dress and simple food. But the king of Sparta perceiving that Alcibiades affected to appear what he was not, was by no means backward to disapprove him, which in- . duced the Athenian to quit Sparta, and seek protection in Persia. Athens was nov/ governed by a council of 400, and the tyranny of these was so^great, that Alcibiades was sent for to assist in restoring the liberty oT the people. The Spartans, with some vessels, were watching the city, to take advantage of the confusion that prevailed. Alcibiades, with the small fleet he had collected at Samos, attacked the Spartans, destroyed their ships, and soon after entered Athens in triumph. The Athenians being again displeased with Alcibiades, he left the city to avoid their displeasure. He at length retired to live in a small village in Phrygia, with a woman called Timandra. The Spartans persuaded the Persians to destroy him. Accordingly, a party of soldiers went to his house, and fearing his known courage, dared not to enter it, but set fire to the building. Alcibiades rushed out, and the barbarians from a distance (for they feared to approach him) killed him with darts and arrows. Timan- .dra buried the corpse decently, and was the only mourner of this once powerful man. The defeat of tlie Athenian fleet at JEgos Potamos, by Lysander, was the means of bringing the tedious Lacedaemonian war to a close. The taking and plundering of Athens were the consequence of it. Having gained possession of the city, Lysander burnt down the houses and demolished the walls. It was said that he was so cruel as B2 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD Til. to add insult to misfortiinej b}' ordering music to be played whilst the walls were destroyctl. 6. L)'^sandcr, after the rediictioD of Athens, abolished the popular form of goverDment in that state, ami saiij^tituted tliat of the thirty tyrants, which was absolute. Many of the dis- tinguished citizens fled from their country ; but Thrasybulus, aided by a Iwdy of patriots, expelled the usurpers, and once more re-established the government of the people, 403 years B.O. §The thirty tyrants were as many Lacedaemonian captains, to whom the government of tlie Athenians was delegated by Lysander. They held their authority but three years. To Lysander, history ascribes the fii'^t great breach of his country's constitution, by the introduction of gold into that republic. 7. The persecution and death of Socrates, the philosopher, took place about this time, (401 years B. C.) This transac- tion has thrown a dark stain on the Athenian character. He was destroyed contrary to every principle of reason and justice. § Socrates was the friend and tutor of Alcibiades. The sophists, whose manner of reasoning he turned into ridicule, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because, ^vithout con- forming to the popular superstitions, he led "the mind to a knowledge of tlie Deity, the Creator of the universe ; and to the belief of a fu- 'ture state of rewards and pu7iishments. He made a noble and manly defence, in all the consciousness of innocence ; but in vain. He was condemned to die by his inimical judges. One of his disciples lamenting before him th^t he should die innocent, " AVould you have me die guilty ?" replied Socrates, with a smile. The juice of hemlock, or something resembling hemlock, a liquor which M'aS said to cause death, b}^ its coldness, was administered to the philosopher. He continued calmly conversing with his friends, to the last moment of his life. 8. In tlie same year Avith the death of Socrates, occurred the celebrated retreat of 10,000 Greeks, under Xenophon, from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine. This is considered ihe most remarkable retreat on record. It was accomplished in a few months, the soldiers traversing a_hostiie country of 1600 miles in extent, amidst incredible hardships and dangers. They lost only 1500 men. § The Greeks came into the situation above mentioned, in conse- quence of assisting Cyrus, a younger brother of ArtaxerxesMnemon, in his attempt to dethrone the latter. Cyrus failed in the attempt, in a battle near Babylon, and lost his life. The Greeks, who amount- ed to 13,000 at first, were reduced to 10,000, and in this situation 490—356 B. c. S3 were under the necessity either of submitting to the enemy, or of making good their retreat. The latter they both chose and accomphshed. Tlie Greeks were led by Clearchus on this expedition, but he having trusted himself among th'j Persians, was basely delivered up to the king, by whose order he was beheaded. In this exigency tliey elected Xenophon, a young Athenian, as their commander, under whom they were to effect their retreat. They observed tlie greatest order and discipline ; and though in the midst of vindictive enemies, and with deserts, hills, mountains, rivers, and even the sea before them, they arrived with an inconsi derable loss, at the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon himself has written an admirable account of this retreat. The Greek cities of Asia having taken a part in this enterprise of the Greeks, Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was involved in a war with Persia. The disunion of the Grecian states, and especially tlie hostility of Athens against Sparta, rendered the war disastrous to the Spartans ; who, to avoid destruction, sued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice of all her Asiatic colonies, 387 years li. C. 9. Among the Grecian states, Thebes became particularly distinguished during the latter part of the present period. It had been comparatively obscure before. The Thebana contending among themselves, the Spartans interfered in the contention, and seized on the Theban fortress. This mea- sure brought on a war between Sparta and Thebes. Athens at first united with Thebes, but at length Thebes stood alone against Sparta and the league of Greece. Pe- lopidas and Epaminondas were the Theban leaders, who greatly distinguished themselves in this war. The celebra- ted battles of licuctra and Mantinea were gained by the The- bans over their enemies, the one 371 years B. C., and the other S years afterwards. In the latter engagement, the great Epaminondas was slain. The ravages of this contention among the Grecian states, may be said to have paved the way for their entire subjugation by a foreign power. § The fortress at Thebes, which the Spartans had seized, was kept by the latter during four 5^ears, but the angry and deceived Thebans took their revenge. A party of them, headed by Pelopidas, putting on women's clothes over their armour, entered among the Lacedae- monians, at a feast given to them, and cut their principal officers to pieces. Archias, the chief Spartan, had that very daj'' received a letter from Athens to inform him of the whole plot, but he had very improperly thrown aside the letter without looking into it, saying, " business to- morrow." He was the first man killed, and thus lost his life far a 84 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. neglect of his duty, in suffering the pleasure he enjoyed in the com- pany of his friends, to make him forget the interests of his country^. Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas, who had acted with the lat- ter, was, upon the expulsion of the Spartans from the citadel, called from a quiet and private life to become the general of the Theban army. He was as much celebrated for his wisdom and virtue, as for his bravery. Of all the excellencies of his character, he gained the most respect for his strict regard to truth, as he was never known to be guilty of a falseliood. In the battle of Leuctra, the Theban army was much smaller than that of Sparta ; but the skill of their general, in disposing the force to the best advantage, and the valour of the sol- diers and officers, more than made up for the difference in numbers. Besides, the Thebans were fighting for their liberty ; the Spartans only for conquest. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the Thebans prevailed. Pelopidas .shared the danger and the glory of his friend ; yet when these valiant generals returned to Thebes, they were both called be^ fore the tribunal of justice for the crime of keeping their command too long. Both were acquitted ; yet the enemies of Epaminondas caused him to be elected a city scavenger, on purpose to disgrace and vex him. But what might have been a disgrace to a mean person, was no disgrace to this noble Theban. He accepted the office, saying. "If the office will not gi^^ me honour, I will give honour to the office.'' Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea, and in the moment of victory. A javelin had pierced his bosom, and becoming disabled, a fierce contest arose between his foes and friends for the possession of his person. The Thebans at length bore him from the field. Epa- minondas, though in extreme agony from his wound, thought only of his country ; and when informed that the Thebans had conquered, he said, " then all is well." He drew the weapon from his bosom, as no one around him had the fortitude to do it, it being understood, from the nature of the wound, he would expire as soon as it was extricated. The glory of Thebes rose with this man,- and with him it expired. ROMANS. 10. In the history of Rome, during this period, we may observe an additional change in its constitution of govern- ment. .. It became, in effect, a democracy 471 years B. C The supreme authority passed from the higher order, into the hands of the people. The popular character of the go- vernment had been theoretically established before, but it be- came now practically democratic. § This change was completed by Volero, a Roman tribune, who obtained a law for the election of magistrates, in the comitia held by the tribes. Before this time, the comitia, by centuries and by curiae, could not be called but in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consnU- ing the auspices, and in those comitia the tribunes had been hitherto elected. In the comitia held by tribes these restraints were miknown 490—356 B. c. 85 11. Soon afterwards, (456 B; C.) upon the invasion of the iEqui and Yolsci, tile Romans had recourse to the despotic measure of choosing a dictator. Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed. He was called from the plough to this office. After having rescued a Roman army from destruction, de- feated a powerful enemy, and rendered other signal services to his country, he hastened to resign his power at the end of 16 days, though he might have held it 6 months, the term for which dictators were appointed. § Cincinnatus was fixed upon as . the wisest and, bxavest man be- longing to the commonwealth. He cultivated a small farm of four acres with his own hands. The deputies of the senate found hmi following his plough in one of his little fields. They begged hnn to put on his gown, and hear the message from the senate, Cincinnatus anxiously asked, "if all was well?" and then desu'ed his wife Racilia to fetch his gown from their cottage. After wiping off tlie dust and dirt with which he was covered, he put an his robe and went to the deputies. They saluted him dictator, and bid him hasten to the city, which was in the greatest peril. A handsome barge had been sent to carry him over the ri%'er, for his farm lay on the opposite side of the Tiber. His three sons, with his friends, and several of the senators, were ready to receive him when he landed at Rome, and to carry him in a pompous .procession to the house prepared for him. The very next morning he began to fortify the city, ana marshal the soldiers for battle ; and he very soon gained a great victory, and made the ofificers of the enemy pass under the yoke. His administra- tion was entirely satisfactory to all parties, though Ihe times were ex - tremely turbulent. He most probably saved Rome from destruction, by his wisdom and valour. He was chosen dictator on another emergency, many years aiter- wards, in his 8Cth year, and then also acted with vigour and wisdom. 12. In 451 years B. C. ten persons who Avere called the Decemviri, were elected to frame a code of laws, and were invested with absolute power for one year, during which all other magistrates were suspended. They afterwards caused their laws to be engraven on 12 tables, and placed hi the most conspicuous part of the city. These laws were long preserved and acted upon, and are to this day respected in some parts of Europe. They how- ever manifested the stern spirit of the people, and like those of Draco, might be said to be written in blood. Nine crimes* * Parricide was very properly included as one of those crimes. But to the honour of the Romans it should be observed, that this crime wait not known to be committed during: more than 500 years from the building of the city. U ( ♦* tius was the fcrst parricide. t 86 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII. of very different complexions were punishable with death, one of which was nightly meetings. § The Romans had no code of laws imtii that which was formed and digested by the decemviri. The number of the laws was increased from time to time by the senate and people. Each decemvir, by turn, presided for a day, and had the sovereign authority, with its insignia, the fasces. The nine others acted solely as judges in the dctermina- tioii of law-suits, and the correction of abuses. Their government lasted only three years. Its dissolution was highly tragical. Appius Claudius, one of the ten, fell in love with the beautiful Virginia; she was engaged to marry Icilius, formerly a tri- bune of the people, and would not therefore listen to the proposals of Appius. He therefore, to get possession of the lovely virgin, procured a base dependant to claim her as his slave. The claim was made to Appius himself, who pronounced an infamous decree, by which she was de- clared to be the property of this profligate minion of his own. Virginius, her father, who was falsely sworn to have stolen her from the" dependant of Appius, was at a distance with the army. Intelligence, however, by means of Icilius, was conveyed to him re- specting the transactions in the city, and he returned with all imagi- nable speed. Finding, notwithstanding his true and simple tale that Virginia was his daughter, that he could not preserve her from the licentious decemvir, he now begged to give her his parting embrace. His re- quest was granted. He clasped his child in his arms, while she clung round his neck, and wet his cheeks with her tears. As Virginius was tenderly kissing her, before he raised his head, he suddenly plunged a dagger into her bosom, saying, " Oh ! my child, by this means only can I give thee freedom." He then held up the bloody instrument to the now pale and frighted Claudius, exclaim- ing, "By this innocent blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infer- nal gods." All was now horror and confusion. Icilius showed the dead body to the people and roused their fury. Virginius hasted to the camp bearing with him the dagger reeking with his daughter's blood ; and instantly the camp was in an uproar. The power of the decemviri and the senators could not still the tumult. Appius would have been torn to pieces at once, but he found the means of escape and voluntary death. Public tranquillity was at length restored, by the consent of the senate to abolish the decemviri. The consuls Avere nov/ restored, together with the tribunes of the peo- ple, 499 years B. C. 13. A law for the intermarriage of the patricians and pie beians at Rome was passed 445 years B. C. In the same year military tribunes were created. These were in lieu of the consuls : they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians. The consuls, however, were soon restored. ■i 490-^356 B. c. 87 In 437 years B. C, was established the office of censors, whose duty it was to make the census of tlie people every five years. § The people, in their desire for still more po\^T3r5 endeavoured to break down the only two barriers that separated the patricians from themselves. These were, one, the law which prevented theif inter- marriage ; and the other, the constitutional limitation of all the highei offices to the patrician order. *" The first point, after a long contest, was conceded— the other was partially evaded. The senate sought a palliative in the creation of the military tribunes above mentioned. This measure satisfied the people for a time. The new magistracy of the censors was liighly important. In addition to making the census, it was incumbent on the censors to inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the citizens. It became, in after times, the function only of consular persons, and after them, of the emperors. 14. The dissentions between the different orders of the people, raged with violence ; but the senate, not long after their concession to the people, adopted for themselves a very wise expedient. This was to give a regular pay to the troops, an expense defrayed by a moderate tax on the citizens. From this period soldiers were to be obtained, and the senate had the army under its control. Roman ambition now be- came systematic, and irresistible, 15. Veii, the rival of Rome, was besieged by the Romans, and after a siege of ten years, was taken by Camillus, 891 years B. C. Two years after, Falerii, the capital of the Fa- lisci, surrendered to the same general. The dominion of Rome, confined hitherto to a territory of a few miles, was now rapidly extended. § The siege of Veii was attended with much expense of blood and treasure to the Romans. They nearly despaired of taking it ; but upon the appointment of Camillus dictator, things soon assumed a different aspect. He. secretly wrought a mine into the city, which opened into the midst of the capital. Then giving his men directions how to enter the breach, the city was instantly filled with his legions, to the utter confusion of the be- sieged. Thus, like a second Troy, was Veii taken after a ten years' siege, and Camillus, according to the manner of the Roman kings, enjoyed the honour of a triumuph. It is related, that during the attack of Falerii, a schoolmaster be- trayed into the hands of Camillus all his scholars, expecting to obtain a handsome reward for his treachery. The boys happened to be the sons of the principal Falisci, and the Roman general was given SS ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. to understand, that they wonld probably deliver up their city to re- cover their children. The noble Ronum, shocked at this perfidious action, sent back the boys in safety to their parents, and giving each of them a rod, bade them whip the traitor into town. This generous behaviour of Camillus accomplished more than his arms could have done. The place instantly sni^nntted, leaving to the Roman the conditions of the surrender, which vvcre of course very mild. The brave Caniiilus, becoming at length an object of envy or jealousy with the pi:ople, he was obliged to quit Rome, and live at Ardea, a town in its neighborhood, but they had reason afterwards to be ashamed of their injustice. 16. Soon after these successes, Rome experienced a terrible calamity. It was taken, devastated, and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennus, 385 years B. C. The capitol. however, was preserved. This the barbarians besieged, but they ^vere soon expelled the city by Camillas. § The Gauls were a branch of the great Celtic nation, and inha- bited regions beyond the Alps. These they had penetrated at ditfer- eiit periods, and. a portion of this people had already settled in small towns at the foot of the moimtains. This people, it seems, on some occasion, had undertaken the siege of Clusium, a city of Etruria. The Clusians, who were not of a Avarlike character, immediately en- treated the mediation of the Romans. The latter sent cimbassadors to Brennus, but without success. These ambassadors t len retired to Clusium, where they appeared at the head of tlie Chishins in a sally against the besiegers. Upon this, Brennus, in great displeasure, marched directly against Rome. In this condition, an army was drawn out to save the city ; but the numbers and impetuosity of the barbarians were such, that no ef- fectual resistance was made. The greatest part of the citizens fled for protection to the neighbouring cities; the young and brave men entered into the capitol, resolved to hold out to the last against the enemy ; and the aged senators assembled in the senate-house, deter inincd patiently to await their fate. Soon after they entered tlie cit)^, Brennus, and some of his soldiers, went into the senate-liouse. The venerable appearance of these no- ble old men rendered the Gauls afraid or unwilling to harm them. A soldier at last gently shaking the beard of Papyrius, the old Roman was so ofTended at the act, that he struck the man on his head with an ivory statf he had in his hand : this slight blow instantly aroused the. fury of the barbarians; they massacred the senators on the spot, and set fire to the city. In this season of distress, the Romans did not give up all for lost. The little band, shut up in the capitol, made every possible arrange- ment for defence. They were assaulted in vain. At this juncture, Camillus, forgetting all his private wrongs, gathered an army, with which he entered Rome, and immediately put the barbarians to flight. 490—356 B. c. 89 A singular occurrence, showing the providence of God in the go- vernment of the world, attended the siege of Rome. The capitol was at one time nearly taken by surprise : a number of Gauls having climbed up the steep rock on which it stood, were about to kill the sentinels and make themselves masters of the place, when some geese, kept near the spot, being awakened by the noise, began to flutter their wings, and cackle loudly, so as to arouse the soldiers. This little circumstance saved the capitol, and perhaps the Roman name from extinction. 17. The constitution of Rome was still farther altered about this time, 367 years B. C. The plebeians obtained the right of having one of the two consuls chosen from among them. The militaiy tribunes were abolished the next year. From this period the Roman power began rapidly to rise. § The vanity and ambition of a young woman produced this change m the government of Rome. Fabius Ambustius, a patrician, had married two daughters, one to a plebeian, and the other to a patrician. The wife of the plebeian, envious of the honours of her sister, pined with discontent. Her father and brother, learning the cause of her unhappiness- promised her the distinction which she desired. By their joint en- deavours, after much tumult and contest, they succeeded in obtain ing for the plebeians the right of admission into the consulate. Lu- cius. Sextius Avas the first plebeian consul. The husband of the ple- beian lady, viz. Licinius Stolo, was the second. EGYPT. 18. The kingdom of Egypt, which had been conquered by Cambyses, king of Persia, was, under Darius Nothus, a dis- tant successor, restored by Am3a-thaius, 413 years B. C. It continued independent for 60 years, under eight kings. At the expiration of this term it was subjected again to the Persiati yoke, by Artaxerxes Ochus. § No very interesting particulars occur in tliis portion of the Egyp- tian history. It is necessary only to observe, that it was by means of aid afforded to them by the Greeks, that the Egyptians, after they had revolted, under Amyrthseus, were enabled to withstand the Per- sian force which sought to reconquer them. It was under a king called Nectanebis that Egypt again lost her independence. PERSIA. 19. The history ofthe Persian empire, during this period, is mostly involved in that of the Greeks, with whom the for- mer was so frequentl}^ at war. Darius, Xerxes, and Arta- xerxes II. as we have seen, were, during most of their lives, engaged in this war. Concerning the rest of the Persian sovereigns, there is little interesting to be communicated. 90 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. § Artaxerxes I. we are told, killed his brother Darius, being de- ceived by Artabaniis, who imputed the murder of Xerxes to that prince: but upon being acquainted with the truth, he put Artabanus and all his family to death. During his reign the Egyptians at- tempted to shake off his yoke, but were soon obliged to submit. Xerxes II. was assassinated by his brother, Sogdianus, 45 days af- ter he ascended to the throne. Sogdianus, who assumed the govern- ment, enjoyed the fruits of his fratricide only six months and a half, when he was smothered in ashes, (a mode of torture invented on this occasion, and afterwards inflicted on great criminals,) by or- der of his brother Ochus, who took the name of Darius Nothus. Darius Nothus was a weak prince, in whose reign it was that the Egyptians recovered their independence. Artaxerxes II. succeeded him, who was surnamed Mnemon, by the Greeks, on account of his prodigious memory. He killed his brother Cyrus, who had taken arms against him, in single battle. The 10,000 Greeks who retreat- ed vmder Xenophon, served in the army of this Cyrus. Ochus succeeded him, who poisoned his brother, and murdered all the princes of the royal family. He invaded Egypt, plundered the temples, and killed the priests. But his chief minister, enraged at the ruin of his country, poisoned him. MACEDON. 20. The kingdom of Macedon, which was governed, dur- ing several hundred years, by the descendants of Caranus, was comparatively unknown till the time of Philip, who was also a descendant of Caranus. Philip soon gave it celebrity. Previously to the birth of his son Alexander, he had con quered Thessaly, Peeonia, and Illyricum. He had also gain - ed a victory over the Athenians, at Mythone, 360 years B. C. § Philip ascended the throne by popular -choice, in violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown ; he secured his power by the success of his arms against the neighbouring nations. He was brave, artful, and accomplished, and by his intrigues gained over, at an early period of his career, many Greeks to favour his interests. In his war against the united Paeonians, Illyrians, &c. he met with sin- gularly good fortune. Parmenio, his general, was sent against the Illyrians, and he himself marched an army intoPaeonia and Thrace, where he was signally successful. On his return, a messenger ar- rived with news of Parmenio's victory ; and soon after came another, informing him that his horses had been victorious at the Olympic games. This was a victory that he esteemed preferable to any other. AU most at the same time came a third messenger, who acquainted him that his wife, Olympias, had brought forth a son, at Pella. Philip, terrified at so signal a happiness, which the heathens generally con- sidered as a bad omen, exclaimed, " Great Jupiter, in return for so many blessings, send me a slight misfortune." 490—356 B. c. , 91 Distinguished Characters in Period VII. 1. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher. 2. Herodotus, a Greek, the father of profane history. 3. Pindar, the chief of the Grecian lyric poets. 4. Phidias, a Greek, the most famous sculptor of antiquity. 5. Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 6. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 7. Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists. 8. Thucydides, an eminent Greek historian. 9. Hippocrates, the father of medicine. 10. Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philo sopher. § 1. Confucius was born in the kingdom of Lt*, which is now the province of Chan Long, 551 years B. C. He was a man of great knowledge and extensive wisdom, was beloved on account of his vir- tues—rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims, and possessed much influence even with kings, as well as with his countrymen in general. He died in the 73d year of his age. 2. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus. His history describes the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale. This he publicly repeal ted at the Olympic games, when the names of the Muses were given to his nine books. This celebrated work, which has procured its anthor the title of father of history, is written in the Ionic dialect. Herodotus is among the historians, what Homer is among the poets. His style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness. He also wrote a history of As- syria and Arabia, but this is not extant. 3. Pindar was a native of Thebes. His compositions were courted by statesmen and princes, and his hymns were repeated in the tenv pies, at the celebration of the festivals. Some of his odes are extant, greatly admired for grandeur of expression, magnificence of style, boldness of metaphors, and harmony of numbers. Horace calls him inimitable ; and this eulogium is probably not undeserved. After his death, his statue was erected at Thebes, in the public place where the games were exhibited, and six centuries after- wards it was viewed with pleasure and admiration by the geogra- pher Pausanias. He died B. C. 435, at the age, as some say, of 86. 4. Phidias was an Athenian. He died B. C. 432. His statue of Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders of the world. That of Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in height, and was made of gold and ivory. 5. Euripides was born at Salamis. He was the rival of Sophocles. The jealousy between these great poets, was made the subject of suc- cessful ridicule by the comic poet Aristophanes. It is said that he used to shut himself up in a gloomy cave, near Salamis, in which he composed some of his best tragedies. During the representation of one of his pieces, the audience, di« 92 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. pleased with some lines in the composition, desired the writer to strike them off. Euripides heard the reproof with indignation, and advancing forward on the stage, lie told the spectators, that he came there to instruct them, and not to receive instruction. The ridicule and envy to which he was exposed in Athens induced liim to retire to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he was entertained with the greatest munificence. He was here how- ever destined to meet a terrible end. It is said the hounds of the king attacking him, in one of his solitary walks, tore his body to pieces^ 407 B. C. in the 78ih year of his age. As a poet hf is peculiarly happy in expressing the passions of love, especially the more tender and animated. He is also sublime, and the most common expressions have received a most perfect polish from his pen. His productions abound with moral reflections, and philo- sophical aphorisms. The poet was such an enemy to the fair sex, that some have called him the woman hater. In spite of his antipathy he married twice ; but his connexions were so injudicious, that he was compelled to dir vorce both his wives. From this cause may have arisen his erro- neous conceptions of the female character. Of 75 tragedies, only 19 remain. 6. Sophocles was born about 497 B. C. He was distinguished not only as a poet, but as a statesman and general, and filled the office of archon with applause. Twenty times he obtained the prize of poetry from his competi- tors. Of one hundred and twenty tragedies which he wrote, seven only are extant, but these prove him to have carried the drama almost to perfection. Accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his pos- sessions, tlie poet composed and read his tragedy of (Edipus, at Co- lonos. Asking his judges whether the author of such a performan.ce could be insane, he was at once acquitted, to the confusion of his un- grateful offspring. He died in his 91st year, through excess of joy, at hearing of his having obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic Games. 7. Socrates was a native of Athens. He followed the occupation of his father, who was a statuary, for some time ; and some have men- tioned the statues of the Graces, admired for their simplicity and ele- gance, as the work of his own hands. He was called away from this meaner employment, for which, however, he never blushed, by a friend ; and philosophy soon became his study. He appeared like the rest of his countrymen in the field of battle, and he fojight with boldness and intrepidity. But his character ap- pears mOre conspicuous as a philosopher aijd moralist, than as a warrior. He was fond of labour, bore injuries with patience, and acquired that serenity of mind and firmness of countenance which the most alarming dangers could never destroy, or the most sudden calamities alter. He was attended by a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in- structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doctrines. He spoke 490—356 B. c. 93 with freedom on every subject, religious as well as civil. This inde- pendence of spirit, and that visible superiority of mind and genius over the rest of his countrymen, created many enemies to him, and at length they condemned him to death, on the false accusation of corrupting the Athenian youth, of making innovations in the religion of the Greeks, and of ridiculing the gods which the Athenians wor-. shipped. He drank the juice of the hemlock in the 70th year of his age, and died 401 B.C. Socrates believed the divine origin of dreams and omens, and was a supporter of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. From his principles, enforced by his example, the celebrated sects of the Pla- tonists, Stoics, Peripatetics, &c. soon after rose. 8. Thucydides v/as born at Athens. He early appeared in the Athenian armies, but being unsuccessful in som^e expedition, he was banished Athens, in the. 8th year of the Pelopomiesian war. He then wrote his history of the important events of that war, to its 21st year. So deeply was Thucydides inspired by the muse of history, that he shed tears v/hen he heard Herodotus repeat his history of the Persian v/ars, at the public festivals of Greece ; the character of his interesting work is well known. He is considered highly authentic and impartial, and stands unrivalled for the fire, conciseness, and energy of his narrative. Thucvdides died at Athens, where he had been recalled from exile, in his 80th year, 391 B. C. 9. Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos, B. C. 406. He im- proved himself by reading in the tablets of the temples, the diseases, and means of recovery of individuals. He was skilful, and devoted his whole time to medical applications and professional duties. Some say he delivered Athens from a dreadful plague. According to Galen, his opinions were respected as oracular. His memory is still venerated, and his writings, few of which remain, procured him the epithet of divine. He died in the 99th year of his age, 361 B. C, free from all disorder of the mind and body, and after death, received the highest honours. 10. Xencphon was an Athenian. He was bred in the school of Socrates, and acquired great literary distinction. He served in the army of Cyrus the 5^ounger, and chiefly superintended the retreat of the 10,000, after the battle of the Cunaxa. He afterward followed the fortujies of Agesilaus, and acquired riches in his expeditions. In his subsequent retirement he composed and wrote for the in- formation of posterity, and died at Corinth, in his 90th year, 359 B. C. He continued the history of Thucydides, wrote a life of Cy- rus the Great, and collected Memorabilia of Socrates. The simpli- city and elegance of Xenophon's style have procured him the name of the Atiienian muse, and the bee of Greece. 94 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. PERIOD VIII. The period of Roman Military Renoivn, extending frwn the Birth of Alexander ^ 356 y^ears B. C. to the destruc- tion of Carthage, 146 years B. C. GREECE. Sect. 1. At the commenceiiient of this period, the Greeks were greatly embroiled in domestic dissensions, and were fast falUngfrom the enviable height towhicii their arms and na- tional spirit had formerly raised them. They were no longer the people they had been, and were preparing to receive the yoke of a master. From that time theii- history is connected w ith that of the IMacedoinan monarchy. An attempt of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Del- phos, excited the sacred war, in which almost all the states be- came involved. The assistance of Philip being solicited by theTliebans and Thessalians, he commenced hostilities by i«vading Phocis, the key to Attica. The eloquence of De- mosthenes roused the Athenians to arms. But their struggle was unsuccessful. Philip met them at Cheronsea, gained a complete victory, and Greece fell into the hands of the conqueror. This event is dated 338 years B. C. He however chose not to treat them as a conquered people. The separate governments retained their independence, subject only, in their national acts, to the control of Philip. After his death they hoped to recover their liberty, but they only changed masters. § The sacrilege of the Phocians in robbing the temple of Delphos, subjected them to a summons to appear before the Amphictyonic council, to answer for their crime. A fine being imposed, disputes arose, which could be settled only by arms. The war continued 10 years. The interference of Philip at this juncture was, as might have been expected, fatal to tlie liberties of Greece. He contrived to have the Phocians expelled from the Amphictyonic council, and to be him- self chosen in their place. The eloquence of Demosthenes delayed for a time the fate of Greece. He was ever stirring up the Athenians against Philip and ^■-atirizing that king. His speeches were called Philippics, since they ^\Tre directed against Philip, and hence Philippics has been a term signifying " speeches against any person." Demosthenes^ it is well known, had to contend against many na- 356—146 B. c. 95 tural impediments, in attaining the art of addressing a popular assem- bly. As a proof of liis triumphant success, it is recorded, that ^schines, a rival orator, once repeated a speech of his own, and one of Demosthenes. His own was much applauded, but that of Demos- thenes applauded much more. " Ah !" said the generous ^Escliines, " how would you have applauded it, had you heard Demosthenes speak it." Soon after the battle of Cherona^a, Philip, calling a general coun- cil of the states, was appointed commander in chief of the forces of Greece ; but on the eve of attempting the conquest of Persia, he was assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his guards, from private re- sentment. The hopes inspired by his death proved abortive, as the Greeks soon came under -the yoke of his successor. 2. Greece was entered by Alexander, son of Philip, 336 years B. C. He obliged the Athenians to submit, burnt Thebes, and Avas declared commander in chief of the Grecian forces, in the expedition against Persia, Avhich he began the next year. § Alexander was 20 years old, when the death of Philip raised him to the throne. The celebrated Aristotle was his teacher, and under him, the youthful prince early desired to distinguish himself. He read much ; Homer's Iliad he especially studied. "V^Tien very young, he managed the fiery war-horse Bucephalus', which no one else dared to mount. In honour of this steed, he af- terwards built a city which he called Bucephala. When he attended his father to battle, he manifested not only valour, but skill ■ and once had the happiness to save his parent's life, when it was in great dan- ger from an enemy. At Corinth he saw Diogenes, named the Cynic, because he affect- ed great dislike to wealth and rank, and lived in a strange, rude man- ner. Alexander asked him whether he wanted any thing. " Yes," said Diogenes, " I want you to stand out of my sunshine, and not to take from me. what you cannot give me." Alexander admired this speech, and directly remarked, " Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." As if he had said, " Had I not all things as Alexander, I would desire to scorn all things as Dio- genes." Before his expedition into Asia, which will soon be mentioned, he was resolved to consult the oracle at Delphos ; but as he visited the temple on a day on which it was forbidden to ask the oracle, the priestess refused to go into the temple. Alexander, unaccustomed to denial, seized her by the arm and drew her forwards. " Ah, my son, you are irresistible !" exclaimed the priestess. " These words," lie observed, " are a sufficient answer." The Grecian states had revolted after the death of Philip ; but Alexander, in a few successful battles, brought them into subjection. In an assembly of the deputies of the nation at Corinth, he commu- nicated to them his resolution of undertaking the conqxiest of Persia^ agreeably to the designs of his father Philip. 96 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 3. Alexander, at the head of the Qrecian forces, invaded Persia 335 years B. C. He was then not 22 years of age. He took with him only 35,000 men, and with this smaK force, he conquered not only Persia, but Syria, Egj^pt, India, and several other countries, and meditated the design of proceed- ing to the Eastern ocean, which, however, he was obliged to relinquish. He accomplished his immense undertaking w^ithin the short space of six years. On his return home, while he tar- ried at Babylon, he died suddenly in a fit of debavich, as some have maintained, in the 33d year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. Alexander was not destitute of some traits which we love in human beings ; but in a moral point of view, be must be regarded as a mighty murderer, and enemy of hu- man happiness. § Tlie first exploit of Alexander in this expedition, was the passage of the Granicus, which he effected notwithstanding the opposition of the Persians, who lost 20,000 men in the conflict. The fruit of this victory was the submission of all Asia Minor. The next encounter between the Macedonians or Greeks, and the Persians, was in 333 B. C., near the town of Issus, in which the lat- ter lost 100,000 men ; and the mother, wife, and children of Darius, the Persian monarch, fell into the hands of Alexander. After this victory he.ovei^-run all Syria, took Damascus, where he found the treasures of Darius, destroyed Tyre, entered Jerusalem, stormed Gaza, subjugated Egypt, and visited the temple of Jupiter Amnion, in the Lybian desert, where he caused himself to be pro- claimed the son of that fictitious deity ; on his return he built the city of Alexandria. Returning from Egypt he found Darius with his forces concentra- ted on tlie eastern bank of the Tigris ; a battle ensued at Arbela, 331 years B. C, in which 300,000 Persians were slain, or as some, with greater probability, say, 40,000, and but 500 Macedonians. Darius be- took himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, one of his lieutenants, Babylon, Suza, and Persepolis, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who set fire to the last, at the instigation of the courtezan Thais. Having finished the conquest of Assyria, Persia, and Media, Alexander crossed the mountains of Caucasus, entered Hyrcania, and subdued all the nations south of the Oxus. He then, passing into Sogdiana, overtook the perfidious Bessus, and put him to death. While in Sogdiana, he killed the veteran Clitus, his friend, in a fit ol intoxication. In 328 B. C. he projected the conquest of India. Penetrating be.- yond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porus, a king of that country. He still continued his course to the East ; but when he arrived at tho banks of the Ganges, his soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, would 356—146 B. c. 97 go no farther. He returned to the Indus, and pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, whence he des- patched his fleet to the Persian Gulf. After his arrival at Babylon, he gave himself up to much intempe- rance, but was still projecting new conquests, w^hen death suddenly put an end to his career. Alexander possessed some generosity of nature, but his vicious habits often overpowered it. Intoxication and tlie love of conquest render his name odious to a good man. One or two instances of amiable native feeling, will show what he might have been, could he have controlled his violent passions. He conducted himself very dutifully towards his mother, listened to her reproofs with mildness and patience, and when Antipater, whom he left to govern Macedonia in his absence, wrote a long letter com- plaining of Olympias, the king said, with a smile, " Antipater does not know that one tear shed by a mother, will obliterate ten such letters as this." "When he conquered Porus, who was seven and a half high, this sin- gularly tall man, as he was introduced to Alexander, was asked by him how he would be treated, " Like a king," replied Porus. Alexander was so much pleased with this answer, that he restored his kingdom to him, and ever afterwards treated him with kindness and respect. 4. The conquests and acquisitions of Alexander were divi- ded, soon after his death, amon^ thirty-three of his principal otlicers. Four, however, of his generals, at length obtained the whole, 312 years B. C. having partitioned the empire among themselves. It then constituted four consideraljle monarchies. The names of these generals were Ptolemj^, Lysimaclius, Cassander, and Seleucus. Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, and Pales- tine, were assigned to Ptolemy ; Macedonia and Greece to Cassander ; Bithynia and Thrace to LysimacJnis ; but the remaining territories in Asia, as far as the river Indus, wliich were called the kingdom of Syria, to Seleucus. The most powerful of these divisions was tliat of Syri:i, under Seleucus and his descendants, and that of Egypt luider the Ptolemies. Only Ptolemy and Seleucus transmitted their empires to their children. § Alexander nominated no successor. He had a son, called Her- cules, by one of his wives, named Barsine. He also left a brother, Aridseus. Arideeus, and another son of Alexander, born subsequent- ly to the conqueror's death, and called after his own name, were soon destroyed. Hercules and Barsine, and Cleopatra, the only sis- ter of Alexander, shared the same fate, not long afterwards. Thus his whole family became extinct. Of this destruction, the contentions of his generals were the cause, and the cause of those contentions was the neglect of appointing a successor. The vanity of 98 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VHI. human grandeur, in this instance, appears peculiarly striking. Of the wars and intrigues of these generals among themselves, we need give no account, as they are not interesting. Some subsequent events, relating to them or their sovereignties, will be mentioned in the proper place. 5. From the period of Alexander's death, the liistory of the Grecian states, to the time of their subjugation by the Romans, presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. This people had lost their pohtical distinction. The last effort made to revive the expiring spirit of liberty, was the formation of the Achaean league, which was a union of 12 of the smaller states, for this object. This took place 281 years B. C, but it effected little. § Immediately after Alexander's death, Demosthenes made one more effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse his coun- trymen to shake of the yoke of Macedon ; but it was too late. The pacific counsels of Phocion, suited far better the timid or languid spirit of the people. Antipater, who governed Greece a short time after Alexander's death, demanded that Demosthenes should be de ■ livered up to him. But Demosthenes prevented this by committing suicide. Phocion, though he opposed Demosthenes, was one of the most eminent men of Greece. He recommended peace : inasmuch as he was honest himself, he did not suspect tlie cunning of the enemy of his country. After having been chosen general 45 times, and after having performed the greatest services for his country, he was con- demned to die by the ungrateful Athenians. When about to swallow the dose of hemlock, that was to poison him, he was asked what message he would send to his son. " Tell him," said this, virtuous old man, " that I desire he will not remember the injustice of the Athenians." The government of the Ach3ea.n league was committed to Aratus, ofSicyon, with the title of Praetor, a young man of great ambition, who immediately conceived the idea of freeing the whole country from the Macedonian dominion. But this plan was defeated by the jealousy of the greater states. Sparta refused to follow the guidance of the Praetor of Achaia, and Aratus, forgetful at once of the interests of his country, thought of nothing but to wreak his vengeance against Sparta. For this purpose he solicited the a.a even of the Macedonians themselves. 6. Macedonia and Gieece Avere now pieparing to follow the fate of all the nations within the grasp of Roman ambi- tion. Their period of conquest was ended ; that of their subjugation was at hand. The Romans, as we shall soon learn, had become the most powerful of the contemporary na- tions. 356—146 B. c. 9Q An occasion was offered for the interference of the Romans in tlie affairs of Macedonia and Greece — an occasion which was eagerly embraced. Macedonia, with its last king, Per- seus, first fell, 167 years B. C. Twenty-one years afterwards, Greece siorendered its independence to Rome, whose legions were led by the consul Mummius. This event was hastened by the dissensions which the Romans fomented between the different states of Greece. An insult, said to have been received by the deputies of Rome from the Acha^ans, furnished the pretext for an attack on Greece. From this time, Greece became a province of Rome, under the name of Achaia. § Tlie occasion of the introduction of the Romans into Greece, was an invitation from the ^Etolians, to assist them in repelling an attack by Macedonia. Nothing could' have better suited the wishes of the Romans. Perseus, a successor of Alexander in the part of his em- pire which fell to Cassander, was then kin^. He persuaded the Achaeans to join him in his preparations against Rome. After being sometimes the conqueror, and sometimes the conquered, he was at last vanquished by Paulus ii:milius, at Pydna, and himself and all his family taken prisoners. They were carried to Rome, and served to swell the train of the conqueror. Perseus starved himself to death, and Macedonia became a province of Rome. The Romans had, in effect, conquered Greece, by their arts, before they made use of their arms. They had corrupted many of the principal Greeks ; and, on the pretence above mentioned, they marched their legions against this once renowned people. Metellus, the con- sul, began the war, which Mummius completed. Corinth, In whicli the Greeks made a last stand, was razed and btu'nt to the ground. Dia;us, wdio commanded the Greeks in this city, killed his wife, to prevent her from fahing into the. hands of the enemy, and then took poison, of which he died. Corinth was de- stroyed the same year w^hich witnessed the destruction of Carthage, 146 B. C, which latter event we have referred to the beginning of the next period, — having anticipated this item of the Grecian history. Some time previously to the subjugation of Greece, Philopoemen was selected to command the forces of the Achaean cities. He was an admirable man ; but, in one instance, he stained his character by Jiis conduct tovvards the Spartans, numbers of whom he cruelly bntchered, when that city w^as taken by him. He was, however, called to suffer in his turn ; for, at 70 years ot age, he was taken prisoner, when besieging Messena. The Messe- nians were so delighted to possess this illustrious man in bondage, that they dragged him in chains to the public theatre, for crowds to gaze upon him. At night, he was put into a dungeon, and the jailor carried to him a dose of poison, lie calmly received the cup, and, having heard iOO ANCIENT IIISTORV — PERIOD VIII. that most of liis friends had escaped by flight, lie said, '-'then I find we are not entireh' iinforlnnatej" and, drinking off tjie fatal draught, \vitboiTt one mnrmnr, laid himself dov/n and expired. About this same time, Sparta had a king called Nabis, who M'as notorious for his cruelty and avarice. Most of the wealthy citizens he banished from Sparta, that he might seize their riches, and many he caused to be assassinated. He had received Argos from Philip, in pledge for some money Avhich he had lent that monarch. He there practised the most shocking cruelties. He had invented a niacliine, in the form of a statue, resemliling liis wife, the breast, arms, and hands of v.diich were full of pegs of iron, covered with magnificent garments, if any one refused to give him money, he was introduced to this machine, "v\'hich, by means of cer- tajn springs, caught fast hold of him, and, that he might deliver hfmself from this exquisite torture, he readily granted whatever Na- bis desired. ROME. 7. Rome, at tlie commencement of this period, imder cir- cmnstances more favourable for conquest than it ever had been before, was not long in subduing the petty nations within a moderate distance of its territory. The name of " Gauls" still inspired some terror, but the Romans soon ])egan to despise them, after they had repressed one or two invasions. 8. Having subdued all their neighbours, such as the Her- nici, the JEqm, the Yolci, &c. the Romans began to look for greater conquests. They soon found an occasion against the Sanmites, a numerous and vrarjike people inhabiting the south of Italy, with whom tiicy were engaged in war 71 years. This war commenced 343 years B. G. A war with the La- tins commenced tlirec 3^ears aitervv'ards. The Latins were soon subjugated. § The Sanmites possessed that tract of country, which at this day constitutes a considerable part of the kingdom of Naples. They were a far more formidable cncm}^, both as to numbers and disci- pline, than the Romans had hitherto contended witii. Two consuls were at first sent against them. The fortune of Rome attended one of tliem ; but the otJicr, Cornelius, was invohed in difficulty. Having been surrounded by the Sanmites, his army must have per- ished, had not the tribune Decius, witli 400 men, made a diversion in his favour. Decius advanced to seize a hill in the midst of the enemy. This bold attempt cost tiie life of every one of his soldiers. Decius alone escaped, but he preserved the army of tlie consul. In the war with the Lalin.s, at this time a distinct nation, again Titus Manlius, v/ho was consul, gave a most remarlcable instance of well meant, but mistaken severity. He had ordered the Roman sol- diers not to quit their ranks, without permission, on pain of deijth. 356—146 B. c. 101 A son of the consul happened, with his detachment, to meet a troop of Latins, headed by Melius. Metius scoffingly addressed the Romans, and at last dared their young commander to fight him. The son, forgetful of the orders of his father, or regardless of them, in his indignation, sprang forward to the encounter, and soon conquered the Latin. Then gathering to- gether the arms of the fallen foe, he ran to his father's tent, and throwing them at his feet, told his story. But tragical was the issue. The consul turned from him, and or dering the troops to be assembled, thus addressed him in their pre sence. "Titus Manlius ! you this day dared to disobey the command oi your consul, and the orders of your father ; you have thus done an injury to discipline and military government, and must, by youi death, expiate j^our fault. Your courage has endeared you to me, but I must be just ; and if you have a drop of my blood in your veins you will not refuse to die, when justice demands it. Go, lictor, and tie him to the stake." The astonished young man showed his noble spirit to the last, and as calmly knelt down beneath the axe, as he had bravely w^ielded his sword against t!ie enemies of his country. The whole Roman armies mourned his early death. How unnatural were even the virtues of the Romans, in many instances ! 9. The war with the Samnites contiimed with occasional suspensions, but was destined to end only with their ruin. The Romans v/ere generally successful in their battles, though, in one instance, a Roman army experienced a signal mortification, in bemg obliged to pass under the yoke. The Tarentines, having become the allies of tJie Samnites, shared their fate. The Samnites w^ere completely subdued, 272 5^ears B. C, although, in the mean time, the Romans had on hand a war \vith some other states, as will be soon men- tioned. § During the war with the Samnites, their general, Pontius, de- coyed the Romans into a defile, in which they w^ere wholly in the power of their enemies. Rejecting the advice of his father, whicli was either to put them ail to death, or honourably to free theiH, he chose a middle course, and determined to disgrace them. For that purpose, he obliged the Roman soldiers, with their officers leading the way, to pass half naked under the yoke — a sort of gal- lows made of three spears, two being fixed firmly in the ground, and one laid across on the top of the others. This was considered an in- sufferable disgrace. The Romans keenly felt the indignity, and not having their power in the least crippled by this means, only became the more impatient to subdue their rivals. They had soon an opportunity of inflicting upon the Samnites a similar odium, and of obliging them at length to sue for peace. 102 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 10. The Romans had a short contention with the Tus- cans, 312 B. C. During two successive years, they were de- feated, — in the last by Fabius. But the most important war, about this time, was that in which they were engaged with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The aid of this celebrated general had been sought by the Tarentines, as allies with the Samnites, in their united con- test with Rome. He landed in Italy with 30.000 men, and a train of elephants, and commenced an attack on the Romans. After various turns of fortune, he was at last totally defeat- ed, with the loss of 26,000 men, and returned with haste to Lis dominions. From this time, the hostile states, left to bear alone the Aveight of the Roman power, were no longer for- midable, and all Italy submitted to Rome, about 270 years B. C. § Pyrrhus was born to be a warrior ; but warriors make themselves miserable. When he was preparing to comply with the invitations of the Tarentines, Cineas, a wise and good man, asked him what were his intentions and expectations ? " To conquer Rome," said Pyrrhus. " And wliat will you do next, my lord ?" " Next, I will conquer Italy." "And what after that ?" " We will subdue Carthage, Macedonia, all Africa, and Greece." " And when we have conquered all we can, what shall we do 7" "Do ! then we will sit down, and spend our time in comfort." " Ah ! my lord !" said the reasonable Cineas, " what prevents our being in peace and comfort now ?" Having arrived in Italy, he speedily conquered the Romans under their consul La^vinius. This victory was thought to have been gain- ed by the effect produced by the elephants of Pyrrhus's army, the Roman horses taking fright at the sight of these huge animals. Pyr- rhus was surprised at the valiant and skilful conduct of tlie Romans, for, at that time, all people, except those of one's own nation, were considered barbarians, rude and unknowing. After the first battle, observing the noble and stern countenances of his enemies, as they lay dead on the field, Pyrrhus, awed into re- spect, cried out, in the true spirit of military ambition, " O with what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, and had they me for their king !" He gained a second victory, but after that he found himself losing ground daily, and was glad to leave Italy before he was entirely conquered. The people of Sicily had sent to him for assistance ; thither he went. In Sicily, he also experienced a change of fortune, at first prospe- rous, and then adverse. So that he once more returned to Italy, being almost driven from Syracuse by the Carthaginians. The Romans 356—146 B. c. 103 fell before him again ; but at last, they terribly defeated him, and he was obliged to return with haste to his own country. An anecdote, illustrating the generosity of the Romans and of Pyr- rhus, and shewing that this was the age of Roman virtue, is worth m- cording. One of the physicians of Pyrrhus told the Romans, that he would poison his master, if they would give him a large reward. Fabricias, the Roman general, was shocked at this treacliery, and di- rectly informed Pyrrhus of it, sending away the physician with scorn; "for," said the general, "we should be honourable even to our enemies." Pyrrhus would not be outdone in generosity, and ex- pressed his gratitude by sending to Rome all his prisoners without ransom, and by desiring to negotiate a peace. 11. The different states of Italy had now lost their inde- pendence ; but after ih'^ir conquest, they did not all bear tlie same relation to Rome. Their privileges were unequal, va- rying according to the different terms granted to the con- quered, and afterwards modified according to their fidelity to the parent state. -Some were entirely subjected to the Ro- man laws ; others were allowed to live under the original in- stitutions ; and some were tributary, and others allies. The success of the war Avith Pyrrhus, gave the Romans reputation abroad. They now seemed to themselves to be equal to any enterprise. They had long been jealous of tlie growing power of Carthage, and easily found a pretext for declaring war against that republic. It was alleged that Carthage had rendered assistance to the enemies of Rome. Thus commenced what is commonly called the first Punic War, 264 years B. C. It lasted 23 years. The Romans were in general victorious, though they w^ere once, under Re- gulus, severely beaten before the gates of Carthage. Theif first attempts in naval warfare were made during this conten- tion. They were highly successful in them, although the Car- thaginians had been long celebrated for their enterprise and courage on the ocean. The Romans won several naval battlr^s, and took the strongest of the Sicilian towns, Sicily being the principal scene of the war. The iU success of the Carthaginians, re- duced them to the necessity of making peace on very humili- ating terms. They were requked to quit Sicily, return all the prisoners they had taken, and pay 3,200 talents of silver. § The Mamertines, who inhabited a small section of the island of Sicily, had put themselves under the protection of Rome, with a view to ward off impending ruin, with which the Carthaginians threatened them, as allies of Hiero, king of Syracuse. The Romans, too proud 104 ANCIENT HISrbRY PERIOD VIII. to dignify the Mamertines with the name of allies, instead of pro- fessing to assist tliem, boldly declared war against Carthage, alleging as a reason, the assistance not long before rendered by Carthage to the southern parts of Italy, against the Romans. Such Avas the frivolous pretext for this sanguinary war. It was the object, both of Cartilage and Rome respectively, to reduce Sicily en- tirely to its sway. The Carthaginians had already pos-sessed them- selves of a considerable part of it. The Syracusans at first having confederated witli the Carthaginians, at length turned against them. Agrigentum was taken from the Carthaginians, after a long siege; and a fleet of the Romans, the first they ever possessed, and which they had equipped in a few weeks, defeated that of Carthage, in a most signal maimer. A second naval engagement soon followed, at- tended with like success, the Carthaginians, under Hanno and Hamil- car, losing GO ships of war. These victories so much encouraged the Romans, that they boldly crossed the Mediterranean sea, and landing in Africa, took the small town of Clypea. Regulus, the leader, was ordered to remain there, and continue, as pro-consul, to command the troops ; but he earnestly requested to return home, as he had a small estate of seven acres which required liis care. A person was directed to perform this service, and then Regulus, satisfied that his v/ife and children would have food, willingly devo- ted himself to his public duties. The Carthaginians had procured forces from Sparta under Xantippus, and thus supported, defeated the Romans, and took Regulus prisoner. Regulus having been kept in prison several years, was then sent to Rome to propose peace, and an exchange of prisoners. He was first obliged to take an oath that he would return to Carthage, if he did not succeed in his proposals. When this noble Roman made his ap- pearance among his countrymen, they were all touched by his mis- fortunes, and were willing to purchase his freedom, by granting the request of his enemies. But he would not allov/ his country to suffer for his sake, and, though he knew that torture and death awaited him at Carthage, he besought the Romans to send him back, and to refuse the Carthagi- nians their prisoners. The senate, with the utmost pain, consented to this disinterested advice ; and, in spite of the tears of his wife, the embraces of his children, and the entreaties of his friends, Regulus returned to Carthage. The sequel ma.y he easily conjectured. As soon as the Carthagi- nians saw him come back with a denial, they put him to every kind of suffering they could invent — to the most barbarous tortures, all of which he bore with patient silence. He died as heroically as he had lived. After various successes on both sides, the Romans gained two na^ rai battles, and thus so effectually crippled the strength of the Car- thaginians on then* own element, that they sought a peace by great sacrifices. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman province, though Syracuse maintained her independent government. 356—146 E. c 105 12. A peace of twenty-three years' continuance subsisted between Rome and Carthage, dujing which time the Ro- mans had two short contentions — first with tlie lllyrians. and next with the Gauls. Over both of these nations the Roman arms triumphed. The temple of Janus, which Avas nevei' shut during a time of war, was now shut for the second time, since the foundation of the city, 235 B. C. Tlie Romans, at tliis era, began to cultivate the arts of peace, and to acquire a taste for literature. § The war with the lllyrians was owing to depredations committed by them, on the trading subjects of Rome. Redress boin^ reuised, the consuls marched against them, and most of the Illyrian tov/ns were obliged to surrender. The war with the Gauls was occasioned by the irru})iion of tliese barbarians upon Italy. The Romans oppo- sed them, with snch success, that they lost two kings, and in one bat- tle alone 40,090 men killed and 10,000 taken prisoners. 13. The peace between the Romans and Carthaginians was rather a matter of policy than of inclination. The Carthagi- nians particularly had improved the time in preparing for re- venge. They began the aggression in the second Punic war, by loying sie,2:e to Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance with Rome. Their leader in this war was the celebrated Han- nibal, son of Hamilcar, under whom the first Punic war was principally conducted. The son inherited the father's enmity to the Romans, and was greatly superior to him in talents. I The war commenced 218 years B. C, and lasted 17 years. It was at first highly favourable to tlie Carthaginians, and Rome was thrown into imminent danger, and great distress, by the victories of Hannibal, who had carried the war into Italy. But the Roman fortune began at length to prevail, and Hannibal was recalled to save Carthage itself, inas- much as Scipio the Roman general, who triumphed in Spain, liad passed over into Africa, and spread terror to the gates of Carthage. Hannibal and Scipio met at Zama ; the battle of that place decided the fate of the Avar, and the Carthaginians sued for peace, v.^hich they obtained only by abandoning Spain, Sicily, and ali the islands — ^Ijy surrendering all their prisoners, and nearly the whole of their fleet, by paying 10,000 talents, and by engaging to undertake no war without the consent of Rome. § Of Hannibal it is recorded, that when only nine years of age, at 106 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. the instance of his father, he took a solemn oath at the altar, decla ring himself the eternal enemy of the Romans ; and never had they so terrible a foe. Like most other great soldiers, he was capable of bearing fatigne and hardship, heat and cold, good and bad fortune in the extreme, with entire equanimity, and without shrinking. He was simple in dress, rigid in self-government — he ate, drank and slept only so much as to support his body,juid give him strength to perform the intentions of his great mind. If, however, we are to believe the accounts of his enemies, he was not without striking moral defects— being cruel, negligent of his truth and honour, and a scorner of the religion of his country. Hannibal crossing the sea from Africa to Europe, and taking Sa- guntum, in Spain marched tlirough Spain, and over the Pyrennean liills into Gaul, along the coast of that country, and over the lofty Alps crowned with snow, to Italy — a land journey of 1000 miles. Such an exploit had never been done before. The difficulties of the way would have disheartened any other man. In addition to this he passed through various barbarous tribes, with most of whom he was obliged to fight for a passage ; the Gauls among the rest attempting to oppose his progress. He arrived in Italy with only 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. "Wlien he began this wonderful enterprise he was only 26 years old. Several Roman generals of approved talent and valour opposed him; yet he was on tlie point of making himself master of proud Rome. In the first engagement near the Ticinus, the Romans were defeated, and they lostlwo other important battles at the Trebia and the lake Thrasymenus. Advancing to Cannag, the Carthaginians were opposed by the whole force of Rome ; but in vain. Their fine army under their consuls was totally routed. Varro gave orders for the battle against the wish of his colleague Paulus TEmilius ; but the encounter once begun, ^milius fought with the utmost skill and bravery, and died covered with wounds. Just before his death he M'-as found sitting on a stone, faint and streaming witli blood. The soldier who discovered him, besought him to mount his horse, and put himself under his protection. " No," said iEmilius with gratitude, " I will not clog you with my sinking frame ; go iiasten to Rome, and tell the senate of this day's disaster, and bid them fortify the city, for the enemy is approaching it. 1 will die with my slaughtered soldiers, that I may neither suffer the in- dignation of Rome myself, nor be called upon to give testimony against my colleague, to prove my o\vn innocence." It is an opinion generally entertained, though by no means certain, that if Hannibal had marched directly to Rome, after the battle of Cannae, the fate of the republic would have been inevitable. But this he did not see fit to attempt. The tide of success now began to turn against him. Wintering his troops in the luxurious city of Cai> ua, they lost much of their virtue. The Romans concentrated all their strength, even the slaves, arm- ed in the common cause ; and victory once more attended the stan- 356—146 B. c. 107 dards of Rome. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. The forces of the king of Macedon, who had joined the Cartliaginian?, were also defeated at this juncture. While Fa! tins, who was now opposed to Hannibal, conducted the war prosperously, by always avoiding a general engagement, the younger Scipio accomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent into Italy after a long delay, to the assistance of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, having triumphed in Spain, passed over into Africa, where his path w^as marked with terror and victory. This policy he had himself suggested to the Roman senate, as the only probable means of driving the Carthaginians from Italy. According to his expecta- tions, when Oarthage perceived the danger to which itself was ex- posed, Hannibal was recalled to protect his native land. He had been absent 16 years. Scipio was an antagonist worthy of Hannibal. When he was very young, he saved the life of his father in a battle ; and after the fatal overthnnv at Cannae, hearing of some young men who thought of abandoniuir their country, he, with a few other resolute spirits, ' suddenly entered the room where they were deliberating, and fiercely drew his sworl and exclaimed, "whoever is against Rome, this sword is against hin;." The young men, intimidated by his resolution, or inspired by li^^ spirit^ took a vow with him and his companions, to fight for their (-(^nntry whilst a drop of blood remained in their veins. The meetitw; at Zama, in Africa, between JHlannibal and Scipio, the two greatest v ■ irriors in the world, was higJily interesting. They gazed on each other w it li mutual awe and admiration. Hannibal in vain strove to procure honourable terms of peace. The youthful Roman, however, answered him ^viih pride and disdain; and the armies prepared forbattle. The contCRi was dreadful ; but the superior vigour of the Romans, notv.'ithstanding the skill of the Carthaginians, prevailed. The latter lost 40,000 m!:i) in killed and in prisoners, and were thus obliged to conclude afat;ii peace. Carthage was nearly ruined. As to Hanni- bal, he survive 1 Hiis battle several years ; but being hated and hunted by the Roman- iVom place to place, he committed tlie unjustifiable act of suicide, so oramon in ancient times. "Let us rel! '<'e the Romans of their fears," said he, "by closing the existence r t" a feeble old man." He died at 70 years of age, at the court of Prus^Kis, king of Bythynia. The second Punic war ended with the battle ?x Zama, B. C. 201. 14. The Ilornan dommion mow rapidly extended. Other victories ovei- other enemies attended the ainis of the republic Philip king; of Macedon was defeated by tlie Romans under Flaminius in Thessaly, 197 years B. C. The Gauls received some signal overthrows. § The war wiih Philip is called the first Macedonian war, and was ter- minated by thf request of Philip for peace, Avhich the senate granted the second yea- -^f the contest. The second Macedonian war, which terminated the aonarchy, as also that which put a period to Grecian 108 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. liberty, have already been narrated in the history of Macedonia and Greece. 15. Five years afterwards, or 192 years B. C, commenced liie Syrian war, under Antiochiis the Great. Tliis ended iia lais entire defeat, and in the cession to the Romans of all Asia IMinor. The pretext of tliis war was, that Antiochiis liad made encroachments on the Grecian states, Avho were then called the aUies of Rome. These successes, by pouring wealth into Rome, began to corrupt the simphcity of the an- cient manners. SICILY. 16. The history of Sicily is considerably included in that of Rome and other nations, but a few particulars may deserve a . separate notice. In early times the government was a monarchy, but it afterwards became a republic, and continued such, except at Syracuse, the monarchy of which, after 60 years, was re-established in the person of Dionysius the Elder. The Sicilians were frequently engaged in wars with the Carthaginians, and the latter, in the course of time, possessed themselves of a considerable part of the island. It Avas the scene and the object oH;he first Punic war ; and in the se- cond, the whole of it was brought under the sway of Rome, by the consul Marcellus, 212 years B. C. § This important island in the Mediterranean sea, the granary of Italy, was settled in an early age of the world, though the exact pe- riod is unknown. The Phcenicians had sent colonies thither before the Trojan war. The Greeks at later periods made considerable set- tlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which became the most renowned of the Greek cities of Sicily. The regal government exercised in the various parts of the island, having become excessively tyrannical, was the cause of its being abolished in all tlie cities held there by llie Greeks. Dionysius, how- ever, a person of mean birth, but great talents, found the means of reviving the monarchy at Syracuse, and though thrice expelled on account of his tyranny, he rc-assumed the sceptre, which he transmit- ted to his son, Dionysius the Younger. This weak and detestable tyrant had been well educated by the great Plato ; but he soon forgot all the good that had been taught him. He so provoked his virtuous brother-in-law Dion, (whom the jealousy of the nobles had banished,) by marrying Dion's Avife to one of his courtiers, that the latter led an army to Syracuse, drove the tyrant from his throne, and recovered his wife. In the hands of Dion the government was administered with much moderation and ability; but this excellent sovereign was at last cruelly murdered 356—146 B. c. 109 At his death Dionysius again ascended the throne, and was again driven from it ; and after alt his various fortunes, it is said he became a school-master at Corinth. The brave and humane Timoleon, a Greek, was the person who accomphshed the second banishment of this tyrant. Timoleon was sent for to assist the Syracusans against the Carthaginians, and having defeated them, he entered Syracuse in triumph. Dionysius, being uiifit to rule, surrendered himself and his citadel into his hands, and was sent to Corinth. Timoleon again defeated the Carthaginians under Asdrubal and Amilcar, and at length sub- dued all the enemies of Syracuse. After having served Syracuse and the whole island to the extent of his power, he gave up his authority, and lived the rest of his days in tranquil retirement. A few years after the battle of Cannse, Marcellus the Roman con- sul, laid siege to Syracuse ; and in spite of the wonderful machines constructed and employed by Archimedes, he finally took it. Mar- cellus, who was acquainted Avith the extraordinary abilities of this man, when the city had fallen into his hands, gave orders, that Archimedes should be conducted to him in safety. AVhen the city was taken, this philosopher was so absorbed in study, that he was not aware of the event, until a soldier, rushing into liis apartment, bade him rise and follow him. Archimedes desired him to wait a moment until he had solved the problem that he was work- ing. The soldier, not understanding what he was talking about, and provoked at his disobedience, drew his sword and killed him on th'j spot. Marcellus was greatly disappointed at this event. SYRIA. 17. During the present period the kingdom of Syria, cm: Syro-Medio, rose into importance under its founder Seleucus Nicator, or the Conqueror, 312 years B. C. In the first divi- sion of Alexander's empire, the country anciently called Syria, ^11 to the lot of Antigonus. But Seleucus, a distinguished and able officer in the empire, revolted, and made war upon Antigonus, who being slain at the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus remained possessor of his dominions. The sovereigns of this new kingdom, after him, were known under the name of Se- ieucidae. § Syria was first inhabited by the posterity of Aram, the youngest son of Shem. The kings of this coimtry were little known till the time of Alexander the Great, except what is related of them in the Bible. Hadadezer made an unsuccessful Avar against David. Benhadad )vas three times defeated by Ahab and Ahaziah. A few other particulars are related of the Sj^rian kings, till Syria was made a province of the Assyi'ian Empire by Tiglath-Pileser, who defeated and slew Re- zin, the king of Syria, in battle. 18. The second and last division of Alexander's empii'e was formerly mentioned. Seleucus who retained Syria, to P^ 110 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD Vnt. which other possessions were added, made war upon 1 j-ygi- niachus, who had reduced Macedonia under his sway. Lysi- machus was killed, and Seleucus seized on his kingdom. But the conqueror was assassinated the same year, by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who aftenvards reigned at Macedon. § Of the Seleiicidae, or successors of Seleucus, to the end of this period, the following epitome may be given. Antiochus Soter, or the saviour, succeeded the conqueror. Of this Antiochus it is recorded, that when a young man, he fell in love with one of his father's wives, a young and beai^ful woman, to such a degree, as to be nearly re- duced to dcatli. His physician discovering, from the agitation of his pulse at the sight of Stratonice, (the name of the object of his passion,) the true cause of his disease, made it known to Seleucus tlie father. From affection to the son he renounced Stratonice, and gave her to him in marriage, 280 B. C. Antiochus Theos, or the God, invaded Egypt. During his ab- sence the provinces of the East were entered by the Parthians, who founded a new kingdom. The Bactrians also became independent. He made peace with Ptolemy Philadelphus, and married his daugh- ter Berenice, after repudiating his wife. The king of Egypt being dead, he took back his former wife, who poisoned him, Berenice, and her son, 261 B. C. After the reigns of Seleucus Callinicus, and Seleucus Ceraunus, re • specting whom nothing remarkable took place, Antiochus the Great ascended the throne. He was at first engaged in subduing some of his revolted governors. Afterwards he invaded Media, Parthia, Hyr- cania. Bactria, and even India, 223 B. C. Having planned the conquest of Asia Minor, and taken some places there, an embassy was sent by the Romans, desiring him to desist. This brought on the war with the Romans which has been particu- larly detailed. In this attempt he first conquered a part of Greece. Here the Romans defeated him, and being closely pursued by Scipio Asiaticus, he was beaten again in Asia. Among one of the conditions of peace was the delivery of his son Antiochus, as a hostage to the Romans. Seleucus Philopater, who was left by his father to govern Syria, during his absence, next ascended the throne, 187 years B. C. His general Heliodorus, in attempting to rob the temple of Jerusalem of its treasures, Avas repulsed by the hand of God, and rigorously chas- tised. He poisoned Seleucus after his return. Antiochus Epiphanes, the son who was delivered as a hostage to the Romans, and exchanged, after chastising Heliodorus, gained pos- session of tlie throne, 175 years B. C. In attempting to reduce Egypt under his dominion, he was stopped by a Roman ambassador, who obliged him to return. Incensed at this, he vented his ra^e against the Jews, took Jerusa- lem, slaughtered 40,000 persons, and made as many prisoners. The Jews, however, revolted, and under Judas Maccabccus defeated sev©* 356— 146 B.C. Ill ral of his generals. These wars will be detailed in the history of the Jews. Antioehus, in attempting to exterminate the Jews, perished in great torments. Antioehus Eupator and Demetrius Soter continued the war with the Jews, and Alexander Balas, the last sovereign, during this period, abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. JEWS. 20. In the history of the Jews at the commencement of this period, we have to notice the favour which Avas mani- fested towards them by Alexander the Great, w4io granted to them the freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and ex- empted them from paying tribute every seventh year. In their dependent state, they had continued to enjoy a de- gree of prosperity under the sovereigns of Persia, even after the time of Cyrus. His successors, dowai to the era of Alexander, had, in general, treated them with much khidness. But with the latter expired the prosperous state of Judea, 324 years B. C. § Darius, son of Cyrus, favoured the Jews during his long reign. Xerxes confirmed their privileges. Under Artaxerxes they were still more favourcd through the influence of his queen Esther, a Jewess. From this prince, Ezra obtained very liberal donations to be applied to the service of the temple, and authority to re-establish the govern- ment according to the divine constitution, 480 years B. C. Several years afterwards, under the same prince, Nehemiah his cup-bearer, obtained leave to go to Jerusalem and rebuild its walls. He and Joiada the high priest reformed many abuses respecting tithes, the observation of the sabbath, and the marrying of strange wives. In the latter period, to which our accounts more particularly refer, it is recorded that Jaddus, the high priest, in his priestly attire, met Alexander the Great, and shewed him the prophecy of Daniel, in which his conquest was foretold. 31. From this time, 323 years B. C, Judea was succes- sively invaded and subdued by the Egyptians and Syrians, and the inhabitants were reduced to bondage. In conse- quence of an invasion by Antioehus Epiphanes, about 170 years B. C. the sacrifices ceased among the Jew^s, and there scarcely existed any external signs of their peculiar civil or religious polity. Such persecutions roused the Jew^s to drive the Syrians from Judea, which they gloriously achieved under Judas Maccabeeus, 166 years B. C. § Under the priesthood of Onias I., Ptolemy, governor of Egypt taking advantage of the circumstance that the Jews would not fight 113 ANCIENT HISTORY — Period VIII. on the sabbath, captured Jerusalem on that day, and carried off 100,000 persons, whom, hoM'ever, he afterwards treated kindly. When Eleazer M^as high priest, he sent to Ptolemy Philadelphiis six men of eveiy tribe, to translate the sacred scriptures into Greek. This translation is the celebrated one called the Septuagint, 277 B.C. Jason, 170 B. C, on false reports of Antiochus' death, raised great disturbances in Jerusalem, with a view to recover the high priest- hood. Antiochus (Epiphanes) irritated by the frequent revolts of the Jews, marched to Jerusalem, slew 80,000 people, took 40,000 captives, and then entered the temple and plundered the treasures. Antiochus having commanded the Jews to observe tlie rites of the heathen, and to eat of the sacrifices, some of the more conscientious among them chose rather the loss of life ; among whom were a mo- ther and her seven sons, who expired in dreadful tortures. The same year the king's commissioner, who was entrusted with this iniquitous business, was kiUed by Mattathias and his five sons, who thereupon lied into the wilderness. Judas Maccabseus, at the head of those who fled into the wilder- ness, made war against Antiochus, and defeated several of his gene- rals. The king hearing of the defeat of his troops in Judea, took an oath, that he would destroy the whole nation. As he hastened to Jerusalem, he fell from his chariot, and died miserably. In a battle with a general of one of his successors, Judas was killed. Jonathan his brother succeeded, and was made high priest, 153 years B. C. A younger brother had been previously killed. The remain- der of the history of the Maccabees is to be pursued in the next suc- ceeding period. EGYPT. 22. Egypt, havinfr been in subjection 30 years since it .was last brought under the Persian yoke, was subdued by Alexander the Great, 332 years B. C. He appointed Ptol- emy Lagus its governor, who, after the conqueror's death, be- gan a new dynasty of kings, called Ptolemseans or Lagidse^ 323 years B. C. This dynasty lasted 294 years, and ended in Cleopatra. Of the sovereigns that belong to the period now treated of, we find the names of six of various characters. Ptolemy Lagus, called also Soter or Saviour, was a man of great abilities, and endeavoured to restore Egypt to its ancient splendour. He erected the famous library at Alexandria. He subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem. Ptolemy Philadelphus, or Lover of his brother, pursued the steps of his father in a great measure. He protected commerce, arts, and sciences, and erected magnificent buildings. Ptolemy Evergetes, or the Benefactor, was not only a lover of science, but an author. He spared no pains to enrich his library. Ptolemy Philopater, or Lover of his father, a surname probably 356—146 B. c. 113 given him in derision, being suspected to have put his father to death, was a cruel prince. He slew his brother, murdered his queen, and ordered aH the Jews within his dominions to abjure their religion, which however they refused to do. Ptolemy Epiphanes, or the Illustrious, was famous only for his vices. He suffered every thing to fall into disorder, and was at last poisoned by his subjects. Ptolemy Philometer, or Lover of his mother, engaged in an un- successful war against Syria, in which he was taken prisoner, and the crown given to his brother Physcon ; but after Philometer re- gained his liberty, they reigned jointly. PARTHIA. 23. The history of Parthia begins at this era. Arsaces, a nobleman, descended as some think from Artaxerxea Mnemon, king of Persia, revolted from Antiochus Theos, king of Syria (256 B. C.) and founded the new kingdom of Parthia, which at first consisted only of the province so called From him his successors are called Arsacida^. § The single province of Parthia was not large ; but the Parthian empire included not only Parthia, but Hyrcania, Sogdiana, Bactria, Persia, Media, and several other regions. Parthia was first sub- ject to the Medes, afterwards to the Persians, and lastly to Alexander the Great : upon wliose death, it fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator ; and his successors held it till the reign of Antiochus Theos. They were a warlike people, and the best horsemen and archers in the world. For the sake of war, they neglected agriculture, trade, and all other callings. 24. The Arsacidse were in general conquerors, and greatly extended their dominions from time to time. Mithridates I. the fifth from xlrsaces, was a man of uncommon wisdom and courage. He reduced the Bactrians, Persians, Medes, and Elymseans, and extended his dominions mto India, beyond the boundaries of Alexander's conquests. CHINA. 25. The third dynasty of the emperors of China, which commenced 1110 years B. C, ended during this period viz. 246 years B. C. It included 35 emperors. It is called the dynasty of Tcheou. The fourth dynasty, which began at the latter date, lasted 43 years, terminating 203 years B. C. It included four em- perors. It is called the dynasty of Tsin. § Chaus the fourth emperor of the third dynasty was excessively fond of hunting. In the pursuit of that sport, lie did incalculable damage to the crops of his subjects. Their remonstrances being un- heeded, they determined to destroy him. For this purpose, as he 114 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. was wont to pass a large river, on his return from the chase, in a boat whicli waited for him, they caused one to be built of such con- struction as to break in pieces before it reached the opposite shore. Entering liis boat, he and his attendants soon went to the bottom. Ching, the second emperor of the fourtli d5-nast3', left a monument of his power, whicli still astonishes those that behold it, viz. the fa- mous wall, 500 leagues long, whicli separates China from its north- ern neighbours. He suppressed the tributary kingdoms, and reduced them to their former state of provinces. Elated with his success, he became ambitious of being thought the first sovereign of China. With this view he ordered all the historical writings and public records to be burned, and many of the learned men to be buried alive, that past events might not be transmitted to posterity. Distinguished Characters in Period VIII. 1. PlatOj an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the Divine. 2. Apellcs, the greatest of the painters of antiquity. 3. Alexander the Great, conqueror of most of the world know^n to the ancients. 4. Demosthenes, the prince of oi'ators. 5. Aristotle, the ablest logician and philosopher of antiquity. 6. Euclid, the greatest master of mathematical science. 7. Theocritus, the father of pastoral poetry. 8. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. 9. Archimedes, a famous geometrician of Syracuse. 1. Plato was born about 429 years B. C. Ilis name, Aristocles, was changed to Plato, from the largeness of his shoulders. He was 8 years the pupil of Socrates, after whose death, he travelled into foreign countries. When he had finished these, he retired to the groves of Academus, where he M^as attended by a crowd of noble and illustrious pupils. His learning and virtues were topics of conversation in every part of Greece ; he was elegant in liis manners, and partook of innocent pleasures and amusements. He died hi his 81st year, about 348 B. C. Tlie works of Plato are numerous ; they are all in the form of a dialogue, except twelve letters. The ancients and even the learned moderns have highly respected and admired the writings of this great philosopher. They display unusual depth of thought, and singular elegance, melody, and sweetness of expression. Among other truths, he maintained by many powerful arguments the immortality of the soul. 2. Apelles was born in the island of Cos, aud lived contemporary with Alexander, who would suffer no other to draw his picture. His Venus rising out of the sea, was purchased by Augustus, and placed m a temple at Rome. The lower part had sustained some injury M'hich no artist could repair. He wrote some pieces which were extant in the age of Pliny. 356— 146 b. c. 115 One of his pictures of Alexander exhibited the conqueror with a thunderbolt in his hand. The piece was finished with so much skill and dexterity, that it used to be said that there were two Alexanders : one invincible, tlie son of Philip : the other inimitable, the produc- tion of Apelles. The date of his death does not appear. 3. Alexander was born at Pella in Macedonia, 355 B. C. At the age often years he was delivered to the tuition of Aristotle, and early followed his father to the field. When he came to the throne, he in- vaded Asia, as has been already described, defeating Darius in three great battles, reducing Egypt, Media, Syria, and Persia, and spread- ing his conquests over a part of India. On his return from India he stopped at Babylon, where he died in his 32d year, from excess in drinkuig, or as some think, from poison. He aspired to be thought a demigod, but was humane, liberal, and a patron of learning. With many valuable qualities, much is it to be regretted that he should have been the scourge, by being the conqueror of the worM. His tender treatment of the wife and mother of Darius, who were taken prisoners, has been greatly praised. The latter, who had sur- vived the death of her son, killed herself when she heard that Alex- ander was dead. He was guilty of many extravagant and profligate actions ; yet amidst them all he was fond of candour and truth, and after any act of wickedness, appeared to be stung with grief and re- morse. When one of his officers read to him as he sailed on the Hydaspes, a history which the officer had composed of his wars with Porus, and in which he had too liberally praised him, Alexander snatched the book from his hand, and threw it into tlie river saying, " What need is there of sucli flattery ? Are not the exploits of Alexander suf- ficiently meritorious in themselves, without the colouring of false- hood ?" The death of his friend Clitus. of which he was the author, while it might be in a degree palliated, sliewed how capable he was of re- gret for a wrong action. Clitus had greatly abused Alexander ; they were both heated with wine and passion. The monarch after bear- ing the abuse for some time, ordered Clitus to be carried out of his presence. The latter, however, soon returned, and renewed his invectives. Alexander giving loose to his indignation, stabbed the veteran ; but was so immediately shocked with what he had done, that he was about to kill himself on the spot, and was only prevented by Jus friends. *' 4. Demosthenes was only seven years old when his father died, and his guardians, proving unfaithful to their trust, squandered hi3 property, and neglected his education. He was therefore indebted to his own industry and application, for the discipline of his mind. By unwearied efforts, and by overcoming the greatest obstacles, such as weakness of the lungs, diflJiculty of pronunciation, and uiv couth habits of body, he became the greatest orator in the world. That he might devote himself the more closely to his studies, he con- 116 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. fined himself to a retired cave, and shaved half of liis head, so thai he could not decently appear in public. His abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the go- vernment, and in this capacity he roused and animated his country- men against the ambitious designs of Philip. He also opposed Alex- ander, and made every effort to save his country. When the gene- rals of Alexander approached Athens, he fled for safety to the temple of Neptune, and there took poison to prevent himself from falling into their hands, in his 60th year, B. C. 322. 5. Aristotle possessed one of the keenest and most inventive ori- ginal intellects ever known. His writings treat of almost every branch of knowledge in his time ;— moral and natural philosophy, metaphy- sics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied his pen. His eloquence also was remarkable. He was moderate in his meals, slept little, and was indefatigably industrious. That he might not oversleep himself, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always with one hand out of the bed, holding in it a ball of hrass, which, by its falling into a basin of the same metal, awaked him. Though educated in the school of Plato, he differed from his mas- ter, and at length formed a new school. He taught in the Lyceum. He had a deformed countenance, but his genius was an ample compensa- tion for all his personal defects. As he expired, he is said to have ut- tered the following sentiment. " I entered this world in impurity, I have lived in anxiety, I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, pity me I" If he lived in scepticism, as is afRnned, he hardly died in it. His death occurred in his 63d year. 6. Euclid was a mathematician of Alexandria. He flourished about 300 years B. C. He distinguished himself by his writings on music and geometry, but particularly by 15 books on the elements of mathe- matics, which consist of problems and theorems, Avith demonstrations. His elements have gone through innumerable editions. He was greatly respected by antiquity, and his school, which he established at Alexandria, became the most famous in the world, for mathe- matics. 7. Theocritus flourished at Syracuse in Sicily, 282 years B. C. He distinguished himself by his poetical compositions, of which 30 Idy- lia, and some epigrams, are extant, written in the Doric dialect, and admired for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. He excelled in pastorals. He clothes his peasants with all the rusti- city of nature, though sometimes speaking on exalted subjects. It is said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, king of Syracuse, who ordered him to be strangled. 8. Zeno Avas a native of Cyprus. In early life he followed commer- cial pursuits ; but having been shipwrecked, to divert his melancholy. he took up a book to read. The book was written by Xenophon, arid so captivated was he, that from this time he devoted himself to phi- losophy. Becoming perfect in every branch of knowledge, he at length opened a sdiool in Athens, and delivered his instructions in a porch, m Greek called stoa. He was austere in his manners, but his life was 146—80 B. c. 117 an example of moderation and sobriety. He taught philosophy 48 years, and died in his 98th year, B. C. 264. A stranger to diseases and mdisposition, virtue was his chief good. 9. Archimedes was born at Syracuse. At the siege, by Marcelhis, he constructed machines Avhich sunk some of the Roman ships, and others he set on fire with burning glasses. These glasses are supposed to have been reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their effect at the distance of a bow shot. He was killed at the taking of the place, 208 B. C. by a soldier, who was ignorant of his character, and while the philosopher was enga- ged in his studies. Some of his works are extant. PERIOD IX. The period of the civil ivar heticeen Mariiis and ^ylla^ extending from the destruction of Carthage^ 146 years B. C. to the first campaign of Julias Ccesar, 80 years B. a ROME. Sect. 1. This period, as well as that which followsj pi> peiiy begins with the affairs of the Romans — a people, already possessing vast power and resources, and destined to become in a short time, the conquerors of the whole civilized portion of the human family. Following the course of their victories, we next light upon their final conquest and destruction of Carthage, the most formidal3le rival Rome ever possessed. That city fell under the hands of the conquerors 146 years B. C The war, of which this was the result, had commenced four years before. The Romans w ere the aggressors, having invaded Africa at a favourable juncture, when the Carthaginians were engaged in a war with another power. Carthage fell, notwithstanding the desperate efforts of its inhabitants, and was converted into a pile of ruins, with the extinction of the Carthaginian name. § When the indications of Roman hostility appeared, the Cartha- ginians, who had suffered so severely in the last war, recoiled at the idea of another contest with the conquering Romans. They therefore sent a deputation to Rome to settle the matter pacifically, if possible. The Senate gave no decisive answer. A second deputation followed, but it sought in vain to avert the threatened evil. The demands made upon the Carthaginians were in the highest degree disgraceful to Rome. They were commanded 118 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. to promise implicit obedience, and to send 300 hostages as a security for their future good conduct. The promise was given, and the Carthaginians yielded up their children, as the required hostages. They were next ordered to give up all their arms ; this order was also obeyed: and to consummate their degradation and the cruelty of the Romans, they were required to quit their beloved city, and allow it to be levelled to the ground. The Carthaginians, as might have been expected, were fired with indignation, and resolved unani- mously that if they could not save their capital, they would perish with it. Despoiled, however, of their arms, they could at first effect but little, although they exerted every nerve, in meeting the foe. Their women cut off their long fine hair to be twisted into cords for bows ; they brought out all their gold and silver vessels to be converted into arms, for these were the only metals they had left. The Romans were astonished at the resistance they experienced ; many times were they repulsed from the walls, and many were the soldiers slain in the various attacks. Indeed, it is thought by some, that Carthage would not finally have been taken, had not one of her own oflicers basely gone over to the enemy. The affairs of the Carthaginians declined from that time. Scipio ^milianus cut off their supplies of food, and blocked up the haven. The persevering citizens cut out a new passage into the sei. He next attacked and cut to pieces the army they had station- ed without the walls, killing 70,000 men, and taking 10,000 prison- ers. After this he broke through the walls, and entered the city, pulling or burning down houses and temples, and public buildings, with indiscriminate fury. Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, delivered himself and citadel to the conquerors ; but his wife and children, with numbers of the citizens, set fire to the temples, and rushing into them, perished in the flames. So completely was this once beautiful city destroyed, that the place on which it stood cannot be discovered ; it was burning 17 days, and was 24 miles in circumference. All the cities which befriended Carthage, shared her fate ; and the Romans gave away the lands to their friends. 2. Soon after the ruin of Carthage, viz. 137 years B. C. the Niiniantines, a people of Spain, overcame the Romans in battle ; but three years after this defeat, Numantia, tlie finest and largest city in Spain, was taken by the Romans, and the inhabitants, to escape falling irto the hands of these cruel conquerors, set fire to their city, and all of them perished in the flames. Thus Spain became a province of Rome 134 years B. C. § Previously to the defeat of the Romans by the Numantines, there had been a war between the Romans and Spain, which lasted 9 years. Fabius, who was sent to manage this war, gained a victory over one 146--S0 B. c. 110 of the leaders of the Spanish forces, who was obliged fo retire into Lusitania. The reverse which the Romans met with in the contest with Numan- tia, was highly disgraceful to them. Thirty thousand of their num- ber were conquered by 4000 Numantines. The consul, Mancinus, was recalled, and Scipio was sent into Spain, who restored the discipline of the troops. He soon defeated the Numantines, Mdio, being reduced to the last extremity, perished as above described. 3. Rome at this time, (133 B. C.) was beginning to be greatly disturbed by internal dissensions. Attains, king of Pergamus, having, by his last will, made the Romans his heirs, Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the people, proposed that the money should be divided among the poor. This caused a great disturbance, during which Gracchus w^as killed. About twelve years afterw^ards, Caius Gracchus, brother to Tiberius, having opposed the senate, and become popular and powerful, exposed himself to the resentment of the nobles, who marked him out for destruction. In consequence of some riots, the consul Opimius pursued him so closely, that to avoid falling into his hands, he accomplished his own death, by #16 assistance of a servant. § The Gracchi were sons of Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Afri- canus, the conqueror of Hannibal. She was left a widow with twelve children. The following circumstance places her cliaracter in a very favourable light. A lady once came to visit her, who prided herself much on her jewels, and after shewing them to Cornelia, asked to see hers in return. Cornelia waited till her sons came home from school, and then presenting them to her guest, said, " Behold, madam, these are my jewels." The interference of Tiberius, her elder son, in behalf of the poor, had given great offence to the rich. At a public meeting he chanced to put his hand to his head, and those who wished his downfall im- mediately said that lie was desirous of a crown, and in the uproar that ensued, he lost his life. At his death, the populace placed his younger brother at their head. Caius Gracchus was only 21 at this time, and had lived a life of great retirement, yet he did much good, and caused many useful acts to be passed. He was temperate and simple in his food, and of an active and industrious disposition. His love and respect for his mother were remarl^able. At her request he withdrew a law he much desired to have passed : and so much was he esteemed, that a statue was erected to the memory of his mother, with this inscription, *' Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi," a triljute honourable to both parent and children. The tumults attending the attempts of the Gracchi to remove the corruptions of the higher orders at their expense, were a prelude to 120 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX. those civil disorders, which now rapidly followed to the end of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans, though corrupt at home, still displayed their valour abroad. Besides some small states which they had acquired on the north and east, they defeated Jugurtha, king of Numidia, about this time. Tlie war w^ith him com- menced 111 years B. C, and was finished under Marius 108 B. C. The consequence to Jugurtha was the loss of his king- dom and hfe. After an engagement in which 90,000 of the Numidian army Avere slain, he was betrayed and made prisoner, and the senate finally condemned him to be starved to death in a dungeon. Jugurtha's own conduct occasioned his calamity, though the senate of Rome acted with singular cruelty. In this war Metellus the consul was leader at first, but Marius found means to supplant him, and to succeed in command. § Jugurtha, who was grandson of the famous Massinissa, that sided against Hannibal, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia, by destroying his cousins, the sons of the late king. He succeeded in murdering the elder brother ; and the younger, applying for aid to Rome, failed of success, since Jugurtha bribed the senate, who de- creed to him the sovereignty of half the kingdom. He then made war upon his cousin, and finally put him also to death. The displeasure of the Roman people being excited by this conduct, the senate were constrained to summon him to Rome, to answer for his perfidy. He accordingly went thither, and pleading his own cause in person, he again, by bribery, secured the favour of the senate. A repetition of his base conduct in reference to his cousin, drew upon him, however, the vengeance of the Romans. Metellus was sent against him ; and in the space of two years, Jugurtha was over- thrown in several battles, so that he was forced to negociate a peace. The negociation, however, was soon laid aside. Metellus had very much broken the strength of the Numidian king, before Marius succeeded to the command. Having by his arts obtained the consulship, Marius enjoyed the reputation of putting an end to the war. This man was the glory and the scourge of Rome. He was born of poor parents, and inured from infancy to penury and toil. His manners were as rude as his countenance was forbid- ding. He was thus prepared, however, to become a great general. His stature was extraordinary, his strength incomparable, and his bravery undaunted. When he entered the country of Jugurtha, he quickly made himself master of the cities that yet remained to the latter. Bocchus, king of Mauritania, at first assisted this prince, but fear- ing at length for his own crown, and understanding that the Roinani 146—80 B. c. 12 would be satisfied with the delivery of Jiigurtha into their hands, he resorted to this treacherous measure, and the Numidian, dragged in chains to Rome, experienced the fate above recorded. 5. After a short war Avith the Teutones and Cimbri, of whom several hundred thousands were slain under Marius, the Roma'ns fell into a contention with the allied states of Italy. This was called the Social War, and was entered into on the part of the states, with a view to obtain the rights of citizenship, 91 years B. C. This war ended in an allowance of those rights, to such of the allies as should return to their allegiance. It cost the lives of 300,000 of the flower of Italy, and Avas conducted by ihe ablest generals, on both sides. 6. Following this was the commencement of theMithridatic War, 89 years B. C Sylla, who had distinguished himself in the social war, Avas appointed to the command of the expe- dition against Mithridates, to the great disappointment of Ma- rius. This measure was the foundation of those dreadful dissensions by which Rome became soon distracted. Within the space of three years, Sylla greatly humbled the power of Mithridates, and at the expiration of that time re- turned to Rome, burning with revenge against his enemies, — Marius and his accomplices. § Mithridates was a powerful and warlike monarch, wliose dominion at this time extended over Cappadocia, Bithynia, Thrace, Macedon, and all Greece. He was able to bring 250,000 infantry into the field, and 50,000 horse. He had also a vast number of armed chariots, and in his port 400 ships of war. The Romans desired to attack him, and they wanted no other pre tence, than his having invaded some of those states that were under the protection of Rome. Sylla entered Avith spirit on the war, and soon had an oppotunity to acquire glory by his arms. This general Avho now began to take the lead in the commonwealth, belonged to one of the most illustrious families in Rome. His person was elegant, his air noble, his manners easy and apparently sincere ; he loved pleasure, but glory still more ; and fond of popularity, he de- ssired to please all the world. He rose by degrees into office, and soon eclipsed every other commander. On this account he received the present appointment, in opposition to the claims of Marius. In the course of the war, which had now commenced in earnest, Mithridates having caused 150,000 Romans, Avho Avere in his domin- ions, to be slain in cold blood, next sent his general Archelaus to op- pose Sylla. Archelaus, hoAvever, Avas defeated near Athens, with the loss of an incredible number of his forces. Another battle folloAved, by which the Roman general recovered all the countries that had been usurped by Mithridates ; so that both 122 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. parties desired a cessation of arms, Mitliridates on account of his losses, and Sylla on account of his designs against Mariiis. 7. Before much progress was made in the Mithridatic war, the contention between Marius and Sylla had begun, 88 years B. C. Sylla having been recalled from Asia, refused to obey the mandate of the senate, and found his army well disposed to support him. They required their leader to march them to Rome. He accordingly led them on, and they entered the city sword in hand. Marius and his partisans, after some resistance, fled from the city, and Sylla ruled for a time in triumph. He soon returned, however, into Asia, to finish the war he had undertaken. In the mean time, the party of Marius recovered strength, and he returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Cinna, his zealous partizan, laid siege to Rome. The city he compelled to absolute submission. After putting to death all whom they considered their ene- mies, they assumed the consulship. But Marius, in a fit of debauch, died a few days after ; and Ciana at no great inter- val followed, having been privately assassinated. § After Sylla had entered Rome in arms, his object, with the excep- tion of a few vindictive measures, seemed to be to give peace to the city, and it was not until he had etf?cted this object, as he supposed, that he departed upon his expediton against Mithridates. By confining his efforts solely against Marius, he had, however, overlooked a for - raidable rising opponent in Cornelius Cinna. This man, who was of noble extraction, ambitious, bold, and enter prising, had sufficient influence to raise an army with a view to con- tend against the supporters of Sylla. Just at this juncture, Marius, having escaped a thousand perils during his absence, returned, with his son, to the gates of Rome. An army of veterans and slaves, the latter of whom he had promised liberty, flocked to his standard, and burning with revenge, he entered. Rome, having previously received the submission of the senate. Tragical occurrences followed ; for senators of the first rank were butchered in the streets, and every personal enemy which Marius or Cinna had, that could be found, was put to death. In a month Mari- us died, having satisfied his two prevailing passions of ambition and revenge ; and while Cinna was preparing to meet Sylla in arms, he perished in a mutiny of his own soldiers, by an unknown hand. 8. Sylla soon returned to Italy, victorious over his foreign enemy, and joined by Cethegus, Pompey, and other leaders, gave battle to those Romans who had been opposed to him, and entirely defeated them. Rome now for the first time re- ceived a native master. A most dreadful massacre and pro* 146—80 B. c. 123 scriptioii follo\ved, in which Sylla designed to exterminate every enemy he had in Italy. § The army opposed to Sylla was headed by young Mariiis, son of Cains, and althongli it was more numerous than that of Sylla, it was less imited and disciplined. Several riiiisfortunes, however, happen- ing to the forces of Marius, they soon yielded. A large body of the Samnites, who, at this time, were in the interest of Marius, had carried the war to the gate of Rome. They were on the point of success, when Sylla met them, and a most obstinate contest ensued. Sylla found himself victorious. On the field of battle 50,000 of the vanquished and the victors lay promiscuously in death. Sylkt now became undisputed master of his country, and entered Rome at the head of his army. But he entered it to accomplish the purposes of the direst revenge. A long list of senators, and Roman knights, together with an unnum bered multitude of the citizens, he caused to be put to death. This work of destruction he extended throughout the principal towns of Italy. He permitted his soldiers to revenge their private injuries, and thus almost indiscriminate massacres took place. 9. Such violence, however, could he supported only by an increase of power. Accordingly Sylla invested himself with the Dictatorship, thus designing to give an air of justice to his monstrous oppressions. This dictatorship commenced 82 years B. C, and lasted not quite three years. Rome was now be- ginning to settle into a despotism, having passed through all the forms of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. From this time, though nominally a republic for a number of years, it never freed itself from the yoke of despotism. Sylla, as perpetual dictator, was without a rival in authority, and absolute master of the government. Every thing was done as he exacted. The least opposition aroused his ven- geance. The people saw nothing before them but the pros- pect of hopeless slavery, for, while they were amused with the show of their former government, Sylla took care that none but his own creatures should be elected to any office. It Avas at this crisis, however, that, contrary to all expecta- tion, Sylla laid down the dictatorship. The step was unac- countable, and the reasons of it have ever remained hidden from mankind. § He retired in safety. Of all that great multitude which he had so often insulted and terrified, none were found hardy enough to reproach or accuse him, except one young man who pursued him, with bitter invectives, to his own door. Sylla, without replying to so low an adversary, turning to those who followed, observed, " That this fellow's insolence would, for the 124 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. future, prevent any man's laying down an office of such supreme authority." Eetiring into the country, in order to enjoy the pleasures of tran- quillity and social happiness, if such a wretch could enjoy either, he did not long survive his abdication, dying of a most filthy disease — a loathsome and mortifying object to human ambition. A little before his death he made his own epitaph, the tenor of which was, " that no man had ever exceeded him in doing good to his friends, or injuries to his enemies." SYRIA. 10. The affairs of Syria, under the Seleucidte, or succes- sors of Seleuciis, to the end of this period, were in a very un- prosperous state. A succession of massacres and usurpations took place, till the time of Tigranes, king of Armenia, whom the Syrians invited to reign over them, 85 years B. C. Indeed Syria existed in independence but a few years after the pre- sent period, having been made a province of Rome soon after the commencement of the next succeeding period, viz. 64 }^ears B. C. § The following are the names of some of the Seleucidae of the pre- sent era. The first was Demetrius Nicator, or the conqueror, who reigned five years, but was then confined to his palace for a long time. He afterwards recovered his dominions, and reigned four years. After him Tr5rphon usurped the sceptre, and reigned four years. He wr.s at length killed by his own soldiers. Antiochus Sidetes, the second son of Demetrius Soter, next ascend- ed the throne of his ancestors. He made war against Jerusalem, and obliged it to capitulate, but he granted the Jews a peace upon reason- able conditions. In attempting to recover all the provinces that -belonged to the Sy- rian empire, of which Parthia was one, he made war against Phraates, king of Parthia, but being obliged to separate his troops and put them into winter quarters, the inliabitantsof the country resolved on their destruction, and massacred them all in one day. Including at- tendants, tbiCy amounted to 400,000 persons. After this prince were Seleucus V. Antiochus Gryphus, who reign- ed 29 years, Antiochus IX. v/ho was slain by a son of Gryphus; and one or two others wliosc names need not be mentioned. The Syrians having suffered so long, and so severely, under the turbulent princes of the race of Seleucus, resolved to exclude them from tlie throne. This they accomplished by sending an embassy to Tigranes, and inviting him to accept of the sovereignty. Tigranes complied witli tlieir request, and swayed the Syrian sceptre 18 years iu perfect peace. Engaging afterwards in a war with the Romans, LucuUus the consul defeated him, and took the city of Tigranocerta, 69 years B. C. 146—80 B. c. 125 After this, Antiochiis Asiaticus, a son of one of the former kmgs of Syria, was acl<:nowledged as king by Luculkis, and reigned peace- ably for the space of four years ; but at the expiration of that time he was driven from the throne by Pompey, and Syria was reduced to a Roman province. JEWS. 11 . Pursuing the history of the Jews under the Maccabee^ It appears, that the brothers of Judas Maccabeeus availed themselves of their advantages with perseverance and suc- cess. By their exertions they estabhshed the independence of their country, and changed its repubhcan government to a vi- gorous monarchy. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeeus, uniting in his person the offices of high priest and generahssimo of the army, subdued the enemies of his country, ceased to pay ho- mage to the kings of Syria, firmly estabhshed his govern- ment, and is celebrated for his many valuable qualities, 135 B. C. He reigned 28 years. His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings ; and the high-priesthood remained in his family, though not in the person of the monarch. His descendants are distin- guished in the history of the Jewish nation, by the appella- tion of the Asmonean dynasty, which continued about 126 years. The independence of Judea was, however, drawing near to its close, an event which will be noticed in the suc- ceeding period. § Concerning Hrycaniis it may be further recorded, that he seized on several of the defenceless cities of Syria, and thus accomplished a complete deliverance of his nation from the oppression of Syria. He also made some conquests, both in Arabia and Phoenicia, turned his victorious arms against the Samaritans, and subdued Idumea. At the time of his death he had raised his nation to a considerable de- gree of wealth, prosperity, and happiness. Of Aristobulus, one of the sons that reigned after Hyrcanus, it is recorded that he caused his brother Antigonus to be killed on suspi- cion of disloyalty ; that his mother claiming a right to the sove- reignty by virtue of Hyrcanus' will, was barbarously starved to death, — and that her other sons were kept in close confinement. This tyrannical persecutor assumed the royal diadem, which had not been worn by any of his predecessors, and effected the conquest of Iturea. His successes, however, were soon interrupted by sick- ness ; and the deep remorse he felt on account of the treatment of his mother, produced a vomiting of blood, which speedily closed his wicked life and reign. L2 126 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. EGYPT. 12. Egypt, during- this period, continued under the rule of the Ptolemsean dynasty. The nation increased in mag- nificence and consequence during the reigns of the Ptolemies. Their reigns, however, were disturbed by many plots and in- surrections, which arose between the different states over which the princes had dominion. These states were so numerous, as at one time to include 33,333 well peopled cities. § Of the first Ptolemy in this period, viz. Physcon, we remark, that lie was so called on account of his corpulency ; but the name which he assumed was Evergetes, or the Benefactor. This was changed by his subjects into Kakergetes, or the Evil Doer, for he was the most cruel, wicked, and despicable of the Ptolemies who swayed the Egyp' tian sceptre. He murdered the child of his wife Cleopatra in his mother's arms. He caused all persons to be put to death who had lamented the fate of the young prince, and gave free permission to the foreigners who composed his guard, to plunder and massacre the inhabitants of Alexandria. Tliat wealthy city v»^as accordingly stript of its inhabi- tants, and repeopled by strangers whom he had invited thither. These, and many other enormities, rank him among the most bru- tal of mankind. Ptolemy Lathyrus succeeded Physcon. His mother, Cleopatra, however, contrived to dethrone him, and to place his bro- ther Alexander on the throne. The latter retained the title of king 18 years. After his death, Lathyrus re-assumed the government. To Lathyrus a most inhuman action is attributed, in his war with the Jews, on a certain occasion. Having taken up his quarters after victorious battle, in the neighbouring villages of Judea, he caused all the female and infant inhabitants to be murdered, and their muti- lated limbs to be put into boiling caldrons, as if he designed to make a repast for his army. He wished to inspire the Jews with terror by representing their enemies as cannibals. PARTHIA. 13. Parthia continued, during this period, to be governed by the Arsacida?, or descendants of Arsaces. This empire, which was greatly extended at one time, and which under Mithridates I. enjoyed the height of its grandeur, was soon afterwards considerably abridged. The principal sovereigns during this peroid, were Phraates II. Artabanus TI. and Mi- thridates II. § Phraates II. when preparing to invade Syria at a certain time, found himself under the necessity of fighting the Scythians, whom he had called to his assistance against Antiochus, and to whom he refused to pay the promised sum, on account of their not arriving Defore the defeat of the Syrians. 146— 80 b. c. 127 In order to streiigtlien his army he enhsted all the Greek merce- naries, who, following Antiochus, were prisoners ; but these Greeks having been treated with cruelty during their captivity, resolved to have revenge ; and in the first engagement deserted to the Scythians, and in conjunction with them attticked the Parthians, cut their army to pieces, killed the king, and ravaged their country. In this battle the Chinese also assisted the Scythians, which is their first appear- ance abroad, which history records. They had previously been con- fined to their own country in their wars and transactions. DislinguisJted Characters in Period IX. 1 . Pol)^bius, a learned liistoriaii, who wrote the history of the Greeks and Romans. 2. Apollodorus, a Greek grammarian. 3. Lucilius, an early Roman poet. 4. Marius, a celebrated Roman general and consul. 5. Sylla, an able general, eminent for his success and cru elty in war. 6. John Hyrcanus, a liberator of the Jews, and father of tlie Asmonean dynasty. § 1. Polybius was a native of Arcadia, in Greece. He was initiated in the duties, and made acquainted with the qualifications of a states- man, by his father, the instructer of Philopcemen. He fought against the Romans in the war of Perseus, but was taken and brought pri- soner to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipio. Polrbius acquired an intimacy with the powerful Romans, and was present at the taking of Carthage and Numantia. After the death of Scipio, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year, about 124 years B. C. He wrote a universal history in Greek, divi- ded into 40 books, vv^hich began with the first Punic war, and finished with the conquest of Macedonia, by Paulus. The greatest part of this valuable history is lost. Five books, and numerous fragments, remain. It is highly authentic anu accurate. ^ 2. Apollodorus flourished about 115 years B. C. He wrote a his- tory of Athens, besid. s other works. But of all his compositions no- thing is extant, except his Bibliotheca, a valuable work, divided into three books. 3. Lucilius was a Roman knight, born at Aurunca, and distinguished by his virtuous and inoffensive character. He is considered as the first great satirical writer among the Romans, and indeed as the founder of satire. He was superior to his poetical predecessors at Rome ; he wrote with great roughness and inelegance, but with much facility, and he gained many admirers. Blackwell says, that he was " a writer of such keennes of temper and flowing wit, as fitted him to strike out a new road, never trod by poet before." Some, however, admired him beyond his real merits. Of 30 satires which he wrote, nothing but a few verses remains. Ho died at Naples in the 46th year of his age. 128 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 4. Marins v/as born of obscure and illiterate parents, but became one of the most powerful and cruel tyrants, tliat Rome ever beheld during her consular government. He became seven times consul. He destroyed the Ambrones, Teutones, and Cimbri, who were pre- paring to invade Italy, and raised a civil war, to oppose the power of Sylla, as has been narrated in this History. He died B. C. 86, after lie had filled all Ivome with blood. Among the instances which are mentioned of his firmness, this may be recorded. A swelling in the leg obliged him to apply to a physician, who urged tlie necessity of cutting it off. Marius gave it, and saw the operation performed without a distortion of the face, and without a groan. The physician asked the other, and Marius gave it with equal composure. 5. Sylla was the inveterate enemy of Marius, between whom, as we have seen, the most bloody wars were waged. He was descended from a noble family, but was poor in early life. He afterwards be- came immensely rich. He first entered the army under Marius, as qusestor, in Numidia. He afterwards had the administration of the Mithridatic war. In his v/ars with Marius, Sylla acted the tyrant to a terrible ex- tent, and the streets of Rome he filled with devastation and blood. As perpetual dictator, he exercised the most absolute authority ; but at length abdicated and died at Puteoli of a most loathsome disease, in his 60th year, 78 B. C. Mankind have never understood the cause of his abdication. He and Marius both sought in their last sickness to drown the stings of conscience by continual intoxication. 6. John Hyrcanus was prince and high-priest of the Jews, after his father. He restored his nation to independence, from the power of Antiochus, king of Syria, and died 106 years B. C. He was illus- trious by his virtues, as well as by being the father of a race of princes. He was succeeded on the throne of Judea by a son of the same name. PERIOD X. The loeriod of RomanLiterature^ extending from the first campaign of Julius Cccsar, 80 years B. C. to the nativity of Jesus Chr^ist, or thecom^mencementofthe Christian era. ROME. Sect. I. Rome, at the commeDcement of this period, had greatly extended its dominions, and was fast becoming a uni- versal empire. Abroad the Romans triumphed — but at home their affairs were in a melancholy and distracted state. Tho form of public liberty remained, but the reality had principally departed. The civil dissensions of Marius and Sylla had pros- trated many of their most valuable institutiona. 80 B. c. 129 Before these dissensions were brought to a close, a man be- gan to appear on the stage, who w^as destined to destroy the last remnant of the hberties of his country. This man was Julius Ceesar. In his first military enterprise, 80 years B. C, in the siege of Mytilene, under Thermus, the praetor of Asia, his bravery and talents were rewarded Avitli a civic crown. Soon after this he returned to Rome to prosecute his studies, and for a time refused all interference in the feuds Avhich were then prevailing. Before he had finished his studies, however, he raised troops to repress the incursions of Mithridates, and Avas successful in saving or rescuing several of the eastern provinces from his grasp. § From this time his ambitious \ie^v& were too apparent, and in seek- ing office and popularity, he was but too successful. He had escaped with difficulty the proscripfions of Sylla, wlio was persuaded to let him live, though that tyrant dreaded Caesar's abilities. Caesar was descended from one of the first families in Rome, and had married a daughter of Cinna. His pov/erful name and connex- ions he strengthened, by arts of the most consummate policy and ad- dress. His povv'ers of mind were of the highest order, and he excelled in whatever branch of pursuit he engaged. He was in person slender, tall, and delicate, and was reputed to be the handsomest man in Rome. He had a habit of running his finger under the nicely adjusted curls of his head, when he appeared in pub- lic assemblies : this led Cicero to remark, " that one would hardly imagine that under such a fine exterior, there was hatching the de- struction of the liberties of Rome." Of his feats in war, and the important part he acted in the common- wealth, we shall have occasion to speak, in following the order of events. 2. After the deatli of Sylla, contention broke out anew ; for the terror of his power had created a short interval of a dreadful repose. Catulus and Lepidus settled their difficulties only by arms — and the War of Sertorious, and the Servile War ensued. These, however, were safely terminated after a few years. The war of Sertorius commenced 77 years B. C. The Servile AVar commenced 73 years B. C. § Lepidus, Avho was consul, wishing to annul all the acts of Sylla. wa.s opposed by his colleague Catulus. To carry his point he found it necessary to use force, and accordingly he raised an army in his government of Gaul, with which he approached, in hostile array, to- wards Rome. Catulus, to whom Pompey and his forces were joined, met him at he Milvian Bridge, two miles from Rome, and gave him battle. Le- 130 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. pidiis was entirely defeated, and escaping into Sai'dinia, soon died of grief. His party, however, did not expire with him. A more dangerous enemy still remained in Spain. This was Ser- torius, a veteran soldier, who had been bred under Marius, his equal m courage — his superior in virtue. Banished from Rome by Sylla, he had found a refuge in Spain, whither all, who fled from Sylla^s cruelty, resorted to him. Having gained the affections of its warlike inhabitants, he resisted, during eight years, the Roman power. Metellus, and afterwards Pompey, were sent to bring him to sub- mission, but he often came off victorious, and was even threatening to invade Ital}'', when he was suddenly deslr:.yed by the treachery of one of his lieutenants. The revolted provinces of Spain quickly submitted to Pompey. The Servile War took its rise from a few gladiators, who broke from their fencing-school at Capua, and haviug drawn a number of slaves after them, overthrew the force that was sent against them, and from this success, their number soon increased to an army of 40,000 men. With this strength, and headed by Spartacus, their general, they sustained a vigorous war of three years in the very heart of Italy, and even talked of attacking Rome; but Crassus, having assembled all the forces in the neighbourhood of the capital, destroyed the greatest part of them, and among them Spartacus, fighting bravely to the last. 3. The War Vs'hich had been carried on against Mithrida- tesj and which Sylla had suspended by means of a peace, was renewed about this time, 72 years B. C. This was one of the most important wars which the Romans ever waged. Mithridates defeated the successor of Sylla, and contracting an alliance with Tigranes, king of Armenia, began to be quite formidalile to the power of Rome. Lucullus, however, an experienced general, was sent against him, and defeated him in several engagements, with immense loss. Tigrancs also felt the Aveight of the Roman arm ; and both, doubtless, would have been obhged soon to sue for peace, had not Lucullus, by means of intrigue, been deposed from his command, and Glabrio appointed in his stead. After this, Mithridates met with success again, till Pompey was appointed to take the command against this powerful V enemy of Rome. Under the auspices of this great general, i! the Roman arms were completely victorious, and the wai terminated about 63 years B. C, with the death of Mithri- dates. § Mithridates was the undaunted enemy of Rome during 25 years. His resources in wealth and soldiers were great, and his bravery and talents were equal to his resources. The Roman general with whom 80 B. c. 131 he had finally to contend, was an antagonist worthy of him, in every respect, Pompey had already become a favourite hero of the Ro- man people. He had generally been successful in his military enterprises, and in the commission which he had recently received of managing the war against the pirates of the Mediterranean, he had shewn equal intrepidity and skill. Pleased Mdth his success, the people had en- trusted to him the sole management of the Mithridatic war, with an almost unlimited authority. His power would have rendered him extremely dangerous to the liberties of his country, had he been an enemy to those liberties. BiU though highly ambitious, he was desirous rather of glory than of do- minion. He wished to be the first man in the state, and for this rea- son entered into a contest witli Crassus for the favour of the people, as he afterwards fought against Caesar, in behalf of the republic. In the IMithridatic war he manifested his qualities as a general. He first proposed terms of accommodation to Mithridates. But these were refused; and the king, collecting an army from the wrecks of his former power, was about to carry the war into Armenia. In this project, however, he was disappointed, and was obliged to flee. Pompey, nevertheless, overtook him before he had time to pass the Euphrates. It was then night, but being compelled to engage, it is said the moon, shining from behind the Roman army, lengthened their shadows so much, that the archers of Mithridates shot their ar- rows at these, mistaking the shadow for the substance. He was overthrown with great loss ; but he broke through the Ro- man army with a few hundred horse, and escaped. Here, after wan- dering through the forests several days, leading his horse, and sub- sisting on fruits which were found in his way, he met with a few thousand of his troops that had survived the engagement, who con- ducted him to one of his magazines, containing the treasures deposi- ted to support the war. After tliis he sought aid from several princes ; but though he failed in this attempt, and though he was betrayed by his unnatural son, he still aimed at great designs, and even m the heart of Asia, he pro- jected the invasion of the Roman empire. Upon being apprized of his intentions, a mutiny ensued, which was promoted by his son. Being obliged to take refuge in his palace, he sent to his son for leave to depart. Math offers of the remnant of his kingdom to him. The monster, however, denied this request, and sternly conveyed a message to the old man, intimating that death was now all that he could expect. This instance of filial ingratitude aggravated all his other calami- ties ; and he sought for his wives, children, and himself, a voluntary death. They all readily consented to die with their monarch, rather than to undergo the horrors of a Roman captivity. 4. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey made very nume- rous and extensive conquests, setting up and deposing kings at his pleasure. He at length marched against Jerusalem, 132 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. and after besieging it three months, took it — 12,000 of its defenders having lost their Hves. He then returned to Rome, enjoying the most splendid triumph that ever entered its gates, 61 years B. C. § Darius, king of Media, and Antiochiis, king of Syria, were compel- led to submit to the clemency of Pompey, while Phraates, king of Parthia, was obhged to retire, and send to entreat peace. From thence, extending his conquest over the Thuraeans and Arabians, he reduced all Syria and Pontus into Roman provinces. In his conquest of Jerusalem after gratifying his curiosity with tlic holy things of the place, he restored Hyrcanus to the priesthood and government, and took Atrstobulus with him to grace his triumph. This triumph lasted two days. In it were exposed the names of 15 conquered kingdoms, 800 cities taken, 29 cities repeopled, and 1000 castles brought to acknowledge the empire of Rome. The treasures that were brought home amounted to near 20,000,000 of our money {$ ;) and the trophies and other splendours of the pro- cession, were such, that the spectators seemed lost in the magnificent profusion. The glory, rather than the real prosperity of Rome, was increased by these victories. While Pompey and the Roman arms were triumphant abroad, the city was near its ruin, by means of a conspiracy in its very bosom. 5. Sergius Catiline, a pairician by birth, at this time, (B. C. 64) plotted the downfall of his country. His object was to rise on its ruins to Avealth and power ; and accordingly asso- ciating with him a number of ambitious, profligate characters like himself, he hoped to throAV Rome and all Italy into a state of tumult and insurrection, and to destroy the lives of the most distinguished of the citizens. But the vigilance of Cicero, wdio ^vas consul, frustrated this horrible project. Taking the necessary precautions, he secured the conspirators that were in Rome, and ordered them to exe cution, according to law. Catihne, who had fled, soon raised an army, and coming to battle with the forces of the republic, he was overthrown, and himself and his whole army were given to the sword. * Cicerc, by his abilities, patriotism, and zeal for the public good, was raised to the most enviable height of glory and re- nown. 6. Pompey, after his triumphal entrance into Rome, sought to be the first man in the repu])lic. His contention w^as more particularly with Crassus, wdio, on account of his wealth, possessed an influence at this time next to that of Pompey. 80 b. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 133 Caesar, who was also aspiring after the same distinctioiij sought to accomplish his object by uniting these rivals. This union he brought to pass, and thus he avoided making himself an enemy to either of them, and enjoyed the favour of both. From a regard to their mutual friend, Pompey and Crassus agreed to a partition of power with Caesar, and thu* was formed the First Triumvirate, B. C. 59. Ceesar was ch-osen consul. He increased his popularity, by a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened his interest with Pompey, by giving him his daughter in marriage. The coalition between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, constituted a power distinct from the senate or the peo- ple, and yet dependent on both. It was exceedingly detri- mental to the public hberties. 7. Having divided the empire between them, these three individuals prepared for their respective destinations. Caesar, however, previously to his departure, had the address to pro- cure the banishment of Cicero from Rome, and thus removed one of the greatest obstacles to his career of ambition. He ac- complished this object by means of his partizans, particu- larly Clodius, the tribune, 58 years B. C. The pretext for this base act, was the illegality of certain measures pursued in the suppression of Catihne's conspiracy. Through the interest of Pompey, however, Cicero was at length recalled from exile, with distinguished honour. ^ Cicero continued to be the watchful guardian of the few remaining iiberties of his country. He was the greatest man of the Romans, if not of all antiquity. His virtues were as conspicuous as his talents. He appeared, however, to have one foible, and that was vanity. He desired to unite in his character incompatible qualities ; and to be thought not only the greatest orator, but the greatest jester in Rome. In his zeal for the public good, Caesar had reason to fear him. To procure his banishment from the city, he favoured the designs of Clodius, who was Cicero's inveterate enemy, and in this he was joined by Pompey. Clodius, as tribune, caused a law to be passed, importing that any who had condemned a Roman citizen unheard, should himself be banished. This was designed to have a bearing on Cicero, in regard to his proceedings against Catiline. . Being impeached on this law, Cicero was banished 400 miles from Italy, his houses were ordered to be demolished, and his goods set up for sale. In vain did he protest against the iniquitous sentence ; thv3 people had ungratefully forgotten their benefactor, and sixteen months did he spend in solitude and grief. He bore his exile witli the greatest impatience. M 134 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. Pompey, who had concurred in the banishment of Cicero, at length saw his mistake in the growing reputation and power of his rival, Caesar. To prop his own sinking fortunes, he needed the aid of Cicero, and interceding in his favour, procured his recall to Rome, 57 B. C. 8. Ceesar, who had the government of Transalpine Gaul and Illyria, nobly sustained the military glory of his country, in the wars which he waged on its account. In Gaul, Ger- many, and Britain, he spread the terror of his arms. His landing on the British isles, and his success in subduing the savage and hardy natives, is a memorable event in history. His invasion of Britain took place 55 years B. C; and his subjugation of a considerable part of the country was effected at two different times, in the course of one year, 54 B. C. But the urgency of affairs at home, delayed the progress of his arms in Britain. § Cjesar, in the first year of his government, subdued the Helvetii, who had left their own country, and attempted to settle themselves in the more inviting regions of the Rom.an provinces. Two hundred thousand of their number perished. The Germans, with Ariovistus at their head, were next cut off. The Belgcc, Nervii, the Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, and' other warlike nations, were all successively brought under subjection. At length, urged by the desire of conquest, he invaded Britain. But upon approaching the shores, he found them covered with men to oppose his landing, and it was not without a severe struggle, that the natives were put to flight. Having obtained other advantages over them, and bound them to obedience, he passed over to the conti- nent during winter quarters, meditating a return in the spring. The absence of the conqueror inspired the Britons, naturally fond of liberty, with a resolution to renounce tlie Roman power. But in a second expedition, Caesar so intimidated them with repeated victo- ries, that they no longer resiste(Lm the plains, but fled to the forests. Here, however, they were unsafe, and soon yielded to the necessity of suing for a peace. In the course of nine years this ambitious general and waster of human life conquered, together with Britain, all that country which extends from the Mediterranean to the German sea. It is said that he took 800 cities ; subdued 300 different states ; overcame 3,000,000 men, 1,000,000 of whom fell on the field of battle, and the remainder • made prisoners of war. Notwithstanding the plaudits of the world, how Uttle glory was there in all this ! 9. The death of Crassus, which occurred in an expedition against the Parthians, 53 years B. C, put an end to the Triumvirate. After this event, Ceesar and Pompey, whose union was far from being sincere, began each to entertain tlie idea of supreme, undivided dominion. _ Both were extremely 80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 135 powerful ; but Ceesar had superior talents, and an invincible army devoted to his interests. The main body of the people were also in favour of Ceesar who had Avon them by his libe- rality. The strength of Pompey lay in the favour of the consuls, and the good wishes of the Roman senate ; and several legions were also at his command. In attitudes so imposing, and with resources so vast, it is not surprising that, in those dege- nerate times, each should be encouraged to expect the posses- sion of supreme power. The contest for superiority was not long a contest of plans and feelings merely — it soon became a contest of blows. The result of this terrible civil war Avas disastrous in the extreme ♦to Pompey and the republic. At Pharsalia, in Thessaly, Gsesar and Pompey met in battle, in which Pompey was en- tirely defeated, with tlie loss of 15,000 men killed, and 24,000 taken prisoners^, 48 years B. C. Being soon after in the power of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to Avhom he had fled for protec- tion, he was basely murdered. § Near the expiration of the term of his government, Caesar applied to the senate to be continued in his authority. This application the senate refused. Cfesar then determined to appeal to arms for what he chose to consider as his right. Having, by the sanction of an oath, engaged tlie services of his army in his favour, he began to draw towards the confines of Italy, and passing the Alps with his third legion, stopped at Ravenna, froui whence he wrote a letter to the consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all command, if Pom- pey would show equal submission. But the senate being devoted to Pompey, was determined to de- prive Ca3sar of his command, and consequently passed a decree, by which he was to be considered an enemy to the commonwealth, if he did not disband his army within a limited time. Caesar, nothing at all intimidated or deterred from his project, marched his army to the Rubicon, a small river which formed the boundary between Italy and Gaul. This boundary the Romans considered as sacred, and not to be passed with impunity, since they had solemnly devoted to the infernal gods, and branded with sacri- lege and parricide, any person who should presume to pass it, with an ai iriy, a legion, or even a single cohort. At this spot, he for a moment hesitated, as if profoundly impressed with the fearful consequences which must result from the step he was about to take. His misgivings, however, subsiding, he said to one of his generals, '• the die is cast," and putting spurs to his horse, he plunged in, and with his soldiers soon gained the opposite shore. Terror and indignation seized the citizens of Rome, as the news of this transaction reached their ears. Pompey was not iH sufficient 136 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. force to meet the enemy, and accordingly quitted tlie city, and led his soldiers to Capua, where he had two legions. From that place he passed over at length into Mar^edonia, followed by the consuls, and a large body of the senators. At the same time, he caused levies to be raised over both Italy and Greece. In two months, Caesar having made himself master of all Italy, entered Rome in triumph, to the great joy of most of the people, lie secured to himself the supreme autliority and the public treasures , and having made profession of respect for the citizens and liberties of Rome, and adjusted the concerns of the city, he left it in a few days, and set out to take the fie-.d against his enemies. The lieutenants of Pompcy having possession of Spain, Caesar marched directly thither, leading his army again over the lofty Alps. In the course of 40 days he subdued the whole coimtry, and return- ed victorious to Rome,- wliere, during his absence, he had been nomi- nated dictator. He was soon after chosen consul also. Mis dictator- ship he relinquished at the expiration of eleven days. In the meantime, Pompey's preparations were such as became the crisis which was approaching. He had received from tlie sovereigns of the East very considerable supplies, as well as the assurances of .their friendship. He was master of nine Italian legions, and had a fleet of 500 large ships, under the conduct of an experienced commander. The nobles and most distinguished citizens of Rome, flocked daily around his standard ; and he had at one time above 200 senators in his camp, among whom were the great names of Cicero and Cato. Pompe3''s party glorying in their numbers and strength, were confi • dent of success. Caesar, witli a courage bordering on rashness, immediately sought his rival, and desired to bring him to an engagement. Near Dyrra- cliium the opposing armies were s • situated that it became necessary to fight. The result was by no means decisive, though it was favoura- ble on the whole to Pompey, who afterwards led his troops to Phar- salia. Previously to this encounter, a circumstance took place, displaying the lofty spirit of Ctcsar. For the purpose of hastening the arrival of a reinforcement, he conceived tlie design of passing over to Brun- dusium in the niglit, by embarking in a fisherman's boat at the mouth of the river Apsus. This he accordingly did with great secrecy, having disguised himself in tlie habit of a slave. When they had rowed off a considerable way, the wind suddenly changed against them — tlie sea began to rise in billows, and the storm increased to an alarming degree. The fisherman, who had rowed all niglit with extreme labour, v.^as often inclined to put back, but was dissuaded by his passenger. At length, however, he conceived liimself unable to proceed, and yet he was too distant from land to hope for making good his return. In this moment of despair he was about to give up the oar, and commit himself to the mercy of the waves, when Cjesar discovering himself, commanded him to row boldly — " Fear nothing," cried he, " yon carry Caesar and his fortune." The fisherman was encpuraged 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 137 to proceed, but the wind finally forced them to make for land, and return. Soon after the affair at Dyrrachium, the hostile armies found them- selves on the plains of Pharsalia. Caesar invited and provoked a battle, by all the arts in his power, Pompey had secured an advan- tageous situation, and it was by tfiPe artifice of decamping and indu- cing the enemy to follow him, that Caesar drew him from it. When Caesar perceived the effect of his stratagem, with joy in his countenance he informed his soldiers that the hour was come, which was to crown their glory, and terminate their fatigues. His forces, liov»"ever, were much exceeded by those of Pompey, who led an army of 45,000 footmen, and 7000 horse, while the troops of Caesar did not number more tlian 23,000 men, only 1000 of whom were cavalry. But i^ey were better disciplined than those of Pompey. Awful was the moment of meeting. The armies were both Roman, j^ mingled indeed with foreigners, and the first in the world — the leaders were consummately brave, and the interest at stake was the dominion of Rome. Every heart was fired and every arm nerved. The generals both addressed their armies previously to the engagement, and urged them to sustain the reputation of their ancient bravery. The battle commenced on the part of Ca^ar. But the cavalry of Pompey were too numerous for their adver^ries. Caesar's men were forced to retire. Their general had foreseen this result, and had made the requisite disposition of his forces. Six cohorts in reserve, who had been ordered to discharge their javelins at the faces of Pompey 's cavalry, v/ere, at this crisis, brought up to the engagement. The sin- gle circumstance of the manner of their fighting determined the fate of the battle. Pompey's cavalry, who consisted of the younger part of the Roman nobility, valued themselves upon their beauty, and dreaded a scar in the face, more than a wound in the body. They were therefore frightened from the field by the unusual mode of at- tack, and thus the day was lost to Pompey and the republic. The loss of Cffisar was inconsiderable, 200 men only being slain. His clemency towards his vanquished enemies deserves to be noticed. xMost of the prisoners he incorporated with the rest of his army, and to the senators, and Roman knights, who fell into his hands, he gave liberty to retire whithersoever they pleased. The letters which Pom- pey had received from several persons who wished to be thought neu- tral, Caesar committed to the flames without reading them, as Pom- pey had done upon a former occasion. Caesar followed up his victory with the greatest energy, and after Pompey's flight instantly pursued him. He did not however over- take him alive. Pompey had been destined to suffer the extremity of misery. His fall was from the summit of power to the most abject dependence, and it was as sudden as it was terrible. Escaping from the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of Tempe, in the greatest agony of mind, he finally found the means of sailing to Lesbos, where he had left his wife Cornelia. Their meeting was tender and distressing to the last degree. The news of her reverse of fortune had caused Cornelia to faint, and for M2 138 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. a considerable time life appeared to be extinguished. At length re- covering herself, she ran quite through the city to the sea-side. Pom- pey received her without speaking a word, and for some time sup- ported her in his arms, with silent anguish. When words found ihcir way, the tenderest expression of affection and grief were mii- tually uttered. But it became necessary to flee, and sailing to the coast of Egj^t, they sought the protection of Ptolemy, whose father had formerly found in Pompey a benefactor. The ministers of the king wishing to court the favour of Cssar, basely proposed to receive and then murder their guest, as he approached the shore. This diabolical coun- sel prevailing, Achillas, andfeeptimius, the latter by birth a Roman, were appointed to carry it into execution. Accordingly, in the very sight of Cornelia, as Pompey arose to go ashore, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm, Septimius stab- bed him in the back ; when the warrior, perceiving what would be his ^ fate, silently resigned himself to it, at the same time muffling his face with his robe. The freedman of Pompey, after the people had retired, found the means of burning the b^dy of his master, from which the head had been separated, and over the tomb the following inscription was afterwards placed : " fte whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a grave." Ceesar soon reached Egypt j but the head of Pompey, which was immediately presented to him, and from which i;e turned his face in horror, informed him, that he had now nothing io fear from a man who had so lately contended with him for the em- pire of the world. 10. War was Ceesar's element. He found an occasion of gratifying his ruling passion in Egypt. In a contest between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, he interposed in behalf of the latter, and at length brought Egypt under the Roman yoke, 48 B. C. In two years after, he subdued Pharnaces, king of Pontus. § Cleopatra, though sister to Ptolemy, was nevertheless married to him, and both jointly held the throne. The ambition of Cleopatra prompted her to aspire after undivided authority. The charms of her person were unequalled, and conquering even the conqueror of the world, they engaged him in a war which was alike easy and de- sirable. After the reduction of Egypt, Caesar, forgetful of the re- spect due to his character, abandoned himself to pleasure in the com- pany of Cleopatra. From such a course, however, he soon broke off, for hearing of the revolt of Pharnaces, son of IMithridates, who had seized upon Chal- cis and Armenia, he bent his way thither. In the battle of Zela, he signally chastised the offending monarch. " I came, I saw, I conquer- ed," is the expressive language in which his report was conveyed to the Roman senate. 11, Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Caesar has- 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 139 tened to Rome, where his presence was greatly needed. An- tony, who acted as his deputy, had created disturbances which (Caesar only could quell. Italy was divided, and the party of Pompey w^as yet extremely foi-midable. Caesar, however, soon restored trancfuillity to Rome. But at this time the two sons of Pomoey, with Cato ami Scipio, were in arms in Africa, assisted by Juba, king of Mau- ritania; tliither Ceesar hastened, and at Thepsus, meeting them in battle, overthrew them with little or ho loss on his side. Scipio, in attempting to escape into Spain, fell among the enemy, and was slain. Cato, confining himself in Utica, at first thought of resisting the victorious Caesar, but finding his followers irresolute, he deUberately put an end to his own life. This event finishing the war in Africa, Caesar returned in triumph to Rome, 45 years B. C. By an unparalleled display of magnificence and by unbounded liberality, he courted and obtained the ftivour of the great body of the people. Almost every honour and title was conferred upon him. He was styled father of his country, Avas created perpetual dictator, received the title of emperor, and his person was declared sacred. $ The story of Cato is deeply tragical. This extraordinary man dis- played at once the firmness and the depravity of his nature. When he found it in vain to attempt to animate his soldiers against Coesar, he resolved to die. After supping cheerfully, he came into his bed- chamber, v/here he laid himself down, and with deep attention, read some time Plato's Dialogue on the immortahty of the soul. Perceiving soon that his sword had been removed from the head of his bed, he made inquiries respecting it of his domestics ; but while he was like to obtain no satisfaction from them, his son, who had caused it to be taken away, entered with tears, and besought liim, in the most humble and affectionate manner, to change his resolution ; but receiving a stern reprimand, he desisted from his persuasions. His sword being at length handed to him, his tranquillity returned, and he cried out, " Now am I master of myself." He then took up the book again, which he read twice over, and fell into a profound sleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiry of one of his freedmen, respecting his friends, and then shutting himself up in the room alone, he stabbed himself; but the wound not being immediately mor- tal, with a most ferocious resolution, he tore out his own bowels, and died as he had lived, a stoic. By this deed he has blackened his cha- racter, to all futurity. 12. The state of affairs in Spain called Csesar again into that country, 45 years B. C. Two of the sons of Pompey were in arms, and it was not without severe fighting thai 140 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. Ceesar subdued the remnant of his enemies in Spain. He re ruined to Rome 40 receive new demonstrations of the ahnost slavish homage of its citizens. Finding himself in peace, he turned his attention more than ever to the improvement of the empire. He affected great moderation in the enjoyment of his power, though he was evir dently eager of its acquisition. He however turned it to a good account. He made no discriminations between his friends and foes : he was liberal alike to both. He adorned the city with magnificent buildings, undertook to level several mountains in Italy, and to drain the Pontine marshes, impro- ved the navigation of the Tiber, reformed the calendar, and meditated distant conquests. 13. His brilliant course, however, was destined shortly to end. He was suspected of aiming at royalty ; and though many of the people felt greatly obliged by his clemency and munificence, yet they detested the name of king. This cir- cumstance urged 60 of the senators, who were actuated by the love of liberty, though some of them seem to have been impelled also by private resentment, to league together with a view to deprive him of his hfe. This they accomplished in the senate house on the ides (15th) of March, in the 56th year of his age, 44 B. C. § Caesar enjoyed all the power of a monarcli ; and though he might, in the first instance, have ambitionsly sought it, yet it was conferred or allowed by the free consent of the people. But the name of king was not to be endured. The particular occasion of envy or alarm among the friends of liberty, was the neglect, on the part of Csesar, of rising from his seat, when the senate was conferring upon him some special honours. From that time it began to be rumoured that he was about to take the title of khig. Whether such was his purpose cannot now be de- termined, though it cannot be well conceived why he should desire that empty honour, when he possessed the reality. The conspiracy which was formed against him, was headed by Brutus and Cassius, the one his friend — the other his enemy. Brutus owed his life to the clemency of Caesar, whom the latter spared at the battle of Phar- salia ; and he was not destitute of a strong personal attachment to the dictator. The conspiracy which had been formed, happened in some way or other to be known by two or three individuals ; but the means ta- ken to apprize Caesar of it, failed. As he proceeded to the senate, on the day agreed upon by the conspirators, a slave hastened to carry him information, but could not come near him for the crowd. Arte- midorus, a great philosopher, who had discovered the whole plot, de- 80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 14/ hvered liini a memorial, but Caesar gave it, with other papers, to one of his secretaries, without reading it. As soon as he had taken liis place, the conspirators came near him under pretence of saluting him ; and Cimber, who was one of them, pretending to sue for his m-other's pardon, approaclied in a suppliant posture, and so near as to take hold of the bottom of his robe, which prevented Cfesar from rising. This was the signal agreed on. Casca, who was behind, stabbed him, though slightly, in the shoulder. Caesar instantly turned round and wounded him in the arm. However, the conspirators were now all in action, and surrounded him. He received a second stab in the breast, while Cassius wounded him in the face. Still he defended himself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing down, such as opposed him, till seeing Brutus who had struck a dagger in his thigh, he yielded himself to his fate, first exclaiming to his friend, in a subdued and languishing tone, " And you, too, my son !" He fell, covered with his robe, before him, and pierced with 23 wounds. The character of a despot and conqueror, as such, is to be detest- ed. CcEsar enslaved his country, and waded to dominion through rivers of blood. His elevation cost the lives of 1,200,000 human be- ings. We may be permitted to express our abhorrence of such con- duct, and to regret that transcendant talents (for such he possessed) should have been perverted to so base a purpose. The darkness of this picture is howeverrelipved by some lines of hght — if it were not so, Ca?sar would have been a monster. Besides the splendid endowments of his genius, he was distinguished by liberality, clem.ency, and modesty. He always spared a vanquished enemy ; and perhaps no despot, in his personal feelings and private character, was ever more amiable. How much then is it to be lamen1>- ed, that such qualities should have been united to an insatiable am- bition ! 14. The death of Ceesar produced an unheard of crisis in human affairs. There was no longer any tyrant, yet hberty was extinct ; for the causes which destroyed it kept it from reviving. The senate and people mutually distrusted each other. There w^as a very general feeling of sorrow and in- dignation among the latter at the murder of Caesar, nor could ,tlie senate at all mitigate or repress it. Mark Antony, a man of eonsummate mihtaiy talents, but profligate in the extreme, exposed the bleeding bod)^ of Ceesar in the forum. This sight, together with the bloody robe, pro- duced an electric effect on the multitude, which \vas heigh t- ed to an excessive degree, by means of an artful and inflanv matory harangue delivered liy Antony on the occasion. The conspirators were obhged to flee the city in order to save their lives. 142 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. At this juncture, (43 B. 0.) a second triumvirate was forn> ed, consisting of Antony, already mentioned, Lepidus, wlio \Yas immensely rich, and Octavius, afterwards surnamed Au- gustus, who was Caesar's grand nephew and adopted heir. This was a most bloody triumvirate. As they divided the supreme authority among themselves, by concert, they stipu- lated that all their respective enemies should be destroyed, though those might happen to be the best friends of each as- sociate who was required to sacrifice them. § Lepidus gave up his brother Paulus to the vengeance of one of his colleagues. Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius ; and Augustus, to his eternal infamy, sacrificed the great Cicero. Three hundred senators, and 2000 Roman knights, besides multitudes of worthy citizens, v/ere included in this horrible proscription. 15. The conspirators were not suffered long to escape the vengeance of the friends of Csesar. Octavius and Antony now marched against them in Thrace, Avhere they had a for- midable army of 100.000 men, commanded by Brutus and Cassius. An engagement took place at Philippi, 42 years B. C, which decided the fate of the empire. It was won by Octavius and Antony, or rather by Antony alone, for Octa- vius was destitute not only of military talents, but even of jTersonal bravery. The death-blow was now given to Roman liberty. The republican party was entirely subdued, and Brutus and Ca^ sius, its leaders, escaped the liands of their enemies, only by a voluntary death. § The loss of the battle at Phihppi by the repubhcans, was occasion- ed principally through the hasty despair of Cassius. Brutus, on his part, had been victorious, — Cassius had suffered a severe loss, but would have been relieved by Brutus, liad he not ordered himself to be killed in the meantime, in consequence of having mistaken a bod}^ of Brutus's cavalry, who was approaching him, for that of the enemy. When Brutus was informed of the defeat and death of Cassius, he seemed hardly able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man, whom he called " the last of the Romans." He bathed the dead body with his tears. Antony offered him battle on the ensuing day ; but it was tlie policy of Brutus to delay, and even to attempt to starve his ene- my ; iie probably might have done it. The soldiers of Brutus, however, urged a battle, nor would they submit to a refusal. After a respite of a few days, Brutus took the field. He fought with the resolution to conquer, but some unhappy movement of a part of his troops turned the fortune of the day, and all was lost. He followed the fate of Cassius. Retiring out of the way of the enemy, with Strato, liis master in 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERAi 1^13 oratory, lie requested the latter to put an end to his life. After much solicitation Strato reluctantly assented, and averting his face, pre- sented the sword's point to Brutus, who threw himself upon it, and immediately expired. Octavius being sick at this time, took no part in the battle of Phi- lippi. Indeed his presence, had it been afforded, would have been of little service to the combatants, since he possessed neither skill nor courage. He had, however, gained a large share ol popularity with the Roman people, partly on account of his name, and his relation- ship to Caesar, and partly on account of his personal appearance, and accomplishments. These were in the highest degree prepossessing. He was destined, as will soon appear, to be much more successful til an the other Triumviri, and even at length to place himself at tlie head of the empire. 16. The power of the Triumviri being established upon the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of en- joying the homage to which they had aspired. Lepidus, how- ever, was soon deposed and banished. Antony took his way to the East, where, at Athens, he spent some time in philoso- phic retirement, nnd afterwards passed from kingdom to king- dom, attended by a crowd of sovereigns, exacting contribu- tions, and giving away crowns with capricious insolenc^i. While Octavius, with consummate art, was increasing his fa- vour with the people by his munificence, and contriving the means of attaining to supreme power. § It may be necessary to observe here, that there w^ere properly four individuals at this period, who were the masters of the Roman empire. Some time after the formation of the second triumvirate, Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, was admitted to a share of the authority and possessions of the state, in connexion with the triumviri. <#» An occasion of war soon occurring, Octavius had the good fortune to defeat Pompey in a naval engagement, through the skill and in- trepidity of Agrippa, his friend and associate in war. This event oc- curred 32 years B. C. Augustus had now no competitor for the em- pire of the world, save Mark Antony. 17. Antony having summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to answer for her disaffection to the Roman cause, was caught in the toils of love by the artifices of the beautiful queen. In his infatuation he forgot ambition and empire, in devotion to the object of his guilty passion. Octavius saw in this mad- ness the presage of his ruin. On Ckopatra, her lover had lavished the provinces of the empire, for which he was declared a pubhc enemy, and as for her sake he had divorced Octavia, the sister of Octavius, the 144 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. latter embraced the opportunity, which he had eagerly de- sired, of declaring war against him. An immense armament, principally naval, (the land for- ces being merely spectators,) came to an engagement near Actium, on the coast of Epirus, 31 years B. C. The conflict was decisive. Cleopatra, who attended Antony, deserted him with her galleys, in the midst of the engagement. Such was his infatuation, that he inunedialely followed iier, leaving his fleet, which after a contest of some hours, yielded to the squadron of Octavius. The conqueror pursued the fugitives to Egypt ; and the infamous Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom and the abandonment of Antony. After an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, Antony antici- pated his doom by falling on his sword. Cleopatra also soon after saw fit to frustrate the design of Octavius, which was to carry her in chains to Rome as an ornament to his trirnnph, by seeking a voluntary death. Octavius was now left without a rival, with the government of Rome in his hands. Egypt, which had existed a kingdom from immemorial ages, from this time became a province of Rome, 30 years B. C. § The stcry of Cleopatra will be briefly told under the history of Egypt for this period. Antony, her lover, had few superiors in war, and he was the idol of his army. He was, however, profligate in the extreme, and his infatuated conduct in relation to the Egyptian queen, while it showed the native strength and tenderness of his pas- sions, has imprinted an indelible stain on his character as a hero. llis weakness in this respect was the cause oi'tesruin, and prevented the acquisition of universal empire, which he might perhaps have otherwise obtained. In the struggle l^ctween Antony and Octavius, the strength of the East and of the West were arrayed against each other. Antony's force composed a body of 100,000 foot, and 12,000 horse; while "his fleet amounted to 500 ships of war. The army of Octavius mustered but 80,000 foot, but equalled his adversary in the number of his cavalry; while his fleet was only half as large as Antony's ; but the ships were better built and better manned. The fortune of the day in the battle of Actium, was determined by the flight of Cleopatra with 60 galleys. Yet with this diminution of the fleet, and with the abandonment of it by Antony himself, it fought with the utmost obstinacy for several hours, till partly by the con- duct of Agrippa, and partly by the promises of Octavius, it submitted to the conqueror. The land forces of Antony soon followed the ex- ample of the navy, and yielded to Octavius without striking a blow. 80 B. C. — .CHRISTIAN ERA. 145 18. Tjie Roman empire had now become the largest which the world had ever seen : and Octavius, now named Augustus, holding the principal offices of the state, was, in effect, the absolute master of the lives and fortunes oif the Ro man people. During a long administration he almost effaced the memory of his former cruelties, and seemed to consult only the good of his subjects. His reign constituted the era of Roman taste and genius, under the auspices of Meceenas, his chief minister, who was the most eminent patron of letters recorded in history. /Seventeen years before the close of his life and reign, ac- ?Scording to the true computation, (not the vulgar era,) our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born in Judea — an event more important than any other that ever took place in our Avorld. I § Aiigusti" pursued a pacific course, and restored order to the state During the period of his administration of the government, the tem- ple of Janus, which was shut only at the prevalence of general peace, was closed for the first time since the commencement of the second Punic war, and only the third time from the building of Rome. It was precisely at this happy and singular crisis of human affairs, that the birth of our blessed Saviour happened. The administration of Augustus was h(!?'.ve^'er fatal to liberty; though that circumstance itself tended to general tranquillity, since the corruption of manners required the most absolute restraint. By masterly strokes of policy, he united all interests and reconciled all differences. He disguised his new despotism, under names familiar and allowed by that constitution which he had destroyed. He claimed to himself the title of emperor, to preserve authority over the army ; he caused himself to be created tribune, to manage the people ;.and pringt of the senate, to govern that body. After he had fixed himself in the government, he long hesitated whether he should restore to Rome its liberty, or retain his present situation. The examples, and the differing fortunes of Sylla and Caesar, were before him, and operated on his hopes and fears. Disclosing his feelings to Agrippa, who had assisted him in gaining the empire, and to Mecaenas, his principal minister and adviser, the former suggested the wisdom of his resigning it — the latter dissuac^ him from taking such a step. The opinion of Mecaenas, as it was^^ the whole more agreeable to Augustus, was followed, and perhaps mankind have little reason to regret it, considering what was the awful corruption of the times. Through the counsels of this great minister, Augustus fostered learning and the arts to the highest degree, and specimens of human intellect then appeared, which have rarely been equalled among man- kind. Genius enjoyed all the rewards and all the consideration that it could claim. N 146 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. The authority which Augustus usurped, he^from policy, accepted only for a limited period, sometimes for ten, and sometimes for only five years ; but at the expiration of the term, it was regularly be- Btowed upon him again. His situation, which was above all equality, generated virtues to which, ill all probability, he was naturally a stranger. He sometimes condescended to plead before the proper tribunals, for those he de- sired to protect, for he suffered the laws to have their proper course. One of his veteran soldiers entreated his protection in a law-suit. Augustus, taking little notice of his request, desired him apply to an advocate. " Ah !" replied the soldier, " it was not by proxy that I served you at the battle of Actium." This reply pleased Augustus so much, that he pleaded his causelUi person, and gained it for him. § He 'vvas so affable, that he returned the salutations of the meanest person. One day a person presented him with a petition, but with so much awe, that Augustus was displeased with his meanness. " What ! friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering some- thing to an elephant, and not to a man : — be bolder." f A part of his long reign of more than 40 years belongs to modern histoiy , but we may here speak of it as entire. During the whole of it he cultivated the arts of peace. The wars which were carried on in the distant provinces aimed rather at enforcing submission, than at extending dominion. He was however successful in almost all of them. The defeat of his general. Varus, in Germany, was the most serious disaster which -he experienced. The choicest troops of the empire constituted tKe army of Varus, and they w^ere entirely cut off in the forests of tliat countr}^ In his domestic life, Augustus was less happj^ and fortunate, than as master of the Roman people. His wife, Livia, was an imperious woman, and controlled him at her pleasure. Her son, Tiberius, who at length succeeded to the empire, possessed a suspicious and obsti- nate temper, and gave him so much uneasiness, that he banished him for five years at a distance from Rome. Bul^s daughter, Julia, by his former wife, afflicted him more than all tn^est, through her ex- cessive lewdness. The very court where her father presided, was not exempt from her debaucheries. Augustus lost a favourite son, who, it is supposed, was taken off by poison, lest he should supplant Tiberius, The emperor was often heard to exclaim, " How happy should I have been had I never had ife or children !" He died during an absence from Rome, at Nola, dysentery, in the 76th year of his age, after reigning 41 years, 14 A. C. 19. Little is to be said, separately, of the history of other nations during this period, as they were mostly swallowed up in the Roman empire. We can notice only two or three, and these are very much blended with the Roman history, being included in the number of the Roman provinces before the end of the present period. First, Judea comes under review. 80 E. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 147 JUDEA. The Jews at this time were ruled by the sacerdotal and tO}^al family of the Maccabees, under the tide of the As- monean dynasty, but they were in the * last stages of their independent existence. When Pompey came to Jerusalem to settle the affairs of Judea, he restored Hyrcanus with the title of Prince of the Jews, and conferred the government of the country on Antipater, an Tdumean proselyte, 63 years B. C. § In the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey, the former sent Aristobulus, whom Pompey had carried captive to Rome, into Judea, to engage the Jews in his (Caesar's) cause, but he was poisoned by his enemies. At the same time Pompey ordered his son Alexander to be beheaded. 20. After one other revolution in the person of Hyrcanus, tlie family of the Herodians was seated on the throne of Ju- dea. Herod, called tlie Great, son of Antipater, was declared king of that country, by a decree of the Roman senate, 37 years B. C His reign was splendid, but distinguished by a singular degree of profligacy . § Some time after his establishment on the throne, Herod, in order to please Mariamne, the daughter of Hyrcanus, whom he had married, appointed her brother, Aristobulus, High Priest ; but perceiving that he was much beloved by the Jews, he caused him to be drowned while bathing. After the battle of Actium he went to Rhodes to meet Augustus, who confirmed his title of king of Judea. Upon his return he condemned to death his wife, Mariamne, and her mother, Alexandra. From this hour his life was a continual scene of misery and fero- city. At the instigation of his third son, he sentenced to death Aris- tobulus and Alexander, his children by Mariamne, and. the next year Antipater himself explerienced the same fate. His last moments also were stained with the blood of the children of Bethlehem and the neighbourhood, whom he ordered to be slain, in the hope that the mfant Jesus Christ would fall among them. EGYPT. 21. The family of tlie Lagidse, continued to rule Egypt. Alexander II. was on the throne at the commencement of thisi period. Cleopatra was the last sovereign. The intermediate sovereigns were Ptolemy Auletes, Berenice, and Ptolemy Dionysius, who reigned for a time jointly with Cleopatra. With the death of this queen ended the family of the La- gidse, after having ruled in Egypt about 294 years. Egypt was now reduced to a Roman province, and governed by a Praetor sent thither from Rome, 30 years B. C. %■■■ 148 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. ^ Ptolemy Dionysius was 13 years old at the time of his father's death, by whose will he was nominated to the succession, on condi- tion of his marrying his sister Cleopatra, then 17 years of age. The Romans were appointed guardians of these childreji. Cleopatra married her brother, tind they reigned jointly, till, dissatisfied with the Roman ministry, she retired to Syria and Palestine, where she raised an army, and advanced nnder the walls of Pehisium, to gi^e battle to the ministers of her husband. At this moment, aswc liave before learned, Pompey, vanquished at Pharsalia, took refuge in Alexandria, and was assassinated by order of Ptolemy. Julius Ceesar, pursuing his rival, arrived soon after- wards, and endeavoured to compromise the differences betAveen tlie king and the queen. For a sliort time they were reconciled ; but Ptolemy, renevvmg the war not long afterwards, was defeated and drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra then married her youngest brotlier, a boy of eleven yeard of age, and already affianced to his sister Arsinoe. Him, however, she soon poisoned, 43 B. C. ; and assumed the sole government. After the arrival of Mark Antony in Egypt, and his caplivation by Cleo- patra, her character became still more remarkable for corrup- tion. The beauties of her person were incomparable ; and in polite learning, in brilliancy of wit, and in tunefulness of voice in her con- versation, she was as irresistible as in her personal charms. These qualities, joined to an extreme profligacy of manners, rendered her one of the most dangerous foes to virtue that ever lived. When summoned to present lierself before Antony for the first time, her appearance was so splendid and fascinating, that the Ro- man warrior rather adored than judged her. Every decoration was employed to heighten the most consummate loveliness of features, and gracefulness of motion. Holding Antony in the chains of a base passion, she ruled him at her pleasure. The profusion of riches displayed at her feasts was astonisliing. Antony hoiding the wealtli of plundered provinces, with his utmost efforts could not equal the queen in tlie sumptuousness of her enter- tainments. It was at one of these feasts that the incident mentioned by Phny occurred. Cleopatra, having laid a considerable wager that she could expend more than 50,000/. upon one repast, caused one of the pearls that she wore in her ears, which was valued at the above named sum, to be dissolved in an acid, and then swallowed it. She was then preparing to melt the other in a similar manner, but some one had the address to divert her from her design. After the battle of Actium, Octavius used every effort to secure the person of the queen, and to elTect the deatii of Antony, by her means. He promised her his protection and friendship if slie would kill him. This she peremptorily refused to do, but consented to deliver his person and the kingdom of Egj^pt into the enemy's hand. Antony, Avho had before meanly sought his life of Octavius, open- ing his eyes to his danger, and to tlie perfidy of Cleopatra, at first made some faint and ineffectual attempt at resistance, and then in his # 80. E. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 149 fury attempted to avenge himself of the queen. She, however, eluded his purpose by taking flight to a monument, which she had erected for her safety, and gave out a report that she had killed her- .self. Upon this news, Antony forgot his resentment — his former affec- tion rushed into his heart, and his cup of calamity was full. He resolved to follow her example, and die a Roman death. At the mo- ment he had fallen upon his sword, the news of the queen's death Avas contradicted, and Antony, weltering in his blood, and still breathing, consented to be carried to see the queen. After being pulled up to the top of the monument where Cleopa- tra was, by means of ropes let down and fastened k» him, a scene of anguish and affection was presented which can sc&xcely be conceived. Suffice it to say, he died in her arms, bedewed ^ith her tears, and almost stifled with her caresses. The queen, though at length taken by Octavlus, and apparently secured by the strict guard which he placed over her, found an op- portunity of poisoning herself by means of an asp, which she applied to her arm, the sting of which instantly threw her into a fatal lethargy. In such a miserable end were these victims of guilt involved. PARTHIA. 22. Under tlie Arsacidae, Parthia continued to enjoy some consequence during- this period. Its principal sovereigns were Phi-aates III. Orodes I. and Phraates lY. § Orodes I. was no sooner on the throne, than he was attacked by Crassus, the Roman consul, to v/hom Syria was allotted in the par- tition of the provinces of the empire between him, Caesar, and Pom- pey, 53 B. C. The Parthia-.i armies \vere commanded by Surena, a general of extraordinary wisdom and valour. Crassus being led by tlie king of Edessa into a barren country, his army was completely defeated, and himself taken and killed. Orodes, jealous of Surena's glory, caused him to be put to death soon after, and entrusted the command of his army to Pacorus, his own son, who made great conquests in several countries, but who was soon after defe^ited and killed by Ventidias, the Roman general. Orodes, overwhelmed with grief, became insane ; but having recovered in some degree, he associated his eldest son Phraates his partner in the throne. The infamous wretch first attempted to poison his father, but that only curing him of the dropsy, he stifled the old man in bed, and murdered all his brothers. When Augustus came into Asia, he obliged Phraates to restore the ensigns taken from Crassus, and after- wards from Antony, and to deliver four of his sons as hostages. Divine Providence punished him in a remarkable manner, as he was killed by a conspiracy of his concubine and his own son, 13 A. C. • Distmgiiished Characters in Period X. 1. Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. N2 150 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 2. Julius Ceesar, a successful warrior and elegant writer. 3. Cicero, the prince of Roman orators and philosophers, 4. Catullus, a Roman epigrammatic poet. 5. Sallust, the first philosophical Roman historian. 6. Varro, the most learned of the Romans. 7. Cornelius Nepos, an eminent Roman historian. 8. Virgil, the prince of Roman poets. 9. Horace, the greatest of the Roman lyric poets. § 1. Lucretius was early sent to Athens, where he studied philo- sophy. He embraced the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem of the Nature of Things, he is the advocate of atheism and impiety, and earnestly endeavours to establish the mortality of the soul. His mas- terly genius and unaffected elegance are, however, every where con spicuous. He wrote Latin better than any man ever did before him, and had he lived in the polished age of Augustus, he would have been no mean rival of Virgil. He wrote his poem while he laboured under a delirium, occasioned by a philtre, administered by means of the jea lousy of his wife or mistress. He died, some say he destroyed him self, in his 44th year, about 54 B. C. 2. Julius Caesar was the son of Caius Caesar, who was descended from Julius, the son of ^neas ; in his 16th year he lost his father ; and Sylla, aware of his ambition, endeavoured to remove him ; his friends, however, interceded, and obtained his life ; but Sylla warned them to be upon their guard against that loose-girt boy, alluding to Caesar's manner of wearing his tunic, or coat, loosely girded ; " for in him," said he, " are many Mariuses." He procured many friends by his eloquence, and obtained the office of high priest ; after passing through different dignities, he was sent governor into Spain ; and, u])on his return, being elected consul, he entered into an agreement .with Pompey and Cras&us, that nothing .should be done in the state without their joint concurrence. After his consulship, he had the province of Gaul assigned him ; which, with wonderful conduct and bravery, he subdued in 10 years, carrying the terror of his arms also into Germany and Britain, till then unknown to the Romans. Pompey now became jealous of his power, and induced the senate to order him to lay down his command ; upon which, he crossed the river Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and led his army to- wards Rome, Pompe^^ and all the friends of liberty fleeing before him. Having subdued Italy in sixty days, Caesar entered Rome, and seized upon the money in the public treasury: he then went to Spain, where he conquered the partisans of Pompey under Petreius. Afranius, and Varro ; and, at his return, was created dictator, and soon after consul. Leaving Rome, and going in search of Pompey, the two hostile generals engaged on the plains of Pharsalia ; the army of Caesar amounted only to 23,000 men, while that of Pompey 80 B. C.-^CHRISTIAN ERA. 151 amounted to 45,000 ; but the superior generalship of the former pre- vailed, and he was victorious. Making a generous use of his victory, he followed Pompey into Egypt, w^here he heard of his murder, and making the country tri- butary to his power, he hastened to suppress the remainder of Pom- pey's party in Africa and Spain. Triumphing over all his enemies^ he was created perpetual dictator, received the names of imperator and father of his country, and governed the people with justice. HLs engrossing all the powers of the state, and ruling with absolute au- thority, created general disgust ; a conspiracy was therefore formed against him, by more than sixty senators, the chief of whom were Brutus and Cassius. He was stabbed in the senate house, on the 15th of March, B. C. 44, in the 56th year of his age ; he at first attempt- ed to make some resistance, but seeing Brutus, his intimate friend, among the conspirators, he submitted to his fate, and covered with 23 wounds, fell at the foot of Pompey's statue. Caesar is perhaps the most distinguished character in history. His talents in war and literature were equally great. Amidst his military enterprises he found time to be the author of many works, none of which remain except seven books of commentaries, or memoirs of his wars ; these are much admired for their elegance, as well as correct- ness of style. He spoke in public with the same spirit with which he fought, and had he devoted himself to the bar, would doubtless have rivalled Cicero. 3. Marcus Tullius Cicero was the father of Latin eloquence, and the greatest orator that Rome ever produced. He was the son of a Roman knight, and having displayed promising abilities, his father procured for him the most celebrated masters of his time. He served one campaign under Sylla, and returning to Rome, appeared as a pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius, and his superior eloquence, soon raised him to notice. Having passed through the lower honours of the state, he was made consul in his 43d year. Catiline, a profligate noble, with many dissolute and desperate Romans, conspired against their country ; but all their projects were baffled by his extreme vigilance; Catiline was defeated in the field ; and Cicero, at Rome, punished the rest of the conrspirators with death. He received tlie thanks of the people, and was styled the father of his country and the second founder of Rome ; but his refusal to agree to the arbitrary measures of Caesar and Pompey, caused him to be exiled ; he did not bear his banishment Avith fortitude ; and was overjoyed when, after 16 month's absence, he was restored with ho- nour to his country. After much hesitation, he espoused the cause of Pompey against Caesar ; and when the latter was victorious at Phar- salia, Cicero was reconciled to him, and treated with great humani- ty ; but as a true republican, he approved of Caesar's murder, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, who wished to succeed in power. Octavius, afterwards called Augustus Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus, having formed a third triumvn-ate, agreed on a proscription of their l52 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. enemies ; Octaviiis struggled two days to preserve Cicero from the vengeance of Antony, but at last gave him up ; in his attempt to escape, he was overtaken by a party of soldiers, who cut off his head and right hand, and brought them to Antony ; this happened B. C. 43, in the 64th year of his age. He is to be admired, not only as a great statesman, but as an ora- tor, a man of genius, and a scholar, in which united character, he stands unrivalled ; his conduct was not always that of a patriot, and he is frequently accused of timidity. 4. Catullus was a poet of Verona, v/hose compositions are the off- spring of a luxuriant imagination. He directed his satire against Caesar, whose only revenge was to invite the poet, and hospitably en- tertain him at his table. Catullus was the first Roman who imitated with success the Greek writers, and introduced their numbers among the Latins. Though the pages of the poet are occasionally disfigured with in- delicate expressions, the whole is written with great purity of style. He died in the 48th year of his age, B. C. 40. 5. Sallust was educated at Rome, and made himself known as a magistrate, in the office of quaestor and consul. He was a man of depraved and licentious manners. He married Terentia, the divorced wife of Cicero, and hence the immortal hatred between the historian and orator. Of his Roman history little remains ; but his narrative of the Ca tilinarian conspiracy, and the wars of Jugurtha, are extant. His descriptions, harangues, &c. are animated and correct, and the author is greatly commended for the vigour of his sentences. He died in his 51st year, 35 B. C. 6. Varro wrote 300 volumes, which are all lost, except a treatise, De Re Rustica, and another De Lingua Latina. The latter he wrote n his 80th year, and dedicated to Cicero. In the civil wars, he was taken by Caesar and proscribed, but escaped. His erudition and ex- tent of information were matter of Avonder to Cicero and St. Augus- tine. He died in his 88th year, B. C. 28. 7. Cornelius Nepos enjoyed the patronoge of Augustus. He was the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. He possessed a most deli cate taste and lively disposition. He composed several works, but his llxes of illustrious Greeks are all that remain. He has ever been ad- mired for the clearness and precision of his style, and the delicacy of his expressions. He died 25 years B. C. 8. Virgil was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years B. C. Having lost his farms in the distribution of lands to the sol- diers of Augustus, after the battle of Philippi, he repaired to Rome, where he obtained an order for the restitution of his property through the interest of Mecaenas. When he showed this order to the centu- rion who was in possession, he nearly killed Virgil, and the latter escaped only by swimming across a river. Virgil, in his Bucolics, or Pastorals, celebrates the praises of his illustrious patrons. He undertook his Georgics in order to promote 80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 153 the study of agriculture ; and the design of the ^Eneid is thought to have been to reconcile the Romans to a monarcliical government. By his talents and virtues he acquired the friendship of the empe- ror Augustus, and the most celebrated personages of his time. He died at Brundusium, in the 51st year of his age, B. C. 19, leaving his immense possessions to his friends, and was buried in the neigh- bourhood of Naples, where his tomb is still to be seen. 9. Horace was born at Venusia ; his father, although poor, took him to Rome vv^hen a boy, and educated him with great care. At the age of twenty, he went to Athens to study philosophy, and then, with the rank of military tribune, attended Brutus to the civil wars. In the battle of Philippi he saved himself by flight, and returned to Rome. Finding his father dead, and his fortune ruined, he applied himself to ^vi'iting verses ; and his talents soon recommended him to the protection of Virgil, Mecaenas, and Augustus, with whom he after- wards lived on terms of the greatest intimacy and friendship. He died in the 57th year of his age, B. C. 8. GENERAL VIEWS OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELI- GION, MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERA- TURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, SOCIETY, &c. OF ANCIENT NATIONS. ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. The few notices whicli the Bible has transmitted to us, respecting the Antedihivian world, beinor mostly confined to the moral history of its inhabitants, leave us greatly in the dark in respect to its phy- sical and geographical facts, the state of the arts, political institutions, and similar subjects. We are here chiSfly guided by analogy, and conjecture. Sect. 1. Surface of the Earth. — The earth's surface, there is reason to believe, at that period, differed somewhat from its present state. Concerning this subject, however, there are dif- ferent opinions. W^e incline to that which supposes that there were not those inequalities in the surface of the earth w^hicli now appear — at least in so great a degree, and that it was thus more uniformly adapted to the purposes of culture, and to the support of its inhabitants. ^ § The opinion of Dr. Burnet, that the primitive earth was no more than a crust investing the water contained in the abyss, is somewhat plausible. This crust breaking into innumerable pieces, at the time of the deluge, would naturally sink down amidst the mass of waters, to various depths, and thus cause tlie mountains and valleys which now exist. The convulsions occasioned by that terrible event, would be likely to disfigure the earth's surAice in a measure, and render it less plea- sant as the abode of human beings. Indeed the mountains and hills, the valleys and plains, in many instances, appear as if tliey had been sliaped and fashioned by some " war of the elements." Their form and appearance are precisely such, as we should conjecture would be produced from the force of the retiring waters, in vast eddies and whirlpools. 2. The Seasons. The seasons might have been different from what they are at present. Conjecture has assigned to the Antediluvian world but one season, and that an " eternal ANTEDILUVIAN AVORLD. 155 spring." This would be the fact, if, as some philosophers suppose, the plane of the earth's orbit was then coincident with that of the equator. They now make a considerable angle with each other, and this alteration is concluded to have taken place at the time of the deluge. Besides, the va- riety of the seasons is never mentioned in scripture, till after the flood, § On this supposition an ingenious, but fanciful French writer,* has accovuited for the production of the dehige itself He imagines, that in consequence of this change, whatever might be its cause, the vast masses of ice which had collected for ages in the cold regions of (he globe, being acted upon more immediately by the heat of the sun, suddenly melted, and overflowed the earth. 3. Population and Longevity. Nothing can be deter- mined with certainty respecting the extent of population. Some imagine that it was very great, far exceeding what it is at present. This is inferred from the surprising length of men's lives, and from the numerous generations that were then con- temporary. But from various circumstances, the probabihty is, that it was mtich smaller, and that mankind were not widely diffused over the earth. § If any thing on this subject may be ascertained or fairly conjec- tured, from the discoveries of geology, the opinion of Cuvier, a great adept in that science, is probably correct, viz. that previously to the last considerable convulsion of our globe, the human race inhabited only some narrow districts. It is well known that while shells, fos- sils, and the bones of animals, have been found in the earth's surface, in great abundance, thus exhibiting the ruins of the deluge, few or no human remains have been discovered, under such circumstances. If these latter exist, they must be in some circumscribed parts of the earth, such as Asia or Africa, where the labours of the geologist liave not been so particularly bestowed, or the}' may lie buried under some mass of waters. Of course the population of the antediluvian world must have been mostly confined to those quarters of the globe, or to one of them. The longevity of the antediluvians was remarkable. The contrast, in this respect, of that age of the world and the present times is so great, as to have given rise to many conjectures assigning the cause .>r causes of their longevity. We need not interest ourselves in these •onjectures, as nothing can be known witk certainty, except it may le remarked, that the air immediately after the flood was most likely nuch contaminated and rendered unwholesome. How far this circumstance should have affected the pristine con- ititution of the human body, thus shortening the life of man in suc- «ssive ages, down to tlie present common standard, is left to the cu- ♦ St. Pierre. 156 GFXKRAL VIE-vrS. | oous 10 inquire. Ii" there were no physic;\] causes of tiiis change, Gixi ct^uld have eftlvtai it witiiout ihem. It is his own rtx'oni that the hie ot man \^-;is ahridgeti. 4. Heli^'ion. In regard to the religion?: rites of the priiiie- \-nl race of men, it can only bo aturnied. that they otVered sa- critices. IxMh o( animals and of the fruits of the earth. The Sabbath, we know, was instituted immediately alter the orea tion. and it is not hkely tJiai it^ observance w as ever wholh' discontinued. § The descendants of Seth, tlie son of Adam, were for some time distinguished by their worship of God and ol^servation of religious rhes. while those of Cain were notorious for their irreligion and pro fligacy. These lived sepamtely tih intercourses by marriage were formed between them : and then ilie pure religion and morals of the destvndants of Seth were corrupted, and the whole world became alienated from God. 5. Ar/s and Sciences. These mnst liave been cultivated in a degree, and in some of their branches might have been more than we are aware. If we consider that human life was several hundred years in extent, there was space for vas* improvements in tliose arts and sciences that wei"e once disco | vered. It is much to l>e doubted, however, whether many oi i tliem were known. The last generation of Cain's hne found out the art of working metal ; and music seems to have been inventeil about the same time. A knowledge of agriculttire. architecture, ajid perhaps of astronomy, was possessed. 1 1 § Some suppose that man. in the infancy of the world. M'as aided by inspiration : but even if left to the ordinary operation of his faculties, he might have been no stnmger to knowledge and mental improve- ment. Still, from the difficulty of origuiating knowledge, and from the vices oi the antediluvians — their probable devotion to gross sen- ^ siial pleasures, they seem not to have been as extensively acquauited I with the more iniellectual objects of human pursuit, as their descend- | ants were a few ages alter the flood. We have some accounts, though not from an authentic source, of discoveries made in astronomy by the posterity of Seth. Tliese dis- coveries, it is said, were engraved on two pillars, the one of brick, and the other of stone. The latter, it is aihrmed. existed after the deluge, and remained entire in the time of Josephus. that is, nearly a century after Christ. If this were a fact, it is singular that no other memorial of their intellect should have appeared. It is here giveHi however, as it is foimd on liistoric record. 6. Government. Ou the topic of government, there is hardly a foimdation for coniecture. The most probable, is the patriarchal form of govermnent ; tliat is, tlie governmenl antediltjVian world. 157 which was held by the heads of separate families. A num- ber of thcr-e might p-erhaps combine, and place them- selves under the direction of some common ancestor. This is the most natural form of government, and indeed no men- tion is made in the Bible of kingly authority until after the deluge. § Still, as some suppose, this form of government might have been set aside by tyranny and oppression ; and the change would proba- bly take place, much sooner among the descendants cf Cain, than those of Seth. It is thought that after the union of the families of Cain and Seth, all mankind constituted but one nation, divided into several disorderly associations, and living in a state of anarchy, which circumstances would have hastened the progress of wickedness.^ 7. Commerce. The intercourse of the antediluvians might have been easy, because they probably lived contiguous to each other. Yet it is evident that they had no idea of navigation, for had vessels been in use, some famihes might have escaped the disasters of the flood, besides that of Noah. § It is likely that there was not that necessity for commerce, as there has been since. For this opinion, reasons might be given, but the subject is not sufficiently important . Assyria^ {including Babylonia.) 8. Extent and Cities. Assyria generally comprehended the territory lying between Armenia, Babylon, Mesopotamia, and Media. The Assyrian dominion, at times, extended over many parts of Asia; its capital was Nineveh, on the Tigris, built by Ashur. The country is now called Curdistan. § Nineveh was built on a very spacious plain. It was 15 miles in length, 9 broad, and 47 in circumference, according to Diodorus Siculus and Strabo. On the w^alls, which were 100 feet high, three chariots could pass together ; they were defended by 1500 towers, each 200 feet high. From the number of infants which it contained, as mentioned in the book of Jonah, it is computed that the inhabitants amounted to more than 600,000 at that time. » Its situation is indicated, as some suppose, by vestiges on the Tigris, opposite Mosul, retaining the name of Nino. Babylo7iia, which was afterwards united to Assyria, was made up principally of Mesopotamia, the modern Diarbec. Its capital, Babylon, at length the capital of the whole empire, was bisected by the Euphrates, from N. to S., and formed a square, whose sides subtended the four cardinal points. The city stood on a large plain. Its walls were in thickness 87 feet, in height 350 feet, and in compass 60 miles. These were drawn about the city in an exact square. 158 GENERAL VIEWS. § As a more particular description of Babylon, it may be stated, thai on each side of this great square were 25 gates of solid brass. Be- tween every two of these gates were three towers ; four others were at the corners ; and three more between those on the corners and the gate on either side. The other parts of the city, some of which we will describe, cor- responded with the magnitude of the walls. The streets, bridge, quays, the lake, ditches, canals, palaces, and hanging gardens, and above all, the temple of Belus, were so many wonders. From the 25 gates ran as many streets, in straight lines, so that the whole number of streets was 50, crossing each other at right angles. There were also four half streets, round the four sides of the city, next the walls, each of them 200 feet wide ; the rest being about 150 feet. The whole city was thus cut into 676 squares, each of which was two and a quarter miles in circumference. Round these squares, on every side towards the street, stood stately houses three or four stories high, with large spaces between them, and the areas within the squares filled up with yards, gardens, and pleasure grounds. The celebrated hanging gardens were composed of several large terraces, one above the other. Tlie ascent from terrace to terrace was by stairs ten feet wide, and the whole pile was sustained by vast arches, strengthened by a massy wall of great thickness. On the tops of the arches were first laid prodigiously large flat stones. Over these was a layer of reeds mixed with bitumen, upon which were two tiers of bricks, closely cemented together with plaster. The whole was covered with thick sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden. This mould was so deep that the largest trees might take root in it, and covered with these and other plants, and every variety of flowers ; nothing could be conceived more grand and picturesque. The temple of Belus, at its foundation, consisted of a square, each side of which was a furlong in length; it consisted of eight towers, built one above another, decreasing gradually to the top, and was a furlong in height. 9. Government and Laws. The government both of Assyria and Babylonia was strictly despotic, and its sceptre hereditary. The whole centered in the person of the king ; all decrees issued from his month ; he even aflfected the power, and claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. § The great conquerors of the East always courted retirement, as being too glorious to be beheld by vulgar eyes. Thus they contrived to keep in subjection a number of nations of different languages and manners, to a person who must have been a stranger to almost all of them. They adminstered their government by officers of various de- scriptions, civil and military. Of the three classes of officers, the first had the charge of the vir- gins, and were expected to judge of all matters relating to the connu- bial state ; the second took cognizance of theft ; and the third of all other crimes. The laws of tlie empire were in general vague and uncer- ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 159 taiiij depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but one was fixed and irrevocable, which obhged all, especially the poorer sort of people, to marry. § Their punishments were unfixed and arbitrary, according to the disposition of the sovereign. We read of beheading, cutting to pieces, turning the criminal's house into a dunghill, and burning in a fiery furnace. 10. Religion. The Chaldeans, properly so called, were both the priests and the literati of the country. They were devoted to the business of religion, and pretended to skill in the prediction of future events. They dealt in charms, incan> tations, and eyplanations of dreams, and of the extiaordinary phenomena of nature. They built temples to the stars, as be- ing the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor- shipping them, they expected to obtain the good will of the deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the worship of objects on earth, as the representatives, or favour- • ites of the stars, or of the deity, through them. Thus idola- try arose not long after the flood, among the earhest of nations — the people left on tlie plains of Shinar, subsequently to the dispersion at Babel. § It is evident that this was the origin of image worship, since the names of the principal gods of the heathen in general, are those of the sun, moon, and five primary planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and Venus. The horrid custom of sacrificing human victims to conci- liate their gods, was first practised by the Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the superstitious of the sur- rounding nations. § There are traces of their ancient cruelty to be discerned in the worship and rites of the Assyrian goddess of Hierapolis, to whom parents, without remorse, sacrificed their children, by throwing them down a precipice in her temple. 1 1 . Customs. The principal and most singular of their customs, was the manner in which they disposed of their women in marriage. No man had any power over his own daughters, but as soon as they were marriageable, they were put up to auction ; and the price obtained for the more beau- tiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. § The consequence of this practice was, that all their young women were disposed of in marriage— the beautiful for their charms, the homely for their wealth. Another singular custom was their festival called SaccOi 160 GENERAL VIEWS. During this festival, which lasted five clays, the sei-vants com- manded their masters, one of them being, for the time, con- stituted chief over the house, and wearing a kind of royal garment, called Zogana. § They had other extraordinary customs, but some of these are too mdecent to be named. In general, they were the most sensual and aJjandoned people on the face of the earth. 12. Learning. The Babylonians v/ere famed for learning, particularly the Chaldeans, who were their }3riests, philoso- phers, astronomers, soothsayers, ttc. As in many other coun- tries after them, they were divided into several sects, distin- guished by their peculiar characteristics. They were the first who cultivated astronomy, discovered the exact motions of the planets, and pretended to understand the influence these had over things below, and from that to be able to foretel future events. The latter was embodied into a kind of science, called astrology. § From this origin of astrology, fortune telHng, and similar arts, we perceive at once their opposition to religion and rectitude. The learning of the Chaldeans was not acquired after the maimer of the Greeks, but by tradition from father to son. The only busi- ness of the learned was to apply themselves to the instructions they received. They never departed from early principles, and hence made no great advances in the sciences. 13. The Arts. The Babylonians, properly so called, ap- plied themselves to the useful arts. Their immense buildings, which could not have been erected without much skill in ge- ometry, prove that they must have been good mathematicians and mechanics. They never attained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary. Music and poetry were probably but little at- tended to ; and in pliysic they had no regular science. § They exposed their sick in the streets, to be cured by any Wlio, passing by them, saw fit to prescribe for their diseases. The Babylonians v/ere great archilects, ingenious in casting metals and in their manufactures — particularly in their manufactures of embroideries, magnificent carpets, and fine linen. So superb were some of their articles of dress, that we read, in the Roman history, of Cato selling a Babylonian mantle, which had been left him by inhe.- ritance, as being what lie was ashamed to wear. And it is said that at Rome more than 6000/. had been paid for a suit of iiaby Ionian hangings. Chhia. 14. Geography. CliinR, in ancient times, included nearly the same territory that it does at present, so far as we can now CHINA. 161 ascertain. The Greeks and Romans, through whom most of our acquahitance with antiquity is derived, had no imme- diate knowledge of that country ; only they mention Serica, and another nation of northern Sinee, as constituting its west- erly provinces. As, however, the Chinese are not at all given to foreign conquests, and have for many centuries remained the same people in their government and institutions, we may conclude that the ancient territory was the same, or nearly the same, as their modern. It is not our design to state its boundaries or extent, except to say, that it constituted a considerable portion of eastern Asia, and was separated from Tartary, on the north, by its prodigious stone wall of 1500 miles in length. § But few general views of this country in other respects can be here given, since we have been presented, in this work, with only a small portion of its civil history ; and since from the unchangeable character of the people, these views will answer for an interesting article in modern history. 15. Government. The original plan of the Chinese go- vernment was patriarchal. Obedience to the father of each family was enforced in the most rigorous manner, and the emperor was considered as the father of the whole. Every fa- ther was absolute in his own family, and might inflict any punishment short of death ; and every mandarin of a district had the power of life and death over all its members, though the emperor's approbation was requisite to the execution of a capital sentence. § Since the invasion of the Tartars, as we shall hereafter learn, the government is called an absolute monarchy, though its great funda- mental principles from the beginning have been preserved. 16. Religion. The ancient Chinese adored a supreme be- ing, under the name of Changti, or Tien; they also wor- shipped subaltern spirits, supposed to preside over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Their worship was by prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idola- trous practices. § There are now different sects, whose characteristics belong to the details of modern history. 17. The Sciences and Arts. The Chinese understood some of the sciences, but seemed to make no progress in them from age to age. Of mathematics, astronomy, and physics, they appear to have been quite ignorant for so civilized a peo- 02 15^ GENERAL VIEWS. pie. The knowledge of medicine was very limited among them. In the arts, at an early age, they attamed to a certain point of advancement, which they never excf^eded. It is affirmed that they manufactured glass 200 years before the Christian era ; that they knew gimpowder from time immemorial ; and that they invented printing in the time of Julius Ceesar ; but these and other inventions were in a very imperfect state, and have remained so to this day. In agriculture, however, and a few other arts, they seem, from a very early period, to have been highly distinguished. § On the whole, considering their ancient state, and knowing tlie agreement of their present state with it, no people whatever appear to have been so singular and mysterious, and possessed of such a mixture of wisdom and imbecility. Egypt. § A little before the Christian era, Egypt was one of the most dis- tinguished countries of the ancient world, and enjoyed, from the ear- liest times, a large share of celebrity, on account of its learning and its magnificent public Avorks. In commercial importance, at the time first spoken of, it was much superior to contemporary nations. 18. Situation, Name, and Division. Egypt was an ex- tensive country, bounded on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea, and by Lybia on the west, and was properly a long val- ley, following the course of the Nile from S. to N. The ancient name was Mitzraim, and is now retained in that of Mesr, under the Turks. Egypt was divided into three principal parts, distinguished by the appellations of the Upper Egypt, or Thebais ; the Mid- dle Egypt, or Heptanomis ; and the Lower Egypt, which in- cludes the Delta. 19. Cities. There were many cities in this country, whose ruins attest their almost unparalleled magnificence. Among these were Thebes, Memphis, Arsinoe, Heliopolis, and Alex- andria, besides many others. § Thebes was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile. It was called by the Greeks, Diospolis, and was one of the most il- lustrious cities in the world. It is distinguished in Homer by the epi- thet of Hecatompylos, or having a 100 gates. In the time of its splen- dour, it could send into the field, by each of its gates, 200 chariots, and 2000 fighting men. Its extent is said to have been 52 miles ; and so great was its wealtl^ that after it had been plundered by the Persians, 300 talents of gold and 2300 of silver, were found among the remains of the pillage. EGYPT. 163 Tlie ruins of this astonishing city occupy a circumference of 27 miles on either side of the Nile, and contain several villages, the chief of which is Luxor. Kabon, on the western side, contains many sti>- pendous monuments. Thebeswas severely treated by Cambyses, by Ptolemy Philopater, and under Augustus, for its rebellion. In the adjacent mountains are hewn sepulclires of the ancient kings. A remarkable feature of these ruins is their size. Every thing is colossal. The smallest pillars of the temples are betAveen 7 and 8 feet in diameter, and some of the largest are 11. Obelisks, Sphinxes, and other monuments of huge dimensions, in different positions, as- tonish the modern traveller, as he gazes on these wonders of human power and art. Memphis, supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first Egyp- tian king, was for several ages the metropolis of the whole kingdom. It contained many beautiful temples, the most splendid of which is said to have been that of the god Apis. This city stood on the western bank of the Nile, 15 miles south of»the Delta. Strabo saw its palaces in ruins. Vestiges of it were apparent in the fifteenth century, but are no longer in being. The Nile may have co- vered them. Alexandria was reckoned next to Rome for the grandeur of its buildings, and richness of its materials. It stood on the Avestern side of the Delta, and was built bj^ Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. It was the capital of Lower Egypt, and the metropolis under the Ptolemies, The ancients assert that it was built in the form of a Macedonian cloak, and occupied about 15 miles. The royal palace constituted a fifth part of the city. Alexandria rose to the first rank in the ancient world, as the great mart for exchange between the east and west. Its commercial ad- vantages continued for a number of ages. It was further distinguished by schools for philosophy, physic, theology, astronomy, and general learning. 20. Monuments and Wo7^ks of Ai^t. Many of these are magnificent beyond conception, and show to what a high state of improvement the inhabitants, at a remote period, had car- ried the arts. They still excite the admiration of every tra- veller. Besides the cities that have been named, the most celebra- ted of these works of ancient grandeur, are Lake Moeris, the Labyrinth, the Catacombs, or Mummy Pits, and the Pyra- mids. § The lake Moeris has been affirmed to be the most wonderful of all the works of the kings of Egypt, the pjTamids not excepted. The ancients described it as measuring 3600 stadia in circumference ; but modern travellers assure us that its breadth does not exceed half a league ; that it is about a day's journey in length, and that its circum- ference is about 12 or 15 leagues, which will be found sufficiently 164 GENERAL VIEWS. prodigious, wlien we consider that it was performed by human la- bour. This lake, in the deepest part, has fifty fathoms of water, and is fed from the Nile, by means of a channel cut for that purpose. It was built by a king of the name of Moferis, whose object was to cor- rect the irregularity of sup[}ly in the waters of the river, receiving its superabundance, or making up its deficiency. The Labyrinth was an enormous structure of marble, wiilt partly imder the ground. It was designed as a pantheon of all the Egyptian deities, and as a place for the assembly of the magistracy of the whole nation. It contained no less than 3000 chambers, 1500 of which were subterraneous, and set apart for the sepulchre of the kings who built the labyrinth, or for the abodes of the sacred crocodiles. These were never shewn to strangers ; but Herodotus informs us that he viewed every room in the upper part, in which he found suf- ficient to fill him with astonishment. Innumerable exits by different passages, and infinite returns, afforded him a thousand occasions of wonder. The liighest decorations in polished columns and exquisite sculptures, were every where seen. The Catacombs were subterraneous galleries of prodigious extent, appropriated to the reception of the dead. These sepulchres of the ancient kings are hewn in free-stone rock, and apparently formed upon one general plan, though differing in the construction of their respective parts. These contain the generations that are gone. Some of the embalmed bodies are perfectly preserved, though they have been dead 3000 years. The Pyramids were deservedly classed by the ancients among thfi wonders of the world. There are said to be twenty of them in differ- ent parts of the country ; but there are three superior to the rest in size and magnificence. These are on the western side of the Nile, iii the neighbourhood of the ancient Memphis. The largest of them is 481 feet in height, measured perpendicularly, and the area of its basis comprehends eleven English acres of ground. This is a size which would exceed all belief, had it not been actually and repeatedly measured by modern travellers. It has steps entirely round it, made with polished stones, so large that the breadth and depth of every step is one single stone. The smallest stone is 30 feet in length. The number of steps amounts to 208. These works are proved, by modern researches, to have been royal sepulchres, but their foundation is lost in antiquity. They are sup posed, however, to have been erected between one and two thousand years B. C. It is asserted by Pliny and Diodorus, that no less than 360,000 men were employed in erecting the largest pyramid. It is said also that twenty years were spent in the work. 21. Government and Laius. The Egyptians were among the earliest nations, if not the very earliest, who had regular established governments and civil regulations. Theif government was a despotic, hereditary monarchy, yet so mo- dified by prescribed usages, as to promote the pubUc welfare. EGYPT. 165 § Their monaiclis were restricted to a certain mode of living, and even their time seems to have been portioned out, and set apart for particular employments, by tlie sacred Egyptian books. They were confined to exactness, not only in public transactions, but in their private life. They could neither bathe, take the air, nor converse with their queens but at certain times. The choice of their provisions was not left to themselves, but their tables were furnished with the most simple food, (generally veal or goose,) and their allowance of wine was extremely moderate. These restraints were entirely acceptable to the Egyptian monarchs, and during the period in which they prevailed, the country greatly flourished, and was filled with works o[ incomparable magnificence In the administration of public aHairs, each nome, or pro- vince, had its respective governor, who ordered all things with- in his jurisdiction. The lands were divided into three parts, of which one was allotted to the Ynaintenance of the priests, and to religious uses ; the second was appropriated to the king, for defraying the chaiges of his w^ars, &c ; and the third part was designed for the soldiers. The husband- men, taking the lands at an easy rent from the king, priests, and soldiers, devoted the wdiole of their attention to agricul- ture ; and the son continually succeeded the father in his oc- cupation. They thus became the most famous for tillage of any in the w^orld. 22. Mythology. The boasted law^s of the Egyptians sink ni our estimation, from the influence w hich a knowdedge of their base idolatry and superstitions produces in the reflecting mind. They had a vast number of gods of different ranks, but their two principal ones were Osiris and Isis, supposed to have been the sun and moon. From Egypt the stream of idolatry flow^ed over the nations. § The idolatiy of this people was so gross, that exclusive of the worship they paid their pretended gods, they actually bestowed di- vine honours on animals, insects, birds, and even vegetables, as leeks and onions. Their sacred animals were, during their lives, kept in consecrated enclosures; fed with m^ost delicate food, washed and anointed with frequency, and their burial, after death, attended with the heaviest expense. We are credibly informed that in the reign of Ptolemy, the Apis dying of old age at Mempliis, his keeper ex- pended in his funeral, about 13,000Z. above all his substance. 23. Education. In the education of their children, the Egyptians exercised great care, and the cliildren were brought up with the strictest frugality. The priest instructed them in arithmetic, geometry, and other branches of useful literature ; 166 GENERAL VIEWS. aiid their fathers, or nearest relations, taught them as early as possible, their paternal art or profession. 24. Domestic Habits, Manners, and Customs. The usual drink of the people was the water of the Nile, which was very palatable and fattening-. They used also a superior beverage made of barley, so that we are possibly indebted to them for the first invention of beer. Cleanliness wa^ a particu- lar characteristic of this people, who scoured their drinking vessels every day. § As great singularities among them, we may notice the inconsistent employments of the men and women ; the former being engaged in spinning and domestic concerns, while the latter were employed in trade and business ; the kneading of dough with their feet ; the tem- pering of mortar with their hands; and the promiscuous residence of men and beasts in the same apartment At their principal feasts, it was a very singular custom to bring in the coffin of a friend after supper, with the image of a dead man carved in wood and painted, which was carried to all the company with this strange admonition : " Look upon this, and be merry j for such as this now appears, thou shalt be, when thou art dead." 25. Literature and Arts. Egypt was tlie parent of learning and pbiiosophy. According to the scriptures, Moses was learned in ail the v isdom of the Egyptians, Geometry is generally believed to have been found out in Egypt, in con- sequence of the measurement of those lands that were annu- ally overflowed b}'^ the iNile. The science, however, was most probably but little extended by them. § Arithmetic, astronomy, and a kind of algebra, were also cultivated in Egypt; and it is certain this nation first adjusted the length of the year to the annual revoliilion of the sun, by adding to their twelve months (^ thirty days each, n\e additional days and six hours. Medi- cine and the art of embalning were early cultivated amon^ them, particularly the latter. Tlioy were very famous also in magic. In architecture, painting, sculpture, &c. they must have made great proficiency, as is evident from the astonishing works of art which yet remain. 26. Trade. Egypt early engaged in commerce, as its situation was peculiarl}^ favourable for that object. We read in scripture that the Midianites and Ishmaelites traded thither, so early as the time of .hi cob. It is certain also that Solomon established a very considerable trade in those parts. 27. Language. The Egyptian language is one of the most ancient in the world, and probably an original tongue. It is, in some measure, preserved in the Coptic, even to this tin\g, though that language is but Uttle understood HEBREWS. 167 THE HEBREWS. 28. Country. The country in which this ancient and di- vinely favoured people Hved was Palestine. It extended from Coelo-Syria, to Arabia Petrea ; on the west it had the Medi- terranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. Its territory was very limited. The country of the Hebrews is also called by several other names, as the Land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Judea, &c. ; and the people themselves were variously called, as the People of God, Israelites, Jews ; the last more commonly in the latter period of their history. Upon the entrance of the Israelites into Palestine, it was divided into twelve different portions, which were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 29. Remains of ancient Works. Among- these are Ja- col^'s Well ; the Pools of Solomon, Gihon, and Bethesda ; and the Sepulchral Monuments. § Jacob's well is highly venerated by Christian travellers on ac- count of its antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about 35 yards in depth, and three in diameter, and is at present covered with a stone vault. The Pools of Solomon, supposed to have been made by order of that monarch, appear to have been a work of immense cost and labour. Tliey are three in a row, and disposed in such a manner, that the water of the uppermost may faU into the second, and of the second into the third. They are of equal breadth, viz. about 90 paces§ their ^ength varies, the longest being 220. They are all walled and plas- tered, and contain a large quantity of water. The Pools of Gihon and Bethesda are similar works, and may be ranked among the most stately ruins. The Sepulchral Monuments are scattered all over the country. The most magnificent pieces of antiquity of this kind are \Mb royal .sepulchres without the walls of Jerusalem. They are all hev\m out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious and elaborate apartments. 30. Cities. Of these there were not many that were large. Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country, and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and indeed no place on the globe has been more celebrated, taking into view its sacred associations. Hebron, Gaza, and Ascalon, were also noted. Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion ; it formed the southern part of the city. On the east of the second, or lower city, was mount Moriah, on which stood the magnificent temple of king Solomon. 168 GENERAL VIEWS. § Jerusalem, when enlarged by David, Solomon, and other kingg, became a most renowned city, and as such is mentioned by the Greek historian, Herodotus, under the name of Cadytis. The city with its temple was destroyed by the Chaldeans, about 600 years B. C. The second temple, which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Herod the Great. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, was A. D. 70. Under Adri- an, a new city, altogether Roman, and called ^lia, was built, but there was an alteration of its site. Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised within the new city. It subsists at present, but in a deplorable condition, inhabited by a motley group of Turks, Jews, and Christians. Hebron Avas a ])lace of high antiquity, and the sepulchre of Abra- ham and his family. In the time of the crusades, it bore the name of St. Abraham ; and the Arabs, who alwa3''s respect their primitive names, call it Cabr-Ibrahim, or the Tomb of Abraham. Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve their names, as also others. Gaza was remarkably strong, and surrounded with walls and towers, after the Philistine manner. It was taken by Caleb, but soon after regained by the ancient inhabitants, who kept possession of it to the time of Samson. It passed into various hands, till finally it was pillaged by Alexander, and a second time destroyed by the Mac- cabees. Ascalon was also a maritime town of great strength, but was soon reduced, after the death of Joshua, by the tribe of Judah. It was once adorned with several magnificent edifices ; but it is now dwindled into an mconsiderable village. • ^Hffieligion. The history of the religion of this people, whMl was called Judaism, is the history of true rehgion in the ancient world. It is now eclipsed by the radiance of the Gospel, which has come into its room, abrogated what was ritual io^t, and confirmed its great general principles and truthsJF § Tieligion flourished variously among the people, according to the piety or irreligion of their priests, leading men, or sovereigns. In ge- neral, though they had a succession of wise and holy prophets, the nation, as such, was peculiarly obstinate and rebellious, and continu- ally inclined to forsake the worship of God, and to fall into the idola^ trous practices of its heathen neighbours. On this account repeated and severe judgments were sent among them. They were visited, at various times, with all the ministers of divine vengeance — they were conquered, pillaged, and carried into captivity, and soon after the Christian era, ceased to exist indepen- dently, and were scattered among all nations. They are now known, particularly the tribes of Judah and Benja- min, wherever they are dispersed, as the descendants of Abraham, preserving still their national name and peculiarities. Concerning the other ten tribes we have no certain knowdedge of their separate HEBREWS. 169 existence, at this day. Prophecy has been remarkably fulfilled in the case of this people. The great general truths of religion were revealed to this people, and to them alone of all the nations of the earth. The being, perfections, and government of God, the moral law, prescribing the duties man owes to God, to his fellow men, and to himself, the awards of eternity, with a thousand par ticular precepts of a spiritual kind, were exphcitly declared to this nation. The peculiarities of their ritual worship rendered them also a most favoured community. By these they were de- rf^igned to be preserved a people distinct from all the rest of the world, to be kept from idolatry, and to be prepared for the great salvation, which was to be accomplished not only for them, but for all nations, in " the fulness of the time." § The peculiar rites of Judaism were admirably adapted to honour their Creator, and to render themselves completely happy. Its sacri- fices were at once calculated to convince them of their sins, and to sliadow forth the vicarious sacrifice of the Son of God. 32. Government. The government of this people was pro- perly a Theocracy, as being under the immediate direction of God. In this they were distinguished from all other nations. He was considered as the sole dictator of every important transaction, and supreme monarch of the Israelites. 33. Maimers and Customs. The most interesting of these related to the rite of circumcision, to their diet, diver- sions, high places, mourning for the dead, and burials. § The rite of circumcision has distinguished them as a people, from the beginning. It was always accompanied with great feasting, and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine were distributed. Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been extremely plain. Bread, water, and vinegar, were in common use. Honey was es- teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was reckoned ex cellent for food. Their diversions seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts, music, and dancing. The two latter partook of a religious character. Games were never introduced into their commonwealth. Their high places were of two sorts ; those where they burned in- cense and offered sacrifices to the true God ; and those where they committed various abominable idolatries. Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, heaping dirt or ashes upon their P 170 GENERAL VIEWS. heads, wearing sackcloth next their skin, and lying upon the bare ground. As to their burials, it is known that they denied sepulture to none but such as were guilty of suicide, and not even to these, but till after sunset. From the pains which the patriarchs took to provide a place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident they con- sidered it a heavy calamity, to be denied a burial, and a favour to be interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their o'wn lands, and, where practicable, cut into a rock. 34. Learning. The Israelites excelled in the knowledge of theology, and they had places of public mstruction called the schools of the prophets. They seem to have had but little knowledge of astronomy. Their language was the Hebrew, the genius of which is pure, primitive, and natural ; and it is highly probable tJiat they had the art of writing very early. The materials on which they wrote were tables of stone ; but mention is made also of rolls, which were doubtless more in use. These rolls are supposed to have been made of skin, or some other pliable substance. I 35. Arts. The arts in which the Israelites made the greatest proficiency were those of war, husbandry, poetry, and music. § Their situation made them a warlike people, surrounded as they were by enemies. Their arms of offence were broad crooked swords, javelins, slings, bows and arrows, and two-edged swords. Their arms of defence were shields, helmets, coats of mail, breast plates, and targets. Their attention was much confined to their lands and domestic avocations, and few trades or manufactures were carried on among them before the reign of Solomon, except such as were absolutely ne- cessary. After Solomon's time, pride and luxury increased with great rapidity. The causes of a change from great economy and simplicity, to their opposites, were laid indeed in the reign of David. Poetry is said to be the only fine art in which they were peculiarly excellent ; and in that they are inimitable. Their inspired produc- tions, in poetry, if not in prose, as to native energy and felicity, are unrivalled. 36. Commerce. With respect to commerce, it appears that they received rich stuffs, hnen, gold, (fcc. from Tyre, in ex- change for their corn, balm, and other excellent commodi- ties ; but they were totally ignorant of navigation. Solomon employed foreign sailors in the ships which he sent to foreign countries. Canaanites. § The country of the Canaanites has been already described, as it GREECE. 17J was the same with that of the Hebrews, who, some time after they left Egypt, drove out the ancient inhabitants of the Land of Canaan. 37. Customs^ Maimers^ Arts, and Sciences. In these, as well as ill language, they may be supposed to have differed widely from each other, according to their different situations. It is easy to discern the different classes of merchants, artifi- cers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen. § Those who resided on the sea-coasts were merchants, in which capacity they will be considered when spoken of as Phoenicians. Those who resided in fixed abodes and walled places, cultivated the land. Shepherds and soldiers led a more wandering life. As to war, they were by no means deficient in courage, craft, or policy. 38. Religion. Their religion seems to have been undefiled to the days of Abraham, when Melchisedek among them was a priest of the Most High God ; but after this period they must have degenerated apace. They compelled their chil- dren to pass through fire to Moloch, and their wickedness be- came extreme. Greece. 39. . Appearance and Face of the Country. This country, rendered illustrious by the intellectual elevation of its mhabi- tants, was a region of enchanting beauty. Its mountains and valleys, lakes and rivers, sufficiently diversified the sur- face, while their grandeur or their softness imparted an inef- fable charm to every prospect. It enjoyed a dehghtful cli- mate and exuberant soil. § The classical reader need not to be reminded, that among a thousand other spots endeared to association, were Pindus and Par- nassus, the seats of the muses ; Athens, filled with the monuments of art and genius ; woody Arcadia, sacred to Pan, and the haunt of shep- herds ; and Thessaly with its fields of pleasure, where " The smooth Peneus from its glassy flood Reflects purpureal Tempe's pleasant scene." 40. Situation., Extent, and Division. Greece occupied a large peninsuia between the south of Italy and Asia Minor, about 400 miles long and 150 broad. It had Epirus and Macedonia on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, and the Ionian and iEgean seas w^ashed, the one its western, and the other its eastern borders. § In subsequent times, Epirus and Macedonia were considered as parts of Greece, and then the northern boundary was constituted by Illyricum, Moesia, and Thrace. Greece consisted of two prmcipal divisions — Greece, pro- perly so called, and Peloponnesus, 172 GENERAL VIEWS. § Greece proper included the following states; 1. Attica. 2. Bcpo tla. 3. Acarnania. 4. ^tolia. 5. Locris. 6. Doris. 7. Phocis. 8. Thes- sal>. 9. Epirus. 10. Macedonia. Peloponnesus included the following states; 1. Achaia. 2. Elis. 3. Arcadia. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis. Connected with Greece Avere many islands in the seas which surrounded it, the principal of which singly, or in clus- ters, were Eubffia, Lemnos, the Cyclades, Crete, Cythera, Za- cynthus, Cephalonia, Corcyra, Tenedos, Lesbos, Scio, Samos, and Patmos. 41. Names. Greece was called Hellas by the natives, and its inhabitants Hellenes. From their different tribes they were denominated by the poets, Achivi, Danai, Argivi, Pelasgi, lones, Dores, and Ji^oles. 42. Interesting Localities. Almost every considerable place in Greece is marked by some circumstance in its natu- ral features, or by some achievement or event in its history, which connects it in the minds of scholars with the most de hghtful associations. Several of these locahties may be grouped together, as below. § Peloponnesus took its name from Pelops, who reigned there. Mycense was the city of Agamemnon. At Nemea, games were insti- tuted in honour of Hercules, for killing the Nemean lion. In Epidau- rus, iEsculapius was worshipped. Lerna gave name to the Lerna^an Hydra, a monster destroyed by Hercules. Amyclae abounded in trees, and was honoured with a splendid temple of Apollo. Helos was a place which the Spartans took, redu- cing the inhabitants to slavery, and hence all their slaves were called Helotes. Near Teenarus, the most southern point of Europe, was a cave through which Hercules is fabled to have dragged Cerberus from the infernal regions. On the mountain Taygetus, the Spartan women celebrated the orgies of Bacchus. Elis, was famous for its horses. At Olympia, the Olympic games were celebrated in honour of Jupiter — they date from B. C. 776, ajul form the epoch of Grecian chronology. Corinth was famous for its brass, a mixture of copper with some small quantity of gold and silver. Arcadia was the country of musicians and sheplierds, and sacred to Pan, the rural deity. Mercury was born on mount Cyllene. Her- cules destroyed the harpies of the river and lake Stymphalus. At the Isthmus, games were celebrated in honour of Neptune. Eleusis was famous for the celebration of the mysteries of Ceres, in which secrecy was enjoined to the votaries, and the breach of it punished with death. In Attica were mount Ilymettus, celebrated for its honey, and mount Pentelicus, for hs quarries of m.arble. The Boeo- tians were reckoned characteristically dull, though there were some splendid exceptions. GREECE. 173 Chaeronea was the birth-place of Plutarch, and remarkable for the defeat of the allied states of Greece, by Philip, which ruined that ce- lebrated nation. Not far from this, was the cave of Trophonius, where oracles were delivered, and which rendered such as entered it me- lancholy for the rest of their lives. Thespia was sacred to the Muses. fc.Tanagra was infamous for its cock-fighting exhibitions. At Delium ^ stood a temple of Apollo ; and the mountain of Helicon, and the C fountain Aganippe, were consecrated to the Nine. , Phocis, the Greeks conjectured, was not only the centre of Greece, but of the whole earth. Delphi was rendered illustrious for the tem- ple and oracle of Apollo, whose responses were always delivered by a priestess. Parnassus, and the fountain of Castalia at its foot, were the haunts of the Muses. Anticyra was famous for the production ol hellebore, once reputed a specific in maniacal cases. Narix was the native place of Ajax. Thermopylae was a famous pass, justly reckoned the key of Greece, and is immortalized from the self-devotion of Leonidas. Where narrowest, there was room only for a single carriage, a ridge of impassable mountains being on the west, and the sea on the east, with deep and dangerous morasses. The iEtolians constituted the best cavalry in Greece. Naupactus was so called from the number of ships built there, but its site is now overflowed by the sea. Acarnania was famous for its horses. On the promontory Leucate, was the rock from which disappointed lovers sought either death or a cure, by leaping into the sea. Through the lake of Acherusia ran the river Acheron, and into the latter flows the Cocytus, both of which, on account of their muddi- ness, were feigned by the poets to be rivers of hell. In the interior ol Epirus, was the most ancient oracle of Greece, the grove, or vocal oaks of Dodona, sacred to Jupiter. Chaonia received its name from Chaon, the companion of Helenus, the son of Priam, who was inadvertently killed in hunting. Pindus was holy to Apollo and the Nine. The Acroceraunian mountains were so called from their tops being struck witli thunder. The vale of Tempe was reckoned the most delicious spot on earth, five miles in length, but in general very narrow. It had mount Olym- pus at the north, and Ossa at the south. These mountains, with Peli- on, according to story, were piled one upon another, by the giants in their war with the gods, to scale heaven. The celebrated spear of Achilles, which none but himself could wield, was cut down on Peli- on ; Thessaly was renowned for excellent horses. Larissa was the city of Achilles, Heraclea was so called from Her- cules, who is said to have consumed himself in a burning pile, on the top of ffita, near this place. Othrys was the abode of the Centaurs. On the banks of Amphrysus, Apollo used to feed the flocks of Adme- tus. Pierus, towards the confines of Macedonia, was sacred to the Muses. The women of Thessaly are said to have possessed remark- able skill in magic. Athos was a mountain through which Xerxes caused a canal fo be cut for the passage of liis army. Several towns stood upon it whose mhabitants were remarkable for their longevity. Stagira was the P2 17A GENERAL VIEWS. birth place of Aristotle, whence he is called the Stagirite. ApoUonia was a place where learning was much cultivated. 8trymon was the river along the banks of which Orpheus is imagined to have lament- ed his lost Eurydice. la the island Corcyra were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous, which produced fruit twice a year. Ithaca was the residence of Ulys- ses. Cicero compares it to a nest in a rock. The Strophades were a cluster of islands fabled to be infested by harpies. The inhabitants of ^gina were famed for being the first people that coined money. Delos was the birth place of Apollo and Diana. It was said to be a floating island. Paros was the birth place of Phidias and Praxi- teles, and celebrated, moreover, for the finest marble. Naxos was fruit- ful in vines, and therefore sacred to Bacchus. Crete was celebrated for its hundred cities, and for tlie laws of Minos established there. The Cretans were celebrated archers. Rhodes was famous for its brazen colossus, or image of the sun, about 105 feet high. The metal which composed it loaded 900 camels Patmos was the island to which the apostle John was banished, and where he wrote the book of revelation. Scio was famous for its wine and earthen wares. Lemnos was sacred to Vulcan. In the forum of lis principal town was the statue of an ox, made by Myron, the back of which, at the winter solstice, was overshadowed by mount Athos, though ^ miles distant. 43. Cities. Of these there were several, the capitals of the (iifTerent states of which Greece was composed, as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and others. But of these, Athens and Sparta were by far the most renoAvned. Athens, the capital of Attica, was so called from Athense, one of the names of the goddess Minerva, the protectress of the city. It was called by the ancients, for its glory in the arts and sciences, the learned city, the eye of Greece, the school of tlie world. It w^as situated in a large plain, about five miles from the sea, having in the midst of it, a mount. In its most flourish- ing state, according to Dio Chrysostom, it was 25 miles in cir- cumference. It was divided into the upper city or citadel, and the lower city. Both contained 440,000 inhabitants, the far greater part of whom were slaves. § Tlie citadel was built on the rocky mount already mentioned. It was called the Acropolis, or the upper city. When from the increase of its inhabitants, the loM^er grounds were occupied by buildings, these constituted the lower city. The upper city was 16 miles in circumference, and was surround- ed by a strong wall, beautified by 9 gates, to one of which, called the £(rand entrance, the Athenians ascended by steps, covered with white marble. GREECE. 175 The lower city contained all the buildings that surrounded the ci- ^*iajftadel, and was encompassed with strong walls. In the citadel were several magnificent edifices, the chief of which were the temple of Neptune, and the beautiful temple of Minerva, called Parthenon. These still continue. The lat- ter is justly esteemed one of the noblest remains of antiquity. It is 229 feet long, 101 broad, and 69 high. In the lower city, the most magnificent structure of Athens, and scarcely paralleled in the ancient world, was the temple of Jupiter Olympus. It was supported on marble columns, and was half a mile in circuit. In both portions of Athens there were many other splendid structures, and monuments without number, some of th« proudest efforts of art and genius that the world ever beheld. § Athens had three harbours on the Saronic gulf, which were joined to the city by two walls, called the long walls.' The length -of one of these was five miles, that of the other nearly the same. There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and near Athens, the principal of which were the Academy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges. A Gymnasium was a large edifice designed to accommodate many thousands of people together, with places for the exercises of the youth, and with apartments for philosophers, rhetoricians, &c. to de- liver their lectures. A garden and sacred grove were attached to this edifice. Sparta, called also Lacedeemon, was built upon the banks of the river Eurotas, and at the foot of mount Taygetus. It was the capital of the province of Laconia. It was of a circu- lar form, and about 6 miles in circumference. The houses were not built close together, but divided into different villa- ges, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. It was destitute of walls, till it fell under the dominion of tyiants, after the time of Alexander. The bravery of its citizens was its defence. § Sparta was divided into different villages, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. Of these villages there Avere five, built round an eminence at different distances, each of which was occupied by one of the five tribes of Sparta. The prevailing manners were hostile to external splendour, and therefore the houses of the Spartans were destitute of ornaments. The great Square, or forum, however, in which several streets terminated, was embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the pub- lic edifices, in which the assemblies of the various bodies of magistrates were held. Sparta was also adorned with a large number of monuments, in 176 GENERAL VIEWS. Honour of the gods and ancient heroes. Religious respect wa«5 shown to the memory of Hercules, Tyndarus, Castor, Pollux, Leonidas, &c. In the environs of the city were courses for horse and foot races, and places of exercises for youth shaded by beautiful plane trees. Indeed, Sparta was surrounded, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive and plane trees, gardens, and summer houses. Corinth, the capital of Achaia, was seated on the Istlimus, which separates Peloponnesus from Attica. It lay between two. seas, and had two ports, one on each coast. Its citadel stood on the peak of a hill called Acrocorinthus. This city was one of the hest peopled and most wealthy in Greece. It was destroyed by Munnnius, the Roman general, during the Achaean league. Corinth was partly rebuilt by Julius Caesar. § The neat order of the pillars which are used at this day, in the decoration of all fine buildings, took from this city the name of Co- rinthian pillars. Its citizens made high pretensions to politeness, philosophy, and learning. Corinth enjoyed its liberty, and immense traffic, tiU B. C. 146, when it was taken and burned by the Romans. It was then deemed the strongest city in the world, and was a distinguished seat of opulence and the fine arts. Since that period it has been often burned, plun- dered, and subjugated, till of late, under the tyranny of the Turks, it was so decayed, that the population did not exceed 1500 souls, one half Mahometans, and the other half Christians. Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, was situated on the river Ismenus. It had seven gates, with walls about seven miles in circumference. It was demolished by Alexander, and re- built by Cassander. Under Epaminondas, the Thebans be- came masters of Creece ; but in Strabo's time (15 or 20 years A. C.) Thebes was only an inconsiderable village. § In the dreadful period of its demolition by Alexander, 6000 of its inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold for slaves. The house in which the great lyric poet Pindar was born and educated, was ordered to be spared, and all the rest to be destroyed. 44. Govermnent. In general the government of Greece partook of a republican character, though it varied at different periods, and was in fact different in the several states. In some of them it exhibited the features of monarchy or aristocracy. They frequently entered into leagues and confederacies with each other, and in this respect bore some faint resemblance to the present government of the United States of America. But on this article we are under the necessity of speaking of the respective states of Greece, chiefly Athens and Sparta, who were, in general, so superior to the rest. GREECE. 177 Government of Athens. \ The government of Athens was at first monarchical, but after the death of Codriis, it became in a degree democratic. Classes of the inhabitants. The Athenians were divided into three classes, citizens or fieemen, foreigners or sojourners, and slaves. Citizens were the privileged class, who held ex- clusively the offices of government. The privileges of citizen ship were obtained with difficulty, and deemed of great value They were conferred only by an assembly of the people, except where they were inherited by those whose parents were citizens. § The citizens of Athens were divided into ten tribes; but they were not limited to the city, a part ofthem residing in the small boroughs of Attica. Tliese tribes were named after certain ancient heroes each tribe was again subdivided into three parts, and each of these into 30 families. Sojourners were persons who came from a foreign country, and settled with their famihes in Attica. They were per- mitted to exercise trades in the city, and were protected by the government, but had no vote in the assembl}^, nor could they be raised to any office. § In some instances, when they had rendered important services, they were adopted into the class of citizens. Slaves or servants were distinguished into two sorts. The first consisted of free born citizens who, through poverty, were forced to serve for wages. These could either change their masters or release themselves when able to procure a subsist- ence. The second sort were wholly at the disposal of their masters, and in general placed beyond the hope of procuring their own freedom, or leaving it as a legacy to their children. § Sometimes slaves obtained their freedom by fighting for the re- public, or purchased it by means of their savings. Magistrates. The Athenian magistrates were divided into three sorts, distinguished by the different methods of their election. These were, 1. the Chirotoneti, chosen by the people in a lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their hands. 2. The Cleroti, first approved by the people, and then drawn by lot. 3. The Ereti, extraordinary officers appointed by particular tribes, to take care of any business. § The poorer citizens were eligible to office ; yet it was seldom that any but the most distinguished persons, were actually appointed as magistrates. The candidates were required to give an account of their past life in th.e public forum. Magistrates, while in office, \vere liable to be tried on an accusation of neglect of duty ; and after their term of office had expired, they 178 GENERAL VIEWS. were obliged to render an account of their conduct. During thirty days, any man who cho&e might bring a complaint of mal-adminis- tration. The visual government of Athens was carried on by the Archons, the Senate of 500, and assemblies of the people. The Archons held the supreme executive power. They were elected annually, and by the second method above named, viz. by lot. They wore garlands of myrtle, were pro- tected from violence and insult, and were exempted from certain taxes. § The archons were nine in number. The first was called archon, by way of eminence. He decided on causes between married persons, also concerning wills, divorces, and legacies. He was the general guardian of orphans. Some other important concerns were assigned to him. The second archon was styled Basileus, and wore a crown. The third archon was called Polemarch. The six remaining archons were named Thesmothetae. Their respective duties need not be de- scribed. Suffice it to say, that the concern of the archons, as such, was the execution of laws and the general superintendence of the republic. Subordinate magistrates regulated minor details in the police. The Senate of five hundred was elected annually by lot, from the different tribes. The business of this body was to consider all proposals intended to come before the people, and to see that nothing improper should be submitted. § The power of this senate was considerable. They debated all measures of public interest and welfare, examined the acounts of magistrates, took care of the fleet, and could punish for offences not prohibited by any law. Assemblies of the people were convened for the purpose of consulting on what was most beneficial to the commonwealth. The right of attending them was enjo3^ed by all the freemen of Athens. Strangers, slaves, women, and persons who had received an infamous punishment, were excluded. They were held four times every 35 days, and also in cases of pecu- liar emergency. § The smallest number of which an assembly could legally consist was 6000 citizens. The assembhes decided respecting peace or war ; received ambassadors ; confirmed or abrogated laws ; nomniated to almost every important office, &c. Here was the field in which the good or the bad influence of the orators of Athens was exerted ; in which their talents were elicited, and their fame acquired; in which Pericles "thundered," ^schines charmed, and Demosthenes ruled the hearts of men. There were also other bodies of men occasionally concerned GREECE. 179 in the government of Athens, as various courts, particularly that celebrated one called Areopagus. The name of this court was taken from the place where it was held, viz. Mars' Hill. It was in the greatest repute throughout Greece for the wisdom and justice of its proceedings. It took cognizance of crimes, abuses, and innovations either in religion or government I* inspected the laws and public manners. The strictest propriety of conduct was required of the members Expulsion followed any act of gross immorality. To laugh during the sitting of the court, was thought a very blameable levity. There was an absurd peculiarity in the government of Athens, which should not be omitted. It was ostracism, a kind of popular judgment so call from ostrakon, a shell, or tile, on which votes were written. § The following was the process in this condemnation. The people being assembled, each citizen writing on a shell the name of the individual most obnoxious to him without the allegation of a cnnie, carried it to a certain part of the market place fixed for this purpose, and deposited it there. These shells were numbered in gross by the archons. If they did not amount to 6000, the ostracism was void. If they amounted to this number, the archons, laying every name by itself, pronounced him, whose name was written by the major part, banished for ten years, with leave to enjoy his estate. Hence it was that so many eminent citizens suffered from the ingratitude or the spleen of the Athenians. Government of Sparta. Classes of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta consisted of citizens and slaves, or Helots. The citizens were divided into two classes, the Homoii, and the Hypomiones. The privileges of these varied ; the former were eligible to office ; the latter consisting of the poorer citizens, the freed- men and their sons, were allowed only to vote at the elections. The slaves, or Helots, were much more numerous than the citizens. Their services were similar to those of servants in general, though less severe than those of servants elsewhere m Greece. Kings. The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, called kings, but they differed from those of most other nations. They formed a check upon each other, and their power otherwise w^as very limited. § Every month they took an oath that they would rule according to the laws ; one of them commanded the army, while the other usually remained at home to administer the laws. As first citizens of the state, they presided in the senate, but their peculiar prerogative was to superintend the religion of the state. 180 GENERAL VIEWS. Senate. This bod}' consisted, togetlier with the two kings?, of twenty-eight members, wiio were above sixty years of age. and elected to the office for hfe, and on accoiuit of their virtue. Their duty was to consider all questions respecting peace or v^ar, and other important affairs of the repubhc. Eplwri. The Ephori were five magistrates, elected annu- ally by the citizens, to inspect the education of the youth, and the administration of justice. Assemblies. The public assemblies were held to decide on matters laid before them by the Senate. There were two of these bodies ; one was called (he general assembly, attended by all the freemen of Laconia ; the other, the lesser assembly, composed of the Spartans alone, who exceeded thirty years of age. It is to be noticed, that the kings, as well as the other magistrates, constituted a portion of these bodies. Government of the other States of Greece. liike Athens and Sparta, the government of the other sovereignties of Greece was, for the most part, republican. In some of them there was a preponderance of aristocracy, in others of democracy. TheJDes was more nearly a monarchy. § Many of the sovereigns of Thebes were celebrated for their mis- fortunes, such as Laius, OEdipus, Polyniees, &c. Pertaining to the government of the Greeks, as a confede- rated body, was the Ampliictyonic Council. This was an as- sembly composed, at first, of a few states in the northern parts of Greece, but afterwards of twelve states, the object of which was the decision of all differences betw^een cities, and to try such offences as openly violated the laws of nations. § The number of deputies usually sent to this council was two from each state. It met twice a year. The vernal assembly was held at Delphi, and the autumnal at Thermopylae. 45. Military Affairs. The armies of the different states of Greece consisted, for the most part, of citizens, whom the laws of their coimtry obliged at a certain age to appear in arras, at the summons of the magistrate. § Tlie main body of the Grecian armies was composed of infantry. The rest rode in chariots, upon horseback, or upon elephants. The Greek arms were at first made of brass, and the boots, and some other parts, of tin. Iron became afterwards the chief material. The defensive arms were a helmet, a breast- GREECE. 181 plate, and a plate for the back, greaves to defend the legs, guards for the hands, a sort of belt which covered a part of the body in front, and a shield. The offensive arms were the spear, or pike, the sword, the pole axe, a club of wood or iion, the bow and arrow^, darts or javelins, and slings, § The Greeks, however brave in the field, Avere very inefficient in undertaking the siege of walled towns. Their armies were generally the militia of the country, called out to temporary service. The severest punishments were inflicted by the Lacedaemonians on deserters, or cowards, who fled from battle. They forfeited all the privileges and honours of citizens ; it was a disgrace to intermarry with them ; they might be beaten by any who met them, without the liberty of self-defence ; and they wore some distinguishing dress as a mark of infamy. Archilochus, the poet, was banished Sparta for writing an epigram, in which he jestingly related the loss of liis shield. 46. Naval Affairs. The Greek ships consisted chiefly of three sorts : ships of war, those of burthen, and those of pas- sage. § Ships of passage were used as transports ; ships of burthen served as "tenders, and were usually of a round form ; ships of war contained the men and the weapons by which the naval engagement was car- ried on, and were distinguished by the several orders or banks of oars which they possessed. These were not fixed in a vertical line over each other, but back of each other, ascending gradually in the form of stairs. 47. Religion. The Greeks, who w^ere heathens, w^or- shipped great numbers of gods and demi-gods, w horn they divided into three classes : — celestial, marine, and infernal. They were all subject to Jupiter, who was considered the father of gods and men. The above classes are according to their degrees of dignity. § The gods of Greece are described by the poets according to tradi- tion, and with such embellishments as poetic genius could invent. As the Greeks had no sacred books, these fictions, sanctioned also by the priests and legislators, were the only authority for the popular belief. The account we here give of the mythology of the Greeks is to be regarded as a description only of their principal deities, and under the forms in which the poets, sculptors, and painters, represented them. If this article should appear to be somewhat particular, compared with the others respecting Greece, it is beCause the mythology of this coimtry is the same nearly with that of the whole ancient world, and is necessary to be known in reading the Grecian and Roman classics. The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury Q 182 GENERAL VIEWS. Bacchus, Vulcaii; Juno, Minerva, Venus. Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. Jupiter was the son of Saturn and Cybele; and born at the same birth, with Juno, on mount Ida in Crete. He deposed his father, and divided the world between himself and his brethren, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction of the sea, and Pluto that of the infernal regions. The sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to huiiself. One of his great exploits was the conquest of the Titans, or giants, who heaped mountains upon mountains to scale heaven. Jupiter was guilty of indulging the basest lusts, although he is generally re- presented as the father of men and gods, as shaking heaven witli his nod, and governing all things, except the Fates, by his power as su- preme. His altars were never defiled v/ith human sacrifices. He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated on a throne, with a sceptre in one hand, and thunderbolts in the other, and at his feet an eagle with expanded v/ings. Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Laiona,-and born 'in the island of Delos. He presided over music, medicine, poetry, divination, the fine arts, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, he was banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to AdmetuSj king of Thessaly, in wliicli employment he remained nine years. His adventures on earth n re represented as extraordinary. Among others he flayed Marsyas alive for contending with him in music ; he caused Midas to receive a pair of ass's ears for preferring Pan's mu- sic to liis ; he turned into a voilet t;ie beautiful Irjy Hyacinthus, whom he accidentally killed with a que it ; and his niistress Daphne he me- tamorphosed into a laurel. He is represented as a tall, beardless youth, with rays round his head; sometimes he holds a lyre in his hand, sometimes lie has a bo\v^, with a quiver of arrows at his back. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, He was the god of war, and patron of all that is bloody,^ cruel, and furious. The horse, the wolf, the magpie, and the vulture, Avere offered to him. He had his temples in all nations, as well as among the Greeks and Romans. During the Trojan war Mars was wounded by Diomedes, and hastily retreating to heaven, complained to Jupiter, that Minerva liad direct- ed the v/eapon of his antagonist. He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot, drawn by tv/o horses, called Fliglit and Terror ; his sister Bellona, was his charioteer. Discord goes before him in a tattered garment with a torch, and AngeT and Clamour follow. Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the messenger of the gods, the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves, and dishonest persons. U^ exploits abundantly support this charac- ter. Mercury was doubtless some enlightened person in a remote age, who, on account of his actions or services was worshipped afte' his death. His Greek name, Hermes, signifies to interpreter explain, and he appears to have taught men the arts of civilization. GREECE. 183 He is represented as a naked youth, standing on tiptoe, having a winged cap on his head, and winged sandals on his feet ; in one hand he held a rod, and in the other a purse. Bacchus was the son of Jupiter and Semele, and the god of wine. His festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran about the hills and country shouting, and accompanying their shouts with drums, fifes, and flutes. These solemnities were attended with disgusting scenes of drunkenness and debauchery. The fir, 3"ew, and fig tree, the ivy and vine, were sacred to him. Bacchus is depicted as a corpulent and ruddy youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves ; holding in his hand a small javelin bound with vine leaves ; his chariot is drawn by lions. Vulcan, the god of fire, and patron of those who wrought in the metallic arts, was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was kicked out -of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a chain by which she was suspeiid'^d. He continued to descend nine days and nights, and lighted on the island of Lemnos, but was crip- pled ever after. Vulcan was the artificer of heaven ; he forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms of gods and demi-gods. Though deformed, squalid, and sooty, he is made the husband of Venus and father of Cupid. Vulcan is represented as working at a forge. One hand raising a hammer ready to strike, the other holding a thunderbolt with pin- cers on an anvil. An eagle waits to carry it 'to Jupiter when finished. Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of Jupiter. She was born at Argos, or as some report, in Samos. In her character she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable, though the ancients held her in great veneration, inasmuch as she presided over power, empire, and riches, and was the special protectress of mar- riage and child birth. She was lofty, graceful, and magnificent in her face, figure, and motion, and of all the pagan divinities her worship was the most so- lemn and general. She is represented seated on a throne, or in a chariot drawn by peacocks, with a diadem or fillet adorned with jewels on her head, and a golden sceptre in her hand. Iris, displaying the rich colours of the rainbow, is her usual attendant. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, sprang completely armed from the head of Jupiter. She was the most accomplished of all the god- desses, and the only divinity tliat seemed equal to Jupiter. She was a benificent goddess, and instructed in shipbuilding, navigation, spin- ning, and weaving. Her worship was universally established, but Athens claimed her particular attention. She is represented as a majestic female, of commanding aspect, armed with a helmet, breastplate, shield, and spear. By her side, or on her crest, is an owl, the bird which is sacred to her. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupi- 184 GENERAL VIEWS. ter and Dione, or as some say, she sprung from the froth of the sea. She was hcentions in a high degree, and her worship was celebrated Avith the most disgraceful ceremonies. The most beautiful of her temples Avere those of Paphos, Cnidus, Cythera, and Idalia. The island of Cyprus was her favourite residence. She is represented as a beautiful woman, elegantly attired, and girt about the waist with a cestus, or girdle, that had the power of inspi- ring love. Diana was the queen of the woods and the goddess of hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and had for her attendants 80 nymphs, all of whom abjured the rites of marriage. Among plants, the poppy and dittany were sacred to her. She is represented as a tall, majestic woman, lightly clad, with a crescent on her forehead, a bow in her hand, a quiver on her shoul- ders, her legs bare, and buskins on her feet. Ceres, the goddess of corn and harvest, was the daughter of Sa- turn and C^^bele, and the first who taught to cultivate the earth. She was a beneficent goddess, but led a licentious life. To her honour the Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated. She is represented as a majestic and beautiful woman, crowned with ears of corn ; in one hand she held poppies and ears of corn, and in the other a lighted torch. Vesta was the goddess of fire, and guardian of houses and hearths. She ever remained a virgin, and received the first oblations in sacri- fice. She was represented in a long, flowing robe, a veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. The marine deities were Neptune, and his wife Amphi- trite, Oceanus and his wife Thetj^s, Triton, Proteus, Nereus, and his sister and consort Doris, &c. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was second in rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. Conspiring against Jupiter, he was defeated, banished from heaven, and for one year made subject to Laomedon, king of Troy, where he assisted to build the walls of that city. Neptune is represented seated in a chariot made of a shell and drawn by dolphins and sea horses, surrounded In^ tritons, nymphs, and sea monstt^rs. On his head he wears a crown, and in his hand holds a trident, or sceptre, with three prongs. Oceanus, a sea god, was the son of Cesium and Vesta. He was called the father, not only of rivers, but of animals. He and his wife Thetys are said to have had 3000 sons. Triton, also a sea god, Avas the son of Neptune and Amphitrite ; he was his fatlier's companion and trumpeter. Half of him resembles a man ; the other part is like a fish ; his two feet are like the fore feet of a horse ; his tail is cleft and crooked like a half moon ; and his hair resembles wild parsley. Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daugh- ters by his wife Doris, who were called Nereids. GREECE. 185 Proteus, the son of Oceanus, a god of the sea, could foretell future events, and change himself into any shape. The infernal deities were Pluto and bis consort Proserpine, Plutus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Mi- nos, Ji]acus, and Rhadamanthus. § Pluto, who exercised dominion over hell, was the brother of Ju- piter. The goddesses all refusing to marry him on account of his de- formity and gloomy disposition, he seized Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, carried her to his residence, married, and made her queen of hell. No temples were raised to his honour. He is represented seated on a throne of sulphur, from beneath which flow the rivers Lethe, Phlegethon, Cocytus, and Acheron. His countenance is stern; on his head is a radiated crown; in one hand a sceptre with two teeth, called a bident, and in the other, two keys. Plutus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches. He was lame, blind, injudicious, and timorous. Charon was the ferryman of hell, an old man with white hair, a long beard and garments, deformed with filth, in speech morose, and ill-tempered. Every gliost paid a small brass coin for his fare. None could enter Charon's boat without a regular burial ; without this, they wandered a hundred years, amidst the mud and slime of the shore. By him departed souls were ferried over the four rivers ol hell, and carried to Pluto's palace. The Furies were three in number, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megara. They have the faces of women, their looks are full of terror, they hold lighted torches in their hands, and snakes lash their necks and shoulders. Their office is to observe and punish the crimes of bad men, and torment the consciences of secret offenders. ■ The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter by Themis. Their names were Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. They decided on the fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread of life, Lachesis turned the wheel, and Atropos cut it with her scissors. Minos, ^acus, and Rliadamanthus, were the three judges of the souls of the dead. They assigned various punishments to the wick- ed, adapted to their crimes ; to the good they gave a place in the de- lightful realms of Elysium. There were many other divinities of various characters and descriptions : as, Cupid, the god of love ; the Muses, who pre- sided over poetry, music, dancing, and the liberal arts ; the Graces, &c. § Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged boy, with a bow and arrows, and often with a bandage over his eyes. Sometimes he is bestriding the back of a lion, playing on a lyre ; sometimes he appears mounted on a dolphin ; at others, breaking the winged thunderbolt of Jove, or amusing himself with childish diver- sions. The Muses were the daughters of Jupiter by Mnemospie. They were nine in number viz. U2 186 GENERAL VIEWS. 1st. Calliope, wlio presides over eloquence and heroic or epic poe- tiy, such as Homer's Iliad. 2d. Clio, Avho presides over history. 3d. Erato, the muse ol elegiac or lyric poetry. 4th. Euterpe, presiding over music. 5th. Melpomene, the inventress and muse of tragedy. 6th. Polyhymnia, the muse of singing and rhetoric. 7th. Terpsichore, who presides over dancing. 8th. Thalia, the muse of pastoral or comic poetry. 9th. Urania, who presides over hymns and sacred subjects, and is the muse of astronomy. The Graces WTre the daughters of Bacchus and Venus, and three in number. They were supposed to give to beauty its attractions, and to render even homeliness pleasing. They are usually represented as young and blooming virgins, fightly clad, and holding each other by the hand, to show the mutual affection that subsisted between them. Besides these, there were rural deities, as Pan, Sylvanns, Piiapus, Aristaius, Terminus, and others. There were also the Sirens, Gorgons, Harpies, Dryads, Naiads, Nereids, Tri- tons, Lares, Penates, Fauns, Sat3as, Pales, and a vast number of Nymphs. § Pan was the principal among the inferior deities, and was the god of hunters, shepherds, and country people generally. Sylvanus was next to Pan, and presided over woods. Priapus pre- sided over gardens. Aristoeus in^'ented the art of extracting oil from olives, and found the use of honey. Terminus was considered as watching over the boundaries of lands. The Sirens were three fabulous persons, Avhowere said to have the faces of women, and the lo^^■e^ parts of tlieir bodies like fish. Thej^ had such melodious voices, that mariners were often allured by them to their own destruction. The Gorgons, three sisters, had the power of transforming those into stones who looked at them. The Harpies are said to have been winged monsters which had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. Tire Dryads were nymphs who presided over the woods. The Naiads were nymphs of springs and fountains. The Nereids were nymphs of the sea, and daughters of Nereus and Doris. The Tritons were sea gods, with their upper parts like a man, and their lower parts resembling a fish. The Lares and Penates were inferior deities who presided over houses and families. The Fauns and Satyrs were rural demi-gods, the one attending on Pan, and the other on Bacchus. Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures. The Nymphs were celestial and terrestrial ; the former guided the GREECE. 187 heavenly bodres, the latter presided over the woods. Tliey are repre- sented as beaiitiiul creatures, inhabiting every forest and glen. The worship of these divinities was conducted by priests dressed in costly habits, W'ho oHered sacrifices of animals, fruits, perfumes, &c. These sacrifices w-ere sometimes ac- companied by prayers, music, dancing, &c. Human victims were occasionally sacrificed. § The Greeks derived their religion principally from Egypt ; but by degrees the legislators, poets, and priests, extended it, till the multitude of gods was almost innumerable. Thirty thousand ob- jects of worship have been emmierated among them. These deities were supposed frequently to mingle in the affairs of men, and are re- presented as being stained with almost every vice. Temples were erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices offered, with more or less pomp to all these gods, as also to the souls of departed heroes. The religion of the common people consisted chiefly in the exter- nal honours paid to their gods, and an attendance upon sacrifices and ceremonies, though these were performed with great reverence. With respect to a7uture state of existence, the philosophers seem to have been in doubt. The poets inculcated a belief in Tartarus, or Hell, and Elysiunij or Paradise. Women were not encouraged with amr hope of immortality. JOf Hell they have draw^i a picture in the most gloomy and horrific colours, w^here men Avho have been remarJcable for wickedness are tortured w^itli a variety of miseries adapted to their crimes J The prospect of Elysuim is described by Homer, Hesiod. Pindar, and others, as beautiful and inviting in the liighest degree. In that delightful region, there is no inclement wreath er, but soft w inds blow from the ocean to refresh the inhabitants, who live without care or anxiety ; there reigns perpetual sunshine and serenity of sky ; and the f rtile earth produces thrice in a year delicious fruits for their sustenance. With the religion of the Greeks w^ere connected their tem- ples, oracles, games, &c. |The principal temples of the Greeks w^ere those of Diana. at Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of Miletus, of Ceres and Pro- serpine, at Eleusis, and that of Olympian Jove, at Athens. These were all built of marble, and adorned with the finest ornaments. The most celebrated Grecian temple, however, was that of Apollo at Delphos, which w^as revered and resort- ed to by all the surrounding nations. I § Statues of the gods, to whom these structures were dedicated, were erected in or near the centre of the building, and enclosed by a 188 GENERAL VIEWS. railing. Sacrifices of various kinds \Yere made before these statue? the ceremonies of which were generally conducted by the priests. Temples among the heathen most probably owe their origin to the superstitious reverence paid by the ancients to the memory of their deceased friends and benefactors. As most of their gods were eminent men, who \v'ere consecrated after death ; so the first heathen temples, we naturally infer, were stately monuments erected in ho- nour of the dead. Oracles were consulted by the Greeks on all important oc- casions, and their determinations were held sacred and invio- lable. There were certain temples, in which fiitm'e events were made known to those who devoutly sought to know the will of superior powers. Certain priests or priestesses commu- nicated this supposed will. § Well have they been called lying oracles, in comparison with the clear predictions of the prophets of Jehovah in the scriptures ! The most celebrated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and De- los, tlie oracle of Jupiter, at Dodona, and that of Trophonius. The public and solemn games in Greece were the Olym- pic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian — four in number. The contests at these games were running, leaping, throwing the quoit, boxing, and wrestling. Horse ra<)es and chariot races were also in repute. Besides these, there were contests fci which musicians, poets, artists, and philosophers, engaged lor victory. These occasions drew together people frcoii all parts of Greece, and even strangers from foreign coumries. The ut- most emulation obtained to secure the prizes, which were wieaths of various evergreens ; and the highest honours and respect were shown towards the victors. Their praises were universally celebrated. The effect of these games on the national spirit was remarkable. § The Olympic Games were instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olympius, 1223 years B. C, and renewed after a long period, first by Lycurgus, 884 B. C, and next by Corcebus, 776 B. C. The last period is tlie era of the first Olympiad. An Olympiad was the space (which was four years,) intervening between one celebrat^n and another — the Greek method of computing time. The victors were crowned with olive. The Pythian Games were celebrated every fifth year, in the second year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honour of Apollo. The vic- tors were crowned witli laurel. The exercises were nearly the same as at the Olympic. The Nemean Games, which were mstituted by Hercules, were ce- lebrated every third year kt the town of Nemea, with the usual ex ereises. The victors were crowned with parsley. GREECE. 189 The Isthmian Games were celebrated near the Isthmus of Corinth, whence they derived their name. Their occurrence was every third, and afterwards every fifth year. The victors were crowned with gar- lands of pine leaves. 48. Literature. In literature, Greece was the glory of the whole eartli. No nation, ancient or modern, lias ever r,urpassed the Greeks in literary taste and genius. Since their time, great advances have indeed been made in the sci- ences, strictly so called, and in some branches of polite learn- ing ; yet in chaste and beautiful coinposition, in hveliness of fancy, in sweetness of periods, in tl)e various forms of intel- lectual effort under the names of poetry, oratory, and history, they are still unrivalled, in mere human productions. § The Greeks derived a part of their le^irning from Egypt and Phcenicia, but they originated much of it, and here consists then pe- culiar gloTy. The praise of invention belongs to them, and even of perfection in some departments. Cadmus tauglit them the alphabet 1519 years B. C, It then con- tained but 16 letters, and the method of writing was from left to right, and from right to left alternately. This circumstance essenti- ally contributed to the rapid advances made by the Greeks in civili- zation and knowledge. • Poetry, in Greece, was extremely ancient. It was cultivated even before the introduction of letters. In the various forms under which it is usually arranged, there are specimens of surpassing excellence, and names that can never be forgotten. § In epic poetry, we find the sublime Homer, and the moral Hesi- od. In lyric poetry, shine the gay Anacreon, the sweet Sappho, and the fanciful and daring Pindar. In the drama we meet the names of the wild ^Eschylus, the pa- thetic Euripides, tiie pure and grand Sophocles, and the delicate Me- nander. In pastoral poetry, we read of the easy Bion and the ele- gant Moschus ; and every classical scholar knows,lhat Theocritus is only another name for simplicity and nature. Oratory was greatly cultivated among the Greeks, parti- cularly in Athens, whose institutions were rather more free than was elsewlrere the case in Greece. It became an object of attention soon after the Persian invasion, about 480 years B. C, It was cultivated with singular success— was hold and vehement at first, but after^vards more refined and elegant. § Here Pericles awed, by the majesty of his expressions ; Thucy- dides, who was an orator, as well as a historian, arrested the thoughts of others, by the force of his own. Here Isocrates soothed the ear by harmony of periods, and Demosthenes flashed conviction and im- pehed to action, by the united energy of his gesture, voice, and ar- guments. 190 GENERAL VIEWS. History, after those earlier ages in which poetry was the vehicle of recorded events, was cultivated with an interest and success demanded by its importance. The Greeks possessed several most distinguished historians. § Sucli were Herodotus, who was characterized by a simple and elegant style and engaging manner ; Thucydides, whose reflections were profound, and fidelity unequalled ; Xenoplion, who combined simpiieity of style with sagacity of observation. Philosophy among th^ Greeks, was divided into various schools or sects. The professors of philosophy arose from the early Rhapsodists — men who recited the poems of Homer and others at the pul^hc games, connnenting at tlie same time upon them, and wJio, having established schools, were digni- lied by the name of sophists, or teachers of wisdom. The ervaded all orders of the community, 3* ,i/ S<) MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. At tlie period of Trajan's death, the empire comprehend ed the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Ne- therlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barhary, Bile dulgerid, Turkey in Europe and in Asia, and Persia. At the demise of Aurelius, it was a little diminished in size, but still too large to be preserved entire, amidst the profligacy of the times. 21. Commodus, the son of Aurelius, had been nominated by his father to succeed him, and he accordingly now mounted the throne, 180 A. C. He had nothing but the merits of his father to commend him to the Roman people. He inherited the disposition of his infamous mother, Faustina, rather than of Aurelius. The change from the reign of the father to the son was indeed a most gloomy one. It is a singular fact, that the most detestable of all the emperors was the son of the best. Commodus was given to low vices and mean pursuits--- was fond of the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gla- diators. His adjuinistration of the government was entirely weak, contemptible, and tyrannical. He perished by assas- sination, in the thirty-second year of his age, and the thir- teenth year of his reign, 193 A. C § It had been happy for himself and mankind, had Commodus cul- tivated his mind, as he did his body, (for he was wonderfully expert ill all corporeal exercises :) but he was averse to every rational and liberal pursuit. He spent the day in feasting, and the night in the vilest debaucheries. His cruelty combined with avarice and levity, cannot be too strong- ly held up for the detestation of mankind. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining with Commodus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in such a manner as he chose. He commanded a person to be thrown among wild beasts, for reading the life of Caligula in Suetonius. He would .sonietimes, in a frolic, cut off men's noses, under a pretence of shav- ing their beards ; yet he was himself so jealous of mankind, that he was obliged to be his own barber ; or as some have said, he used to burn his beard, after the example of Dionysius, the tyrant. In imitating Hercules with his club and lion's skin, he would fu- riously fall upon a company of beggars in the streets, and beat them to death ; having first dressed them up like giants and monsters, and giving them sponges to throw at him, instead of stones. In such a manner did this wretch spend his time, while the trou- bk^H of his empire were daily increasing, and its strength and terri - ROMAN EMPIRE. Si tories were diminishing by frequent warfares on the frontiers. He iiarrowly escaped destruction several times, from his personal exas- perated foes. But he was destined at length justly to fall. His favourite concubine, Marcia, who accidentally discovered the em- peror's determination to put her to death, with other conspirators, found the means of destroying him, partly by poison and partly by strangling. 22. Pertinax, who bad been fixed upon by the conspirators as the successor of Commodus, was joyfully proclaimed by the praetorian guards, 1 93 A. C. Originally he was the son of an enfranchised slave, but rose to esteem by his virtues and military talents. Applying himself to the correction of abuses with too unsparing and rash a hand, he alienated the affections of a corrupted people, and was deposed and mur- dered by the same guards that had placed him on the throne, after a reign of only three months, aged sixty-eight years. The loss which the empire felt in the death of such a man is greater than can be weU conceived. 23. Didius Julianus, next succeeded to the empire 193 A. C, having purchased it of the praetorian guards, who put it up to the higliest bidder. At the same time, several com- manders in the distant provinces, were each proclaimed by their respective forces. These, however, lost their lives ex- cept Septimius Severus, who marched to Rome and seized the government. Didius was liereupon deposed and put to death by the senate in tlie fifth month of his reign. § Didius presents a striking instance of the cupidity of the hiv- man mind for power, and of the infelicities that attend it. He was a man of consular rank, and the richest citizen of Rome. Hearing the singular proclamation of the praetorian guards, and charmed with the prospect of unbounded dominion, he hastened to the camp, and bid the largest price for the empire. He gave to eacl\ soldier (10,000 in number) the sum of 6250 drachmas, which amounts to nearly 9,000,000 dollars, in the whole. From this period he was exposed to disappointment, mortifica- tion, insult, and danger. Indulging his ease and his avaricious dis- position, he soon offended those who made him emperor. He was contemptuously treated at home, while two or more generals in the provinces abroad, disclaimed his authority. Upon the approach of Severus, he could raise no ferces to meet him. He was nearly dis- tracted by the multiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity and distress became extreme and overwhelming. The senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution, resolved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then was no longer problematical ; and though he persisted that he had 32 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. a right to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his life, as h6 had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners, obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im- mediately struck off his head. 24. Seplimius Sevems was now at the head of the Roman world, 193 A. C. He was an Aftican by birth, and possessed a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition. He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character, which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms was sustained during his reign. In his administration of govern- ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly despotic. In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex- tending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his tw^o sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em- peror the greatest inquietude. § The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to degrade the prsetorian soldiers, whose irregularity had already be- come too conspicuous. These he stript of tlieir title, and banished one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged m a terri- ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, whom he finally conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi- tor, who commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle, in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history. It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without any apparent advantage on either side. It M'as decided at length by a body of reserve, in favour of Severus. His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome. Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to v/hom he had committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visits ing the cities of Italy ; and finally in affording protection to all parts of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. The wall which he liere built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by pipes of brass in the wall, which conveyed inteliigence from one garrison to another with incredible dispf^ch. Having given peace to the island, ahd secured it against the irrup- tions of the Caledonians, he began to feel the effects of age and fatigue; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes were to be en- closed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in the following ROMAN EMPIRE. 33 remark. " Little urn," said he, " thou shalt now contain what the world could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death by purposely loading his stomach with food, in his weak state. 25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the throne, 211 A. C. Their association in the empire created a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme degree. Geta was mild and merciful. The former resolv ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta in the arms of his mother. During his reign of six years, he committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off by assassination, 217 A. C. Within this short period the empire was every day declin- ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election ; and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the state, were almost destroyed. § The worst qualities of the worst emperors centered in this impe- rial wretch. He slew his friend Leetius, his own wife Plautina, and Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request by observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than to defend it." He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother had appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents. Upon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd- ed audience in the tlieatre, only for discountenancing a charioteer, whom he happened to favour. As might be expected, he was harrassed with aM^ful terrors. He feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con- venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern an empire, but was unworthy to live. 26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro- claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting him. He was a person of obscure birth, and was deemed severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious, that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. His attempts at discipline, t<^ether with the artifices of the grand- mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the affections of the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his power, after a reign of only fourteen months, 218 A. C. 27. Heliogabalus was, by the army, raised, to the throne 34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of the army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and citizens of Rome. Tiiis emperor proved to be another mon- ster of wickedness of the same rank with Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla. He lived to be only eiglitcen years of age, and yet lived long enough to liasten the fall of the empire, and to cover his name witli eternal infamy. He was mur- dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C. § Heliogabalus was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youth, and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he soon yielded himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe- minacy, lust, folJy, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct were too indecent here to be described. In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri- ed one of his officers. After that he took for husband, one Hierocles, a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guihy of any excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was the duty of a wife to submit to her husband. His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with precious stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount- ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach. His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex- haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and that he chose for this horrid purpose, the most beautiful youths throughout Italy. These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of a mad and vicious boy, who, with the possession of unlimited rule, could do as he pleased. Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan- der his cousin-german as his successor ; but indignant that the af- fections of liis army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an opportunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to the Tyber. ^ 28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C. He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac- ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every way calculated to make his subjects happy, he was greatly ROMAN EMPIRE. 36 honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength, ratlier hastened than delayed its decline. He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age, at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C. § As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa- mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between the christians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put to the uses of drunkenness or debauchery." At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri- cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was admirable. The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu- ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring the senators to their rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his reign, was against the Parthians and Persians, whom he opposed with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war with the empire. His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when- ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed by the famous Origen in the principles of Christianity ; though it does not appear that he embraced tliat religion. 29. Maximinus, who was accessary to the murder of Severus, aiscended the throne upon this event, 23-5 A. C. He w^as the Bon of a Thracian shepherd, and is represented by historians as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strength. He was full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form. He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious. He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al- most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his own soldiers in his tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C. 36 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD I. During the period of his power, the two Gordians, father and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perished. The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, who survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the anxiety w^hich the Romans felt, to free themselves from that tyrant. § Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar- barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the false suspicion of a conspiracy against his life. He caused to be re- moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as he suspected, despised him, on account of his mean origin. When he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appointing others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wild beast, and almost destroyed himself by beating his head against the walls of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit of revenge ; but his bloody machinations were soon stopped. His guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake. Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of his foot could break its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength. He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine. The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and Balbinus, soon embraced an opportunity of despatching them both, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of the former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The senate and people had been too long controlled by the army, on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their consent in the present instance. 30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 2*38 years A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at this time, and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Goths, and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the empire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms. Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian, was chosen prsetorian preefect, under whose administration the people began to be discontented. This state of things Philip fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased, that the praefect ventured to order his execution, with a view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish- ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years. § Gordian was a man so fond of learning, that he had collected C2,000 books in his private library. ROMAN EMPIRE. 37 31. Philip having acquired the empire 244 A. C, by the murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was himself assassinated, while marching against Decius. § Philip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious conduct in gaining the sceptre. 32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of government 249 A. C His activity and wisdom would have stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human means could effect that object. But the tendency to this state of things was irretrievable and fatal. The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be- tween the Pagans and Christians, and the beginning irrup- tions of the barbarous nations from without, were enfeebling the empire beyond remedy. Decius reigned but two years and six months, having been cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus, his general. 33. Gallus, raised to the throne 2.51 A. C, by that part of the army Avhich survived a defeat he had himself occasioned, reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula- ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus, his general, opposed him, and was victorious. § It was in the time of Galkis, that a dreadful pestilence spread over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it. 34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the em- pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex- pectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in- sult, and at length was put to death in the most cruel manner. § Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale- rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory." ^ The manner of Valerian's death is almost too horrid to be men- tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay- ed alive, when his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He was seven years a prisoner. 35. Gallienusj son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 260 4 38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of his father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own base pleasures, while the empire was attacked without, and distracted within. Thirty pretenders were at one time con- tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a violent death. 36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavins Claudius was invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac- tive, wise, and good prince ; but unhappily his reign was short, being less than two years. He died a natural death, which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the profligate emperors. § Claudius opposed with success the Goths, Heruli, &c. who had invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army of 300,000 men ; and he hkewise overthrew the Germans, who had reared the standard of revolt. His energy stayed, for a short time, the decline of the empire. 37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270 A. O. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians,, and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin- cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Queen of the East, whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With great courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his subjects. § His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage- ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900 at different times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to justify his severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt, which fell so near his person, that his escape was thought to be mi- raculous. 38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was elected. At length Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the reins of government, 275 A. C. He was a man of great me-« rit, but unfortunately to the empire, he died of a fever after a reign of only six months, at the age of 75. 39. His successor was Probus, though a minority in the ROMAN EMPIRE. 39 army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed this distinction but two months ; for upon the estabUshment of Probus in the empire, he sought a vokmtary death. Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri- ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarians, and in suppressing the numerous factions which arose in his dominions. Offending his soldiers by obhging them to drain an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he wa.3 slain in a conspiracy which they had formed asrainst him, 282 A. C. § Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish- ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently the first man that, in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's camp. His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em- pire. In a war, however, with the Germans in Gaul, he slew 400,000 men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular- ly the Sarmatians, Goths and Blemii. The last were a people who had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia and Judea. Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was Bonosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im- mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu- mour observed, " There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." 40. Cams, praetorian praefect to the deceased emperor, was chosen by the army to succeed him 282 A. C. He associated with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerian. Cams, and his son Numerian, were worthy of the empire, but Carinus w^as given to vice. Their reign, however, was only of two years' continuance. Cams w^as smitten by a flash of lightning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con- test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor. § Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in his eyes, in conse- quence of which he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In this situation he was murdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper, ^ho was soon cut off by the hand of Diocletian. 41. Diocletian began his reign in 284 A. C, and two year-- afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of Rome were frequently repulsed. At the expiration of about 40 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. eight years from that time, they took two colleagues, Galerius and Constantius ; and bestowed ii]3oii each the title of Caesar. This state of things was novel. There was a four fold division of the government, with two emperors and two Cae- sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle- tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled the whole. In this state, the government was administered a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned their authority into the hands of the two Caesars, and retired into private life 304 A. C. Diocletian seems to have been sincere in b.is abdication, as he contentedly spent eight or nine years in rural privacy, and in cultivating his garden. Maxim ian soon began to be dis- contented, and made several attempts, but in vain, to resume his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan- tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di- ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian perished 310 A. C. § Diocletian's parentage was mean. According to some lie was the son of a scrivener; and according to otliers, of a slave. When elected to the empire lie was forty years old, and owed his exalta- tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada- tions of office, with sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga- lerius for his associate, giving him the title of Caesar, with a view to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia, who had invaded Mesopotamia. In this enterprise they met with sig- nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except the northern na- tions, who, though repulsed and slaughtered in incredible numbers, were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing hostilities. Diocletian, after his abdication of the empire, retired to his native country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac- commodation, near the town of Salona. Here he led a secure and quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap- piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it." Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and was adopt- ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and fidelity. He defeated many enemies pf his country, though his arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor. 42. When Diocletian and Maximian resigned their power,* Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged 304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in \^'ith them two partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance of JUDEA. 41 four persons, all invested with supreme authority; each having his distinct department. Severus and Maximian were the persons who were created Caesars. Constantius w^as a worthy character, Galerius was the ♦'e verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav ing his son Constantine as liis successor. Galerius died four years afterwards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians. § The western parts of the empire, or the dominion of Constantius, consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. The eastern parts, or the do- minion of Galerius, consisted of Illyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries. An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius : — when he was persuaded to displace all the christian officers of his household ; though he would not suffer the christians to be injured, he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "that those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to their prince." 43. From the commencement to the close of the present period, persecutions of the christians more or less prevailed in the empire. At times, this unoffending class of the Ro- man subjects suffered in an extreme degree, from the edicts of the emperors. Historians have usually reckoned ten ge- neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em- perors, under whom these persecutions were experienced, were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerian, Avu-elian, and Dio- cletian. Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from malignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions. Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from ignorance or prejudice, aided by the spirit of the age, and the common corruption of our nature. § As this period is named from the persecutions which the pro- fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical liistory, to be embodied in the present volume. JUDEA. 44. Judea, already tmder the sway of Rome, became a province of the empire 6 A. C. upon the banishment of Af- 4* 42 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. chelaus, eldest son of Herod the Great. It was at the com- mencement of this period, that the birth of our blessed Saviour Jesus Christ, as before noticed ni the Roman history, took place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in- fant Jesus would fall among them. He died miserably, soon after this transaction. § In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy, having departed from Jiidah, by the control which the Romans had over the government, Jesus Christ was born in the year of the world 4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro- nologers has been too far sanctioned by Time, to be now remedied. His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him, exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his death, by destroying all the children of that place and of its vicinity, " from two years old and under." The providence of God, however, had removed the holy child be- yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the imean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return- ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee. It is not our design to detail events here, which more properly be- long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo- rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the thirty-third of his age, Jesus Christ expiated human transgression, by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his own countrymen, the Jews. This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh," came into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu- man nature he was lineally descended from David, though the fami- ly at the period of his birth, had become obscure and reduced to poverty. The effects of his appearance in the world were from the beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering the hostility of man to truth and piety, was diffused with great rapi- dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation of moral character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been great, and such they will be to the end of time. The civil affairs of the Jews, from the commencement of this era to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief summary of them follows. § Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro- JUDEA. 43 vince, possessed only a tetrarchy, or the fourth part of the kingdom of Jewry. The rest of the country was divided into three more te- trarchies, which were those of Gahlee and Petra^a possessed by Herod Antipatas ; that of Ituraea possessed by Phihp, another son of Herod ; and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who being afterwards banished into Gaul, had his province governed by Pontius Pilate. The successor of Archelaus was Herod H. named Antipas, who married his brother Philip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned in the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred. Herod H. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Caligula, the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It was this Herod who caused the apostle James to be martyred, the apostle Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and devoured by worms. His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew- ry. It was before him, that the apostle Paul pleaded in defence of the gospel. 45. During the reign of Agrippa Minor, Jerusalem was attacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the Jews, which were frequent about this time. This miserable people had suffered greatly, from the injustice and extortion practised upon them by the agents of the Roman govern- ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion. A signal vengeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The people suffered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though numbeis remained in their native land, vast multitudes were dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever since been w^anderers. The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re- maikable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan- ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the truth of scripture. § Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc- ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who, accompanied by his son Titus^ and a powerful army, arrived in Sy- 44 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. ria, 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orders with his son Titus, to contiuue the war, while he himself set out for Rome. Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging Jerusalem, he took it within a few months, after an obstinate resist- ance on the part of its inhabitants. Twice, during the siege, Titus offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that they not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger, Flavins Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner. After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews. Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city, and others he crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine, in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword. In pursuance of this general order, the city was destroyed to its foundations, and even the ruins of the temple were demolished. Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole time of the war was ninety-seven thousand ; and the number killed in the city during the same period, amounted, as before stated, to one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws. 46. After this event Jerusalem was partially rebuilt, and in 118 the inhabitants attempted again to rebel, but were speedily overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth, that is to say, those new buildings erected by the Jews, and to sow salt in the ground, on which the place had stood. Thus was fulfilled a prophecy of our Saviour, who fore- told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one stone be left upon anotlier. This therefore may be called the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years after that of Titus. Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short lived change, for when the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state. PARTHIA. 47. The Parthian empire at the beginning of this period, continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci- dae. Phraates IV. then possessed the throne. Three sove- reigns succeeded him, when after short . reigns, the second branch of the Arsacidee commenced. PERSIA. 45 Verones I. was the last of the three sovereigns of the first branch. He had been dispatched from Rome, where he was a hostage, to reign over the Parthians, who had invited him to be their king ; but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dishke of his people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for Artabanus, of the royal family of Media. 48. The second branch of the Arsacidee commenced 18 years A. C. under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc- casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary, but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his- tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very httle importance. The empire was at length jestored to the Persians after they had been subject to the princes of Parthia for the space of four hundred and seventy-five years. § Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered Parthia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian, who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia. The subsequent details belong to the Persian history. PERSIA. 49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians during four hundred and seventy-five years, from the time that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax- ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration of the Persian empire. 223 A. C. Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended the throne, assumed the pompous title of king of knigs, and asserted his right to all the provinces of the ancient empire, which were now under the authority of the Romans. War therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per- sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had lost. Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidae, from Sassan, his father. 46 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. § Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, which however M^ere recov- ered by the youngest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch, penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Csesara, which being taken through treachery, ahnost all the inliabitants were slain, and the city reduced to ashes. The next year the emperor Valerian having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated with the greatest cruelty, as has already been described. Sapores, after considerable reverse of fortune, having become odious to his subjects for his cruelties, was assassinated by tlie Satraps. Hormisdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country seized his son and confined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause them all to be flayed alive, for not rising in token of obedience to him at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded themselves, would be born of her. CHINA. 50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com- menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated during the present period, viz. in the year 221 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming the last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of Kao-Tsou. § Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in China instead of pens, were invented. He was one of the few emperors who governed for themselves. Under the rest, the eunuchs obtained great authority. Vuti, one of the princes of this family, was a great encourager ol learning, and ordered the morality of Confucius to be taught in the public schools. He fell under the power of a strong delusion, in endeavouring to discover a liquor which would make him immor- tal. The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C; and ended 265 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heou-Han, and lasted forty- four years. China at this time was divided into three empires, under three branches of the dynasty of Han. The various parts terminated at different periods, although the whole be- came reunited at length under the seventh dynasty in 265. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47 Distinguished Characters in Period I. 1. Livy, the prince of Roman historians. 2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet. 3. TibuUus, a famous elegiac poet of Rome. 4. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian. 5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher. 6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet. 7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history whose works are extant. 8. Quintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori- cian. 9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian. 10. Plutarch, the principal biographer of antiquity. 11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet. 12. M. Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri- ter. 13. Tertullian, ) , a r^\ ■ .• -. i i 14 Orio-en > ^^^^'^^®" Christian writers, commonly cal- 1 r /^ • ' V led fathers. 15. Cyprian, ) § 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his jfe at Naples and Rome, particularly at the court of Augustus. Of his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread, even in his life time, that an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel- led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se- venth year, A. C. 17. This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em- pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex- tant. In this work he is always great — clear, spirited, bold, and masterly in description. The high rank which he holds among his- torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybius. 2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20th of March, about 43 years B. C. His father intended him for the bar; but though his pro- gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert him from paying his court to the muses. Every thing he wrote was expressed in poetical numbers. His name soon became known, and the great geniuses of the age honoured him with their notice, and some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized him with the utmost liberality. The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause, which is not ascertained, the emperor banished him to a place named Tomos on the Euxine Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life, and he spent it in unmanly repining and impatience. He off red the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his succe,ssor 48 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7tli or 8th year of his banishment. The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur- vived to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid ev^ery where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid were favourites with the great English bard, John Milton. 3. Tibullus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the toils of war ; but dissatisfied with such a life, he afterwards gave himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita- lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is deservedl}^ ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C His geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only composition of his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra- velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ac- curate information. Among his books which have been lost, are historical commentaries. 5. Seneca (Lucius Annaeus) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments. He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion, having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress Agrippina, to superintend the education of her son Nero, which of- fice he discharged with honor. Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im- posed upon his vicious inclinations, pretended that Seneca had con- spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerful- mess, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were therefore resorted to: but being without effect, he was at last smoth- ered in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy- second year, 65 A. C. 6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured him the favour of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, as might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49 exposed, pro.voked his resentment to such a degree, that he joined Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be- ing only in his 26th year. Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates the wars of Caesar and Pompey, and is unfinished. It has been va- riously estimated. The moral grandeur of its sentiments has been generally acknowledged, but some think him more of an orator than a poet. 7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To his public duties he attended through the day, but the night he devoted to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo- ment that could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva- tion of his mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature. His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full of erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not the graces of the Augustan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom he had read, but these have not reached us. His love of knowledge cost him his life. An eruption of Vesu- vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com- manded a fleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the purpose of making his observations on the interesting phenomenon. While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the burning lava which poured from the volcano, and suffocated and scorched, he soon per- ished. This memorable e vei it happened in the 79th year of the Chris- tian era. 8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo- rious employment in teaching rhetoric, and in pleading at the bar at Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry. Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com- position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor bomitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect- ly happy— the death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost inconsolable grief. He died 95 A. C. His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora- tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti- tute a perfect orator, together with all the preparation necessary. This work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century. 9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign of Nero. His genius and talents procured him the favour of several emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to the consular Mignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is -chiefly known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship existed between him and Pliny, though the one was sternly partial -to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of Hmperial power. The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of 5 50 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in- clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. Taci- tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteristic, perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought, and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature. The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is tis masterpiece. Some have complained of him as being obscure. ' 10. Plutarch was a native of Chaeronea. He died at an advanced age, in his native place, about the 140th year A. C. Having travel- led in quest of knowledge through Egypt and Greece, he retired to Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan, who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul, and with the government of Illyricum. After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to Chaeronea ; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great- est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most esteemed of his productions. His precision and fidelity are remark- able. In his style, he is energetic and animated; though distin- guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir- cumstantial ; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the most entertaining and instructive of all the writers of ancient history. 11. Juvenal was born at Aquinum, in Italy, and died in the reign of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early to Rome, where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to the writing of satires. Sixteen of these pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated, severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour. He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross- ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets. 12; M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was boru at Rome, in the 121st year of the christian era, and died on an ex- pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign. He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret- ted by mankind as a public loss, and the greatest honour was paid to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was found. His book of Meditations has been much admired by scholars and philosophers. 13. Tertullian lived at Carthage, and flourished in the reigns of Severus and Caracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo- quence, strength of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with style. His Apology for the Christians, and his Prescriptions, are the best esteemed of his numerous works. The historian Gibbon, calls him the " stern" Tertullian. ROMAN EMPIRE. 51 14. Origen was born at Alexandria, about the year 185, and died ■ in 254, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek. He was much celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed with unaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely rigid in following the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his age, he suffered martyrdom. His works are many, and include a number of homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea- tises, besides his Hexapla. This last work first gave the hint for the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu- minary of the christian world, during the age in which he lived ; but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to the Platonic philosophy. 15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents, but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of the church. To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to have abandoned his wife ; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis- tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters, besides several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa- tion he conveys respecting the disciphne of the ancient church. He was beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258 A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili- ties and flowing eloquence, but rather too attentive to the ornaments of rhetoric. PERIOD II. The period of the Northern Invasions^ extending, from the Reign of Constantine the Great^ 306 years A. C. to the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. , Sec. 1 . The empire of Rome, as has already appeared, had been for several years under the sway of a number of masters, on all of whom the burden of government equally devoh^ed. At the time when Constantine was pro- claimed in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father Constantius, the two Caesars, Severus and Maximin, had already been proclaimed 305 A. C. — Maxentius, son ofMax- imian, had about the same time, 306 A. C, declared himself. The next year Licinius was created emperor by Galerius, who had never willingly owned Constantine. These were Constantine's competitors, and in the course of a few years he hved to «ee them eitlier destroyed in various ways, or overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of the Roman world. 53 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. Constantine has been styled the first christian emperor. Whatever may have been his real character, as far as rehgion is concerned J it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the christians— that he pubhcly favoured Christianity — defend- ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became the religion of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern- ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect- ing power. For the influence wliich Christianity exerted over the public conduct of this emperor, a cause has been as- signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a pillar of hght in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing the inscription — " By this- conquer." Whether this were a real sight, or a mere imagination, it is asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ; and if it were such, we may readily account for the part which Constantine acted, even should we be forced to doubt the integrity of his religious principles. § The first exploits of Constantine were directed against the Franks, who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, when he was marching against Maxentius, and reflecting on the mutabiUty of the world, and the opinions which then divided the attention of man- kind, that he saw the pillar of light mentioned above. This was in the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ is said to have appeared to him with the same sign. In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a royai standard to be made, bearing a figure similar to that he had seen, and commanded that it should be carried before him in his wars. Soon espousing the cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad- vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max- entius, who, in attempting an escape, was drowned in the Tiber. The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer. In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate, leaving the government to Constantine alone. 2. The administration of Constantine varied very much, in the different periods of his life. It was far more com- mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. His natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the Christian religion he deserves our approbation, although it must be acknowledged that he brought it into too close an al ROMAN EMPIRE. 63 liarice with the civil power, to consist with its highest pros- perity. § The character of Constantine has been the subject of extravagant eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the balance between the different representations — the prejudices of the cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly mixed character which he possessed. This emperor was the author of an essential change in the Roman affairs, in another respect besides that of rehgion. In transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantino- ple, he affected its condition dming the remainder of its ex- istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay- ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately determined — whether they had reference to ideas of pohcy and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of atfronts received at Rome. Whatever they were, his own reputation and the public interests were injured. The effect of this measure, though not immediately felt, was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re- pulsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro- vinces. In an expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third of his age. § The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the following manner :— Constantine had made choice of a situation at Chalcedon, in Asia Minor ; but it seems, in laying out the ground- plot, an eagle caught up the line and flew with it over to Byzantium, a city which lay upon the opposite side of the Bosphorus. Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of empire ; and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitheatre, many churches and other public works, and many magnificent edi- fices, and after having dedicated the city to the God of martyrs, re- paired thither, with his whole court. From this period to the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius, when the empire was divided into two distinct sovereignties, the histories of Rome and Constantinople are necessarily blended. 5* 54 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 3. The Roman world had long been composed of discord* ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissokition was at this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer- tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall, when the Pagan principles of religion, which constituted an essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of power then supplied the props that upheld it, and this, more emphatically than was ever the case before. § The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture of Scj^thians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con- stantine, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and upwards, to 1000 or 1500. 4. Before his death, Constantino had settled the empire on five princes — his three sons and two nephews. His sons were Constantino IL, Constans, and Constantius II. The nephews, who were Ceesars, were named Dalmatins, and Annibahanus. Their sovereignty commmenced 337 A. C. Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con- stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with five others of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this, Con- stantino entered into a contention with Constans, and was killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in attempting to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore, remained in the possession of the whole empire. He reigned twenty-four years in misfortune and dishonour. § Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops, had left the west- ern frontiers of the empire exposed to the barbarians. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians had devastated the fine countries on the Rhine, and the Persians liad kept up a succession of wars in the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obUged the Persians to retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles. His cousin Julian, he created Caesar, but afterwards regarding him with jealousy, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor, Con- stantius marched against him. but died on the road. He had reach- ed his 45th year. In person he was diminutive, but capable of exertion when occasion required ; he was temperate, but extremely uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities of his fatlier. He was much engaged in theological controversy, but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any great respect. 5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his relapsing mto paganism from a Christian education, was ROMAN EMPIRE. 55 acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. C. His army had pre- viously procl^med him emperor, much against his will ; but the insult he received from Constantius, w^ho exacted submis- sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity, by the death of Constantius. Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms by repressing the invasions of the barbarians. He was not without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge and energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect. To this he added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti- tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He w^as ad- dicted to the studies of magic and astrology. He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various kmds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem- ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure Christians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances, it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the same year, in a war with the Persians, w^iile pursuing a vic- torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and Uved thirty-one. § The cunning and the malice of Julian, appeared, in treating the Christians with contempt. He removed them, as visionaries, from all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade a contentious spirit ; and they were debarred the studies of literature and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan authors. Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit and ridicule against this religion ; for he was an author as well as a warrior. It is said in apology for him, that he used these weapons in self-defence— that he was first lampooned by the Christians. However that may be, religion is a subject too sacred to be treated in that manner. One of his works against the Christians, was Mi- sophogon, or beard hater. His Ccesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Cpnstantine. This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is " one of the most agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit." His last moments were spent in conversation with a philosopher 56 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. on the immortality of the soul — he expressed his expectation of being united with heaven, and with the stars,* whlHi was one of his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating the least sorrow for his fiite, or the suddenness of his death. His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent- ed the completion of the work, are attested by contemporary writers, such as Ammianus Marcellinus, and Gregory Nazianzen. This article of lii^ory has been the subject of much dispute. But whether we allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc- tion of their commenced work, it is evident that something prevented the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled." 6. On the death of JuUan, the race of Constantius Clorus became extinct, and the Roman world Avas without a head, and without an heir. In this situation, the army finally fixed on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as his successor, 363 A. C. Jovian made peace with the Per- sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on J uhan's death the army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself. This emperor applied himself to restore tranquility to the Chtirch. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed the edicts of Julian respecting Christianity. His reign, which continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years. § While Jovian was on his march to secure the palace of Constan- tinoplCj his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car- rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing her husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap- pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by suffocation from the vapour of charcoal. 7. Valentniian L, after a delay of a few days was elected emperor by the army, 364 A. C. One month after, he asso- ciated his brother Valens, in the empire, and gave him the eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em- pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent, * This was in agreement with the doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which seems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality- ROMAN EMPIRE. 57 The empire, however, was still considered as one body. On the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The latter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat- tles. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe- ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale- raanni, 367 A. C. § It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken arms, had provoked him beyond all endurance, so that when their ambassadors came 'to sue for mercy, his anger was raised to such a height, and his tones and gestures were so violent, that he ruptured a blood vessel, and expired on the spot. In the East, Yalens held a weak and inefficient sceptre. Engaged in the Arian heresy which he favoured, he threw the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians, who came under the profession of friends and allies. He died in 378 A. C. These were the Goths who emigrated from Scandinavia, and who, together with several other barbarous nations, will soon be described in this account of the Roman empire, since they are so intimately connected with its destiny. § In 376, Valens permitted vast hordes of the Goths, who had been driven out of their country by the Huns, to settle in Thrace. Here, however, they soon plundered the very country conceded to them as an asylum. The emperor hastened to oppose them, but he was de- feated in the famous battle of Adrianople, two thirds of his army having been cut to pieces. Being himself wounded, he was carried into a cottage, where on the same day he was burnt alive by the barbarians, who set fire to the cottage, without knowing that it contained the emperor of the East. 8. Gratian, a son of Valentinian, succeeded his father, 367 A. C. He soon became possessor of the whole empire, by the death of Valens. Upon this event, he took Theodosius as his associate, on whom he conferred the eastern provin- ces. He began to reign in his 17th year, and died at the age of 24 years. He was a well disposed prince, but defi- cient in energy of character. § Gratian undertook to destroy the remains of paganism ; but Rome, at the time, happening to be afflicted by a severe famine, the favourers of that superstition ascribed the calamity to the wrath of 68 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD II. the gods. A general dissatisfaction ensued, and Maximus, who commanded in Britain, taking advantage of this state of things, cau- sed himself to be proclaimed emperor. Gratian marching into Gaul to oppose him, was deserted by his soldiers, and killed at Lyons, 371 A, C/. 9. Valentinian 11. was the successor of his brother Gra- tian. Being dispossessed by Maximus, he took refuge with Theodosius, who was then reigning in the East, and who restored him to the throne. From that time he ruled with justice. After wearing the crown for several years, he was strangled by a Gaul named Arbogastus, who had assumed an authority over his sovereign, 392 A. C. The tjTant Eu- genius, whom the Gaul caused to be proclaimed on this oc- casion, was defeated and put to death by Theodosius. 10. In the East, after the death of Valens, Theodosius succeeded to the throne, 379 A. C. He was deservedly sur- named the Great. The barbarians he repelled with success, and he secured the prosperity of his people by wise and salu- tary laws. It was during his feign, that Christianity obtain- ed the entire ascendency over paganism, as the religion of the Roman people. After the death of Yalentinian II., the whole empire came into possession of Theodosius ; and lie was the last who reign- ed over both the East and West. Previously to his decease, he divided the empire between his two sons, assigning the West to Honorius, and the East to Arcadius. Prom this era they became two distinct empires, and will be treated of separately. § Theodosius the Great, was the son of Count Theodosius, a very able general, who had been beheaded by the order of Gratian. To atone for his injustice, Gratian chose the Count's son as his colleague, and gave him the East for his portion. A few days after his elec- tion, he gained a signal victory over the Goths, who immediately sued for peace. In the year 390, Theodosius cruelly punished the inhabitants of Thessalonica, who had killed their governor on a certain occasion, by sending his soldiers against the place, and putting 7000 to the sword. Such, however, was the influence of St. Ambrose, that he obliged the emperor, by a public penance, to expiate his crime. In religion, Theodosius espoused the orthodox party. His faith is said to have been confirmed by an argument adapted to the mean^ est capacity. He had conferred on Arcadius, his eldest son, the ti- tle of Augustus ; and the two princes were seated on a throne to re-i ceive the homage of their subjects. Among others who offered theii } ROMAN EMPIRE. 59 homage, was Amphilochms, bishop of Icenium. He, however, ap- proached Theodosius alone with reverence, the son he accosted with familiarity. The monarch, offended by the conduct of the bishop, gave orders that he should be thrust from his presence ; but while the guards were engaged in this act, the good bishop exclaimed, " Such is the treatment, O emperor ! which the king of heaven has prepared for those impious men who affect to worship the Father, but refuse to acknowledge the co-equal dignity of his divine Son." This declaration had the effect of propitiating the emperor, and fixing his mind more strongly than before, in the faith. 11. The Roman empire had now become . excessively weakened by its miwieldly extent, and had already suffered much from the incursions of its barbarous neighbours. It was, however, destined to suffer far more in the end, from the last named source. Its separation into two empires, favoured the projects of the barbarians, who, from this period, poured in hke a torrent upon these cultivated regions. The Western empire in a few years was completely overw^helmed. A short account of the barbarous nations, w ho acted so con- spicuous a part in this tragedy, seems to be demanded in this place. The Huns were a fierce and savage nation, at first in- habiting the vast deserts which border China on the north. A part of them, owing, it is said, to civil wars, retired to the westward, and settled to the north of the Caspian sea^ near the source of the river Ural. § From thence, 376 A, C, advancing towards the Palus Maeotis (sea of Asof ) under Balamir, their chief, they subdued the Alains, and forced such of them as were capable of bearing arms to join them ; the remainder they put to death. With this accession of strength and numbers, they fell upon the Ostrogoths and Visogoths, and having driven them away from their country, took possession of it themselves. This was a region extending from the Tanais to the Danube. Their subsequent history, we shall find identified with the Roman affairs. The Alains inhabited the north of Asiatic Sarmatia, and were known to the Romans in the time of Pompey. Under the first emperors, they several times invaded the frontier provmces. § Those of them who escaped the arms of the Huns, pushed their way towards Pannonia, w^hence advancing still further to the west, they united with the Suevi and the Vandals, and continuing their migrations, they finally settled in Lusitania, now Portugal, where in 4711 y they were conquered by the Visogoths. 60 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. The Yaiidals issued from Scandinavia, now Sweden, and crossing the Baltic, first settled in a part of GeiTnany. On account of increasing numbers, they again emigrated, and' taking theii* course eastward, possessed themselves of the country towards the Tanais, whence they made several in- cursions upon the Roman provinces. § They at length formed a junction with the Siievi and Alains, and marched into Spain, apart of which they settled, and called after their name, Vandalusia or Andalusia. Their history downward, is pursued in that of the Romans. The Goths came originally from Scandinavia. They first settled in Pomerania, whence advancing towards the east, they took up their abode to the north of the lake Meeotis. Here they were divided into Visogoths, or Goths of the West, and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East. § Being overcome by the Huns, they were forced to abandon their last settlement, and a part of them took refuge in Pannonia, where they remained till they formed the new kingdom of Italy, hereafter to be mentioned. The Heruli also, originated in Scandinavia. They first emi- grated towards the East, and settled on the borders of the lake Mseotis. They afterward returned towards the West. § It is said that coming to the ocean, they embarked for Thule, one of the Shetland islands, or, as others suppose, what is now called Iceland, where tliey finally settled. As we shall soon learn, the first sovereign of the new kingdom of Italy was a chief of the Heruli. The Gepidee were another Scandinavian tribe. They first planted themselves on the Vistula, whence they advan- ced east towards the Tanais. § Here being subdued by Attila, the Hun, they served under him in his expedition to Gaul. Upon his death, they shook off the yoke. They were finally destroyed by the Lombards. The Suevi were a warlike nation of Germany, inhabiting that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were great wanderers, and often changed their habitations. § In 406, they entered Gaul with the Alains and Vandals, with whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which they established a monarchy. This was afterwards destroyed by the Visogoths. The Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the kingdom of Prussia. From this country they were afterwards expelled by the Gepidee. They frequently crossed the Rhine, and invaded Gaul, and brought trouble on the empire. There were other minor tribes of barbarians, of which no particular account need be here given. They were such as ROMAN EMPIRE. 61 the Bulgari, Alemanni, Venedi, (fee. Other rude nations also, who followed in the train of these conquerors, will be noticed at the proper time. 12. In the Western Empire, Honorius, who held the sceptre by the appointment of his father, Theodosius, proved him- self a degenerate son. Stilicho, a famous warrior, had been appointed guardian or minister to Honorius, during the mino- rity of the latter ; and it was owing to the vigour of the min- ister, and not at all to the merits of the emperor, that the barbarians of the north were repelled for such a length of time. Alaric, king of the Goths, had penetrated into Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho near PoUentia, 403 A. C But this able general, having, through the baseness of the emperor, been afterwards beheaded, 408 A. C, Alaric again advanced and beseiged Rome. The promise of a large sum of gold delayed his purposes of vengeance. As, however, it was ne- ver fulfilled, Alaric took the city, and committed some part of it to the flames, 410 A. C. The pillage lasted six days, and multitudes of its inhabi- tants were massacred. During the space of more than six hundred years, Rome had not been violated by the presence of a foreign enemy ; and even long before, as well as during that period, her power had been feared abroad. § The weakness of Honorius, among other causes, encouraged the attack of the barbarians upon the empire. From the wilds of Scan- dinavia, that northern hive, as it has been fitly called, as well as from the east, they issued in almost incredible numbers. Previously to their descent upon Italy, the Goths, under Alaric, had spread their devastations quite to the borders of the eastern capital, and through the classic fields of Greece. Stilicho made a stand against the invaders. While they boseiged Asta, where the forces of Honorius had taken refuge, Stilicho cut his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of that place, and thus rescued the emperor. The Goths afterwards pitching their camp in the vicinity of Pollentia, were suddenly attacked by Stilicho. and several thousands of them were slain. Among the captives was the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con- sequence of this victory. Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the empire, but his plans were frustrated by the machinations of his ri- vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the ungrateful emperor. 408 A. C. Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast numbers 6 62 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. of Goths pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to those of Alaric, who made an attack on Rome. He met with success ; and this great city, which had so long been the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt, 410 A. C, by the savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu- lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but the nobles were wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manumission of slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit. Hence the suc- cess of the arms of the barbarian. The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex- tremities — human flesh was publicl}^ sold. Treachery completed the work. The Salarian gate was opened at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy rushed in. The scene was dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and larger numbers still, were reduced from affluence to want and cap tivity. Though the city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thought that few, comparatively, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed. * Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave him in mar- riage his sister, Placid ia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain. By these and other acts, Honorius suffered tlie empire, by degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho- norius continued to reign till the year 422. 13. Yalentinian HI. was crowned two years after the death of Honorius, 424 A. C. He was the son of Constan- tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as- sociate with him in the government. In 439, the emperor lost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface, who delivered that part of the empire to the Vandals. § Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was em- ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account Boniface defeated the first army that was sent against him ; but dis- trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in- duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. The measure, however, was ruinous to his cause. ROMAN EMPIRE. 63 The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, which he greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of large sums of money, to retreat. Although the compact between the tw6 generals was, that they should divide ^frica between them, Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these he soon took. Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex- piration of a year, to surrender ; and the Roman general experienced the mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved, ravaged in the most wanton mannp« by the barbarians whose assist- ance he had invited. The kingdoi.i which Genseric thus establish- ed, did not last quite a century. The other provinces of the empire were protected against the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetius. The Huns, at this time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum, Thrace, Dacia, and Msesia, and laid the Romans under tribute. Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in- vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em- pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in battle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the loss of 160,000 men, cliecked his progress for a time. Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Yalentin- ian being shut up in Rome, by the arms of the barbarian, was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly, in tlie midst of his successes, the empire of the West was saved from immediate destruction. § The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive appellation of " The Scourge of God." He first invaded the East, which he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, being dis- posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt his expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an enemy, he turned to the West ; where his appearance has already been described. His body was secretly buried, enclosed in three coffins, the first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. The men who dug his grave were put to death, lest they should re- veal the place of his burial. Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch Herachus, and Yalentinian stabbed him with his own hand. The next year the emperor himself was assassinated. 14. Maximus II. who had instigated the murder of Val- «ntinian^ was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia, 64 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. the widow of his predecessor, to whom he imprudently re- vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re- venge this deed, she called in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maximus fled, but he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death on account of his cowardice. § Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonour which the latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was in private life, his abilities were inadequate to stay the fall of the em- pire, had he been longer continued. Eudoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private^ smister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army of Moors and Yandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil- lage during several days, destroyed many of the monument? of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage. 15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. G. there w^as a succession of eight emperors, during twenty years ; at the expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter- minated. Little more than their names can be mentioned below. § Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea- ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of his armies, the latter soon entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor ; and Avitus, at first arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457 A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage and tur- bulent demagogue. Majorian was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. This emperor published several wise laws for the refor- mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew him, 461 A. C. Severus IH. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un- der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire. Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffrages of the senate, the army, and the people^ in 467. To attach Ricimer to his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him, his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif- ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaged Rome. Du- ring this transaction the emperor was murdered. Olybrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of the ROMAN EMPIRE. 65 East, to protect Athemiiis against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat- ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472. Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince, assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna ; but Leo had conferred it on Julius Nepos, who took Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be consecrated bishop of Salona, 473. Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores- tes, a Pannonian, whom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escaped into Dalmatia, where at the end of five years he was assassinated. Augustulas son of Orestes was made emperor by his father. After a reign of eleven months, he was taken prisoner by Odoacer king of the Heruli, and sent into Campania, where he lived in a private station. 1 6. In the Eastern Empire, after its final separation from the West, in the time of Theodosius, 395 A. C., there were transactions which deserve our notice. Theodosius, as we have seen, assigned the East to his son Arcadius. This prince was then eighteen years of age, and he proved to be both weak and dissolute. He suffered himself to be governed by favourites, and at length by Eudoxia, his empress, who made it her great object taplunder the revenues of the state. 17. Thedosius II. son oi Arcadius, succeeded to the em- pire 408. He has the reputation of having been a prince of mild disposition, and piety of conduct, but otherwise desti- tute of those qualities that are essential to a sovereign. But his deficiencies were supplied by the genius and address of nis sister, Pulcheria, who aided in the administration of the tlie government. The latter part of his Hfe was greatly dis- turbed by the invasions of the Barbarians. § Pulcheria, whose talents for government were extraordinary, sought to strengthen her influence and power, by securing for her brother a companion in marriage, who, as she hoped, would ever be grateful to her benefactress. The person oji whom her choice, as well as that of Theodosius, fell, was the beautiful and learned Athe- nais. Chance had made her known to Pulcheria. She was the daughter of an Athenian phiiosopher, who had taken the greatest care of her education. Such was his conviction of her entire accomplishment in every respect, that in the disposition of his property, he left his two sons the whole of it, except one hundred pieces of gold, with the declaration that " her own good fortune would be sufficient for her." With a view to obtain her just share of the inheritance from her brothers, after she had tried the forms of law in vain, the Athenian maiden came to claim the interference and protection of Pulcheria, 6* 66 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. at Constantinople. Her sense and merit highly pleased the princess, and ill connection with her charms, won the heart of Theodosius. In 431 she embraced Christianity, and was baptised by the name of Eudocia, and the same year was united to the emperor in marriage. She treated her brotliers with singular magnanimity, raising them to the rank of consuls and praefects, and though she at length lost the affections of Theodosius on an imputation of infidelity, and chose to retire to Jerusalem, she ever protested that she was wholly innocent. She died about 460, ten years after the death of her husband. 18. Marcian, a native of Thrace, was called to the throne by Pulclieria 450, whose hand also he received in marriage. After a reign of seven years, he departed this life, while pre- paring for a war against Genseric, king of the Vandals. § Marcian possessed some eminent qualities, as is evinced by his reply to Attila when the latter claimed the annual tribute, consented to by Theodosius. " I have," said he, " gold for my friends, and iron for my enemies." 19. Leo I., also a native of Thrace, was called to the em- pire on the death of Marcian 457 A. C. He reigned till nearly the period of the destruction of the Western empire. He had some domestic enemies, wi|^gave hun trouble; though he finally crushed Asper, throu!^ whose influence he had been raised to the throne, and who at length revolted against his master. During the latter part of his reign, his domi- nions were much ravaged by the Goths. He died a natural death, at an advanced age, 474 A. C. § Leo 1st has been greatly praised by some historians, and cen- sured by others. An instance of his temperate firmness in resisting the oppression of his patron Asper, is recorded as follows : — Asper had presumed to reproach him with a breach of promise, in regard to a certain appointment. " It is not proper," said he, in- solently shaking the purple, " that the man who is invested with this garment, should be guilty of a falsehood." " Nor is it proper,'' retorted Leo, " that a prince should be compelled to resign his own judgment and the public interest, to the pleasure of a subject." PERSIA. 20. Of Persia, during this period, we have only to say in general, that it was governed successively by eight princes, of whom Sapores IT. was the most distinguished ; that at the beginning, and towards the conclusion of the period, the na- tion warred against the Romans ; but that through the inter- mediate space, the most profound peace subsisted between the J^ CHINA. 67 two powers. A few particulars respecting some of the Per- sian sovereigns, will appear below. § Sapores, II., who was crowned before his birth, in the person of his mother, began to persecute the Christians of his dominions in 326. In a few years after, he endeavoured to recover the five provinces yielded by his grandfather, Narses, to'the Romans, but was terribly defeated by Constantius. After this event, he gained a celebrated battle at Sirigate, in Mesopotamia, and took several cities. In the war with Julian, hi 363, he was pursued into the very heart of his dominions, but was delivered by the death of that eni- peror. He died m 380, after a reign of seventy years. His charac- ter was a compound of pride and ferocity, lie cruelly persecuted the Christians, during forty years. Saporos III., was a wise prince ; he lived at peace with the Ro- mans, and died lamented. Under Isdigartes I., a persecution of the Christians commenced, which continued fifty years, during his reign and that of some of his successors. CHINA. 21. During this period, the seventh dynasty of the empe- rors of China terminated ; as also the eighth, a little after the conclusion of the period, j^^ Under the first of thesefBp empire, which had been divi- ded into three, became united; It continued one hundred and fifty-five years, under fifteen emperors. It is called the di- nasty of Tcin-ou-ti. The eighth was the dynasty of Song. It began under a revolted general, 420 A. C, and lasted fifty- nine years, under eight emperors. § One of the sovereigns of the 8th dynasty, whose name was Venti. was killed by his own son, and the parricide fell by the hands of his brother. The latter made himself many enemies by the freedom of his speech, for which, in the end, he lost his life. One of his wives, whom he had offended by calling her old, stifled him in his bed. Distinguished Characters in Period 11. 1. Lactantius, an elegant writer, and an able defender of Christianity : sometimes called the Christian Cicero. 2. Ossian, a Caledonian bard. S. Eusebius, an eminent ecclesiastical historian. 4. Eutropius, a Latin historian and sophist. 5. Julian, a Roman emperor, an acute, but malignant in- fidel philosopher. 6. Basil, the Great, an eminent father in the church. 68 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IT. Jj^ 7. Gregory Nazianzen, a theological and polemical writer. 8. Claudian, an elegant Latin poet. 9. St. Chrysostom, andj Learned and eloquent ministers 10. St. Augustine, 9lm. and writers. § 1. Laetantiiis proved iSyWith of the Christian religion, and ex- posed the absurdities of paganism. He was the most eloquent of the ecclesiastical Latin writers* of his age. His principal works, are his treatises concerning the Divine Wrath, and the Works of God, and his Dipjae Institutions. The last, in seven books, is written with uncommon elegance and purity. As a theologian, he had some errors. He died in 325. 2. Ossian was a rude Caledonian. He is supposed to have flou- rished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in Gaelic ; and the poems that go by his name, translated by Macpherson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. If they are really Ossian's, he must be considered as the first of the poets of this period. There is, however, strong ground of doubt, in respect to the authenticity of these poems, as a whole. 3. Eusebius died in 338 A. C. He was bishop of Csesarea, and enjoyed the favour of Constantine. He opposed Arius, although he held to a certain disparity and subordination in the Godhead. He was a man of immense reading, and was greatly versed in ecclesi- astical history and sacred eruditig*^H[e distinguished himself by his writings, which consisted df a^Hpesiastical history, the life of Constantine, evangelical preparatii^^ and many other treatises, 5 most of which are now lost. || 4. Eutropius lived in the age of Julian, under whom he was a i soldier in the war against Persia. He is supposed to have been a Roman Senator. He wrote several works ; but none of them re- main except his Roman History. This was an epitome of the trans- actions of Rome, from the age of Romulus to the reign of Valens. It is characterised by conciseness and precision, but not by elegance. < 5. Julian, as has been already narrated, was elevated to the throne, 361 A. C. He then, although he had been educated according to the principles of the Gospel, publicly disavowed its truths, and offered solemn sacrifices to all the Gods of Ancient Rome. This change of religious opinion, was attributed to the austere manner with which he was instructed in Christianity ; though others ascribe it to his in- tercourse with the philosophers of Athens, and their influence over his mind. *lProm this circumstance, the appellation of apostate, has been attached to him. Some of his writings have been preserved, in which he has shown great powers of ridicule in a bad cause. But we need not repeat the particulars that have atready been given, res- pecting his character and writings. 6. Basil, surnamed the Great, was bishop of Caesarea. He was persecuted by Valens, for refusing to embrace Arianism. Accord- ing to Mosheim, " in point of genius, controversial skill, and a rich and flowing eloquence, he was surpassed by very few of his contem- poraries." He died in 379. 4f ROMAN EMPIRE. ^ 69 7. Gregory Nazianzen, was siirnamed the divine. He was patri- arch of Constantinople, but the right to that station being disputed, he abandoned it. His birth occurred in'^24, and his death in 389. He held an honourable place among the tlifeological and political wri- ters of the times. His writings compaii'^. well with those of the Gre- cian orators, in eloquence and variety. His sermons are better adapted to philosophers than comrrtfin hearers, but are, nevertheless, not wanting in seriousness and devotion. He most ably defended the orthodox faith concerning the Trinity. ^t|[k 8. Claudian was a native of Alexandria, in Egypi^and flourished in the age of Honorius and Arcadius. His style is not corrupted by the false taste of the age. But although he wrote elegant verses, he depicted no powerful passions, and exhibited no commanding genius. His matter was meagre, but his language was pure, his ex- pressions happ5^, and his numbers melodious. His best compositions are his poems on Rufinus and Eutropius. 9. St. Chrysostom, John, was so called on account of his extraor- dinary eloquence. He was born at Antioch, of a noble family, about 354, consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, and died in 407. His works are voluminous. He was an elegant preacher, and pos- sessed a noble genius. On account of his severity in opposing the corruption of th#times, he procured himself many enemies. He was so great a disciplinarian, thaU» "even recommended to private be- lievers, though very inji^jiicio^Hp the use of outward violence, in re- sisting the wickedness of men. 10. St. Augustine was bishop of Hippo, in Africa. He led an aus- tere life, and died in his seventy-sixth year, 430 A. C. He distinguish- ed himself by his writings, and his reputation is great, even to this day. He was characterised by a sublime genius, an unintermitted pursuit of truth, an indefatigable application, an invincible patience, a sincere piety, and a subtle and lively wit. The solidity and ac- curacy of his judgment, were not, however, proportionable to his eminent talents in other respects. Augustine's book concerning the City of God, has been pronounced to be " a work extremely rich and ample in point of matter, and fill- ed with the most profound and diversified erudition." In all his writings, this father displayed an extensive acquaintance with Pla- to's philosophy. PERIOD III. 77ie period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of Belisarius ; extending from the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A, C, to the flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The dark ages, as they have been commonly called, commenced 70 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. '^(ft with this period. The human intellect, and the state of society, had for some time previous, been retrograde. But upon the conquest of the Western Empire by the barbarians, the darkness became more especially obvious, and we shall find it prevailing over the nations, though with some interval^Of light, nearly 1000 years. It is believ- ed, however, that mankind have been apt to overrate, in some res- pects, the infelicities of the dark ages, and to forget, that after all, strong proofs were at times afforded, of intellectual vigour, and of the high enjoyniei^jjpFlife. A few men of distinguished abilities ap- peared durin^ne present period, though, in general, the age is not to be compared with several that preceded it. Sec. 1. We have now to record the melancholy extinction of the Western Empire of the Romans — an empire, the most powerful that has ever existed. This event occurred, 476 A. C. upon the taking of Rome by Odoacer, prince of the Heruli. Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, was at that time on the throne. Odoacer, having subdued Italy, and taken its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, upon condition of his resigning tlie empire. § The empire having been long beset on every side by barbarians, great numbers of them were adftii^d into the Roman legions, to protect it against the rest. These, ^Hjle reign of Augustulus, having revolted, demanded a third part of tl^nands of Italy, as a settlement for themselves and families. This being refused, they advanced to Rome, under Odoacer, and as conquerors, held the country. Odoacer was an officer of the emperor's guards, at the head of the barbarians who had enlisted in the armies. When he had secured Rome, Augustulus, who was a feeble youth, was directed to express his resignation to the senate, while that body, in an epistle to Zeno, emperor of the East, disclaimed the necessity of continuing the im- perial succession in Italy, since, in the submissive language of adula- tion, they observed, " the majesty of the monarch of Constantinople, was sufficient to defend both the East and the West :" at the same time they begged the favour, that the emperor would invest Odoacer with the title of patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy. Their request was granted, and to Augustulus, was assigned a splendid income, to support him in a private station. Thus wk Western Empire of Rome passed from the hands of its ancient masters, into the possession of the barbarians, who had so long liarassed it by their invasions. As an em- pire, it had existed more than five hundred years, computing the time from the battle of Actium. The whole period of its duration, from the building of the city, was more than twelve hundred years. The ruin of the Roman empire, was the result of its great extent, connected with its moral corruption. The perfections '» ROMAN EMPIRE. 7S of God are concerned in accomplishing, by natviral causes, the extinction of enormously guilty nations. Rome, having become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligacy, fell, , at last, an easy prey to the barbarous tribes that poured m upon its dominions. § The Northern invaders did not originate the catastrophe -".vhich Rome experienced ; they scarcely hastened it Asmuch of crime and barbarism as they brought with them, they 4||||^e, upon their settlement in the south of Europe, as reputable, aoilst, as the na- tive citizens themselves. Without the agency of these invaders, darkness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, from the operation of causes within its own bosom ; especially from the extreme profligacy and irreligion which prevailed among all classes. While the Roman empire in the West, thus fell into ruins, the sis- ter empire in the East, which appeared to be in a similar situation, not only continued to stand, but even existed for the space of nearly one thousand years more, though in comparative imbecility and de- pression. It existed, notwithstanding it suffered all the internal evils which produce the ruin of a state, and was shaken by all the storms, which burst upon the nations, during the middle ages. This phenomenon, which has not a parallel in the history of the world, may, in some measure, be explained from the almost impreg- nable site of its capital alone, in connexion with the despotism, which sometimes remains the last support of fallen nations. We shall continue the portion of its history belonging to this period, before we bring into view the new state of things, consequent on the occupation of Italy and the West by the barbarians. The recent kingdom which they founded, deserves a separate account. 2. The Eastern Empire of the Romans, sometimes called the Greek Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople, was at this time, (474 A. C.) under the sway of Zcno, son-in-law to Leo. He was odious, on account of his debauchery ; and after having once fled from his throne, and been restored to it, and engaged in the suppression of several conspiracies, he met with a miserable end, being buried alive. He reigned about seventeen years. ^ § Leo II., son of Zeno, and grandson to Leo I., was desi^d lor the empire ; but being of tender age when his grandfather died, Zeno was made regent. But the death of the child, the same year, left Zeno in the possession of the throne. The intrigues of the empress Verina, his mother-in-law, embittered his life, and distracted his reign. She aided one or two of the conspiracies that were carried on against him. He came to his end by an awful act of Ariadne, his wife; She loved him not, and profiting by an epileptic fit, to which the emf^eror was subject, caused him to be precipitately interred. When the 72 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. sepulchre was opened, a few days after, it was found that Zeno had devoured the flesh off his own arms. 3. Anastasius, an officer of the palace, marrying the widow of Zeno, was raised to the throne, 491 A. C. He was old at this time, but reigned about twenty-seven years. The beginning of his reign was auspicious, but it was otherwise in the end. He died a natural death, in his eightieth year. 4. Justin L|flple Thracian, ascended the throne after the death of Anasmsius. He governed with great prudence. In 526, he sent the celebrated Belisarius against the Persians, who had broken the truce subsisting between the two em- pires. The emperor, however, died before the conclusion of the war, having reigned about nine years. § Justin was the son of a ploughman, and rose by his talents to the first military dignities, before he was chosen emperor. He was so illiterate, however, as to he unable to write his own name, and secured respect, only by the good sense which he manifested in the choice of his counsellors. 5. Justinian I., nephew of Justin, assumed the reins of government, 527 A. C. His personal character was far from inspiring respect ; but his reign was successful, and he was extremely fortunate in his generals and counsellors. The exploits of his generals, and the production of the code of laws that goes by his name, of which the learned Trebonian was the author, form an era in history. Towards the brave and noble Belisarius, the warrior who at first fought his battles, the emperor was ungrateful in the extreme. This great general, by his arms and policy, pre- served his master on his throne, when his expulsion from it was likely to be effected, by the civil factions which raged at Constantinople. He also defeated the Persians in three san- guinary battles, in different years ; destroyed the kingdom of the Yandals in Africa, and recovered that province to the em- pire ; an#wrested Italy from its Grothic sovereign, restoring it for a short space of time, to the authority of its ancient masters. Ttal}^, however, was once more subdued by the Goths. From this time the fortunes of BeUsarius began to change. He was compelled to evacuate Italy, having been more than once recalled, through the emperor's meanness and jealousy. On his final return to Constantinople, his long services were repaid with disgrace, and he was superseded in the command of the armies, by the eunuch Narses. ■fff^ ROMAN EMPIRE. 73 § Belisarius, more than any other general during the later periods of the empire, revived the fainting glory of Rome. On the plains of Dara, he defeated the Persians, with great slaughter; and his con- duct, in the sedition of Constantinople, secured the esteem of the emperor. Allien Justinian, by favouring a certain faction,* had near- ly involved himself in destruction, and was about to seek his safety in flight, Behsarius, amidst the uproar and confusion which pre- vailed, came to the aid of his master. A corps of three thousand veteran troops he led against the populace of C onsta ntinople, and it is computed that no less than thirty thousand pOTtons perished in the carnage. So signal a chastisement had the effect of overawing the infuriated and divided citizens ; and the games of the circus, out of which the contention arose, were, during several years, interdicted. The war which Belisarius carried on against the Vandals, in Africa, was marked by signal success ; but no particulars need to be related, except that Belisarius was recalled by the jealousy of Justinian, and that his victories and prompt obedience, secured him the honours of a triumph. In the war against the Gothic power in Italy, 537 A. C. Justinian was equally fortunate through the exploits of his illustrious lieutenant, and equally mean in his conduct towards this hero. The Gothic forces were obliged to retire before the Roman army, upon its land- ing in Sicily and Italy. Resistance was made, but in vain. The fame of Belisarius, had inspired even the degenerate Romans with courage. Long before this general reached Rome, the Gothic king had abandoned it ; and though the policy was singular, the latter did it with a view to wrest the "city from the hands of Belisarius, at some future time. In the course of a few months, Vitiges, the Gothic king, advanced towards Rome, at the head of one hundred thousand warriors. The inconsiderable army of Belisarius, however, per- formed prodigies of valour, and not only defended Rome, during a long siege, but, with the aid of some reinforcements from the East, obliged the Gothic king to retire, first to Ravenna, and at last to sur- render all the towns and villages of Italy. This was no sooner effected, than the jealousy of Justinian re- manded his lieutenant to Constantinople ; nor was the latter allowed the honour of a second triumph. But though the conduct of the emperor towards him was utterly despicable, the admiration of the people was an ample indemnity. The valour of Belisarius, at this era, saved the East ; 'but there is no time to recount his achievements. Suffice it to say, that the necessity of the emperor, induced him again to appoint Belisarius 10 the command of Italy, inasmuch as it had been nearly overrun, * There were two factions in Constantinople, which were distinguished by a diversity of colour. The support of one or other of these, became necessary, to every candidate for civil or ecclesiastical honors. The greens were attached to the family or sect of Anastasius : the blues were devoted to orthodoxy, and Justinian. The latter, the emperor favoured during five years, though their tumults endangered equally his own safety, and the peace of the city. 7 74 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. during this interval, by the arms of the brave and virtuous Totila. No sooner, however, had he a prospect of driving the Gothic king from Italy, than he was called off to some less important warfare, which was intended as a disgrace to him. The declining years of the life of this hero, were passed in Con- stantinople ; but even at that late period, they were crowned by a victory, in which he saved the ungrateful Justinian and his capital from the ravages of the Bulgarians. The unnatural suspicions of the emperor followed him to the grave ; for even in extreme old age, he suffered iff^is property and comforts, for a time, from the false imputation of conspiracy. Narses, who was able in council, was also successful in war. He had the honour of completing the conquest of Ita- ly, by defeating Totila, in a decisive engagement, in which the Gothic king was slain. Under the title of duke, Narses, gaining some other victories, governed Italy with ability for thirteen years. Justinian died in his eighty-third year. He would be but Httle thought of by mankind, were it not for those illustrious men who fought his battles, and presided in his councils. He had the sagacity to perceive their merits, and h^ppy would it have been, had he possessed the magnanimity to reward them. His vices were meanness, vanity, caprice, and tyranny : his virtues w^ere chastity, temperance, vigilance, and studiousness. We pretend not to determine which preponderated. Imposing as was his reign, he lived in a miserable age. His subjects w^ere continually afflicted by war, pestilence, and famine. The empire shone out with a degree of brilliancy under his auspices, but after his death it shone no more. Its history, so far as it is necessary to notice it, is henceforth made up, more than ever, of disasters, miseries, and crimes. 6. Upon the death of Justinian, his nephew, Justin II. ascended the throne, 565 A. C. He was a man of weak in- tellect, and was governed by his consort, Sophia, though his intentions appear to have been good. The troubles and cala- mities wdiich befel his family and empire, threw him into an incurable frenzy. In consequence of this event, Tiberius, his son-in-law, was associated in the empire. It was soon after his elevation, that the Lombards established themselves in Italy. In his reign, not only was Ifealy lost again to the empii-e, but Africa desolated, and the East ravaged by the Persians. § The advice which Justin gave to Tiberius, upon the introductiori of the latter to the empire, was worthy of any prince. " Love, - ROMAN EMPIRE. 75 said he, " the people as yourself 5 cultivate the affections, and main- tain the discipline of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, and relieve the necessities of the poor." The last four years of his life were passed in tranquillity. He reigned nine years alone, and four in connexion with Tiberius. 7. Tiberius, who assumed the name of Constantine, was sole possessor of the throne in 578. His reign was short, but it was rendered glorious by his defeat of the Persians. He was accounted a just, humane, temperate, and brave prince, § On his death-bed, Tiberius bestowed his diadem on his son-in-law, Maurice, who had proved himself an excellent general. 8. Maurice, a native of Cappadocia, ascended the throne 582 A. C. He reigned twenty years, ni almost contmual turbulence. He chose his predecessors for his model, nor was he destitute of sense and courage, in whatever he under- took for the welfare of his subjects. Avarice is said to have been his great failing ; but it is more probable, that his rigid virtue and economy were not duly appreciated in those cor- rupt times. In 602, he obliged his army to take up their winter quar- ters bejfond tlie Danube, upon which a revolt ensued, and Phocas, being proclaimed emperor, advanced to Constantino- ple. Maurice and his children were cruelly slain. § After Maurice fell into the hands of Phocas, the jealous and cruel rebel caused the emperor to be dragged from his sanctuary at Chal- eedon, and his five sons to be murdered, one after the other, before his eyes. Maurice bore this agonizing sight with such firmness and resignation, that he repeated, with streaming tears, at every wound, the words of David, "Thou art just, O Lord ! in all thyjudgriients." When a nurse generously concealed a royal infant, and offered her own to the executioner, Maurice was too rigidly honest not to reveal the deception. The tragic scene was closed with the execution of the emperor himself, who fell on the dead bodies of his children. What sufferings have not princes and their families been often called to sustain — sufferings far surpassing the common lot of men ! 9. Phocas seated himself oil the throne 602 A. C. His character was despicable. His empire was ravaged by the Persians, and numerous seditions arose to disturb his peace. At last, Heraclius, governor of Africa, sent his son against him with a fleet, which quickly arrived at Constantinople. The emperor, forsaken by his people, on w^hom he had inflict- ed all manner of cruelties, was soon beheaded, and his body was treated witli the greatest indignity. 76 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. § The cruelty of Phocas towards the family of his predecessor knew no bounds. He finally caused the innocent empress, Constan- tina, and her three daughters, to be executed on the same spot where her husband and sons had suffered, three years before. 10. Heraclius I., was crowned 610 A. C. His reign ex- tended several years into the next succeeding period. TJie Persians ravaged his empire ; but terribly defeating them in six successive campaigns, he brought them to a peace. He reigned more than thirty years. During the last part of his reign, the foundation was laid of the- caliphate of the Saracens, under the impostor Mahomet, whose his- tory will claim our attention at the beginning of the next period. KINGDOM OF ITALY. 11. The kingdom which was established on the ruins of the Western Empire of the Romans, is sometimes called the KINGDOM OF ITALY. That countiy was held and governed, for the most part, by its northern conquerors, through the space of nearly three hundred years. During this time, however, there were several transfers of the sovereignt}^, from one of the barbarous tribes to another. The Heruli, who conquered the country in 476, held it till 493. It then passed from their hands into the possession of the Goths, or Ostro- goths, who held it till the year 568, when the Lombards seiz- ed and conquered the country. They were masters of the greatest portion of it, a little more than two centuries. The period of which we treat, will carry the history of Italy -only through a part of the above named space of time. 12. The kingdom of the Heruli in Italy, was of short con- tinuance. Odoacer, their king, reigned thirteen years without opposition ; but at the conclusion of that period, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, and after a struggle of four years, defeated and slew Odoacer, usurping his dominions, 493 A. C. § In the year 489, Theodoric twice overcame Odoacer in battle ; but being betrayed by one of his general officers, he retired to Pavia, where he was besieged by Odoacer. In his distress, Theodoric called in the assistance of the Visogoths, and gained a third victory in 490. Odoacer, shutting himself up in Ravenna, vigorously defended the place for three years. He was at last forced to enter into a treaty with Theodoric, and obtained a stipulation that his life should be spared. The Gothic monarch, however, perfidiously caused him tc be assassinated. KINGDOM OF ITALY. 77 12. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) began, 493. Theodoric, (commonly smnamed the great,) their king, was now acknowledged the sovereign of the coun- try, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He was an Arian in principle, but protected the Catholics. He reigned about thirty-three y^ears. His administration of government showed hun to be an able prince. The people were probably bene- fitted by a change of masters. § Theodoric, at the age of six years, was given as a hostage to Leo 1. and remained thirteen years at Constantinople. He succeeded his father in Pannonia in 475. His success in his mvasion of Italy, has already been mentioned. After a few years, his dominions consisted not only of Italy, and Sicily, but also of Dalmatia, Noricum, the two Rhoetias, Pannonia, and Provence. The latter part of his reign was tarnished by cruelty and suspicion. In the indulgence of these propensities, he put to death the celebrated Boethius. 13. The successors of Theodoric, in the Gothic kingdom of Italy, were seven in number. It was during the reign of several of these monarchs, that the events already related re- specting the invasion and conquest of Italy by Belisarius and Narses, occurred. The best known of the Gothic kings of this country are Theodotus, Vitiges, and Totila. After the death of Theias, the last of them, the Goths endeayoured, under several leaders, to re-establish their dominions, but were subdued by the eunuch, Narses, who administered the government as duke, till 567 A. C 14. The kingdom of the Lombards followed, in 568 A. C. Alboin, king of this people, was invited into Italy by Narses, to avenge the insult he received from the emperor, Justin IL, in his recall. Alboin penetrated into Italy, and was proclaimed its king at the date above mentioned. He reigned but a short time. § His end was tragical, as it perhaps deserved to be. Having killed Cunimund, king of the Gepidie, in a single combat, he married Ro- semond, that king's beautiful daughter, and made a drinking cup of hex father's skullj out of which he obliged his queen to drink. She dissembled her indignant feelings, but applied to two officers for re- venge. One of them had been affronted by the king, and the other «he knew was enamoured of her person. These she admitted into the chamber where the king slept^ who was immediately murdered, while she contrived to effect her escape to Ravenna. - 15. During the remainder of the present period, there were four kings, the successors of Alboin, but none of them 7* 73 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. were distinguished. An cinaichy, of ten year's continuance took place after tlie death of one of the kings, during which Italy was governed by thirty dukes. § Autharis, one of the kings, after his accession, in 584, confirmed the dukes in their authority, on condition of their paying him half of their revenues, and serving under his command in times of war, ^ with troops levied within their respective jurisdictions. This is con- " idered by some, as the origin of the feudal system. PERSIA. 16. Seven kings in succession, swayed the sceptre of Persia during this period. Of these, Chosroes IL, the great, was the most conspicuous. During much of the time, the Persians were at war with the Romans. Sanguinary battles were fought, and provinces were taken and retaken. The Romans at last penetrated into Persia. § Chosroes II. was a warrior. He repeatedly overcame the Roman generals, and was as often, perhaps, overcome. In one instance, however, he cut to pieces an army of 50,000. The Greek histo- riaas, who probably exaggerate the matter, represent him as a fe- rocious monster. He doubtless had the vices of his predecessors, but surpassed them in great qualities. He reigned nearly fifty years. Chosroes III., son of Hormisdas, possessed the hateful character of a parricide. He caused his father to be beaten to death. He re- ceived, however, a terrible retribution, in the treatment he expe- rienced from his own son. Siroes, the eldest of his sons, having re- volted, and secured the kingdom, slew all his brothers in his father's presence, cast the latter into a prison, where he caused him to expire in insufferable torture, by being incessantly pricked with the points of arrows. Soon after the expiration of the present period, Persia was invaded by the Saracens, and it was not long before it be- came a part of the empire of the Caliphs. CHINA. 17. In the history of China during this period, we find four dynasties of its emperors, from the 9th to the 12th in- clusive. They were of short continuance, and included the reigns of seventeen sovereigns. Several of these appear to j^ have been wise and virtuous men. In the reign of Yang-ti, in 605, many canals were cut through the empire, by which several rivers were united, and great facility given to com- merce. § One of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, is said to have had a very solid, penetrating mind. He loved his people, and did every SPAIN. 79 tiling in his power to promote their happiness. He built public granaries, which were every year filled with rice and corn, by the opulent, to be distributed among the poor in times of scarcity. He improved their music and eloquence. Against corrupt judges, he was always inexorable ; and excluded from all public employments, t4iose whose rank in life did not render them respectable. SPAIN. Before the Empire of the West was finally subverted by the Nofrthern Barbarians, some of the nations which once constituted it, had been lost to the empire. This was the case, particularly, with Spain and Britain. Italy, the seat of the empire, and according to the best accounts, France, may date their separate existence, only from the annihilation of the Roman power. After that event, these several nations, and indeed all the rest of western Europe, were de- tached from one another, and held by the native inhabitants, or go- verned by different tribes of the barbarians of the north. We must therefore consider them in their separate sovereignties, according to the eras in which they began to exist independently. We begin with Spain. 18. Spain, while constituting a portion of the Roman empire, was invaded by the Suevi, the Alains, and the Van- dals, about 406 years A. C, and mostty subdued by these bar- barous tribes. Expelling the Romans, they divided tlie country, a part of which, viz. Yandalasia, or Andalusia, still bears the name of one of these tribes, (the Vandals.) The Alains, in 418, were mostly exterminated by the Os- trogoths. Tlie Suevi remained in the possession of the coim- try, under a succession of their kings, till the year 585. The Vandals had early, viz. in 427, passed into Africa, and settled [there, upon the invitation of Count Boniface. I The Visogoths, who entered Spain in 531, conquered the I greatest part of the country by the year 585, and erected a itnonarchy, which existed till 712, when they were subdued by 'he Saracens, or Moors. § Spain was anciently called Hesperia or Western, on account of its I 'ituation, as being the extreme west known to the ancients. It was 1 :alled also Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The name j lispania, or Spam,.is said to be derived from a Phcenician word, I ^phavisa, which means, abounding with rabbits ; these animals, ac- ' ording to Strabo, being very numerous in Spain. i Its original inhabitants were Ceites, of the same race with those f Pfance, and who passed over from that country into Spain. The Tlility of the soil, induced the Phoenicians, who were the earliest j I =ivigators, to open a trade with Spain, and they built the city of , ydes. now Cadiz. This was about 900 vears B. C. 80 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. This country has been often conquered, both in ancient and more modern times. About 500 years B. C, it was in part subjugated by tiie Carthaginians, who held their conquest three centuries. The Romans then succeeded as masters, in whose power it remained six hundred years. From the Romans, as we have ah'eady learned, it was wrested by the northern barbarians. These, as we shall see, in . the next Period, are destined to be displaced by the followers of ^ Mahomet. It is deemed unnecessary to detail any events under the kings ol the barbarous tribes who governed Spain, as they possess scarcely any interest. Euric may be considered as the founder of the Gothic monarchy of this country. FRANCE. 19. France, anciently called Gaul, immediately previous to the dissolution of the Roman Empire of the West, was di- vided between the Romans, Yisogoths, Franks, and Burguii- dians. A few years after that event, viz. 581 A. C, Clovis, king of the Franks, obtained, by degrees, possession of tlie country. He is therefore considered the true founder of the French naonarchy, as before him, the Franks held only a few provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. From this people, ancient Gaul, obtained the name of France. The kings who have reigned in France, seem to be divided into four dynas- ties, viz. the Merovingian, the Carloviiigian, the Capetian, and the Bourbon. The race of which we are now speaking, tlie first in order, derived its name from Merovoeus, the grand- father of Clovis, who reigned over that portion of the Franks, who liad obtained, in some former age, a settlement in the country. The Merovingian dynasty continued till 75}B. § The Franks were supposed to have been of German origin, aod to have inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Weser, which now forms part of Holland and Westphalia. Some believe them to have consisted of a mixed multitude of various tribes, living beyond the Rhine, who, when Germany was invaded by the Romans, united i*^ defence of their common liberty, and styled themselves Franks, i. e. free men. Of the clans into which they were divided, tlie Salii, and Ansuarii, were the most considerable. Between the years 234 and 254, they made an irruption into j&aul, but were sig- nally overthrown by the Romans under Aurelian, then a military tribune. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the year 264 A. C. Succeeding this event, they had many contentions with the Romans, in which they often conquered, and were, oftener, perhaps, defeated. By the time, however, in which the emperor Constans reigned, they were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of them en- ENGLAND. 81 joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty sovereigns who preceded Clovis, were Pharamond, who made the last settlement of the Franks in Gaul, Clodio, Merovceus, and Childeric I. Clovis made many conquests : first over the Romans in the battle of Soissons ; then over the king of Thuringia, who had invaded his dominions j afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ; and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the south of Gaul. In his contest with the Germans, 496 A, C, he in- voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, whom he had mar- ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became professedly a believer, and together with throe thousand of his sub- jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year. About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his • relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511. Clovis was followed by a series of obscure kings, through tlie remainder of this period. They need not, therefore, be mentioned particularly. They were, in general, weak and wicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than it was under during the Roman dominion. ENGLAND. 20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who were left defenceless, suffered from the encroachments of their northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress, sohcited several of the warlike tribes of the conthient, for assist- ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene- my in their protectors themselves. The Sali:ons, procuring large reinforcements from Germany, turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of the country. It was not, however, without a long and severe struggle, of nearly one hundred and fifty years, that this con- quest was achieved. The result was, the establishment of seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed, more than two hundred years, by their respective kings. These states are usually called the Heptarchy. § The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was ! inhabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either 82 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. naked, or clothed only with the skins of beasts, having their bodies painted with various colours. Hence is supposed to be the origin of the name, Britain, which is derived from a British word, brit, sig- nifying painted. The name England was given to the country, from the Angles, a tribe of those continental nations, who conquered it in the fiftli and sixth centuries. The island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony from Gaul, who were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom are chieflj^ in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north of Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn- wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte- rior of the country. The Romans have given us the earliest authen- tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva- sion by Julius Csesar, 55 B. C. Caesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain ; but the island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded In' tlie emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated Caractacus, king of the Britons, took him prisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51. In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,000 men in a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com- mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror. Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian, and Domitian, formed a regular plan for subduing the whole island, and rendering the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. For this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the natives in various encounters, and established a chain of forts be- tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth. Subduing most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a knowledge of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws and government; taught them to value the conveniences of life, and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters. To protect the southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian, in 121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river. Tyne, and the Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengthened with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity. As has been already mentioned, the Romanized Britons, when left by their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the attacks of their barbarous neighbours on the north. It was Vorti- gem, one of their kings, who invited the German tribes to his prot- tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to visit a country long known to them in their piratical voyages to its coasts. Ilengist and Horsa, two brothers, were their leaders on this. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 83 occasion, and with only 1600 warriors, in conjunction with the South Britons, they compelled the Scots to retire to their moimtains. After the Saxons, from being the protectors, had become the con- querors of Britain, and founded the Heptarchy, history records nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until the time of Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We may therefore pass over the English history, until that period, only remarking that the Saxons, who were partiaUy acquainted with Christianity before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the labours of the monk Augustin, in 597. Distinguished Characters in Period III. 1. Proclus, a learned Platonist and unbeliever. 2. Boethius, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher. 3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated the last of the classic writers. 4. Cassiodorus, the historian of Ravenna, and tutor to Theodoric, the Gothic king. 5. Belisarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus- tinian. 6. Gildas, the most ancient British writer extant. 1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485 A. C. He was a philospher among the later Platonists. In the chair of the academy, he taught philosophy with great reputation. Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro- nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines, " His sa- gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions of morals and metaphysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu- ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world." This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour :n vain. The foundations of truth can be overturned by no human sagacity, however great. 2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome. In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the tyranny of Theodoric, he Avas beheaded in prison, by the command of that king, in 524. Boethius wrote many philosophical works, the greater part according to the manner of the logicians ; but his ethic composition, concerning the " Consolation of Philosophy," is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired, both in resTiPct to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in his " Hermes," obseiTes, that, " with Boethius, the last remains of Ro- man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" an4 Mosheim testifies, that he " shone with the brightest lustre, as a philosopher, an orator, a poet, and a divine ; and, both in elegance and subtilty of genius, had no equal in the sixth century." 3. Procopius belonged to Caesarea, in Palestine, and flourished in 534. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated 84 MODERN HISTORY. — IZRIOD IV. in his History of the Reign of Justinian. This history is divided into eight books ; two of which give an account of the Persian war, two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 ; which was afterwards continued in five books, by Agalthias, till 559. The historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con- sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors. 4. Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and called, by w^ay of distinction, " the senator." He united the states- man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463, and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior in abili- ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable. 5. Belisarius was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene- ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told us, as particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi- nate age, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which would bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of his master, and, as some report, in actual want. 6. Gildas was a native of Wales. He was surnamed, The Wise. As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notice here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He has some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned. PERIOD IV. The Period of the estahlishmeiit of the Saracen Doini- nion; extending fi'om the flight of Mahomet^ ^22 years A. C. to the croiuning of Charlemagne^ at Rome^ 800 years A. C. ARABS OR SARACENS. During this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under the auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed, not only in the energies of a warlike superstition, but, at length, in the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs. Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have lived as wander- ers, in a state of independence, and have never been sub- dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al- most always at war with their neighbours. They derive ARABS OR SARACENS. 85 their origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet, they professed a rehgion which was a mixture of idolatry and Judaism. The name Saracen, which was at length apphed to most of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied . the north-western part of the country. This people, before the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser- vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires" of Rome and Persia. Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet, (or Mohommed,) their pretended prophet. In 609, when he was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea- sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re- ^ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli- gion still remains. His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi- zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native city, where his life was in jeopardy, he fled to Medina, at the epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or flight, which was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age. By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca as a conqueror, and making numerous proselytes, he soon became master of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627, and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs of Persia and Egypt. § As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished characters of this period, it will be unnecessary to add many par- ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of which he was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at- tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun- trymen, and that the mighty revolution which followed his efforts, was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political. In his flight, this bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty, but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence. Besides those who fled with him, and shared his fate, he was soon followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Mecca. Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ; Saad, who afterwards overran Persia ; Obeidah, whose fortune it was to subdue Syria and Palestine : and the very celebrated Kaled Eben al Walid. 8 86 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. Though Mahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms, the Arabs and Greeks were brought into contact ; and the former were prepared to encroach on the remnant of the Roman empire. Mahomet owed his success, in part, to several moral causes, origi- nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re- ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing licentiousness of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men- tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera- clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak- ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of Mahometanism, when its author met his fate. The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam, and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. The book containing their creed, which was produced by Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended to derive from the angel Gabriel, is called the Koran. Their priests are called moolahs or imans. Mahomet propagated his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder. 2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he established, are called Caliphs, a word which means suc- cessors, or vicars. The first cahpli was Abu-beker, the fa- ther of one of the waives of Mahomet. It is said that the im- postor, on his death-bed, appointed Ali, his son-in-law, as his successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was such, that he, by this means, secured the caliphate. Thus the foundation was laid for a mighty contention, and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, which, at this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are two, and the ground of dispute is the right of succession to Mahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son- nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor, are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu- beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur- ARABS OR SARACENS. 87 key, (fee. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the Sheas adopt the tVaditions also. In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained an important victory over the emperor Heraclius, and en- larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of his reign, having bequeathed the sceptre to Omar. § When the sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed, " that he had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa- sion for you," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by Ali, his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti- tuted superior. Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em- pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke. Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con- quered by the generals of Omar. § Amrou, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the famous library at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volumes. The order of Omar betrayed the ignorance of a savage, and the illibera- lity of a fanatic. "If," said he to Amrou, "these writings agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar was finally assassinated. Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana, and a part of Tartary, to the Saracen empire. Upon the death of Othman, Ah, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect- ed to the caliphate. His name is still revered in the east, and by none of the caliphs was he excelled, either in virtue or courage. After a short but glorious reign of five years, he was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He had removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on the Euphrates. §Ali married Fatema, the daughter of Mahomet, but Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal hatred against the husband and posterity of Fatema. In a battle which Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani- mated by the counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious. Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in which she sat, was stuck throughout with javelins and darts. 3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a 88 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine- teen caliphs who reigned in succession ; after which, began the dynasty of the Abassidee, descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race, built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion, in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci- ences among the Saracens. § It was during the reign of Almansor, that Abu Hanifa, the founder of the first of the four sects of the Sonnites, died in prison at Bagdad. He had been confined there for refusing to be made a judge, declaring that he had rather be punished by men than by God. Being asked why he declined the office, he rephed, " If I speak the truth, I am unfit ; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7000 times, while he was in prison. Haroun al Raschid, a caliph who ascended the throne in 785 A. C, and was contemporary with Charlemagne, was a famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen literature. Many of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period. Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about 809 A. C. The sciences to which the Arabians chiefly devoted their attention, were medicine, geometry, and astronomy. Poetry, and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One Nights, were the products of that period. Literature was cul- tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of the Saracens. § Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000 men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes ; after which conquest he made himself master of several other places. He then attacked the Island of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi- dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the caliph, accompanied with a tribute. Several interesting anecdotes are related of this caliph, two of which follow. Being once in Egypt, he said to his courtiers, EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 89 ** Tlie king of this country formerly boasted himself to be God ; in consequence, therefore, of such pride, I will confer the government of it on the meanest of my slaves." As he was marching one day at the head of his troops, a woman came to him to complain that some of the soldiers had pillaged her house. He said, " woman, hast thou not read in the Koran, that princes, when they passed with their armies through places, de- stroyed them 7" " True," replied she, " but then it is also written in the same book, that the houses of those princes shall be desolate on account of their acts of injustice." This fearless repartee, was so well liked by the caliph, that he forthwith ordered that restitution should be made. EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 4. The Eastern Empire, which had alone survived the ruin of the Roman world, retained a portion of its ancient splendour. It was destined, however, soon to lose several valuable provinces, as has already appeared, in relating the victorious career of the Saracens. The conquests which Heraclius I. made in Persia, v/ere wrested from him by that enthusiastic and warring people. They next deprived the empire of its Syrian and African dependencies. During these events, several emperors successively filled the throne of Constantinople, after Heraclius. But very httle need be said concerning any of them. It was in the reign of Constantine III., Pagonatus, that the Saracens, 672 A. C. besieged Constantinople for five months, but were obhged to retire. They returned for seven years in succes- sion, but were every time defeated by CaUinicus, who in- vented an inextinguishable fire, by which he destroyed their ships. § The Greek, or liquid fire, was made principally of naptha, or liquid bitumen, mixed with some sulphur and pitch, extracted from green firs. Water, instead of extinguishing, quickened this powerful agent of destruction. It could be damped onlv by sand, wine, or vinegar. It was a period of four hundred years, before the secret of its composition was obtained from the Greeks. The Mahometans at length discovered and stole it. It continued to be used in war, down to the middle of the fourteenth century, when gunpowder was in- troduced. Justinian II., who succeeded Constantine in 685, was a second Nero, or Caligula. He ordered, at one time, a general slaughter of the inhabitants of Constantinople, but he was de- throned the same day, and sent into exile with mutilated 90 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. features He recovered his throne by the assistance of the Bulgarians, and exacted a dreadful vengeance on his ene- mies. He was at last beheaded. Some of the emperors who followed during the remainder of this period, were, Leo III., Oonstantine IV., Leo lY., and Constantine Y. The first three of these were strongly opposed to images, as used in churches. § The mother of the last Constantine, was regent during her son's minority. Her name was Irene, and she proved herself a monster of wickedness. She obliged the sons of Constantine IV. to receive the priesthood, and afterwards ordered them to be murdered. She was singularly cruel towards her own son, who, for attempting to govern by himself when of age, was, by her orders, scourged and confined in the interior of the palace. In 790, he was restored to liberty by the people, when he, in his turn, imprisoned his mother. Two years after, she was apparently reconciled to Constantine, and by encouraging him in his vices, obtained an unhappy ascend- ency over him. Being rendered odious to his subjects, especially in consequence of repudiating his queen and marrying one of her women, by the advice of Irene, an insurrection took place. This was as she expected ; and afforded a pretext for her cruel machina- tions. Being left with the army in By thinia, she despatched several officers to depose her son. Arriving at Constantinople without being suspected of such a design, they put out the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner, that he died, three days afterwards, in the most excruciating pain. Irene then remained in possession of the empire for five years ; and in order to confirm her authority, she made overtures of marriage to Charlemagne, king of France. Her design, however, being di- vulged, a revolt ensued, in which Nicephorus, great treasurer of the empire, being leader, was proclaimed, and Irene deposed. Having thus obtained the purple, and secured the riches of Irene, Nicephorus banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a decent provision obliged her to earn a scanty subsistence by the la- bours of the distaff. Here this miserable woman died of vexation, having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder of her son. KINGDOM OF ITALY. 5. The Kingdom of Italy, which was formed as already related, continued until nearly the close of the pre- sent period, viz. 774 A. C. It had been fifty years under the sway of the Lombard kings. During the remainder of its existence, (viz. 150 years,) seventeen kings reigned over the country. The principal of these were Cunibert, Luit- piand, Rachisius, Astolphus, and Desiderius or Didier. Luitprand possessed the greatest talents of all the Lombard KINGDOM OF ITALY. 91 kings. Under Didier the kingdom of Italy came to an end. He was defeated by Charlemagne, his father-in-law, and Italy was afterwards incorporated into the new empire of the West. § A few particulars concerning these kings, are as follows. Under Cunibert, Italy was invaded by the duke of Brescia, and they met in battle on the banks of the Adda. Before the battle, a deacon of Pa- via, named Zeno, who bore a great likeness to Cunibert, offered to take his armour and supply his place at the head of the army. Zeno was consequently killed, and Cunibert obtained a signal vic- tory, and afterwards enjoyed a peaceable and happy reign. Luitprand availed himself of an opportunity, soon after the com- mencement of his reign, to add to his dominions by conquest. His first efforts were directed against Ravenna, which was betrayed into his hands. He afterwards took several other cities. The next year, however, Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, reconquered a great part of his dominions, with the help of the Venetians, whom Pope Gre- gory II. excited against Luitprand. The king, resolving to avenge himself on the Pope, became re- conciled to Eutychius, and they both advanced towards Rome. The Pope, however, met the king, and appeased him by his eloquence. In two successive instances, inhis attempts upon the Pope and Rome, he was diverted from his design. Rachisius, in 749, five years after the commencement of his reign, under the pretence of some infractions of a treaty with the people of Rome, besieged a city which belonged to the Pope. But the Pope had such influence Avith him when they met, that the king was persuaded to renounce the world, and retire to the abbey of Monte Cassino. His queen and daughter, at the same time, founded a monastery of nuns, near that abbey, whither they retired and took the veil. Astolphus took Ravenna, and seized upon all the dependencies of that principality, not far from the year v50, but soon lost them, by the intervention of Pepin, king of France, who made war upon him. He died in 756, of a fall from his horse. Didier, meditating the conquest of Ravenna, sought the protec- tion of the French King, by marrying one of his daughters to Charlemagne, and the other to his brother Carloman. A difference, however, having arisen between Charlemagne and his father-in-law, the French monarch divorced his wife. Didier highly resented this^ act. Applying to the Pope to favour his projects, and failing in the at- tempt, he attacked the papal territory, and endeavoured to seize on the person of the Roman pontiff. Charlemagne, however, coming seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and taking possession of his sovereignty, sent the royal family to be con- fined in monasteries in France. The French king thus puf an end to the Lombard dominion in Italy, and was himself declared, by the Pope, king of Italy, and patrician of Rome. 92 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. SPi\IN. 6. Spain continued under the dominion of ttie Yisogoths till the year 712. It was then conquered by the Saracens, wlio invaded the country from Mauritania, in Africa, whence tliey were called Moors. A small part of the north of Spain, never fell under the dominion of that people. Pelagius, the successor of the Gothic sovereigns, founded there the little kingdom of Asturias, in 718 ; and Garcias Ximenes, that of Navarre, in 758. § The Saracens, in their descent upon Spain, easily overran the country. They had lately founded, in Africa, the empire of Mo- rocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Waled Almansor. Muza sent his general, Tariff, into Spain, who attack- ing Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the Gothic king, in a decisive battle, overcame and slew him. The conquerors succeeded to the sove- reignty. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widov/ of Roderic, and thus the two nations formed a perfect union. 7. Spain, in this manner conquered by the Saracens, was allotted to goveiiiors dependent on the viceroy of Africa, till Abdalrahman, the last heir of the family of the Omiades, formed it into an independent kingdom, and fixed his resi- dence at Cordova. This was about the year 756 A. C. It may be remarked here, that all that part of the kingdom of Spain which was under the dominion of the Moors, em- braced the religion of their conquerors ; but the two northern provinces above named, remained true to the Christian faith. Abdalrahman, at Cordova, laid the foundation of a flour- ishing empire, which lasted for a considerable period. He greatly encouraged learning, and thus vied with Haroun Al Raschid at Bagdad, as a patron of letters. Cordova became renowned as one of the most enlightened spots in Europe, under several succeeding reigns. § Tlie part of Spain which remained independent of the Moorish yoke, presents little that is important in its history. We may there- fore pass it over with the remark, that its Christian sovereigns be- came rather strengthened than weakened in their power from time to time. FRANCE. 8. In France, the weak race of the Merovingian kings continued to hold the sovereignty, till the year 751 A. C On th^^eath of one of them, viz. Dagobert II., (638) who left tvvo infant sons, the government, during their minority, was assumed by their chief officers, termed Mayors of tlittf' FRANCE. 93 Palace. Under the management of these ambitious men, the kings of France enjoyed Uttle more than the name. In the time of Thierry, grandson of Dagobert II., the ce- lebrated Pepin d'Heristel was mayor of the palace. He re- stricted Thierry, nominally the sovereign of the two great divisions of the Frank monarchy, (Austrasia and Neustria) to a small domain, and ruled France during thirty years with great wisdom. The son of Pepin, whose name was Charles Martel, was still more celebrated than his father. Under three kings, he governed France with signal abiUty, having succeeded to the office of mayor of the Palace. § After his father Pepin's death, Charles was confined by his mo- ther-in-law, in prison. But escaping thence, he was proclaimed duke of Austrasia, and took possession of the sovereign authority over all the kingdom. He made war several times on Childeric, his first nominal sovereign, and finally secured him as a prisoner. 9. Charles was victorious over all his domestic foes, and his arms kept in awe the neighbouring nations, whom he fre- quently defeated. But the most signal service which he ren- dered to France, to Europe, and to mankind at large, was his victory over the Saracens, in 732 A. C. These destroying fanatics threatened all Europe with subjugation to the Maho- metan dominion and religion ; and, but for their providential defeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, the masters of the civilized world. § The Saracens penetrated into France from Spain. They were led by Abderame, a consummate general, who commanded in the name of the caliph, and who soon defeated the duke of Aquitain. After this victory, his desperate bands were about to overrun the king- dom. Here, however, the genius and bravery of Charles rescued the nation from destruction. He brought them to a general action between Poictiers and Tours, and notwithstanding their bravery and numbers, he succeeded in defeating them with immense slauglv ter. They afterwards rallied in the vicinity of Narbonne, but were again defeated, and at last driven out of the French territory. By this event, the terror with which the Saracens had inspired Europe was greatly diminished, and Charles obtained for himself the surname of Martel, or the Hammer. Afte • the death of Thierry IV., Charles, without placing another king on the throne, continued to govern as before, ' with the title of duke of France. After several more victo- ries over his enemies, Charles dying, bequeathed the govern- I ment of France, as an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons 94 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. Pepin le Bref, and Carloman. As mayors of the palace, the one governed Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgun- dy. The nominal sovereign, at this time, was Childeric III., a weak and insignificant prince. The sole administration devolved at length on Pepin, as Carloman renounced the world and became a monk. Pepin, whose talents were powerful, and whose turn of mind was warHke, governed with great efficiency, and conquered several of the neighbouring tribes. In the year 751, he assembled a parliament at Soissons, where he was proclaimed king of France, having first obtain- ed the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was confined in a convent, and thus ended the Merovingian race of kings. The Carlovingian now succeeded. § Pepin was called Le Bref, or the short, on account of the lowness of his stature, his height being only four and a half feet. Soon after he was crowned, he marched against the revolted Saxons, whom he defeated ; and pursuing his brother Grippo into Aquitain, he united Septimia, now Languedoc, to the crown. His brother, who was a turbulent spirit, and gave him disquiet, at length perished. Pepin was thus left to pursue without molestation his useful designs. 10. Having been crowned the second time, by Pope Ste- phen II., in return for this service, Pepin marched against the Lombards, who had invaded the principality of Ravenna, and threatened Rome itself The Lombards were spared, only by the surrender of Ravenna, which Pepin bestowed on the Holy See. Thus commenced the temporal authority of the popes. The Saracens, who still possessed a part of the south of France, were forced by his arms from the country, and thus the limits of his dominions were extended in that quarter. After a splendid and successful reign, he died of a dropsy in tlie chest, at the age of fifty-three or fifty -four years, 768 A. C. § It is related of this monarch, that his diminutive size was compen- sated by an uncommon strength of body. Having been told that several of his courtiers had secretly ridiculed his personal appear- ance, he invited them, on the next day, to attend the spectacle of a fight between a lion and a bull. When the two combatants were let loose, the lion leaped on his adversary, and the bull was in danger of instant destruction. " Is there any among you," exclaimed the king to the courtiers that surrounded him, " who has sufficient re- solution to oblige the lion to let go his hold?" No one spake. " Mine, then, shall be the task," said Pepin, elevating his voice ; and leaping into the amphitheatre with a drawn sword, he approached the lion, and with a single blow separated the head from the body. 11. The dominions of Pepin were, at his death, divided FRANCE. ^5 between his two sons Charles and Carloman. The latter dying two years afterwards, Charles came into possession of the whole kingdom. The exploits and policy of this prince, procured for him the title of Great, which was incorporated with his name, Charlemagne,* as he is known in history. He excelled all the sovereigns of his age, both as a warrior and statesman, although he is said to have been extremely illite- rate. With a great reputation for talent, he has, however, descended to us as being deficient in several moral quahties, particularly in humanity. His cruelty was exercised chiefly upon the Saxons, with whom he was engaged in war during thirty years. Their bravery and love of freedom gave him infinite trouble. They revolted no less than six times, and were as often reduced by force of arms. As a means of subduing their bold and fero- cious character, he attempted to convert them to Christianity ; but their obstinacy induced him to resort to compulsory pro- cesses for this end. Several thousands of them were but- chered on their refusal to receive Christian baptism. Besides his success against the Saxons, Charlemagne put an end to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, as has al- ready been narrated ; he successfully encountered the arms of the Saracens : defeated numerous barbarous tribes, and ex- tended his empire beyond the Danube. § Notwithstanding the short stature of his father, Charlemagne is said to have been seven feet in height, and of a robust constitution. He was no less signahzed for activity and vigour of mind. His su- pervision of his dominions was most strict and vigilaht. He heard jand saw every thing for himself. He discountenanced luxury, en- couraged industry, and sought to elevate the social and intellectual 'character of his subjects. ' When he saw any of his courtiers sumptuously dressed, he would i invite them to a hunting party, in the course of which he led them into the wilds and forests. On their return, he would not permit them to change their garments which the thorns had torn. After showing them his uninjured sheepskin cloak, as a contrast to their j attered vestments, he would say, by way of advice or reproach, ! ' Leave silks and finery to women ; the dress of a man is for use, i lot for show." ■i In his wars, Charlemagne met with scarcely a disaster. The only I Inconsiderable reverse that he ever experienced, was when he was re- 'rossing the Pyrenees, after conquering Navarre, and a part of Ar- 'agon. The rear of his army was then cut to pieces by the Gascons, n the plains of Roncevaux. On this occasion, his nephew, the cele- ♦ Charlemagne—Charles the Great, I 96 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. "^ brated champion Roland, lost his life — an event which laid the foun dation of the " Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto. As the reign of Charlemagne extends several years into the following period, we shall resume it, at the commence- ment of that period, with a sketch, in the biographical de- partment, of his more private history and character. Distinguished Characters in Period IV. 1 . Mahomet, an Arabian impostor, and founder of the re- ligion which is called by his name. 2. Adhelme, a British theological writer. 3. Bede, a venerable English historian. ^ 4. Charles Martel, the father of a race of kings, and eon- queror of the Saracens. 5. John Damascenus, a Christian writer, strongly tinctured with the Aristotleian philosophy. § From the paucity of great men during this period, genius and learning must have been at a low ebb indeed, and the human mind greatly debased and neglected. I. Mahomet, as has already been stated, was born at Mecca, in 569 A. C. The tribe from which he descended, was that of the Koras- hites, the most noble in Arabia. His immediate ancestors seem, however, to have been undistinguished ; and though his natural ta- lents were great, it is certain that his education was inconsiderable. He acquired knowledge, but not from books. Intercourse with man- kind had sharpened his faculties, and given him an insight into the human heart. The steps he took in propagating his religion have already been detailed in part. It may be added, that the main arguments which Mahomet employed to persuade men to embrace this imposture, were promises and threats, which he knew would work easiest on the minds of the multitude. His promises related chiefly to paradise, and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that region of pure wa- ters, shady groves, and exquisite fruits. Such a heaven was very taking with the Arabians, whose bodily temperament, habits, and burning climate, led them to contemplate images of this sort with ex- cessive pleasure. On the other hand, his threats were peculiarly terrific to this peo- ple. The punishment attending a rejection of his religion, he made to consist of evils, that seemed most insufferable to their feeling?. The reprobates would be permitted to drink nothing but putrid and boiling water, nor breathe any, save exceedingly hot winds ; they would dwell forever in continual fire, intensely burning, and be sur- rounded with a black, hot, salt smoke, as with a coverlid, &c. ; and. 10 fill the measure of their fears, by joining the present with the fu- ture life, he threatened most grievous punishments in this world. As it was one of the impostor's dogmas, that his religion might be I DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 97 defended and propagated by the sword, he invented the doctrine of a rigid fate, to reconcile the minds of the timid, and add ardour to the brave, under the exigencies of war. He taught that those who were slain in battle, though they had tarried at home in their houses, must, nevertheless, have died at that very moment, — the time of every man's life being before appointed by God, in that unqualified sense ; that is, without reference to means. Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person. He had a commanding presence, a majestic aspect, piercing eyes, a flowing beard, and his whole countenance depicted the strong emotions of his mind. His memory was retentive, his wit easy, and his judg- itflBient clear and decisive. In his intercourse with society, he observed the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness, so common to his|country. His natural temper may not have been worse than that of j^ny others ; but the imposture which he forced upon mankind, w^Kn instance of most daring impiety and wickedness. IKihomet persisted in his religious fraud, or fanaticism, to the last. On his death bed he had asserted, that the angel of death was not allowed to take his soul, till he had respectfully asked the permission of the prophet. The request being granted, Mahomet fell into the agony of dissolution ; he fainted with the violence of pain, but re- covering his spirits in a degree, he raised his eyes upwards, and look- ing steadfastly, uttered with a faltering voice, the last broken, though articulate words, " O God ! — pardon my sins. — Yes, — I come — among my fellow-citizens on high ;" and in this manner expired. 2. Adhelme was the first bishop of Sherbourne, (England.) He is said to have been nephew to Ina, king of the West Saxons. The period of his death was 709. He composed several poems concern- ing the Christian life, but his fancy was quite indifferent. He wrote in Latin, and is reported to be the earliest Englishman who wrote in that tongue. A translator of his writings, speaks of him as pro- foundly versed in Greek, Latin, and Saxon. 3. Bede, who was surnamed the Venerable, was an English monk. His birth-place was Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham, where he was born in 672 or 673. He is celebrated as a writer on Eccle- siastical history. In his youth he studied with great diligence, and soon became eminent for learning. Such was his fame, that he was frequently consulted on various subjects, by scholars from different parts of the country. He published his excellent Ecclesiastical history of England, in 731, when he was about fifty-nine years of age. He wrote other works, particularly an epistle to the bishop of York, which exhibits a more curious picture of the state of the church at that time, than 11 is elsewhere to be found. That epistle was the last of Bede's wri- tings. His last sickness, was a consumption, ending in an asthma, which he supported with great firmness. During his weakness, he ji never remitted the duties of his place, being employed the whole of [I the time in instructing the monks. He appears to have been a j ' person of genuine piety. His death was in 735. 4. Charles Martel was the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and duke of 9 98 , MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. Austrasia. He succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace, as has before been stated. That he was a man of great capacity, appears from the record of his exploits. As the progenitor of the Carlo- vingian race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens, when they were upon the point of overrunning all Europe, he is entitled to a very respectful notice in the page of history. Divine Providence seems to have raised him up for a great purpose, in checking the conquering career of the followers of the false prophet. The pro- digious number of 375,000 Saracens, he is said to have defeated and slain. He died in 741. 5. John Damascenus flourished in the eighth century, dying about . the year 750. His birth-place was Damascus. He was liberall^a educated, and early made great progress in literature. He succeed- ed his father, as counsellor of state to the Saracen Caliph of Da| cus. Becoming zealous for the forms of religion, and warml pousing the cause of images, he greatly offended Leo Isauricus Eastern emperor. There is a wild legend of the times, that the emperor caused the hand of Damascenus to be cut off, and that it was miraculously re- placed by the kind interposition of the Virgin Mary. After a while, he is said to have retired from public affairs, and spent the remain- der of his life in solitude. In this situation he wrote books of divini- ty, of which he left many behind him. He is not generally thought to have been an evangelical writer. Mosheim says that he surpassed all his contemporaries among the Greeks and Orientals, but was su- perstitious, and absorbed in a vain philosophy. cceea- - PERIOD V. The Period of tM^ Neio Western Empire; extending from the Crowning of Charlemagne, 800 A. C, to the First Crusade, 1095 years A. C. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The New Western Empire, so called, included the dominions of Charlemag-ne, or the countries of which he w^as acknowledged as the sovereign, in 800 A. C. It was at this period that the title of Emperor of the West, was conferred upon him. He was established in that august sovereignty, by being crowned at Rome, by Pope Leo III. It is thought by some, that had he chosen Rome as the seat of his government, and at death transmitted an undivi- ded dominion to his successor, the fallen empire of the Ro- NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 99 i^wis might have once more been restored to prosperity and gSatness. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divi- ded, even in his life-time, his dominions among his children. The countries, included under the title of the New Western Ein])ire, were principally France, Burgundy, Germany, Ita- Iv, and a part of Spain. The Empire, as such, continued I'lit a short time. One country after another separated from it. under the successors of Charlemagne, and Germany, at last, l)v'^came the sole seat or representative of the Empire. Be- fore the expiration of the present Period, the structure reared 1)V tile French monarch, was dissolved. After pursuing the ii'.v details of the empire as a body, we shall resume our HQirative of the individual countries, in their separate or in- tle pendent state. 5 The occasion and the manner of the crowning of Charlemagne, were as follows : He was wont to pass annually, from the Pyrenees into Germany, iind thence into Italy. In approaching Rome for the last time, the Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of the Con- fession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From this union of religious and military attributes, it was evident that Charlemagne was on the eve of becoming emperor. Accordingly, on Christmas day, which was then the day of the new 3^ear, being present at the service of the mass, and on his knees before the altar, the Pope came suddenly behind him, and placed on his head the Crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud acclamations among the populace. An august title, which had lain dormant for several centuries, was thus revived, but it did not restore Rome to its ancient splendour, for reasons which were given above. Charlemagne lived nearly 14 years after he became Emperor of the West. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 72d year of his age, and the 46th of his reign. 2. Charlemagne was succeeded, 814 A. C, by his son, Louis the Debonaire, or the Mild. Of the lawful children of Charle- magne, Louis alone survived his father, and all the imperial dominions came of course into his hands, except Italy, which :lhe emperor had settled on Bernard, one of his grandsons. The reign of Louis was highly calamitous. In 817, he associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and gave Aquitain to Pepin, his second son, and Bavaria to Louis, his third. A disagreement occurring between Louis and Bernard, king of Italy, the latter was subdued, and had his eyes put ©Ut, in consec|uence of which he died three days after. The 100 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degr^g)f remorse, that he performed pubhc penance on account ofine crime. The children of Louis greatly embittered, and even short- ened his hfe. First quarrelling among tliemselves, they then attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C. § Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.— As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a share to this younger son, the other brothers were highly disaffect- ed. This was one occasion of tlieir contention. When Louis found his end approaching, he set aside for Lothaire, a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend- ed for him, on condition, however, that lie sliould abide by the parti- tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any irtention of his son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated to the old king, that as a christian, he ought not to leave the world, without bestowing upon Louis his pardon. The dying monarch shook his hoary locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied, " I pardon him, but you may tell him, that it was he who has brought down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 3. Charles, surnamed the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild, in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontenay, between the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles, in which Charles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as the appointed emperor, had wished to obtain the possession of all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon- tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to • accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now made among themselves. Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France. Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus- tria and Aquitain, fell to the lot of Charles. Thus the fine Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to the house of France, by the separation of Germany from that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be- came elective, after it had passed, as it did finally, into the hands of the Germans. § The battle of Fontenay was fought with the greatest obstinacy. Is'EW WESTERN EMPIRE. 101 Historians agree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa- sion. Lothaire fled to the Saxons, yet laid his plans in such a man- ner as to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire. In the reign of Charles, France was plundered by the Normans, who had begun their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne. But their progress was then inconsiderable. In 843, however, they sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet en- tered the Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity ; the ma- rauders not only securing great quantities of spoil, but carrying men, women and children into captivit}^ In 845,. they entered the Seine again with a fleet, and advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the city was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor- deaux, and pillaged it. Charles, instead of repressing the incursions of these barbarians with his arms, purchased their forbearance with money. 1. Lothaire, the emperor, died in 855. Before his death, he divided his dominions among his three sons. Louis II. was the son who succeeded him with the title of emperor. He was a brave and virtuous sovereign, and died 875. 2. Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power- ful monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh- bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Charles marched with a large army to seize his dominions, but he was soon defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis II., ha- ving been first crowned emperor by the Pope. 3. Charles, on the death of Louis II., son of Lothaire, (875) assumed the empire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John VIIL, on condition of holding it as a vassal to the Holy See. This prince, after contending for the space of two years, with the possessors of the other portions of the empire, with various success, died of poison, 877 A, C. His reign must be pronounced, on the whole, to have been a w eak and inglorious one. He was the first of the French monarchs, who made dig- nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside on theii- territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter- •est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in their castles and fortresses, they defied the power of tlie go- vernment, w hile the country was disturbed and desolated by iheir feuds. The Empire of the West being now effectually dismem- 9* 102 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. bered, though there were afterwards temporary junctions of its different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of the several countries in their separate state. As the power which formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural to speak of this first. Indeed, vre have been under the neces sity of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not having had a political existence before the era of Charlemagne, will be new on the list of nations. FRANCE. 4. Louis II., the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred during his reign, which was a short one, of only ninetecD months. His two sons, Louis HI., and Carloman, became joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their reign was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They died, the one in 882, and the other in 884. § Their deaths were each accidental. Lewis, in pursuing a young female who fled from him, struck his head against the door, and was killed by the blow. Carloman, who survived him but a short time, in hunting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of his attendants launched against the animal. To save the attendant from the blame that might be attached to the act, Carloman report- ed that he had been wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived several days, he persevered in keeping the cause of his death a secret. 5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers of France to fill the vacant throne, 885. He was brother and successor to Louis II., the German, and son of the Louis, to whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time, France and Germany were again under the same sway. At the expiration of two years, however, Charles was deposed on account of his cowardice, and the impeiial dignity was transferred to Germany. The nobility then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill the throne, 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III., and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon the death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple, was introduced to the sovereignty, 898, but he was deposed by Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc- ceeded by Ralpho, or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy, the year after. FRANCE. 103 § Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo- narch, and despised by his nobles. It is said, however, that in bat- tle, he killed the valiant Robert with his own hand. Upon the death of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne. It was during the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Hollo, their chief, the king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this people the country was called Normandy, and it is from this race of war- riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England. 6. Louis IV.j the son of Charles the Simple, was called to the throne of France, in 936. He was siunamed Oatremer, or Transmarine, on account of having* been brought up in England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo- thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France, directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ- ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, hke another Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France. § The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens. 7. Hugh Capet, the head of the thiid dynasty of kings in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C. He was crowned at Rheims, on the third of July. His administration was marked with ability. He enacted several salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence in Paris, which had been deserted by his predecessors during more tban two hundred years. He delegated a portion of the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning j of his reign. 1 § The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to t Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights by force, he was ti last I betrayed and confined in prison, where he soon died. 1 Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea- lousy of his nobles, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al- ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress i and simple style. I 8. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in ! 996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Bertha, wlio ! was the daughter of the king of Burgundy, his marriage was annulled, himself excommunicated, and his kingdom put I under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance of such an exercise of the papal authority in France. The distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Rob -.t, much 104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate \m otience by a solemn penance. He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen. § The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re- fused to the sick ; and the dead left without burial. There were no longer any regulations of police ; and, as all dreaded to approach an excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded, however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse of the table. The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con- stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite, grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be burned at the stake. It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan- guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro- testant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism. Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord- ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by touching the sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches thee, and may God cure thee." 9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro- bert, both aspired to the throne. It belonged to Henry, but the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac- tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend his dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en- terprises. § He subdued several of his rebellious nobles, defeated an army ol a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy, and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter — a rash step, which laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars. About the commencement of Henry's reign, a dreadful famine desolated not only France, but the rest of Europe. The dead were disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh was publicly exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa- cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for guest? ITALY. 105 on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle. 10. Henry left the crown to his son Philip I., then seven years old, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count of Flanders. Philip w^as rather a spectator than an actor in the political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com- mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre during forty-eight years. His princi])al war was with Wil- liam of Normandy, now become kins of England. From this date commenced a long hostility between the English and French monarchies. ITALY. 11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons of Louis the Debonaire, Italy, as we have seen, was assign- ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875. The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain- ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877. Ital}^ was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants ; but in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the German empire. A series of wars, however, continued dur- ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the ; Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy w^as di- I vided into several independent states. These wars are too I unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the 1 following period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the I world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations, j except as her affairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his- I tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at I different times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca- ; ny, Parma, Lombard y, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo- ;' ries, may, in some subsequent period, be duly noticed. j § A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor j after Italy was re-united to the empire, was engaged, may be here re- j lated. Several cities of Italy took occasion to throw off their alle- 1 giance to the emperor, Otho, hearing of it, soon entered Italy with an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish i the authors of the tumults. 2 He invited the nobles of Rome to a grand entertainment in the y Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the 106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly ordered the names of those concerned in the late disturbances to be read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the midst of the hall. After the bloody mandate was executed, he was all smiles and com- plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment. It may be recorded here, that it was during the present period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath- ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregor}^ the VII. From that time the popes possessed great power in the states of Europe. Although the emperors (German) asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con- stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general repugnance of the popes, when once established. SPAIN. 12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians, (including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed, constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia, part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata- lonia and Navarre were subdued by Charlemagne, bv^ytl^ successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All the remainder of the Peninsula, including Portugal, was oc- cupied by the Moors. Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent city, was the Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num- ber of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at war with one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the whole kingdom ; but they Avere unhappily contending among themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that the Christian princes formed alliances with the Moors against one ano- ther. § Taste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and the south of Spain, when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism GERMANY. 107 and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of the eighth, to the middle of the tenth century. During that period, the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts and arms. It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe- minate, that the nation was divided into a number of petty states, the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and Christians, the country abounded with independent lords, who were warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and that of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip- tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the passion for knight errantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some other place. The contentions among the petty kingdoms of Spain need not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on the subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, and the union of the whole country under one head, towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century. GERMANY. |^^B| Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess- "ct^R political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre- viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and fluctuating in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider- ed the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire. As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already noticed so far down as the termination of the short reign, or rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. A i that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con- sidered as having been effectually separated from France; and of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of Germany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc- cessor to the Emperors of Rome. § Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word ger. brave, and man^ signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it comprehended all the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from 108 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. the Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro- bably the Celts, But our information respecting Germany is scanty, till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them- selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the northern and w^estern regions.* When -Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li- berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra- very, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in- vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do- minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. France was also under his sway at the same tnne, but he was soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex- tremities. 15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and nephew of Charles III., was proclaimed emperor of Germt In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son III., became his successor in 899, when only seven years of age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from Charlemagne. § The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di- visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor died of grief. Fmm the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect- ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and grandees had always been asked. 16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during which time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the barbarous Hungarians. § The German grandees, who assembled at Worms, first offered the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony ; but he declining it * Webster's Elements, &c. 7 — -^ tnai^^ GERMANY. 109 on account of his advanced age, persuaded them to apply the invi- tation to Conrad. The latter was of imperial descent by his mother, who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the affairs ol Germany were conducted with great prudence. 17. Upon tlie death of Conrad, the imperial dignity was bestowed on Henry I., siunamed the Fowler. This prince possessed great al)ilities, and introduced order and good go- vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities, reduced and concihated many of the revolted lords, and con- quered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavonians, Bohemians, 6cc. He added Lorrain to his dominions. § Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals whom, he subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to this religion. He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmuch as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. 18. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usm-- pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger H. and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the ^^eror of the Romans. John afterwards revolted against l^^kbut was soon deposed. ^dpo was the greatest pjince of his time. After an active and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo- plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the cathedral church of Magdebourg, where his tomb ma}^ be still distinguished by a Latin inscription. § Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders and crimes of the Papacy. Being invited into that country by the Pope and the Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat- ed the latter, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Debonaire, § The treachery of the Pope, (John XII.) obliged the emperor, in two or three successive instances, to visit Italy to compose the dis- orders that took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven- geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling I together the Lateran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso- lute right of the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investi- ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics. The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol^ 10 110 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. lowing incident of Otho's life. Ludolphns, his son, had engaged in an unnatural revolt, which produced some serious hostilities, and occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op- portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his feet, and implore his clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. K you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as- suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his life shall be spent in the faithful discharge of filial duty." To this af- fecting iippeal, Otho could reply onl}^ by a flood of tears and a pa- ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his adherents. 19. Otho II., surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his father m 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otlio III., St. Henry, Conrad IL, and Henry III. They occupied a period of about eighty-three years. 20. Henry lY., the Great, succeeded his father at the age of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to experience a large share of papal insolence and tyi After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the empeil often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of Pope Urban II., the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and Henry, rebelled against theii* father, and to such an extremity was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of excommunication, that he could scarcely obtain the means of subsistence. His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex- piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up himself freely to tlie indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not thorough- ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was leror lo # )e\VT as ENGLAND. Ill endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency, liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. § The insolent treatment he received from the Pope, appears from the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife and infant, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith- standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re- ceived an absolution. The liberality of Henry's disposition was such, that he is said to have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, and even to have lodged them in his own apartment, that he might be at hand to minister to their necessities. ENGLAND. Saxoii Kings. — Norman Family. 21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct sovereignties during more than two centuries, became one entu-e kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax- ^ttL who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was I^^Hjd Yfessex and Sussex. ; ^^rlie occasion which offered for the conquest and union of j the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain- ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ; j he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several 1 states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, ■ with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four I hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, were they united into one powerful kingdom. 22 The Enghsh, who were so happily united under Eg- bert, enjoyed their prosperity but a short period. The pirati- cal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the Enghsh coasts for fifty years, now became still more troublesome. During the life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were repulsed with much slaughter. The death of Egbert, and the character of his successor, Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encouraged the Danes to multiply theii* depredations. They were often 112 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethelwolf divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbald and Ethelbert. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young- er son. § It was Ethelwolf who, through facility of disposition, not only granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted it from all services and imposts. The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com- mencing in 857; and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a third brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. He died bravely, in battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc- ceeded, in 872. 23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age, when he ascended the throne, found his kingdom in a most miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an- archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign aggression. By his efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence and happiness, surpassing what might have been expected at that period. His talents, virtues, and character, were of the highest order, and have justly endeared his name and memory to the bosom of every Englishman. The institu- tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri tish realm. He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries — founded or revived the university of Oxford — divided Eng- land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun- try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is generally deemed the origin of the common law. § The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub- verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten householders formed a tith- ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over whom a headborough was appointed to preside. Every man was registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation, without a certificate from the headborough. In the decision of differences, the headborough, also called tith- ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. In affairs of great moment, or in controversies between the members of different tith- ings, the cause was brought before the court of the hundred, which s f^W^ ENGLAND. 113 'Was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the cause in this court. The county court, which met twice a year, and consisted of the freeholders of tlie county, was superior to that of the hundred, from wliich it received appeals. Here disputes be- tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti- mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council. The reign of Alfred was signalized by his contest with the Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in eight battles ; but a new irriijption of their countrymen, forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates frequently inter- rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred w^as com- pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da- nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking tliem. This he embraced with great effect. Instead of cutting them off en- tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them w^ith his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he turned his attention, as already mentioned, to the internal improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of tw^enty-nine «rs, and was justly surnamed the Great. Ufred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose fiiit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire- i ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par- tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their camp. Having been introduced to Guthrum, their prince, he played before him in his tent. Here he witnessed their supineness. Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to the most considerable of his friends, and summoned them to meet him with their retainers, at a certain place. The English crowded around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and t)efore their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the enemies of their country. 24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al- fred, in 901. He lived in a stormy period, being continually molested by the Northumbrian Danes ; j^et he was generally successful in his wars, and his administration of government was lionourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four years. I Ethelwald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion 10* 114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny for the son of a prince. 25. Athelstan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him, 925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed with success the Northumbrian Danes. Welsh, Scots, nien. die Mahometans, wie bora in the year 96QL and died in 1096. Tlieninn- ber of his books, jnctading hii smaller tracts, is eompoted at near ^ne himdred. the majority of which are esiher lost, or unknown r: Europe/ At the ase often yeaxs. he had made great progvess m c4a8Bical titsratmeL It is said that he read orer Ai^totle-'s mefaqihy- £sio9 40 times, got it by heart, but coold not tradersiandiL Aocidenr taly meeting widi a book which tretfed of the objects of metaphy- aca, he pcicci ted what Aristotle meant, and oat of joy at the disco- rery, gave afans to the poor. 7. Sojdaa fl um i ah e d b c ft w coi 975 and 1089. His nadre oocntiT is ixit known. He is the anthor of a rery nseM Greek l^priron Hie work eooftainB much historical and gec^raphical inibrmation. Bio particolan seem to haTe been recorded respecting his life, byhimadf orby othersL He is known only by his book. I THE CRUSADES. PERIOD YI. 125 T.'he 2^enod of the Crusades ; extending from the First Crusade^ 1095 years A. C\, to tJie founding of the Turkish Empire^ 1299 years A. C. During this period, we have manifold proofs of the darkness of the times, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there was the early dawn of literature. THE CRUSADES. Sect. 1. In giving an account of the Crusades, we include a portion of the history of the principal European nations. For this reason, less of the separate history of those nations will appear during this period, than would otherw-ise be introdu- ced. The Crusades were common to all Christendom, and all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, (fee. since they belonged to the estabUshed customs and institutions of Europe, will be unfolded in the General Views. In the Cru- sades, the political and military history of a great part of the world is carried on for a long time. 2. The Crusades were wars undertaken principally during the twelfth and thirteenth centunes, by the Christian nations of Europe, on account of religion. They were termed Cru- sades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants. The object of these wars Avas the deliverance of Palestine, and particularly the tomb of Jesus Christ from the dominion of the Turks or Mahometans. The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in 10.5.5, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the <^liphs, came into the possession of the countiies which these caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of temporal moi^irchs, l^ecame sovereign pontiffs of the Mahome- tan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course under the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion. U* 126 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. Tn this situation of things, the resort of pilgrims to the tomb of our Saviour was attended with much difficulty and danger. While the Saracens held possession of tiie country, the pilgrims were permitted to have free access to the holy city ; but its new masters, the Turks, were a more wild and ferocious people. They insulted and robbed tliose fanatical devotees — a circumstance, in such an age, of sufficient im- portance to arouse all Europe for the deliverance of Jerusalem from the infidels. The Roman pontiffs were the principal itistigators of these desperate adventures. § In an age of religious enthusiasm, and in an unenlightened state of society, it is not surprising that Judea should have been an object of veneration, or superstitious regard to the Christian world. Here tlie great events recorded in the sacred scriptures transpired — the chosen people of God subsisted through many generations — unnum- bered miracles were performed — the Mosaic and Christian dispen- sations were set up — even God's own Son, the Messiah, lived, suffer- ed, and died. Here prophets and apostlQS had preached, and writ- ten, and shed their blood in testimony of the truth, and every tenant- ed part, especially the Holy City, was marked by some divine inter- position or manifestation, most dear to the lover of piety. A country so hallowed, is capable, even now, of exciting the most delightful associations ; and though we are in no danger of attempt- ing any thing like a crusade, yet nothing relating to such a land can be contemplated without deep emotion. What sensations then must hive been excited in a deeply enthusiastic and superstitious age '. And much as we smile at their folly, how easily can we account for the ardour which was displayed by unlettered minds and fanatical tempers, on the subject of the crusades ! Connected also, as was a pilgrimage to the holy land, with the idea of merit, and merit even sufficient to purchase salvation, nothing can be conceived more cal- culated to arouse every honourable and indignant feeling, than the obstructions in the way of such a devotion. It was a hardship not to be endured, that the Christian disciple should be prevented from approaching and musing over, with a sort of adoration, the sepul- chre in which his blessed Redeemer was laid. 2. There were five* expeditions of the kind here spoken of, which, during nearly two centuries, drained from Europe most of its life-blood and treasures. All western Europe be- came involved in these destructive wars, but the French en tered upon them with more enthusiasm than any other na- tion. The first crusade was preached by Peter, commonly styled ♦ Some reckon a larger number. THE CRUSADES. 127 the hermit. After having sufficiently excited Christendom by liis rude eloquence, he found vast multitudes ready to engage m the hazardous undertaking. The popes, however, had for some time contemplated the same design, and Urban II., the reigning pontiff, availed himself of this opportunity of executing his splendid project of arming the whole of Chris- tendom against the Mahometans, through the instrumentality of Peter. Two general councils were called and held on tlie subject, one at Placentia and the other at Clermont, and were attended by many thousands. The pope himself liarangued the multitude, and offered to all who would engage in the ser- vice, plenary indulgence, and full absolution of sins. Peter, who possessed none of the necessary qualities of a mihtary leader, was placed at the head of this motley crowd of all ages, conditions, and character, amounting to eighty tliousand men. They commenced their march towards the East, in the spring of 1096, and were soon followed by an addition of two hundred thousand persons of the same pro- miscuous description. They were any thing rather than a regularly appointed army, or efficient mihtary force. Their progress was marked by outrages ; not more than one third of them reached the scene of action ; and those who did, were nearly all cut off in battle on the plain of Nice. § Peter the Hermit, was a native of Amiens, in Picardy, (France.) He seems to have been the first effectual mover of this mighty, and it may be properly added, mad project. His OAvn pilgrimage to the tomb of our Saviour, had made him acquainted with the dangers and vexations to which pilgrims were exposed in Asia, and became the occasion or cause of the enterprise in vv^hich he embarked. Fired with a sense of his own wrongs, and those of his fellow pilgrims, he sought the gratification of revenge, or at least, the means of preventing the recurrence of those evils, in future. For this purpOse he travelled frojn city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, repre- senting with a rude but pathetic eloquence, the grievances of the pilgrims, and urging the necessity of making a common effort against the common enemy of Christians and their religion. On this sub- ject he exhorted all whom he met, and hesitated not to call on no- bles us well as their vassals— the rich as well as the poor. His applications of this kind were aided by his personal appear- ance. He was a monk, and exhibited all the austerity of that cha- racter. He was an enthusiast, and displayed more than an enthu- siast's madness. He travelled bare headed, and with naked arms and legs, having only a part of his body covered with a coarse gar- jnent He seemed wasted with fasting, and exhausted with anxiety 128 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. and toil. He bore aloft in his hand a ponderous crucifix, to which he pointed with the most animated gestures ; nor did he restrain his prayers, whatever his situation might be, but poured his wdiole soul in loud and prolonged supplications in the streets and highways. The body of enthusiasts who crowded around him was immense. Princes, noblemen, artisans, peasants, monks, and even women, ma- nifested equal anxiety to bend their steps to the East, and expel the infidel hordes from the consecrated land. To the vicious and aban- doned in character— to the ambitious and disorderly — to robbers, in- cendiaries, murderers, and other offenders, a fit opportunity was pre- sented of procuring the pardon of their sins, and at the same time of indulging in unbounded lust and rapine. As Malmsbury curiously observes, "the report of the council of Clermont, wafted a cheering gale over the minds of Christians. There was no nation so remote, no people so retired, as did not re- spond to the papal wishes. This ardent love not only inspired tlie continental provinces, but the most distant islands and savage coun- tries. The Welshman left his hunting ; the Scotch his fellowship with vermin ; the Dane his drinking party ; the Norwegian his raw fish." Robert of Normandy, after mentioning in general terms the contributions of men which France and England made to the holy war, thus singularly mixes other nations : " Of Normandy, of Denmark, of Norway, of Bretagne, Of Wales, and of Ireland, of Gascony, and of Spain, Of Provence, and of Saxony, and of Allemagne, Of Scotland, and of Greece, of Rome and Aquitain " At this time, " every wonderful event in the natural world was regarded as an indication of the divine will. Meteors and stars pointed at and fell on the road to Jerusalem. The skies were in- volved in perpetual storms, and the blaze and terror of anxious and disordered nature showed the terrific harmony of heaven with the sanguinary fury of earth. Man fully responded to the supposed calls of God. The moral fabric of Europe was convulsed ; the re- lations and charities of life were broken ; society appeared to be dissolved. Persons of every age, rank, and degree, assumed the cross. The prohibition of women from undertaking this journey was passed over in contemptuous silence. They separated them- selves from tlieir husbands where men wanted faith, or resolved to follow them with their helpless infants. Monks, not waiting for the permission of their superiors, threw aside their black mourning gowns, and issued from their cloisters full of the spirit of holy war- riors. They who had devoted themselves to a solitary life, mistook the impulses of passion for divine revelations, and thought that hea- ven had annulled their oaths of retirement. A stamp of virtue was fixed upon every one who embraced the cause; and many were urged to the semblance of religion, by shame, reproach, and fashion. When families divided, nature and fanaticism contended for tlie mastery. A wife consented to the departure of her husband, on his vowing to return at the end of three years. Another in whom fear THE CRUSADES, 129 was stronger than hope, was lost in violence of grief. The husband wore the semblance of indifference, unmoved by the tears of his wife and the kisses of his children, though his heart reproached him for the sternness of his countenance. On the other hand, fathers led their sons to the place of meeting — women blessed the moment of separation from their husbands, or if they lamented, it was from the cause they were not permitted to share the honours and perils of the expedition. In some instances, the poor rustic shod his oxen like horses, and placed his whole family in a cart, where it was amusing to hear the children, on the approach to any large town or castle, inquiring if the object before them was Jerusalem." Such M^as the disordered rabble that attempted the conquest of Palestine, and such the circumstances under which the expedition commenced. Only a small part of the vast multitude ever reached Asia. From the beginning they were illy provided with necessaries, and therefore had recourse to acts of rapine. Their progress, so de- structive to the countries through which they passed, was frequently arrested by collision with their inhabitants. The Jews of Germa- ny were the first sufferers ; but it was in Hungary and Bulgaria especially, that the outrages committed by the Crusaders were visit- ed upon their own heads. When they arrived at Constantinople, the emperor, Alexius Commenus, to whom they behaved themselves with the utmost insolence and folly, was not slow to rid himself of his troublesome guests. For this purpose he furnihsed them with every aid which they required, and lent his ships to transport them across the Bosphorus. They thence pursued their march, but the Sultan Solyman meet- ing them on the plains of Nice, their numbers were too much redu- ced to offer him any thing else than an easy victory. Of their bones, Solyman erected a pyramid near the city, as a monument of his own fortune, and of their headlong counsels. 3. A new host, which was the most valuable part of this expedition, arrived in the mean time, at Constantinople, as a general rendezvous. The commanders were experienced generals and men of renown. Among them, were Godfrey of Bouillon, by some called commander in chief ; Baldwin , his brother: Robert, duke of Normandy ; Hugh, count of Ver- mandois ; Raymond, count of Thoulonse ; Bohemond, prince of Tarentum ; and Tancred, his cousin. These and other warlike princes and captains, inspired by religious enthu- siasm, or miiitaiy ardour, pledged themselves to redeem the \ holy sepulchre from the infidels. The troops, when reviewed in the neighbourhood of Nice, amounted to 100,000 hor«e, and 600,000 foot, including women and servants. Alexius, the eastern emperor, did not suffer them to remain long at Constantinople ; but after seeking to o1xai*i an as- 130 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. m cendency over them as a superior ally, he had the address lO accelerate their departure. They at length met the Sara- cens, whom they overpowered by numbers. Having twice defeated the enemy, they took, after immense difficult)^, losses, and delay, the cities of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch. § Constantinople, at the period when the crusaders met there, was the largest and most beautiful city of Europe. The most that re- mained of ancient elegance in manners and in arts, was included in that emporium. It was the mart of the world, and the seat of em- pire. Though the Greeks were degenerate, yet such was the splen- dour of their capital. The hardy warriors of the north, beheld with amazement, these scenes of magnificence and wealth, whilst they despised the effemi- nate manners and unwarlike character of the people. On the other hand, the accomplished inhabitants of Constantinople, looked upon the northern warriors as barbarians. They speak of them as illit- erate, fierce, and savage, and as nearly resembling their ancestors, the Goths and Vandals, who overturned the Roman empire. They treated their guests sometimes with respect, but oftener with the most hateful duplicity. The gold and artifices of the emperor were employed not without effect — most of the leaders of the Croises taking the oath of fealty to him as their liege lord. He was not averse to the destruction of his enemy, the Turk ; but the numbers and braver}^ of the warriors of the north, filled his bosom with jealousy. On various pretences, many of them were cut off in his own territories, and they experi- enced several alternatives of peace and v/ar in the country of the Greeks. The characters of the celebrated leaders of the Croises, on this oc- casion, may require a passing notice. Godfrey was endowed by na- ture with her choicest gifts. He possessed all the knowledge of the times ; and the gentlest manners were united with the firmest spirit. He was capable of the grandest enterprises ; his deportment was moral, and his piety was fervent. To sum up his character, in arms he was a hero— in his closet a saint. The qualities of Baldwin were not so conspicuous. He was brave indeed, but he was ambitious ; and his courage was stained with sel- fishness, cruelty, and injustice. Hugh, who was brother of the French king, called to his side the armed pilgrims from Flanders, and England, and a part of France. He was a brave and accom- plished cavalier, but undevout, and of a proud deportment. Robert, who was a son of William the Conqueror, entered upon the holy war with a furious and precipitate passion. He was eloquent and skilful, but imprudent, yielding, and voluptuous. Bohemond posessed neither religion nor probity ; yet to the eye of the vulgar, hp was one of the most devoted soldiers of Christ. He was intrigumg, rapacious and versatile. Tancred was a compara- THE CRUSADES. 131 lively pure and brilliant spirit. He was bold and generous, and would have been humane to all mankind, had it not been for the spirit of the age. Raymond was inexorable in his hatred of the Musselmans ; pride, selfishness, and avarice tarnished his character. The soldier pilgrims all convened on the phiins of Nice. "There the wild Crusaders form, There assembled Europe stands, Heaven tliey deem awakes the storm, Hell the paynims' blood demands." The details of the siege and capture of Nice, and the subsequent operations against Edessa and Antioch, cannot be narrated. Suffice it to sa)^, that Nice fell by means of the policy of Alexius, who had joined the Franks or crusaders. While the latter, who had with much difficulty and loss, effected some breaches in the wall, were about to storm anew the repairs, the emperor snatched the victory from their grasp, by secretly proposing more favourable terms to the besieged, than could be expected from an enemy that would enter the city sword in hand. The soldiers clamoured ; while the Latin generals, thinking of greater objects, dissembled their disgust, and endeavoured by fair persuasions to stifle the auger of their troops. The CQuquest of Edessa, beyond the Euphrates, was achieved by a few ambitious and courageous soldiers, who had separated for a time from the main body of the Franks, under the command ol Baldwin and Tancred. Before Antioch could be reached, some fighting was necessary, and the Christians triumphed — much fatigue was to be borne, and here many of them sunk. The horrors of the way, and the heat of a Phrygian summer, were fatal to multitudes. Five hundred perished in one day. Mothers, no longer able to afford sustenance to their infants, exposed tiieir breasts to the swords of the soldiers. Many of the horses perished : the baggage was then placed on the backs of goats, hogs, and dogs. When the crusaders came to a country of streams, they threw tliemselves without caution into the first river that presented itself, and nature could not support the transition from want to satiety. The siege of Antioch was protracted, nor was this wholly sur- prising, considering the state of defence in which the city was placed ; as well as on the other hand, the unskilful operations of the Croises, the famine in their camp, the numerous desertions from among them, and the relaxation of their morals. The Latin chiefs put forth prodigious efforts of valour ; but the city was finally taken hy stratagem. A traitor delivered it into the hands of the Franks, and 10,000 Turks were massacred. When the thirst of blood was slaked, the assassins turned robbers, and became as mercenary as they had been merciless. They seized all the wealth of the place, and exchanged their fierceness for the more civilized vices of de- I bauchery and hypocrisy. While they rioted in unbounded indul- .gence, they gave God thanks. The taking of A:>tioch was very soon followed by a set battle 132 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. with the Musselmans ; for the hosts of the Moslem world pitched their tents round the fallen capital. The excesses of the crusaders were followed by famine in its every horrid form; and had not some superstitious frauds been practised, by which their zeal and courage were re-excited, they would have shrunk from a contest with the formidable army which now opposed them under the ex- citements of religion ; however, they met it, and triumphed in the affray. 4. The Croises pursued tbeir successes, and after vaiious desertions and delays they penetrated to Jerusalem. This venerable city, which had been so often destroyed and rebuilt, was taken by storm after a siege of six wrecks, and the whole of its inhabitants, both Mahometans and Jews, were barba- rously put to the sw^ord, 1099 A. C. The crusaders w^ere by this time reduced to a very inconsiderable number. Of the 700.000 that appeared before Nice, 40,000 only encamped around Jerusalem. Of these, only 21,500 were soldiers. Iln- cluding the rabble of Peter, the possession of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch, had cost the lives of more than 850,000 Euro- peans. § The victories of the Crusaders were gained with difficulty. After the capture of Antioch, their embarrassments were not a few. Alexius had acted a cowardly and perfidious part. Hugh, count of Vermandois, soon abandoned the holy cause, and returned to France. The march of the Christian forces was purposely delayed several months, by the commanders, although the soldiers were impatient to proceed to Jerusalem. This delay, however, was attended by the most serious evils. Discord prevailed among the princes— rapine and theft among the people. A pestilence spread throughout their hosts, which, in a few months, destroyed more than one hundred thousand persons. In the mean time, several wars of ambition were waged, in the neighbouring provinces. The forces which attacked the town of Marra, were so urged by famine, that many of the soldiers turned cannibals, and devoured the flesh of their enemies, whom they massacred with the utmost cruelty. At length, the Christian warriors set their faces towards the holy city. When it came in view, every heart glowed with rapture — every eye was suffused with tears. The joy of a moment out- weighed years of sorrow. In their heated imaginations, the sepul- chre was redeemed, and the cross triumphed over the crescent. But the anticipation of success was much easier than the reality. The most strenuous exertions were necessary, and the enthusiasm and valour of the Christians were carried to the greatest height. After several alternations of partial victory and defeat, the walls of the sacred city were carried, and all Jerusalem was in possession of the champions of the cross. The blood of the Saracens attested the ferocity of the victory, and the price at which their conquest was THE CRUSADES. 133 obtained. Ten thousand of the vanquished were butchered in the mosque of Omar alone, to which they had fled as a sacred asylum. In this place, the croises are said to have ridden in the blood of the Saracens up to the knees of their horses. Ten thousand, or accord- ing to some, a much larger number, were massacred in the streets. The Christians committed these dreadful deeds from principle rather than from passion. It was a horrid principle indeed j but intoler- ance was unhappily the spirit of the age. 5. Willi considerable foresight, the conquerors of Jerusalem established a Christian kingdom in the heart of Palestine. An extension of territory was indispensable to the security of the city from the Mussulman hordes that surrounded it. At the head of this kingdom, Godfrey, the most worthy of the heroes of Christeildom, was placed by the suffrages of the Christians. He reigned however but one year, during which time he defeated the sultan with an immense army at Asca- lon. At the expiration of the year, he was compelled to give up his kingdom to the pope's legate. Several kings reigned after him, but their history need not be told. An impolitic act of the crusaders, by which their power was weakened, was, at length, the division of Syria and Palestine into four separate states. Having accomphshed their object, they began to return to Europe ; but in proportion as they withdrew, the Turks recovered their strength. The crusa- ders, who remained in Asia, found themselves so surrounded by foes, that they were at last obliged to solicit aid from Chris- tendom. § The fruits of this first crusade ill repaid its immense loss and ex- pense, and were comprised within the small territory of Jerusalem, the dominion of which was bounded by the term of eighty years. The holy war, nevertheless, continued to be recommended by the pope and the clergy with unabated earnestness. It was still re- presented to be the cause of the Son of God, an engagement in which was the most meritorious of all acts, and insured salvation, whether in the success or defeat. 6. The aid which was needed in the East was soon afford- ed. Europe sent forth a second crusade in 1147. St. Ber- nard, who was the great oracle of the age, had the influence to excite Louis YIl. of France, and Conrad HI. of Germany, to undertake the defence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Three hundred thousand of their subjects assumed the cross. The issue of this enterprise was disastrous in the extreme. Manuel, the emperor of the Greeks, gave intelligence of their plans to the Turkish sultan, and provided them with treacbe- 12 L 134 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. reus guides. The army of Conrad, which took the lead, fell first into the snare. Those who did not perish by hunger in the deserts, fell into the jaws of the Musselmans. Only a tenth part secured their retreat to the army of Louis. Louis, also duped by the Grecian emperor, advanced through the same country to a similar fate. In the defile of a mountain near Laodicea, his army was totally defeated. At Jerusalem, these unfortunate monarchs met to lament their sad reverses of fortune. The feeble remains of the mighty armies which they had led, were joined to the Christian pow ers of Syria, and a fruitless siege of Damascus was the final eflfort of the second crusade. § A few particulars may be given respecting the preacher of the se- cond crusade. St. Bernard, by the superiority of his talents, and also of his consideration in the eyes of Europe, was far more capable than Peter the Hermit, of exciting enthusiastic emotions. His ardent and religious mind soon disdained the follies of youth ; and casting ofFthe desire of celebrity as a writer of poetry and songs, he wandered in the regions of spiritual reverie, or trod the rough and thorny paths. of polemical theology. At the age of 23, he embraced the monastic life, and soon after- wards founded the monastery of Clairvaux, in Champaigne, His miraculous eloquence separated sons from their fathers, and husbands from their wives. His earnestness and self-denial in religion, gained him the reverence of his contemporaries, and in disputes he was appealed to as an incorruptible judge. Such was his austerity, that happening once to fix his eyes on a female face, he immediately reiflected that this was a temptation, and running to a pond he leap- ed up to his neck into the water, which was of an icy coldness, to punish himself and vanquish the enemy. Such a man was the fit tool of the pope, Eugenius IH., who order- ed him to travel through France and Germany, and to preach a plenary, indulgence to those who would, under the banners of their kings, bend their way towards the holy land. As Peter had repre- sented the scandal of suffering the sacred places to remain in ihe hands of the infidels, the eloquent Bernard thundered from the pul- pit the disgrace of allowing a land, which had been recovered from pollution, to sink into it again. This voice raised armies and depo- pulated cities. According to his own expression, " the towns were deserted, or, the only people that were in them were widows and orphans, whose husbands and fathers were yet living." 7. The state of the holy land between the second and third crusades deserves a passing notice. A feeble sway was held by most of the chiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The death of Baldwin IIL, however, was lamented as a public calamity. His successors were Almeric, Baldwin IV., and THE CRUSADES. 135 Guy de Lusignan. The miseries of war were often expe- rienced from their Musselman enemies. It was during this period, that the celebrated Saladin, nephew of the Sultan of Egypt, attained the height of his glory, and became lord of that country. He formed the design of recovering Palestine from the Christians. 8. The occasion of the third crusade was, the success of Sa- ladin against the Latins in Jerusalem. He had previously subdued Tiberias, and received the submission of Acre, Jaffa, and some other places. Jerusalem offered an obstinate resist- ance, but in vain. The city was taken after a siege of a few days, and Guy de Lusignan was made prisoner, 1187 A. C. The conqueror treated the inhabitants with singular clemency. The infidels were now once more established in the city of the prophets. § The conquered Latins, on being obliged to leave Jerusalem, con- sumed four days in weeping over and embracing the holy sepulchre. The women entreated the conqueror to release to them their fathers, husbands, and brothers. With courteous clemency Saladin released all the prisoners whom they requested, and loaded them with pre- sents. 9. The conquests effected by the infidels, filled Europe with grief, and almost with despair. The losses occasioned by the former crusades, had rather dismayed the public mind. Small masses of men continued indeed to move towards the East, but it required a degree of management and much exhorta- tion to wake up a general interest in favovu" of a third crusade. Pope Clement HI. at length prevailed on three sovereigns to engage in the holy enterprise. These were Philip Augustus, of France, Richard I., surnamed the Lion-hearted, and Fre^ derick Barbarossa, of Germany. The forces of Phihp and Richard are computed at one hurt- dred thousand soldiers ; it does not appear how many follow- ed the standard of Frederick. The latter, in passing through the Greek empire, was prudent and humane, although the haughtiness and duplicity of the emperor Isaac Angelus, sub- jected him to much inconvenience. The Germans defeated the Turks in a general engagement, and took Iconium. But unfortunately, their sovereign lost his life in consequence of bathing in the river Calycadnus. After the death of Barba^ rossa, his army dwindled to a small number. - ■*: 136 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. The English and French, for a short time, proceeded har- moniously in the career of victory. They took Acre, a place of great strength. Soon, however, the bitter feelings of mi- litary envy and national hatred began to be excited, the con- sequence of which was, that the French monarch returned home, leaving a portion of his army under the command of Richard. Left alone to sustain the contest, Plantagenet dis- played all the heroism of chivalry. He found himself at the head of nearly thirty thousand French, German, and Enghsh soldiers. With this force he defeated the illustrious Saladin, near the plains of Ascalon. Political disturbances in England, made Richard solicitous to return thither, especially, as his ranks were now thinned by disease and famine. With this object in view, he concluded a favourable treaty with his ene- my, and attempted to return to his dominions. In passing through Germany, however, unaccompanied by his troops, he was seized by the order of the duke of Austria, and made prisoner. It was not until after a long captivity, and the pay- ment of an immense ransom, that he was restored to his na- tive land. Not long after the departure of Richard, Saladin paid the debt of nature. § In the treaty which was formed between Richard and Saladin, the Christian monarch, and the siikan of Egypt, interchanged ex- pressions of esteem. The s^rasping of each other's hands, was the only and sufficient pledge of fidelity. A truce was agreed upon for three years and eight months ; the fort of Ascalon \vas lo be destroy- ed ; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the country between them, were to be surrendered to the Christians. In leaving Palestine, Richard, with his queen, embarked in a ship; but the violence of a tempest dispersed his fleet, and so shat- tered the vessel he was in, that it became impossible for him to reach England in that way. He then made for Germany ; but his person was endangered as he travelled the country, since the fact of his being there became known to some of his enemies. After va- rious escapes, he arrived at a town near Vienna. Two individuals only were with him, one of whom was a boy, who understood the German language. The party were too harassed to proceed. The German boy was sent to the market-place to purchase provisions. Through the libe- rality of his master, he was so neatly and elegantly dressed, that the people could not but notice him. The consequence was that he was questioned, and giving unsatisfactory answers, he was seized and scourged. Being at length threatened with the cutting out of his tongue, if he did not tell the truth, he was obliged reluctantly to dis- close the secret of the real quality of his master. THE CRUSADES. 137 Richard was immediately secured, and though at first treated with respect, was soon confined in prison. Being sold at length to the emperor, Henry VI. removed him to a castle in the Tyrol. But the strongest walls are not sufficiently secure for the fears of a ty- rant. Armed men were sent into his chamber, and commanded to watch him with the utmost strictness. Here, sometimes, the royal captive calmed his angry soul, by smg- ing the warlike deeds of the heroes of romance. At other times, he diverted melancholy by the composition of poems. Occasionally, he forgot his misfortunes, and the apparent negligence of his friends. His native hilarity conquered the bitterness of his spirit ; he laugh- ed at the frequent intoxication of his gaolers, he sported the keen- ness of his wit, and in the boisterousness of his merriment, displayed his personal strength and agility. At the request of his mother, the queen Eleanora, the Pope inter- fered for his release ; and, after a trial on some pretended crime, it was concluded to ransom the English monarch, as though he had been a prisoner of war, the English people paying about 150,000 marks of silver to the German emperor. 10. By the energy of Richard, Palestine was saved from becoming a Mussulman colony ; and so much of the sea coast was in the hands of the Christians, and so enfeebled was the enemy, that it was safe to commence hostilities, whenever Europe should again pour forth her religious and military fa- natics. This event was not long delayed, notwithstanding the infinite losses and sufferings, which had hitherto resulted from the crusades. A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1202, by Baldwin, count of Flanders, who collected an army of the Flemish and French, professedly to attack the Mahometans, though it seems to have found another enemy. Like the other crusa- ders, he made the eastern Christians first feel the effect of European adventure and military enthusiasm. Indeed, his efforts ended here ; for, arriving at Constantinople, at a time when there was a dispute for the succession, his interference afforded the occasion of plundeiing the city, and securing the possession of the imperial throne of the East. The Venetians lent their vessels for the enterprise, and participated in it. § Some historians reckon a crusade anterior to the war carried on by Baldwin, denominating his the fiftk There were expeditions from Germany in the intermediate time ; but it may be doubtful whether they deserve the name of a distinct crusade. Indeed, there were so many different expeditions, some public and others private, that the designation of a certain number of separate crusades, seems somewhat arbitrary. According to the common accounts, we have 12* 138 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. assigned the name of the fourth crusade, to the expedition of which the count of Flanders was the leader. The third crusade was created by the ordinary influence of papal power and royal authority ; but the fourth sprang from genuine fanaticism. Fulk, who was worthy of companionship with Ber- nard, became a preacher distinguished by the vehemence with which he declaimed against certain vices of the age. With his celebrity, increased his desire to be generally useful to mankind. The natu- ral consequence in that supei:stitious age, was, that he turned his eye towards the east, and assumed the cross. The copious matter of his sermons was the war with the infidels. Around the man of God, all classes thronged, and thousands were eager to assume the insignia of holy warriors. Nor was Pope Innocent III. inactive in the cause, having required the various temporal and spiritual chiefs of Christendom to take up arms for the defence of Palestine, or at least to send him considerable succours of men and money. Application having been made to the Venetians for the loan of their ships, and the Venetians themselves desiring to embark in the enterprise, the croises at length set sail for Constantinople. That, proud city, once the sister and rival of Rome, was fallen so low, that the aid of the western barbarians was invoked by a claimant to the throne of the Caesars. In his behalf, war against the Greek em- pire was resolved on, and Constantinople was made the point of attack. The particulars of the assault need not be given, but it is a striking account drawn up by an old writer, that when the inva- ders, at the distance of three leagues, beheld the city, " the magni- tude and splendour of Constantinople awed the courage of the bravest ; and not without reason, for never since the creation of the w^orld, had so bold an enterprise been undertaken by so small a force." The Greeks made a display of numbers and strength, but the nerves and soul of war were not in them. The partisans of the usurper, Alexius, made only a feeble defence, and soon abandoned the city to its fate. The city was captured, and the young Alexius sat on the throne. After one or two revolutions in the government, the allied army of French and Venetians, who had been paid the tribute which they required, and had been kept in the vicinity of Constantinople, deter- mined to seize the city on their own account. This, after a severe struggle, was effected ; and a severe struggle it ought to have been on the part of the invaders, when only 20,000 men captured the largest city in the wotld. There were 400,000 men capable of bear- ing arms in Constantinople. The excesses of the barbarians were enormous. To their eternal infamy, they destroyed most of the re- mains of the noble monuments of genius, in the sculpture and sta- tuary of the Pagan world. In no conquered city, it is thought, was there ever obtained so much booty. One historian remarks, that the gold and silver, the silk, the gems, and precious stones, and all those things which are accounted riches, were found in more abun- dance than all the Latin world could furnisli." THE CRUSADES. 139 11. Baldwin, as the reward of his success against tlie capi- tal of the East, was invested with the Roman purple, 1204. But he was dethroned and murdered, after a reign of a few months. The Imperial dominions were shared among tlie principal leaders ; the Venetians obtained the Isle of Candia, iis their portion. By the acquisition of Constantinople, lite injuries of the crusaders were avenged ; and, for the present, they looked for no other conquest. The dominion of the L^a- tins, how^ever, lasted but fifty-seven years. Few events on the page of history have been equally curious and interesting. with the establishment of this people in the city of Constan- tine. 12. In the former part of the thirteenth century, succeed- ing the crusade against the Greek empire, several expeditions were fitted out against the Musselmans. In these, the Ger- mans, Hungarians, French, Enghsh, and Italians, were prin- cipally concerned. Their object seems to have been, not so much Palestine, as Egypt. Success crowned their efforts ot first, and one of the expeditions, under the duke of Austria, captured Damietta, an event which filled the Musselnian em- pire with alarm ; but the mortality of the country, and the lot urn of many of the European soldiers, with other causep. finally rendered the acquisitions of the crusaders, in that cour- 1 r}', of no avail, and the unbelievers still retained their power. 13. The fifth and last of these extraordinary expedition?! against the infidel world, was led by Louis IX. of France. There had been previously a few smaller adventures, espe- cially by the Enghsh, who had the good fortune to redeem tlie holy sepulchre. But it was soon lost, and the fears of the Christian world were in a decree aroused. It was, however, oljvious that the crusading spirit in Europe had at length be- gun to languish, and it would at this crisis have entirely died away, had not Louis felt the strong stirrings of fanaticism and chivalry. He kept it alive a few years, after which, this foil}' of a dark and barbarous age was heard of no more. The warlike heroism and religious devotion of the Frencfi monarch, commanded the reverence of mankind. Indeed, in many respects, he was an amialjle and estimable prii»ce, though deeply imbued with the luiworthy superstition of the times. His efforts preserved to the Christians, for a time, the land of Palestirie, which was in danger, not from the Saracens, but % i 140 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. from the Tartars. This fierce people were then pouring over the face of Asia. Louis spent three years in preparation, when he set out for Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and a powerful train of French knights, 1248 A. C. He had greatly encouraged the fainting hearts of the Christians in Palestine, by the men and troops he had sent thither before his own departure. The invasion of Egypt was his first object. Here, he lost one half of his army by sickness, was defeated in battle, and fell a prisoiler into the hands of his enemy. After ransoming himself and his followers, he proceeded to the Holy Land, in which he continued a considerable time. On his return, to France, he devoted himself, wisely, to the regular cares of government, during thirteen years, and would probably have long continued useful and happy, had not the mad spirit of crusading seized him again. In obedience to its dictates, he embarked on a crusade against the Moors in Africa. In this adventure, he and the greater part of his army perished, in consequence of a pestilence. Louis has been honoured with the title of saint. § History records, that on the subject of crusading, the mind 6t Louis M^as influenced by the following circumstance. Agreeably to the temper of the times, he had vowed, whilst afflicted by a severe illness, that in case of recovery he would travel to the holy land. In the delirium of his fever he had beheld an engagement between the Christians and the Saracens ; the infidels were victorious, and the brave king of a valiant nation fancied himself called upon to avenge the defeat. The following incident indicated the king's zeal for a crusade. One night, during the Christmas festival, Louis caused magnificent crosses, fabricated by goldsmiths, to be sewn on the new dresses, which, as usual upon such occasions, had been bestowed upon the courtiers. The next day the cavaliers were surprised at the religious ornaments that had been aflixed to their cloaks ; piety and loyalty combined to prevent them from renouncing the honours which had been thrust upon them, and the good king obtained the title of the hunter for pilirrims and fisher of men. Louis could have adopted the lines of a French rhymer of the thirteenth century. *' Lo, now the fruitful hour at hand ! To thee the precious boon is given, For Paynims waste the holy land, And spoil the heritage of heaven. Shall we such faithless works behold, With craven courage slack and cold 1 ■' How else, but to the Giver's praise, May we devote our wealth and days. THE CRUSADES. 141 The French, on landing in Egypt, captured Damietta ; but the rashness of the Count d'Artois was the means of checking them in the career of victory. Sad reverses soon ensued, and though Louis defended himself with the greatest bravery, he was obliged to yield to the enemy. Being taken prisoner with his army, he offered for his own ransom the city of Damietta, and for the de- liverance of his soldiers 500,000 livres. One fifth part of the latter was remitted through the generosity of the sultan. In Louis' second expedition against the infidels, he was joined by the English ; so that his force amounted to sixty thousand men. His fleet being driven into Sardinia, a change was made in the de- sign of the pilgrim hero, and an attack upon the Musselman Mooi-s of Africa was fixed upon. Pestilence, however, prevented the me- ditated blow, and the great stay of the crusades fell. The English portion of the forces, which had not reached Africa,, when the death of Louis took place, made their way to Palestine, under the conduct of Prince Edward. Feats of arms were per- formed; but the Turks were fast overunning the holy land, and with the capture of Acre, by that adventurous people, was connected the final loss of a country, on which the eyes of fanatical Europe had been fastened for more than two hundred years. 14. Among the causes of the decline and cessation of the fanatical military spirit of Europe, may be enumerated the following, viz. the decrease of the moral influence of the popes, and the increase of their tyranny, which the people were loth to bear — the avarice of the popes and priests, in converting to their own purposes the funds which were raised to support the holy wars — the consequent unwillingness of the people to be taxed — the scandal which was cast on the crusades, when many of the soldiers of the cross were diverted from their re- ligious purpose, to promote the secular objects of the court of Rome — and most of all, the increasing conviction on the part of the people, that no lasting conquest of Palestine could be made by the sovereigns of Europe. These causes were too powerful even for the deep darkness and superstition of the age, ambition, love of military achievement, and desire of plunder. 1.5. Various opinions have been formed and maintained respecting the tendency and effects of the crusades. By some, they are thought to have benefitted Europe on the whole — by others, they are supposed to have been positively disadvan- tageous. We incline to the latter opinion. They who look upon the crusades in a favourable light in respect to their con sequences, nevertheless admit, that they were immediately 1 142 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. distressing and pernicious. Il is in the final result that they imagine the crusades to have been beneficial on the whole. In tlie final result, it has been maintained that they improved the political condition, the manners and customs, the naviga- tion and commerce, the literature, and the religion of Europe. That there was a very gradual amelioration of the wes- tern nations in the above particulars, is admitted. But this was a state of things, which it is natural to believe, time might have produced, aided as it was by other causes. In- deed, from the nature of the convulsions which attended, or ra- tlier constituted the crusades, it is certain that they must have tended to retard the progress of society, learning, and rehgion, so far as they produced any effect. That they were not pro- ductive of any good, in any shape, it would be hazardous to assert. But providence can overrule the greatest evil, so that it shall be less evil than it would otherwise be; and our point is made but, if the evil flowing from the crusades overbalan- ces the good, in quality or amount. Let any one who doubts this, reflect that the crusades were the offspring of a dark and ignorant age — that they were kindled by the false fires of fanaticism and superstition, and moreover, were perverted, if so base a project could be }:>erverted, by ambition, love of military renown, and a savage desire of plunder. They agitated, convulsed, and distressed Europe, and every family in Europe, for two centuries. They drained that portion of the globe of men and money, to an in- supportable degree. The bones of two millions of Europeans were entombed in Asia, or whitened her plains. The trea- sures that were expended are past computation. Under the sacred name of religion, every crime and every folly was me- ditated and committed. The path of the fanatical warrioi-s of the west was every where marked with blood. They were too stupid and too superstitious to regard with complacency or with a desire of imitation, those superior modes of life and specimens of genius which they met with in their excursions into the East. They even laid their sacrilegious hands on the monuments of ancient art, Avhich chance or bravery put into their power, and in the repeated conflagrations of Constanti- nople, they rejoiced to see, in many instances, the destruction of those works, the remains of which the world has since been proud to own. FRANCE. 143 They err^ who count it glorious to subdue By conquest far and wide, to over-run Large countries, and in field great battles win, Great cities by assaults : what do these worthies, But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter and enslave Peaceable nations. * * ♦ * " A view of the heroic ages of Christianity," says an interesting historian, "in regard to their grand and general results, is a useful and important, though a melancholy employment. The Crusades retarded the march of civilization, thickened the clouds of ignorance and superstition, and encouraged intolerance, cruelty and fierceness. Religion lost its mildness and charity ; and war its mitigating quali- ties of honour and courtesy. Such were the bitter fruits of the Ho- ly Wars. "We can follow with sympathy, both the deluded fanatic, and the noble adventurer in arms, in their wanderings and marches through foreign regions, braving the most frightful dangers, patient in toil, invincible in military spirit. So visionary was the object, so apparently remote from selfish relations, that their fanaticism wears a character of generous virtue. The picture, however, becomes darkened, and nature recoils with horror from their cruelties, and with shame from their habitual folly and senselessness." FRANCE. 16. In 1108 the throne of France was ascended by Louis VI., surnamed the fat, son of Philip I. He carried on a war with Henry I. pf England, but was not successful. "The English defeated his army at the battle of Brenneville, 1119 A. C. He was an accomplished and energetic sovereign. § In' Louis' flight after the battle, an Englishman seized his horse's bridle, exclaiming, " the king is taken." "The king is never taken," said Louis, "not even in a game of chess," and then struck his ene- my dead at his feet. 17. Louis VII., the j^oung, succeeded his father in 1137. The extent of his reign was 46 years. He quarrelled with the Pope about the nomination of an archbishop, and had his kingdom put under an interdict. He was very unsuc- cessfully engaged in the holy wars, and in consequence of having divorced his queen, heiress of the great dutchy of Guienne, who soon married Henry Plantagenet, (afterwards Henry II. of England) he lost one fifth part of the French monarchy, including the provinces before held by the En- ghsh. § Louis was educated in an Abbey, and the Abbeys at this period produced several distinguished men, among whom were Suger, his minisfer, a man of great political sagacity ; St. Bernard, whose agen- 144 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. cy in the second crusade has already appeared j and Abelard, whose story remains to be told. In conformity to the spirit of the age, and his own education, Louis made several pilgrimages, and among others visited the tomb of Tho- mas a Becket, at Canterbury. In one of these pilgrimages he died. His tomb, in the abbey of Barbeau, was opened in 1556, by Charles IX., and the body found in a high state of preservation. On the fin- gers were several gold rings, which, having been taken off, were worn by Charles, together with a gold chain, which was found in the tomb. 18. The son of Louis, Philip II., surnamed Augustus, ascended the throne in 1180. His reign was a long one also, being 43 years. Since the days of Charlemagne, France had seen no sovereign so ambitious and enterprising in war, as Philip. The most signal events of his reign, were his expulsion of the Jews from France ; his engagement in the third crusade, wi.th Richard Coeur de Lion ; his invasion ot Normandy during Richard's absence ; his victory over Otho IV., emperor of Germany ; and the offer of the crown of England to him for his son Louis, by the Enghsh barons § His engagement in the third crusade has already appeared. On the return of Richard to England, a disastrous war ensued between him and Philip, the English king determining to punish him for seizing Normandy. Richard, dying during the prosecution of this war, was succeeded by his brother John, whose pretensio-ns to the crown of England were, however, disputed by his nephew, Arthur, aided by Philip. Arthur Iiaving been made prisoner, and put to death by his inhuman uncle, the latter was summoned by Philip, Id appear in his quality as duke of Normandy, before a tribunal of his peers. On his refusal, Philip attacked and subdued several of the French provinces that were then held by the English, and united Normandy to the crown of France, 300 years after it had been detach- ed from it by the incapacity of Charles the simple. From the reign of Philip, may be dated the Inquisition, which was first established in France, whence it found its way into Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 19. Louis YIII., surnamed the Lion, mounted the throne of his father in 1 223, and died in 1226. He was a man of valour, and hence his surname. He took all the possessions of the English on the continent, as far as the Garonne. His character was that of a persecutor. § Louis prosecuted a barbarous crusade against certain sectaries ini Languedoc and Gascony, who presumed to attack the dogmas of the Church of Rome. At the siege of Avignon, he was poisoned by the count of Champaign. , t FRANCE. 145 20. Louis IX., styled Saint Louis, became king at the age of twelve years, in 1226, under the regency of his mother. Louis possessed many excellent qualities — was pious, upright, and benevolent. His single fault was fanaticism; though in every thing he did, the purity of his motive was conspicuous. He conferred a considerable benefit on his country, notwith- standing the errors into which his fanatical spirit led him. With Henry HI. of England, he waged a successful war. § An account has been given of the two crusades in which he was so unfortunately engaged, and in the last of which he perished. Henry III. demanded the provinces which, it seems, Louis' father had promised to restore. A tender was made of Poitou, and of the best part of Normandy ; but this did not satisfy Henry, who resolv- ed to try the issue of a battle, in which lie was defeated. ^ 21. Phihp 111., surnamed the Fiold, succeeded his father in i'270. His surname, it is thought, was not well deserved. He was the dupe of the artifices of liis courtiers, and had no predominant trait, except a passion for amassing wealth. He brought back from Africa the -miserable remains of his father's army. He died on his return from an expedition against Peter IH., of Arragon, who had usuiped the kingdom of Sicily, and through whose instigation, eight thousand Frenchmen were massacred in that island. § Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, had lately become king of Siciiy, and acted the tja-ant towards its inhabitants. By a deed of cruelty towards a brother of the wife of Peter, he made the latter his enemy. Peter, in revenge, excited the Sicilians to revolt and murder. All the French of the island were, by a previous concert, butchered in cool blood, on tke evening of Easterday. Philip un- dertook to avenge this massacre, but the general failure of the ex- pedition, afflicted the French king so much, that he fell into a de- cay, of which he died. 22. Philip IV., the Fail', ascended the throne of his an- cestors, in 1285. He was remarkable for his personal beauty and accomplishments. His disposition, however, was sin- gularly contrasted with his features and form. He was am- bitious, deceitful, perfidious and cruel. Refusing to obey the summons of the Roman pontilT, Boniface VIII., to march against the Saracens, he was excommimicated, and his king- ly dom laid under an interdict. A severe contest ensued, the result of which was the humiliation of the Pope, and even- tually his death. • In 1314, Philip suppressed the order of the Knights Temp- 13 146 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. iarsj from a desircj it was thought, to obtain their immense wealth. § The haughty Boniface, in a bull, had declared, that " the Vicar of Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of the earth." Philip, in return for the indignity put upon him, de- nounced Boniface as an impostor, heretic, and simoniac, and declar- ';d the see of Rome vacant. He contrived also, by means of a trusty agent, to seize the person of the pope. The persons concerned in ihe transaction, caused his holiness to ride on a horse without sad- dle or bridle, with his face turned towards his tail. He was, howr ever, rescued at length ; but the loss of his immense treasures, while he was detained from his palace, threw him into a frenzy that killed him. ENGLAND. 23. Norman family, Plantagenets. The throne of Eng- land, on the death of Rufus, was secured by his younger brother, Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc, or the Scholar, 1100. The rightful heir was Robert, an older brother ; but as lie v/as absent on a crusade, Henry availed himself of so favoura- i.ile an opportunity to till the vacant throne. l^obert, who was duke of Normandy, soon arrived in Eng- land to claim his right ; but he was prevailed upon to forego it, by the offer of a sum of money. Still, Henr}^ was not satisfied, but ere long invaded Normandy ; and at last defeat- vA Robert, brought him prisoner to England, caused his ■yes to be burned out, and confined liim for life, in a castle m Wales. The injustice with which he had treated Robert, seems to have been visited upon bim by the hand of Providence, in the calamities of his after life; particularly in the death of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy to England. Henry was one of the most accomplished of the English sovereigns — brave, affable, and learned ; but his conduct in many instances, shewed that he was wanting in moderation, purity, and gratitude. § Henry married a Saxon princess, Matilda, great grand-daughter of Edmund Ironside, and thus united the Saxon and Norman blood. This circumstance endeared him to the English, and procured theii support. The story of the death of Henry's son, whose name was William, is briefly the following. The captain and seamen of the vessel-in I ENGLAND. 147 which he set sail for England, becoming intoxicated, carelessly struck her upon a rock. She foundered immediately, but William Wii,-> saved by being put into a long-boat. He had already got clear ol the wreck, when hearing the cries of his natural sister, the countesi- of Perche, he ordered the seamen to row back, in hopes of saving her. But the numbers who then crowded in, soon sunk the boat ; and the prince with all his retinue perished. The effect of the news on Henry was melancholy indeed. He fainted away, and during the remainder of his life, was never known to smile. ' 24. Henry's cousin, Stephen, earl of Blois, was crowned king of England, 1135. His popularity enabled him to usurp the throne, when of right it belonged to the empress Matilda, or Maud, and her son Henry. § Matilda first niarried Henry V., emperor of Germany — afterwards Henry Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several cfiildren, of whom Henry was the oldest. In Ijehalf of Matilda, the earl of Gloucester, natural bro- ther of the empress, took up arms against Stephen, defeated him in the battle of Lincoln, and made him prisoner. But die fortune of war soon turned against Gloucester. He was^ defeated in the battle of Winchester, and taken prisoner, but was exchanged for the king. Four years after this event, young prince Henry, son of Maud, invaded England ; but the great men on both sides, fearing the consequences of a battle, compelled the rival princes to a negociation. The succession was secured to Henry, after the death of Stephen. This event taking place the next year, Henry became king. Stephen was well calculated to be an efficient sovereign ; but he reigned under unfavourable circumstances, and his elevation brought suffering on himself and his people. Dur- ing his whole reign, England was rent with civil broils. § From the beginning, Stephen dreaded Robert, earl of Glouces- ter, a man of honour and abilities, and zealously attached to Maud. He took, indeed, the oath of fealty to Stephen ; but he took it with the reserve, that the king should never invade any of his rights or dignities. This was an example for others ; and many of the cler- gy and nobility, as the price of submission, required the right of fortifying their castles. England was soon filled with fortresses, and the power of the aristocracy rose to a formidable height. 25. Henry 11. succeeded to the throne in 1154. He was the fust of the Plantagenets who wielded the sceptre, till 1 tj^e time of Henrv IV. In him was mingled the blood 148 MODERN HISTORY.- -PERIOD VI. of the Saxon kings of England, and of the Norman family- He was the most powerful monarch of Christendom. His do " minions were more extensive than those of any of his pre- decessors, as, in addition to England, he owned by inheritance and by marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards claimed L-eland by conquest. Happy in the affections of his people, he had the prospect of a prosperous reign ; but though England owed her first permanent improvements in arts, laws, government, and civil hberty, to his measures, he was personally subjected to many calamities. A most serious misfortune, was his contention with Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. This arrogant ecclesiastic, a man of great talents and greater am- bition, availed himself of the authority of his station, to ex- alt the spiritual power above the crown ; and when the king undertook the reformation of the clergy, and to limit their prerogatives, he met with the most determined opposition from Becket. In the course of the contention, the ecclesiastic was killed. The horror excited in Henry's mind by this event, aided by the agitation into which England was thrown, led him to perform the most humiliating penance at the tomb of the saint. § Becket was first promoted by the king, to the dignity of chan- cellor of England, to which station his talents and learning entitled him. Henry afterwards appointed him to fill the high place of me- tropolitan, falsely supposing that from his gay and splendid tnrn, he would not be attached to ecclesiastical privileges. But no sooner was he in his new situation, than he affected personally the greatest aus- terity, and recited continually, prayers and pious lectures, maintain- ing his ancient pomp only in his retinue and attendants. In all this, his determination to exalt the spiritual power, was visible to sagacious observers. That power was already too great. The ecclesiastics of that age had renounced all immediate subjection to the magistrate ; and ;ts many of them were of low character, they committed the most de- testable crimes with impunity. They were charged even with the Ibulest murders. The attempts of the king to put this order of men into a better state, resulted in what are called the Constitutions of Clarendon. These were the decisions of a general council of the uobility and prelates at Clarendon, in which, the hmits between ttie civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, are distinctly marked, and which, by the king's influence, were framed so as to favour his prerogatives. The clergy, generally, professed to submit to these decisions, but Becket stood aloof: and though at length he took oath to observe -tiiera, it was by no means in good faith. He repented of his temi>fii- ENGLAND. 149 rary subjection, and endeavoured to influence the other bishops to follow his steps. Henry, however, made him feel the royal power, by the confiscation of his property on some pretence. This act, Becket resented, by excommunicating the king's chief ministers, and abrogating the constitutions of Clarendon. On some further instance of his arrogance, the king was so vehemently agitated, that h-^. ex- claimed, almost in reproaches, against his servants, whose " waii ^f ^zeal," he said, "left him exposed to the machinations of that un- grateful and imperious prelate." Four knights of his household, taking these passionate expressions to be a hint for the primate's death, instantly agreed among themselves, to avenge their prince's' quarrel ; and pursuing Becket, found him, slenderly attended, in the cathedral of St. Benedict, and there, before the altar, clove his head with many blows. Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king upon this event, and with a view to avert the resentment of the pope, he sub- mitted to the most humiliating treatment, even to the scourging of his naked body, by the monks. .. Endless were the panegyrics on the virtues of Becket ; and the miracles wrought by his relics, were more numerous, more ridicu- lous, and more impudently attested, than those' which ever filled the legend of any confessor or martyr. He was canonized ; a jubilee was established for celebrating his merits ; and innumerable pilgrim- ages v/ere made to his tomb. In one year, 100,000 pilgrims are said to have resorted thither. An important event in the reign of Henry, was the con- quest of Ireland. He seized the opportunity of making war on the island, when one of its petty chiefs, expelled by his sovereign, sought his protection. Henry's arms were success- , fill, and the island was formally annexed to the English crown, in 1172. From that time, however, for some centuries, there was little intercourse between the kingdoms ; nor was tJie j island ever considered as fully subdued, till the reign of Eii- I zabeth, and of her successor, James I. I § The Irish were an early civilized people, and among the first of jthe nations of the West, who embraced the Christian religion. But by the frequent invasions^ the Danes, and their own domestic com- ' motions, they were replunged into barbarism, for many ages. In the ' twelfth centurj^, the kingdom was divided into five separate sove- reignties, blit these were subdivided among a vast number of petty diiefs. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sherifl^s in eacli. I md introduced the laws of England into a part of it ; the rest oi ' :he kingdom being regulated by their ancient laws, till the reign of I Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English laws wore ' -xtended to the whole kingdom. Henry, much as he accomplished for the welfare of his 13* L 150 BIODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. realm, was seldom exempt from calamity for a long time to getlier. His last years were particularly unhappy. The fault, however, w^as in a great measure his own. His illicit passion for Rosamond, whose extraordinary beauty made her the theme of many a ballad and romance, excited the resentment of his queen Eleanora, through whose means, three of his sons rebelled agahist him. Europe beheld with astonishment these sons, scarcely beyond the age of boy- hood, engaged in a series of efforts to wrest the sceptre from so potent a prince as Henry. They were, however, aided by the king of France. The contest began in Henry's French territories. He soon crushed his enemies there ; then return- ing to England, and obtaining a victory over the Scots, who had embraced the cause of the young princes, he immediate- ly restored tranquillity to the country. He was not suffered long to rest ; his unnatural sons, though leniently treated, re- volted again, joined by John, his' fourth and favourite son. Henry, distracted wdth care, and overcome w ith the ingrati^ tude of his children, died of a broken heart, in the fifty- eighth year of his age, and the thirty- fifth of his reign. § Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, died suddenly while en- gaged in their rebellion. The force of parental affection, is remark- ably exemplified in Henry's death, and, to the honour of the king, deserves notice. When the son was seized with a fever, he was conscious of his approaching dissolution, and sent a message to his father, with a humble confession of his faults, and entreated the favour of a visit. The king was not very distant, but apprehensive that his sickness was feigned, durst not trust himself in his hands. But when he received intelligence of his death, he was overcome with grief ; he fainted away, accused his own hard-heartedness, and lamented that he had deprived his son of the opportunity of pour- ing out his soul in the bosom of an affectionate and reconciled father. His son Ricliard associated liis youngest brother, John, in the last insurrection. When the unhappy father heard this, already sinking in cares and sorrows, he broke out intoUgxpressions of the utmost despair ; cursed the day of his birth, and loaded his ungrateful chil- dren with maledictions which he never would recall. Henry 11. , was one of the ablest of the English kings. His reign was also highly beneficial to his subjects. He was en- dow^ed with a natural sensibility, wdiich his long experience of the ingratitude of man never hnpaired. But his licentious- ness was too apparent, and his enmities too durable. His person w^as of a middle stature, strong and well proportioned, his countenance engaging, and his elocution easy. I ENGLAND. 15 i 26. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, succeeded his father in 1189. He possessed a most heroic nature, and rivalled the heroes of Greece, in warhke enterprises. His disposition was open and generous, ])ut at the same time, ambitious, haughty, and cruel. He spent most of his reign in the mad project of the crusades, which have already been described, and particu- larly the part which was acted by this chivalric king. After an absence of nine years, he reached England, but died within a few months, having first pardoned his traitorous brother John, and attempted to avenge the wrongs he had received from Philip of France. His foreign and distant wars exhaust- ed the resources of his country. 27. John, surnamed Lackland, succeeded his brother upon the decease of the latter. His reign commenced in 1199, and continued to 1216 A. C. It was marked with the most dis- gusting tyranny and crime. § He received his surname from the loss of his territories in France, of which he was stripped by the French king. The latter supported the pretensions of Artluu-, John's nephew, whom John finally mur- dered. Early in his reign, he made the pope his enemy, by ap- propriating to his own purposes, some of the treasures of the church, and he met with the full extent of the papal ven- geance. At first obstinate, he was finally intimidated into submission. His kingdom was put under an interdict, him- self excommunicated, and after several personal concessions, he engaged to hold his kingdom tributary to the Holy See. By this conduct he incuiTecl the deep hatred and contempt of his people. § So greatly did the court of Rome triumph over him, that John did homage to Pandulf, the pope's legate, in the most abject manner, and paid part of the tribute which he owed for his kingdom, while tlie legate, in the haughtiness of sacerdotal power, trampled on the money, as an earnest of the subjection of the kingdom. The subjects of John, treated with such indignity, and even sold, felt it necessary to viiidicate their rights. The barons, under tlie command of Langton, the primate, assembled, and binding themselves by an oath, to a concert of measures, de- manded from the king a ratification of a charter of privileges, granted by Henry I. The king was highly exasperated, and refused the demand, till resort was had to the sword. Desert- ed by his people, he was obhged most reluctantly to yield a 152 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. compliance. Al Runnymede, ^vhere he met his barons, b.e signed, on the 19th of June, 1215, that fajiious deed called Magna Charta, (the Great Charter,) wliicli has had so pro- pitious an effect on the hberty of Englislimen. It secured important rights to all classes of his subjects, tliough some ot its stipulations, from the change of manners and institutions, appear at this day trivial or ridiculous. § The charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which, two or three, the most important, were — that no aids or subsidies should be allowed to be levied from the subjects, unless in a few special cases, without the consent of the great council — that no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witnesses — and that no person shall be tried or punished, but by the judgment ol his peers and the law of the land. John granted at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, which abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful proprietors their woods, which they were allowed to enclose for their own private purposes. The king, forced into these measures against his will, medi- tated a dreadful revenge against his barons, by the aid of fo- reign mercenaries, and began to lay his own realm ^\■aste with fire and sword. But, at a critical time, when Louis, the eldest son of Philip of France, had arrived in England, to assist the barons, with the expectation of receiving the crown himself, John suddenly died. Louis was obliged to return to France, and the succession was settled on Henry, the son of John, a boy of nine years of age. § In the person of John, the English were scourged with a tyrant, more odious and capricious than any other of their sovereigns, be- fore or since. To tyranny, he added cowardice, levity, licentious- ness, ingratitude, and treachery. His vices were, however, made, providentially, the occasion of great blessings to his subjects, in tlie enjoyment of a portion of liberty, which they wrested from his weakness. 28. Henry III. began his reign in 1216, the earl of Pem- broke being appointed protector during the king's minority. His disposition, which was easy and fickle, led him and his subjects into numerous difficulties and disasters. The weak- ness of his understanding scarcely preserved him from con- tempt, and joining profusion with oppressive exactions, and lavishing liis favours on foreigners, he displeased both the no- bility and the populace. His reign was as unhappy as it was protracted, being marked with many bloody contentions. ENGLAND. 153 § Henry, though in general a mild and merciful prince, yet violated the great charter in confiscating the estates of some of the obnoxious nobles, without a trial by their peers. When remonstrated with on the subject, he replied, " Why should I observe this charter, which is neglected by all my grandees, both prelates and nobility ?" to which it was justly returned, " You ought, sir, to set them the ex- ample." Henry's imprudent measures encouraged Simeon de Mont- fort, earl of Leicester, to attempt to wrest the sceptre from the feeble hand which held it. He succeeded in part ; and as the conseciuence of a battle, he took both the king- and his son Edward, prisoners. But through the interference of the parhament, which Leicester summoned, he deemed it prudent to release the prince, who v/as no sooner set at liberty, than he took the field against the usurper, and gained over him the famous battle of Evesham. In this battle Leicester was kill- ed, and the gallant Edward enjoyed the happiness of repla- cing his father on the throne. § Leicester had assumed the character of regent, after having com- pelled the king to resign the regal pov^^er. In the parliament which was called, he summoned two knights from each shire, and deputies from the principal boroughs. From this era, is dated the commence- ment of the House of Commons. Deputies representing the boroughs, had not before constituted a portion of the natic«ial council. In the battle which took place between Prince Edward and Lei- cester, the rebels, who still retained the old king, had purposely pla- ced him in the front of the battle. Being clad in armour, and there- by not known by his friends, he received a wound, and was in dan- ger of his life ; but crying out " i am Henry of Winchester, your knig," he was rescued from impending death. Edward, afterwards, sought and revived the glory of the English name, in the land of Palestine ; but the kingdom suffered most severely in the mean time, under the imbecile reign of the aged monarch : the barons oppressing the com- mon people, and the populace of London returning to their accustomed licentiousness. The death of Henry, after a reio;n of more than 55 years, left the kingdom in more vigor- ous hands. 29. Edward L, (Longshanks) was crowned in 1272. His first object was to correct the disoiders which the civil com- motions had introduced. In this work, he let loose the whole rigour of his justice on the Jews, who had been accused of aciulterating the pubhc coin. Multitudes of them lost their lives, or their property and homes. 154 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. Edward's next project was the conquest of Wales. He in- vaded the country with a force too great to be resisted ; and after kiUing Llewellyn, the Welsh prince, and the flower of his warriors, he received the submission of the Welsh nobili- ty, 1283. From this period Wales has been united to Eng- land, and the English laws established throughout the princi- pality. § It is said that Edward, in order to conciliate the Welsh, gave them for a prince, his own son, who was born in their country. The title of Prince of Wales, has ever since descended to the eldest soni? of the English kings. The Welsh, inhabiting the western part of the island of Great Britain, were the descendants of that portion of the ancient Britons, who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, and preserved their liberty, laws, manners, and language. The occasion of Ed- ward's attack upon this people, was their prince's refusal to perform the customary homage to the English crown. The next project of Edward, was the conquest of Scotland. Great success attended his arms at different times, but he was never able to effect a total and final conquest of that part of the island. As the history of England and Scotland is so in- timately connected, a brief account of the latter, to tlie time at which we are now arrived, will be in place below, and will supersede the necessity of a separate narrative. § The northern part of the island was anciently called Caledonia, from a word which is said to have signified a forest, or mountainous country. Subsequently, and at an early period, it received the name of Scotia, or Scotland ; and then it derived it from the Scots, who originally lived in the north of Ireland. The name Scot, is probably the same as Scuth, or Scythian — the people being emigrants from the Baltic countries. The history of Scotland, before the reign of INIalcom III., is ob- scure, and in a degree uncertain. Tliis prince, by the defeat of Mac- beth, the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the throne in 1057. A war which took place between him and William the Con- queror, was equally disastrous to both kingdoms. He prolonged the contest with Rufus, the son of William, with credit to his bravery ; while to the virtues of his queen, Margaret, his kingdom, in its do- mestic policy, owed a degree of civilization scarcely known in those untutored ages. Under his successors, Alexander I., a spirited prince, and David I., a most excellent sovereign, Scotland successfully defended itsell against the Englisli, and, under the latter king, onquered the whole earldom of Northumberland ; but the defeat of William I., (the Li- on) was disastrous to the kingdom, since he was taken prisoner by Henry II., and, as the price of his release, was compelled to do ho- ENGLAND. 155 mage for his whole kingdom. This obligation, however, Richard I. generously discharged. Alexander III., dying without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Bali- ol, descendants of David I., by the female line, were competitors for the crown. Edward was chosen umpire of tlie contest, and on this ground, arrogated to himself the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom. He took possession of the country, and adjudged the crown to Bali- ol, on the condition of his doing homage to him, as liege lord. Ba- liol, however, soon renounced his allegiance, but was compelled at length by the English monarch, to abdicate the throne ; the latter having defeated him with great slaughter, in the battle of Dunbar. The wiar commenced by Edward against the Scots, did not terminate during his life time. It continued 70 years, and involved botli countries in all the miseries of bloodshed. Edward twice defeated the Scots and took possession of their country, and twice tliey re-asserted their liberties ; once under the heroic but unfortunate William Wallace, and once under the gallant and more fortunate Robert Bruce, the Scottish king. As Edward was preparing to invade Scotland the third time, with an immense army, he suddenly sickened and died, at Carlisle, in the 35th year of his reign, and the 69th of his age. He was removed for interment to Westminster Abbey.* § The conduct of Wallace was a remarkable instance of heroism. A few patriots, only, joined him at first, but his successes finally brought large numbers to his standard. While Edward was absent, and engaged in war on the continent, Wallace attacked his troops in a desperate engagement at Stirling, and obtained a complete victory. The disaffection of the Scotch nobles, who envied Wallace his dis- tinction as governor of the country, under Baliol, again exposed them to the attack of the English. Edward, in person, defeated them with an immense loss, in the battle of Falkirk. After a fruitless re- sistance, the Scots submitted to Edward ; and the heroic Wallace, eventually betrayed, and carried in chains to London, was condemn- ed as a rebel, and infamously executed on Tower-hill, to the lasting dishonour of the English king. Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who was the competitor of Baliol, redeemed the honour of his country. Resenting its humili- ation, he set up the standard of war. The genius of the nation then roused itself. Bruce was solemnly crowned at Scone, 1306, and fu- riously attacking the English, who were dispersed in their quarters, he again expelled them the kingdom. It was immediately after^ that Edward died, on his way to Scotland. * The tomb of this king was opened in 1774, when his body was found unr consumed. i5b MODERX HISTORY. PERIOD VI. Edward was an able prince, and excelled lx)th as a warrior and statesman. The wisdom of his political measures is es- pecially conspicuous. Tn moral quahties. however, he was far from being an example lit for imitation. Ambition, a spirit of revenge, and an mifeeling iieart, too plainly charac- terized him. Under his reign, the Constitution of England gradually advanced. He passed a statute which declared that no tax or impost should be levied ^^^thout the consent of lords and commons. He ratified magna-charia on several occasions ; and henceforward this fundamental law" began to be regard- ed as sacred and inviolable, wliile parliaments have been held in regular succession. GERMANY. 30. Germany, during this period, enjoyed but little tran- ciuillity. The contest between the Empire and the Papai See, continued under a succession of emperors and popes, but ended commonly in favour of the latter. The treat ment which some of the emperors received from the popes^ was extremely humiliating. Frederick I.. (Barbcirossa) a prince of high spirit, after indignantly deming the suprema- cy of Alexander IH., and refusing the customary homage, was finaUy compelled to kiss the feet of his Holiness, and ap- pease him by a large cession of territory. Henry YL, while doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crown kicked olf by pope Celestinus, w^ho, however, made some amends for this indignity, by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry bad expelled the Normans from these place??, and they now be<:ame appendages of the empiie, 1194. The claims of the popes upon the empire, rose to such a lieight, that in the begining of the thirteenth century. In- nojent III., estabUshed the powers of the popedom on a settled bcisis, and obtained a }x>3itive acknowledgment of the papal supremacy, or the right irreversibly to confer the crown of the empire. Tt was a consequence of the contentions between the im- perial and papal powers, to di\ide the states of Italy, several of which belonged to the empire, into two violent ifactions, by which Italy .was =0 long devastated. Tliese were known EASTERV EMPIRE. 157 by the name of the Guelphs.* and Ghili^ellines. the former maintaining the cau?e of the popes, the latter that of the emperors. Frederic II.. carried on an opposition to four suc- cessive wpes : bui tliough he was excommunicated and de- posed, he kept }X)sses-ion of his throne, and exercised Ms authorir y \wth a commendable firmness. On his death, 1250. the empue began to wane, and confusion and anarchy pre- vailed till the eiectiou of Rodolph of Hapsburgh. in 1273. § During the latter part of the period above referred to. there was a nominal sovereign, viz.. Alphonso X.. king of Castile, who was elected emperor, but who, detained at home, nealected the affairs of Gennany. No laws were then observed; no order was maintained; but murder, theft, and rapine, were committed with impunity, and the constitutions of the empire wer^ totallv neglected. Saugumary wars resulted from the feuds of private noblemen ; bishops and cierg>-men, forgetful of their sacred character, embrued their hands in blood, for tlie augmentation of their benefices ; cxDmmerce was almost annihilated ; and travellinsr could not be performed with any safety. In the history of Germany, during the present period, few other occurrences are worthy of notice. The following anecdote may be worth recording. One of the favourites of Henry VI.. observed to him that he fatigued himself too much with griving audience, which frequently interfered with his regular meals." Henrv replied, " that although a private man was at hberty to eat when he pleased, a prince ought not to sit down to table, till he had discussed the affairs of his people.-' The reign of Lotharius was rendered remarkable, bv some ex- cessive heats in Germany, which withered the corn aiid fruits of the earth, dried tip the most considerable rivers, and occasioned a dreadful mortality among the caitle, EASTERN EMPIRE. 31. The affairs of the Eastern Empire were, in part, nar- rated in the history of the crusades. Little, therefore, needs be added to this record, in respect to the present period. The :5Utward splendoiu- of the empire was yet considerable, but the JK^ress of decay was obvious. Tlie Greeks manifested beir running, and sometimes their ueachery. in their treat- uent of the crusaders. The emperors, though on many ac- *The fiunily now on the throne of Great Britain bear the surname of "Mph, and are descended from the Guelphs here spoken o£ W ^ 1 158 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. counts they wished success to the crusaders, yet dreaded their power, and between these two passions, the soldiers of the cross became the dupes and the victims of their policy. The weakness of the empire was seen, when Constantinople, its capital, was taken by a handful of French and Venetian crusaders, and held in subjection nearly sixty years. Within the hmits of the present period, about nine empe- rors sat on the throne of the East, besides the five French or Latin emperors who reigned at Constantinople. During the reign of the latter, four Greek emperors reigned at Nice, over the remainder of the empire. It was under Michael Palseologus, 1261, that Constantino- ple was recovered by the Greeks from its Latin conquerors. When the former and ancient sovereigns of the city deter- mined to retake the seat of the empire, Palceologus was found possessed of the requisite ambition. Favoured by circumstan- ces, and skilful in the application of means, he accomplislied the object ; and the second seat of the venerable Rorntm do- minion was destined yet longer, to be held by the successors of the great Constantine. § The designs of Palaeologiis were promoted by the Genoese, th<^ rivals of the Venetians. The Latins had been gradually driven from their last possessions in Thrace ; and at a time when the bra- vest of the French and Venetians were absent from the city, a general of Palceologns advanced in the night to its gates. He suc- ceeded in entering it, partly by a subterranean passage into the centre of the city. Baldwin, the Latin emperor, in dismay, escap- ing to the sea-shore, was conveyed to Italy, and spent the remainder of his life in vainly attempting to rouse the Catholic powers to join in his restoration. No names besides Paloeologus are much distinguished, except those of Alexis Comnenus, and his son John Alexis. The one was an able and politic sovereign, as his management of the crusaders abundantly evinced. The other, with talent, united moral worth, and seemed by his virtues to revive the age of Marcus Antoninus. The lamentable end of a cruel usurper named Andronicus, is worth recording, as it shews how much the wicked, in death, sometimes feel that they need the divine mercy. The butcheries of Androni- cus had wearied the patience of the citizens of Constantinople. They rose en-masse against him, headed by Isaac Angelus. In their rage the populace tore from him successively his teeth, his hair, an eye, and a hand ; and being suspended for three days, every person who could reach the public enemy, inflicted on him some mark of ingenious or brutal cruelty, till at length two Italians, out of mercy or rage, plunging their swords into his body, released him from all SARACENS. 159 human pimishment. During this long and excruciating torture, Lord have mercy on me," and " Why wilt thou break a bruised reed !" were the only words that escaped his mouth. Our pity for the man, seems almost to absorb our hatred of the tyrant. SARACENS. 32. The empire of the Saracens, before the conclusion of tins period, was destined to be no more. Their history is partly invoh^ed in the details of the crusades. The ener- gies of fanatic Europe, were exerted against the followers of tlie prophet, with some intervals, nearly two centuries, and terrible was the destruction of life on both sides. The king- dom of Jerusalem, under christian sovereigns, which origi- nated from the crusades, lasted not quite a century and a half. The Saracens, on recovering this domain, held it, how- ever, but a short time. In a few years after, the Tartars from tfre east swept over the regions which the Saracens had con- quered, and blotted out their name from the list of empires. This event occurred 1258 years A. C. From the close of our last period to the termination of their dominion, ten ca- liphs of the house of Abbas, reigned at Bagdad. The last of the caliphs was Mostasem, who was put to death at the time the city was captured. The Tartars were led by Ha- laku, their general, who after a few assaults, took Bagdad, which contained immense riches, and gave it up seven days to be pillaged by his troops. A few particulars may be noticed concerning some of the caliphs. § Of one, named Mohammed, it is said, that he quitted life with such exirenie regret, that when about dying, he ordered his troops, his court and all his treasures, to pass before him, as it were in a view • and alter he had considered all these objects, observed, "how is it possible that a- power so formidable as mine, is not able to diminish .tie weight of my disorder one single grain, nor to prolong my life only for a moment." He then concluded his reflection with the fol- lowmg remarkable words. " Unhappy is the person who spends hi3 time in amassing those things which he must leave, and does no makethe prmcipa object of regard, that Being in whom all tilings are to be found." The reign of Al Moktafi must have been remarkable for justice, ih IS the iollowing anecdote may prove. A man convicted of ca- lumny, was sent by him to prison. One of his nobles offered to give him two thousand pieces of gold coin for his release, to which the 160 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. caliph replied, " put another man, guilty of the same crime, in my power, and I will give you ten thousand ; for I am extremely anxious to clear my dominions of these pests of society." The later caliphs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not the warlike sovereigns that their predecessors had been. Tliey thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Mostasem, above spoken of, exceeded all the caliphs in ostentation and pride. When he appeared in public, he usually wore a veil, the more effectually to attract the respect of the people, whom he considered as un- worthy to look at him. On those occasions, nothing could exceed the eagerness of the multitude to see him, by crowding the streets, and hiring the windows and balconies, at the most exorbitant prices. The manner of his death was degrading and distressing in the ex- treme, and Hulaki designed it as a punishment of his pride. Through the same streets, and exposed to the view of the same po- pulace, the cruel Tartar caused the wretched caliph to be dragged, confined in a leather bag, till he expired. CHINA. 33. In the history of China, the present period includes a part both of the nineteenth and twentieth of the dynasties of her emperors. The whole of the nineteenth comprised se- venteen emperors. It was during this period that the cele- brated Genghis Khan, and his successors, established their dominion in China. Heading the Mogul Tartars, Avho inha- bited a desert and inhospitable region, Genghis Khan, in 1209, entered China, poured over the northern provinces, and compelled them to submit to his authority. Kublay, his son, called by tlie Chinese, Houpilay, entered on his father's con- quests in this country, and reigned for a time over the northern provinces. Li-tsong, and his three sons and a nephew, in succession, were the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned over the southern part of the empire. It is said that Kublay (more probal^ly a descendant of his) brought the whole of the country into subjection in 1280, and that with the nineteenth dynasty, ended, in fact, the Chinese dominion until the year 1357 Kublay had the wisdom and prudence to govern the Chinese according to their ancient law^s and customs. This procedure, together with the general excellence of his charac- ter, entirely reconciled the people to the Tartar sway, so far as they were brought under it. § The Mogul Tartars, who conquered Chma. were a wandering DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. IGl race, and given to arms. The extent and rapidity of their con- quests have rarely been equalled in history. In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan overran, besides China, already mentioned, India, Persia, and Asiatic Russia. Batoucan, one of his sons, ravaged the western nations to the frontiers of Germany. But Genghis and his sons were not the only conquerors who arose from among this people. From the vast tract of country inhabited by the Tartars, have sprung the conquerors who produced all the great re- .'Volutions in Asia. Besides the personages just named, the Turks, who are a race of Tartars, overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered Persia, and a great part of India, in the tenth century. After Genghis, as we shall hereafter see, Tamer- lane, the scourge of" the Turks, subdued a great part of Asia, and Baber, a remote descendant of Tamerlane, conquered all the region between Samarcand and Agra, in the empire of the Mogul. The descendants of those conquerors now reign in India, Persia, and China. Distinguished character's in Period VI. 1. Abelard, a scholastic divine. 2. Walter de Mapes, a poet, the Anacreon of the twelfth century. 3. Averroes, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 4. Genghis Khan, a Mogul, conqueror of Asia. 5. Matthew Paris, an early English historian. 6. Th. Aquinas, a celebrated teacher of School Divinity. 7. Roger I3acon, an eminent Enghsh philosopher. § 1. Abelard, was born in Brittany, 1079, and became celebrated for his learning and misfortunes. He was one of the most eminent di- vines of the twelfth century, though his conduct ill agreed with liis sacred profession. He was criminally vain of his personal and mental accomplishments, but his mot-t notorious failings relate to iiis conduct toM^ards ITeloise. With the most consummate art, he gained the favours of that beautiful and accomplished female, to their mutual dishonour. They were soon afterwards married in private, to pacify her uncle and family, though she never v/ould acknowledge the union, inasmuch as she preferred the name of a mistress, to that of a w ife. Their subsequent conduct eventually ex- cited the indignation of her friends to such a degree, that they liired certain ruflians to maim his person in the most shameful manner. In the oratory of the Paraclete which Abelard built, the unfor- tunate lleloise finally found a refuge, where she spent her days with her sister nuns. She retained her affection for Abelard, though (le returned it with a coldness and indifference, which cannot but excite our indignation. Whilst he languished during the decline of life, under the unmanly vengeance of the uncle of Heloise, he forgot that she, once virtuous, had sacrificed her name, honour, and hap- 14* 162 MODERN HISTORY. PEPcIOD VI. phiiess, to his passion. The poem of Pope, in which he celebrates the loves of Abelard and Heloise, is a brilliant, but corrupting pro- duction, and not even the bard can soften the features of deformity, which mark the character of Abelard in this particular. The writings of Abelard, are mostly on subjects of theology or logic. 2. Walter de Mapes, was chaplain to Henry II. Under king John he was made canon of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, and arch- deacon of Oxford. He wrote in LatiUj and in a satirical style. Some of his verses are still read and admired for their sprightliness. He imitated the gay humour of Anacreon. He was a facetious companion. 3. Averroes was born at Corduba, where his father was judge un- der the emperor of Morocco. His knowledge of law, divinity, math- ematics, and astrology, was very extensive, and to this was added the theory, rather than the practice, of medicine. After being pro- fessor in the university of Morocco, he was called away to succeed his father in the office of Judge in Corduba, and soon after, he was invested with the same powers in Morocco and Mauritania. His authority and talents procured him enemies, who envied and calumniated him, and through their efforts he was, for a time, sus- pended and degraded, on a charge of heresy. He was, however, restored at length to all his honours. He died at Morocco, 1206. In his private life, Averroes was regular, and devoted much of his time to philosophical pursuits. He was particularly fond of Aristo- tle, on whose works he wrote commentaries. His medical works are scarce, and above mediocrity ; and of his numerous verses on amorous and light subjects, very few remain. 4. Genghis Khan, was son of a khan of the Moguls, and born 1163. He began to reign at the age of 13, but on account of a re- x'olt of his subjects, he fled for safety to Aventi-Khan, a Tartar prince, whom he supported on his throne, and whose daughter he married. But the jealousy of Aventi obliged him to escape a se- cond time, and being pursued by Aventi and his son, he defeated them both, and their army revolting to him, he soon increased it. From this occurrence, he became a renowned conqueror. In the space of 28 years he subdued the greater part of Asia, and render- ed himself as famous for his skill in government, as for the valour of his arms. He died in 1227, leaving his vast dominions, which extended 1800 leagues in length, and 1000 in breadth, properly divi- ded among his four sons. 5. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, was a universal scholar, and in that dark age, confessedly possessed great and astonishing erudition. He is chiefly celebrated as a historian, though not un- known as an orator and poet. His abilities and well known integri- ty, fitted him for the work in wliicli he so zealously engaged, of re- forming the monasteries, and re-establishing the ancient purity of church discipline, even in opposition to the papal power. His great production was "Historia Major," in two parts, from the creation to William the Conqueror, and from the Conqueror to the year 1250. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 161^ With Henry III. he was famiharly acquainted ; yet his accoimt of the reign of that prince, seems not to be at all tinged with flattery, or sullied with any violation of historic truth. 6. Th. Aquinas, called the angelical doctor, was of a noble family, descended from the kings of Arragon and Sicily. His inclination to embrace an ecclesiastical life, was strongly opposed by his mother. She even confined him two ^'^ears in her castle. But escaping from her custody, he found the means of improving himself by study, and it was not long before he appeared at Paris, reading public lectures to an applauding audience. On his return to Italy, he became di- vinity professor to several universities, and at last settled at Naples, where he led a chaste and devout life. Gregory X. invited him to the Council of Lyons, to read the book which he had written against the Greeks, but he died on the way to join the pontiif, near Terracina, 7th March, 1274, in his 50th year. Aquinas left a vast number of works, mostly upon theological sub- jects, which prove him to have been a man of extensive erudition. There is, however, in his writings, very little of sound, useful, or ex- perimental views of religious truth. 7. Roger Bacon was born in 1214, nearllchester, of a respectable family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. A strong, in- quisitive mind, soon raised him to consequence ; and as he was libe- rally supported in his pursuits by his friends, he made a most rapid advancement in science and philosophy. His attainments becoming far above the comprehensions of his age, he was suspected and accu- sed of magic. The monks of his order, actuated by jealousy and envy, contrived to have his works rejected from their library, and to prevent him from reading lectures to the students. He was finally imprisoned, and during 10 years was left to pursue his studies in so- Utary confinement. Within this period, he composed his "Opus Majus," or his Great W^ork. After being released from prison by the interference of his friends, he spent the remainder of his life in academical repose, at Oxford. He died at the age of 80 years. To the comprehensive mind of Roger Bacon, many of the disco- veries, which have been made by the genius and toil of later ages, were known. His knowledge of mathematics and natural philoso- phy, was profound. He discovered the error in the calendar, and his plan for correcting it was adopted by Gregory XIII. He was acquainted with the structure of an air pump, with the laws of op tics, and with the power of glasses. His acquaintance with chemis- try was extensive. He gave such a description of gunpowder, that j it is c\ddent he was its inventor. In his writings, which amounted to a]:)ove eighty treatises, some of which are publislied, and some 1 preserved in manuscript, in the libraries of Europe, he uses an eie- I gant and nervous style, and was always accurate in his observations I on natin-e. 164 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. PERIOD VII. The period of the Papal iSchis7n ; extending from the founding of the Turkish Empire^ 1299 years A. C-, to the taking of Constantinople^ 1453 years A. C. TURKISH EMPIRE. Sect. 1. The Empire of the Turks, claims the notice of history, from the important consequences connected \nth its eventual establishment, on the ruin of the Grecian sovereign- ty. Tlie power of this people is felt on the soil of classical antiquity, and until lately, it extended itself over nearly the whole of it, in the south east of Europe. Their estabhshment as a separate empire, is an event which took place in 1299 A. C, under Ottoman or Othman, the first Sultan. § The Turks derive their origin from the Avares, a tribe of the Huns who dwelt in Great Tartary, till forced by the Huns of the south, to abandon their country, when they divided into several bo- dies, each of which taking a different direction, settled, some around the Caspian Sea, some in Pannonia, and otliers in Asia Minor. The last colony, known under the name of the Seljukide Turks, founded an empire in Asia Mmor, about the year 1070, and their chief took the title of Sultan of Iconium, a town of Lycaonia, where he fixed his residence. In 1294, this empire was destroyed by the Moguls, and the emirs or governors of most of the provinces became independent. The Turks embraced Mahometanism long before the time of Othman, as we gather from the history of the Crusades. Othman was an emir under the last sultan of Iconium. Forminof the scheme of raisins^ a new empire froiii that which was just overthrown, he engaged the assistance of several other emirs, and seized Iconium. He soon fixed the seat of his government at Byrsa, the chief town of Bythinia, and as- sum^^d the title of Sultan. From this time the Turks were known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. By degrees, they encroaclied on the borders of the Greek empire, and were prevented from su]:)verting it at an early stage, only by the necessity of defending themselves against the victorious Tamerlane. Their principal sovereigns, during this period, after Othman, were Oichan, Amurat I., Bajazet I., Mahomet I., and Amurat II. . § In the reiffii of Orchan, the Turks crossed the Hellespont on rafts, took Gallipoli, tlie key of Europe, penetrated into Thrace, and ITALIAN STATES. 165 laid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe. Orchan cre- ated the order of Janizaries, though as they were more completely or- ganized by his successor, Amurat, this institution is generally attri- buted to the latter, Bajazet I., the successor of Amurat, purposed to besiege the capi- tal of the Greek empire in form, but he was suddenly forced to de- fend himself against Tamerlane. Tamerlane, or Timer-bek, was a prince of the Usbec Tartars, and a descendant from Gengiskan. Having conquered Persia and most of the East, he was invited by the enemies of Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power. Fie gladly accept^ the invitation, and having met the Turk, he totally defeated him, and made him prisoner. The battle of Angoria, where tlie cliieftains fought, is a famous one in history. Nearly 1,000,000 of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 were slain. The victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Baja- zet was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed himself. Under Amurat II., the Turks resumed the project of taking Con- stantinople, but did not succeed. This prince had devoted himself to retirement and study, but some violation of a treaty, led him into a war with the Poles, in which he was signally victorious. He left his dominions to his son Mahomet II., surnamed the Gi eat, known in history as the final subverter of the Eastern empire. ITALIAN STATES. 2. Italy, in the separate States of which it consisted during this period, and subsequently, appears again on the page of history. The principal states were Venice, Florence, Naples, Sicily, the possessions of the Church, Genoa, Par- ma, and a few others. Most of these sovereignties had been previously founded, but they existed in their most flourishing condition, during the present period. 3. Venice had become considerable in the ninth century. Afterward, in tlie year 1084, the eastern emperor, Alexius, confirmed to the Venetians, Istria, Dalmatia, and Croatia, which had been conquered by their arms. They subdued also Verano, Padua, and other Italian States, in 1405. On the death of the king of Epirus, they acquired that Island in addition. The Venetians, for a long time, were the prin- cipal merchants of the world, but their trade was greatly diminished by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497. During the latter part of this period, in consequence of their wars with the Turks, they lost many of their pos- sessions. § The following incident in the Venetian history, deserves a par- ticular notice. Ziani, the thirty-ninth doge, or chief magistrate of 166 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. the republic, was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from whose persecution the Pope had retired to Venice. The Venetians dispatciied embassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a rage, that if their doge did not instantly deliver up the Pope, bound hand and foot, he would be terribly revenged, — would bring his army before their city, and fix his victorious standard in their market place, which should float in the blood of its citizens. Tire embassadors returned with this awful message, and it was agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and prepare for repelling the emperor's meditated vengeance. While the Venetians were thus employed, Otho, the Emperor's son, entered the gulf with seventy- five gailies, and was making sail to the city. The doge, with hasie, met this fleet, with the few ships which were fit to put to sea, and in a dreadful battle took and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's ves- sels, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was con- tinued the ceremony of marrying the sea. The Pope going out to meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, " Take, Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your do- minion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, that posterity may know your valour has purchased the prerogative, and subjected this element, even as a husband subjecteth his wife." 4. Florence, which was the capital of Tuscany, early rose into notice. It became a republic in the thirteenth century, and maintained its independence during two or three centu- ries. It was distinguished, by the revival of Grecian Utera- ture, and the cultivation of the arts, in the fifteenth century. Before the close of this period, the family of the Medicis arose, and shed a splendour on the repulDlic of letters. 5. Naple:-^, just before the beginning of the present era, was entered by Charles, duke of Anjou, who became its king, as well as of Sicily. These countries were frequently united in one government, and as often separated from each other. They were tlie seat of long wars between the French and Germans on the one part, and the Spaniards on the other. But the latter at length obtained possession of the kingdoms. G. The Estates of the Church, which include the middle portions of Italy, were, during the present period, greatly in- volved in controversies. The rival claims for superiority be- tween tlie popes and emperors, still continued. Henry VTi., tlie sucwcs-^or of Albert, triumphantly fought liis way to Rome, where, in a solenm manner, he received the crown, and im- posed a tribute on the states of tlie Church. He was sud- denly destroyed, it was supposed, l)y papal vengeance. It was in liis time, that the remarkable event took place, b\' which the seat o[ the popedom was changed from Rome t i FRANCE. 167 Avignon. This was clone by pope Clement V., 1309, on ac- count of being so much molested by the imperial faction. In the absence of this pope from Rome, Nicholas Rienzi, a man of mean parentage, but of great abilities, aspired to the su- preme authority, in 1347. He retained the dominion of this portion of Italy, for a year ; but was afterwards sacrificed to the fLuy of the people. In the j^ear 1377, the holy see was removed back to Rome, by pope Gregory IX. After his death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the freedom of election. Three separate factions of the French and Italian cardinals, having elected three separate popes, the emperor Sigismund judged this division of the Church to be a tit occasion for his interference, to reconcile all differences, and establish his own supremacy. In 1414, he summoned a general council at Constance, and ended the dispute by deposing all the three pontiffs, and naming a fourth, Martin Colonna. Historians call this di- vision of the papacy, the great schism of the west. 7. Genoa, the ancient Liguria, became a republic in 953. The Genoese v/ere afterwards involved in civil connnotions, which so weakened them, that they were obliged to shelter themselves under the protection of the duke of Milan. They continually revolted to the French, and returned again to subjection to the Milanese, till, in the next succeeding period, Andrew Doria restored liberty to his native country. § The Genoese, next to the Venetians, were, for 200 years, the most commercial people in Europe. The city of Genoa, was afterwards celebrated as the birth place of the great Columbus. FRANCE. Capetiari Race. Branch of Valois. 8. The successor of Philip the Fair, on the throne of France, was Louis X. surnamed Hutin, (the wrangler,) 1314. He v\-as a prince of a weak and irresolute character. and reigned but a few months. A son, born after his death, was acknowledged, but lived only four days. Upon this event, Philip Y. tlie I^ong, brother of Louis, succeeded to the throne. His was a short reign of five years. § Philip V. was notorious for his persecution of the Jews, and, in general, of all foreiirners who resided within his dominion, and re- 168 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. fused to embrace Christianity. The Jews were accused of having poisoned the wells and springs of water. 9. Philip leaving no other than female issue, was succeed- ed, 1322, by his brother, Charles IV., the Fair. His reign was unfortunately short, for he was a wise and upright prince. He left no son behind him. § According to the Salic law, no female succeeds to the French throne. 10. The throne now devolved on Philip VI. of Valois, cousin to the late king, 1328. Edward III. of England, Iiowever, claimed it in right of his mother, Isabella, who was a daughter of Pliihp the Fair. He enforced his claim by arms ; but Philip being acknowledged and supported by the French nation, retained the sceptre, notwithstanding tiie loss of the famous battle of Cressy, and the capture of Ca- lais. In the celebrated wars which these rival pretensions created, the English were at first victorious. Philip was vain, obstinate, and of a limited capacity, and died after a reign of twenty-two years. § In the midst of his losses, Philip was gratified with the cession of the province of Dauphine ; the condition of which was, that the eldest son, the presumptive heir of the crown, should be styled Dau- phin, and bear the arms of the province. It was in the reign of this prince, that a general plague, surpass- ing in its horrors whatever besides the remotest history can furnish, ravaged, in the space of eighteen months, not only France, but every part of the known world. It broke out in the northern pro- vinces of China, and swept over Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the places through which it passed, it cut down two thirds of the inhab- itants. This calamity had been preceded by terrific earthquakes, which swallowed up whole cities. John 11., surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350. He was a most unfortunate prince. Taking the field with 60,000 men, against the Black Prince, he was defeated by the latter with a far inferior number, in the signal battle of Poictiers, and made prisoner. § He was carried in triumph to London, and, after having been de- tained in captivity four years, was permitted to return to France, upon ceding several important places to the English. He, however, visited London again, on account, as is supposed, of a passion which he had conceived for the countess of Salisbury. He died very soon afterwards. 12. The Dauphin assumed the administration, during the captivity of the king ; and, on the death of the latter, succeed- ed to the throne, under the name of Charles V. the Wise. FRANCE. 169 Had it not l^een for this prince, France would most probably have fallen under the domination of England. During his reign, the French re-conquered almost all the places taken by the English. This prince possessed a vigourous mind, but a delicate constitution of body, and was suddenly carried off in his forty-seventh year. He was one of the best of the French sovereigns, a patron of literature, and a sagacious statesman. He possessed a library of several bundled volumes ; which was extremely large for the age. § It was through Du Guesclin, a celebrated general, whom the khig raised to be Constable of France, that the French, after having been beaten by ilie English during thirty years, began to beat the latter hi turn. 13. diaries YL, styled the Vv~ell Beloved, succeeded to the kingdom, 13S0. He first made war on the Flemings, whom he defeated in the battle of Rose]3eck. A formidable inva- sion, of which the object was the British shore, failed, in con- sequence of a tempest that dispersed and wrecked his ships. During this reign, a civil war occurred between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy, the cause of which pertained to the regency. Charles had fallen into a state of insanit}^, which, of course, rendered a regency necessary. In the midst of the contention, and of the miseries ^^'hich it inflicted on France, Henry Y. of England, invaded the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, w^as the ac- knowledgment of his right to the French throne, on the death of Charles. These sovereigns died soon after, and within two months of each other. § Charles was a weak prince, and his insanity reduced him almost to idiotism. The fleet which was fitted out for the invasion of England, con- sisted of 1287 sail, of which, sixty were ships of the line. In the centre was a wooden city, having a diameter of 3000 paces, pro- vided with towers and bastions, and constructed over boats fastened together. It was so contrived as to be put together, or taken to pieces, in a day ; and was intended to furnish lodgings for the troops. when they should be landed. The wreck only, of this singular city, reached the British shore. Cards were invented in the reign of Charles VI., to amuse that monarch, and to relieve him from the melancholy which followed his alienation of mind. 14. Charles YIL, surnamed the Yictorious, was crowned at Poictiers, 1422, while, at the same time, the infant Henry 15 9^ 170 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. VI., was crowned at Paris, throvigh the agency of the duke of Bedford, the Enghsh regent of France. This competi- tion issued in war. The first great mihtary opeiation un- dertaken by the EngHsh, was the siege of Orleans, a place of the utmost importance. And here a transaction occurred, which is one of the most wonderful on record. This Avas the raising of the siege, and the consequent deliverance of France from the grasp of English power, by means of Joan of Arc, "otherwise called the Maid of Orleans. The enthusiasm which she inspired at this juncture, by pretending to a divine com- mission, and by her singular and courageous appearance at the head of the French troops, rendered them invincible. § Joan was a young country girl, of twenty-seven years, a domestic of a tavernkeeper. Presenting herself to the council of Chai'iea, who had fled in despair to Dauphine, she declared that God had, in a revelation, apprised her that the royal troops would force the ene- my to retire from the siege. An assembly of divines pronounced her mission to be supernatural ; and, at her own request, she was clothed like a man, and, in complete armour, headed the troops. A white palfrey bore her gaily to the scene of combat ; while on her banner was displayed the image of our blessed Saviour. The English, raising the siege of Orleans, fled before her. I'he hopes of the nation were raised, as if by a miracle, and other conquests suc- ceeded. The impulse which her heroism excited, enabled Charles to extend his triumphs to the banks of the Seine. As a recompense for her important services, she was ennobled by Cnarles, together with the whole of her family, and their heirs and descendants. After she had eflfected the object of the mission, she requested leave to retire, but she was retained in the service, from the belief that it would be benefited by her presence. At the siege of Compeigne, not long after, she was made prisoner ; and being tried by the English for sorcery, she was condemned to be burned. This sentence, which is an eternal disgrace to the judges who pre- sided at the trial, was barbarously put into execution. When led to the stake, the heroic maid, overcome by her emotions, burst into tears. To prolong her tortures, a scaffolding of plaster had been contrived, with so great an elevation, that the flames required a con- siderable time to penetrate to her body, which was gradually con- sumed. The tide of fortune turning against the English, they lost many of the French provinces ; and, after the battle of For- migny, which was gained by Charles, they lost Paris itsel£ In the southern dominions, however, the French arms were paralized, for a time, by the brave Talbot, an illustrious Eng- lish warrior. His death, and the fatal disputes between the ENGrLAND. 171 houses of York and Lancaster, placed the whole of the French monarchy, with the. exception of Calais and Greignes, under the dominion of Cliarles, 1450. § The deatli of this prince was hastened "by the iindutiful and un- natural conduct of his son, the Dauphin. The latter formed a plot to cut off his father by poison. This was discovered ; but the king was so haunted by the idea of treachery and poison, that he could not be prevailed on to receive that degree of nourishment, which was ne- cessary to support life. The Pragmatic Sanction originated in his reign, in a general as- sembly of the clergy and nobility, representing the Gallican church. Its aim was, to check the despotism of the popes. The superiority of the Bssemblies of the clergy over the See of Rome, formed the basis of its regulations. ENGLAND. Painily of Plantagenet. — Branch of Lancaster. 14. Edward II., surnamed of Csernarv^on, from the place of his birth, ascended the throne in 1307. He Avas the opposite of his father in character and disposition, being weak, indolent, and destitute of penetration in selecting his advi- sers. Yet his inoffensive disposition, joined with his misfor- tunes, entitles him to respect, as w^ell as commiseration. He made war on the Scots, but w^as terribly defeated by Robert Bruce, in the battle of Bannockburn. In consequence of this battle, the latter was established on the throne of Scotland, 1314. Edward was unfortunate in all his connexions. His queen, Isabella, sister of the French king, was an ambitious and worthless w^oman, and his favourites were equally de- tested by the people, and injurious to their sovereign. Edward, at last, fell a victim to his wife's cruelty and lust, and misera- bly perished. § It was in obedience to liis father's dying request, that Edward in- vaded Scotland. He marched at the head of one hundred thousand men. Bruce met this immense force with only thirty thousand. The army of the latter was however advantageously situated. A hill covered his right flank, a morass his left, and to screen his front, he had dug deep pits, planted them with stakes, and covered them with turf. The English, confident in their superior numbers, rushed for- ward without precaution. Their cavalry was entangled in the pits, their ranks were broken, and the Scottish horse, pouring through the openings, scattered on every side slaughter and dismay. The En- glish threw down their arms and fled, and M'ere pursued to the gates L, 172 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. of Berwick. The defeat of Edward sunk him in the estimation of his subjects. The most famous of his favourites, were Gaveston, and tlie two Spencers, father and son. The queen, who persuaded the king to recal them after they had been banished by parhament, at length fixed her affections on Mortimer, a powerful baron. A breach soon followed between her and the Spencers, and going over to France with her paramour, she found the means to form such a party in England, that on her return with some French troops, she made her husband prisoner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour ot his son, then fourteen years of age. While he was in prison, he was put to death by the keepers, who, with infinite barbarity, thrust a red hot iron into his bowels, until he was internally consumed. These wretches were instigated by Mortimer and the queen. 15. Edward III., succeeded his father, 1327, under the regency of Isabella and Mortimer. But to such a regency, he would not submit. At the age of eighteen, lie assumed the reins of government, hanged Mortimer at Tyburn, and confined tlie queen, his mother, for hfe. The conquest of Scotland soon became an object of ambi- tion, and marching to the north with a large army, lie van- quished the Scots at Halidown Hill, with little loss on the side of England. On the death of Charles the Fair, m 1328, Edward, having a claim to the throne of France, as being the son of Isabella, the sister of the deceased king, and first in female succession, prepared to assert his claim (since the French rejected it) by the fortune of arms. For this purpose, he invaded France in 1339, and from that time to 1360, war raged furiously be- tween the two countries, with only occasional suspensions. During tliis long contention, were fought the famous battles of Cressy, in 1346, and Poictiers, in 1356. The battle of Cressy was fought between Philip, the French king, on the one side, and Edward and his son, the Black Prince, on the otlier. The army of Phihp amounted to one hundred thousand men, that of the English, only to thirty thousand. The bat- Uo of Poictiers was fought between the Black Prince, and King John of France. The former commanded only six- teen thousand men, while the army of the latter amounted to sixty thousand. Notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, the English obtained a decided victory in looth engagements. The heroism of tlie Black Prince has rendered his name evei famous in the annals of Avar. ENGLAND. 173 § In the battle of Cressy, there fell, by a moderate computation, twelve hundred French knights, fourteen hundred gentlemen, four thousand men-at-arms, besides about thirty thousand of an inferior rank. The action seems no less remarkable for the small loss sus- tained by the English, than for the prodigious slaughter of the French. Among the former, there only fell one esquire, and three knigin^, and an inconsiderable number of private men. In the battle of Poictiers, the French king was taken prisoner, and afterwards was led by the Prince of Wales, in triumph, to Lon- don. He was treated with the greatest courtesy by his conqueror. Edward, during his absence in France, left his queen, Philippa, with the care of the realm. Attacked by the Scots, who invaded England soon after the battle of Cressy, she entirely defeated them near Dur- ham. David, their king, who had expelled Edward Baliol from the throne, was unable to effect his escape from the field, and thus he became a captive at the same time with king John in London. 16. The decline of Edward's life did not correspond with the early part of it. The tide of success turned against him in France, and besides the loss of his dominions abroad, he felt the decay of his authority at home. His age he unwisely devoted to pleasure ; and to complete his disappointment, the Prince of Wales died, after a lingering illness, in his forty- sixth year. Never had king a more illustrious son, and never did a nation have greater cause to fehcitate itself in tlie prospect of having such a model of heroism and vhtue for its sovereign. The old king did not long survive this melancho- ly occurrence. He died in 1377, in the sixty- fifth year of his age, and the fifty-first of his reign. The English nation has ever taken pride in its Edv.^ard III., and recurred to his reign, as one of the most glorious in its annals. The splendour of his foreign, victories, and the tranquiiUty and efficiency of his domestic government, stamp the impression of greatness on his mind. But the moral pu- rity of his character, and the justice of his wars with France and Scotland, are more than questionable. 17, Richard II., son of the Black Prince, succeeded to the throne, 1377, at the age of eleven years. He was unworthy of his great father. Indolence, prodigality, perfidiousness. and sensuality, marked his character. His kingdom suffered from the distractions attending a regal minority. The con- tests for power between liis three uncles, the dukes of Lanca-^- ter, York, and Gloucester, who secretly directed the affaksof the realm, embroiled all the pubhc measures. An insurrec- 15^ 174 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VTI. tioii; headed by Wat Tyler, put the government, for a tune, in great jeopardy. While the kingdom was convulsed with domestic contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with' France and Scotland. At lengtli, during the king's absence in quelling an insurrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose in open rebellion, and compelled Richard, at his return, to resign the sceptre into his hands. The parliament con*- firmed the act, and the king was soon after privately assassi- nated or starved to death. Thus began the contention between the houses of York and Lancaster. § The finances of the kinfrdom were exhausted by the wars which were carried on with its foreign enemy. As nothing was obtained by conquest to repair the waste, pai'liament found it necessary to impose a poll tax of three groats on every person, male and female, above fifteen years of age. But the minds of the people were un- favourably disposed for this measure, and the principles of demo- cracy gaining ground, this distich was frequently in the mouths of the multitude : " When Adam delv'd and Eve span, Where was then the gentleman." Besides, the injustice of the tax, to which the poor were obliged to contribute as much as the rich, was apparent to every body. Wliile the character of the measure was viewed in this light, the rigorous manner in which it was enforced, seemed insupporfable. An incident which occurred, respecting the wanton conduct of a t ax-gat] lerer, in the family of a blacksmith, aroused the public mind^ and became the occasion of a wide spread insurrection. The popu- lace flew to arms. The spirit immediately pervaded Essex and the neighbouring counties. The leaders assuming the feigned names of Wat Tyler', Jack Straw, and Hob Carter, committed the most out- rageous violence on such of the nobility and gentry as came in their way. At length, assembling their followers on Blackheath, to the amount of one hundred thousand, they broke into London, demand- ing certain immunities, which were granted, but in parties still con- tinuing to insult and plunder the capital. At this juncture, the king, slenderly guarded, met T}ler at the head of a large body of rioters, and entered into conference with him. Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till he should give the signal for attack, and then ventured alone into the midst of the royal retinue. Here he demeaned himself in so insolent a manner, that Walworth, tlie mayor of London, in a fit of indignation, drew his sword and brought him to the ground. He was instantly dis- patched by the rest of the king's alte'ndants. Richard's presence of mind saved himself and them from the meditated revenge of the nuitineers. Accosting the enraged multitude with an affable and intrepid countenance, he asked them, "What is the meaning ol ENGLAND. 175 your disorder? Are you angry, my good people, that you have lost your leader. I, your king, will be your leader." The presence of majesty overawed the multitude, and they im- plicitly followed the king. Leading them into the fields, he peacea- bly dismissed them, with the same charters which had been granted to tiieir fellows. These charters, however, were soon after annulled in parliament. In regard to the death of Richard, after he was deposed and im- prisoned, it was long the prevaihng opinion, that his guards fell upon him in the ^castle of Pontefract, and dispatched him with their hal- berts. But* it is more probable, that he was starved to death in prison, for after his body was exposed in public, no marks of vio- lence were found upon it. The particular ground of the controversy between the houses of York and Lancaster, was, that Edmund Mortimer was the true heir to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the second son of Ed- ward III., whereas Henry, duke of Lancaster, who was placed on the throne, was the son of John of Gaunt, the third son of Ed- ward III. 17. Henry IV., was the title which the duke of Lancaster assumed, when he came into power. He was surnamec'. Bolingbroke, and the date of his reign is 1400. He was immediately oppressed by faction and discontent ; and as a righteous retribution, he felt the uneasiness of " the head that wears a crown." A rebellion, raised by the earl of Northum- berland, for placing Mortimer, of the house of York, the true heir, on the throne, first required his attention. The Scotch and tlie Welch took part with the malcontents, but their united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their leader, young Percy, (Hotspur, so named on account of his fiery temper.) was killed on the field. § The armies on this occasion were nearly equal in numbers, con- sisting of about twelve thousand men, each ; and rarely was there a battle in those times, where the shock was more terrible or more constant. Henry exposed his person to all the dangers of the field. His gallant son, tlie prince of Wales, who afterwards so signalized himself by his military exploits, urged on the fight with the utmost intrepidity, and even a wound which he received in the face with an arrow, could not oblige him to retire. On the other side, Percy and Douglas, terrible nam'^i^, supported their ancient renown. But while the armies were contending in the most furious manner, the death of Percy, by^ an unknown hand, decided the victory, and the ad- herents of the king won the day. 18. A second rebellion, headed by the archbishop of York, was quelled by the capital ptmishment of its author. In the reigu o'i this prince, the secular arm was unrighteously ex- 176 MODERN HISTORY PER^.OD VII. tended against the followers of Wickliile ; and history records the shameful fact, that Henry IV. was tlie first English mo- narch, that made the religion of his subjects, an offence to be expiated by the faggot and the scaiFoid. The latter part of his hfe was embittered by the extreme profligacy of ])is son Henry, prince of Wales, who afterwards nobly discarded the vices and follies of his youth. § The following particular merits a recital. One of his abandoned companions having been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the chief justice, the young prince was not ashamed to appear at the bar witli the criminal, in order to give him countenance and pro- tection. Finding that his presence did not over-awe the chief jus- tice, lie proceeded to insult him on his tribunal. But Gascoigne, mindful of his own dignity, and of the majesty of the laws, ordered the prince to be committed to prison. Henry, sensible of his error, quietly submitted to the order. When the affair was mentioned to his father, he is said to have exclaimed, "Happy is the king who has a magistrate sufliciently courageous to execute the laws upon such an offender; but still more happy, in having a son willing to submit to such chastisement." Henry died, 1413, at the age of forty-six, in the fourteenth year of his reign. Notwithstanding distinguished military talents and pohtical sagacity, he became a most unpopular sovereign. The illegality of his title, may have disaffected his subjects towards his person and his reign. He felt the miseries of guilt, and became suspicious and jealous. In re- ligion, he was bigotted and intolerant, 19. His son, Henry V., ascended the throne in 1413. He laid aside his dissolute habits, as already intimated, and in- formed the companions of his pleasures, that they must enter on a similar reformation, if they would secure his favour. He also received the wise ministers of his father, who had checked his riots, with all the marks of esteem and confidence. Henry early asserted by arms, the English claim to France. Taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, he invaded it with an army of about thirty thousancl men, and with half that number, defeated the French army, amounting to sixty thousand men, on the plains of Agincourt. His own loss did not exceed five hundred men, wdule that of the French amounted to t\venty-two thousand in killed and prisoners. § Henry drew up his army on a narrow ground, between two woods, to C(jvor each flank, and patiently expected an attack, having been siu'prised by the sudden appearance of the French, in great ENGLAND. ^^ 177 force, when his own army had been greatly reduced by sickuesl^nd fatigue. Had the French general declined a combat, the English must have relinquished the advantages of their situation ; but the impetuous valour of the nobility, and a vain confidence in supm'ior numbers, brought on an action, which proved to the English sd- glorious and successful ^ <"-, After this battle, returning to England to recruit his foi; DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223 land, in 1506. He early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu- ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from the catho- lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the last twelve or thirteen years of his life, in writing the history of his country. He occasionally resided in England and France, but died in his native countr}-^, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de- ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and the graces of ancient literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi- ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses. 10. Montaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend- ed, he travelled, with a view to make observations on men and man- ners. In the latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi- losophical society. His essays have been repeatedly published. They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in- to the hands of youth, on account of their scepticism. Some per- sons have extravagantly praised them. 11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1544, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De- livered," an epic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer and Yirgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a life of varied and great suffering. Among other calamities, he was confined by the duke of Ferrara, who had been his patron, in an hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas- so had been guilty only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had fallen in love with the princess Eleonora, the duke's sister, and, on a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a crowded assembly. For this offence, the unfortunate lover was obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered more tedious by a lingering disease, and occasional lunacy. He was at last released, and his merits as a poet began to be more known ; but just as he was on the point of receiving the laurel crown from th.e pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on the next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces- sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of age. 12. Spenser (Edmund) is deservedly regarded as little inferior, either in invention or in judgment, and true fire of the muse, to any author, ancient or modern. But with all his beauties, he was fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is truly fairy land. His sublimity, variet}'', and fertile imagination, are unfortunately to be set off against his obsolete language, and heavy stanza. His Fairy Queen, is his most celebrated poem. He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some- what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin. He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was 224 MODERN IlISTOP^Y. PERIOD IX. burned in the conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and fortune, he came to London, where lie died, in 1598. PERIOD IX. The jjeriod of the English Commonwealth ; extending from the Edict of Nantes^ 1598 years A. C, to the death of Charles XIL of Sweden^ 1718 years A. C. FRANCE. House of Boiirhon. Sect . 1 . Henry IV., had dow occupied the throne of Fr ance several years. He had changed his religion from pohtical considerations, hut did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by whose aid he had secured the sceptre, in granting the famous Edict of Nantes, by which he tolerated them, as well as all his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion. Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully, enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil wai*, and to place his kingdom in a state of financial pros- perity and general happiness. France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents, as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding, and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at- tachment to him in return. His private and domestic life, was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force of example, the manners of the court with no little disso- luteness. § A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman, had, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise of marriage. This promise, the king showed to Sully, ready signed, and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. " I believe you are mad," cried Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad," replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France." When, after so keen an altercation. Sully thought himself irreco- verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the ordnance. Henry, who had lived through fifty conspiracies, fell by the FRANCE. ' 225 hand of an assassin, named RavillaCj after a short reign of twenty years, too short for the glory of France, just as lie was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form- ing Europe into a Christian republic. § Ravillac was. a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army in pi'osecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his will, on account of the coronation of the queen. In the midst of his impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore- bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who had followed him secretly for a long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the most horrid tortures. Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and should altogether form an association for the maintenance of a mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi- dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The latter, therefore, may have been his only real design. 2. Ijouis Xlll.jin his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610, under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During the early part of this prince's reign, France, which had arisen to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro- graded. Mary's partiality for her Itahan courtiers, disgusted the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much more favourable aspect. He had vast abilities, and propor- tionable influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria. The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar- rest of the prince of Conde, on account of his intrigues against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the legent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle, and the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was at- tended with the loss of 15,000 hves ; the junction of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe- ror Ferdinand II., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans, supported by the duke of Montmorency. 226 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. § The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, t)n the model of those in Germany. Certain it is, that alienated by per- secution, they attempted to throw off their allegiance, and Roclielle, was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu, having become master of the couit, the armies, and the fleets, car- ried into executio]!, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging war against the Protestants, whom he was resolved to exterminate. He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted as commander in chief; but chose to be accompanied by the king, for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence. The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint- ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri- son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold out until the last extremity. For twelve months they endured the miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de- prived them of their most significant privileges. They never re- covered from this blow. The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, 162G, owed its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum- ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism, for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes- tant princes, who were alarmed at "Ferdinand's avowed design of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of the Ger- man empire. Richelieu's plans were attended with complete success. The Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes, conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power ; the court of England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms, and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa- ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbled, and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire. The haughty minister of Louis, amidst all the political intrigues and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite- rature and science, and thus to extend tlie glory of the French na- tion, beyond the honour acquired by feats of arms. The Frencli Academy owes its institution to tlie genius of Richelieu. Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After he had been married twenty- three years, he had two sons, Louis XIV., and Philip, duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominent object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have been characterised by any particular talents or virtues. 3. Louis XIV., in the fifth year of his age, ascended the throne, in 1643, under tlie legency of Anne of Austria, his mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad- ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and reverses, and the flourishing state of litei*ature and tlie arts FRANCE. 227 under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with historians. He is often styled the Great. The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions called la-Fronde, which grew oat of Mazarine's ministry ; the contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was op; posed by the German emperor and Spain, and in which Franche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg against France, by which war was waged against that coun- try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con- sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses, from the allied powers, under the duke of Marlborough, and prince Eugene. § In the early war with the Spaniards, the duke of Eughehi gained the battle of Rocroi ; that of Friboiirg in 1644 ; that of Nordlingen in 1645 ; and that of Dunkirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the aggressors, having taken an advantage of the king's minority, and the popular discontents. These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal Mazarine, the favourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice was excessive. The burdens which he imposed on the people, and the consequent detestation in which he was held, terminated in the commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency in exciting this civil war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief nobility, took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne, also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru- dent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length, the parliament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu- lar minister. When, however, the king became of age, Mazarine re- sumed his station as minister, while de Retz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn. On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and by the splendour of his projects, and the success with which many of them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputa- tion as an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced, in which Turenne, and Conde, another great general, gave signal proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in the leaders whom he had chosen to coirdiict his military operations; Although Spain and the empe- ror joined the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the imperialists m the pitched battles of Ensheira, Mulhausen, and Turkheim. Some- tmie before, Conde had signalizeu his arms against Franche Comte, which he subjugated in the space of seventeen days. 228 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France, and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton ly attacked by the French king, had sufficient influence with England, to obtain its alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis, however, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the honour of France. Franche Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain allowed his right by conquest to a great proportiori of the Netherlands. In the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, the French king manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was taken away, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished, their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion, was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na- tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death was the consequence, whenever they could be found. By this measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in- dustrious and useful citizens, who either perished, or driven into exile,- carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries. The League of Augsburg, in 1686, was brought about by William, prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol- land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs coiild not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbours. Victory, however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers. Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age, was no more, and their places could not be well supplied, yet the name of Louis was a host, and the successors of those renowned men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the prince of Orange, in the battles of Steenkirk and Norwinden ; Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rhine. This was the brightest period of his reign. Disasters w^ere soon to follow him. The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of R5'^swick, in 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the war of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol- land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avowed object on the part of the former, was to put the house of Austria in pos- session of the throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles H., without issue. Louis had passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and ministers ; while the armies of his enemies were commanded by the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the united powers. The war was carried on with manifest advantage FRANCE. 229 on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French twenty thousand men. He gained, besides, the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the French and Spanish, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban- doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even proposed very humiliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the nard condition of dethroning his grandson Philip, was insisted on, he made one more desperate effort in battle, in which he was so far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. The change in queen Anne's cabinet, gave facility to propositions for peace, in which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 4. IjQuis died, aged seventy-seven years, having reigned more than seventy -two, one of the longest reigns on the page of history, and illustrated by many splendid achieve- ments. His patronage of Hteratiire and the arts, constitutes, .more than any other which he possessed, his claim to the admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the French language, were produced in his reign. All kinds of public works were extended and improved — the capital was enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the fine canal of Languedoc constructed. Louis was remarkable for his able administration of in- ternal afl^airs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that have been already mentioned, was the famous Vauban, whose great genius was successfully employed in fortifying towns. Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal master. At his suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini, quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy- gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal celebrity, a very large pension. Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions, and was celebrated for his politeness and urbanity. His in- tellect was vigorous, but indifferently cultivated. It was the great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought for the young monarch, no other accomphshments than those 30 230 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. of dancing, fencing", and riding, so that when the latter was drawing on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen an epistle. The love of glor}^, w^as perhaps his riding passion, though he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes real worth of character. GREAT BRITAIN. House of Stuart. Commonwealth. Restoration of Monarchy. 5. The throne of England, (called towards the close oi the present period, Great Britain,) was ascended by James I., 1603, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the sceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house of Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event which was in exact accordance with the law of succession, and with the express- ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns, and eventually made the two kingdoms one. § James I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in regard to a successor, she replied " that she had held a royal scep- tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which she ex- plained to be one who was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest kinsman, the king of Scots." The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert Bruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is very summarily as follows : The son of Robert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329. During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He Avas a weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of for^ tmie. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed- ward in., and remained eleven years in captivity. He was ran- somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370. He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of the great Robert Bruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance, was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the English. Robert III., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands * >i>s brother, the duke of Albany GREAT BRITAIN. 231 James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder, and whom the Enghsh had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape to France, next ascended the throne, 1424. He was a prince of great natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomplish- ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during the regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on a favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity, and was accordingly assassinated. James II., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of his father's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom. His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him- self to mean favourites ; and quarreling with the barons, he was killed in an insurrection, 1488, James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to the throne. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, with al- most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of Flodden-Field, 1513. James V,, his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt- ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli- ty of his troops, in a war with the English, 10,000 of the Scots having deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy. He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death, have been already narrated. 6. Though the succession of James T. was tranquil, a few events soon occurred, which tended to distm'b his reign. One event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the government, by seating on the throne Arabella Stuart, the king's near re- lative, descended, like himself, from Henry VII. § Sir W^aher Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot ; and though he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the tower. A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who, disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal family, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliamento 232 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX, § The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun- powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building. Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re- ceived, from an imknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to take place. This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al- lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen- tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king. " Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them." Search was now determined to be made in the vaults under the house' of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de- lect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet till the night before the commencement of the session. The plan oi tlie king succeeded. A man by the name of Guy Fawkes, was found at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder, to the amount of thirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself, were all put to death. 7. The puritans, who had already become conspicuous, having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex- pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special favour from the new monarch, hecause he had been educated a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re- straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num- bers of them to the new world, where they laid the founda- tions of a great nation. Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis- tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to exert, no influence abroad. His disposition was altogether pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was solicited to join in a league with Henry lY., the United Provinces, and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power ol the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the scheme. The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advocates ' GREAT BRITAIN. 233 for tlie royal prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was especially the case with James. He was prejudiced against the Puritans, on account of their notions of liberty, and took part with the estabhshed church. It was a favourite maxim with him — " No bishop, no king."' But the minds of English- men were undergoing a cliange. Light had increased, and juster notions of the people's rights began to obtain. The opposition of parliament to the royal prerogative, Avas carried to a great height, and laid the foundation of those fatal strug- gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy. James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng- land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri- vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His disposition, however, was mild ; and his reign, though not glorious, in the usual sense of that word, was yet, in many respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he bestowed the care of a parent. § James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic witlial. Of flattery, he was excessively fond, and there were parasites to deal it out to him without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly proposed the question, whether he might not take his subjects' mo- ney, when he wanted it, without the formality of parliaments. " God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Durham, " but that you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils." James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed himself courageous in death, being so composed as to close his own eyes in his last struggle. Perhaps, a people who delighted in war, and valued blood and treasure less than the splendour of battles and conquests, were incapable of doing justice to the principles that guided the public conduct of this prince. Hence the contempt, which has sometimes been expressed against his benign and gentle policy. Saving his high notions of prerogative, and his attempt to sustain them, there was nothing, during this reign, to mar the happiness of a great people. Two of the greatest names in the records of genius, Shakspeare and Bacon, besides others, adorned the times of James, and the lat- ter part of the period of Elizabeth. 8. Charles I., ascended the throne in 1625. The king- dom, at tbis time, was in a prosperous condition ; but the principles of liberty had expanded the minds of many of his subjects, and they demanded a more hberal system in the administration of the government, than we^ observed by hia Immediate predecessors. Tiiis demand, however^ Chajrles 20* 234 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. repelled, and he shewed that he possessed the same arbitrary principles with his father, without the prudence of the latter. The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies^, for enabhng the king to carry on a war, first in support of his brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards witli France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ot ruhng without theii' aid, and of levying money in the most illegal forms. § The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of Charles, first soured the minds of his parliament against him. Be- ing engaged to his allies, the king could not brook the denial of sup- plies, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new parhament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles, however, avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from new causes of offence. The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assistthe French calvinists ; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham, they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse- quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re- ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The blame of every public miscarriage was thrown upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton, just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle. The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots, in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tyran- ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament, many'^of the merchants, and some members of the house of com- mons, refused to pay. A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both liouses, which declared the illegality of raising money witliout their sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject ; annulled all taxes im- posed without consent of parliament, and abolished the exercise of martial law ; and Charles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. Tlie taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was warranted to levy them without a new grant ; and a member of the house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com- motion being excited, parliament was dissolved. 9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering spirit of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri- GREAT BRITAIN. 235 ca, where they spread the Uberty of which they were deprived** at home. Bat at length the enemies of that sect prevailed on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, were prevented from going. § Hampden rendered himself illustrious, by his talents and virtue, and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo- sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En- glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply interested in the trial, and this was the favourable result which he realized, though the venal judge decided the cause against him. The people began to see their danger. At a time when the public feeling was running strongly in favour of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church with new ceremonies. Things might have gone on in this train for some time ; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the church of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding, the Scotch reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the heart of England. At the same time, a catholic rebellion arose in Ireland, which the people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor- tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked, proceeded to such extremities in its acts, that they were considered tantamount to a declaration of war against the king and his party. 10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was now to decide the contest. The two houses of parliament took into their hands the force constituted by the militia of the country, and at the same time the king erected his stand- ard at Nottingham, 1642. Several battles were fought, du- ring three or four consecutive years, with various success; but at length the royahsts were overcome, and the king was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of Charles was supported by a large proportion of the landed in- terest, all the friends of the established cliurch, and all the adherents of the papacy ; that of the parhament, by the city of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen- ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term applied to the supporters of the king — Round Heads to those of the parhament. 236 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. ^^ « § The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the greater prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former, and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men to the forces of the parliament. Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia- ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra- ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favoiwable to the royalists ; but those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in their overthrow. Never were the morals and religion of an army more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of Cromwell- Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually, to spend some time in prayer. When the king was taken by a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af- ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among whom he had sought protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time, influenced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap- pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de- clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and Avas beheaded the third day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty- fourth of his reign. On the morning of the fatal daj-, which was the 30th of January, 1649, Charles rose earlier than usual, and calling one of his attend- ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress. As he was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some exhortations addressed to him by the bishop of London, " I go from a corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can have place." He submitted to the stroke with entire resigna- tion. Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unforti> nately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles which dis- tinguished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an age and country, in which a king could not be a tyrant with impu- nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him, and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference to the advice of his queen, who was a bigoted papist. Granger says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life, than he did upon a throne." We may lament the fate of Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne- cessary ; and must condemn several of the acts of the republicans, as passionate and oppressive j yet Providence seems to have overruled GREAT BRITAIN. 237 the events of the times, for the advancement of civil hberty, and for • the general good of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs. Charles was an author, both in prose and verse. The Icon Basi- like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited much commiseration for his fate, has often been attributed to him. The authorship of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute. If Charles wrote it, his talents, in composition, must have been much superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers it the best prose composition which, at the time of its publication, was to be found in the English language : and D'Israeli remarks, that the political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of Tacitus. In a poem of his, entitled " Majesty in Misery," the following stan- zas will show his manner in poetry. " With my own power my majesty tliey wound, In the king's name, the king himself s uncrown'd ; So doth the dust destroy the diamond. Felons attain more privilege than I, They are allow' d to answer ere they die ; 'Tis death to me to ask the reason why." 11. On the death of Charles I., monarchy in England was dissolved, and the house of lords was abolished as useless, by the commons. The forms of all public business were chang- ed from the king's name, to that of the keepers of the liber- ties of England. Religion shared in the revolutions of the times. § Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to yield to the independent interest. Cromwell so managed, as to transfer to the army, the power which the parliament had not long before taken into their own hands. Presbyterians had been mostly excluded from parliament, and that part of the house which re- mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen- dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita- ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed it to effect their own purposes. 12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great influence, both civil and military, acquired by Oliver Crom- well, who was peculiarly fitted for the age in which he lived, and for the part which he was destined to act. § The situation of Ireland and Scotland, gave some inquietude to the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at the head of 16,00.0 men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the parliament; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed king, on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom- well, with his usual cunning, procured for himself the appointment 238 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IX. of commander-in-chief in Ireland. He accordingly passed over to that country, and soon put an end to the successes and authority of Ormond. He next marched into Scotland, at the head of 16,000 men, and defeated the royalist covenanters, in the battle of Dunbar. Upon the retreat of their army into England, Cromwell pursued it thither, and overtaking it at Worcester, the whole was annihilated by him in one desperate battle. The king was obliged to flee. It was with great difficulty, and after many adventures, that the latter effected his escape. He first retired to feoscobel, a lone bouse on the borders of Staffordshire, inhabited by one Penderell, a far- mer, who, in conjunction with his four brothers, served him with unshaken fidelity. They clothed him in a garb like their own, and employed him, like themselves, in cutting faggots, and he partook of their homely fare. On one occasion, when his enemies were in search of him, he ascended an oak, where he was effectually con- cealed a whole day, among the leaves. In this situation, he saw seve- ral of his pursuers pass by, whom he overheard expressing their wish to be able to find him. This tree was afterwards kno^\Ti, and venerated, under the name of the royal oak. He succeeded, eventu- ally, in reaching France. The republic, at this era, acted with uncommon vigour. Admiral Blake, and other naval officers, now carried the terror of the English name, by sea, to all quarters of the globe. Under his command, a war with Holland was ably maintained against the celebrated Dutch commanders, Van Tromp and De Ruyter ; but the advantage was greatly in favour of the English, who took 1600 of the Dutch ships The famous Navigation act, which the parliament passed at this time had a most favourable effect on the commerce and naval superiority of Great Britain. An attempt being made to reduce the land army, at this time, Cromwell remonstrated against it, and demanded a new parliament. But this meeting with no regard, he entered, in great rage, into the house, attended by 300 soldiers, and, loading the parliament with reproaches, bade them be gone, and give place to honester men. The republic of England, M'hich had subsisted four years and three months, was thus, in a moment, annihilated, April 20th, 1653. Cromwell, hoAvever, though he had seized the reins, could not well deny his subjects a parliament. He therefore summoned 144 persons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, to assemble as the repre^ sentatives of the nation. They were his creatui^s ; and though some of them possessed the quality and degree of gentlemen, they were generally, as Clarendon says, " a pack of weak, senseless fellows, fit only to bring the name and reputation of parliaments lower than it was yet." This body was called Praise God Barebones' parlia- ment, from the name of a certain member, a leather seller, who dis- tinguished himself by speaking. Incompetent to their duties, they re-delivered to Cromwell, at the expiration of five months, the. instrument they nad received from him, calling them together, and besought him to take care of the commonwealth. OREAT BRITAIN. 239 13. The supreme power of the nation, now passing into the hands of Cromwell and his Council of officers, he was declared, by the latter, Protector of the Commonwealth of England, with the title of Highness, 1654. In this capaci- ty, he exercised greater power, than had ever been aimexed to the regal dignity. He gave the command of all the forces m Scotland, to General Monk, and sent his own son, Henry, to govern Ireland. Administering the government with en- ergy and ability, and granting rehgious toleration, the repub- lic greatly flourished. Its rights were respected abroad. Success attended the usurper, both in negociation and battle. In an engagement Avhich was fought with the Spaniards in Flanders, the latter -were defeated ; and Dunkirk being soon after sm-rendered, was by agreement, delivered to Cromwell. Notwithstanding the general correctness of his administra- tion, he was never popular, either W' ith the royahsts or repub- Hcans. He had subverted the freedom of his country, and his professions passed for nothing. He had reached a fearful elevation, and was consequently kept in perpetual inquietude. Neither society nor solitude could soothe his agitated mind. Fearing assassination, he was constantly attended by his guards, and changed the place of his sleeping, every few nights. Seized at length, with a slow fever, he died, A. C. 1658, in the sixtieth year of his age. § In regard to the character of Oliver Cromwell, what was said of Ciniia, has been applied to him. "He attempted those things which no good man dnrst have ventured on ; and achieved those in which none but a valiant and great man could have succeeded." This, however, is the judgment rather of an enemy than friend. Respecting his capacity, there can be but one opinion ; but mankind have viewed his moral qualities in very different lights. He has in this respect been oftener condemned than approved. Indeed, he is no favourite of history, as no man of equal merit or fewer faults, has been so often held up to suspicion, derision, or hatred. There are, however, those who, while they promptly condemn his dissimu- lation and ambition, can see much to admire in the strict morality and devotions of a man, who, in private life, apparently reverenced the institutions of religion. 14. Richard Cromwell, by the father's dying request, suc- ceeded the latter in the protectorate. He w^as acknowledged in all parts of the empire ; but as he wanted resolution, and possessed none of those arts which take with the soldiery, he soon signed his own abdication. He retired to private life. 240 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. and his virtues secured to him, rare enjoyment to extreme old age. 15. After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Charles JI. was restored to the throne of his ancestors, 1660. The short interval that oc('urred, was a season of anarchy. § The restoration was effected by the wishes of the people, who seem to have thought, that neither peace nor protection could be obtained, unless the ancient order of things should be re-established. Monk, a man of military abilities, had the sagacity to observe this change in the sentiments of the people ; and after temporizing in various shapes, rendered himself master of the parliament, through which Charles was duly acknowledged. 16. Charles, who was thirty years of age when he began his reign, made a favourable impression on his subjects, by means of his personal appearance and accomplishments, and of the superior character of his intellect. He was easy in manners, unaffectedly pohte, gay in his temper, lively, witty, and a great observer of men and things. It must be added, also, that he was base and unprincipled, and became at length immersed in pleasure and indolence. He was personally a favourite with his subjects, and continued so to be ; although the government became unpopular, after the king was so immersed in private gratification, as to neglect the true in- terests of his realm. Still, in this case, he escaped the re- proaches which he merited, and most of the odium of ex- travagance and unsuccessful pubUc measures, fell on his ad- visers. The whole royal party were so elated at the return of their sovereign, that they were dissolved in thoughtless jollity, and many of the repubhcans, especially the younger part and the women, were glad to be released from the gloomy austerity of the commonwealth. During this reign, dissipation and infidelity became greatly prevalent. Charles was distinguished by the same arbitrary notions which had prevailed with his ancestors ; and though there were many struggles like those in the preceding reigns, a surpiising change had taken place in the feehng of the peo- ple in general, in consequence of which, he escaped the fate of his father. The slavish doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance, now came into repute, opposed indeed by the enemies of the crown. This was the origin of the dis- tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory — the former oppos- ing the crown, the latter advocating it. This is a distinction i GREAT BRITAIN. 241 of parries still existing. The Whigs have always favoured the rights of the people, the Tories, those of the monarch. In consequence of high church, or tory principles, an act of uniformity in religion was passed, by which two thousand Presbyterian ministers, were deprived of their livings. § We may enumerate among the other events of this reign, the following — an act of indemnity, by which ten only, out of twenty- eight who were tricl and condemned for the murder of the king, were devoted to death— the sale of Dunkirk for £400,000, required by the prodigality of Charles, and which he soon squandered upon his pleasures — the war with the Dutch, which, after an immense ex- penditure, was attended witli no material benefit — and finally, the measures excited by the inl^uence of the duke of York, (afterwards James II.) consisting of numerous attacks upon the lives, liberties, and properties of the people, mingled with party intrigues, plots, and conspiracies. Before the reign of Charles expired, the Whigs became predomi- nant in parliament, and raging furiously against the Catholics, in- sisted on the king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother, the duke of York. This affair induced the king to dissolve two parliaments in succession. The consequence was, that England was thrown into a flame. But tlie king took measures to crush or in- timidate the opponents of the court. Lord Russel, who had been remarkable for his opposition to the popish succession, Algernon Sydney, and several other distinguished protestants, were tried, con- demned, and executed. The ground of proceeding against them, was a pretended conspiracy in favour of reform, called the R3^e- - House, Plot. A pretended JPopish Plot had, previously to this, been disclosed by the unprincipled Titus Gates, by means of which Lord Stafford and some other Catholics M^ere condemned and executed. 17. It was thought that Charles, having been guilty of arbitrary conduct, intended to take some measures for the future quiet of his reign, when he was seized witli a sudden fit of illness, and after languishing a few days, expired, 168-5, (11 the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his -reign. § In addition to what has already been said of the character of Charles, it may be observed, that though he was a genius, he acted in direct opposition to every principle of sound policy. He cjiose rather to be a pensioner of France, from whose king he received £200,000 a year, for the concealed purposes of establishing popery and despotic power, than the arbiter of Europe. Rochester's epi- grammatic jest, that Charles " never said a foolish thing, and never did a wise one," forms a tolerable motto for his " picture in little.-' Charles, it is said, had a constant maxim, which was, never to fall out with any, let the provocation be ever so great ; by which he observed, he had found great benefit all his life ; and the reason he 21 842 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. gave for it was, that he did not know how soon it might be necei?sary for him to have them again for his best friends. It has hkewise been said of this king, tliat had he loved business as well as he un- derstood it, he would have been the greatest prince in Europe. Dryden did not scruple to laud this prince, in a fulsome manner as in the lines, " Truly gfMxl and truly great : For glorious as he rose, benignly so he set." 18. On the death of Charles, the duke of York was ini mediately proclaimed king under the title of James IT., 1685. The history of this reign consists of little more than the weak and irresolute efforts of a higotted and tyrannical prince, to introduce popery ; an attempt sp absurd, that it did not meet with the least encouragement from the pope himself. § The capacit)^ of James was by no means eqiial to the subversion of those deep and solid foundations, wliich supported the civil and re- ligious liberties of his people. The share which he had in his father's sufferings had not sulficiently taught him, that the jealousy of the royal prerogative, was too strong in tlie hearts of liis subjects, to be easily allayed. He was so violent and precipitate in his conduct, that he never failed to counteract liis own pu.rposes; and he established the protestant religion, on a firiuer basis ihan ever, by his wild attomi)ts to introduce those of the clnn-ch of Rome. Though he ascended the throne with many advantages, he could never sit easy in it; and having taught even the advocates of non-resistance, to resist, he was forced to relinquish a crown, wliich he was absohitely unfit to wear. 19. One of the principal events of his reign, was the re- bellion of the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles XL, who undertook to seize the crown. He was defeated at Biidgewater, by the king's forces, taken prisoner, and be- headed. Had this victory been managed with prudence by James, it would have tended much to increase his authority ; but the cruelty with which the revolt was punished, and the rash confidence with which this success inspired the king, led to his ruin. That most profligate of all the judges that ever sat on the English bench, Jeffries, aided the king in the work of murder, to an extent that has called down on him the execrations of mankind. He was wont to boast of the numbers whom lie had adjudged to the gallows. The spirit of the nation was roused, by the offensive and tyrannical measures which James took to estabhsh popery ; and many great men in England and Scotland, applied foi -'dief to William, piince of Orange, who had married IMary the eldest daughter of James. William accordingly embark- GREAT BRITAIN. 243 ed for England, with an army, and determined, agreeably to request, to assume the government. § Upon the arrival of the prince, he was joined, not only by the whigS; but by many whom the king had considered his best friends. Even his daughter Anne, inspired v/ith protestant zeal, deserted him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the invader. Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his people, fied to France, where the palace of St. Germain was assigned him ; but as one remarks, " the convent of La Trappe Vv^ould have been a much more suitable retreat." In France, he spent the remainder of his hfe. A convention-pailiament declared the king's flight an ab- dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary. § The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the two royal brothers, Charles and James ; tliat " the elder could see things if he would, and the younger would see things if he could." On the access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high- ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. " We come to condole the death of our friend Cliarles ; and we are glad that thou art come to be our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissenter from the church of England, and so are we. We beg that thou would st grant the same liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare- well." 20. William and Mary now ascended the throne. This event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain- ed in the pi'ince. The protestant succession was secured ; rehgious toleration granted, and presbyterianism re-establish- ed in Scotland. A. declaration of rights was also made, in which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal prerogative were more narrowly circumscribed, and more ex- actly defined, than in an}^ former period of the English go- vernment. § A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions, entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects. There was, however, a class, chiefl}^ among the clergy, who held the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and bishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as their lawful king, and refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Wiiham, were 244 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-juror^ high-churchmen, and Jacobites." 21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland, as that coimtry still adhered to James. The latter, being assisted by Louis XIY., landed with some French forces in Ti-eland, where he was joined by a large army of Irishmen. William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle ol Boyne, and the country submitted to the new king. During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was involved in many active wars. Tlieir principal cause w^as the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on with vigour and success, though without any distinguished actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace of Ryswick, in 1 697, termxinated hostilities, and it was ap- parent that the power of France was weakened. The piin- ciple on which William acted in hid foreign wars, was, the balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate. § Louis, who used James to promote his own interest, was deter- mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object, he furnished him with a powerful fleet, and the exiled prince re- paired to La Hogue, whence he was ready to embark for England. The English admiral, Russel, put to sea with all possible expedition, and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships. On the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met otf La Hogue ; and, after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germains, where he died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, hr-ving, some time before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in different cemeteries. 22. After the death of James, notv\ ithstanding the succes- sion of the crown had been settled in the house of Hanover, liis son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains, and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut- most of their power, against all his enemies, and the whole kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil- liam was making pieparations for the approaching coutiict, lie was suddenly removed bv death, in the fifty-second yeai GREAT BRITAIN. 245 of his age, and fourteenth of Iiis reign. His excellent consort, and partner in tlie throne, died seven years before him, of the small pox. § In person, William was small and slender. His complexion was brown, his nose Roman, and his eye piercing. His genius was pene- trating, and his judgment sound ; but in his manners he was distant, and better qualified to gain respect than love. During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote funds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in the time of this prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela- tive situation of Europe. 23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Anne, the second daughter of James II., who was married to George, prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious in British history. The arms of England were every where triumphant, nor weie the achievements of its scholars less conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison, Swift, and others, have immortalized the times of the " Good dueen Anne," as she has been familiarly called. Though not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for lier virtues. The mihtary and literary distinction of her reign, could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal conduct or councils. The principal events of her reign were, her war against France, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest general of the age, who gained the splendid victories of Blen- heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, the constitution- al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the confusions occasioned by the high party spirit which prevail- ed in the latter part of the queen's reign. § The war against France, continued from the commencement to the last year but one of her reign. Germany and Holland were in alliance with England. Tlie commander, on the part of the empire, who was associated VAith Marlborough, was prince Eugene. In the famous battle of Blenheim, the French lost twenty thousand men. The duke, during the engagement, rode through the hottest of the fire, but neither in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and seven thousand were captured ; and this success was soon followed by the general conquest of tlie Netherlands. In the course of a most successful war on the part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de- gree, that obliged him to demand peace, wliich though at first refu- 21* 246 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. tied, took place in 1713, when the change in Anne's ministry, gave a facility to neg>ociations for that object. In the treaty of peace which was signed at Utrecht, Spain yielded to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St. Christopher's, and Newfoundland. Of Marlborough, it maybe said, that he never laid siege to a town M'hich he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His understanding was as injurious to France as his arms. At St. James', he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro- duced. In ^\ie constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu- lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represent ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be repre sented by sixteen peers and forty-flve commoners, and that all peers of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after English peers, of the like orders and degrees. The confusions occasioned by high party spirit, were aggravated after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the Whigs and Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi- nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity. The great duke of Marlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of these dissentions ; though every honour had been accorded to him, and tlie most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000 having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when his enemies came into the ministry, the queen was induced to dis- miss him from all his employments. The tories had now supplant- ed the whigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com- mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve. 24. Anne died in her fiftietli year, after a short reign of twelve years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apoplec- tic disorder, whicli was brought on, or hastened, by flttigue, and the agitation of her mind, in attending a piolonged ca- binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca- tions with one another. § Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned ; lier face was round, her features regular, her complexion ruddy, and her hair a dark brown. GERMANY. 25. Soon after the commencement of this period, 1612, Matthias was at the head of the German empire. He GERMANY. 247 attempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholicsj but without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which, Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the kingdom of Bohemia; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the conclusion of the war. § An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, wliich the emperor de- livered to his successor, was the following : " If you wish your sub- jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the full force of your authority." 26. Fertlinand 11. became emperor in 1619. During his reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in her o\vn house. But these attempts, especially in regard to the first two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta- vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, wdio, at the head of the Evangelical Union, made rapid progress in Germany, till death stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has usually held the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as- cendancy in the empire. § Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe- ror, on account of his hatred to the protestants. He was an unfeel- mg bigot, and scourge of the empire. 27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often called,) in 1637. The protestants in the empire, found the most active support during the former part of this reign, both fro]n the Swedes and the French ; and the emperor being forced to conclude the peace of Westphalia, 164S, these pow- ers dictated its terms. By this celebi'ated treaty, all disputes were settled between the contending princes of the empire, and the contending religions. § The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and ac iUM-ed Pomerania, Stettin, Wisniar, &c., and their sovereign, the dignity of prince of the empire ; the Palatine family was restored to its chief possessions ; the king of France made landgrave of Alsace, and an equal establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic. Ferdinand was a devoted Catholic. He experienced many cala- mities, but bore them with magnanimity. 28. Leopold I., khig of Hungary and Bohemia, was elect- 248 MODEIIN IIISTORV. PERIOD IX. ed emperor in 1657. His was a loag reign, of nearly fifty years. Joseph I. succeeded him. 1705. and reigned till 171 1 Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span- ish succession, winch commenced in 1700. on account of the claim advanced by lieopold, to the crown of Spain. The house of Boui'bon was his competitor. The war was car- ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies.) with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar- dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant being elected emperor, the Spanish crown was relinquished to tlie house of Bourbon, in the peace of 1713. In 1683, Vienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks, but the place was relieved by Jolin Sobieski, king of Poland. Charles VL was elected in 1711. His reign extends many years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet ni., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks, by his general, the renowned prince Eugene. SPAIN. 29. The successor of Philip It., on the throne of Spain, was his son, Philip III., 1598. Prom the commencement of this reign, Spain declined in power, and notwithstanding her great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceed ing- 1}^ embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces, whose independence was solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri- ous inha])itants. This, added to the depopviiation occasioned by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak- ness. 30. Under Philip IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621, tile national weakness and disorders increased, rather than diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister, Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who, while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him- self wore the specious appearance of extraordinary piety. The reign of Philip was indeed one continued series of and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil ; the SPAIN. 249 French invaded Artois ; Cata,lonia revolted to France ; and Portugal, shaknig off the yoke, recovered its independence. 31. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont- ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af- ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for i^ixty yeai':^, asserted the riglits of self government. The people, disgusted with the administration of Olivarez, were prepared for a change. The duke of Braganza, descended from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of his dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon. The Spa.nish guards XVere attacked and overcome, and tlte principal adherents of the government, were put to death by the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three horns. The example of the capital was followed by all the considerable towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle- ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV. § The events which occurred in the history of Portugal, previous- ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows : Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subjec' to the Suevi, the Goths, and the Moors. In the early part of the twelfth century, Henry of Burgundy grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso, in his wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter Theresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of Portugal, where Oporto was situated, from which place, formerly called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with the title of count. His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained a decisive victory over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldieTs. Seve- ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice. On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to his natural brother, John I., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally pohtic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first projected discoveries in the western ocean. In the reign of his great grandson, John II., who was a prince of profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con- quests in the interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by Vas('o de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies. Emanuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese throne, in 1495, adopted the plan of his predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It was with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned j others of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501. 250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy- age of Columbus, and the discovery of America. They also estab- lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious in the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban- isiied poverty and distress from his dominions. John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the inqui- sition in Portugal. Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors, in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle, Sebas- tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Henry, in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain, obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw off the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra- ganza, the legal heir of the throne. 32. Charles II., succeeded his father, Philip lY,, on the throne of Spain, in 1665. In order to frustrate the schemes of the kings of England and France, and of the states of Holland, he left his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou, second son of Louis, dauphin of France. § This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is, that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks, his wonted spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the interests of his kingdom. 33. The duke of Anjou, under the title of Philip V., the first Spanish monarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended the tlnone in 1700, In 1701, nearly all Europe united against France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to Spain, in the course of this war. TURKISH EMPIRE. 34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey, was that which immediately preceded the present. The spirit of military enterprise was now^ considerably abated ; though the power of the empire continued undiminished, except in ^4A TURKISH EMPIRE. 251 its naval force. The latter never wholly recovered from the effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto. The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans, and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side, Venice, Hungary, and Austria, on the other. § During the former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene- tians, had been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but enterprising and martial republic, had, during one hundred and fifty yeax'-s, restrained the Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba- bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos- tility continued through the present period, and broke out occasion- ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior to the Christian powers of Europe in military tactics, on account of liaving an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery. Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but "with little success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afflicted with a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died. Othman IL, invaded Poland, but was forced to make peace 'after having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by the Janizaries, whom he intended to disband. Amurath IV., tarnished a victory which he had obtained in the capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians, who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the iiiliabitants. Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe, from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth century. Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and took Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria. The siege of Candia is one of the most remarkable of modern times. Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce. The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length, in 1645, eifected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After -several towns had surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This siege continued twenty-five years. For the last two years, the Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying to their pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of the Venetians and their allies, and 1 18,000 on the part of the besiegers, in tlie space of two years' and four months, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1670. It is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls, 48,119 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks have ever since held possession of the island. In the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski, king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself His assistance was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily bestowed. Through his efforts * =;tria seems to have been saved from destrue- 252 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish- ment in the heart of Europe — a service which Austria has since ill requited. Sobieski, whose army, wlien joined by the Austrians. did not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army of nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de- feated by the Pole, who lost only 600 men. The victors secured the great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers. The imperialists, however, M^ere weary of it ; but neither party could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the intrigues of the "French king, who wished to exhaust the resources of the house of Austria. Under Solyman II., the Turks were almost constantly defeated by the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in 1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to cede Transylvania, Kaminiek, the Morea, and Azof. Under Achmet III., in 1715, tlie Ottoman court declared war against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time, war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous effects to the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin, and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan- tageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, followed these defeats. And the Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obliged to yield the palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciplined legions of Christendom. BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 35. Our own countiy, is intended by the British Colo- nies m America. During the present period, and part of the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern portion of North America, were known by the above appella- tion. These colonies were settlements made principally by the English, though some of them derived their origin from ad- ventures set on foot by other European nations. They were all, however, included within the English patent, and claimed by the English crown. 36. It was more than a century, from the discovery of the northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before the EngUsh made any effectual attempts to colonize the BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253 country. The first grant from the crown, under which set- tlements were actually made in North America, was dated April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon- don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho- rized to possess the lands in America, lying between the thirty- fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude ; the southern part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern, called North Vii'ginia, to the Plymouth company. Before the present patents, however, a project to settle the country was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com mission from Elizabeth, in 1584, had arrived in this portion of North America, which, upon his flattering account of it, was called Virginia, in compHment to the queen's virgin majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it, wholly failed. Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap- tain Christopher Newport to Virginia, December 20th, 1606, with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina. By stress of weather, however, they were driven north of their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. Here, up a river which they called James river, on a beautiful peninsula, they commenced, in May, 1607, the settlement of Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the United States. 37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com- menced a settlement on the present island of New- York, which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud- son, an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng- lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir- tue of Cabot's discovery ; but the first settlers retained pos- session, until 1664, when it was surrendered to an armament fitted out by Charles II., and received its name from his bro- ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New- Amsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also at Albany. 38. The same year in which the Dutch settled on the Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penobs- cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the country was presented, named it New-England, instead of 22 254 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. North Virginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22, 1620, a colony of puritans landed at Plymouth, in Massar chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in New- England. These colonists were originally from England, but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country. The colony of Plymouth was afterAvards connected with another colony in New-England, called Massachusetts Bay, which was founded in 1628. 39. In 1623, a number of persons from England, arrived in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a place now called Dover. These Avere the first settlements in New-Hampshire. 40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be that which wa^ made by some bodies of the Dutch and Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol- lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the Swedes. 41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti- more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti- more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the province, who, with about two hundred planters, chiefly Ro- man catholics, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth of the Potomac, on the northern side. 42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut. This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adven- turers, who transported the materials up Connecticut river Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, women and children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts; commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec- ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart- ford, were settled. 43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the year 1636, an event occasioned by the banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kind- ness, he called Providence. BRITISH COLONIES. 255 44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, in consequence of the Enghsh having occasion to visit the ter- ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony eventually united with that of Connecticut. 45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun- dation of North Carolina, which was followed by the settle- ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The CaroUnas were so called in honour of Charles IX., king of France, under whos<^ patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563. 46. In Pennsylvania, a small body of Swedes had plant ted themselves, at an early period. Their settlement in creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 1681; with a numerous company of (Quakers, whom religious per- secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a grant of the territory now constituting the state, in conside- ration of the debts due from the crown, for services perform- ed by his father, admiral Penn. 47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia, and even the Floridas, were covered by the Charter, as it was afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina to its proprietors. .^ 48. The three eldest of the American states, it will be per- ceived above, are Yirginia, New-York, and Massachusetts. These have hitherto been the most important and influential in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers, are beginning to acquire their just consideration. 49. The causes of the settlement of the American states, were various. Some were made on mercenary views, the usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of the proprietors. This was the case witli Yirginia. The im- mediate purpose of the settlement of New- York, was com- merce. The Dutch were then particularly distinguished for their commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and New-England generally, were planted principally to enjoy, in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of rehgion. 50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz., Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the free tolera- tion of religion was recognized, and these were the first civil communities which acted on a principle that now seems to 266 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX, be fast gaining the popular consent. In the other colonies, there was a degree of intolerance on the subject of religion, the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a civil community, the freest and best which the world had hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished to enjoy their religion in peace ; and in shutting out others, whose reUgious opinions differed from their own, they seem to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence, with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi- lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how- ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opinion on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole- rant regulations. 51. Many of the first settlers of the country, were men of talents and liberal culture ; and a wilderness has never been planted by a body of people, who were more solicitous for the interests of learning, and general education. Next, after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning. Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo- rality and piety, their spirit of enterprise and habits of indus- try, their love of liberty, and attention to education, were un- paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not perfect men, but they were the best and the noblest that ever founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular- ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica- tion to all the American states. 52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ; and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting the frauds that were practised, there is little reason to question the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were engaged in these transactions. 53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. This was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva- nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia, were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or later, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions BKITISH COLONIES. 2^ with the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end, wrong was sometimes done to these miserable tribes. Their ferocity and faithlessness were, occasionally, met with the sternest inflictions of vengeance on the part of the whites. Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe- riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva- tions incident to new establishments among savages ; that they displayed a heroism and constancy, such as have rarely been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe, in some instances, that their undertaking would never suc- ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle, and they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe- riod, increasing in wealth and population. It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a few of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the states at a time, and that a consideration of their common exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and particularly to the union which was formed between the New- England colonies, in 1 643 ; a union which lasted more than forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which furnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has since taken place, of all the American states. In general, however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly concerned in the history of this period, but the hmits of our work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one or two of the states. § Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occurred the war with the Pequots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was on a hill in the present town of Groton. These savages had pre- viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve- ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous state of affairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war. Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or- dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor, and eighteen from Wethersfield. These troops, together with seventy River and Mohegan Indians, were commanded by Captain Mason, who, sailing down the river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal orts of the enemy, in the present town of Stonington. Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became terrible, but the Indians rallied at length, and made a desperate re- 22* 258 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon an order to burn them, the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground, or smouldering in ashes. With the assistance of a detachment of nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who fled towards the Hudson, and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated. In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity and badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, that diseases swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure, the colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef- fect of which was the reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their native home ; but being met by a new company of adventurers, with a large supply of provisions, they were induced to return, and try the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years, it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre- served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly forty years. Before the conclusion of this period, however, the colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only Mith the death of its mover. 54. The principal events which relate to the colonies, as a body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe- riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, which was the most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which the colonies were ever involved — the oppressive measures re- lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wars occasioned by the hostilities into which the mother country entered with other European powers, usually called king William's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com- mencing in 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com- mencing in 1702, and ending in 1713. § Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re- sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten- sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this RUSSIA. 259 contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December, 1675, in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large swamp. The English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow, governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought, with the loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded. The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many women and children. Though their power was greatly broken by this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New- England, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an- nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the flower of its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed, and six hundred dwelling houses consumed— a terrilile destruction, out of a population not exceeding 60,000. The oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing, in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family, and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju- dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence, the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand which was complied with, except in the case of Connecticut. The duration of this state of things, however, was short ; the revolution occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed on the throne. From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother country, in regard to their liberties, suffered by means of her wars with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries. This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 to 1713, with an intermission of only four or five years. RUSSIA. 55. The history of Russia is both obscure and unimpor- tant, until the time of Peter I., surnamed the Great, who as- cended the throne in 1689. Russia, then raised from bar- barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil- ized world ; and, by successive advancements, has attained to a rank, in power and influence, second to no other state in Europe. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness. § In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained, that in the fourth century, the country was possessed by several different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the light of Christianity. In the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz re- deemed the empire from its subjection to the Tartars, and united the greater part of the country under one monarchy. The sovereigns of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar, which, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great 260 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six- teenth century, that Siberia was added to the empire, which, to that time, was bounded by the limits of Europe. The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub- jects barbarians. Alexis IMichaelowitz, father of Peter, was the first who published a code of laws. Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder brother, and banishing a factious sister, who had seized the govern- ment. His youth was spent in ignorance and debauchery ; but his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. .56. The piincipal events of his reign, were, his war with the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise, in order to learn the art of ship building — his destruction of the Strehtzes, a body of troops, much resembling the Janiza- ries of Turkey — his abohtion of the patriarchate of Moscow, which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de- feats he experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — his signal victory over that monarch, in the battle of Pul- towa— his building of Petersburgh — and, finally, his institu- tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army. § Having gained the little knowledge he possessed from foreignerSj he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled as a private person in his suite, through Germany to Holland, and when he arrived at Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited the astonishing spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the luxury of a court, labouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me- chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of his fellow-workmen, anci^ obeying the orders of his temporary master I His occupation did not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery, mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi- larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen months, he returned to Moscow, laden with knowledge, and the fruits of experience, which he employed for the benefit of his own subjects. Charles the XII. was, at this time, sweeping all before him. He had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements; and, suddenly breaking off a negociation, he entered Russia with 45,000 men, with the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through the Ukraine, in the midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the SWEDEN 261 enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting Charles, at Pultowa, he gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes, and taking 14,000 prisoners. Peter died in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereign, is un- questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal of the lives of his subjects. SWEDEN. 57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re- volution of 1523, which placed Gustavus Yasa on the throne, who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles XII., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united into one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark, in 1389, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian II.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into his states, administered the government with great firmness and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was one of the most extraordinary of men. Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur- named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious as a hero, and Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to literature, and distinguished for her patronage of learned men. § Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and, together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony of the Gomerians. From this country came the Goths, the Gepidoe, the Heruli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an- cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the first monarch whose reign approximates to chronological truth. There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and Gustavus Vasa. During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa was sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockhold of ninety-four senators, among whom his father perished. For a while he con- cealed himself in Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small town, 262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, and with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the Danish commander to death. From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow- ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap- pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gus^- vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king. Gustavus Adolphus began to reign in 1611. He became a hero in early life, having in his twelfth year been encircled with the laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613 with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns. In his war with the Imperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen; but in the latter he lost his life. Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden, and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science, that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the stream : " At length," said she, " I am free, and out of Sweden, whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where unbound- ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of- fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules. Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she em- braced the Catholic religion, and where she died. 58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided with hini the admiration of Europe. He has been ranked with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his heroism of character and, extraordinary achievements. But Charles was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc- cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe. Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al- though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took the field against these powers, and signally defeated them. Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de* clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigour DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 26S of a Russian winter, prepared his army for the defeat, which it so signally experienced at Pultowa. After this battle, he fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a maniac, rather than of a man in his senses. § The war with Denmark he despatched m six weeks. The Danish king purchased the safety of his capital and kingdom, by making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose territory he had attempted to wrest from him. The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which the czar had attacked, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men, he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took thirty thousand prisoners. In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the amplest revenge. He reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated into the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cracow. He then, by means of the assembled states, declared file PoUsh Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de- pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland. When Charles fled into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaging the Otto- man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians. But upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace having been made, Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk. He had been hospitably entertained more than three years, but his arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi- ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de- fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty thousand Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms,* and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 1. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer. 2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don Q,uixote. 3. Shakspeare, the greatest of dramatic poets. 4. Galileo, an Itahan, distinguished for his discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. 5. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters. 6. Bacon, an English philosopher and universal genius. 7. Kepler, a German astronomer. 8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound learn- ing. 9. Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher. 264 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 10. Gassendij a Frenchman, distinguished as an astronO" mer. 11. Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns. 13. Corneille, the prince of the Fiench dramatic poets. 14. Boyle, an Englishman, distinguished in natural philo- sophy. 15. Dryden, an eminent English poet. 16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi- cians. 17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathema tician. § 1. TychoBrahe, descended from an illustrious Swedish family, was born in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen, for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosophy ; but the great eclipse of the sun on the 21st of August, 1562, engaged him to study astronomy. With this science he was excessively delighted. He often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in 'earning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science, which he called divine. He was honoured by the noble and learned of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time ; but the ma- lice of his enemies drove him from his country, and he found an asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601. It is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his philo- sophy irritable, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with some person, the argument rose to such a pitch of personal violence, that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one, admirably constructed. The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo- ria Coelestis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi- cient proof of the unsoimdness of his judgment. 2. Cervantes, who is better known by this name than by his sur- name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard- ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the military profession, and five years and an half he endured all the horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but though his pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and at last, found himself in a prison. In his confinement, he began his immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex- piration of several years. This work is read and admired in every known language ; but though popular from the beginning, it pro- duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene amidst his wretchedness. In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists, gentle, genial, and kind. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265 3. Shakspeare, (William) was born of a respectable family, at Stratford-on-Avon, April, 1546. Few events of his life have been recorded, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry and on the character of his genius. He was designed to carry on the trade of his father, which was that of a wool dealer, and with that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un- fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed, in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of ■driving him to London. Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun- dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius. He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage. It is not known that he excelled in the profession of an actor ; the contrary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the wri- ting of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes; but when his performances had gained the favour of the queen and her court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the productions of his pen, and by the management of the play-house, acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died 23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age. Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house where he was born, the front of which is now occupied as a meat- shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicote Park, a table-co- ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which is visited by thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in homage to the genius which was there first brought to light. Of Shakspeare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora- tion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men — that he went be- yond all men, and stands in the array of human intellect, like the sun in tlie system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral blemishes and defects. 4. Galileo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonisliT^ ing, and too opposite to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape the cen- sure of the philosophers of the age ; and no sooner was it known, that he had embraced the Copernican system, than he was sum- moned before the Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was this illustrious man twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent three or four miserable years, and this for embracing opinions then deemed so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to the word of God. Among the discoveries that have rendered the name of Galileo immortal, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of llie moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of the 23 266 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti- ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas- ing celerity in the descent of bodies. He lived seventy-eight years. . Towards the close of his long hfe, ne became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines " Like the moon, whose orb Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views At evening, from the top of Fesole, Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe." 5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha- racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making discoveries, first inspired the British nation with that ardour after maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions ol the age. His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune — he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head was finally brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges, king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and though he was afterwards released, it was not long before he fell again under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical end, on the 29th Oct. 1618. That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth, would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win- dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line — " Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall." Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good sense. " If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all." 6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West- minster. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and when only a child he was favourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who used to call him her " young lord keeper," alluding to the oflice held by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power — he was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage. His eleva- tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imprisoned in the tower. But his fine was remitted by the king, he was restored to the public opmion, and sat in the first parliament called by Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty of DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 267 the crime alledged against him. The blame is with much reason supposed to attach to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is more clearly due to him than the poet's censure — " The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses that any age or country has produced. As an author, his " No- vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances, immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in which we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly denominated " the miner and sapper of philosophy," " the pioneer of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi- ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established. 7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu- sions of the old philosophy. The old or Aristotelian philosophy was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac- tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus, Tycho Brahe anticipated nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that the earth must be at rest, tliough he admitted the reality of the planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers^ and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times, &c. His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how- ever, he began to studj^, the turn of his intellect was abundantly manifest. He was born in 1571, and died in 1630. 8. Grotius (Hugo) v/as born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645. A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment. His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at. last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years. On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious to her husband's health, she was permitted to send away a small ■chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a half, in v/hich he was confined. Thus, carried by two soldiers from the prison, the chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at the house of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, pursuing his flight afterwards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel. His particular profession was the law, and he pleaded his first cause at the age of seventeen with gre^l eclat. But polite literature 268 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral and religious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes, epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound. 9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex- amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected much for mankind. He was well acquainted with mathematics and philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni- ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac- counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently visionary. He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen chose to claim it. 10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro- vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion of Aristotle over the human mind, though he was not himself altoge- ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel- lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a little owing. His studious habits proved injurious to his constitution, but he was in gome degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired, 22d Oct., 1655. 11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at- tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, 19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons of every thing, and he could be satisfied with nothing but with such proof as the subject examined would admit. He always sought for demonstration and truth, if they could be attained. The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father, an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup- posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the requisite books. The father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the languages ; but the latter extorting from his father by entreaty, a definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme- diately entered on the study, without any other help. He was then but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely, till his father happened to enter the room, where he was busy with his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,) and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour- ■ DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 260 ing to demonstrate what makes the thirty-second proposition of. Euclid's first book. He had proceeded thus far in geometry, from axioms and principles which he had laid down, and which he had applied in a connected series, through the intervening propositions. At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec- tions, that had appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by which calcu- lations of every kind could be made, without the help of a pen. And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena of the gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed by Mersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema- ticians of Europe. All these mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re- ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re- ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits. Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, " a sublime madman, born a century too early." 12. Milton, (John,) was born in London, 1608. His political and controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad- mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro- duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise which was his due; but ample justice has since been accorded to him, and all posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius. The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was thrice married; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his first marriage ; became blind in writing his Defence of the English People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world. It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, wher^ young; w^as economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious; and, in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re- ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the gout, in 1674. 13. Corneille, (Peter,) M^hose poetical works are among the sub- limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He was brought to the bar, but he soon abandoned it for poetry, whi^h was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, the most cele- brated of which Avas, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets. He is said to have been a very meritorious man, in private life; liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He Ji€d at tiie age of seventy-nine years. 23* 270 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst the confusion and tumults of the time, enjoyed there a peaceful soli-, tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for the promotion of learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most exemplary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and chemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made many discoveries. " To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils ; so that, from his works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge." He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re- gard for religion, he showed in the purity of his life, the general tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence o( divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested himself in the propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send- ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the east. He died in his sixty-fifth year. 15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili- ties. He continued to write to old age, and improved to the very last, not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, both in poetry and prose, and doubtless too much -, for the rapidity with which he composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen- ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of poetry. In his prose, he was equalled by few of his age, for judg- ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived, in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than from any other writer. Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating. The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power, a step lower than the poets of Elizabeth and James. His writings afre too much tinctured with the licentiousness of the age, and, in his rehgious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating. The year of his birth was 1631— that of his death 1701. 16. Locke, (John,) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna- ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men- tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade. He has been called, " the glory of theorists." By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa- tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his lordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followed him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene- ral, on suspicion of being concerned m Monmouth's rebellion. h SWEDEN. 271 Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve months, devoting his time to literary labours; and, two years after, when he returned to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele- brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Masham, his friend, in 1704, giving emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the vanity of human life. 17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is most celebrated as a mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet he enjoyed the singular felicity of being esteemed the greatest and most learned man in Europe. In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra- ordinary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy. In temper, he was passionate ; in characte-r, avaricious. At his death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died with excess of joy at the sight. PERIOD X. The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex- tending from the death of Charles XII., of JSiveden, 1718 A. C.f to the final restoration of the Bourbons, 1815 A. a SWEDEN. Sect. 1. In pursuing the history of Sweden, a country which at this time excited much attention, on account of the character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This was the death of Charles XII., who, while besieging a Nor- wegian fortress, was killed by a cannon bail, on the 11th of Decemberj 1718. 27^ MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. § Wliile Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king of Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throniB of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of affairs made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re- turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandonee^ in consequence of failing in the outset. Sweden was too much exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest. His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but i^i the interval oi preparation, Charles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost his life. A half pound ball, discharged from a cannon loaded with grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per- fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic of his temper. No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charles XII. This is the clue to all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled him to the epithet of " mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when a pupil, what he thought of Alexander. " I think," said he, " that I should choose to be like him." " Aye, but," said the tutor, " he lived only thirty-two years." " Oh," answered the prince, " that is long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms." After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished, demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com- merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted the prerogatives of the crown. 2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ubica Eleonora, by the election of the states, who permitted her husband, tlie prince of Hesse, to be associated whh liei* in the government ; but they greatly hmited the power of the sovereign.' Ulrica soon resigned the tlirone to her husband. On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolphus Frederick, a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III.' in 1771, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprived 1 PRUSSIA. 273 the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute. The despotism, however, which he w^rongfully procured, he moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign was marked with peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas- sinated, at a masked ball. § Gustavus effected the change in the government, in the following manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house, where he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab- solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and then dismissed the assembly. 3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In 1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England, but made peace with that power the next year. In 1805, he united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France, He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin- land, w^hich was conquered by Russia. He was dethroned in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania. § The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom, it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef- fect, without difficulty or blood-shed. 4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles XIIL, made peace with France ; but the king having no children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was, through his influence, declared crown prince, and successor to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful to the country which adopted him, and he never aflforded any aid to his former master. § Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which terminated in the overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu- tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an- nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor- wegians. PRUSSIA. 5. Prussia was very little noticed, till some time within the present period, when Frederick XL, the Great, raised the kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a 274 MODERN HISTORY. — ^PERIOD ±. kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states acknowledged it as such. It was before styled the Electorate of Brandenburgh. § This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it Borussia, which has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king ol Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves his vassals, and to al- low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland. . Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united by alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now occupies the throne, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800. The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, were Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil- liam L, the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri- tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by the peace of Westphalia. Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the case is, his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex- cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim- ple and plain. He even denied himself the common comforts of life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood, but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It \vas in this dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to the heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re- giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders of Asia." FrederickWilliam was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners, and often treated his children with a rudeness and asperity, that would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by his daughter, Wilhelmina, princess of Prussia, it would be difficult to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his son, the great Frederick, M^ho coidd never appear before the king with- out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, too, had her full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her. 1 PRUSSIA. 275 She tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several blows on the face with his fist, one of M^hich knocked her over." What added to their misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they were condemned, for they were almost literally famishing. There was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi- ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast. What a specimen of a prince's court. 6. Frederick II., the Great^ ascended the throne, 1740. His father had left him an efficient and well disciplined army, amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory. With the best army in Europe, he was by no means backward in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia, and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de- feated at the battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of Silesia, in 1 742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and France, concluded a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera- cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui- nary contest. § The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain- ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su- periority of numbers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe- ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources, and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de- fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford- ed him the most essential relief Her successor made peace with the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled to secure an honourable peace with all the hostile powers. In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions, which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he dismem- bered from Poland. In 1786, he died, at the age of seventy- four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of whom history has preserved any memoi'ial. This distinc- 276 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. tion, liowever, lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual endowments. § Frederick possessed a discernment, energy, activity, decision, and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero; and, togettter with these quahties, as much moral perverseness as is required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished for the conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver- sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of liis troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve- nty of his discipline, appears in the following relation : Intending to make, in the night, an important movement in his camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eiglit o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe- ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern, which he entered, just as the officer was folding up a letter, Zietern knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy. The king asked, to whom he had been writing ; he said it was a let- ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes beyond the time, in order to finish. The king coolly ordered him to write one line more, which he sliould dictate. This line was to in- form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the next day, he should be a dead man. The letter was then sent as had been intended, and the next day the captain was executed. Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and every depart- ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did not escape his observation. He extended the limits of his kingdom, and much increased its industry, population, and wealth. His intellectual powers were great, and when we consider his situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education, we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera- ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous author in prose and verse. Nothing favourable can be said of his moral and religious charac- ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu- larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire. 7. He was succeeded, 1786, by Frederick William II., his nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving prince, who joined in the league against the French republic, and then deserted his allies. Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by his son Frede- rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre- tensions to Hanover, in 1805, and on Napoleon's proposing to restore that electorate to the king of England, in 1806, Fre- GERMANY. 277 dericK took the field against him, and experienced an utter overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which was fought Oc- tober 14, 1806. § A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The whole of Germany, well united and organized, would, probably,, at any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di- vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy, with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the issue of a single battle. She trusted too implicitly in her.ancient mi- litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud- er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before her more sagacious and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his dominions. 8. In 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in their Russian campaign ; but on the failure of that enter- prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander, and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At the battle of Waterloo, his army, under the valiant Blucher, turned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia honourably acquit- ted herself in this great contention, and regained her former territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been eflfectu- ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than he, to advance the true happiness and glory of his kingdom. He has declared, thafc Bible shall be put into the hands of every peasant's family in his realm. § It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory is, running out in different parcels of lands, of singular shape, and intersected by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, there- fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor- tunity, to consolidate his territory ; and they are little acquainted w^ith the intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people, who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing which promises to promote their national honour and security. GERMANY. 9. In the history of Germany, during this period, we are principally concerned with Austria, its more important mem- ber, in which the imperial crown usually resides. From th« 24 1 ► 27& MODRRN HISTORY.^PERIOD X. commencement of this period, there was no war of any con- sequence, till that of the Pragmatic Sanction, which was aii engagement of several powers, to secure the Austrian domi- nions to the female children of the emperor Charles VI., iii case of the failure of male issue. § Charles VI. died without male issue, 1740. The house of Austria, in the male line, thus became extinct, after it had governed Austria for several centuries, and the whole of the Austrian dominions now belonged to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the emperor. She was accordingly raised to the Austrian throne ; but the neighbour- ing powers, regardless of their engagements, supported the duke of Bavaria, in his claim to the crown. After much opposition, the lat- ter was invested with the imperial dignity, in 1742, under the name of Charles VII. ; but this prince, worn out by a complication of bodily complaints, and by a long train of misfortunes, died two years ' afterwards. In the mean time, the queen, though nearly overwhelm- ed by her numerous adversaries, finally triumphed over them, and at the peace of 1748, was confirmed in the possession of her domi- nions, and her husband, duke of Lorrain, under the title of Francis I., was raised to the imperial throne. 10. Francis I., was crowned at Frankfort, in 1745. He continued the war till 1748, when the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle was concluded, and Maria Theresa obtained the succes- sion of her father. She had all the time been sustained by the affection of her subjects, and had received important aid from Great Britain. During the reign of Francis, the " seven years' war," the fiercest that had hitherto been waged in Germany, took place ; but of this, an account has been given iriltre history of Prussia. § Maria Theresa, as heiress to the Austrian dominions, was queen of Hungary and Bohemia ; and as the wife of Francis, was empress of Germany. She was a woman distinguished for her heroism, in- telligence, felicity of temper, and captivating condescension. As a wife and parent, she was unrivalled ; she was blessed with a nume- rous and amiable progeny, and left her possessions to a son, who was worthy of the empire. She built hospitals, encouraged com- merce and science, and did every thing which humanity and muni- ficence could devise to render her infirm soldiers comfortable. 11. Joseph II., the son of Francis and Maria, succeeded to the empire, in 1765. He seized Bavaria, on the deilh of Maximilian II., the elector, 1777 ; inade war two years with Prussia ; reformed the church of Germany, indulging the protestants with the imperial protection, and curtailing the authority of the court of Rome ; dismantled the fortified towns in Brabant ; restrained the excesses of the clergy in I GERMANY. 279 that country, and carried on a disastrous war against the Turks. During that war, he died. He maintained the cha- racter of a most equitable and tolerant prince. § Joseph promulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the press, which had been, hitherto, much circumscribed in the Austrian dominions. He even permitted, that all strictures upon the throne itself might be published, with full security, provided they did not descend to the character of libels and pasquinades. " If they be founded in justice," said he, " we shall profit by them ; if not, we shall disregard them ;" a remark well worthy of his character and dignity. It was during the reign of Joseph, that a series of unfavourable seasons, had occasioned a general dearth of corn, which was more or less felt in all the countries of Europe ; but in parts of Germany, the scarcity was so great, that vast numbers of people actually pe- rished, and the peasants, in many places, were compelled to unthatch their cottages, to supply the want of provender for their cattle. They themselves, in some instances, subsisted on the bark of beech and alder, mixed with a quantity of spice. A part of this time, terrible inundations overspread the country ; several districts were totally ruined by a flood of the Elbe ; Hamburgh was in a most critical situation ; and the great suburb lying towards the Elbe, was so com- pletely covered with water, that only the tops of the trees were dis- cernible. , 12. Leopold II., brother of Joseph, was invested with the empire, in 1790. Though powerfully solicited to arm against the revolutionists of France, his moderation and prudence kept him aloof from the vortex ; but a speedy death cut short the promise of much excellence. At the time of his death, however, he was preparing to take the field against France. § After the " seven years' war," the Germanic body remained in comparative quiet, till the French Revolution. During that period, up to the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, Germany suffer- ed more than most other nations. Its territory was the theatre of most of the wars that were waged during the great struggle. This country, however, had been eminently prepared to experience the evils which such an event was calculated to produce. The Germans embraced the fashionable prevailing system of anarchy and irreli- gion, with almost the same ardour which characterized the French themselves ; and their country was early inundated with the deadly .publications which proceeded from the school of atheistical disor- ganizfe'rs. In nearly all the wars of the revolution, and of the subsequent period, Austria has had a share. She has generally been arrayed against France, and often been beaten. In the production of such a result, some have been disposed to ascribe more to French intrigue, than to the superiority of the French soldiers, or generals, over those of Austria. The archduke Charles, brother of the present emperor, 280 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Francis II., has often shown himself not inferior to any of the com manders of his time. 13. Francis II., son of Leopold, was crowned in 1792. He has proved to be a prince of mild virtues, and is much re- spected. He prosecuted the contemplated war with the French republic ; but it proving unsuccessful, he concluded the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, by which, the Nether- lands were ceded to France. This was the first in that series of hostilities, which distinguished that period of convulsion. 14. Hostilities were renewed in 1799, in Italy, on the part of Austria, assisted by Russia ; for it was evident to the Aus- trian sovereign, that France was bent on aggrandizement. The Russian forces w^ere commanded by Marshal Suwarrow. The war was carried on with great success, on the part of the Austrians and Russians, and the French were in a few months driven out of Italy. Much now might have been accom- plished for the salvation of Europe, had it not been for the jealousy w^hich the Austrian court felt towards their ally. § This jealousy was, without doubt, excited by the intrigues of France ; and the consequence was, that Paul, the Russian emperor, recalled his victorious troops. • Austria, left single-handed to sustain the contest, and meet- ing the enemy with scattered forces, suffered most severely in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Peace was concluded at Luneville, in 1801. This was the second war, and more humiliating to Austria than the former. § During the peace, Francis formed a numerous army, and fore- seeing the ruin of the German constitution, caused himself to be proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, in 1804. 15. The Austrian sovereign had been mortified too severe- ly, to remain contented at peace, A third warlike coalition was formed between Austria and Russia, against France, in 1805. But the destruction of an Austrian army, under Ge- neral Mack, and the fatal battle of Austerlitz, speedily ter- minated this war. The same year, the peace of Presburgh followed, in which the Austrian monarchy was far more hum-' bled than ever, by the loss of some of its most important pos sessions. § A part only of the emperor of Russia's forces, had joined those of Francis, when the battle of Austerlitz took place. To this im- prudence, was added the greater one, of risking an engagement without the assistance of the archduke Charles, who, at the distance ISEIIMANY. 281 «f only a few days' march, was hastening with a victorious army, X)f nearly one hundred thousand men. In 1806, several of the states of Germany were united under the name of the " Confederacy of the Rhine," of which Napoleon was acknowledged the head ; and in the course of the same year, Francis was compelled formally to resign the title of emperor of Germany, and to absolve the German states from their reciprocal duties towards the empire. § According to the terms of this confederacy, all those states of the ancient German empire, that did not accede to the act of federa- tion, were excluded from common protection. By this means, the French emperor united Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Burg, Darm- stadt, Nassau, Hohenzollern, &c., to the political interests of France, and, virtually, raised himself to the head of the German empire. 16. In 1809, Austria, for the fourth time, took the field against France. In this war, was fought the sanguinary battle of Essling, in which the French emperor, almost for the first time, was beaten in a regular field fight ; but re- ceiving a large reinforcement, he crossed the DanulDe, from which he had been driven back, and fought the long and ob- stinate battle of Wagram. This battle, lost by Austria, ter- minated the war, and the conditions of peace were soon after settled by the treaty of Vienna, according to which, Francis was obliged to relinquish a further portion of territory, and consented to bestow his eldest daughter and child, Maria Louisa, on the emperor of France. § In this war, the Austrians had taken wiser measures than before. Their best commanders were in the field ; the archduke Charles, as- sisted by the archduke John, the prince of Lichtenstein, and the prince of Schwartzenburg. The whole strength and resources of the empire were held in requisition ; but Austria had become essentially weakened, and really less a match for France than ever: and, be- sides, the French emperor was in advance of the Austrian. Antici- pating the event of a declaration of war, he was soon prepared for action, and joining his army, marched at once into the heart of Ger- many. So expeditious was the French emperor, that forty-five days after the declaration of war by Austria, the battle of Essling was fought below Vienna. 17. In 1813. Austria engaged in a fifth war with France, having united its forces with those, of Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, and almost all Europe, in the invasion of France, in obtaining possession of Paris, and in dethroning Napoleon. On this occasion, the emperor accompanied the army, which iwas commanded by the prince of Schwartzenburg. Then .24* 282 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. was gained the celebrated battle of Leipsic, which produced the overthrow of Napoleon. The whole allied forces were, in this battle, principally commanded by Schwartzenburg. § When this junction of the greatest part of Europe was formed, Napoleon had just returned from Russia, having lost his great army, composed in part of troops of many European nations, then his tri- butaries. Austria, at first seemed reluctant to take the field, proba- bly on account of its family alliance. A remembrance of former sufferings may also have had its effect. But, though late, the assis- tance of Austria was very eflicient. It was on hearing of the issue of the battle of Leipsic, which was announced by Schwartzenburg himself, to the emperors of Austria and Russia, and to the king of Prussia, that these three sovereigns, "Who were viewing the battle from a distant hill, on horseback, im- mediately dismounted, and, on their bended knees, offered a tribute of thanks to the God who had crowned their arms with victory. 18. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, in 1815, Au- stria, for the last time, combined with the other powers of Europe, to dethrone him, and succeeded. At this time, a new union was formed by the states of Germany, designed to secure its future tranquillity, under the title of the Ger- manic Confederation. This was signed at Vienna, by its sovereigns and free cities ; and it is to be hoped that, as it lias done hitherto, so it will continue to prove, a powerful pieservative against the renewal of those wars, domestic and foreign, of which German}^ has so often been the cause and the victim. § In the new order of things, which succeeded the downfal of the French emperor, Austria manifested a due regard to the rights of the Germanic body, as appears from the nature of the confederation above noticed. The several states have been reinstated, as far as possible, in their former possessions, and Francis is now acknow- ledged, as formerly, the emperor of Germany. Shortly after, another union, of a more doubtful character, was formed between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of Prussia, to which they gave the name of the Holy Alliance. The object, in a great measure, seems to have been to confirm their own power, and to suppress any effort, on the part of their subjects, to obtain liberal constitutions. The improper views of this confederacy, were openly displayed on the occasion of the Neapolitan revolution. A congress of the three sovereigns, in 1821, issued a manifesto against Naples, in which they plainly avow their hostility to every form of improve- ment. To enforce their views, an Austrian army marched towards the territories of Naples. This alliance may, at the present mo- ment, be considered as virtually dissolved. POLAND. 883 POLAND. 19. Poland, which existed in independence, during a part of the present period, was a nation of some importance, for several ages ; but we feel little interest in its history, till nearly the memorable era when it was blotted out from the list of nations. Its fine situation, and rich natural resources, are strikingly contrasted with its wretched government and institutions; nor can we, perhaps, find a spot on the globe, where, with so many physical means of securing felicity, a civilized people are found, that have been involved in greater miseries. Its former government, which partook of all the diflferent kinds, with a pecuharly strong infusion of aristocracy, and with a weak executive power, was wholly inadequate to the administration of justice, or the maintenance of peace. Weakness, anarchy and crime within, and injustice, trea- chery, and oppression on the part of others, without, consti- tute a great portion of the history of Poland. Yet its in- habitants were not without some striking and noble charac- teristics. They were a brave and martial people. Amidst their degradation, they cherished the love of liberty in an eminent degree. Till the first division and plunder of Poland, in 1772, we find a long list of kings up to the year 842, A. C But we can record the names of a very few only. § Poland is denominated by the natives, Poloka-; which is a Scla- vonian word, signifying a level or champain country. Such is the surface of Poland. In the history of its sovereigns, we notice the name of Lech V., who is here introduced for the sake of a singular maxim, which he used to utter, and which must be very convenient to a king. " A sovereign is not bound to observe his oath, except when neither his safety nor his advantage requires that he should violate it." His reign, it is said, was the most inauspicious in the annals of the na- tion. Cassimer III., the Great, formed a new code of laws, which he committed to writing ; for, before his time, the Poles had only oral traditions. This was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Cas- simer is said to have been a model of integrity, wisdom and pru- dence. Sigismund I., whose reign began in 1506, was one of the most accomplished monarchs that ever sat on the throne of Poland. In his epitaph, which was not composed in the language of exaggeration, 284 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. he was styled the " conqueror of the Russians, Wallachians, and Prussians," and obtained the still more honourable appellation of the " father of his country." He applied himself to the improvement of the manners of his subjects, by inspiring them with a taste for the arts and sciences, and fortified and embellished the cities. No Polish monarch was more distinguished, on the whole, than John Sobieski, who ascended the throne in 1674. Many of the rulers of Poland were foreigners, but Sobieski was a native, elected on account of his eminent virtues, and military talents. He was particularly distinguislied by his wars with the Turks, and his vic- tories over them. The assistance which he rendered to the house of Austria, when Vienna was besieged by an army of 200,000 men, has been mentioned in another place. He died in 1696, leaving his country in prosperity and peace. Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen as the succes- sor of Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. The fac- tious nobles, who had been kept in awe under Sobieski, were un- willing to place any one of his family on the throne, and thus showed themselves unworthy of such a sovereign. Augustus made war against Charles XH. of Sweden, mistaking utterly the character of his ene- my. Being defeated and overcome, he was dethroned, and Stanislaus, through the influence of Charles in the diet of Warsaw, was elect- ed to fill his place, in 1704. After the ruin of Charles, at Pultowa, Augustus was restored to the throne, and in 1773, was succeeded by his son Frederick Augustus II., after an interregnum of eight months. The reign of the latter was generally tranquil and peaceable, though both before and afterwards, the kingdom was in a very unquiet state, owing to political and religious controversies, as well as foreign wars. Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, elected in 1763, was the last king of Poland. He was the creature of Catharine of Russia, placed on the throne, more by the influence of her armies and treasures, than by the free consent of the Polish nobles ; and in the subsequent difficulties of his reign, was unable to manifest the independence of a sovereign. He was finally kept as an honourable prisoner, at Pe- tersburgh, where he died, in 1798. 20. In 1772, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which had, for some time, been secret- ly meditated, took place, to the utter astonishment of all Europe. This has been stigmatized as one of the most un- principled acts recorded in history. The pi-etexts of the plunderers, as set forth in their manifestoes, were various ; but they were doubtless encouraged to this act of violence, in consequence of the perpetual divisions in the Polish counsels, and the mutual animosities of the nobility. Indeed, they purposely increased the factions and difficulties in which the nation was involved. § Prussia laid the train of events, by flattering the Russians wills POLAND. 285 the idea of giving a king to Poland ; but not designing that Poland should sink into a Russian province, it was contrived on the part of Prussia, to make the Poles dissatisfied with their king. This was easily effected, and in the- course of two or three years, nothing could exceed the disorder, dissensions, and weakness of the kingdom. In this situation of affairs, when the Poles were prevented from vindi- cating their sacred rights, the unholy deed of partition was perpe- trated. Each party had previously agreed on its portion, the whole including nearly half of the Polish territory. The Diet was assem- bled, and surrounded by the partitioning powers, it could do no other- wise than sanction, by a legislative act, the crime which these powers had committed. In the division which was made, Frederick seized Polish Prussia, and a part of Great Poland ; the emperor of Austria, the kingdoms of Galicia and Ludomiria ; and Catharine, Polish Livonia, with a part of Lithuania. 21. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland; a new constitution was proclaimed, which opened to the middUng classes, the avenue to every employment ; and the crown, hitherto elective, was declared to be hereditary. This was done in an assembly of the people, Avith entire concord. But Poland, despoiled of half her territories, was weak ; and though the change was approved by all Europe, except Russia, the Poles were suffered to become the victims of the Russian empress, and eventually again of the Prussian and Austrian sovereigns. A new division was agreed on, in 1793, which included a considerable portion of the remainder of Poland. § Catharine first resented the act of the Poles in framing a new constitution, as it was wholly opposed to her ambitious views in re- gard to the remainder of Poland. Frederick William, though he at first expressed his approbation of the measure, yet finally, with un- blushing effrontery, consented, with the others, to act the royal plunderer. 22. Before, however, this second nefarious project could be executed, it became necessary to encounter the hazards of war. The spirit of the Poles was raised, and under the brave and patriotic Kosciusko, they resisted, for a time, the united force of their powerful enemies. But on the part of enfeebled Poland, numbers were wanting, which could not long be supplied by love of country and a desire of vengeance ; and Kosciusko, after making every effort that man could be ex- pected to make, was defeated and taken prisoner. Under the barbarous Suwarrow, Warsaw was captured and sacked. 286 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Ill attempting to defend it, nine thousand gallant Poles perished. § But the carnage which succeeded the .victory, was greater, and has forever tarnished the laurels of the Russian general. The houses were pillaged, women violated, children murdered, and thirty thou- sand victims fell a prey to a ferocity bordering on that of savages. Kosciusko, who originated from a noble family, had been a dis- tinguished officer in the United State^of America, during the war of the Revolution. The Poles elected him their general, and he proved worthy of their choice. Under more propitious circumstan- ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his freedom, and was favoured with a pension — an act on the part of the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized w^orld. Kosciusko has since been in America. 23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place in 1795, when the three powers appropriated it entirely to themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured ; the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey. At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. RUSSIA. 24. In the history of Russia, we find Catharine I., the wife of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in 1725. She reigned only two years, but with great ability, and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her people. § Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall- ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene- ral's kitchen, where Menzicoflf, one of Peter's favourites, saw and obtained her. Peter having met her at Menzicoff 's house, and being delighted with her understanding, at first made her his mistress, but afterwards married her. She obtained a comptete control over the emperor, by her singularly gay and cheerful temper, as well as by her respectful and kind attentions. 25. Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded her, in 1727. He reigned only three years, but his reign was a RUSSIA. 287 scene of peace and prosperity. He was extremely beloved by his people. § The succession, during several reigns after Peter the Great, seems not to have been regular, or fixed by any certain rules ; yet the prin- ces came to their thrones with little difficulty, and pursued the gene- ral features of that wise policy which Peter adopted. The great object constantly kept in view, was the advancement of civilization and knowledge among the people. 26. Anne, duchess of Courland, next ascended the throne, in 1730, the male line of the house of Romanow, to which Peter the Great belonged, having become extinct. She was a niece of that monarch. Her reign was glorious and happy, and comprised the war against Turkey, in 1736 ; the con- quest of the principal towns in Crim Tartary ; and the vic- tory of Choczim over the Turks,^n 1739. 27. On the death of Anne, Ivan, or John, only about two month's old, was elected emperor, 1740 ; but the next year a sudden revolution took place, by which the young prince was deposed, and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. There were strong points of resemblance between her and her father, and hke him, she seemed to possess an inherent capacity for reigning. She united benevolence with great political talents, and to her, Russia is indebted for much of its influence in the affairs of Europe and Asia. In 1757, her troops, in conjunction with those of Austria, entered upon " the seven years' war" against the great Frederick, and her part was so well acted, that had she hved, the Prussian mo- narchy would probably have been in jeopardy, as to its very existence. § Elizabeth founded the universities of Petersburgh and Moscow, and decreed a new code of laws, called Elizabeth's code. It is re- ported that a few years preceding her death, this princess indulged in the most unbounded intemperance and sensuality. 28. She was succeeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter ITL, son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his subjects, but they soon became disaffected towards him. He was found to be deficient in talents and strength of chcirac> ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted with him, and inspired with ambitious views, is supposed to have been 288 MODERN HISTORY.*— PERIOD X. the mover of the conspiracy by which he was dethroned and murdered, in the first year of his reign. § Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her political life with crime, she seems never afterwards to have been scrupulous as to the means with which she executed her plans. It was by the help of her paramour Orloflf, that she arrested the em- peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave him poisoned brandy to drink, and then strangled him. 29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com- bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly denominated " the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was briUiant and long, and at o^ce the admiration and terror of all Europe. Notrnthstanding the great extent of her empire, she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In her wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing less than the possession of the Ottoman throne in Europe — an object which Russia has ever since had at heart. § One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on with Turkey, cost her two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles ; while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and 200,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant. In this war, Ismail was the last town that surrendered. Twice were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed ; but at the third at- tack, they scaled the ramparts, forced their way into the place, and put to the sword all who opposed them. Fifteen thousand Russians purchased with their lives the bloody laurels of their leader, who wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, "The haughty Ismail is at your feet." 30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowitz, J 796, whose reign was the reverse of that of his mother, and who occupied himself with trifles. In 1799, he declared war against revolutionary France, and sent Suwarrow into Italy^ who met with great success till he passed into Switzerland, whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In 1801, Paul declared war against England, and obliged Sweden and Denmark to join ; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch was strangled, by some conspirators, who were officers in his court. I RUSSIA. 289 31. Alexander I., the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed m 1801, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those efforts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc- ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am- bition of Bonaparte, and in 1805, formed a coahtion with Austria, against the conqueror. He was able to effect a junction with only a remnant of the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and being attacked unexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia, but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half annihilated. Russia left alone on the field, maintained the contest witli the French emperor for a few months, durmg which several sanguinary battles were fought, without any decisive advantage on either side. At length the fatal battle of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit. In 1808, he engaged in a war with SAveden, in which Fin- land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostilities against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest W£is about to ensue, which was to decide the fate of a great part of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur in Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter. This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de- sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march against Russia, with all the force of the territories under his dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his views. "In that way," says Prof Heeren, "a storm of na- tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of the conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before the French, not without engaging in several bloody battles, in which the French were victorious, but by means of which they were continually weakened. At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides was 25 290 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French entered Moscow. But they entered it to witness its confla- gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived the French army of its expected winter, quarters. It was obliged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to annihilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded a nation. § Upon the invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been the case in the wars between Russia and Turkey. Alexander might have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had time to summon them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num- ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a miK lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only partially effected, yet there was a high moral preparation in the spirit, both of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be- ginning of the contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun- ished, all orders of the people manifested the most determined pur- pose to resist the enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in- spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse- cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God of armies. The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat- tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, of speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wilna was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus- sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux- iliaries besieged Riga, and the Austrians were manoeuvering in Vol- hynia. Smolenk was stormed and destroyed, August 18th; after which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After the battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th . and 15th. In the Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his e^teedition, and the grave of his greatness. Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for such a drama demanded such a catastrophe ; but in its pillars of fii-e, the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a wasta " The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the campaign is now beginning," was the reply of Koutousoff. A spee- RUSSIA. 291 dy retreat, before the beginning of the winter's cold, might, perhaps, have saved the army ; i)iit the pride of the conqueror disdained this measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were consumed to the ground, just as the fatigued and debilitated army ot the French entered it, needing repose and refreshm.ent, and an un- conquerable Russian army was before it, it was impossible for Na- poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and more bitter. The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never before recorded. 32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries of his empire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed tlic call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later, joined his standard. "From this time the storm of nations, which had gathered in the west, against the east, was 'to be turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup- tion was prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the case, it could not be long ere the subjugated nations should turn upon their failing master. Austria was the last to join the alliance ; her weight in the scale was decisive. The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought within a given space of time, and never were greater than some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin- ished the campaign, Heeren says, " If the mass of combat- ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first battle of modern times, its consequences do so no less." The way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of ^ the French emperor. Accordingly, in the beginning of the year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon. The renown of Alexander was now complete, as the provi- dential deliverer of Europe. § This prirfce deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas 1. The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Europe, from the grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter- ed upon nis reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action all his fecuities^ Though inferior to his great antagonist in nativp 292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. intellectual power, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns, the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him. He appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in- dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called truly religious. The most inexplicable part of his character, in a moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices. Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros- perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene- mies, the Turks ; and although the present is the second campaign, they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat- ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have, of late, been reported ; but it is altogether probable, that other cam- paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia, should the other great powers of Europe suffer the contest to con tinue. ENGLAND. House of Brii7isiDick. 33. George I., Elector of Hanover, had been proclaimed king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the commencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place without the least opposition, tumult, or sign of popular dis- content. It was protestantism that gave the house of Brunswick the throne, and it was protestantism that was to preserve it to them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil- ham III., modified according to the circumstances of the times. Thus harmony was estabhshed between the nation and the government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was fof a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these maxims to be forgotten. * Since the above was penned, a series of splendid victories has attended the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been concluded be- tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks. ENGLAND. 293 The natural consequence of this policy was, the fall of the tory ministry, which had made itself more than suspected by its conduct towards the pretender, and the restoration of the superiority of the whigs. § George I., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year of his age, when he ascended the throne. The Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the son of James II. His exchision from the throne affected the pubUc tranquiUity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to- ries, and in Scotland ; but the several attempts which they made in his behalf, were ineffectual ; his intrigues were detected ; his forces were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels were captured and executed ; but the chevalier had the good fortune to escape to France. 34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com- mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na- tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this scheme, it was believed possible speedily to perform by art, what can be the result only of continued exertion — the liqui- dation of the public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin. As the English government, however, allowed itself no des- potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund, which only needed a better administration, to effect its object. § The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo- narch, but he was less popular than he might have been, had he staid more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi- nions. He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the 68th year of his age. 34. George II., succeeded his father, 1727, and, hke him? favoured the whigs, and was strongly attached to his German possessions. His character was that of an active, intelligent prinCe, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His administration of affairs was generally equitable, and satisfac- tory to the people. A period of peace, during ten years, in the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length, occasion was found for collision with Spain, and war was declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744, England declared war against France, and assisted Maria 25*- 294 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Theresa, of Austria, in the war of succession. In this public contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fon'enoj^ were fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the latter in favour of the French. The British king command- ed, in person, his army on tlie continent. § The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this part of the reign of George II., as also during the principal part of the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his- toric professor of Gottingen says, "that without the restless ac- tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor- thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time, when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled him in a web of negociations and relations ; from which, only an island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others, however, speak of him as distinguished for the system of corruption and venality which he practised in his administration. 35. During the absence of the king on the continent, the rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an effort made by the son of the old pretender, for the British throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XY., and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, he met with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more attempts to take possession of the sceptre which they had lost. In 1755, war was renewed between France and England, on account of encroachments made on the British territories in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate to the British ; but, at length, they met with signal success, and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the part of the French. It was in this war, that the brave Wolfe perished, having distinguished himself by the capture of the city of Quebec. p § In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance of General Wolfe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous station in the front of the line, he had been aimed at by the enemy's marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker- chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the grenadiers, another ball, unfortui? ately, pierced the breast of this ENGLAND. 296 young hero, who thus fell at the moment when victory was annoim- ced. His death was mourned as a national loss. 36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were trium- phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of his age, and in the 34th of his reign. 37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him in 1760. He was then in his eighteenth year, and swayed the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as a period of important events, and of the nation's advance- ment in power, wealth, commerce, and the arts. The re- sources of the British, in their great contests, during tliis reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible. George III. commenced his reign at a favourable period, when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and when Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis- ters, administered the government. His ministry, which be- gan under the former reign, continued from the 20th of Octo- ber, 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761. § " What five years !" says Heeren. " By the greatness of his own character, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle. 38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by the ministry towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities, which ended in the separation of the colonies from the mother country. This colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo- quence of Chatham was arrayed against the unjust and op- pressive measures of the British parhament. But his coun- sels were overruled, and after a long and distressing conten- tion with the American states, Great Britain acknowledged their independence in 1783. Thus was laid the foundation of a great and rising empire in the new world, which bids fair, in time, to rival the most renowned nations of Europe, and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party spirit had become general and violent in Great Britain, and produced frequent changes in public men and measures. § In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an alliance with the American government, and took part in the con- tention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions 296 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000, sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit was equal to every effort, 39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex- tension of the British possessions in India. The British East India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar and part of Orissa, a large and flourishing country, contain- ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great addition, as the fruits of several wars, which the Company had with the natives. Hyder Ally, and afterwards Tippoo, his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to tlie British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to superior prowess. § Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seringapatam, the capital of Mysore, was taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain. 40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union, in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, were also important events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi- pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution had at this time aflfected. The Act of Union was the favour- ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of the British empire. From the danger of the separation of Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par- hament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were lesa scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both houses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object, the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the union, however, have been mutually advantageous. § A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a long time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by the countenance which the government of France had given to cer- tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at^ tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire- land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets were either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British admirals, Duncan and Warren. In the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such ENGLAND. 297 a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc- casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit- ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to America. 41. The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish- ed, by the wars which grew out of .the French revolution. This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in the history of France, commenced in 1 789. It threatened in its consequences, the overthrow of all established govern- ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civilized world. From the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the Bourbons, hi 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other equal portion of time, since it has been known in history. § The government of Great Britain, early conceiving a just alarm for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in their turn, the tyranny and ambitious views of France ; but Great Britain only pursued the object with undeviating constancy, and with a just conception of the character of the common enemy. Wil- liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then at its head. Under his auspices, after various vicissitudes of disap- pointment and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not, perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against her at times ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis- heartened, that she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land, wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in the former part of the war, were made on the sea. Here Nelson, the first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Trafalgar, and almost annihilated the maritime power of the continent. In the latter part of the contention, Wellington conquer- ed the armies of France, at Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo. An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803. But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the safety of the British government, while the emperor of France seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. The war was accordingly renewed ; and though, on the part of the French, the invasion of England was threatened, and her commerce was designed to be ex- cluded from the whole continent, yet one of the projects was aban- doned, and the other proved fruitless. In the battle of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the ma- 298 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition The French fleet had every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap tured nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805, the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con- sisting of thirty-three ships of the line. His own force amounted to twenty-seven ships of the line. Nineteen of the French and Span- ish ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently, the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng- lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex- posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he M^as point- edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound. 42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy in the United States of America. The long depending dis- putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights, terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu- ted, inasmuch as the affairs of Europe engrossed the attention of the British ministers, Avas, nevertheless, marked by uncom- mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814. 43. During the last ten years of the reign of George TIL, he was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity. In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re- gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pttrsued the course which had been adopted by his royal father. § The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver- sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re- questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This ten- der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties, and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho- noured and beloved, as the father of his people. His natural endow- ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti- vated mind. His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto, generally reigned in peace and prosperity The only war of any consequence which has occurred during his reign, is that which was carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pos» FRANCE. 299 sessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction of a considerable part of the Burman empire. To the above we may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia. FRANCE. House of Bourbon. — Revolution. — Napoleon. — Boairhons restored. 43. The successor of Louis XIV. was a great grandson, who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XY., at the age of five years, 1715 A. C. Contrary to the will of the old king, his nephew, Phihp of Orleans, obtained the regency. § Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans was regarded as more profligate than he actually was, and the long continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor- ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency, and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time. It was during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt to pay off" its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis- sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse- quence for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re- paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of the go- vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this time, no paper money could be issued in France, under the old con- stitution. The French financial system was ever after in an unset- tled state. 44. The minister whom Louis chose soon after he came of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi- nistration, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu- red tranquillity to France, and was beneficial to Europe. The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness of his people. He was at first styled well-beloved by them, but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering epithet. § Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran- ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen- tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his government was a government of mistresses. The last epoch of his reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically d^ nominated the iron age. He became insensible, not only to the disgrace and ruin of his state, but to the loss of his nearest and 300 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter part of his life. It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn, which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex- travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain, that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis, particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which he carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy, on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things which followed under his unfortunate successor. The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du- ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French people, in consequence of the ambitious wars of the one, and the profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ? 45. Louis XVL, who was grandson of the late king, as- cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His situation, from the first, was critical and dangerous, beyond the common lot of kings. W^ith a temper fitted to make a people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calcvdated for the evil days on which he was fallen, w^hen his subjects were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas- ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor. § Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He early made some removals from office, that were designed to be po- pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgot, Necker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the finances. After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen- dence, and the consequent great increase of her debt, her financial situation became alarming, and demanded attention. The disclo- sures and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con- vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such as the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the church ; the despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine- quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and odious privileges of the nobility and clergy ; the notions respecting liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and especially the progress of philosophy, freethinking, and atheism, ^ which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, so effectually aided. These, and perhaps other causes combined, threw a great m. FRANCE. 301 nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the world. A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized nations, very different from any which ever existed before. " The contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor Heeren, " calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide with what name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a century ; probably, the constitutional ; for the struggle after regular but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole confusion." 46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution which was now about to burst forth. Suffice it to say, that the operations of government being nearly suspended for want of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem- bly of the notables, next the parliament, and afterwards, the parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected by their measures. At last, the convocation of the states-gene- ral, May 5th, 1789, was resorted to ; but difficulties arising betW'een the branches of which it was composed, the popular branch soon declaied themselves the representatives of the people, an*d constituted the National Assembly. Concihatory as the language of the king had been, the measures of this body were dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives. The revolution, properly speaking, began with the destruc- tion of the ancient prison of the state, the Bastile, 14th July, 1789. This was followed by other excesses on the part of the populace, till Paris became a field of blood. § The States General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy, and the " tiers etat" or commons. With the commons, a small portion of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national assembly. When this measure was adopted, there actually remain- ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family were obliged to yield to the popular feeling, which demanded their removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with difficulty preserved from violence, v/hich the mob seemed inclined to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his flight was intercepted. The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit- tings, in the Avork of reform, was manifested by several important acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights— the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions — the suppres- sion of religious houses and vows— and the division of France into eighty-three departments. In the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti- cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As- sembly in so remarkable a degree. 26 302 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. . 47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791, which established the equaUty of all raiiKs, axt was other- wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacooms were clamorous for the abolition of royalty ; and accordingly, the regal government was abohshed, and France declared to be a republic, on the 21st of September, 1792. This was done by a new body, called the National Convention, on the first day of its meeting. The views of the enemies of royalty, were not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re- porter of the commune, "the right of justifying himself before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned on several charges brought against him, he was sentenced to suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on the 21st January, 1793. The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death, he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude. § Among the charges alledged against the king, were, his having supplied the enemies of France with money ; his being the author of the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusations against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner. The man who was the most influential in procuring the destruc- tion of the king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the blood, and a monster of Vv'ickedness. It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, as he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven." 48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror," as it has been denominated, commenced in France, under tlie revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ- ates. Factions soon arose in the Convention, and their mu- tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san- guinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France for a long tune was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be I described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and* noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary j fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of < f i v^ FRANCE. 303 one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, was at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel- ties which it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency, and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris- tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette, perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth, sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794. § The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific sway, was Robespierre, with his villanous accomplices, at first Dan- ton and Marat, and afterwards GoUot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes, Coultlion, and St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes- pierre in the Convention, called the Girondin, fell under his ruth- less domination. Among them was the infamous Orleans. He smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was, that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day. On his wa}^ to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude, whose contemptible idol he had so long been ; and perished with- out the smallest remorse of conscience. Robespierre and his party, Avere at length put down, and of all the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as- sociates. 49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795, Oct. 26th, the Conv^ention closed its sittings, having been the means, in all probability, of more human suffering than any otlier deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the executive power was vested in a Directory of five, and the legislative power in two Councils. 50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re- lations of France were seriously atfected. The republic had waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu- larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis and his government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger, from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore 304 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu- merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape fiom the scene of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve- ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub- lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest country in Europe, into a dependency of France, and inva- ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that alone, without allies, it had at command, one million of fight- ing men, in the year 1794. 51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799, when the executive power was vested in three consuls, of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres, and the third Le Brun. The Directory had been in several instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de- signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see, did effectually re- store, the energy of the government. The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op- posed to France directed against that country, are termed coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France, there were six of these coalitions with which she contended ; two under the former character, and four under the latter. In these combined efforts, all the nations of Europe were, at one time or another, engaged. The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad- verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain, and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved. § William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations. " He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger, and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated with political maxims. " \Miatever could be accomplished by gold and perseverance, he accomplished." This war was not merely a conflict of arms, but of clashing elements. An express decree of the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the people, in every country which its armies should subdue. The nature of the warfare carried on by the combined powers, aroused in France a resistance of despair. This called forth, as has already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its FRANCE 305 vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous and fearful than a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier. The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some of the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany, withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together by British gold. A foreign conmierce, embracing every quarter of the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth, which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de- gree. The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in Germany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there- fore, became the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here, Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam- paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy, a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re- public. After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won- ders, \vas invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre- pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu- tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England, Even the great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, though that victo- ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France. 52. The second coalition was formed in 1799, by means of England and Russia. This wscs a consequence of the victo- ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some other powers, soon enga- ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the preceding. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrahty. Un- der the mismanagement of the directorial government of France, one campaign gave the victorious allies, Italy, Sw^it- zei'land, and Germany ; l^nt they were headed by the able archduke Charles, and tlie dreaded Suwarrow. § A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given, ag here a convenient place is found. That country, in the heart of Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti- cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv- ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of the French re- volution. This country became agitated, and the revolution began iothe Pays de Vaud, December, 1797. The evils of the federal consti- 26* 306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tutioii were disclosed ; there was a want of unity, and the burden at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798, and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller. These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation. The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer- land was, that the Helvetian Republic was proclaimed, April, 1798. Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter- ed constitution. It was at the critical period, when the success of the allies, and their approach towards the borders of France, excited such alarm for the fate of the repubhc, that Bonaparte returned from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial constitution. The directory ajjdicated ; the deputies of the people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over- awed ; tranquillity was restored; and new energy and life were infused into every department of the government. From this time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military force of the nation was put in a Ijetter train, and a series of victories and conquests commenced, which have no parallel in modern history. Before Bonapaite put himself at the head of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition, and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continent, feebly aided by Naples, and the south of Germany. The great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, besides many smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to the general peace of Amiens, 1802. This peace raised Bona- parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected first consul for life. At this epoch, he might have ruled Eu- rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself. Absolute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according- ly proclaimed emperor of France, in 1804, to which, the next year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation was brought about in consequence of a new war, which had com- menced the preceding year, and which is soon to be spoken of. § The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it was enjoyed only for a short time. This was to have been expected, when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition- ists, viz.tlie freedom of Europe, was farther than ever from being secured. Even England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected the deliverance of Egypt. This was with her, after the failure of FHANCE. 307 the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in 1800, by means of the successes of Abercrombie, and others. From the conflict which has been related, France had retired with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. This seemed to be the work of Napoleon, together with the rebuilding of the al- tars, and the establishment of religious liberty. The project of an universal monarchy, was now in a fair way of being realized. Such a project. Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in Europe ever had such resources at command. His sovereignty in the interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's sceptre ; the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger- man states on the Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart of the Prussian monarchy. 53. The third coalition against France, was formed in 1805, by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was its centre. A general rising of Europe ^vas, according to Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in- dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu- lations and divisions. England had been at w^ar with France nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens having continued between these nations scarcely a year. The coahtion was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was broken afUhn, and at Austerlitz, and the peace of Presburg followed, 26tli December, 1805. The expeditious movements of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the allies. § The war between England and France alone, which commenced in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the island of Malta, which is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that island, the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede these points. Tliough tliese nations were professedly at war, there were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great Britain swept from the ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re- stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. The first instance of a royal family being dethroned, by a bare proclamation, occurred at Naples ; and Bonaparte, by placing his el- der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do- minion of his family in Europe. 308 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Ill this war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutrality, was not to oe gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im- possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half of which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences, however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could not be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di- rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with- out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however, the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace, the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with England and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn- ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi- nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since Russia had not wholly retired from the field. 54. A fourth coalition, as it may perhaps be numbered, was soon matured, 1806, which included Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, Avhicli began the war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is- sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British islands. The conqueror^s army passed into Poland, and the war was thus transferred from the banks of the Soal, to those of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de- fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and Friedland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive, and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th July, 1807. Peace was concluded two days after witli Prussia, b)'' which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and countries against British navigation and trade. All wag now French law or influence throughout continental Europe, and all was made to bear against Britain. § By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush- ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace. FRANCE. 309 England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of Denmark, and effected its surrender, by the bombardment of Copen- hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to Sweden. The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council, which prohibited every ship from entering any French port, or any port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com- modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscated, without respect ot owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe and the Weser, and by the Order in Council, declaring in blockade, all ports from which the British flaj,' was excluded, and that all ships proceeding thither, should be captui ed., unless they had touched at a British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree ot Milan, by which every ship which should submit to these conditions, was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow- ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon- tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could not subsist under the operation of such nieasures. Industry was fatally paralized. 55. Napoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wished to enlarge the dominion of his family, by appropriating to his remaining brothers, the thrones of Portugal and Spain. Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu- rat, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king- dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made king of Holland, and Jerome, king of Westphalia. His de- sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean. Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi- grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time, by his having artfully secuied the person of the Spanish mon- arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808. This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a poHtical fault on the pait of Napoleon ; the first fatal step which he took, towards his subsequent downfal. He had already the con- trol of Spain, by his influence. " It was done without a knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur- rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it gave England a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that 310 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. the people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it was destined to give freedom to another quarter of the globe." The British, who were called to the aid of Spain, in connex- ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808, to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English- Spanish troops were generally victorious. Here " the Marl- borough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career. The French were eventually driven out of the country. 56. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new, greater, and more formidable Avar. That was the war with Russia, in 1812 ; a war which decided the destiny of Europe. It is unnecessary to repeat what has already been said con- cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia. 57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con- flict also, no particular mention need be made here, since the details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that the allies carried the war into the heart of France — that after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital, France was conquered, because in France, the capital is every thing. 58. The results of these successes of the allied powers, were important, and great changes took place. The situa- tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated the throne of France, and was removed to the island of Elba. His mighty empire, reared by a military despotism, fell into ruins. And Louis XVIIL, after an absence of twen- ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession of his rightful throne. § Bonaparte had it in his power, while the alhes held a congress at Chatillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis- fied with ancient France. But it was fortunate that he demanded too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister, Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats , in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proposed the 4 deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless! attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falliug throne 1 FRANCE. 311 having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himself and his heirs, 1st April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba, which he received Mdth full sovereignty, with a pension of two and a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard of four hundred men. Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and finally England. The same month that restored to France her king, beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones, ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII. to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin. 59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had been so completely subverted, a General Congress was as- sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of the crowned heads of Europe were present, united in peace as in war, with a long and splendid Ust of princes, ambassadors, and ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and important deliberations, an event occurred which was the cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers. " The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part, but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever. Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an unparralleled adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im- perial throne. A temporary confusion ensued, but the result proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the IStb Jiuie, 1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust. § The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on his throne. In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina- ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of tiie throne. He landed at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, hf; reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs. No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to liuve been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did, rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en- thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a time; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure ]\U influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he seems to have been swayed by them. So much the more energeiic were his warlike preparations — he could now indulge nohope«»f .peace. It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return. 312 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD JL. reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin- gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri- tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active, and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15th June, 1815. He first met " the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny, who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th June, with a great su- periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at evening, when Blucher appeared With his auxiliaries, at the right crisis, and decided the battle. Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to a British ship of the line ; but instead of being permitted to land in England, as he wished, he w^as transported to the island of St. Helena, Oct. 16th, and was detained as a prisoner of war till his death, which happened 5th May, 1821. Thus " on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost unnoticed, the man, whose name but a short space before, had filled the world. His plans were wrecked ; from the thraldom, which he was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than one quarter of the globe. Unknown to himself, he was but the in- strument of a higher power ; for his objects were not its objects. Whatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his- tory can view him only from this point." He was the author of several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes, not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur- chased at too dear a price— infinitely dearer than if he had taken Washington, and not Caesar, as his model. Like other great con- querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions, to his insatiable ambition. France, having been conquered the second time, by the second taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their expenses and sacrifices. She was left a great and a powerful nation, little less diminished in territory than after the first pacification, which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of their troops, to be supported at the cost of France. These troops, however, were all withdrawn long before the term agreed on, which was five years. # j Louis XVHI., whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineflS-f cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the Count d' Artois, under the appellation of Charles X. The princi- pal event of the reign of Louis, was the invasion of Spain, in 1823, SPAIN. 313 by a French army under the Duke d^ Angouleme, but without a declaration of war, in consequence of the decisions of the congress of Verona, in 1822. This unjustifiable act resulted in the overthrow of the Cortes ; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi- ately re-established. ITALIAN STATES. 60. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing importai>t occurred till the late convulsions, occasioned by the French revolution. The Italian states shared deeply in them, as has already appeared. It may be only added, that the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, decreed the subdivision of Ita- ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated witli arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre- pondei-ating power of Italy. SPAIN. 61. Philip v., the monarch of Spain, at the commence- ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera- tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reli- gion, aided l)y the natural indolence of the people. § In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia; but the next year invaded Sicily, without success. 62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren of those events Avhich usually furnish matter for history. The indolent and effeminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi- nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the family compact, betw^een France and Spain ; the union of these nations against England, in the American war ; and their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar. § In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi- nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boats, bomb-vessels, battering ships, military stores, and ammunition. In- deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king- dom, were assembled to aiford requisite assistance, and the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line, 27 314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the fort, and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can- non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it. but the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might have been expected, while that of the Spanish and French was im- mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in- creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege. 63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his fatlier, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo- narch. In 1792, he entered into a league against the French republic, but being defeated, he united with France against Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer- dinand VII. dethroned his fether. The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue, afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal- ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the purpose of defeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al- ready given concerning France. § Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, she has lost her colonies in South America anarchy and internal war, quisition, she has been doomed to bear^ Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. Its situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp- er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the adherents of the regular government. The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under John, duke of Braganza, in 1664, to the time of the French revolu- tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. » Since the latter period, the incidental notices which have been given J of its affairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese i THE NETHERLANDS. 315 are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost most of what they used to hold in Asia. THE NETHERLANDS. 64. The history of the Netherlands, under the name of Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as constituting an independent nation, was the most important portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi- tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages preceding the French revolution, their commerce was exceed- ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently extensive, and they had numerous coUisions with their great rivals, the British, who were destined j at last^ far to surpass them in riches and naval power. , *^€! Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was appaient, that the Dutch were falling from their high eleva- tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of wealth, had, in a degree, affected this excellent people ; and their spijit, which would otherwise have been invinciye, yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm; at tlie era of the revolution. The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have often changed masters. They were swallowed up eventually in the great political vortex, to which reference has been so frequently made. § No space remains for an account of the stadtholders of Holland, since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve- ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it has been held by the princes of the house of Orange. 65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the French, in 1795, and the stadtholder and his family were obhged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed and plundered by the French, and the melancholy spectacle was presented, of ruined commerce and civil discord, with an 316 MODERN HTSTORV. PERIOD X. incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re- volutionary wars, in which she was involved. In 1814, the prince of Orange was recalled, and Flanders being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as- sumed the title of king of the Netherlands. § The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected with the fate of the Belgic, no less than the Batavian provinces, ap- peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa- ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the union of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by the Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted thf royal title, and gave them a free constitution. TURKISH EMPIRE. 66., In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences of a rapid decUne, from about the commencement of the present period. The people have been extremely depressed, and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of Europe. Some changes have very recently been effected, The discipline of the army has been improved, and the an- cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government and its master, has been broken up by the present energetic Sultan. Yet the empire, as it respects European dominions, is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca- reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that people, it has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its territories, and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms. At the commencement of this period, Achmet III. was the reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time, ♦ By the late treaty of peace, which the Sultan ratified, on the 20th Septem- ber, 1829, European Turkey is nominally preserved in independence ; but the terms of pacification were so favourable to Russia, that the latter enjoys almost every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the country. TURKISH EMPIRE. 317 Ihere have been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet V., Osman III., Mustapha III., Achmet IV., Selim III., Mustapha IV., and Mahiiioiid II., the present sultan. § Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious and bloody war, which lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a fleet which sailed to the Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and de- clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inflicting the severest punishment on many of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the Turks. The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to Russia. Koutousotr greatly distinguished himself in this war, as did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona- parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to that country, which have been related in the history of France. Achmet, and also his successor, Mustapha IV., were deposed and murdered by the Janizaries. The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected with the French revolution, with the exception of the war with Rus- sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol- davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was more active in Arabia, against the Wechabites, than in Europe, the tranquillity of which it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself left in quiet. This, however, has not been suflfered to be the case, since the year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces- sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a ruinous war with Russia. The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An insurrection broke out simultaneously, in almost every section of the territory, and has been pursued on both sides, on the mainland, and on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent- ed suffering, Greece has become effectively free, by its own heroism, and the interference of Russia, France and England. The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber- ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, the Turks were driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex- ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por- tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrassed by the vindic- tive Turks, till lately, their contest with Russia, for their own exis- 'wence, has absorbed every other interest. 27* 318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. CHINA. 67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching^ of the twenty-second dynasty, occupied the throne of China. Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of tlie Tartars, had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang-hi. A revohition in China, which commenced in 1641, brought the Tartars a second time into power ; but they were not considered as set- tled, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty- second, or the present dynasty. The successors of Yong- Tching, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name of the present emperor is not known to the author of this w^ork. § In the reign of Yong-Tching, the Jesuits, who first penetra- ted into the empire, in 1683, were banished, and the christians were persecuted, not excepting those of the imperial family. In the reign of the same prince, also, an earthquake took place, at Pekin and its environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above 100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, and a still greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages and towns were destroyed. Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in the sixty-second year of his reign. It is said to have been a peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated British embassy, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a view to the establishment of a commercial intercourse between the two countries. An account of this embassy, has been written by Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations. Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire. He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned ^happily. The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con- spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them, is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among the Turks. PERSIA. 68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia, which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer- lane, and afterwards by the Sophis, had the famous Kouli PERSIA. 31^ Khan, or Nadir Shah, for its sovereign. He had been the general of Abbas III., his predecessor, whom it is supposed he poisoned, and thus supplanted the Sophia family. In 1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire, taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title of Emperor of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt- ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after which, in self defence, he was muWered in his tent, by his own officer. After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be- tween various rivals for the throne ; but the country, after being exhausted by these evints, settled itself under Kerim Khan, an able prince, of ^b^■.:lIre birth, who died in 1779. On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last ot his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern- ment to his sons. § The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revolution on ac- count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or Sophi, a religious enthusiast, restored or established the sect of All in Persia, whom he considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather than Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them from their enemies, the Turks, and being at the same time exempted from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced it in great numbers ; and Ishmael, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per- sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till ihe time of Kouli Khan. Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government, and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost considerable territory. INDIA. 69. The vast and populous country under the name of India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt- less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found, eould the modern historian have a fair opportunity of research ; but few have, as yet, appeared, and these in so detached a manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the events in Indian history. The mention of this country, sepa- rately from others, has accordingly been omitted till the pre- 320 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in an outline of general history, till very modern times. iThe few details that can be aflbrded, both of its earlier and later histo- ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it has been often and easily conquered, but without materially affecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus- toms. Successive dynasties have ruled over most of the ori- ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found them. So far back as ''authentic records carry us, we find among the people, little or no advances made in civilization, refinement, or knowledge. They are the same in indolence, effeminacy, and luxury, that they Avere two thousand years ago ; not ignorant, yet without a spirit of enterprise ; accom- plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others. § India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great, first invaded, though he did not conquer it, except in part. The country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell in the partition of Alexander's empire;* and Antiochus the Great, two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thitlier. The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khan, who is said to have given the name of Mogul, to India ; and subse- quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of which have been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy- ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan B^ ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat, and Bengal. Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than £35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked ninisters reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in- significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Khan, who annihilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv- ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said to exist. The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do- minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by the resi- dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French colonies in India. The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within the last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent, makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris- diction or influence, 776,000, and the population not less than eighty- UNITED STATES. 321 six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do- minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burman em- pire, in consequence of a war with the latter. The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, who reside at Calcutta. THE UNITED STATES. 70. The United States, which, at the beginning of this period, were in a colonial condition, assumed^ before the con- clusion of it, their separate and equal station among the na- tions of the earth. It was with them an era of great events, and the change from colonies to a state of independence, though it lay in the natural couise of things, was equally unexpected and instructive to the world. The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity, from the peace of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war breaking out betw^een Great Britain and France, America was involved in it, the result of which was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, a place of great strength. This con- quest was eflected principally by the troops of Massachusetts. The place, however, was restored to France, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. In 1746, a powerful French armament was sent agaijist America, but by means of shipwrecks, sickness, and other disasters, it providentially failed of its object. For several years, powerful efforts were made on the part of the Ameri- cans and British, against the places and forts occupied by the French, particularly Louisburg, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort du duesne, (Pittsburg,) and Niagara. Success eventu- ally attended the Americans and Britisli, and by the peace of Paris, in 1763, all the Canadas, toerether with Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Bretoi^^ v,cio confirmed to Great Bri- tain. George Washington, the future deliverer of America, first came into public notice during these contests. § In America, the long cherished democratic principles, realized by the constitutions of most of the provinces, a consequent weaker political connection with the mother country, and the feeling of growing strength, already tried in the seven years' war, were among the causes of the struggle after mdependence. Nothing was want- ing then but an occasion for a breach, and that could not long be wanting. 322 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 71. The origin of the dispute was not so much in any sensible oppression, as in a question of right. Had the Bri- tish parhament a right to tax the colonies ? Parliament main- tained the affirmative ; the colonies denied it, on the ground, that they were not represented. Representation and taxation, according to their views, were inseparable. If their property could be taken without their consent, they had no safety. § The dispute arose as early as 1764, occasioned by the stamp act, passed March 22d, 1765. Tlie immediate consequence, was a great commotion in all the colonies, especially in INIassachitsetts and Vir- ginia, and a congress was convened at New- York, in October, which published a declaration of the people's rights. The stamp act was repealed March 19th, 1766 ; but the principle was at the same time confirmed, by the bill, declaring the supremacy of the parUamenrt in all cases whatever. ' In agreement with the British doctrine, the ministry soon after attempted to effect its object by means of indirect duties. These were laid on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by the revenue act, June, 1767. The proceeds of these duties were to form a civil list for America, which should be wholly at the disposition of the ministers, for conferring remunerations, pensions, &c. The opposition to this form of taxation, and to every form, being renewed, especially in Boston, which was the centre of resistance, Lord North abro- gated these duties, except the one on tea, in 1770. By this reser- vation, the right of taxation was explicitly asserted ; but as the Americans, by voluntary agreement, would make use of no British c-ommodities, the tea which was brought to this country could not be sold. The East India Company consequently became em- barrassed ; and after the repeal of the export tax in England, at- tempted to gain the Americans by a cheaper price. But, neverthe- theless, measures were adopted to prevent the importation of tea, and a cargo of it was forcibly seized, and thrown into the harbour, in Boston, December 26th, 1773. 72. The measures adopted by the Americans, impelled En- gland to resort to severer acts. These consisted not only in shutting the harbour of Boston, but in res^ulations by which the charter of Massachusetts was annihilated. It was these regulations which created tlie general insurrection, since each colony now saw no securit}^ for its former constitution. The Boston port bill was passed March 25th, 1774, The town was soon occupied by the British troops. § Great harmony prevailed among the provinces, and a Congress was opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774, which resolved to sus- pend all commercial intercourse with England, expressing at the same time all dutifulness to the crown. England was thus brought o the alternative of making concessions, or a civil war. It chose the i UNITED STATFS. 323 latter, and notwithstanding the eloquence even of Chatham and Burke, parliament proclaimed the provincials, rebels. Hostihties began by the battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775. New troops ar- rived from England in May. It was hoped that a few regiments would be sufficient to put down opposition — so profoundly ignorant was the British ministry of the spirit which had been aroused in America ! The war, which rapidly commenced on the part of the colonies, by the fruitless expedition led by Arnold and Montgomery against Canada, in October, 1775, necessarily became, from its nature, a defen- sive war ; and who but the modern Fabius was capable of waging it ! " The greatness of Washington was not founded on splendid talents, but on laborious years ; not on quick success, but on enduring per- severance." 73. It was not long before the idea of an entire separation from England, suggested by the vindictive measures which that country had employed, found every where a hearty re- ception in America. In that event only, was aid to be hoped for in Europe. Accordingly, the thirteen United States were declared independent, 4th July, 1776. After this decisive step, but one happy blow was wanting to give the colonies alhes in Europe. This was done by the capture of Bur- goyne and his troops, on the 16th October, 1777. This joyful event had been preceded by a period of gloom and disaster in the middle states, while Washington, with the shadow of an army, enfeebled, dispirited, and destitute almost of clotl> ing and necessaries, was closely pursued by a powerful Bri- tidi force through the Jerseys — while the enemy had come in possession of the city of New -York, Long Island, Staten Island, and Rhode Island — and while the inauspicious opera- tions at Brandywine and Germantown, filled every American with terror. This sad picture, however, was relieved by the firmness of congress, by the unifoim cautious valour and steady perseverance of the commander-in-chief, — and by his successes at Trenton and Princeton. § Upon the capture of Burgoyne, the French court acknowledged the independence of the United States, and declared war against England. France had Spain and Holland for its allies, and the war on their part became at first a contest for the dominion of the ocean. On this element the French contended with more glory than usuaL But the fate of America, as the event has proved, was to be decided on the continent. 74. The countenance and aid which France oflfered to the cause of liberty, filled America with rejoicing : but Wash- 324 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. ington, however much assisted by the French auxiliaries under Rochambeau and La Fayette's generous enthusiasm, has the glory of having struck the decisive blow. He sur- rounded CornwaUis at Yorktown, who was forced to capitu- late, Oct. IQth, 1781 . After his capture, England could en- tertain no more hope of reducing America, and it required only a change of ministers to produce a peace, which was accordingly done. The independence of the United States was acknowledged by Great Britain, and prehminaries of peace were signed, 30th November, 1782, which were changed into a definitive peace, 3d September, 1783. The country adopt- ed its present constitution of government in 1789, which has been the source of unexampled prosperity. § The new republic at first languished under its liberty. The first constitution, which was formed during the war, created a federal government, without strength and without credit. But the constitu- tion of 1789, gave it a very desirable degree of solidity, and based the public credit on a system of finances for the union. Under this constitution, Washington was chosen the fir,st president, in which character he was no less essential to the welfare of the country than in that of a general. " The Union can, perhaps, be preserved only by having great men in the first olfices." This is the judge- ment of the liberal and learned Heeren. 75. Commerce felt the first great influence of the new re- pubhc, and almost all the maritime nations hastened to form treaties with it. The consequence was, that wealth and pros- perity poured in upon us apace. Seldom can a nation so increase, because it is seldom so favoured by circumstances. America, preserving its neutrality during most of the European maritime war, had such a vast carrying trade, especially be- tween the West Indies and Europe, that its commercial navigation was hardly surpassed by that of the British. But it was perhaps impossible for the United States always to continue on terms of amity with the belligerent powers. Disputes arose both with France and England, especially with the latter, who saw in America a formidable rival These disputes finally impelled the States to have recourse to the unexampled resolution of a voluntary suspension of their own commerce. This measure failing, a war ensued with England, which was declared, 18th June, 1812. In this contest, the young American navy gained a glorious distinction, the army did less ; the capital itself became the SOUTH AMERICA. 325 spoils of the English, but New-Orleans was defended with courage and success. The negociations at Ghent led, in a happy hour, to a much needed peace, 14th December, 1814. After Washington, 1789, John Adams was chosen presi- dent, 1797, his successor was Thomas Jefferson, 1801, James Madison succeeded him, 1809, James Monroe followed, 1817, then John Q,. Adams, 1825, (son of John Adams,) and the present incumbent of the high office is Andrew Jack- son, 1S29. § Amidst unexampled prosperity, party spirit has raged at tlmesj not without danger to the republic : but love of country has in the end prevailed. The war with England failed of its immediate ob- jects, but it shewed us our strength and our weakness, perhaps tend- ed to consolidate our union. It caused us to feel the necessity of a navy, and connected with the previous prohibitions of commerce, gave an impulse to our manufacturing industry. With the return of peace, our trade was diffused over every sea. By the purchase of Louisiana, tlie extent of our country from east to west, is the breadth of a continent. " Meanwhile internal improvement advan- ces; and the times are coming, when a man may travel with the mail from one ocean to the other." SOUTH AMERICA. 76. The provinces of South America, which were colo- nized by Europeans, continued, with little variations in their circumstances, from the time of their settlement, to the con- vailsions attending the French revolution. Those convul- sions, inasmuch as they affected the parent countries, also reached them. Within the present century they have be- come independent sovereign states, generally with republican governments, resembling that of North America. Brazil, belonging to the Portuguese, having ceased to be a colony, is styled by its ruler, an empire. The Spanish provinces had a long struggle for liberty and independence, which they have attained, so far as concerns the interference of the mo- ther country. If our information be correct, all of them have not yet agreed on permanent forms of government. Seven states are already enumerated among the free govern- ments of the South, viz., 1. Colombia ; 2. La Plata ; 3. Chili ; 4. Mexico ; 5. Peru ; 6. The capitania of Guatimala ; 7. Bolivia, formed out of the provinces of Upper Peru. § The struggle for freedom in the Spanish provinces, did not origi- 28 326 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. nate in the intention of an entire separation from the Spanish throne, but from resistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother. The insurgents were, therefore, no more rebels, than the Spaniards themselves. But they were as unwilling to be ruled by Spanish Juntas, as by their viceroys, in whom they could not confide. Like the Spanish, they established Juntas of their own, during the im- prisonment of their lawful king. Meanwhile, after the erection of the regency in the mother country, and after its refusal to comply with their just demands, they would not recognize its authority, nor that of the Cortez assembled by it ; upon this they were declared rebels. After the accession of Ferdinand VII., they had gone too far to retreat. His violence and insincerity finished the rest. Distinguished Characters in Period X. 1. Addison, an elegant English essayist and poet. 2. Newton, a most profound mathematician and pliilosopher. 3. Boerhaave, a skilful and learned Dutch physician. 4. Pope, an eminent English poet. 5. Swift, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer. 6. Montesquieu, a Frenchman, a great political philosopher. 7. Edwards, an illustrious American metaphysician and divine. 8. Hume, a Scotchman, an able historian, and an acute and skeptical wiiter. 9. Voltaire, a French poet and writer of great celebrity. 10. Linnaeus, a Swede, the father of botany. 11. Rousseau, a renowned Swiss philosopher, and fine writer. 12. Pitt, a distinguished statesman and orator. 13. Metastasio, the most illustiious poet of modern Italy. 14. Euler, a renowned Swiss mathematician. 15. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist. 16. Franklin, an American, a distinguished philosopher, and discoverer of electricity. 17. Gibbon, an eminent English historian. 18. Burns, a Scotch poet, a great untaught genius. 19. Burke, an Irishman, distinguished for eloquence and political knowledge. 20. Washington, an eminent statesman and warrior, and father of the American republic. 21. Cowper, a celebrated English poet. 22. Klopstock, a German poet of great repute. 23. Heyne, an eminent German critic and scholar. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 327 24. M. de Stael, a learned and accomplished French female writer. 25. D wight, a celebrated American divine and belles-lettres scholar, 26. Buonaparte, a renowned warrior, conqueror, and states- man. 1. Addison, (Joseph,) "so great in prose, so little in poetry,"* was the son of a clergyman, and born in 1672. He was educated at Ox- ford, where he so cultivated and improved his mind, by the compo- sition of Latin verses, that he acquired an uncommon correctness of style, and elegance of diction. His merits, as a writer, procured for him public employment, and he even became, in 1717, secretary of state ; a place, however, to which he was unequal, as he possessed neither boldness nor eloquence. He was unable to defend the measures of government in the House of Commons, and only wasted aAvay his time in his office, in quest of fine expressions. Late in life, he married the countess dowager of Warwick and Holland ; but if this event added to his elevation, it diminished his happiness, for she ever remembered her rank, and treated him with very little ceremony ; an emphatic warning against ambitious love. He died at the age of fifty-seven. The Spectator, of which the most admired pieces came from the pen of Addison, has immortalized his name. In that work, and in most of his other prose productions, he is remarkable for a delicate and gentle humour, and an entertaining seriousness. His style is admirable, for purity and ease ; and the idiomatic excellence of the English language, is seen in his pages, to the greatest advantage. Some have thought well of his poetry ; and his tragedy of Cato, ac- cording to the French notions, would be pronounced one of the best in the English drama. But others have a very different opinion of Addison's poetry, and at the present day, it certainly does not stand very high in public esteem. 2. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) the most illustrious philosopher and ma- thematician that ever lived, was born in 1642, and died in 1727. The place of his nativity, was Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire. Particu- lar care was bestowed on his education by his mother, for he early lost his father. At the age of eighteen, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and there he began to show the astonishing strength of his mind in the mathematics. At the age of twenty-two, he discov- ered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. His next pursuit was the grinding of optical glasses, for the improve- ment of telescopes, and soon after, connected with his investigation of the prism, followed his new theory of light and colours. His great- est discovery, and the greatest that the world ever saw, viz., the prin- ciple of gravitation, next succeeded. His immortal work, the Prin- cipia, was published in 1687. The friendship of the earl of Halifax, * Edin. Review. 328 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. now procured for him a very lucrative employiuerit, in being made master of the mint. His reputation extended with every etfort of his genius, and he enjoyed numerous honours, and the favour of princes. He began to be affected with disease, about the age of eighty. An incontinence of urine, and the excruciating pains of a stone in the bladder, were the melancholy presages of approaching dissolution. He, however, lived about five years from this time. For a few weeks before his death, the agonies which he suffered were very great yet he bore them with exemplary patience, and though, from the severe paroxysms which he endured, large drops of sweat ran down his clieeks, he preserved his usual smile of cheerfulness and serenity. The character of Newton, is represented as being amiable, and adorned with the virtues of a christian. Irreverence towards the Deity, or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest censure. The bible he made his favourite study. His person was of a middle stature, and his countenance, though venerable and pleasant, did not indicate that transcendant sagacity, which he is known to have possessed. It is superfluous to comment on his intellectual superiority. A celebrated writer has observed, that if the literati of all ages and na- tions could Uicet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac New- ton for their president. In his researches, he proceeded on the method laid down by Bacon, but with a clearness and strength of comprehension in abstruse studies, even exceeding the fatlier of ex- perimental philosophy. 3. Boerhaave, (Herman,) was born near Leyden, in 1668. He was intended for the ministry by his father, but the circumstance, that in his twelfth year only, he cured a distressing complaint with which he was afflicted, and which baffled all the powers of his sur- geon, turned his thoughts to the medical profession. Still, however, he studied theology in connection with it. He stood at the head of his profession, and as a lecturer on physic and botany, he became renowned, not only in his own countrj^, but throughout Europe, so that students resorted to him from all quarters. His powers of mind were vast, and his learning extended to almost every subject of hu- man investigation. He was a great and good man. His valuable works are in Latin, and all on medical, botanical, and chemical sub- jects. His death occurred in 1738. 4. Pope, (Alexander,) M'ho died in 1774, aged fifty-six years, was a native of London. After having been at school a few years, he went, at the age of twelve, to live with his parents at Cinfield, in Windsor forest, and first discovered, or rather improved his taste for poetry, by reading the translated works of Virgil and Ovid ; but es- pecially the poems of Spenser, Waller and Dryden. He early be- gan to try his strength in poetry, and so early, that to use his own expression, he " lisped in numbers." His first regular composition seems, however, to have been his Ode on Solitude, written when he was about twelve years old. Four years after this, when he began his pastorals, his merit introduced him into the society of the wits of the DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 3^9 age } and he became the wonder of the literary world, when, at less than the age of twenty, he published his Essay on Criticism. This is, perhaps, as faultless a piece of composition, as the history of youth- ful genius has ever recorded. It evinces all the mature reflection, and developed capacities of age. But the fame of the Essay was soon surpassed by the Rape of the Lock, which he produced at the age of twenty-fom-. The Temple of Fame, next engaged the pub- lic attention. His next great effort, was the translation of Homer's Iliad, from which he realized a fortune, receiving £6000. from his subscribers, and £12,000, from his bookseller. After this, he wrote several other works, particularly the Dunciad, a work of the keen- est satire, and the Essay on Man, which, though beautiful in language, and elaborate in disquisition, shews the writer to have been skeptical, as to religion. Pope was bred a Roman catholic, but, in the latter part of his life, he attended the service of the English church. In his person, he Was diminutive, and somewhat crooked — when tauntingly reminded of it, he would say, " God mend me." In disposition, he was fretful and easily displeased, and, to his no small reproach, it must be said, that he was capricious in his friendships. His manners were easy, and his wit fascinating. Many of the great and noble "were his ad- mirers, but he made them feel, that he did not servilely adore supe- riority of rank. Puny and delicate as the constitution of this poet was, his life was prolonged to his fifty-sixth year, by means of peculiar care and tem- perance. 5. Swift, (Jonathan,) was born in Ireland, in 1667. He was de- scended, however, from an ancient English family. In early life, he was poor, but his relatives furnished him with the means of pro- curing his education. So indifferent a scholar was he at the univer- sity, that he obtained his first degree only by special favour. This mortification of his feelings, had a most propitious effect on his lite- rary progress, for it stimulated him to a methodical and diligent ap- plication to his books, during several succeeding years. Swift, un- der the auspices of Sir William Temple, with whom he had formed an intimacy, might have risen in civil or military life, as the king, in one instance, offered to make him captain of horse; but his thoughts were directed to the church. A little after the year 1694, he took orders, and engaged in the duties of a parish priest. His hopes of preferment were, from time to time, disappointed. He had expected some fat benefice in the English church, and even looked to a bishoprick ; but he attained only the deanery of St. Patrick, Dub- lin. After the accession of queen Anne, he became deeply engaged in political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He died in a state of ahenation and weakness, in 1745. The works of Swift are numerous, and highly respectable for the ability they display. He wrote in a pure and plain style, and had, as Johnson says, •' an equable tenor oif easy language, which rather trickles than flows." The effects of his writings were very decisive, 111 the time, and some of tliem are still read with great pleasure. His 28* 330 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Gulliver's Travels, and his Tale of a Tub, have lost nothing of their popularity. Swift was an eccentric being, and little better than a madman. He delighted to differ from all other men, on those subjects, or in re- gard to those interests, in which all other men are agreed. Though married, he was never known to be in company with his wife, ex- cept in the presence of a third person. He was strongly attached to her, and yet his strange cruelty broke her heart. Like some men, however, he was avaricious. " He made a rule to himself, to give but one piece at a time, and therefore always stored his pocket with coins of different value." But wliat he did give, was graced neither with tenderness nor civility. "When his friends, of either sex, came to him, in expectation of a dinner, his custom was to give every one a shilling, that they night please themselves with pro- vision. At last, his avarice grew too powerful for his kindness ; he would refuse a bottle of wine ; ana, in Ireland, no man visits where he cannot drink." Whether he really believed in the truth of Chris- tianity, is, to say the least, doubtful. His professed dread of hypo- crisy, might rather be termed the fear of man, or indifference to re- ligion, when it induced him to read prayers to his servant, every morning, with such dexterous secresy, that Dr. Delany was six months in his house before he knew it. 6. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) was born at Brede, near Bordeaux, 1689, of a noble family. , He devoted himself early to literature, and first displayed strong powers of mind in his Per- sian Letters. His great work, tliat wliich has conferred on him an immortal name, is, his Spirit of Laws. In this production, he dis- plays astonishing depth of thought, vigour of imagination, and so- lid it}^ of judgment, and deserves the honourable appellation of the Legislator of the Human Race. While he was engaged in that Vv'ork, he visited several countries for information, as Germany, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. In the last he resided two years, where he was greatly honoured. It was an ob- servation of his, " that England ^vas the country where to think, and France Mdiere to live." 7. Edwards, (Jonathan,) so advantageously known at home and abroad, for the power of his intellect, and the usefulness of his wri- tings, was a native of Windsor, Connecticut. He was born in 1703. graduated at Yale College, in 1720, where he spent two years, as a tutor; settled in the ministry at Northampton, 1727, whence he was removed ; appointed missionary to the Indians, at Stockbridge, in 1751 ; and called to the presidency of Nassau Hall, in 1758. He had scarcely entered on the duties of that station, when he fell a victim to the small pox, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. President Edwards was one of the greatest and best men of mo- dern times. He possessed an acute metaphysical turn of mind, which he most usefully employed in the investigation of divine truth. His treatise on the Will, is deservedly ranked as one of the ablest productions of the human mind. This work did that for the moral nature of man, which Locke's Essay on the Understanding DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 831 did for man's intellectual nature. It settled several controverted subjects, which had perplexed the divines and philosophers, who went before him. Edwards, as a metaphysician, stands by the side of Locke, Bacon, and Aristotle ; while, as a christian, he was pre- eminent in conscientiousness, humility, fear of God, and faithfulness to the spiritual interests of men. There is an awful power in his sermons. His Treatise on the Affections, is an invaluable book, which no christian, probably, ever read without profit. 8. Hume (David) was designed, by his family, for the law, but the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. For this purpose, he retired to France, and, though he possessed slender means, he was able, by the most rigid economy, to pursue his studies in that country. Here he wrote his treatise of Human Nature. In 1742, the first part of his Essays appeared. His Political Discourses, and his Inquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, followed, in 1752. At different periods afterwards, the several portions of his English History were given to the public. These works were little noticed at first, unless his History be excepted, but some of them gradually grew into reputation, and he realized, from the latter works particu- larly, a handsome reward. This, together with the avails of other employments, made him, in his own view, very opulent, as he pos- sessed a revenue of £1000 a year. He was born at Edinburgh, 171 1, and died at the same place, 1776. Hume, doubtless, is an able writer, ingenious, subtile, and acute ; but the sophistry of his arguments, on the subject of morals and re- ligion, is unworthy of a man of his penetration. He knew better than to use the fallacious language with which he has often clothed his thoughts, and by means of which he has confounded truth with error, and right with wrong. 9. Voltaire (Marie Francis Arouet de) was a Parisian by birth. He died in 1778, at the age of eighty-four. For a long period, he was a sort of dictator in the republic of letters on the continent. By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed, perhaps more than any other man, to lay the foundation • of that state of things which afterwards existed in France, known under the name of the Revolution. In early life, he evinced superior powers of mind, and especially a sprightly imagination. He wrote verses, he says, before he left his cradle. His fondness for satire, directed against the government, procured his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was liberated by the interference of the duke of Orleans. After this event, he devoted himself more entirely to the composition of poetry. His principal efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope, placed him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. His Henriade, an epic poem, he had previously published in Eng- land. Encouraged by the Prussian monarch, he spent some time at the court of Berlin ; but he at last fixed his residence in a village on the borders of France, named Ferney. The boldness and eff"rontery of his muse, had rendered a residence in the French capital vexa- tious, and even dangerous to him, and hence he willingly left his 332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. country at different times, and at last retired to a remote corner of it, so that he might pursue his studies in quiet. Here he con- tinued long to direct the taste and literature of the age. He died at Paris, while visiting that city ; and according to some accounts, he departed in great horror, from reflections on the irreligious tenderv- cy of his writings. The blasphemous atheist often, indeed, ap- peared in his works. The following particulars respecting Voltaire, are given from a contemporaneous account. Many others might be added. " The most piercing eyes I ever beheld," says Dr. Moore, " are those of Voltaire, now in his eightieth year. His whole countenance is ex- pressive of genius, observation, and extreme sensibility. In the morning, he has a look of anxiety and discontent, which gradually wears off, and after dinner, he seems cheerful ; yet, an air of irony never entirely forsakes his face, but may always be observed lurking in his features, whether he frowns or smiles. By far the greater part of his time is spent in his study, and whether he reads himself, or listens to another, he always has a pen in his hands to take notes, or make remarks." 10. Linnaeus (Charles Von) was the son of a Swedish clergyman, born in the province of Smaland, 1707. He practised physic with such popularity and success, tliat at the age of thirty-four, he was nominated professor of physic and botany in the university of Up- sal, where he had been educated. His sovereign duly noticed his services, and besides other favours, conferred on him the honour of nobility. With an unparalleled ardour after knowledge, Linnaeus undertook to explore the inhospitable deserts of Lapland, and through ten degrees of latitude, he exposed himself, generally on foot, to every sort of fatigue. He afterwards visited other countries. He died in 1778, having been seized with an apoplexy two years before. To his sagacity and discernment, science is indebted for the useful and familiar division of plants, of animals, &c. into classes. To the most extensive knowledge, he united the most indefatigable industry, and before his publication of his Genera Plantarum, he most minute- ly examined the characters of more than eight hundred plants. 11. Rousseau (John James) was born in Geneva, in 1713. Ks was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and actii'B, and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus expanded his ideas, and inspired him with courage. His life was somewhat eventful, though we cannot dwell on the particulars. The strangeness and inconstancy of his character, subjected him to no inconsiderable ca- lamities ; and, while by nature he was formed to enjoy the pleasures of the world in perfection, he endured self-inflicted tortures to such an extent, as to leave the balance of pleasure very little, if at all, in his favour. He had a perpetual hankering after some unattainable state of voluptuous virtue. Though equally skeptical with Hume and Voltaire, he quarrelled with the one, who v/as his protector in England, and he incurred the persecution of the other, for maintain- ing the immoral tendency of the stage. (Strange to tell, he had written for the stage himself j but he was a creature of inconsistency.) DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 333 Some of liis opinions were so obnoxious, that the popular indigna- tion was aroused against him, and he was obliged to flee from place to place on the continent, and, in fact, he found no asylum till he reached England. At length, however, he returned to Geneva, and spent the last years of his life in the company of a few friends, and resigned himself to peaceful studies. He died of an apoplexy, in 1778, aged sixty-six years. His works show him to have been a man of transcendent genius, but convict him of the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentious- ness and skepticism. He may be called the Diogenes of modern times. His literary career commenced at the age of thirty-eight, by a prize essay, in which he maintained the superiority of savage nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he defended, for a long time, against all Europe. His New Heloise, ana his Emilius, moral romances, attained to a great celebrity. His Con- fessions, a work published after his death, is one of the most singu- lar productions of the human mind. 12. Pitt (William) was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known oy that name. He was born in 1708. At the age of twenty-seven, he was elected a member of parliament, and soon began to distin- guish liimseif as an eloquent and well-informed speaker. He enlist- ed early in the ranks of opposition, and in his speeches displayed §uc]i acuteness, vehemence, and depth of argumentation, as asto- nished the house, and marked him as worthy of tlie highest offices of tlie state. Wealth now poured in upon him, from private bene- factions, and from his public employments. In 1756, he received the seals of secretary of state for the southern department ; but his continuance in office was of short duration. His popularity, howe ver, M'ith the mass of the nation, recalled him to the secretaryship in 1757. This restoration was the beginning of a new era of splen- did conquests, and of national glory. At the accession of George III., his resignation took place, accompanied not only by a nation's regrets, but by the most substantial testimonials of his worth, on the part of the government. He deprecated, with all his eloquence, the measures relating to the American war, in the house of lords. His constitution, however, was, at this time, so enfeebled, that on one of these occasions, as he arose to speak, he fell into a fit, and died in a few days. As a statesman and orator, he stands, perhaps, at the head of the men of his profession, in modern times. It is said, that W^alpole, the minister, surrounded with power, and the unshaken support of a decided majority, never heard his voice, in the house of commons, without being alarmed and thunder-struck. 13. Metastasio (Pietr(^Bonaventura) early began the exercise of the poetic art. At the age of ten, he often collected little audiences, who listened with attention and admiration to the sweetness of his extemporary verses. He found a patron in the celebrated Gravina ; and without neglecting the muses, he first studied the law ; but at last assumed the clerical habit. Gravina, at his death, left the poet his whole fortune, worth 15,000 crowns, which the latter dissipated 334 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now wrote for the stage, at the solicitation of Bulgarella, the celebrated singer, and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four. Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death. His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be- sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa- tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in his writings; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said, tliat Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea- sons for the composition of poetry, and 'that he trusted to no such thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib- ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business. 14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend- ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo- sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters- burg. Here his publications ranked him among the greatest of phi- losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli, the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature of tides. In 1741, he removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien- ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers- ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with one of his grand- children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours after, he expired, aged 76 years. His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi- cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes. In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct- ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read all the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations, even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re- tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the iEneid. In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours of relaxation, and entered into all the trifle^nd frivolous anecdotes with which many choose to kill time while in company. 15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was born at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol- vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature- ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 335 him, he tried various expedients to obtain a livelihood, but abandon- ed them successively, till in company with his pupil Garrick, he went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period till 1762, he was engaged in literary labours, under the pressure of poverty and disappointment. A part of the fruit of these labours were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler. He completed his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re- ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the money had been advanced during the composition of the work- During this period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas, from which he was relieved by the kindness of Richardson. His services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in 1762, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his writings. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet- ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing, and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English languaga The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con- templated, not without gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly being. His fear of this event was excessive, for his temperament was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness fled from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saw the proper ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation of a christian. Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa- tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions, connexions, &c. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi, Boswell, and others. 16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In his youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print- ing; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night, the works which he had printed in the day. In this way he early amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re- flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem, so that he was called to offices of trust in the commonwealth, and finally, in the contention of the colonies with the mother country, he acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the American congress during that eventful period. Several times in the course of his life, he*vent to Europe, where he was received with the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and philosopher. As a public negociator, he effectually secured the honour and the interests of his country. He died governor of Penn- sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty-four years. His discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton. 336 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. He is the father of that branch of philosophy which explains the laws of the electric fluid 5 and ther utility of the lightning rod, will forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race. His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatest legislators of antiquity. 17. Gibbon (Edward) was born-at Putney, 1737, of a respectable and ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university, and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel anti the hall, the coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil" of reading, or thinking, or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence. Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi- cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the French language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility as his own. A portion of his printed works is in French. The great work w^hich has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This history cost him twenty 5^ears of labour. His resources for it he derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con- sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid production, and generally accurate. But his account of the causes of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap- pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever. His sneers at the holy religion of the Saviour, very much detract from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers, eight thousand pounds for his history. Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters, highly spirited and entertaining, and rich vyith the stores of an elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself. He ac- knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he " learned to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub- jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics of his intellect, he says, " Wit I have none ; my imagination is rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re- tentive. Tlie shining qualities of my understanding are extensive- ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness." He died of a dropsy, in 1794. 18, Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, a^Ayr, in Scotland. Though a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been . called the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub- DisTiNGrisH:::D citaracters. 337 scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented, where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence. But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave way, and the tomb re- ceived him. His age was thirty-nine. 19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache- lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not much distinguished. In 1753, he came to London, and entered at the Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American war, he denounced with great vehemence and justice, and was so happy at length as to witness its termination. When the Frencli revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, he published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought on a rupture between him and his former associates — Mr. Fox and others. From this time, though he affected to be as fond of liberty as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court rewarded him with a large pension for his able services. By many, in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war against France, he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from pubhc life, but thour:h loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy victim to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His death occured in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He wns copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are numerous. His i-^e- flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies were sold in a few weeks. 20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own, and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property. Washington was educated under the care of a private tutor, and after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he em- braced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents, particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per- sonal valour, and he proved he could fight, whenever he calculated upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native state, before he was called to the command of the American army, m the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great 29 ■ 338 MODERN HISTORY.—PERIOD X. Struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain, he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times. But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce- lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. At the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com- mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered, he hastened to resign it, that he might retire to the shades and peace of private life. Washington was the first president of the United States, and was inaugurated into that high office, in 1789. Having served during two presidential terms, he declined tlie honour which his country- men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, and sought the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis- poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire- ment. He was called away from life, rather unexpectedly, after a few days illness, 14th December, 1799. " He was buried with due national honours. America, in a public mourning, deplored in him the loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital oi the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious founder." Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman, Washington was endowed with every virtue of humanity. His pas- sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a wonderful command of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent in all the relations of private atid domestic life. His punctuality and method in managing his multifarious concerns, are a model to every one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness in death inspire the belief that his memorial is on high. 21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow- per, chaplain to George 11., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He was in his eighteenth year, when he left W^estminster school, and as he was destined for the law, he entered at the Inner Temple, and at the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lords. But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re- ligious melancholy, which arose to such a height, that in a fit of des- peration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved from so awful an end. He, however, attained at length the cheering and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was fifty years of age. His first volume of poems, appeared in 1782, and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards him the gene- ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans- lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse. About this time, (1787.) a similarity of literary undertakings, brought Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend- ship, which continued to the last period of life. Hayley has com- memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 339 elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary- writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight- ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious melancholy, which continued, with few intervals of reason and hope, till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age of seventy. The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in beauties of every kind. It exliibits religion, particularly, in a most engaging form. 22. Klopstock (Frederick Theophilus) was born at Quedlinburg, in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor- talized chiefly l3y this poem. Though at the time of its publication, it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and the Swiss in general, were loud in its praises. Klopstock was in- vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by the rnost flattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It was attended by the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body, also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy- six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to the village of Ot ten sen, where he was buried, with every ceremony expressive of profound regard. As a writer, he is characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and turgid. Besides tlie Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies, called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David. 23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He succeeded Gesner, in 1763, in the professorship of Rhetoric, at Got- tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences. He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150 folio volumes. King George III. placed his three younger sons un- der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect. He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just- ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob- scurity, he arose to comfort and fame , and he is an encouraging in- stance of the rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed mental efforts. 24. Stael, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta- lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no Cemale of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength 340 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi- losophy. In 1786, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend- ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she w^ent to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel, and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called. 25. Dwight (Timothy) w^as born at Northampton^ Mass., on the 14th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, of the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed, and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre- cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he Avas elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu- ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In 1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and faithful pastor. His fame also, as a teacher of youth, (for he had previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex- tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in that place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan, and his Greenfield Hill ; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and didactic poem, in seven books. In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly raised ; extensive religious reformations took place ; and the num- ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly three-fold. His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great- est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals of this country. Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology, have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain. No American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in the DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 341 latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively- circulated at home and abroad. 26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, though the wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan- tage on almost every subject which engages human attention. The times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with' events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents, and for the gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but of almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories, dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an vmi- versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period, though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene- ral with sad reverses; but it was not until nearly the whole of Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove- reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de- feat in the battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued there, guarded by a body of British troops, till his death, which oc- curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be- tween five and six years. Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses or execrations of mankind, according as they vjew his mighty achievements, connected with the good which has mcidently grown out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and which the author did not care to avert from the world. 29* GENERAL VIEWS: OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI- VALRY, &c. ; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC- TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS ; LEARNING AND THE ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS; INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG- RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE, EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, &c.; AND FINALLY, OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. The Feudal Systein. Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed among all the nations of Europe, at an early period. Singular as it seems, an(i different from tlie establishments of the present times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System. The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to perform military service, whenever required by the chief to whom they owed allegiance. Such is its nature; its origin and history, itfe principle and its effects will be soon pointed out. § It was on the following plan, that the feudal policy was ar- ranged : — every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of j conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- ^ ' mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur- j j pose. This military service was the condition upon which every one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands. It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The same service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from the lord to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king ; but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil regulations, but only by war. Under such a system, the nobles or FEUDAL SYSTEM. 34r barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ; while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection to their will. 2. The origin of this institu-.-, a lies in a remote antiquity Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest ol -jraul, are supposed to have divi- ded their lands among their followers, on the condition of military service. But we must look for it to a remoter source. It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na- tions, among w^hom we remark a strict subordination of the members of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi- nation affords the clue to the general policy, and so far as the history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar noticed it among the Gauhsh nations, before the Christian era. § With the Gauls, this subordination was peculiarly strong, and subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but between the inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province to which they belonged. When in peace, every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, requi- red by his chief. Wlien the province was at war, each village, though taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, on the day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief of the province. This relation between soldiers and thei^ commander, sub- sisted among the Franks, as w^ell as among the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, were obhged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. To each officer in those garrisons, it was customary to as- sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were named benficia or fiefs. § When the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was found in the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their new conquests, each man being bound to service, on receiving his share of the land. The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to him on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under >he imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency ind security of property. It Avas a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should •e capalilfi of being given out in portions, and that the vassal him- 344 GENERAL VIEWS. self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of military service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol- lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, and paying, as a symbol of tlieir subjection, a small annual present. 3. The principle of policy upon which this smgnlar estab- lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settlers in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against the attacks of the inhabitants whom they had expelled from their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was attended with many evils, especially after the land liad be- come unalienable property. The efiects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times, when the authority of government, and the obligation of general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over- lord should acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en- gine of oppression. They moreover exercised tlie privilege of coining money, and carried on wars against their private enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves as subjects ; and the consequence was, that a kingdom was broken into as many separate principalities, as it contained pow^erful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus became innu- merable. § Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm, by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes of castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des- potic chieftains, against domestic invasions. In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their deperv- dencies, had been erected in the southern part of tlie Island. Pr>- vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates were trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his advep- sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com- munity, the common people, were no better than slaves, and though not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among the Ro- mans, )^et they were Uimsferred from one lord to another, like cat- tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs of villeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation. In this state of things, neither the innocent could be protected, not the guilty punished, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre* CHIVALRY. 345 vailed ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im- provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banished, the light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as that which intervened from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence of the feudal system. At the commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert- ed a degree of influence on the minds of men. Chivalry produced a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per- haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by kings, crushed the power of the nobles, and reduced them to order and obedience. The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of France, in the year 144.5 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal- ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution. Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. lie retained a large body of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan- dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out, they were in time regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This example was followed by the politic Henry VII., of England. Chivalry. Sect. 1. Nature^ Origin, and First Appearance. — Chivalry, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu- rope, daring the middle ages, having principally for its ob- ject, the correction of those evils that were peculiar to the state of society which then existed. The feudal system at that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con- nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren- dered some such institution as chivalry, necessary, provided a better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival- ry was co-existent with feudahsm. It was designed as a cor- rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and hcentiousness. It sought to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re- strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and, especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour, courtesy, love, and religion. 346 GENERAL VIEWS. § In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference was had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback. Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived their phrases descriptive of military duties on horseback, from cabal- lus, a horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the letter b, being pronounced like v, in the south of Europe. In all languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax- oii cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca- valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person. Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form ol manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap- pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava- gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi- valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi- valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres- sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em- ployed \iolence. Chivalry had its origin in that state of society in which tlie feudal system arose ; and regarded particulaiiy in a mi- htary Hght, we find it a part of the earhest condition of most of the European world. Its foundation, in fact, w'as the an- cient chai-acter of Europe, and it grew into the form and con- sistency wdiich it at length assumed, from the following prac- tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering women, and performing acts of service when affection and duty commanded them. The exact time when these elements were framed into that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry, it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinct tion of society before the days of Charlemagne. But it want- ed religion. When it began to be marked by religious rites^ it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took place somewhere between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades. § Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after- wards, we read of the English Edward the Elder, clothing Athel- Stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir^ die, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, in a CHIVALRY. 347 sheath of gold, was inserted. In the century following, however, during the reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story of Hereward, a very noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by the abbot of Peterborough. He made confession of his sins, and after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a legitimate knight. Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction, and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe were the lords of particular districts of a country, and although ori- ginally they held their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be- came hereditary. Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old, to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the oppressed. &c. This was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to the humanities of chivalry. But besides the nobility, others might be promoted into the order, by meritorious valour. Almost the whole of Europe was affected wdth the chivai- ric spirit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and Germany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi- ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at length, Avas not undistinguished for its chivalry. 2. Degrees of Chivalry. — There were three degrees in the chivalry of Europe : — knights bannarets, knights, and esquires. A. soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire, and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban- narets. That high dignity could be possessed only by a knight, w^io had served for a length of years in the wars, and with distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men- at-arms, and other soldiers. § The privileges of a knight bannarct, were considerable. He did not fight under the standard of any baron ; but he formed his sol- diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of equal authority. The second and most numerous class of chivalric heroes, consisted of knights. A general qualification for knighthood, was noble or gentle birth, -which, in its widest signification, expressed a state of independence. § There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood. It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego it, on account of its expenses. Though it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of being a reward of merit. Men-at-arms, and other soldiers, were often exalted to the class of kniehts. 348 GENERAL VIEWS. The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight, and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various accounts, remained in this station, during all their military career. § It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good esquire, than a bad knight. Mihtary honours could be reached by the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country. 3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the age of seven or eight years. The place of education was sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country, but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of some brother nobleman, served. § The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service, were chiefly personal. He learned the dignity and beauty of obedi- ence, being made to feel it a privilege to attend the lord and his lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas- time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given by the ladies of the court. From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his catechism and the art of love. He was directed to regard some one lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ; she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti- ful, faithful, and courteous. The ingredients of religion, love, and war, were strangely com- bined in cliivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous cavaliers, the first impressions of the future knight were on these subjects; and he was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as the most noble object of ambition. The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and they were important only as they Avere the earliest ideas of his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet damoiseau, or a page — in the old English ballads a cliild. § During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to launch or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight against stakes or his youthful companions. x\t the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms, yet his personal domestic service continued for some time. His education was not completed, till the age of t\venty-one. § The esquire prepared the refection in the morninix ; and at <1 inner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented to the lord and his guests the water used for washing. The knight CHIVALRY. 349 and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case of father and son— so strict was the principle of chivalric subordina- tion. The squires often made the beds of their lords. Each one had his respective duties — one was the squire of the chamber, or the chamberlain, and another the carrying squire. But their many duties cannot here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza, beautifully paints the domestic squire discharging some of his duties. " There fairly them receives a gentle squire, Of mild demeanor and rare courtesy Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ; In word affid deed that show'd great modesty, And knew his good to all of each degree, Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet Does faire entreat, no courting nicety, But simple, true, and eke unfained sweet, As might become a squire so great persons to greet." In the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exercises, were commingled. Chaucer delightfully paints the softer employ- ment. " Singing he was or floyting all the day, He was as fresh as is the month of May, He could songs make, and well endite. Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write ; So hote he loved, that by nighterdale* He slept no more than doth the nightingale." He practised every mode by which strength and activity could be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered with dust into the running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But no exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the true knight, it could be said, " Wei could he sit on horse and fair ride." 4. Inauguration of a Knight. The full dignity of knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire before the age of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so- lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and fasting — was accompanied by clothing him with a white dress, which was considered symbolical of the purity of his new character ; and by throwing over him a red garment, which was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary preliminary. * Night-tune. 30 350 GENERAL VIEWS. A church, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of inauguration. The candidate first offered his sword to the priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took his oaths of chivalry. § He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre- serve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to the last drop, in behalf of his brethren. The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various pieces of his harness. § The armour varied at different periods and in different countries, but some matters were of permanent usage. The spurs were al- ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last. The concluding sign of being dubbed or adopted into the order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the body, the neck, whereon it Avas struck. The lord then pro- claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints § The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des- cribed, were gone through when knighthood was conferred on great and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalry on the eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new honours would inspire their highest gallantry. 5. Equijwieiit of a knight. The horse of the cavalier was his peculiar pride, and skill in the management of the animal was a distinction deemed worthy of every eflbrt. The knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of death. His chief offensive weapon was the lance. His other offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag- ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour was also various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and beaver, and body harness made of plates of steel, to which different names were given according to the different parts of the body which it covered. A long flowing robe, reaching down to the heels, constituted the dress of the knight. CHIVALRY. 351 Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too rigid, heavy, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time together, though the knights were often subjected to that inconvenience. When they were completely armed, no weapon could reach the bo- dy. It was not often that a knight could be killed, except by being unhorsed. In that event, a thin dagger, which was worn by each assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between the plates. It is only in romance, that we read of swords cutting through that solid front of iron, by which a knight was protected. The only way in which death could be inflicted, when he was mounted, was, by thrusting a lance through the small hole in the visor. Such a mode of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face almost to the saddle-bow, when he charged. He might, however, be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition. The hoi*se of the knight w^as defended by mail, or plate, agreeably to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either wliolly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp, he was clad in complete steel. 6. The Chivalric Character. — In the character of a true kiiiglit, were combined many virtues and noble endowments. It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Com- panionship in Arms, was a sacred principle, and a knight would fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his services demanded by a femede, at the time. His valour was connected witli modesty, and both were, in the highest de- gree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was displayed, though in contentions of a diflferent kind, it was unhappily suppressed. As a knight fought for the church, he was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to exhibit his wonted forbearance. His sense of honour w^as keen, and his independence was consistent with disciphne and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered into all the observances of chivalry, but it was only the rehgion of the times — a foriu rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe guide. The knight, finally, was characterized by a very re- markable fidelit}^ to obligations, by generosity, and by courtesy. § Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry : *' From this day forward ever mo, Neither fail, either for weal or wo, To help other at need. Brother, be now true to me, And I shall be as true to thee. 352 GENERAL VIEWS. Such a thirst for renown in arms, for the display of valiancy, had a knight, that he would sometimes attempt the very height of he- roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young knights of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up one of his eyes with a silk ribbon, and swore before the ladies and the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac- complished certain deeds of arms in France. The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility: " And of his port, as meek as is a maid.' Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all tilings, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard- ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions. The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in slaying an un- armed peasantry, so he seldom attacked one of this class j and even an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often despatched. Still, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as iar as it would go." Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con- spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve- nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter. Knights were renowned for their courtesy; and this principle, like every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ol as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of chivalric manners. The wife and sister of Du Gueselin, were once living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and Englishmen. The success was great and important ; but public in- dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans- gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action of surprising and disturbing ladies while they were asleep. 7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo- ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum- stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature. Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in which the images of their favourite pursuits were easily re- called to their minds. They passed most of their hours of peace, in the diversions of falconry and chess-pla)nng, in lis tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read CHIVALRY. 353 ing romances, and in conversation, which turned ahiiost wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each other's castles, were frequent ; in these, the utmost merriment prevailed. § The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of the learned clerk — all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and sports of chivalry. Every baronial knight had his gay troop of min- strels, that accompanied liim to the field, and afterwards chanted in his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family. At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two, and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark of friendship or love. Peacocks and pheasants were the peculiar food of knights, on great and festival occasions. S. The Chivalric lady-love. The females of chivalry, possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like the knight, was regularly trained up to hecome, at length, the mistress of his affections. She was commonly educated in the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, w^as that of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some knowledge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re- quired her to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress was required to be plain, except on festive occasions. § The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, in which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of the earl of Warwick. " Busy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer, And they lered her of astronomy Of arm sme trick, and of geometry ; Of sophistry she was also witty. Of rhetorick and of other clergy ; liearned she was in musick, Of clergy was her none like." In that singular system of manners which we call chivalric, love, next to religion, was the most influential principle. In many instan- ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was a more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever dreamed. The fair object of his passion, reigned in his heart, witli absolute dominion. Every gallant spirit of " gentle" Gower's days, the reign of EJ ward III., said of his mistress, 30* 354 GENERAL VIEWS. " What thing she bid me do, I do, And where she bid me go, I go." Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Knights were not satisfied to fight in defence of the- ladies, and to joust in their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight maintained at the point of his lance, that his mistress surpassed all other ladies in beauty. Chivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank, and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained the hand of high born beauty. In chivalry there was always a generous consideration foi woman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was not just or courteous to take ladies in war. § in the wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the emperor Conrad, as an offended sovereign, had refused all terms of capituln tion to tlie garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, ho permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effect.^ as they themselves could transport. The gates of the town M'ere thrown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus- band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety through the applauding camp. 9. Toiirna??ients and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts, were both the offspring and the cherisher of chivalry. No amusement or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights and beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, and the gentry, as these images of war. They were often splendid beyond description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, and important victories. Tournaments were military exercises, performed ]3y two parties of cavaliers, with hurtless weapons. § If the occasion was high and solemn, it was announced at the courts of different sovereigns, by heralds, sent by the king who pro- pjsed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their knighthood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi- ted to repair to the appointed city, and prove their chivalry. Not knights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal- lant and graceful array ; for though they were not expected to stoop to many knightly observances, they were eager to prove their chi- valric character, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked the pride of station Not every knight might tourney. He must have been guilty ol no unchivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God, or offended the ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, how- ever, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often concealed their names, and came in disguise. The place of combat was, the lists, a large space, surround- CHIVALRY. 355 ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes tliere was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one another. The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but they generally deputed their power to a knight, who w^as cal- led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some- times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, - censes were granted by the crown of England, to captains of Eng- lish ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither, to the shrine of St. James, provided, however, that those pilgrims should first bind themselves by an oath, not to take any thing prejudicial to England, nor to reveal any of its secrets, nor to carry out with them any more gold or silver, than what would be sufficient for their reasonable expenses. In almost every country where popery has been established, pil- grimages have been common. In England, the shrine of St. Tho- mas-a-Becket, was the chief resort of the pious, and in Scotland, St, Andrew's, where, as tradition informs us, was deposited a leg of the holy apostle ! In Ireland, pilgrimages have been continued, even down to modern times. Manners and Character of the Gothic^ or Scandinavian • Nations, The brevity of the plan of this work, will not admit a separate ac- count of the manners and character of the various nations, whose history it narrates. The genius and national character of the Ro- mans, during the long period in which they w^re masters of the world, have been exhibited to some extent in the political history of that people. The manners and character of the present nations of | Europe, and of nations decended from them, in other parts of the ^ globe, except the particulars included in the account of chivalry, the feudal system, &c. already given, must be learned from more ex- tended works. But in regard to those barbarous nations of the north, who conquered the Roman empire, and from whom many of the present European communities are descended, it is proper that some- thing should be said in these General Views. The manners and in- stitutions of these tribes, are curious objects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and national character of most of the modern kingdoms of Europe. The inhabitants of these kingdoms are a mixed race, compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, and consequently the manners, laws, and institutions of the conquerors and the conquered, would naturally affect and modify those of one another. ^ The Gothic, or Scandinavian nations, were the Goths, properly so called, the Gepidse, the Lombards, the Heruli, and the Vandals. Other barbarous tribes from the north of Asia or Europe, were the Huns, Alains, Bulgari, Suevi, Burgundians, Franks, Alemani, Normans, Saxons, 1 > ^Aaanmn Austrian Succession, S ^S 54,000,000 The " Seven years war" with ) the French, Spanish, Austri- > 7 112,000,000 ans and Russians, of 1756, } The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000 French Revolution war, 9 464,000,000 The war against Bonaparte, J the three last years of which y 12 1159,000,000 with the United States, S There were about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-five of peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years. Present state of several Nations in respect to Agriculture^ Roads.) Conveyances^ Intercourse, Education, Trade, Manufactures, 6^c. 1. The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex- isted in past ages, would be interesting and instructive. Some sub- iects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an- swer the p^n-pose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res- pect chiefly to the present times. They are properly characteris- tics of the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are concerned. PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 381 2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as the foundation of the means of living, and as connected with the state of society, and with the civil and intellectual character of a people, deserves a high degree of at- tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit, with all civilized communities, from the beginning. But it is only to be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside- ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth, as individuals, when, in some instances, several thousand yokes of oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any thing known at present. But with the exception of the Romans, if they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly ex- cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay. In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri- cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu- s]iicss in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys- tematic arrangement, unknown in former days. 3. Roads. — In Europe, as the Roman empire declined, the roads gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the state of the roads was, but they must have improved as trade in- creased. We know that the amelioration of them was slow ; that the arts of constructing and directing them, were for a long time un- derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard of excellence, was Sweden, where from its want of wealth, and its remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been looked for. In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of the mails, which took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve- ment of the principal roads, which had been going on through thf» eighteenth century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the _^^^J^^ ways, cross-roads, bridJpe, and ferries, throughout the wh^\^ of that country, are dSndedly superior to those which ^'^ ^^ ° any where else. , lapp in A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken piace m roads and bridges, all over Europe. Material* for road makmg na\e been found where formerly they were not believed to exist, ana me skill with which they are employed is surpnsmg. Neither clay, sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any other obstacles, are deem- ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along «ie whole face of the Appennines, from Nice, to the gulf of Spezzia. The hnest carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Cenis, St. Bernard, me Simplon, St. Gothard, the Splugen, from the lake of J^^o^^o /%J^^^ source of the Inn, from Trent to Brixen, and where the road from Vienna to Venice crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new roaa J 332 GENERAL VIEWS. has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux- embourg ; another runs along the banks of the Rhine from Mentz to Nimeguen ; another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the whole way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time an admirable line of communication between tliese two capitals. Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particulariy one from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas- sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars, every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open- ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads. Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro- bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts ot Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are in progress, which promise the iireatest advHiitages to comjnevce nnd inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des- cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with tlie velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will seem to anniliilate space. 4. Water Conveyance. — The progress lately made in water con- veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe, were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and served in several cases both to drain the ground, and for the convey- ance of merchandize. France followed their example, and by means of the canal of Languedoc, joined the chamiel and tlie Mediterra- nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun; but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca- nal communications. About the middle of the last century, the commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its atten- tion to canals, and from its abundance of water, and the moderate ^■'/^ation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond Ter> „^gj, country. The total length of qjfcals in Great Britain at me preseiK.jj^^g^ jg 2^goO miles. Austria, Pi^sia, and Sweden, now possess canalf, , j^^d Russia, both within her old limits and in Po- land, IS zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans- port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United Estates haA-e displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals. In tlie several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or m nnmediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500 miles. The greater part of them are either finished or in progress. 1 wo ot them. viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and tlie Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. Tlie Hudson and Erie canal, which IS in operation, is the boast of the new world. The application of steam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 383 among the greatest discoveries, theoretical or practical, that were ever made, has done more within the last twenty years, to facilitate the communication between different places, by water, than all the contrivances that went before it. Steam vessels are now found per- manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra- nean, all round to the top of the Baltic. No place in the eastern pari of the world ha§ derived so great advantage from the discovery of steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en- ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means .of the certainty and celerity of their passage, they have diminished its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of the European continent. In the United States, where the application of steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels are most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are owned on the Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis- coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain- ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experieiice or ima- gination. 5. Travelling. The increase of the number of travellers which these facilities have caused, is a characteristic of the times worth no- ticing. Travelling for improvement or gratification, has increased fifty or an hundred fold, and it is continually augmenting. In peace, Europe is now one great family, and certainly many advantages at- tend this state of things. Such a degree of travelling and inter- course tends very mucli to bind nations together, and to promote liberal views, and a charitable feeling, one towards another. Some good things, however, are sacrificed to it. Simplicity of heart, and the earnestness of kindness in domestic life, are diminishing. The love of home, the warm gush of affection, is checked. The bonds of society now set loosely on a man. Attachment to country ceases to operate as it once did. 6. Increase of Education. Another characteristic of the present times, is the extraordinary increase of education. A much larger portion of the people of civilized countries read than formerly. Pro- testants have always been more devoted to reading than the Catho- lics. Except in Spain and Portugal, reading has increased e^-ery where. Botli the means and the habits of reading are increased. The multiplication of newspapers and periodical publications— tlie number of booksellers^ shops— the profusion of literary institutions and circulating libraries, are infallible indications of the extraordi- nary spread of education and reading. There is evidently, there- fore, the more need of moral discipline. The Bible should by all. means be made a study, and its heavenly truths should be more than ever enforced upon the heart. The cheapness of books, the nnmber of teachers, the spare time created by the extension of machinery, and the fashion for reading, have operated very considerably on the common people in Europe. In the United States, the same causes have operated on the same portion of the community, though here 384 GENERAL VIEWS. the common people have always been distinguished, above those of other nations, for a love of reading and a competent education. Among the higher orders of European society, there are so many books, and so much to learn, that few are profound. The stream ot knowledge flows wider, but has not become deeper. To master all the branches of science and knowledge, is impossible. Daily and periodical publications abound, but perhaps too much so for a sound and permanent literature. They include the principal stock of read- ing, except novels, books of travels, and memoirs. The mind of the- public cannot be more effectually abused and unsettled, than by the systematic conversion of history, private life, religion and morality, into themes for works of fiction ; and the full extent of the mischief will be seen only when it is too late. A similar change to that which has taken place among readers, has affected authors. Most of this class are so impatient to reap the rewards of their labours, or so ap- prehensive of being supplanted by competitors for the public favour, that few are willing to bestow the time and trouble which are ne- cessary for the composition of a standard work. 7. Improvement in external condition. — In the present state of most civilized nations, a surprising improvement has taken place in the outward condition of all ranks of society. Many shocking and painful disorders have almost wholly disappeared, and others, which flesh must still be heir to, have by superior treatment, been rendered less violent and dangerous. The small pox, the ravages of which were once so terrible, has now ceased to alarm the communi- ty. The discovery of vaccination, in 1798, by Dr. Jenner, was the nstrumental cause of so propitious a change. This is one of the diseases referred to ; others might be named. The plague, except in Turkey, and some other countries bordering on the Mediterra- nean, is almost unknown. Famines, arising either from cold or heat, are now of much less frequent occurrence than they formerly were, and the cruelties and calamities of war, have been mitigated. While tliese scourges of mankind have been removed or diminished, the length of human life has been extended, as a consequence. A greater proportion live to old age than was the fact a century ago. Other causes, however, may have operated here, as greater temperance, better food and clothing, less exposure, &c. Connected with the above, inventions of every sort, conducing to personal enjoyment, have been multiplied or brought to perfection. In houses, furniture, horses, conveyances, and every thing which can minister to the ease and gratification of mind or body ; in the number and refinement of the sources of amusement, and in all articles of domestic luxury and convenience, the progress that has lately been made, is unprecedent- ed either for extent or rapidity. There is not a district to be found in any European state, in which the traveller is not struck with the taste and magnificence displayed in the architecture of public and private buildings, the multiplication and commodiousness of bathing and watering places, hotels, coffee houses, and reading rooms, the ex- quisite arrangement of gardens, grounds and villas, and the neatness of cottages, shops and manufactories. PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 385 This alteration is very conspicuous in England. The comforts of life appear in great profusion ; no native or foreigner can travel fifty or sixty miles, along a public road, without being lost in wonder and astonishment. Towns, villages, hamlets, mansions, farm houses, and cottages, are every where scattered about in the most pleasing and romantic situations. It were to be desired that the reality in every respect, corresponded with the appearances, but it is not to be con- cealed that the present stagnation in business, has thrown many of the English operatives into distress. In the United States, however, these improvements not only abound, but the favourable appearan- ces are generally connected with a more delightful reality. 8. Increase of population. — In consequence of the improvement in the physical circumstances of the people in christian countries, the population has increased in an unexampled manner. Some pla- ces, owing to political revolutions, or change of trade, may have de- creased in population, as Rome, Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Verona, Seville, Barcelona, Cadiz, Lubec, Bremen, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne, Strasburg, Nuremburg, and Augsburg. These, however, are excep- tions to the general rule. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, Paris, Hamburgh, Frankfort, Milan, Munich, Stuttgard, Stockholm, and the territories to which they belong, are swelling in extent and population. England has outstripped the continent within these last thirty or forty years. London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and many other cities and towns in Great Britain, have experienced a great increase. According to statistics, which have lately appeared,* it is found that the inhabitants of Europe have, within the period that has elapsed since the general peace, in 1815, been augmented by the number of 28 or 29,000,000. Every coun- try has had a share in this increase. Europe, however, can hardly be compared with the United States, in this particular. Within the time above mentioned, the population of this country has increased to the amount of at least one third of the whole number. History probably does not furnish another instance of the rapid rise of cities, equal to that of New- York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-Orleans, and several others. 9. The approximation of the lower classes to the higher. — This is a characteristic of the age more particularly observable in the old world. In America, owing to its institutions, and the abundance of the means of living, the difference in the classes of the people has never been so wide as it is in Europe. The approximation spoken of is very perceptible in European society. It is obvious in dress, manners, and acquirements. It is encouraged by the improvement which has taken place in manufactures, and by the substitution of machinery for manual labour. Dress is scarcely a test of rank. In language and address, the middling classes have advanced. There are few above the lowest rank, if possessed of good sense, who do not speak and act, in these days, with ease and propriety. Much taste and elegance, are in many instances displayed. In mental ac- * The American Almanac for 1830, a most valuable production. 33 386 GENERAL VIEWS. quirements, particularly, the assimilation is visible. Children of the nobility, from the greater pains taken with them, excel at first, but are outstripped afterwards, by those who feel the necessity of excel- ling. The procession in society, has extended to attainments of every kind, especially in matters of legislation. The numerous papers and documents which are published, and which are accessible to most readers, have contributed to this result. In regard to Great Britain, an American gentleman long resident in that country, at this moment writes, " A spirit is silently at work, which is gradu- ally undermining the power of the Aristocracy, and will one day (and that not far distant) show itself in a form too powerful to be resisted." 10. Trades and Manufactures. — The spring of late years given to trade and manufactures, is quite characteristic of the times. Our remarks have reference more especially to the continental portion of Europe, where, since the general peace, the products of manufactu- ring industry have been wonderfully multiplied. Sugar refineries have within a recent period been established to a great extent, at Trieste, Petersburg, Hamburg, and Gothenburg. At Motala, near Orebro, in Sweden, there is perhaps the largest esta- blishment in existence for all sorts of implements in steel and iron. The manufacture of muskets and fowling-pieces has lately been greatly improved in Germany, and particularly at Herschfeld, in Hanover. Admirable travelling carriages of all sorts, both in point of elegance and durability, are built at Brussels, Berlin, and Vien- na. The glass manufactories in France, at St. Quentin, St. Gabin, Comenty, and Premontre, in the department of Aisne, are all in the most flourishing condition, and glass is made at Munich, of a most superior quality, so that the Bavarians have deprived even the Bri- tish of the manufacture of telescopes. The elegant iron and steel ornaments, made at Berlin, have now become a valuable and extend- ing branch of commerce. The utmost attention is paid to the im- provement of wool throughout France, Austria, Saxony, Holstein, and some other parts of Denmark. The woollen manufactures es- tablished in Moravia, Saxony, and Silesia, and in the Low Coun- tries, are increasing, and in addition to those which have been long seated at Sedan, Elboeuf, and Louviers, in France, they have now been introduced at Carcassone, Castres, and Lodeve, in the south, and at Bourges, and Chatevuroux, in the centre. A determined and successful degree of anxiety to improve the breed of horses, has manifested itself in Prussia, Russia, and France. England no long- er supplies nearly the whole of Europe with lead ; a great quantity is now raised near Almeria, in Spain. The manufactories of iron, and steel, which are flourishing in France, are prospering still more at Liege, which has become the Birmingham of the Low Countries, as Ghent is their Manchester and Glasgow. The cotton manufac tures of France and Belgium, have increased tenfold in ten years. They are now firmly fixed at Elberfeld, near Dusseldorf, and rapid- ly extending themselves in the Prussian Rhenish provinces. The silk trade of France, which used to be confined to Lyons, has now PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 387 spread its ramifications to Avignon, Nismes, and Tours, and its ah- nilal value amounts to £6,000,000. The silk trade is carried on in Switzerland, a fact which is little known abroad. There is in Zu- rich and its neighbourhood alone between 12 and 13,000 looms. It is also established at Aran, Basle, and several other places. In the Prussian Rhenish provinces, it is spreading from Mentz through all the towns and villages along the Rhine, and is carried on to a great extent at Dusseldorf and Elberfelt, but particularly at Creveld, where it is conducted with great capital and great spirit. All sorts of house- hold furniture are now made extremely beautiful in most large towns throughout the continent. Exhibitions of works of genius and in- dustry are every where encouraged, especially at Petersburg, Berlin, Brussels, Paris, Munich, Stuttgard, and Vienna. The manufacturing industry and talent of Great Britain, and the trade therewith connected, have been long celebrated, and have grown with her growth, till she has filled the world with the choicest works of mechanic art. But particulars will not be needed in re- gard to a country so well known. In the United States, also, trade and manufactures have of late risen in a remarkable degree, consi- dering the comparative newness of the country. Many new branches have been established, and many old ones enlarged, so that although we are essentially an agricultural people, and must remain so for a long time to come, we already produce a great variety of important articles of mechanical skill. The ingenuitj^ and enterprise of our citizens are here, as in every other department of human effort, alike conspicuous and successful. 11. Reform in Goverrwienf. — A desire among many nations to free themselves from their oppressions, or to new model their go- vernments, is a prominent characteristic of the age. It has been ob- served in the course of this work, that the present period, though by the contemporary world which lived in it called the revolutionary, will probably be denominated the constitutional period by posterity. T]ie nations for some time have been struggling to obtain free and regular constitutions. The spirit began v/ith the United States, more than fifty years ago. France afterwards made a misguided, abortiye attempt, and some other despotisms have been considerably agita- ted. The strict despotic principles have hitherto prevailed, except in the colonial establishments ; yet even in countries governed on those principles, such has been the influence of popular feeling, there has been a degree of amelioration. The attempts of the Spaniards, Por- tuguese, and Neapolitans, to change their forms of government, have been frustrated chiefly by the despotic sword from abroad ; but it is evident, that knowledge is increasing, and that the minds of men are turning with fond desire towards their long lost rights and liberties, and that a spirit is at work, which promises eventually the destruc- tion of all despotic thrones. The colonial struggles, however, have been successful, and the various republics of South America, and that of Mexico, in North America, attest the energy of that feeling which resolves on independence. Greece, too, favoured by circum- stances, and by the sympathies of nations, but more by her own he- 388 GENERAL VIEWS. roism and self-denial, is an arm broken off from the Turkish power, and with the lingering remains of genius found in her, and quicken- ed into life by the principles and systems of American education, is destined, we may hope, to be twice immortal. 12, Religious Enterprises. — The present era is greatly distin- guished by a spirit of enterprise in religion. Many, in protestant countries, are especially waked up in regard to the precious interests of the Christian church— its prosperity at home, and its extension abroad. Great reformations have taken place, and signal revivals of piety have abounded, especially in the United States ; and both here, and in Great Britain, the work of Christian missions has been vigo- rously prosecuted. Vast numbers of associations are formed in va- rious parts of Protestant Christendom, to give the Bible to the des- titute — to educate pious, indigent youth for the ministry — to imbue the minds of children with scriptural knowledge by means of sab- bath school instruction— to promote religion and morality among sailors — to enlighten the inmates of dungeons — and in this country, especially, to secure the observation of the sabbath — to do away the abominations of intemperance; and to benefit the descendants of Africa, by colonizing them in the land of their fathers. The esta- blishment and support of missionary seminaries, and theological se- minaries, are also among the important religious enterprises of the day. Indeed, there is scarcely a conceivable form of benevolent and pious movement which does not receive a portion of regard from the Christian public. The Christian Church. We shall attempt a very brief history of the Church of Jesus Christ, or of Christianity as a divine establishment common to most of the nations, whose affairs have been narrated in a different portion of this work. This is the only religious system that claims much of our attention, in modern annals. A sufficient notice has been taken of the religion promulgated by Mahomet, in the history of the Sara- cens. As to the religion of paganism, we have had so little occasion to bring into view the nations, who, in modern times, possess the pagan creed, that we need not trace its distinctive features. A few, however, of the religious notions of the barbarous heathen tribes, whence sprang the modern European states, have appeared in a des- cription of the manners, institutions, &,c. of those tribes. The reli- gion of the Greeks, Romans, and other early nations, all of whom, except the Jews, were pagans, is a topic of Ancient History. 1. It will suflftce for the object here contemplated, to sketch the affairs of the Christian Church under three distinct heads. 1. In its primitive and pure state, extending from the birth of Jesus Christ, to the year 325 A. C, when Christianity became the religion of the Roman empire. 2. In its cor CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 389 rupted state, extending from 325 A. C. to the commencement of the Reformation, 1517 A. C. 3. Tn its reformed state, extending from 1517 A. C. to the present time. 2. In the first era, as it might be expected, we behold the Christian church in its best condition. Compared with tlie subsequent era, it was distinguished for the simpHcity of its order, purity of practice, and attachment to the doctrines of the Gospel. Among the many events of the present period, we can notice only the following leading ones, viz., the ap- pearance of Jesus Christ on earth ; the general success of the Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others ; and the ten great persecutions of the Church, so enumerated and called, beginning with Nero, and ending with Diocletian. § The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth was the most re- markable event that ever occurred. Its date, as commonly given, is four years later than the real time. The prophets had pointed out the period, and the world was in an unusual degree prepared for the coming ,of the Son of God. But though the nations were expecting the appearance of some extraordinary personage, and the Jews par- ticularly were waiting for their Messiah ; yet Jesus was almost uni- versally rejected, both by the Jew and (ientile. In the circumstan- ces of his birth and life, and in the doctrines which he taught, the expectations of his counti-ymen were disappointed, and upon a fri- volous pretence, they put him to the cruel death of the cross. By this procedure, so unjust on the part of the Jews, the divine plan, whicli sought the redemption of the nations, was accomplished, for on the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days after, having given his disciples suitable instructions respecting their duty as preachers of his religion, he ascended to heaven, a cloud receiving him out of their sight. The general success of the Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others, was also a remarkable circumstance, and strong- ly confirmed the truth of Christianity. Many reasons might be given for this opinion, but our limits forbid. In regard to the fact of the early and general extension of the Gospel, we are left to no doubt, from the nature of the case, and from historic records. The apostles and evangelists were early spread abroad among the na- tions ; and even before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Gospel had been preached to multitudes in several parts of the known M^orld. Within thirty years of the death of Christ, says Paley, the institution had spread itself through Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, almost all the numerous districts of Lesser Asia, through Greece and the islands of the Mgean Sea, the sea coast of Africa, and had extended itself to Rome, and into Italy. At Antioch in Syria, at Joppa, Ephesus, Corinth, and many other places, the converts were spoken of as nu- merous. The first epistle of Peter, accosts the Christians dispersed throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bvthinia. In a 33* 390 GENERAL VIEWS. short time, nations and cities more remote, heard of the Gospel. The Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity from the imme- diate successors of the apostles ; and during the second century, the Germans, the Spaniards, and probably the Britons, were converted to the true religion. The ten great persecutions of the Church have given a charac- ter to the whole era. They were not, however, in every instance, general through the Roman empire. Persecutions indeed existed from the beginning, and there were not many periods of entire tran- quillity to the Church, during three hundred years. But those of a more marked character, are included within the above expressed number. Their order is as follows : 1. The persecution under Nero occurred thirty-one years after our Lord's ascension. When the emperor set fire to the city of Rome, he threw the odium of that execrable action on the Christians, and made it the pretext of persecuting them. Accordingly, they were hunted hke wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, and in innumerable other ways, were vexed, tortured, and put to death. 2. The persecution which Domitian instigated, took place in the year 95. It is computed that 40,000 persons suffered martyrdom at that time. 3. The persecution which existed in the reign of Trajan, began in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence for several years. 4. The persecution which was permitted by Antoninus, commen- ced in the year 177. Many indignities, deprivations and sufferings were inflicted on the Christians in this persecution. 5. The persecution under Severus, began in the year 197. Great cruelties were committed at this time against the patient followers of Christ. 6. The persecution which Maximinus ordered, began in 235. It was the more severe to the sufferers from the indulgence they had enjoyed under the reign of his predecessor, Alexander Severus. 7. The persecution under Decius, began in 250. It was the most dreadful hitherto known. The Christians were in all places driven from their habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented with racks, &c. 8. The date of the persecution under Valerian, is 257. Botli men and women suffered death, some by scourging, some by the sword, and some by fire. 9. The persecution by Aurelian, was in 274. But this was incon- siderable compared with the others before mentioned. 10. The persecution in which Diocletian was concerned, com- menced in 295. This was a terrible persecution. It is related that 17,000 were slain in one month's time. The enemies of Christianity had the presumption to think " that the name and superstition of the Christians" had been effaced from the empire. The period, however, was just at hand, (a salutary lesson to persecutors,) vvhen this holy CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 391 faithi was to rise on the ruins of all the former religions of the Ro- man people. During these persecutions, Christians multiplied, and Christianity became a principle of life and power to the hearts of its votaries. So long as their profession of religion was attended with danger — so long as they had the prospect of the dungeon, the rack, or the fag- got, their lives were pure and heavenly. The gospel was their only source of consolation, and they found it in every respect sufficient for all their wants. Aifected with mutual sufferings, they sympa- thised most tenderly with each other, and their Lord's new command of brotherly love, was never fulfilled in a more exemplary manner. 3. The Church, at the commencement of the second era, was externally prosperous and flourishing. The storm oif pagan persecution had ceased, and Christianity was support- ed by the Roman government. Under Constantino the Great, that government (which had long included the hmits of the civilized world) changed from a persecuting to a piotecting power. But its love was more fatal to the real interests ol the Church than its hate. Evils soon began to arise within, produced or aided by the aggrandizement it received Avithout, which eventually reduced the Church to the lowest state of spiritual weakness and degradation. Worldly prosperity pro- duced pride, ambition, emulation, luxury, and many other vices equally opposed to the spirit of the gospel. The mix- ture of pagan philosophy and superstition exceedingly de- based the purity of religion, and the general ignorance which prevailed during the dark ages, rendered ineflfectual its hea- venly truths. Among the more important particulars constituting this state of things, or affording proof of the disorders of the church and the consequent degeneracy of the people through this long period, may be named the Arian and Pelagian heresies, the institution of monkery, image worship, the establishment of the papal supremacy, the passion for relics and pilgrimages, the separation between the eastern and . western churches, the crusades, sale of absolution and indul- gences, the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses, the inquisition, the great western schism, the bulls and interdicts of the popes, and the contention of scholastic divines. § These and several others are interesting objects of attention in this portion of the church's history ; but except so far as a few of them have been already treated of separately, recourse for informa- tion must be had to more extended accounts. 892 GENERAL VIEWS. 4. Towards the commencement of the thud era, the re hgious state of the world was deplorable. All Christendom was held in bondage to the papal power. Corruption, both in doctrine and practice, prevailed to an extent before un- known. The Reformation of religion, which is the distinc- tion of the present era, was therefore greatly needed ; and we have the satisfaction of exhibiting the christian church under the influence of so propitious a change. The greater part ol this body adhered to the papacy, and perhaps still adheres to it ; but though the vv^hole of Christendom did not participate in the reformation, the whole may have derived benefit from it indirectly. The reformed, which is also called the protes- tant* faith, spread rapidly at the beginning, and even now, from the increase of the population in nations embracing this faith, as well as from efforts made to diffuse it abroad, it is favourably extending its influence. The date of the great event of which we speak, is 1517, and the instrumental agent whom Providence employed in bringing it to pass, was Martin Luther. Tlie innnediate oc- casion of the reformation was the sale of indulgences, which had been authorized by Leo X., in order to furnish the means of gi-atifying his taste or extravagances. This traffic having been intrusted to the care of one John Tetzel, an insolenX and dishonest wretch, attracted the notice of Martin Luther. His indignation was first excited by the base manner in which it was carried on ; but from noticing the mode, he was led to inquire into the thing itself, and his eyes were soon opened to the enormity of the principle which it involved, and the nefarious character of the whole system. From this period his opinions were openly and boldly expressed, on the various errors which he found prevailing in the Church, and many were convinced on the subject by his preaching antl writings. Hence the memorable rupture and revolution which took place — the blessed effects of which have been more and more felt from that age to the present. § During his life time the benevolent labours of Luther were bless- ed in no small degree, and around him gathered a host of able and * So called from the protest which the elector of Saxony and other princeq^ entered against a decree of the diet at Spires, in 1529, by which every depai>- ture from the Catholic faith and discipline was forbidden, till a general council should be assembled. CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 393 godly men, who proved to be, in many instances, the most efficient coadjutors. Among these were Carolstadt, Melancthon, Zuinghus, Bucer, Oecolampadius, Martyr, Calvij|| and Beza. Several of the princes of Germany were his patrons, and afforded him the most essential aid, among whom especially were Frederick the Wise, and John his brother, electors of Saxony. ? The new opinions were not long confined to Germany. Through the oppressive measures of the papacy, as much as by any other cause, they were diffused abroad among the neighbouring nations. Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland, participated in the reforma- tion, and it found many friends in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, and Bohemia. In England, also, it was firmly establish- ed, though by an instrumentality at first very different from friend- ship to the cause. The passions and obstinacy of Henry VHI., as has elsewhere appeared, v/ere, by the providence of God, concerned in effecting the religious revolution in that country. In Scotland the denunciations of Knox demolished the papal hierarchy. The opposition of the Catholic power to the reformation, pro- duced in Germany much bloodshed, desolation, and discord. These scenes continued till the year 1555, when a treaty was formed at Augsburg, called the Peace of Religion, which established the Re- formation, inasmuch as it secured to all the inhabitants of Germany the free exercise of their religion. The protestant princes of that country never at any time ceased their exertions, till this desirable result was brought to pass. 5. A few years after the establishment of the reformation, tlie comitries of Europe which favoured it and became pro- testant, were Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Holland. One half of Germany, and a small majority iu Switzerland, embraced the reformation. The countries which adhered to Rome were Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Belgic Provinces under the Spanish yoke. France became decidedly papal, though at first the hope was entertained that she would favour the protestant cause. A goodly number, however, of the French population were protestants. That portion of the professed Christian body which con- stituted the Eastern or Greek church, was not affected by the revolution in the West. Though religion in this church was then at a very low ebb, and the church had experienced many external calamities, corruption and error had not made so fatal a progress in the East, as among the Latins. Rus- sia and a part of European Turkey were the seat of the Greek religion. Many of its professors, however, w^ere found in various countries of Asia and Africa. In 1589, the Rus- 394 GENERAL VIEWS. sian church separated from the government, though not from the communion, of the Greek church — a chxumstance which has reduced the latter to an inconsiderable body. § As the Russian and Greek branches of the Christian church need not be referred to again, it may be added, that they have undergone but feM' changes in more modern times — perhaps some improvement is visible. Still they seem to be little acquainted with evangelical piety, are in general destitute of the Bible, and consequently involv- ed in ignorance. Their numbers are variously estimated. Hassel makes them seventy-four millions, which is the highest calculation. Members of the Greek church are at present found scattered over a considerable part of Greece, the Ionian isles, Wallachia, Moldavia, Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and Palestine. It must sutRce for a rapid survey of the Roman and Protestant cimrches, from the time that their separation was consummated to the present era, to notice the following particulars. First, the Roman cA?/?-cA.— Desperate efforts were made by the popes to regain their lost power, but on the whole with little effect. The means which they used, as enumerated in a recent interesting pubhcation,* were principally these four. I. The employment of the order of Jesuits, formed in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola, whose object was to go forth, as advocates of the papal power. 2. An attempt to christianize the heathen, in several parts of Asia and South America. 3. The better regulation of the internal con- cerns of their church. 4. The persecution of the protestants. In regard to the last, it may be observed, that scarcely a country, in which protestants were to be found, but was the scene of awful suf- ferings. Our blood boils with indignation at the thought, that cru- elties Mhich would have disgraced Domitian, were inflicted by the minions of the papacy, under the sanction of the mild religion of the Saviour, upon his own followers. In tliese persecutions, tifty millions of protestants are computed to have perished, principally in Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, France, parts of Germany, and England. But all the efforts of the Roman church were in vain, except as by propagating her religion in heathen countries, slie was for a time nominally mistress of greater numbers of mankind than before. Several causes have contributed to weaken, essentially, her power, weallh and splendour. These, as enumerated in the work above re- ferred to, are, 1. The loss of foreign conquests. 2. Unsuccessful contests with several European governments. 3. The suppression of the order of the Jesuits. 4. The revolution in France. 5. The abolition of the Inquisition. The statistics of the Roman church, as it exists at the present day, are as follows : The temporal dominions of the pope, are a small territory in ♦ Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich. CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 395 Ital3r, south of the Po, containing 15,000 square miles, and 2,500,000 inhabitants. Its ecclesiastical - subjects are supposed to amount to 80 or 100,000,000, in all parts of the world. Malte Brun put them down at 116,000,000. The countries where they most abound, are the pope's dominions in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and South America. These are considered entirely papal. France, Austria, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and Ca- nada, are chiefly papal. Switzerland has 700,000 ; England half a million, and the United States about that number. Others are found in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the West Indies. The pope is at present making great efforts to extend his influence in the United States ; but it is believed either that the system cannot widely pre- vail here, or if from any temporary causes, it is destined to meet with some successes, that it will be in a degree modified by the ge- nius of our institutions, and not be the dark, intoleriint, cruel, and licentious system that it has been in other countries. Second, the Protestants. — A diversity soon took place among those who se- parated from the fellowship of Rome. A general division of the protestants is into the Lutheran church, and the Reformed churches. 1. Lutheran CMirch. — The Lutherans, as the name imports, were the im- mediate followers of Luther, who consider their church as having been es- tablished at the time of the pacification at Passau, 1552. Their standard of faith is the Augsburg confession. They suffered far less from the persecu- tions of the times than the other portions of the reformed church, though they were unhappily engaged in a controversy among themselves, relating to various points of faith and practice. These controversies were followed by a low state of religion ; and this by ef- forts which many of the better sort made to bring about a happier state of things. Some good was done by the Pietists, (so this class of people were called,) but far less than might have been, had not their views and principles been misconceived or opposed. The Pietists flourished about the middle of the seventeenth century, but they degenerated after a time, and were suc- ceeded by a set of wild religionists, who did much mischief to the cause of god- liness. To counteract tliis evil, the system of the Neologists was introduced, which consisted in the application of human philosophy to the inter uretation of the Bible. The remedy was as bad as the disease, and the Gospel, stripped of its peculiarities, has become a dead letter very extensively in Germany. It is believed, however, that a better spirit is now commencing in some parts of the Lutheran church, while it is a happiness to know that, in otlier parts of it, both in Germany and the neighbouring churches, there are those who have all along maintained their integrity. In regard to the statistics of the Lutheran church, it may be observed, that portions of it are found chiefly in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, in a great Eart of Germany, particularly in the north, and in Saxony and Prussia, where lUtheranism is the established religion. Churches of this denomination also ex- ist m Holland, France, Russia, North America, and in the Danish West In- dies. The number of Lutherans is probably between fifteen and twenty millions, 2. Reformed Churches. — These are numerous, and little more than their names can be here mentioned. The term " Reformed" was a title originally assumed by those Helvetic or Swiss churches, which adhered to certain tenets of Zuinglius, in relation to the Sacrament. But in latter times it has a wider signification, and under it may be included all those sects in Protestant Chris- tendom, that dissent from the tenets of the Lutheran church. These are 396 GENERAL VIEWS. principally the Calvinists, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Moravians, the Congregationalists of New-England, the Pres- byterian Church in the United States, the Episcopal Church in the United States, the Baptists, Methodists, and Gluakers. 1. Calvinists. — The Christians so called, taken loosely for those who ex- plain the Bible as Calvin explained it, constituted at first the whole body of the Protestants as distinguished from the Lutherans. Protestant Christendom even now owns this distinction on the continent of Europe. They were called Huguenots in France, and suffered terrible persecutions. They are not known as one particular denomination, but constitute a portion of several bodies of Christians. They exist in France, Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and other countries in Europe, and extensively in the United States. The sect of Arminians is, as to sentiment, directly opposed to the Calvinists, though per- sons of both persuasions are often found together in the same churches. The Arminian doctrines began to be propagated at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 2. Church of England. — By tliis name is known the reformed church as established in England and Ireland. Its history is deeply interesting, as it passed a bloody ordeal, but there is no space for particulars. The rise of pu- ritanism is connected with the history of the church of England, than which few events in the records of religion are more important ; but this also must be passed over. . Dissenters from the church of England are tolerated in the United Kingdom. The establishment embraces 5,000,000 of the inhabitants : its livings are 10, .500. The dissenters, or independents, in England and Wales, have more than 1000 congregations. 3. Presbyterian Church of Scotland. — The date of the establishment of the Reformation in Scotland, is about the year 1560. At this time the Presby- terian church in that country began to assume a regular form. This church passed through various vicissitudes, and has in general been distinguished for the piety of its members. It includes nearly the whole population of Scotland. 4. Moravians. — The Moravians, or United Brethren, date their modern history in 1722. They are an exemplary people, and devoted to missionary enterprises. They have settlements in Germany, Denmark, Holland, Eng- land, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the United States. Their converts among the heathen, amount to 30,000, 5. Congregationalists of New-England. — Under this name are known the descendants of a class of the English puritans, who fled from persecution to the wilds of America. They began the settlement of New-England, on the 22d December, 1620. The sufierings, piety, and success of the fathers of New- England Congregationalism, are rich topics in religious history. The Con- gregationalists have about 1000 churches in New-England, and about 200 in other parts of the United States. 6. Presbyterian Church in the United States. — This body of Christians was originally composed of a few Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland, united to a like number of Congregationalists, chiefly from New-England. They have greatly prospered and increased, and are found throughout the middle, southern and western states. The number of their churches is nearly 1900. Our limits preclude an account of other reformed churches, several cf which are respectable for their character and numbers. SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, EXHIBITING THE PRESENT STATE OF THE VARIOUS NATIONS ON THE GLOBE. The Earth in General.— The earth is a large globe, the diameter of wliich is nearly eight thousand miles, its equatorial cn-cumference is about •24,970 miles, and its surface contains nearly two hundred milhons of square miles, , . , More than two thirds of the globe are covered with water. _ The land is occupied by at least a thousand millions of human beings, and is divided into four great nommal parts, sometimes called quarters : J^urope, Asia, Africa, and America. _ , a f • There are only two Continents ; one contains Europe, Asia, and Atrica ;— the other consists of North and South America. , , . ^ ,, , There are five oceans : the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the In- dian Ocean, the Northern Ocean, and the Southern Ocean. The earth is nmety-six milhons of miles from the Sun. It moves round the Sun in a year, wliich causes the changes of the seasons ; and turns on its own axis eVery twenty-four hours, which occasions mght and day. EUROPE. Europe is the smallest of the grand divisions or quarters of the world, but IS inhabited by an active and intelligent race of people. ,. , ,i Europe is bounded north by the Frozen Ocean, east by Asia, south by the Mediterranean Sea, and west by the Atlantic ocean. ^^ , ^ , _, Europe comprehends Lapland, Norway, Sweden, Russia Denmark Prus- sia, Batavia, the German States, Austria, Turkey, Fraiice, Switzerland, Italy, Portucral, Spain, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Its three grand inland seas are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the "^^^prindpal rivers are the Wolga, the Danube, the Nieper, the Rhone, and Its most elevated mountains are, the Alps, which separate Italy from Ger- many, Switzerland, and Fuance. The Pyrenees, between France and Spain : The Dofrafield mountains, between Norway and Sweden : The Carpathian mountains, which bound Hungary to the north and east. Lapland is divided into Danish or North Lapland; Swedish or South Lapland ; and Russian or East Lapland. x- n ^* It is covered with immense forests, chiefly of fir, and with pastures tuU ot rain-deer. The Laplanders are hospitable, generous, and courageous. 34 398 A SYSTEM OF They make long excursions upon the snow, and will, without much fatigue travel fifty miles a day ; and in their sledges, drawn by rein-deer, they pass over liill and dale, with far greater speed. In some parts of Lapland, the sun is absent for about seven weeks ; but from ten in the forenoon till between one and two in the afternoon, the twilight is sufficient for persons to read without a candle. The stars are visible at noon, and the moon shines without intermission. In the simimer, on the contrary, the sun never sets for seven weeks together. Norway is bounded north and west by the Northern Ocean, east by Swedish Lapland and Sweden, and south by the Categat. Norway formerly belonged to Denmark, but has recently become a de- pendency of Sweden. The chief town of Norway is Bergen. Norway is the most mountainous country in the world, and the rivers and cataracts Avhich mtersect the mountains, render travelling exceedingly dan- gerous. On the coast of Norway is the famous vortex of the sea called the Maelstroom ; it is heard at a great distance, and forms a whirlpool of vast depth and extent, and so violent, that if a ship come near it, it is drawn in and shattered to pieces. The chief wealth of Norway lies in its fir timber, with which foreign nations are supplied. DeninIark Proper is an exceedingly small kingdom, containing only the peninsula of Jutland, and the islands of Zealand, Funen, &c. at the en- trance of the Baltic. Its chief town is Copenhagen. Iceland, which is subject to Denmark, abounds in sulphur, subterraneous fires, and volcanoes. Mount Hecla is a volcano one mile high, and is always covered with snow ; while the boiling springs and craters on the summit cor*- tinually propel fire and smoke. Sweden is divided into Sweden Proper, Gothland, Finland, Swedish Lap- land, and the Swedish islands. The chief tov/ns are Stockholm, the capital, which stands on seven rocky islands ; Upsal, famous for its University ; Gottenberg, in Gothland ; ana Torneo, in Lapland. The chief wealth of Sweden arises from its mines of silver, copper, lead, and iron. The mines are very spacious, afford commodious habitations for numerous families, and seem to form a subterraneous world. Sweden is a mountainous country, and is celebrated for the number and extent of its lakes. In the Baltic Sea there are no tides, and a current is always running into the German Ocean. Russia is bounded north by the Frozen Ocean, east by Asia, south by Turkey and the Black Sea, west by Sweden, the Baltic, Prussia and Austria. The Ritssian Empire, the largest in extent in the world, comprehends most of the northern parts of Europe and Asia, but only a small part of its inhabitants are in a state of civilization. In some parts of this country the climate is so severe, that icicles are frequently seen hanging to the cye-lashes, and the drivers of carriages are often found frozen to death on their seats. f MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 399 The principal towns are Petersburg!!, the capital ; Moscow ; Archangel, on the borders of the White Sea ; Cherson, on the Black Sea ; Astracan, near the Caspian ; and Tobolsk, the capital of Siberia. Russia is mostly a level country : from Petersburgh to Pekin in China there is scarcely a hill : the same may be said of the road from Petersburgh to the north of France. The inland navigation of Russia is very extensive ; goods may be con- veyed by water from Petersburgh to China, with an interruption of only 60 miles. Russia is celebrated for its timber and flax trade, its iron and copper mines in the Uralian mountains, and its fisheries. Prussia is bounded north by the Baltic, east by Russia, south by Austria, and west by Gennany. • The Prussian dominions were formerly very small, but the acquisition of Silesia, and a third part of Poland, has rendered it a considerable empire. Before the partition of Poland, the Prussian subjects amounted to about five millions and a half; with that addition they count- nearly eight millions. Holland or Batavia, noio Kingdom of' the Netherlands, is bounded north and west by the North Sea, cast by Germany, south by France. The kingdom of Holland consists of seven provinces, viz. Groningen, Griesland, Over-ysscl. Holland, Utrecht, Guelderland, and Zealand. The chief towns are Amsterdam, Leyden, Rotterdam, Haarlem. Amsterdam, the capital, is curiously built upon wooden piles. The principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maese and the Scheldt. The canals are very numerous, and serve for the same purposes as roads in other countries. ^ Germany is bounded north by the German Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic, east by Prussia aiid Austria, south by Switzerland, and west by France and the Netherlands. Germany was formerly divided into nine great divisions, called circles ; latterly a new political association has been formed of many considerable states, under the title of the Germanic confederation ; the principal of these states are the kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria, Wertemberg, Baden, and Hanover. The principal rivers are the Danube, Rhine, Elbe, and Maine. The chief town is Vienna, the residence of the Emperor. The Austrian Dominions are bounded north by Prussia, south by Turkey and the gulf of Venice, west by Switzerland and Germany. The' Austrian dominions comprehend Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, part of Poland, and the Venetian states. The chief towns are, Venice, Prague, Presburg, Buda, Cracow, and Trieste. The principal mountains are the Tyrolese, the Alps, and the Carpathian mountains. .^ Turkey in Europe includes ancient Greece and other countries, formerly the finest in the world, but owing to the despotism and wretched policy of the Turks, is now the most desolate and miserable. It is bounded north by the Austrian dominions and Russia, east by the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora, and the Archipelago, south and west by the Mediterranean. The metropolis of Turkey is Constantinople, finely situated between the Sea of Marmora and the Black Sea, and one of the most considerable cities in Europe. 400 A SYSTEM OF The principal rivers are the Danube, the Sallve, and the Neister. The chief mountains are Pindus and Olympus, which separate Thessaly from Epirus ; Parnassus in Livadio ; Athos, and Hacmus. Athos is celebrated for its loftiness, and is inhabited by thousands of monks and hermits. France is bounded north by the British Channel, and the German Ocean, east by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, south by the Mediterranean and Spain, and west by the Bay of Biscay. Paris, the capital of France, is, next to London, the largest and most con- siderable city in Europe. It contains at this time immense collections of works of art, ancient and modern. The other principal towns of France are Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, and Lisle. The principal mountains in France are, the Alps, which divide it from Italy; and the Pyrennees, which divide it from Spaitl. The principal rivers are the Rhone, the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine, and the Sonmie. The Rhine forms the boundary between France and Germany. The canals in France are numerous ; the chief work of this kind is the canal of Languedoc, about 180 miles in length, connecting the Atlantic \vith the Mediterranean. Switzerland is bounded north by Germany and France, east by Austria, south by Italy, and west by France. Switzerland, remarkable for its mountains, is divided into thirteen cantons, Zurich, Berne, Underwalden, Zug, Schweitz, Basil, Glasis, Soleure, Uri, Appenzel, Lucerne, Friburg, and SchafFhausen. The prmcipal towns are Basil, Berne, Zurich, and Geneva. The sources of the Rhine and the Rhone, two of the grandest rivers in Europe, are to l)e found in the mountains of Switzerland. The lakes of Constance and Geneva have been long celebrated for their beauty. The Alps, which divide Switzerland from Italy ; the mountain of St. Gothard, in the canton of Uri ; and Mount Blanc, on the borders of Savoy, are the highest in Europe. Italy is bounded north by the Alps, east by the Gulf of Venice, and Bouth and west by the Mediterranean. Italy, the garden of Europe, the parent of the arts, and of ci^ilization, and once the mistress of the world, is still a fine, populous, and interesting coun- try, but inhabited by a race of people, who have become degenerated by superstition and political slavery. The Appenines form a grand cham of mountains, vdiich runs through almost the whole extent of Italy. Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is a celebrated volcanic mountain. But Vesuvius, compared with Mount Etna in Sicily, is but a small hill ; the circuit of Vesuvius is only thirty miles, that of Etna is one hundred and eighty. The lava of Vesuvius is sometimes thrown seven miles, that of Etna is frequently thrown thirty miles. Rome is the principal seat of the Pope's dominion. Si'ain is bounded north by the P3"rennces and the Bay of Biscay, east by the Mediterranean, south by the Atlantic, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean, and west by' Portugal and the Atlantic. Its chief towns are Madrid, the capital ; Barcelona, Seville, Corunna, and Cadiz, The principal rivers are, the Ebro, the Tagus, and the Douro. MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 401 •k On a promontory in the south of Spain stands Gibraltar, which has been in possession of the English for a century, and is so defended by nature and art as to be considered impregnable. Portugal, Uke Spain, has been enervated by its foreign possessions, and is now one of the most abject powers m Europe. The people are debased by indolence and superstition. It lies between Spain and the Atlantic, and is the most westerly kingdom in Europe. The chief to^vns are Lisbon, the capital; and Oporto, famous for its exports of wine. The United Kingdom op Great Britain and Ireland. — England is bounded north by Scotland, east by the German Sea, south by the British Channel, and west by St. George's Channel. • The Island of Great Britain is divided into England, Wales, and Scotland. It is six hundred miles long and three hundred broad ; and contains about twelve millions of inhabitants. Her wealth, the value of her manufactures, and the extent of her commerce, are unequalled. The intelligence and industry of her inhabitants, the excel- lent form of her political constitution, the just administration of her laws, and the independence arising from her insular situation, combine to render her an object of admiration to all other nations. London contains upwards of a million of inhabitants, is thirty miles in cir cumferencc, and is the largest and most opulent city in Europe. The principal towns, famous for their respective manufactures, are Bir- mingham and Sheffield, for cutlery and hardware ; Manchester for cotton goods ; and Leeds and Wakefield for woollen cloth. The great commercial sea-ports, besides London, are Liverpool, Bristol, Hull, Newcastle, White- haven, Yarmouth, and Poole. The dock-yards for the marine are Ports- mouth, Plymouth, and Chatham. The universities-are those of Oxford and Cambridge. The principal rivers in England are, the Severn, the Thames, the Humber, the Mersey, the Trent, and the Medway. The principal lakes are those in Cumberland, and Winander Mere in West- moreland. The Isle of Wight, on the south, is famous for its cultivation ; Jersey and Guernsey are near the coast of France. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea, Scotland, the northern division of Great Britain, is inhabited by a valiant, hardy, industrious, well informed, and temperate race of people. The most considerable towns in Scotland, are Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, famous for their universities ; and Glasgow no less for its extensive commerce. Ireland, lies west of England ; the chief towns are Dublin, the capital , Cork, Londonderry, and Belfast. '9- ASIA. Asia is bounded north by the Frozen Ocean, east by the Pacific Ocean and Bhering's Straits, south by the Indian Ocean, and west by Europe and the Red Sea. The southern Asiatics are in general effeminate, luxurious, hidolent, and servile ; but they evince considerable genius in various arts and sci- ences. 402 A SYSTEM OF The great inland seas, peculiar to Asia, are, the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea. The chief rivers of Asia are, the Kian Ku, the Koan Ho, the Lena, Ye- nisei, and the Ob, the Amur, the Burrampooter, the Ganges, the Euphrates, and the Indus. The Hinimaleh mountains, said to be the liighest on the globe, form the boundary between Hindoostan and Thibet ; the height of one of their peaks has been estimated at 27,550 feet above the level of the ocean. Asiatic Turkey. — Turkey in Asia is bounded north by the Black Sea, east hy Persia, south by Arabia and the Mediterranean, and west by the Archipelago and the Sea of Marmora. The climate of Turkey in A sia is deUghtful and salubrious ; but that dread- ful scourge to mankind, the plague, is rendered doubly destructive from the native indolence of the Turks, and from their superstitious belief in predesti- nation. It is divided into several provinces, as Natolia, Kaarman, Armenia, Min- grelia, &c. Armenia is also styled Turkomariia, to the south of which are Kurdistan and Irak Arabi, in which is the celebrated Bagdad. The ancient Mesopotamia, between tlie Tigris and Euphrates, corresponds v/ith Diarbeck or Algezira. Syria, or the ancient Canaan, is situated on the eastern extremities of the Mediterranean. These provinces are subdivided into diiferent governments under Pa- chas. The prevailing language is the Turkish, next to which is the Greek , but the Arabic, Syrian, Persian, and Armenian, are used in different parts. The principal cities are Smyrna, Aleppo, and Bagdad Balbcc and Palmyra are famous for their extensive ruins. The principal river in Asiatic Turkey is the Euphrates. Next to this is the. Tigris. The mountains in Asiatic Turkey have long been celebrated; these are Taurus, Ararat, and Libanus. The chief islands are, Mytelene, Scio, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, and Cy {)rus. Russia in Asia is bounded north by the Northern Ocean, east by the Pa- cific, south by Tartary, the Caspian Sea, and Persia, and west by Russia in Europe. This vast extent of northern Asia was first known by the name of Si- beria. It is divided into two great governments, that of Tobolsk in the west, and Ikurtsk in the east. The principal cit}'^ in Asiatic Russia is Astracan. The Kurilian islands belong to Asiatic Russia ; they extend from Kam- Bchatka to the land of Jesso. Thk Chinese Empire. — China is celebrated for its immense and industri- ous })opulation, for the variety of its manufactures and peculiar productions, for the excellence of its inland navigation, and for the jealous poUcy of its go- vernment towards other nations. This empire, the most ancient and populous in the world, consists of three prijicipal divisions, viz. China Proper ; the territory of the Manshurs and Mo- guls, on the nortli and west and the region of Thibet. MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 403 China Proper extends from the great wall in the north to the China Sea in the south ; and from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to Thibet. The chief cities are Pekin, Nankin, and Canton. The imperial canal intersects Cliina from north to south, and employed 30,000 men forty-three years for its construction. The largest of the Chinese islands, which are very numerous, and scattered ^ along the southern and eastern coast, are, Formosa and Hainan. The isles of Leoo-Keoo, between Formosa and Japan, constitute a small civilized kingdom subject to China. Chinese Tartary is included bfetween the great wall of China and Sibe- ria, and between the cloudy mountains and the Pacific Ocean, Chinese Tartary is inhabited chiefly by the Eastern and Western Moguls; the fonner conquered China in 1644, under whose government the empire still continues. The Island of Segalien, on Tchoka, belongs to Chinese Tartary. Thibet is included between China and Hindoostan. The chief town is Lasca. The islands contiguous to the Chinese Empire, besides those already no- ticed, are, 1. Those of Japan, forming an extensive, rich, populous, and remarkable empire. Th'e largest island is Niphon, and the chief town Jeddo ; Miaco, thje spiritual capital, and Nagaski. These islands trade only with the Dutch and Chinese. 2. The Jesso Islands, to which the Danes trade for furs. 3. !Macao lies in the Bay of Canton, and belongs to the Portuguese. There are many small isles dependent upon Japan, among which is Fatfi- sio, the place of exile for the disgraced grandees. The Birman Empire. — (^Malacca, Siam, Laos, Cambodia, Siampa, ar>xl Cochin-China.') — The Birmans are separated from the Hindoos by a very narrow range of mountains, but the dispositions of the two people are extreme- ly different. The Birmans are a lively inquisitive race, irascible and impar tient. The Binnan empire is divided from Asam on the north ; on the west a range of mountains separate it from the British dominions in Bengal. The capital city is Ava. Pegu, south of Ava, is supposed to be the Golden Chersonese of the ancients. This empire extends its dominions over Laos and Cambodia, and is divided by deserts and mountains from Cochin-China and Tonquin. Ava, the present capital, and Pegu, the former, are both going to decay. The Birmans, like the Chinese, have no coin ; but silver in bullion, and lead, are current. The forests in this empire are large and numerous ; the teak-tree is lord of them, and superior to the European oak. Malaya, or Malacca, is a large peninsula, containing several kingdoms and provinces. The inhabitants are called Malays or Malayans. This country is celebrated for its numerous wild elephants. Opposite to the coast of Malacca are the islands of Andaman and Ni- *,obar. On the barren isle to the east of the Amandans is a volcano which emits showers of red hot stones. The kingdom of Siam is situated in a large vale between two ridges of momitains. 404 A SYSTEM OF The River Meinam, which signifies the mother of waters, is celebrated among oriental rivers. The elephants of Siam are distinguished for sagacity and beauty. Cambodia is celebrated for the caraboge-gum. The chief river in Tonquin-China is Hole-Kian, which passes by Kesho. the capital. HiNDOOsTAN. — The population of Hindoostan, subject to Great Britain, amounts to fourteen millions; and the revenue derived from them is computed at four millions sterling. So great a power and revenue, main tained in so distant a country, is unexampled in ancient or modern times. British India consists of ceilain immense territories on the banks of the Ganges, of which Calcutta is the capital ; of other territories on the coast of Coromandel, of which Madras i.-^ the capital ; of the newly acquired island of Ceylon ; and of the island of Bombay. Persia is bounded north by the Caspian Sea and Tartary, east by Hiiv doostan, south by the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, and west by Arabia and Turkey. Persia is divided into the eastern and western ; and the provinces near the Caspian Sea, wliich have asserted a sort of independence. The principal towns and cities are Ispahan the capital, Teffliz, and Gomron. In Persia rivers and trees are very uncommon : hence the respect paid by the Persian monarchs to planes and other trees that diffuse their shade. The singular features of Persia are mountains and deserts. On tht western coast of the Caspian Sea, near Baku, arc foundations of naptha, or pure rock oil. The earth when dua two or three inches deep will easily take fire. Independent Tartary is bounded north by Asiatic Russia, east by eastern Tartary, south by Persia and Hindoostan, west by the Caspian Sea. This extensive region is celebrated as the seat of the most ancient Persian kingdom. It was afterwards distinguished by the wide empire of Jenghia and Timur. It gave birth to many ancient men of letters, among whom were Zoroaster and Abulguazi. Such is the hospitality of the Tartars, that all the families in the country seem to belong as but to one house. 1. The chief divisions of Independent Tartary are the barren plains in the north. 2. To the south of the Argun mountains is Great Bulcharia. 3. On the ^outh of the Ak-Tau mountains are the provinces of Sogd, (the capital of which is Samarcand,) Balk, and Gaur. The chief rivers are the Jihon and the Sirr or Sihon, and the most coiv siderable lake, or inland sea, is that of Aral. Arabia is bounded on the north by Turkey, east by the Gulf ^ Persia and Ormus, south by the Indian Ocean, and west by the Red Sea. The Arabians in general arc such robbers, that travellers and pilgrims are struck with terror on their approaches towards this country. The climate is very various : in some parts it is excessively hot and dry, and subject to poisonous winds. In other parts the soil is fertile, and the air is highly salubrious. In the desert, travellers are guided by the stars and con> pass, as mariners are at sea. Arabia is divided into three parts ; Arabia Stony, Arabia the Desert, and Arabia Happy. MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 405 Stony Arabia is a small province north of the Red Sea, between Egypt and Palestine. The chief town is Suez. Between the narrow branches of the northern extremity of the Red Sea, are, Mount Smai, and Mount Horeb : on which are several cells or chapels possessed by monks. Arabia the Desert is the middle part of the country, the inhabited parts of which Ue on the borders of the Red Sea. The chief towns are Mecx^a and Medina : the former the birth place of Mahomet, and the latter that at which he was buried. The famous temple at Mecca is called the Kaba or Caaba. Arabia Happy comprises the south-west part of the countr}^. The Eastern Archipelago is divided into : 1. The islands of Sunda, or the Sumatran chain, which comprise Suma- tra, Java, Balli, Lomboek, Florez, and Timor, with several other of less im- portance. 2. Borneo, and some smaller islands surrounding Borneo, is, excepting New- Holland, the largest island in the >vorld. 3. The Minihas or Phillipine islands, including Luzon, Mindonao, Palawa, Mindora. Pany, Negros, Zebu, Leyta and Samar, and several hundred smaller islands. 4. The Celebezian isles, viz. Celebes, Boutan, and the surrounding small islands. Boutan is governed by a Mahometan Sultan. 5. The spice islands, including the Moluccas : these are Gilola, Coram, Bouro, Oby, Amboyna, Banda, Tidore, Temate, &c. These famous islands produce nutmegs, cloves, and other valuable spices. Australasia contains the following islands : 1. New-Holland or Notasia, and all the islands between twenty degrees west, and between twenty or thirty degrees east of it. New-Holland is about three fourths as large as Europe. 2. Papua or New-Guinea, and the Papuan isles. 3. New Britain, New-Ireland, and the Solomon isles. ..-s- -i 4. New-Caledonia and the New-Hebrides. 5. New-Zealand. 6. Van Dieman's Land, which is separated from New-Holland by Basse's strait or channel, which is about thirty leagues wide. Polynesia consists, 1. Of the Pelew Islands. 2. Of the Ladrone or Marian Islands, the principal of which are Guan ■ and Tinian. 3. The Carolines, the largest of which are Hogolen and Yap. 4. The Sandwich Islands, discovered by Captain Cook, at one of which he lost liis life. 5. Tlie Marquesas, which are very numerous, but the largest island in Polynesians Owyhee, about 100 hundred miles in length. 6. T^ Society Islands are about sixty or seventy in number; the Ota- heite is fh^largest. 7. The Friendly Islands, and the Feejee Islands. 8. The Navigator's Islands, the principal of which is Maouiia. 406 A SYSTEM OF AMERICA. America was tinknown to the inhabitants of the other continent, till a little more than throe hundred years ago, Avhen it was discovered by Christopher Columbus ; and hence it is called the New World, in con- tradistinction to the eastern continent, first known, and hence called the Old World. It extends from Cape Horn, lat. 50° south, to the Frozen Ocean north, being upwards of 7,000 miles in length. Its breadth varies from 37 to 5,000 miles. It lies between the Atlantic on the east, and the Pacific on the west ; and is supposed to contain abont 35 millions of inhabitants. It is divided into North and South America, which are connected by the Isthmus of Darien. North America includes the United States, Spanish America, British America, and the independent Indian nations. The inland seas of ISforth America are the Gulfs of Mexico, CaUfornia, and St. Lawrence, with Hudson's Bay, and Davis's Straits. The Gulf of St. Lawrence is closed by the island of Newfoundland, and the great sand bank, about four hundred miles in length, celebrated for the cod-fisher}^ The Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, Winnipeg, and Sla\"e Lake, are the grandest in the world, and might with propriety be de- nominated seas. The rivers are also grand features of North America. Of these the prin- cipal are the Missouri and Mississippi, the Ohio and St. Lawrence. The most celebrated mountains arc the Apalachian, passing through the territory of the United States. The United States are bounded north by the River St. Lawrence and the Lakes, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains its northern boundary is in lat. 49° — from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, its northern boundary is in lat. 50° ; — On the east they are bounded by the Atlantic — on the south by the Gulf of Mexico — on the southwest by the River Sabine and Mexico — on the west by the Pacific ; extending from east to west, nearly G0° of longitude, about 2,700 miles. The Unite(l States are ccle])ratcd for the excellence of their constitution, which secures y)oUtieal lilierty, and individual securit}''. There are 24 independent States, which are divided into the New-Englarul (vr Eastern, the Middle, Southern and Western States : — the inhabitants at this day (1830) amount to about 12,000,000. Nexo-England comprises Maine, Vermont, New-Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Rhotie Island, and Connecticut. The Middle Division comprises New- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The Southern Division comprises Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. In this division is also included the Territory of Florida. The iVesicrn Division comprises Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Mississipj.i, Louisinna and Missouri. In this division are included the Territories of Michisan, Arkansaw, and Missouri ; and also the North West Territorv. MODERN GEOGRAPHY 407 Mexico, and Guatamala — in North America. — The most unfertile of these dominions is said to produce two crops of corn in a year ; the valleys are extremely rich, and produce spontaneously the fruits and vegetables coinmon to the most fruitful parts of the United States. The largest city in this country is Mexico, and the principal river and lake in these regions is the Rio Bravo del Norte, in Mexico ; and the lake known as the Nicaragua, in Guatamala. British Possessions in North America. — This part of North America is mountainous and barren, abounding, however, with lakes, rivers, and bays, that afford plenty of fish. The fur trade and fisheries render this colony ex- ceedingly valuable. The British dominions arc extensive, and include Upper and Lower Ca- nada, Nova Scotia, New-Brunswick, the island of Cape Breton, Newfound- land, the Bermudas, or Summer Islands. Native Tribes and Independent Countries. — These are, Greenland, Labrador, the regions around Hudson's Bay, those nations lately discovered by Sir A. Mackenzie, and those on the western coast. The West Indies. — The most important of these islands are Cuba, and Porto-Rico, Spanish ; St. Domingo, Free Blacks ; and Jamaica, Eng- lish. North of St. Domingo and Cuba, are the Balfeimas, the principal of which is Providence island. The Caribbec islands extend from Tobago, in the south, to the Virgin islands in the north. Those belonging to Britain arc, Barbadoes, Antigua, St. Christopher's, St. Vincent, Dominica, Granada, Trinidad, Montserrat, Nevis, and the Virgin isles. The French Carribbee islands are, Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Lucie, and Tobago. The Danes possess St. Croix and St. Thomas. St. Bartholomew belongs to the Swedes, and Eustatia to the Dutch. So^TH America comprehends. New Granada and Venezuela, now known as Colombia ; Guiana ; Peru ; Bolivia, or Upper Peru ; Amazonia ; Brazil ; La Plata, or Buenos Ayres ; Chili, and Patagonia. South America has no inland sea; but the River Amazon, and that cf La Plata, are celebrated as the largest in the world. The momitains of South America (excepting Hrmmaleh, in Asia,) are the loftiest on the whole face of the globe, and are intermixed with volca- noes of the most sublime and terrific description. The Andes follow the windings of the coast, and extend 4,600 miles. The highest are near the equator. In Chili it never rains, the sky is seldom cloudy, but the dews of the night supply the "Viant of rain. The Porraiguese territory of Brazil is, perhaps, equal in extent to what formerly was the Spanish, compensating by its breadth for its deficiency in length. The southern extremity of South America is Patagonia, a desolate country, inhabited by savage Indians, some of whom are of colossal stature. The islands contiguous to South America are, Trinidad, the Falkland Islands, and Terra del Fuego. The Galliapago Islands are near the equator, and the Pearl Islands lie in the bay of Panama. 408 A SYSTEM, &C. AFRICA. In Africa there are no inland seas, and but one letke of any great extent, viz. that of Maravi. The principal rivers are the Nile, the Niger, and the Senegal. The Atlas mountains have long been celebrated, and the mountains of the Moon are a lofty range. The most striking feature of Africa consists in its immense deserts, which, perhaps, comprise one half of the continent ; of these, Zaara is the chief. Africa may be considered in the followuig order : first, Abyssinia, then Egypt, the JNIahometan States in the north, the western coast, and the Cape of Good Hope : from thence proceeding along the eastern shores. The chief cities are. Grand Cairo, the capital, Alexandria, Rosetta, and Da- mietta. Rain is a very uncommon phenomenon in Egypt. The northern Mahometan states are, Tripoh, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco. They are chietly remarkable for their piracies. Benin, Loango, and Congo, present the most interesting objects in this wide extent of country. Zaara, or the Great Desert, .extends from the Atlantic to the Nile. CalFraria, or the land of Hottentots, extends to the Cape of Good Hope, the most southerly part of AfriCid. The Cape of Good Hope is a free port for all nations. The coasts of Mozambico and Zanguebar are succeeded by the desert re- gions of Ajan and Adel, which complete the circuit of Africa. The island of Madagascar is one of the largest in the world. Qn the west of Africa is^ St. Helena, an Enghsh colony, and a desirable port. The Cape de Verd Islands are ten in number, the two largest are St. Jago and St. Anthony. More northerly are the Canary or Fortunate Islands. Among these is the famous peak of Teneriffe. The island of Madeira, the last that is reckoned contiguous to Africa, is fa- mous for its wine. FINIS. ^ ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Founding of Ancient Rome. p. ST. vol. i. Cincinnatus at his Plough. p. 85 vol. i. Roman Agriculture. p. 256 1 m # ■'4# ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Olympic Games — Boxing, p. 51, vol. i. Regulus Defeats the Cartliagenians. p. 104. ^'<^>1. i. Olympic Games — Boxing p. 51. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYEP. vol. i. Olympic Games— Discus, p. 51 fol i. Pompilius Crowned King of Rome, p. 5S« vol. i. Leading to Sacrifice, p. 187. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Roman Emperor, Roman Senator. Roman General, Roman Soldier. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Spartans returning from the Messenian War 'ol. i. Royalty Abolished at Rome, p. 6^. | ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Defeat of the Persians by Alexander, p. 96. vol. i. Grecian Temple and Ruins. p. 191, vol. i. Front of a Grecian Temple, p. 191 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Grecian War Galley, p. 181. vol. i. Trojans Deceived by the Greeks. p. 42, vol. i. Ancient Grecian Building. p. 191> ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Cecrops colonizing Greece. p. 31. vol. i. Grecian Court — Areopagus. p. 179. vol. i, Grecian Sacrifices* p. 181, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Grecian Gymnasium. p. 175 vol. AchcBun League, '"k ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Vol. ii. Conversion of Constantine. p. 53. vol. ii. Peter Preaching to the Crusaders, p. 127. vol. ii. Talcing of Constantinople hy Mahomet, p. 185. ILLrSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Tower of London vol. ii. Edward IV. and Queen Margaret, p. 196, 2 % ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Tol. ii. King- Alfred in. Disguise. p. 113. v;j! i'. Queen lllh'zaheih and her At ;7n', ]>. ri'Xv ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED* vol.-ii. Penn's Treaty. p. 255 vol ii. Convention at Philadelphia, 1787. Per. X, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Tol. ii. Massacre at Fort Griswold. Per. X. M , wj (^■'M Ki^l I'r^^^ ^':^^^-^- :/:;■: ^'V- '>»i £^ "nq -■ :^l^^fl p^^^^a^^^'-S^S:^!^-''--^'^ " "- '""'"^ ^^i^^i'^^^^^^^?:r^-^'^w^emg^ Tol. ii. Death of Montgomery. Per. X. ILLTJ jSTRATIONri OF THE WOULD DISPLAYED. Cape Tow7i—Cape of Good Hope. Siberian mode of Travelling. Lapland Traveller. / I ILLTTSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Ladies and Gentlemen of South America. South American Indians. Hottentots. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. North American Indians. Scots. Danes South American GentUman. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Cossacks. Austrians. Swedes, Swiss. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Asiatics. Italians. Egyptian Peasants. Circassians, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Ancient Greeks. Dutch, A 1 s 1 ^8 ^^^M r % s w i 1 ^^^^5i^-''^/^> ^m ^M French. Japanese. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Greeks. Turks. ' Q^^^S ^^i |m8 ^ ^ImA^ wm^ Hh m Tartars. Arabians. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Gypsies. Nootkaians, Society Islanders. Sandwich Islanders, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Vulcan, p. 183. vol. i. Minerva, p. 183 vol. i. Juno. p. 183. voli. Venus, p. 183 vol. i. Diana, p. 184. # ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. Caliope* Clio.' Terpsichore* ^^^'^^'* * See Vol, i. p. 186 Erato* Euterpe.* Melpomene.* Polyhymnia.* Thalia.' S I — % ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Pluto, p. 185. vol. i. Furies, p. 185. >5^ vol. i. Charon. p. 185. vol. i. Fates, p. 185. v. i. Cupid, p. 185; v. i. Graces 186 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Ceres, p. 184. vol. i. Vesta, p. 184. vol. i. Neptune. p. 184. vol. i. Oceanus. p. 184. vol. i. Triton, p. 184. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Jupiter, p. 183. vol. i. Apollo, p. 183 {TV vol. i. Mercury, p. 183 vol. i Bacchus, p. 188 ILLUSTRATIOJfS OF THE WORLD DISPLAYED. vol. i. Cossar Passing the Rubicon. p. 135. vol. ii. Crowning of Charlemagne. p. 99. vol. i. Combat between the Horatii and ^i^iatii. p. 5i> o. >- 'i^-''' *' - #11^ X" "<<. .^^ ^ * A ^ ^^ '^ *<■» ^c... .Q ^. ci^ ^ / V> .<;n '^c.. ^^ .^^'' rO^ V \ I ^J c « " <- >? 'a o. ^ -r. 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