>:> ^ ^- a> Z> >> --*^^^'^^^:^ ^ ■7> ^> » J> UNITED STATES OF AMERSCA. f 1' ^^X2> __ *> s^ :^^ 3> ^2^ r^ ^ .^ > ^>=^3^:i>>:>^ :^j>- -^;;=<^^ :>3->i -ir> > :>.^ ^o::=> '^^rs :::s».:' 'i> >"^ a> >^ 2> I^'^ J>> 3> .2> > ' J> 3-^' ;2> T>^ ..2>- » j> ^.S- :>:>^ .^^.^ ^x5j> 3^ :2> I3B» 3^?^ ;>:» •''~X>^ i:s->^> >^ J3^ a> !^ ^-> ;>:» •::x>^ /^. ELEMENTS OP UNIVERSAL HISTOEY, ON A NEW AND SYSTEMATIC PLAT^; FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A SUMMARY OF THE LEADING EVENTS SINCE THAT PERIOD. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND OF PRIVATE STUDENTa BY m WHITE, B.A., Tiinity College, Cambridge. WITH ADDITIONS AND aUESTIONS, BY JOHN S. HART, A.M. Principal of the Philadelphia High School, and Professor of Moral and Mental Science, Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. PHILADELPHIA: LEA AND BLANCHARD. 1844. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by LEA AND BLANCHARD, in the clerk's office of the district court of the United States in and for the the eastern district of Pennsylvania. J. Fagan, Stereotyper. J. & W. Eite, Printers. (2) V4' ADVERTISEMENT TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. In presenting to the American public this excel- lent compend of Universal History, the original work is given entire, without abridgement or altera- tion. It has been thought advisable, however, to add a few pages to that part of the history which relates to the discovery and settlement of North America. The portions thus added are distinguished from the rest of the book by being enclosed in brackets. Numerous questions have been prepared for the purpose of facilitating its use as a Text- book in schools. Philadelphia, January, 1844. (3) PREFACE. This Volume contains a brief narrative of the principal events in the History of the World, from the earliest ages to the present time. With the view of facilitating the researches of the student, as vi'ell as of rendering the work more available for the purposes of tuition, the compiler has adopted the novel arrangement of a division into periods of centuries. This plan appeared to him likely to simplify the study of history, by its enabling the unprac- tised reader to synchronize facts, to group round one common centre the events occurring at the same time in various and some- times widely distant countries, and to prevent that confusion of dates and occurrences so common with those who have read his- tory in detached portions. As an initiatory work, he trusts that it will be found valuable in promoting a knowledge of one of the most useful branches of learning ; and it is accordingly presented to the Public, not without hope of indulgence and approbation. The writer lays no claim to originality : if he shall be pro- nounced fortunate in the choice and condensation of his materials, he will have attained the object of his wishes. He has consulted the best works in the English language, and acknowledges his great obligations to several of the more recent French and German writers. The references mtroduced into the body of the work serve to indicate the main sources from which his information has been derived ; and it is hoped they will also be serviceable to the student, by directing the course of his further researches, as well as inducing him to continue them in a more extended field. As to the method to be pursued in using this manual for the purposes of tuition, the compiler deems it unnecessary to offer any lengthened directions ; the experienced teacher will readily adopt that best suited to the capacities of those under his charge. The work may be used simply as a reading-book ; but a certain por- tion should be given out for the attentive study of the pupil, after which he should be questioned closely, not only as to the more 1 * (V)' VI PREFACE. general facts, but also the most trivial circumstances recorded. With this view, he might be required occasionally to return writ- ten answers to a series of questions somewhat like the following, which are selected from a list the Compiler has drawn up for the use of his own classes : — Origin of the Wars of the Roses, de- scribing also the principal events t — Attacks on the power of the English and Scotch aristocracy from 1450 to 1513? — Obstacles that Henry VII. encountered on ascending the throne ? — Number of wars between Charles V. and Francis I., with their principal events? — Causes that led to and favoured Reformation in Ger- many ? — Defects and good qualities of Elizabeth's administration ! and similar subjects. In these exercises, the pupil will of course be aided by the explanations and directions of the teacher, with reference to the authorities to be consulted. The importance of combining geographical with historical in- formation, will be readily appreciated, and the pupils should at all times be able to give at least a general description of the various countries and cities mentioned under each century. Those more advanced may from time to time be required to construct maps of — 1. The world, immediately after the dispersion, indicating the parts settled by the sons of Noah and their descendants ; 2. Em- pire of Alexander ; 3. Roman Empire under Augustus ; 4. Roman Empire at period of Barbarian Invasion ; 5. World in time of Charlemagne ; 6. Europe at Ottoman Invasion ; 7. Europe at breaking out of French Revolution. They may also be advan- tageously employed in forming synoptical tables, as indicated in the body of the Work. These may be increased or diminished at the option of the teacher ; but the design should ever be to make the scholar his own historian, and so to interest and exer- cise him in the study, as to impress the facts and dates perma- nently on his memory. January, 1843. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, Page II. PART FIRST.— ANCIENT HISTORY. FROM THE CREATION, 4004 B. C, TO THE PALL OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE, A. D. 476. PAGE 41st Century b.c. Creation of the World 13 9 th Century b. c. Death of Abel — Posterity of Adam — Sethborn 14 24th Century b. c. Universal Deluge ib. 23d Century b. c. Sacred History 15 China 16 Formation of Nations ib. 22d Century b. c. Egypt — Beginning of Genuine History 17 20th Century b. c. Sacred History 19 19th Century b. c. Egypt 20 18th Century b. c. Sacred History 21 Egypt.. ib. 17th Century b. c. Sacred History 22 Greece — Origin of the Greek Na- tions ib. 16th Century b.c. Sacred History 23 Greece 24 15th Century b. c. Sacred History 25 Egypt 27 Phoenicia ib. Greece 28 14th Century b. c. Judsea .29 Greece ib. 13th Century b.c. Judsea 30 Greece ib. 12th Century b. c. Judsea 31 Greece 32 11th Century b. c. Judsea 33 Greece 35 Grecian Colonies 36 10th Century b. c. Judsa 37 Greece 39 Syria 40 9th Century b. c. Judsea , 41 Greece 43 Carthage 44 Macedonia 45 8th Century b.c. Judaea 45 Greece 47 (vii) VIU CONTENTS. PAGE Assyria ^ 48 Lydia 51 Rome — Origin of the Roman People.^. 52 7th Century b. c, Judsea 53 Assyria 54 Media 55 Persia 56 Egypt 57 Greece 58 Rome 60 6th Century b. c. Judaea 61 Assyria 62 Persia 64 Egypt....... 66 Greece. 67 Rome 69 China 70 5th Century b, c. Judaea 71 Greece ib. Persia 77 Rome 78 Carthage 81 4th Century b. c. Greece 82 Arts, Literature and Science among the Greeks 89 Rome 91 Judsea 93 Persia 94 3d Century b..c. Rome 95 Greece and Macedon 98 Egypt 99 Parthia 100 FAGS 2d Century b. c. Rome 101 Judaea and Syria 110 1 st Century b. c. Rome 112 Second Literary Era 122 Judaea ib. CHRISTIAN ERA. 1st Century a. d. Rome 124 Judaea 128 History of the Church 131 Britain 133 2d Century a. d. Rome 134 The Church 137 ' 3d Century a. D. Rome 139 Palmyra. . . . . 143 Persia ib. Barbarian Invasions 144 , The Church.'. ib. ' 4th Century a. d. Rome 147 Eastern Empire ;...... 151 Western Empire 152 Barbaric Migrations 153 The Church 154 5th Century a. d. Division of the Empire 158 Eastern Empire 159 Western Empire 160 Venice 165 Gaul ib. Britain 166 The Church ib. Appendix to Part First — History of Literature 168 PART SECOND HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE, A.D. 476, TO THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. France 180 Spain :....... 183 6th Century a. d. Greek Empire 174 Persia 177 Italy 178 Britain 184 The Church.. 185 CONTENTS. IX 7th Century A. D. Greek Empire 186 Persia 188 Arabia 189 Italy 194^ France ■. 195 Spain 198 The Church ib. 8th Century a. d. Greek Empire 199 Arabia. 200 Spain 202 Italy 204 France 205 The World in the time of Charle- magne . 208 The Church 209 Appendix to Eighth Century — Fine Arts, from the Fall of Rome to Charlemagne 211 9th Century a. d. Greek Empire 212 Arabia 214 Spain 215 France 216 The Northmen 218 Germany 219 Italy 220 Britain 222 The Church 224 10th Century a.d. Greek Empire. 225 Italy 226 France 227 Germany 229 Britain 231 Spain . . , 232 Arabian Empire 233 The Church 234 The World at the End of the Tenth Century 235 11th Century a.d. Greek Empire 236 Italy 238 Germany 239 France 242 Spain 243 Arabian Empire 244 PAGE Britain 254 The Church • 249 The Crusades 251 State of the World at the Epoch of the Crusades, from 1096 to 1273 254 12th Century a.d. Greek Empire 255 The East 257 Italy ib. Germany 258 France 260 Spain 261 Britain ib. The Church 264 13th Century a. d. Greek Empire 266 Germany 268 Italy ..270 France : 275 Britain 278 Spanish Peninsula 279 The East 281 The Church 282 Crusades 284 14th Century a. d, Greek Empire 286 The East 287 Germany 288 Italian Peninsula 291 France 295 Britain 299 Spanish Peninsula 303 The Church .304 Inventions, &c 306 15th Century a. p. Greek Empire 307 Ottoman Empire and Turkey. . . 308 Germany - .311 France 316 Britain 321 Italian Peninsula 330 Spanish Peninsula 334 Discoveries and Colonies 339 The Church 341 Appendix to Part Second — Com- merce, the Progress of Learn- ing, Discoveries, &c 343 CO NTENTS. PART THIRD.— MODERN HISTORY. FROM THE BRA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OP THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FAGE 16th Century a. d. Britain.... 351 Ireland. 361 France 362 Italian Peninsula. 369 Spanish Peninsula 374 The Netherlands 376 Germany 378 Hungary and Bohemia 383 Poland and Russia 384 Denmark, Sweden and Norway. . 386 Ottoman Empire and the East . . . 387 Colonies and Discoveries 391 Discoveries and Settlements in North America 392 Tl^e Church. 395 Letters, Arts and Sciences 398 17th Century a. d. Great Britain. 401 France 407 Spain and Portugal 410 Italian Peninsula 41 1 Germany 412 Holland 414 Denmark 416 Sweden 417 Poland 419 Russia 421 Ottoman Empire 432 The East 423 Colonies 425 Settlement of the United States. . 426 The Church 430 Literature, Arts and Sciences ib. 18th Century a. d. Ghreat Britain 433 France 440 PAGE Spain 449 Portugal 452 Italian Peninsula 453 Germany » 455 Holland 459 Denmark 461 Sweden 463 Poland 465 Prussia ...... 468 Russia 471 Turkey 474 Persia 476 India 477 United States 481 Hayti 484 The Church 486 Literature, Arts and Sciences 487 19th Century a.d. Great Britain 491 France 496 Spain 504 Portugal 506 Italy 507 Germany 508 Holland 509 Denmark ib. Sweden 510 Prussia ib. Russia 511 Turkey 512 British India 513 United States 515 Brazil 517 Spanish Colonies ib. Literature, Arts and Sciences. ... 518 Conclusion 520 INTRODUCTION. Universal History is commonly divided into three portions : — I. Ancient History, which, beginning -with the creation of the world, 4004 b. c, terminates a. d. 476, in the destruction of the Roman empire. II. The Middle Ages, which extend from the fall of Rome, a. d. 476, to the discovery of America, a. d. 1492. III. Modern History, which commences at the latter epoch, and, if we do not distinguish it from Contemporaneous History, is continued to the present time. The events which mark the separation between the Mrst and Second periods, are the Irruption of the Barbarians, the conse- quent fall of the Western Empire, and the foundation of the modern European states ; between the Second and the Third are the extension of learning by the invention of printing, the taking of Constantinople, the maritime discoveries of Spain and Portu- gal, with the more extensive use of fire-arms. I. Ancient History may be subdivided into four periods :— 1. The Antediluvian, comprising the creation, th6 fall of man with its immediate train of consequences, and ending with the general deluge, 2348 b. c. 2. The Heroic, commencing with the establishment of the ear- liest empires and most ancient cities, and including the fabulous ages of Greece. 3. The Historic, which begins with the first Olympiad, 776 b. c, nearly synchronous with the foundation of Rome, 753 b. c, and comprises the legislative eras of Lycurgus and Solon, the rise and fall of the Persian monarchy, and the earlier part of Roman history to the end of the Punic wars. 4. The Roman, from the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c, to that of Rome, A. D. 476. . 11. The Middle Ages may be conveniently arranged in the fol- lowing six periods : — 1. The foundation of the modern states of Western Europe, a. d. 476-622, when the Saxons invaded Britain, 449; the Visigoths settled in Spain, 507 ; the Ostrogoths in Italy, 489 ; and the Franks began the formation of the French monarchy, a. d. 481. (xi) XU INTRODUCTION. 2. The second comprehends the age of Mohammed, with the propagation of his creed and the estabUshment of the states which embraced his religion, a. d. 622-800. 3. The third embraces the period when the empire of the West was partially restored in the Franko-Germanic dominions of Charlemagne, 800-936. 4. The fourth is the interesting period of the dark ages, 936- 1100, during which the monarchy of Charlemagne fell to ruin, the Capetian dynasty began to reign in Prance, Italy was parcelled out among a number of petty princes ; while in Germany Otho commenced the long-continued struggle against feudalism. 5. The ffth is the romantic or heroic period of the Crusades, 1096-1273, in which the Roman legal code, the foundation of great part of modern jurisprudence, began to be studied. 6. The sixth beheld the revival of the Fine Arts in Italy, the taking of Constantinople and consequent diffusion of its learned men, the revival of letters, the discovery of America, 1492, and the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, 1497. III. Modern Histort may be conveniently divided into six portions : — 1. The period of the Reformation, from its commencement by Luther in 1517, till the termination of the long series of Italian wars in 1559. 2. The period of the religious wars, particularly in France, from 1559 to the peace of Westphalia in 1648, which produced many important changes in Europe, 3. The period from 1648 to the death of Louis XIV. in 1715, during which Russia entered into the European commonwealth, and Great Britain began to assume preponderating influence on the Continent. 4. The fourth period terminates with the peace of Versailles, 1783, which established the independence of the United States, and during which Prussia became a first-rate power. 5. The French Revolution, from the meeting of the States- general in 1789, to the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815. 6. The period from the battle of Waterloo, 1815, to the present day. ELEMENTS UNIYEESAL HISTORY. PART FIRST. ANCIENT HISTORY. PEOM THE CREATION 4004, B. C. TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE, 476 A. D. FORTY-FIRST CENTURY. 4004, Creation of the World. Creation, 4004 b. c. — " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth," and by the power of his word, gave to a rude chaotic mass the admirable beauty and variety which now everywhere salute the eye. Man was formed the last and best of his works, in the image of his Maker, upright and happy, with powers of understanding and will. With his companion Eve, miraculously framed out of his own substance, he dwelt in the garden of Eden, where, yielding to the sug- gestions of the Tempter, he transgressed the divine commands, and incurred all the penalties due to the violation of a positive law. Sin with its mournful train entered into the world ; and though the Messiah was graciously promised, our first parents, being driven from Paradise, were condemned to a life of toil and to the forfeiture of immortality. Geologists assign a period to the earth far exceeding that given in the Mosaic records, and trace the various stages through which it is supposed to have passed from the time when the will of God called its rude germs into existence until the creation of man. Water first enveloped the nucleus of the earth ; a few shell-fish and plants composed the animal and vegetable Hfe. To these, after successive revolutions, were added the mollusca, fishes, and amphibious animals. These again made way for the sea-horses, whales, and others, whose huge carcasses were in their turn added to the solid matter of the globe, which was now beginning to produce vegetable substances adapted to the use and support of land-animals. The monsters of creation, such as the mammoth, were next called into existence, to disappear after an appointed period, when the present race of animals and man himself were to succeed. Such is the progress of creation as imagined by the persevering geologists of the last fifty years, which, far from contradicting the narrative of Moses, confirms our faith m its credibihty by actual observation of the earth's surface. 3 (13) 14 ANCIKNT HISTORY. THIRTY-NINTH CENTURY. 875, Death of Abel— Posterity of Adam— Seth, lorn 3874. Abel. — After his fall, Adam had two sons, Cain and Aoel ; the one a husbandman, the other a shepherd, and each as different from tne other in temper as in occupation. Filled with rage and jealousy at the acceptance of his brother's sacrifice, Cain put forth his hand and mur- dered him, 3875. Thus our first parent beheld the fruits of his disobe- dience, not only in the presence of death, till then unknown, but in his first-born becoming the minister of vengeance. The descendants of his third son, Seth, were as distinguished for piety, as those of Cain for irreligion ; the former were in consequence denominated the sons of God, the latter the sons of men. In the new world population rapidly increased ; fields were cultivated, cattle bred, and their skins used for clothing ; Jabal made the first tents ; musical instruments were the invention of Jubal; and Tubal- Cain (supposed by some to be the Vulcan of Pagan mythology) discovered the art of working in metals. Already the strong began to assume authority over the weak. The offering of expiatory sacrifwes and the sanctification of the sabbath originated in this early period. TWENTY-FOURTH CENTURY. 2348, Universal Deluge. Deluge. — The death of Adam (3074,) the translation of Enoch (3017,) the feebleness of the other patriarchs, and the luxuriant abundance of the earth, filled man's heart with presumption and guilt. Impiety made rapid progress, and like a contagious pestilence infected all the mass of society. In the midst of the general depravity one individual alone found grace in the eyes of the Lord. In the year of the world 1656, the whole of the human race was destroyed by a deluge, the only survivors \)emg Noah and his family, in all eight persons, who were preserved in an ark built in obedience to the divine command, 2348 b. c. On the subsiding of the waters, this vessel rested on Mount Ararat, in Arme- nia,* whence all the earth was again progressively peopled. The rain- bow was then appointed as a covenant between God and man, that there should not be any more flood to destroy the earth. One of the most remarkable effects of the Deluge was the rapid decrease of the duration of human life. The ten antediluvian patriarchs Hved on an average 850 years each, while their immediate successors did not exceed 320. But under a favourable climate and with an increasing population, the arts soon reached a high state of perfection. The longevity of the postdiluvian patriarchs had the effect of maintaining the natural authority of the parent, while it also tended to repress the fickle passions of youth. When God' a more immediate protection was removed, the span of life was contracted ; and * This celebrated mountain is situated in 39° 42' N. 44° 18' E. nearly in the centre between the southern extremities of the Euxine and the Caspian seas, and is visible at the distance of 160 or 200 miles. Spreading its broad base along the plain of the Araxes, it rises in majestic grandeur 17,260 feet above the level of the sea, the whole of its upper region being covered with perpetual snow. It is regarded with the greatest veneration by the natives, who have many religious establishments in its vicinity. TWENTY-THIRD CENTURY B. C. 15 now its very brevity gives vigour to all the efforts of society, and the rapid change of actors inspires each with a hope of excelling in his own brief stage.* TWENTY-THIRD CENTURY. Sacked Histokt. — Dispersion of Mankind — Formationof Nations— 2247, Babel— Nimrod founds the Chaldean Monarchy, 2234. China.— First dynasty : Fohi, 2207. Sacred History. The Dispersion. — ^The distribution of the world among the children of Noah was not made at random ; for as early as the third generation after the Flood, it was arranged by the patriarch under the immediate direction of God. By this division Europe and Northern Asia fell to Japhet; Central Asia to Shem; and to Ham were assigned the distant regions of Africa. But violence was early used to derange this parti- tion ; Nimrod, the Belus of profane writers, expelled Ashur from the land of Shinar, and Canaan, the son of Ham, seized upon Palestine, which belonged to Shem. In the subsequent expulsion of the Canaan- ites by the Hebrews, we behold the certain though tardy retribution of the Almighty. Babel, 2247. — The descendants of Cush, who had refused to follow the rest of the children of Ham into Africa, seized upon the fertile plains of Shinar, where under Nimrod they began to build the tower of Babel, and lay the foundation of a permanent monarchy. But, lest the pro- gress of the infant society of the v/orld should be crushed by an oppres- sive despotism, God confounded their language and scattered them over the face of the earth. Around that remarkable edificef t)ie magnificent city of Babylon was afterwards raised (32° 25' N. 44° E.) Assyria and Babylon. — Rejecting the narratives of the Greeks, which appear to have no better basis than a vague and popular tradition, we learn from the Scripture history that Ashur, being supplanted by Nimrod, retired towards the mountains, and built a city of defence on the left bank of the Tigris, which afterwards, under the appellation of Nineveh, became the seat of empire about the year 2234. Incessant ♦There is much difference of opinion as to the precise epoch of the Deluge. It is fixed by the learned authors of VArt de verifier les Dates at 3308 b. c, by the Septuagint text at 3246, both of which nearly concur with the beginning of the Hindoo Kali Yug. 3101 B. c. The period assigned to the creation is equally unsettled; and more than 200 dates have been collected by Desvignoles, ranging from 6984 to 3483, b. o. fThe remains of the Tower of Babel are supposed still to exist in the Birs Kemroud, on the western bank of the Euphrates, about six miles to the south-west of Hillah. Mr. Rich describes this venerable ruin as a prodigious mound, nearly half a mile in circum- ference and 198 feet in height ; on its summit is a solid pile of brick, 37 feet high by 28 in breadth, shattered at the top, and rent by a large fissure. Around it lie immense frag- ments of brick-work, of no determinate figure, and converted into solid vitrified masses, as if they had undergone the action of the fiercest fire. Nebuchadnezzar, about 600 b. c. formed it into that celebrated tower, which was reckoned among the wonders of the world. When Alexander the Great undertook to restore it to its former splendour, 10,000 men were occupied two months in clearing away the ruins caused by the devastations of Xerxes. The building was probably intended for a fire-tower, on which to offer sacri> fices to the Sun (Bel or Haul]. 16 ANCIENT HISTORY. hostility prevailed for centuries between the Babylonians and Assyrians, who had not all left the plains of Shinar (Mesopotamia.) The name of Babylon does not again occur in authentic histoiy until the 8th century b. c, shortly before the time of Nebuchadnezzar, under whom it became the capital of an extensive monarchy. The Chasdim (descend- ants of Cush) who still remained, were known as the Chaldeans, pro- bably a caste of priests, renowned for their scientific attainments. CHINA. FoHi. — ^Though it is difficult to assign a fixed epoch for the com- mencement of Chinese history, we must reject the exaggerated state- ments which give a duration to the empire of nearly 280,000 years. It is probable that the Eastern parts of Asia were visited early, and that the immediate posterity of Noah descended from the central mountains to those fertile plains which are traversed from west to east by the Hoang-Ho and the Kiang, and laid the foundations of a regular society under the celebrated Fohi, 2207. By him the people were divided into a hundred families, each having, as at present, a particular name ; the sacred rites of marriage were enforced ; the land was cultivated, cattle bred, and metals forged. He died in the 115th year of his reign. The existence of Fohi, and the chronological list of his successors given by Chinese writers down to the third century b. c, are questioned by the critics of modern days, who treat as fables every thing that is transmitted in the national annals before that period. Fohi is supposed by some to be only another name for Noah. Formation of ITations. All the various races that people the earth's surface sprirtg from the three sons of Noah, and are divided into three corresponding branches. I. Japhet may be regarded as the parent of the White or Caucasian branch, which spread over most part of Europe, S. Asia, and N. Africa. It admits of three subdivisions : — a. — The Arameans, a race dwelling between the Euphrates and the Medi- terranean, including the Arabs, Egyptians, and Abyssinians ; h. — Indians, Pdasgians, and Germans, from whom are descended the inhabitants of India, and of great part of Europe ; c. — Scythians and Tartars, or the people bordering on the Caspian Sea, among whom are the Turks, Hungarians, and Finns. II. Shem is the parent stock of the tawny, olive, or Mongol race, which admits of six divisions : — a. — The Mantchoos in Central Asia; 6. — The Chinese in China and Japan ; c. — The Hyperboreans, who peopled the extreme north of Europe, Asia, and America, such as the Laplanders, Samoeids and Esquimaux. d. — The Malays in Malacca, and those islands comprehended in the term Malasia, the chief of which are Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes. e. — The Oceanians, differing little from the preceding, inhabit the numerous small islands lying in a S. E. direction between Japan and the equator, with New Zealand, the Sandwich, and the Society Islands. /. — Americans, or copper coloured Indians, who composed the primitive population of the New World. III. Ham was the father of the Hack race, which may be subdivided into,- a. — The Ethiopians in Central Africa ; h. — The Caffres on the south-eastern coast , c. — The Hottentots of the South of Africa. TWENTY-SECOND CENTURY E. C. it Both tradition and history point to the remote East as the storehouse of the human race. From the table-land in the vicinity of Balkh, in more recent times, issued the Huns, Avars, Magyars, Mongols, and Turks ; and modern researches derive the Hindoos from the same locality. Traces of three primeval languages may also be found : — 1. The Arabic or Clmldee, from which spring the dialects used by the Assyrians, Arabs, and Jews; — 2. From the Sanscrit, radically different from the Arabic, spring the Greek. Latin, and Celtic dialects, the Persian, Armenian, and old Egyptian : — 3. From the Slavonic or Tartarian, essentially different from the two pre- ceding, are ibrmed the various dialects of northern Asia and north-eastern Europe. The Hindoos preserve a tradition that there v?ere originally eighteen languages. Modern naturalists, confining their view to the animal nature of man and taking no account of language or of the minor and superficial varieties in the exterior, admit at present oijive races: — Caucasian, Negro, Tartar, American, Malay. Consult : BufTon's Natural History, vol. i. TWENTY-SECOND CENTURY. Egypt.— -2188, Menes— Beginning of Genuine History. Preliminary Observations. Great obscurity covers the early part of Egyptian history ; the account given by Moses has reference merely to his own age ; and the information acrived from Herodotus, Manetho, and others, tends rather to confuse than enlighten us. The sacred island of Meroe, formed by the confluence of the Astaboras and the Astapus (the Tacazze and the Blue River) with the Nile, appears to have been the centre of commercial and religious resort. Thence the primitive civilizers of .mankind, bearing with them the worship of Ammon and Osiris, the arts of life, the habits of trade, and, above all, the science and implements of agriculture, gradually spread their industrious colonies down the Nile. In some parts they found a rude race already settled (probably some pastoral Arab tribes who had come round by the way of the isthmus), and over whom- they assumed the ascendant of superior civilisation, and formed a higher caste. At an early period the mountains which skirt the fertile plains of Thebes, were excavated into dwellings for themselves and their gods; whence, gra- dually spreading over the intervening plain, they laid the foundations of the •' hundred-gated city." Sacerdotal colonies, forming separate names, gradually fixed themselves in all places suited for agriculture or traffic ; the temple, col- lege, and mart, became a new city, and perhaps a kingdom. Almost every ancifent city bore the name of its god, as Diospolis {Thebes), Heliopolis (On), Hephaistopolis {Memphis), and many others. Menes. — Egyptian history, properly so called, begins with this sove- reign, when the sacerdotal form of government was changed into the monarchical, or the reign of the gods gave way to that of men. This first mortal king has been identified by many chronologers, on insuffi- cient grounds, with the Mizraim of the Scriptures. Others have sup- posed him to be the same as Osiris, Osymandyas, Uchoreus, and Moeris. Of Menes or of his age we have only a few vague traditions. Herodotus ascribes to him the construction of a vast dam or mound, by which the course of the Nile was altered and confined and Memphis secured against inundation. Diodorus says that he taught the people to worship fhe gods and offer sacrifice, and that he introduced luxury and a sumptuous style of living. From Menes, to Moeris in the eighteenth dynasty, there 2* 18 ANCIENT HISTORY, is a wide chasm, feebly supplied by the scattered notices in the Penta- teuch. The priests read to Herodotus a fabulous roll of 330 inglorious monarchs, eighteen of whom were Ethiopians, with one queen, named Nitocris. Religion. — The main doctrine of the Egyptian religion was the transmigra- tions of souls to an inferior or superior state of bemg, according as a man pursued vice or virtue during his life. The principal divinities of Egypt were Kneph, the creator of the universe, represented under the figure of a serpent ; Phtha, the vivifying power of nature, whom, owing to his symbol, fire, the Greeks confounded with Vulcan; Osiris, or the Sun; and Isis, or the Moon. The heavenly bodies were regarded as the great causes of nutrition and genera- tion. Terrestrial and mortal divinities were also worshipped, many ofwhom had been kings, and were thus honoured as gods, for the benefits they cpnferred on their subjects during fife. Baby or Typhon was detested as the murderer of Osiris and the scourge of his family and nation. Horus, Thoth, Serapis, and Anubis were other of their deities. The religious extravagance of the Egyp- tians accorded divine honours to many animals and vegetables. Cats were held especially sacred, and their death was mourned by shaving the eyebrows. The preservation of this animal during a conflagration was of more importance than that of a house ; and for having killed one undesignedly, a soldier in the army of Antony was torn in pieces by the enraged multitude. The bull Apis was worshipped in a magnificent temple, and by the noblest priests. His death was considered a national calamity, and the installation of his successor at Memphis was a universal hohday. By their long residence in Egypt the Israehtes had gradually acquired many of the religious notions peculiar to the country ; hence the molten calf set up in the desert, and the golden calves worshipped at Bethel and Dan, under Jeroboam, were representations of the Egyptian Apis. Government. — The 30,000 years of the reign of the Sun, the 3984 of the twelve gods, and 217 of the demigods, are either an allegory or an astronomical problem converted into history. The earliest form of government of which we can speak with any certainty was sacerdotal, which was followed by the regal. The population was divided into castes, as in Hindostan at the present day ; tlie priesthood were in the first rank, the soldiers in the second, then followed the husbandmen, traders, and artificers ; sailors and shepherds formed the lowest. The country was originally divided into names or districts, each so distinguished from the others by various local usages and objects of worship, as to lead to the conjecture that they once formed permanent and independent states._ The four principal dynasties were those of Tanis, Memphis, Thebes, and This. Arts and Sciences. — The Egyptians, at an early period, had made astonish- ing progress in certain sciences. The contention of the necromancers with Moses shows the great advances they had made in natural magic, — namely, physics and chemistry. Geometry was rendered necessary by the destruction of the landmarks in the annual inundation of the Nile. Architecture was car- ried to great perfection ; the construction of the arch was not unknown, and Mr. (now Sir J. G.) Wilkinson places its introduction so far back as 1540 b. c., coeval with the eighteenth dynasty ; and the stupendous pyramids, while they astonish the traveller by their magnitude, attest the astronomical skill of their builders. Each side of the base of the great pyramid, multiplied by 500, pro- duces a geographical degree. Some writers are of opinion that these monu- ments were built before the Flood. It is not improbable that they were erected to gratify the pride, or satisfy the superstition of the Egyptian monarchs. The temples and palaces of Thebes are colossal, but ill proportioned ; the ground is in many places strewed with massy obelisks formed of a single stone ; and avenues of sphinxes still direct to the centre of religious worship. The walla and ceilings of pubhc and private buildings are covered with paintings, as fresh as when first executed ; but the four simple and unmixed colours which are used declare ti.e infancy of the art. HiERO&LYPHics. — The sanguine anticipations of the learned appear to be dis- appointed by the meagre results obtained from deciphering the Egyptian writ- ings, whether on stone or papyrus. The hieroglyphs (sacred engraved characters) TWENTIETH CENTURY B. C. 19 are a kind of allegorical picture-writing, in which the signs borrowed from natural objects serve partly to represent sounds, and partly to express ideas. There are two other species of writing : — the hieratic, conlined to the priests ; and the demotic, used in common life — both apparently ruiming hands derived from the hierogiypiiic system. TWENTIETH CENTURY. Sacred History. — 1921, Call of Abraham — Destruction of Sodom.— 196S, Ninus supposed to reign in Assyria. Abraham, of the race of Shem, was born in Ur of the Chaldees. Although connected with the idolatrous fire-worship of his native coun- try, he possessed some knowledge of the true God, for he obeyed the divine command without hesitation, and moved westward to Haran, that Charrse famous for the defeat and death of Crassus. Passing the Euphrates, he at last, after various wanderings, settled in the Promised Land. The kings of the Pentapolis having revolted against Chedor- laomer,-king of Elara (Elymais,) that monarch was obliged to take up arms against them, in order to preserve the fidelity of the adjoining states. He defeated the allied army and captured Lot, the nephew of Abraham, by whom he was shortly after rescued, 1913. Returning from his victory over the Elamites, he was met by Melchizedek king of Salem, priest of the Most High, who blessed him and received in return a tithe of the spoil, as an offering to the God who had crowned the undertaking with success. But the piety of the patriarch was unable to avert the destruction of the Cities of the Plain, 1897. Jehovah rained down fire and brimstone from heaven, and the Dead Sea now covers the ruins of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim. On the birth of Isaac (1896,) the mother urged Abraham to drive out Hagar with the child Ishmael, which she had born him, lest he should share the paternal heritage. The two exiles retired to the desert, where the youth m.arried an Egyptian woman, and his descendants are, to this day, a living wit- ness to the truth of the prophecy of the angel, — he loill be a wild man, his hand will be against evert/ man, and every mail's hand against him, — Persians, Greeks and Romans, Mongols and Tartars, having vainly endeavoured to subdue them. The Hejazite kings of Arabia, to whose dynasty Mohammed belonged, reckon the son of Hagar- among their ancestors. When Isaac was little more than twenty years of age, God demanded him as a burnt-sacrifice; but the faith of the patriarch prevented the consummation of the painful duty, and the covenant made before Abra- ham quitted Chaldea was renewed in stronger terms, 1873. This father of the faithful expired at the age of 175, b. c. 1821, leaving behind him a numerous family. Besides the Israelites and Ishraaelites, he was, by his second wife Keturah, the ancestor of the Midianites and several d'ther Arab tribes. 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. Character of Abraham. In whatever light we view the patriarch, we remark traits of grandeur that Elace him beside the great heroes of antiquity. He was a despotic king oyer is descendants and slaves, without the inconvenient title and ceremonies. Princes sought his alliance, as their equal ; hke a modern sheik, he made peace or war as he pleased. Possessing countless herds, the only riches of the age, he hved in abundance, rejecting ail presents, lest any should boast that he had enriched himself by them. As a religious man, he had the most imphcit con- fidence in the promises of God, and was always resigned to his commands, even to the sacrifice of his only son. As soon as the Almighty spoke, he believed against all appearances, hoped even against hope, and obeyed in spite of the strongest afiections of our nature. He was a man of divine mould, the model as well as the father of all true believers. NINETEENTH CENTURY. Egypt. — Invasion of the Shepherds. Greece. — 1856, Kingdom of Argos founded by Inachus. Shepherd Kings. — ^The invasion of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings is an event of great importance in Egyptian history, hut much uncer- tainty exists as to the period v^hen it took place. We learn that, in the reign of Timaos (Thammuz), Egypt was invaded by a pastoral tribe, ■who, after subduing the lower country, extended their ravages to the Thebais, which, however, they could not reduce, and where a native dynasty long continued to reign. They are said to have made Memphis their capital, and to have established a fortified camp at Abaris (Pelu- sium.) in the Saitic nome, where they stationed 240,000 men. These invaders are represented on the monuments with tattooed limbs and skin garments, and as preserving their wild habits and rudeness until their expulsion. This event took place under the first of the eighteenth dynasty of Thebes, 260 years after the inroad. Amosis, or Thoutmosis, raised the country from its prostrate state, and formed one compact king- dom with Thebes for its capital. This period of Egyptian history is greatly confused, as much from the want of information as from contradictory accounts. Heeren places the Shepherd dominion between 1800 and 1600 b. c. contemporary with Moses and the Exodus; he also supposes a number of successive invasions. Dr. Hales assigns 2159 b. c. for the epoch of the Pastoral Kings, and supposes them to have been expelled about 27 years before the commencement of Joseph's administration. The authors of the Universal History, following Josephus, give a duration of more than 500 years to this dynasty. Rollin places them between 2084 and 1825 b. c, and makes Abraham visit Egypt under one of these foreign kings. The Jewish annahst maintains that these exterminating invaders are merely the 70 peaceful members who formed the family of his ancestor Jacob. The red hair and blue eyes of the Hyksos seem to indicate a northern and probably a Scythian origin; they certainly have nothing of the Arabian character. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY B, C. 21 EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. Sacked Histoky. — 1837, 6. Esau and Jacob — 1728, Joseph in Egypt.— 1706, Israelites settled in Goshen. Egypt. — Foreign Intercourse. Sacred History. The life of Isaac was not eventful. He dwelt within the borders of the Promised Land, where he practised agriculture, and became so wealthy as to excite the jealousy of the neighbouring princes. By his prudence he averted the calamities of war, and renewed the treaty that had been concluded between his father and Abimelech. His two sons, Esau and Jacob, were men of different characters : the elder applied himself to the cultivation of the soil, and by the active pleasures of the chase acquired a hardy frame of body ; Jacob, on account of his mild and peaceful manners, was the object of his mother's peculiar affection. The latter defrauded Esau of his father's benediction, and was obliged to flee from his just resentment. In his journey toward Mesopotamia, 1760, he was visited by God in his sleep, who promised him a numerous posterity, as well as the possession of the land of Canaan. On the death of Isaac, at the age of 180 years, the two brothers divided the inheritance; the younger remained in the land of Canaan, while the other returned to the country which had derived from him the name of Edom {red.) His numerous posterity occupied that part of Idumea called Jmalekiiis, fro4n a descendant of Ham, or, according to some, from Amalek, the grandson of Esau. Joseph. — ^The twelve sons of Jacob did not all imitate the piety of their father. One of the number, Joseph, became the victim of their jealousy, and at the age of seventeen was sold by them to a caravan of Ishmaelites who were on their v/ay to Egypt, 1728. Here he speedily rose to honour, became the minister of Thoutmosis, the reigning pharaoh, and by his foresight he preserved the country from famine during seven years of sterility. He strengthened the royal power, and secured the comforts of the people, by establishing a fixed land-tax or rent of one- fifth of the produce instead of the previous arbitrary exactions. His own influence was confirmed by a marriage with the daughter of the priest of On ; and the government, which had been theocratic and mili- tary, now became entirely sacerdotal. Jacob, with all his family, were soon after settled in the land of Goshen, 1706, which not only afforded excellent pasture, but was separated by its remoteness from the Egyp- tians, who had recently suffered too much from the Shepherd Kings to associate readily with those who followed the same occupation. By this means also the exposed frontier was confided to the protection of a hardy and warlike race. EGYPT. The state of Memphis, in which Joseph resided, comprised at this period Middle and Lower Egypt ; and the Mosaic records prove that it contained a brilliant court, with its castes of priests and warriors. Thoutmosis reigned twenty-five years after the expulsion of the Shep- 22 ^ ANCIENT HISTORY. herd dynasty. Among his successors is reckoned Mceris, who is said to have excavated the great lake which bears his name. This century witnessed the first communication between the Hebrews, Greeks, and Egyptians. Joseph and the twelve patriarchs on the one side, a King of Thessaly and the Titans on the other, sought an asylum in Egypt. The Israelites were then a mere nomad tribe, like the Arabs at the present day ; the Greeks were Scythians or Pelasgians ; both ■were new people: while the Chaldeans, the Sidonians, and the Egyp- tians, were skilled in astronomy and navigation, and learned in theology, morals, politics, the art of war, and maritime commerce. During their stay in Egypt, the Greeks and Hebrews derived from a common source their first learning, subject to the various influences of the climate and superstitions of the countries to which they removed. Read : Russel's Ancient and Modern Egypt in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, and Wilkinson's Manners of the Egyptians. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Sacked History. — 1635, Death of Joseph. Gkeece. — The Pelasgi — Sicyon. Sacred History. The settlement of the Jewish people in Egypt tended in some degree to recall them from their nomad state. The patriatch Jacob lived only seventeen years to enjoy the presence of his son Joseph, and witness the happiness of his family. He died in 1689 b. c, at the age of 147, blessing his children, and foretelling the birth of the Messiah from the race of Judah. His favourite son survived fifty- four years, and saw his descendants in the fourth generation. He expired in 1635, regretted by all Egypt, and with him terminates the history of the book of Genesis, containing a period of 2369 years. In the division of the Promised Land, Ephraim and Manasseh, the sons of this patriarch, ranked as heads of tribes, on an equality with the eleven sons of Jacob. GREECE. Origin of the Greek Nations. The first settlers of Greece were lonians, a Felasgic race, who derived their name from Javan (Heb. Jon,) son of Japhet. He is mentioned in Genesis as among those by whom the isles of the Gentiles were, divided in their lands, and Greece is called Javan several times in the sacred Scriptures. The Hellenes, if not an offshoot of the Pelasgians, were also of eastern origin, and by these two were the different states of the Archipelago originally formed. There was also a continual influx ot the wandering hordes of the north. Scythia then, as in latter times, supplied abundant streams of barbarians, who sought a milder climate and a n;nre fertile soil than their own. These nomad tribes, like the Indians of America, subsisted on the produce of the chase or the wild fruits of the woods ; but we are entirely ignorant of their history, man- ners, and religion. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY B. C. 23 The Pelasgians have left an imperishable record in the numerous buildings that bear their name. In the ruins of the fortifications of Lycosura we see all that remains of the oldest Greek city. Their ma- sonry was polygonal, each stone fitting into the other without cement. The Cyclopean walls, often confounded with the Pelasgic, are at least four or five centuries later. While these primitive tribes remained in a savage state of ignorance, the arts and sciences were advancing to perfection in the East. The troubles in Egypt, consequent upon the invasion of the shepherd races, compelled great numbers to seek peace and tranquillity beyond the sea, and by them settlements were formed in Peloponnesus and Northern Greece. Their knowledge was communicated by degrees to the inhab- itants of the country, who at last were civilized. The first care of Ina- chus, who arrived in Argolis about 1856 b. c, was to raise a temple to Apollo on Mount Lycaon. Cecrops, from the nome of Sais, pursued a similar course in order to reclaim the uncivilized inhabitants of Attica, 1556.* Although many of the primitive Greeks had withdrawn into the mountains of Arcadia, as the ancient Britons retired into the fastnesses of Wales, yet they generally adopted the Egyptian laws and institu- tions, which they cherished and long preserved with devoted constancy. The paintings still seen on the Egyptian monuments (see Rosellini) form a complete illustration of the Works and Days of Hesiod. The Phoenicians were the next colonists, but with a different object. Their vessels infested the Grecian coasts, ravaging and plundering the adjacent towns, and carrying the inhabitants into slavery. Their very name, among the early Greeks, like the Funic faith of the Romans, was expressive of fraud, deceit, and treachery. Consult: Thirlwall's Hist. Greece, vol. i. Lardner's Cabinet Cydopmdia. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Sacked History. — 1581, Birth of Moses — Job. drUEECE.— 1556, Cecrops — Deluge of Deucalion — Amphictyonic Council. Sacred History. MosES. — After the death of Joseph in 1635, the Israelites increased so rapidly in numbers and in strength as to excite the fears of the reigning monarch. The ordinary modes of diminishing the population proving inefficient, the pharaoh commanded all the male children to be slain as soon as born. The aflfection of Jochebed preserved her son Moses for three months, when the fear of discovery at last compelled her to expose him on the banks of the Nile, 1571. Here he was providentially seen * The reign of Cecrops is the first epoch, 1581, in the Arundelian (or Parian) marbles. These are an Athenian chronicle, graven on marble in Greek capitals, found at the be- ginning of the 17th century in the island of Paros, one of the Cyclades, and transported to England by Thomas earl of Arundel, whose grandson presented them to the Univer- sity of Oxford. The chronicle, the authenticity of which now begins to be questioned, was engraved 264 b. c. It has been frequently printed. 24 ANCIENT HISTORY. and rescued by the king's daughter, Therrautis, who brought him up as her own child, and educated him in all the learning of her country. Having slain an Egyptian who was maltreating a Hebrew, he was compelled to flee for refuge into the land of Midian, near the Red Sea, 1531 B. c, where he resided forty years. While tending the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law, in the desert, he received a summons from the Almighty to return into Egypt, and lead his chosen people from their land of bondage, 1491 b. c. Job. — This patriarch, whose name has become a synonym with patience, was born and dwelt in the land of Idumea (Uz.) Reduced to extreme poverty, bereft of all his children in one day, his body covered with sores, and lying on a dunghill, he still put his confidence in God. Virtue so great could not fail to meet with its reward ; hence his tem- poral blessings were restored tenfold, and he ended his life in peace and tranquillity. Following the Bible chronology, we have placed the epoch of Job, 1520 B. c, much later than the internal evidence seems to justify. Some make the Idumeans who plundered him to be the Hyksos on their way to Egypt. Dr. Hales, and Dr. Brinkley the late bishop of Cloyne, give the date of 2337 b. c. Ducoutant places him in 2136 b. c, while the learned authors of VArt de verifier les Dates make him flourish between 1725 and 1685 b. c. ; others bring him lower still, even to 894 B. c. Consult: Wemyss' Job and his Times and Russell's Connection of Sacred and Profane History, vols i. & iii. GREECE. While Argolis advanced in civilization under the family of Inachus, PhegaB in Arcadia, Mycenae in Argolis, and Sparta, were founded by the chiefs whose names they bear. In the space of 313 years, four colonies were established in Thessaly and Arcadia, by three different princes known by the same apellation, Pelasgus. The first dynasty of the Shepherd Kings of Egypt becoming extinct in the person of their sixth monarch, the changes which ensued gave birth to many emigrations, among others to that of Ogyges, in whose reign over Attica and Bceotia, the lake Copais burst its banks and destroyed two cities which this monarch had founded near its shores. The remote period, however, at which this event took place, has caused all the traditions of the primi- tive ages of Greece to be distinguished by the term Ogygian. In the time of Sylla, a festival was still celebrated at Athens commemorative of the catastrophe. Somewhat later occurred the deluge of Deacalion, which appears to have been confined to Thessaly, and to have been caused by a convulsion of the earth which stopped up the course of the Peneus, as it flowed between Olympus and Ossa, 1529 b. c. The same flood drove the Hellenes from Phocis, whence passing into Thes- saly, they expelled the Pelasgi, and afterwards spread through all Greece. Amphictyon. — In 1521 b. c, Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion, established the celebrated council which bears his name, — an institution not unlike the modern German Diet, — ^by which the various Hellenic states of Greece were united in the bonds of a common alliance, for the FIFTEENTH CENTUKY B. C. 25 purpose of protecting their general interests and guarding against foreign invasion. The several deputies bound themselves by oath never to overthrow any of the allied cities, nor to turn aside the running streams, either in peace or in war; and to oppose to the utmost any nation that dared to attempt such things. Their places of meeting were Thermo- pylae and Delphi. To Acrisius, sovereign of Argos, is ascribed the formation of its power and laws. The most celebrated exertion of authority on the part of the council respected the town of Crissa, against which it declared war. Hostilities were protracted for more than ten years, when, principally by the advice of Solon, the place was reduced, and the surrounding territory consecrated to the god of the Delphic temple, 595 b. c. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Sacked History. — 1491, Exodus — 1451, Entry into Canaan. E&YPT. — 1473, Conquests of Sesostris. Phcenicia. — Foreign Discovery and Trade. Gbeece. — Theseus — Court of Areopagus. — 1493, Thebes; 1490, Sparta; 1404, Corinth Founded. Sacred History. The Exodus. — Moses, after some hesitation to obey the divine com- mands, went with his brother Aaron to the court of Pharaoh, to deliver the solemn embassy of the Almighty. The monarch (Amenophis) in return, added to the sufferings of the Israelites ; nor did he cease to afflict them until the ten plagues had wearied, though not convinced his haughty spirit. On the 15th Nisan, the Hebrew nation began their joyful march towards the Red Sea, 1491 b. c, each tribe in its proper station, advancing in battle-array. Scarcely had they begun their long journey, when the monarch repented his weakness, and hastily pursuing with a numerous army, overtook them in a narrow defile which opens upon the ArabiTin Gulf. In their extremity, with the sea before them and implacable enemies behind, the people began to murmur, saying, were there no graves in Egypt, that thou hast taken us away to die in the wilderness ? But Jehovah meditated a signal deliverance : the sea divi- ded its waves before them ; they passed through dryshod ; while the returning waters bxiried Pharaoh's host, so that none remained to tell the dreadful tale. In the space of 215 years, God had so favoured the descendants of Abraham, that from about 70 persons, the family of Jacob had increased to 600,000 fighting men, or a gross population of more than two millions. The Wandering. — The whole period of forty years spent in the desert was signalized by miracles. A deficiency of bread was made up by the manna which lay on the ground covered with the morning dew, — the bitter waters were purified, — a flight of quails furnished the people with meat, — the hard rock, at the touch of Moses' rod, gave forth a clear and copious stream of water, the earth opened and swal- lowed up Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, 1471, — fire from heaven de- stroyed part of the camp, — ^and a destructive pestilence carried off nearly 3 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 15,000 of the murmurers. Three months after the departure from Egypt, the God of Jacob appeared on mount Sinai,* and, clothed in majesty, made known the law of the two tables, comprehending the ten commandments. Being unwilling to trust the report of the spies whom Moses had sent to view the Land of Promise, the Israelites were all condemned to perish in the desert, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, and those who had not j^et reached the age of twenty years. In vain did Moab and Midian unite against them, — in vain did the hostile nations seek the aid and purchase the imprecations of Balaam : his curses were converted into blessings. After forty years, their wan- derings drew to an end. Moses assembled the tribes; committed the Book of the Law to the priests ; and for the last time publicly addressed the people. When his exhortation was concluded, he went to the top of Mount Pisgah (ten miles north-east of the Dead Sea,) and there died in sight of the promised inheritance, 1451 b. c. Character of Moses. Considered in a merely human light, Moses is not less celebrated as a poli- tician than as a historian and poet. Pagan antiquity, while denying his divine mission, has represented him as a man of profound learning, who rescued the Jews from debasement and slavery, and taught them the knowledge of the one true God. The five books of the Pentateuch are the most ancient writings in the world, and no history presents a stronger character of authenticity. His legislation was promulgated at a time when the word law was unknown to other nations. This code has been divided into five parts : namely, religion, morals, and civil, military, and political affairs. Its real wisdom is proved by its existing still at the end of forty centuries, while the more recent institutes of Minos, Lycurgus, Numa, and Solon have fallen into desuetude. It is worth while to observe what progress the arts had made, even among the nomad Jews, while Greece was yet barbarous. In the description of the building of the Tabernacle we read of the founding and working of metals ; of cutting and engraving precious stones ; of the trades of the cabinet-maker, embroiderer, and perfumer. Entry into Canaan, — 1461 b. c. — Moses, as the civil and religious head of the Wandering Tribes, strictly speaking had no successor. Joshua was appointed military leader to subdue the Land of Canaan, and portion it out among the victors. On the 10th Nisan, he crossed the frontier river, the submissive waters of the Jordan yielding a passage to the Ark of the Covenant which led the way. The ramparts of Jericho miraculously fell before them, — a warning lo the devoted nations, and an encouragement to the Israelites. Ai was taken by stratagem ; the five allied kings of the Amorites were defeated, the sun itself stopping in its course to aid the chosen people, while a terrible storm of hailstones killed more than had fallen by the sword. j Joshua now divided the portion of the land which he had conquered, and renewed the Covenant with God. The tribe of Levi, which formed a literary and wealthy counterpoise to the aristocratic and democratic part of the state, was not included in this partition, but forty-eight cities were allotted them from * Ancient tradition and locality seem to identify Sinai with Mount Sorbal (above 8000 feet high), the first peak of the chain to those coming from Suez. t The Chinese preserve a tradition, that in the time of the Emperor Yao, whom they make contemporary with Joshua, the sun did not set for ten days. The Egyptian priests told Herodotus, that within the period of 341 generations about 11,000 years! the sun had deviated four limes from his usual course. FIFTEENTH CENTURY B. C. 27 the other tribes ; a regulation, however, v,fhich circumstances prevented being carried into full effect. On Joshua's death, 1443 b. c, Caleb succeeded to the government ; but the people soon after turned to the idols of the Canaanites, and drew down upon themselves the anger of God. The formation of the Jewish republic was the work of Moses in the desert. Its polity was evidently intended for a season only ; its theology was the simplest of the age. 'rhe unity and individuality of the Deity were acknow- ledged, while the absence of all direct revelation of a future state was in some measure compensated by blending moral precepts with ritual observances, and the infliction of temporal punishments for personal or national disobedience. All possible means were exerted to isolate the Jews from the surrounding nations, by prohibiung commerce, emigration, and travelling. But their attachment to external circumstances was so strong, that in spite of the gor- geous ceremonies of their own ritual, they were soon found adopting the blood- stained idolatry of the Canaanites or the gross superstitions of Egypt. This would probably not have happened if the whole of the ancient inhabitants had been exterminated, according to the intention of Moses, as the worship of the true God would have been thereby rendered the sole religion of the country. EGYPT. Sesostris. — Sesostris or Rhamses III. the Great, is the hero of early Egyptian history, the founder of a new dynasty (19th,) and the liberator of his country from the Hyksos, who had renewed their invasions in the reign of his father, Amenophis III. Great difference of opinion prevails as to the age of Sesostris, but it seems very probable that he flourished during the wandering of the Israelites in the desert. His conquests extended over Libya, Ethiopia, Media, Persia, Bactria, Scythia, and Asia Minor, from all which countries he levied tribute. The trophies of his victories, in the form of pillars, were found from the Danube to the Ganges, and southward to Ethiopia; and a hundred famous temples were raised from the spoils of his enemies. He divided the country into 36 nomes, at the head of which he placed officers to collect the taxes. He intersected the provinces with canals, and was the first Egyptian monarch who was powerful at sea. Becoming blind, he committed suicide in the 33d year of his reign. The traveller may yet see his names and titles, wars and triumphs, depicted on the walls of palaces and temples at Luxor, Karnac, Thebes, and Nubia. PHCENICIA. The "name Phoenicia is applied to that narrow strip of the Syrian coast (150 miles long, and 24 broad,) which extends from Tyre to Aradus. Sidon was its oldest city, built by the eldest son of Canaan. The inhabitants applied themselves at an early period to commerce, navigation, and manufactures ; and first communicated to the people of the West *he sciences of Asia. They visited and planted colonies on all the shores of the Mediterranean ; ventured as far as the British Isles in search of tin, and navigated the Baltic to procure amber. They embarked at Elath to make the circumnavigation of Africa, and formed settlements eastward of the Persian Gulf. They seem to have disco- vered islands beyond the western shore of Africa. They excelled in the manufacture of glass, and the now forgotten art of dyeing purple. 28 ANCIENT HISTORY. To this people is also attributed the invention of alphabetical characters, and their introduction into Europe. Our knowledge of their history is very slender, for Tyre fell before literature had taken root in the West, and its vs^riters perished with it. This city is said to have been founded by Agenor, an African prince, about 1255 B.C., and its line of kings begins with Abical, the contemporary of David, about the year 1050. The prosperous period of their history extends from 1000 to 332 b. c. Phoenicia did not constitute one empire, but was formed of several inde- pendent states, united as fear or interest prompted them ; and hence arose the supremacy of Tyre, the most powerful of their number. Consult: Rollin's Ancient History. GREECE. Athens was founded by Cecrops in the 16th century, but Theseus formed the state by gathering together the twelve distri(;ts or boroughs, which had formerly been independent; by uniting their senates into one body, which jiiet at the capital ; and by establishing a common religious festival (Panathenoea) in honour of Minerva. The court of Areopagus, although it has been attributed to Cecrops, was only now instituted ; a body not more celebrated for its antiquity, than for the justice of its decisions. The number of its members, who were selected on account of their age, merit, and birth, appears to have varied from 31 to 51, and even to 500. Thebes was built by the Phcsnician Cadmus, 1493 b. c. He intro- duced the fifteen letters of the Grecian alphabet, which go under his name ; they were probably the same as those used in Syria. The oracle of Delphi was the work of his countrymen ; and its temple, causing the neglect of the prophetic oak of Dodona, became a central point of union for the different tribes. History of the Greek Language. The ultimate root of the Greek language is Pelasgic, or a dialect closely allied to the Sanscrit, modified by time and the exigencies of society. The descendants of Hellen, the son of Deucalion, having made themselves masters of the country, introduced their language, which differed from the old tongue only by its inflections, and which became the common speech of Greece. This Hellenic dialect was probably a stronger, as it was also a later, mixture of the Japetic or Western, as the Pelasgic appears to be purer Semitic or Eastern. The inland inhabitants of Greece spoke the rough and broad old Doric, from wluch the language of the JEoUans in Boeotia and Peloponnesus did not greatly differ. The progress of civilisation and commerce softened these dialects. The Doric was gradually refined into the beautiful language of Theocritus. The lonians from Attica settled on the coast of Asia Minor, where, by a close intercourse with their Asiatic neighbours, their language was softened into the harmonious sweetness we admire in Herodotus. The Attic passed through many gradations until it became the polished and elegant medium of com- munication adopted by all hterary men throughout Greece. The following genealogical table of languages will serve at once to assist the memory, and to explain the history which the Greeks themselves credited. Deucalion. Ilellen. DoEtrs. Xuthus. CEolus. AcHjEus. Ion. FOURTEENTH CENTURY B.C. 29 Dialects. o rOld. — Thucydides; the Tragic poets. "S A Middle. — Aristophanes, Lycias, Plato, Xenophon. ■< (.New. — .3i)schines, Demosthenes, Isocrates, Menander. •2 Coid. — Epicharmus, Sophron. ° / New. — Bion, Moschus, Callimachus, Pindar, Theocritus. •H Cold.— Homer, Hesiod. o "^New. — Anacreon, Herodotus, Hippocrates. iEolic. — Alcseus, Sappho, Corinna. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. JuD.EA. — 1285, Deborah judges Israel — Sisera— 1312, Ruth. Greece. — Minos. JUD^A. Judges, 1443. — After the death of.Tosbua, a council of judges {sho- phdim,) with nearly the same authority as the consuls at Rome, the kings at Sparta, and the Carthaginian siiffetes, was established to govern the people of Israel. Each city had its peculiar magistrates {shoterim) and ministers of justice, to the number of twenty-three. Their place of audience was at the gates of the cities, as being the most frequented spots. On Joshua's death the weak tribes became jealous of the stronger, and, as the high-priests had little political influence, the dread of foreign power alone kept them togetlier. The history of Judeea, under its new government, presents a long catalogue of wars and captivities, brought on the nation by its wicked- ness and idolatry. Seven periods of servitude to the Philistines and others are recorded between the death of Joshua and the election of Saul, 1095 E. c. When Deborah judged Israel, dwelling under a palm- tree on Mount Ephraim, Sisera, the Canaanitish general, was put to death by a woman in whose tent he had sought refuge, 1385 b. c. This signal deliverance from a powerful enemy called forth the fine specimen of lyric poetry which is inserted in the Book of Judges. Ruth, 1312. — To this period belongs the pastoral narrative of Ruth. A famine dbliged Elimelech to quit Bethlehem, with his wife Naomi ; who, becoming a widow in the country of Moab, eagerly desired to return to her native land. Ruth, one of her daughters-in-lavi^, who loved her. most affectionately, followed her home ; when w^ant compelling her to glean in the fields of Boaz, he, attracted by the charms and modesty of the fair stranger, married her, and became the father of Obed, from ■whom descended Jesse, the father of David, the royal progenitor of the Messiah. GREECE. Crete. — Minos, who, according to the Parian chronicle, began to reign 1431 b. c, about a century after Amphictyon, is regarded as the first legislator of the Cretans, and his laws are stipposed to have been adopted by Lycurgus, in framing the Spartan constitution. All freemen 3* 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. were equal; the land was to be cultivated by slaves ; and individual lights were merged in those of the community. Minos raised a power- ful navy, and cleared the sea of pirates. The ancient mythology makes him and Rhadamanthus, also a native of Crete, judges in the Infernal Regions. The formation of this kingdom may be regarded as a real event; and the great similarity between its constitution and that of Judaea, may have arisen from the common intercourse of the respective people with Egypt, the source of most of the earlier civilisation of Eu- rope. Both have the same leading principle for the preservation of internal tranquillity. As in Lacedaemon, so also here, a people were formed with military habits for defence rather than aggression ; they kept themselves apart from other nations; their religious ordinances were founded on divine order ; and the property in land was inalienable. Minos XL, grandson of the first of that name, M^as the contemporary of Theseus, and in his reign the celebrated architect Dedalus constructed the labyrinth of Crete. This extraordinary work was used as a prison for the Athenian hostages, and for the Minotaur, a fabulous monster, half-man half-bull. This king, who is often confounded with his ancestor, the lawgiver, died in Sicily (1320 b. c.,) being suffocated in a bath. THIRTEENTH CENTURY. JuDJEA. — 1249, Gideon Judge. — 1235, Jotham's Parable. Greece. — Pelopidse. — 1263, Argonauts — Theseus. — 1230, Ninus founds the Assyrian Empire (Herodotus.) JUDiEA. This country was again under the iron rod of the oppressor, when Gideon, with a chosen band of 300 men, defeated a numerous army of Midianites by a most remarkable stratagem, 1245 b. c. During forty years he judged Israel, and at his death was succeeded by a natural son, Abimelech, who murdered his legitimate brothers, 1235. Jotham alone of seventy escaped, and he indignantly upbraided the ungrateful She- chemites by the beautiful apologue of the trees choosing a king — the most ancient parable extant. GREiiiCE. Pelopidjs. — Corinth is said to have been built by Sisyphus, " the most crafty of men," 1404 b. c, whose descendants were driven from the throne by the Pelopidse, These usurpers were the family of Pelops, son of Tantalus, who had quitted Asia, and settled in Southern Greece, wliieh afterwards bore his name. His sons Atreus and Thyestes were noted for their cruelties and the misfortunes of their children. Argonauts, 1263 b. c. — These were a company of knight-errants (for this was the age of Chivalry in Greece,) who, under the guidance of the Thessalian Jason, braved the dangers of the Symplegades and the tempests of the inhospitable Euxine in search of the Golden Fleece. Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, Hercules, Peleus, and Laertes, were among the number of these daring adventurers. Divested of the fictitious TWELFTH CENTURY B. C. 31 colouring of the poets, this expedition was probably a commercial enterprise to the shores of Colchis for the purpose of turning the profits of its woollen trade to their native country.* The conquests of Hercules, and the travels of Theseus and Perseus, belong to this period ; whence also may be dated the close connexion in language, religion, manners and consanguinity, which appears to have existed betweeen the heroes engaged in the Trojan war, whether of Asiatic or of European descent. Theseus was one of the greatest kings of the heroic age, and the national champion of Athens. With his reign the history of Attica begins to lose much of its mythic character. He was considered the founder of the Athenian constitution, and the introducer of the democratic form of government; but the satisfaction given by the measures which he pursued for establishing a popular constitution, was not very perma- nent. A strong party, headed by Menestheus, was formed against him on the pretext that he did not go far enough, when he was driven into exile by the fickle people, as were many of his successors, who became eminent for virtue or talent.f His policy was to destroy the magistrates and courts of justice of the separate Attic towns, and centralize them in the capital. Menestheus, of the royal race, proposed to take away the administration of justice from tlie nobles and to confer it on the popu- lace, making it in their hands a stipendiary duty. — Theseus is said to have given shelter to the descendants of Hercules, who had been expelled from the Peloponnesus ; and about the same period the crimes of GEdipus led to the celebrated war of the Seven Chiefs arrainsl Thebes, and also to that of the Epigoni, or Descendants, about 12-25 B. c. Consult: Bulvver's Athens, book i. chap. ill. Plutarch's Life of Theseus. TWELFTH CENTURY. JuDiEA. — 1188, Jephtha's Vow. — 1117, Death of Samson. Greece. — 1184, Siege of Troy— Grecian Mythology — Greek Colonies. Inventions, &c. — Mariner's Compass iir China — Buodhism Introduced in India. JUDiEA. Jephtha. — Judasa, in 1188, b. c, was called to witness a remarkable sacrifice. Jephtha, who had been driven from Gilead by the violence * M. Rabaut de St. EtieiinB ingeniously endeavours to explain tlinse heroic allesrones by showing that they were intended to represent the motions of the heavenly bodies. Thus the Argonantic expedition exhibits the course of the constellation Aries through the sicy. Jason is Serpentarius. Scarcely has the Ship Argo begun her ethereal voyage, whr-ii Hylas, Aquarius, disappears, and Hercules follows him. All the crew of Jason claim their share in this astronomical voyage. t Theseus died and was buried in the island of Scyros. At a later period his supposed remains were transported with great pomp to Athens, in the galley of Ciinon, and wel- comed " as if the living 'J'heseus were come again." Games were instituted in honour of the event, 469, at which took place those poetical contests, in the first of which Sophocles carried offtlie prize from .(Eschylus. Mr. Fynes Clinton places the Argonautio expedition in 1225, sixteen years before the death of Hercules. This remarkable voyage has been sung by two Greek poets: Apollodorus of Rhodes, and another of uncertain name and age, who brings the heroes to the neighbourliood of the British Isles. 32- ANCIENT HISTORY. of his relatives, and put himself at the head of a band of robbers, vowed that if he returned successful from a certain expedition against the Ammonites, he would offer up, as a burnt-sacrifice, the first living^ being that met him on his return. This was his daughter, his only child, who came out to congratulate her parent on his safety. After a short respite she resolutely yielden herself a victim to her father's rashness. This event occupies a prominent place in Grecian story. The resemblance between Iphigenia and Jephihagenia (Jephtha's daughter) is very striking. Samson, — During the period of the seventh servitude, which lasted forty years, a new deliverer appeared in the son of Manoah, of the tribe of Dan. By the command of the angel who foretold his birth, he was specially consecrated to, the Lord. As he grew in years, he increased in strength ; and in various encounters he slew an immense number of Philistines, but fell at last by the artifices of Delilah. During his sleep, the locks on which his strength depended were shorn, and he awoke weak as another man. He again recovered vigour upon the growth of his hair, and proved his renewed powers by tearing down the two pillars which supported the roof of a temple, and burying 3000 Philis- tines, with himself, in one undistinguished ruin, 1117 b. c. The accounts of Hercules, Rustam in Persia, and Antar in Arabia, seem based on that of Samson. Ancient traditions furnish us with many curious coincidences with the history of Samson's locks. Read : Milton's Samson Agonistes. GREECE. Trojan War. — ^The history of Troy, a name rendered familiar to all by the genius of Homer, is so intermingled with fable, and its heroes are so confounded with gods and demigods, that it is not possible to arrive at historical truth. Mount Ida was the scene of the Judgment of Paris ; the loves of Hero and Leander consecrated the promontories of Sestos and Abydos ; the little streams of Simois and Seamander would have been unknown but for the combats of the Greeks. Teucer was the first king; he was succeeded by Dardanus, who brought the palladium from Saraothrace. The last monarch was Priam, the richest and greatest potentate of Western Asia, his rule extending over several contiguous nations, as well as the coast of Thrace, and the confines of Thessaly. Prodigies attended the birth of his youngest son, Paris; his youth and manhood were equally eventful. During his travels he eloped with Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. Her husband, Menelaus, roused all Greece in arms to avenge the violated rites of hospitality, and a fleet of 1300 ships set out for Troy. This town, seated on a gentle eminence at the foot of Ida, overlooking the Hellespont, resisted the efforts of the numerous besiegers during the long period of ten years. At length when the bravest warriors on both sides had fallen, and most of the Trojan allies had been reduced, the place was taken, according to the poets, by the stratagem of a wooden horse.* It was plundered and burnt, and its inhabitants led away captive, 1184 b. c. A few doubtfai ruins are now all that mark the site of this ancient and celebrated city. * Arreslan, in Syria, was taken by a similar atratagem. See below, Seventh Cen- tury A. D. ELEVENTH CENTURY B.C. 33 Results. — The ten years' war was not confined to unproductive battles before the walls of Troy. The towns along the Hellespont were reduced by Ajax ; Achilles extended his conquests along the Euxine ; and Menelaus sub- jected several states in PhcBnicia, Syria, Egypt, and Cyprus. Thus the Greeks not only proved their superiority in arms, but brought back with them a better knowledge of countries which they had previously been made acquainted with by the reports of a few adventurers. On their return home, however, they found a new race grown up, some occupying the vacant thrones of the absent kings, others attempting to usurp them. In Attica, the children of Theseus and the faction of Menestheus were engaged in sanguinary hostilities. " The great part," says Plato, " of those who had escaped the sword of the enemy, perished either by the weapon of the assassin, or by the hardships of a distant exile." Menestheus died in the isle of Melos ; Ulysses had scarcely reached home, after his ten years' wandering, when he fell in a riot ; Agamemnon was murdered by his wife and her paramour, who were both put to death by the hand of his son Orestes. This triumph was of httle pohtical advantage to Greece ; but its civilisation advanced greatly after the long residence of its warriors on the luxurious shore of Asia. The communication between the two countries became more frequent and easy ; commerce was extended ; and the colonies founded by Nestor, Teucer, Idomeneus, Diomede, and other Greek princes banished from their paternal homes, introduced intimate relations between these distant regions. ELEVENTH CENTURY. Jl7D.ffiA.— 1116, Samuel— Kings.— 1095, Saul.— 1055, David.— 1015, Solomon. — 1004, Dedication of the Temple. Geeece. — 1104, Return of the Heraclidae — Death of Codrus— Archons. JUD^A. Samuel. — ^The Jewish republic was next governed by the high-priest Eli, whose successor, after an administration of twenty years, was Samuel, 1116 b. c. He had, by his mother, been consecrated to God in his infancy, and while yet a child, was made the interpreter of the divine will. He is the first of the prophets properly so called, the chain being preserved in unbroken succession until the death of Malachi, 420 b. c. He was the last of the fifteen judges, and with him, according to some authors, terminates the Jewish theocracy. He died at the ao-e of 98, B.C. 1057. ° Kings. — It was the earnest desire of Moses that the government he established should be perpetual ; but, like a wise legislator, he also made provisions in the event of any change to the regal form, by laying down the principles on which it should take place (Deut. xvii.)° Jehovah was still to be the supreme monarch, the king merely his viceroy. Accordingly, when the Israelites grew tired of the ancient constitution, alleging the bad government of Samuel's sons as their pre- text, they did not select a ruler for themselves, but applied directly to the prophet. Saul was appointed by lot to be the first king ; David, the second, was selected by the Almighty ; and in his son Solomon, the throne was declared hereditary in the family of Jesse. Saul, 1095 b. c. The beginning of Saul's reign was marked by pru- dence and equity ; he defeated the Amalekites, and was continually at war with the Philistines. But his pride and anger led him into sin ; 34 ANCIENT HISTOKY. he disobeyed the commands of God ; and although his external peniteifiee was great, he did not escape the judgments of the Almighty. He perished with his three sons in battle against the national enemy on Mount Gilboa, and David, the young shepherd of Bethlehem, was appointed to succeed him, 1055 b. c. Saul was little more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah, having neither court nor fixed residence. His subjects were still only an agricultural and pas- toral race, without wealth or luxury; but in his reign they gradually assumed a warlike character. ^ David, the son of Jesse, of the tribe of .Tudah, was anointed king by Samuel at an early age. He first signalized himself by his victory over Goliath, and the defeat of the Philistines, 1063. His renown excited the jealousy of Saul, and even endangered his life, but he fortunately escaped the javelin which the king threw at him. i\or did he succeed to the throne without opposition; for eleven tribes declared in favour of Ishbosheth, Saul's only surviving son, and Judah alone acknowledged David. Seven years of civil strife intervened before he was generally recognised as sovereign in 1048. He entirely freed Israel from the power of her ancient enemies, and extended the limits of tlie kingdom from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from Phoenicia to the Red Sea. By the conquest of Idumea, he became master of Elath and Eziongeber, on the shores of the Arabian Gulf, by means of which ports he extended his commerce into the Southern Ocean. But domestic guilt stained all his former glories ; although he yielded with humility to the reproof of Nathan, he was destined to reap the bitter fruits of his crimes. Enemies from without began to harass the country ; his own family rebelled against him ; and at length, he died in the 40th year of his reign, and the 70th of his ^ge, 1015 b. c. About twenty years before his death he defeated the kings of Mesopotamia and Syria, who had carried to Babylon a great number of colonists, whom he established near the Euphrates. To these captives the Psalmist makes frequent allusion, particularly in the 137th Psalm, — an elegy intended to arouse the Israelites to the recovery of their unfortunate brethren.* In this reign, the Jewish government and nation were completely formed. The worship of Jehovah became the exclusive religion of the people, and Jerusalem was made the chief sanctuary and the seat of power. David was probably the first who maintained a standing army, twelve corps of 24,000 men each being kept in their turn on monthly service. It is the opinion of many learned divines, that, in the various events of his life, this monarch was a type of the Messiah, and predicted his coming, in the Psalms, whose only object is Jesus Christ and his mysteries. Of the whole book which passes under his name, not more than seventy or eighty are sup- posed to be his composition, many being certainly of an earlier, others of a more recent date. These divine songs form a most perfect specimen of lyric poetry, and breathe all the sentiments which the tenderest piety can inspire. It should not be forgotten, that early in the eleventh century, before Homer sang, these religious strains were first heard in Palestine ; and that they have ever since been used by the true church to express all the emotions which the changing situations of life bring into action. * For this discovery of a Jewish captivity, anterior to tliat which took place under Nebuchadnezzar, we are indebted to the learned researches of M. Viguier, who, in his work entitled JOe la Distinction primitive des Psaumes, has fixed the principal epochs of the life of David. ELEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 35 Solomon succeeded his father in the year 1015. His reign hegan with favourable prospects, and by banishing all infidels ; and in seven years and a half he built the celebrated temple, which attests the per- fection of the arts and sciences at so remote a period, 1004 b. c. It is estimated to have been raised at an expense of not less than 230 millions of pounds sterling — a sum so enormous as to give rise to suspicion of in- correctness in the account transmitted to us. Unfortunately for himself, Solomon married the daughter of the king of Egypt, who did not abandon the worship of her countrymen. Before his death, he lapsed into idolatrous practices, and his last moments were embittered by the gloomy prospects which overhung his kingdom. He died in the 60th year of his age, and the 40th of his reign. This monarch was not insensible to the advantages of commerce; and under his direction, Tadmor in the Wilderness (Palmyra) was built, on the caravan route, in order to pro- mote the trade with the East (34° 24' N., 38° 20' E,). Solomon inherited the poetical talents of his father. He is the author of three works still extant ; and the loss of his writings on Natural History is a matter of serious regret. The Book of Proverbs is a treasure of moral and political instruction ; in Ecclesiastes (the Preacher), while he laments his own vices and errors, he gives the most earnest exhortation to his son Rehoboam, and after examining the various systems of happiness, declares tliat it can only be found in the love of God, and the observance of his commandments ; the Song of Songs is a kind of Epiihalamium, composed on the occasion of his marriage with the daughter of the king of Egypt, in which profound work, under the semblance of conjugal love, he represents the union of our Saviour with the Church. The first temple was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 588 B. c. It was rebuilt by Zerubbabel, 515 b. c. ; plundered and burnt by Antio- chus, 167, and purified, 164 b. c. This temple was restored by Herod the Great, and finished 8 b. c. ; it was burnt by Titus a. d. 70. GREECE. Return of the HeraclidjE — The disasters which befell the Gre- cian princes on their return from Troy having loosened the bonds of the general confederation, which had been formed to carry on the war, the sons of Hercules thought the Peloponnesus fitted for the re-establishment of their power. They had taken refuge in Attica from the persecutions of Eurystheus of Argos ; and, with the assistance of the Athenians, were restored, but only to retire again on the visitation of an avenging pesti- lence. Misled by an oracle, three unsuccessful attempts were afterwards made to return ; but it was not till the third generation, 1104 b. c. that, aided by the Dorians, ^Etolians, and Locrians, they crossed the Corin- thian Gulf and established themselves in Peloponnesus. The ^olians, at this time the most powerful tribe of Southern Greece, yielded to their irresistible progress. The Achseans, on their expulsion, deprived in turn the lonians of their lands. The barren soil of Attica offered few temptations to military adventurers ; but it was an asylum for these unfortunate exiles, by whom the population was so much increased, that change of residence was resorted to as a necessary means of finding support. This was the remote cause of the Ionian emigration, the most celebrated and important of all which issued from Greece. Aristodemus, fifth in descent from Hercules, who died during the expedition, trans- 36 ANCIENT HISTOHY. mitted his right to the Spartan throne to his twin sons, Procles and Eurysthenes. CoDKUS. — Before the Dorian immigration, the government of Athens was monarchical; and Codrus, the son of a Messenian exile, named Melanthus, was its last king. When the Dorians, jealous of his increas- ing power, had invaded his territories, an oracle promised them success, if they spared the sovereign's life. On hearing this, though he was far advanced in years, he resolved, with all the enthusiasm of youth, to sacrifice himself for his beloved country. Disguised as a wood-cutter, he entered the hostile camp, where, engaging in a quarrel, he fell by the hands of a private soldier, 1095. In the excess of their gratitude, the people would appoint no successor to the regal title, but elected certain responsible governors, named Jrchons, of whom Medon, Codrus' son, was the first. The office was held for life ; but by slow degrees the election became annual, and nine were ultimately chosen instead of one. This rapid succession of governors, the private interests upon which they acted, and the instability of the popular temper, were a cause of internal dissensions which lasted until the sixth century. On the death of Codrus, the kingly power was not immediately abolished; but the first step was taken towards it, by withdrawing the splendour of regal state and title from his successor. Then the sovereignty was diminished to ten years, 754, on the death of Alcmafeon; next, the archonship was made annual, 684, when the direct line of Codrus became extinct in Eryxias ; it was then thrown open to the other houses, then to the rich Eupatridce, and finally to every wealthy free citizen. In a similar manner, in the other Greek cities, and afterwards in Rome, the superior power descended from the king upon prytanes, ephori or consuls of the family to which the sovereign had belonged. The office of archon was one of great influence, and when the Pisistratidae assumed it as a stay of their dominion, it included the right of presiding and propounding all measures in the senate. GRECIAN COLONIES. Before the invasion of the Dorians and the return of the Heraclidee, the colonization of Greece is inextricably involved in the fictions of mythology ; but after that period it is more distinct, and its course, offering so many points of connexion with modern times, may be curious and profitable to follow. " Greek towns," says Seneca, "have risen in the bosom of the most barbarous cotm- tries, on the banks of the Indus and in Persia. Achaean cities rule along the coast of the Euxine Sea. Asia was filled with Athenian colonies. All the coast of Italy washed by the Tuscan Sea bore the n^me of Magna Grecia, and this people found their way even into Gaul." The first, or jEoUan colonization, occurred about 1088 b. c, when the Hera- clidee and their followers deprived the conquered Pelopidse and their subjects of their lands, and compelled them to seek an asylum in a foreign country. In consequence of the share which the Hellenic tribes took in this invasion, Greece shortly after assumed the general name of Hellas. The exiles, for the most part, crossed to Asia Minor, and built towns, which, from their favourable situation, soon acquired wealth and fame. The most celebrated were Smyrna and Mitylene. The great Ionian emigration, about 1068 b. c, was led by Neleus, and other sons of Codrus, the ranks of whose followers were swelled by all whom enter- prise, afl^ection for the leaders, or a love of novelty inspired. The Carians, Mygdonians, and Leleges, inhabiting the coast of Asia Minor, were driven to the mountains ; wealthy and populous cities were soon raised, of which Miletus and Ephesus were the chief These in turn gave birth to others, until their colonies extended over the southern parts of modern Russia, and even as far as Bactria. The lonians maintained their independence against all the efforts of TENTH CENTURY B.C. 37 the four first kings of Lydia, of the.race of the Mermnadas ; but they were at last subjugated by Croesus, the last prince of that family. They still, however, preserved their internal government, and enjoyed the same advantages under the dominion of the Persians. — The Dorian migration occurred a httle later than the others, but its history is the same. To secure themselves against the barbarians that surrounded them, the lonians entered into a federative union for their common defence ; and the general congress of their Twelve Cities was held in the temple of the Heli- conian Neptune, near the promontory of Mycale. These annual assemblies regulated all matters relative to the pubhc interests, and passed such measures as the common benefit required. The colonies were independent down to the time of the Persian invasion, except perhaps in a religious subjection to the gods of the parent state. To these Greece owes a great portion of her glory and unperishing fame. Homer, Alceeus, and Sappho adorned her with their muse ; Archytas, Pythagoras, and Anaximenes improved her with their philosophy ; and Pittacus and Thales strengthened her liberties by their legislative wisdom. TABLE OF GRECIAN COLONIES. EUROPE. Thracian Chersonese. — Sestos and Cardia.' — Abdera, Amphipolis, Olynthus, &c., by Athenians and Corinthians. — On the Thracian Bosporus, IByzantium. • — On the Propontis, Perinthus or Heraclea. Italy. — ^Tarentum (707) and Brundusium ; Sybaris and Crotona (709) ; Rhe- gium, Cumee, and NeapoHs (Naples). Islands. — In Sicily, Messana and Syracuse, by Corintldans ; Gela and Agrigentum, by Bhodians. In Sardinia, Caralis and Olbia; — In Corsica, Aleria, by Phoceans; Samos and Chios. Gaul. — Massiha {Marseilles) by Phoceans. Spain. — Saguntum by Zantiotes. ASIA. Asia Minor.' — Wlolians built 12 cities. Cyme, Smyrna, Mitylene, &c. lonians founded Colophon, Ephesus, Miletus, &c. Dorians built Cnidus, Hahcarnassus, Sec. Black Sea, Hellespont, &c. — The principal colonies were Lampsacus, Cyzi- cus, Trapezus, and Chalcedon. AFRICA. Cyrene, one of the great African marts, founded by Thereans. _ N.B. Prepare a Map of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, marking the site of all the colonies mentioned above. TENTH CENTURY. JtJDiEA.— 975, Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— 971, Shishak plunders Jerusalem- Elijah and Elisha.— 91S, Ahab. Greece. — Homer and Hesiod flourished. Syria. — 940, Benhadad, king of Damascus. JUD^A. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. — The expenses of Solomon's govern- ment required a very large revenue, which was raised by a regular system of taxation, imposed directly upon the produce of the cattle and of the land. The accession of Rehoboam (975) afforded some hopes of 4 38 ANCIENT HISTORY. ameliorating' the condition of his subjects, instead of which, their bur- dens were increased : ?w?/ father chastised you with v>hips, I will chastise you with scorpions. This insolent answer of the prince drove the nation to revolt. The kingdom was divided, ten tribes electing Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who had been recalled from Egypt; Judah and Benjamin alone remained faithful to the lineal heir. The former, together with the tributary nations eastward to the Euphrates, formed the kingdom of Israel, of which the capital was Samaria; while the two remaining tribes, with Philistia and Edom, composed that of Judah, 975 b. c. From the epoch of the schism of the ten tribes, we shall find the Hebrew- people continually suffering from foreign or intestine war. The two nations, during the short space of 387 years, were governed by 39 monarchs — 20 in Judah ; the rest in Israel. Although the latter kingdom was more extensive and populous, the former was richer and more important, as well from the possession of the capital and Temple, as from the ancient pre-eminence assigned to the tribe of Judah. But these reciprocal advantages served only to render their struggles more obstinate. In Israel the true religion was maintained under severe persecution ; the number of the prophets increased in proportion as the necessity was felt in times of difficulty of recurring to the oracles of God ; and the hope of a more fortunate era under a mighty king, the expectation of the Messiah and of his temporal reign on earth, became more consistent, as the recollection of the glorious reign of David was an object of continual and fresh regret to the whole nation. Unfortunately the influence of the true prophets, often opposed by the false, could never extinguish the dissensions which separated the two kingdoms. Prepare Map of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. Judah. — In this kingdom the succession continued hereditary, with only two interruptions, — the usurpation of Athaliah and foreign conquest. Rehoboam governed well during three years, and the true religion was maintained by the priests and Levites; but he afterwards sank into idolatry when he was punished by the invasion of his kingdom and the plunder of his capital by Shishak, king of Egypt, 971 b. c* Abijah succeeded (958), and perpetuated the evil ways of his father. He gained a signal victory over Jeroboam, and recovered many of the towns of Judah which the Israelites had taken. Asa was a minor when he ascended the throne in 955 ; but under the able regency of Maachah, the country enjoyed a peace of ten years. This princess abused her authority by establishing the most 'abominable superstition of idolatry ; but Asa, as soon as he was admitted to the exercise of power, restored the worship of the true God. He defeated Zerah the Ethiopian, who advanced against him at the head of a million of men, 941 b. c. His confidence in the Almighty was not equally firm on another occasion, when war was declared against him by Baasha, king of Israel ; for he sought the aid of Benhadad king of Syria, and imprisoned the prophet Hanani for denouncing his want of faith. Jehoshaphat, 914, endeavoured to expel ignorance, and to change the idolatrous habits of his people ; and with this view, judges were appointed according to the Mosaic regulations, and a long peace was the fruit of his zeal, wisdom, and * Some chronologers identify Shishak with Sesostris, but Dr. Hales thinl!. c, the kingdom was over- thrown by Tiglath-Pileser. NINTH CENTURY. JuD^A.— 889, Translation of Elijah.— 884, Jehu— Athaliah — Jonah, Hosfia, and Amos flourished. Greece. — 884, Lycurgus — Iphitus in Elis. Macedonia. — 813, Caranus, First King. Carthage. — 890, Dido emigrates from Phcenicia. JUD^A. Judah. — Towards the end of the reign of Jehoshaphat, his kingdom was invaded by an army of Moabites, Edomites, and Arabians from Mount Seir. They pitched their camp at Engaddi, about forty miles from Jerusalem. In this pressing danger the king ordered a public fast and solemn prayers. The vows he addressed to Heaven were heard : dissension spread among the hostile forces, and they turned their arms against each other, 895 b. c. The scene of this deliverance was after- wards known as the Valley of Blessing. Jehoshaphat, now become the terror of his enemies, enjoyed the profoundest peace until his death. Jehoram succeeded at the age of thirty-five, 889. During the four pre- ceding years he had been associated with his father on the throne, — a circumstance by no means rare in the East, particularly in Persia. When a monarch went on any dangerous or distant expedition, he generally took the precaution of naming his successor, and givino- him 4* 42 ANCIENT HISTORY. the title of king before his departure. He murdered his six brothers, and their fate was shared by many of the princes of Judah whom his predecessor had honoured. Being influenced by his wife Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab, a princess as nearly allied to the infamous Jezebel in character as in blood, he imitated the impiety of the kings of Israel. To punish this apostasy, the Ammonites and Philistines invading his dominions plundered his capital; and he was struck with an incurable malady, which at last deprived him of life, after two years of most dreadful sufferings, 885 b. c. Idumea was entirely separated from Judah in this reign, and thus was fulfilled the prophecy of Isaac in favour of his eldest son : ' when thou shalt have the dominion, thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck.' Ahaziah perished by the hands of Jehu, in the first year of his reign ; after which, his mother Athaliah put to death all the royal family, and seized upon the throne. Joash, who alone was saved from the carnage, was secretly educated in the tem.ple; and when six years had expired, Jehoiada, the high-priest, bringing him before the people, he was placed upon the throne, the queen having been killed by the populace, 878 b. c. Joash, guided by the advice of his protector, was a model of piety and justice. He restored the worship of God ; but when Jehoiada was dead, he listened to evil counsellors, persecuted the prophets, who denounced his aban- donment of the true religion, and saw, in consequence, his capital twice besieged and plundered by the Syrians. He was slain in 838, and buried in the city of David, but not in the tomb of the kings. Nor was this the only occasion in which the honour of royal sepulture was refused to those monarchs who had shown themselves unworthy of that mark of posthumous respect. Amaziah put to death the murderers of his parent, and signalized the course of his reign by acts of piety and justice. He defeated the Idumeans and took Petra, but was not equally successful against Jehoash, king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself was sacked, 826 b. c. Israel. — Ahaziah, 897, not less wicked than the impious Ahab, main- tained the idolatrous worship of Baal and of the goddess Astarte, established by his mother, — but the divine vengeance soon overtook him : he was killed by falling from a window of his palace. Jehoram, the brother of Ahaziah, began his reign (896) by destroying the statues of Baal erected by his father; but his subsequent conduct belied this first act of fidelity. He was soon compelled to march against the King of Moab to enforce his tribute ; and forming an alliance with Jehosha- phat and the sovereign of Idumea, he advanced into the desert, where, as the combined armies were nigh perishing with thirst, Elisha obtained a miraculous supply of water. The Moabites were defeated, their country laid waste, and the capital invested, when the despairing monarch brought his son on the walls, and, in sight of his ene\Ttiies, offered him a living sacrifice to Moloch. Upon this the siege was broken up in horror. Jehoram's reign was signalized by the long blockade of Samaria by Benhadad, when severe famine drove mothers to devour their own children. The miraculous disappearance of the army soon afterwards verified Elisha's prophecy. Jehu ascended the throne, after murdering his predecessor, 884. He exterminated the family of Ahab and the priests of Baal, although he did not himself NINTH CENTTJEY B. C. 43 forsake idolatry ; and by retaining the golden calves erected by Jero- boam, he showed that his former religious zeal was principally directed by selfish motives. This culpable toleration did not escape unpunished, for the lands beyond Jordan were wrested from his dominion by Hazael king of Syria. Jehoahaz, his son, who succeeded him in 856, could not be induced by the misfortunes which both he and his subjects experienced from the Syrians, to resign his foolish idolatry. Jehoash (839) imitated the impiety of his father; but being more successful against his enemies, he repaired, in great measure, the losses which his kingdom had suffered during the reign of his two immediate predeces- sors. The aged prophet Elisha, on his death-bed, promised the king three successive victories over Benhadad ; he therefore declared war against him, defeated his forces in three battles, and retook several cities. He died 825 b. c, and was succeeded by his son Jeroboam II., a valiant prince, who restored the dominions of Israel to their ancient limits. The prophets Jonah, Hosea, and Amos, flourished in this reign. GREECE. Lycurgus, 884 b. c* — From the epoch of the Dorian migration, Sparta had been governed by two kings at one time. Lycurgus, who was regent during the minority of his nephew Charilaus, feeling the necessity of some code of legislation to regulate the disorders of the state, travelled to Crete, where he had family connexions, to study the laws of Minos. He next visited Lesser Asia and Egypt, when, being suddenly recalled after an absence of eighteen years, he entirely changed the government, and bound the nation by an oath to observe his regula- tions until he should return from his travels. He left with the intention of never visiting Sparta again. His institutions were not committed to writing until 130 years after his death, but conveyed in apophthegms, which were confirmed by the oracle at Delphi. It may be remarked, that a great part of the regulations which he comprised in his laws were not new, but derived from the usages of the Dorians, or Cretans who were themselves of Doric race. This great man had without doubt reflected deeply on the tragical fate of the royal lines sprung from Cad- mus, Danaus, and Pelops, and on the calamities which, on several occa- sions, had ravaged their country. He wished to save the Heraclidae from a similar catastrophe, and to protect the fertile plains of Laconia from the inroads of some adventurous or warlike race. He ensured this twofold design, by confirming the hereditary honours of the kings, with a limited but acknowledged power ; and by forming a nation of brave and incorruptible men, in whom patriotism and the warlike virtues should be the predominant passions. Constitution. — Lycurgus wrought no change in the religious system of Sparta, except that all the gods and goddesses were clad in armour. No splendid monument was raised over those Vi^ho fell in battle ; and all murmurs for their loss were forbidden. Two kings governed con- jointly, while twenty-eight senators held the balance between them and the people. All the lands were divided into equal portions : 9000 shares * Mr. Pynes Clinton, the most laborious and profound of modern chronologers, makes Lycurgus contemporary with Homer, and places both after the Return of the Hera- clidse. 44 ANCIENT HISTORY. were assigned to the Spartans, 30,000 to the Laconians, the whole being cultivated by Helots. The only coins were of iron. The Spartans fed at a common table; the children were the property of the state; those who were born deformed were not permitted to live. The training of the boys was such as to excite in their hearts a taste for war, contempt of death, obedience, and the practice of the austerer virtues. They went barefooted, and throughout the year wore only a single garment. Theft was encouraged, that the youths might become fitted for the stratagems of war ; and when detected, they were severely punished for their clumsiness. Their education, strictly so called, finished at the age of twenty ; in literature, they .committed to memory a few patriotic songs, and learned to express themselves laconically, that is, with brevity and precision. Read : Laws of Lycurgus, in Anacharsis, vol. iv. oh. 48. The great defect of all Dorian legislation was its tendency to maintain a warlike character — to oppress the slave population — and to render war a more natural state than peace. In Laconia there were three classes : Lords, or Spar- tans ; Periosci, or Lacedemonians, inhabitants of the country, who paid tribute and gave military service ; and Helots. The cultivation of the soil fell to the last alone. The Spartans of the capital were the ruhng lords ; the Perioeci were probably the mingled offspring of Dorian marriages, or native Acheans. The third class were the inhabitants of Helos, reduced to slavery as a punish- ment for their continual insurrections. The chief authority was in the hands of the two kings, the five ephori, and the senate of twenty-eight; the popular assembly had no other privilege than that of electing the senators, who held their places for life. The government was therefore far from being a demo- cracy. The power of the king was supreme in war, but inferior to that of the ephori in peace. These magistrates, originally created as a check aUke upon the sovereign and the senate, gradually usurped excessive power. The dread- ful massacre of their slaves (crypteia), and the dissolute manners arising from certain regulations concerning the intercourse of the sexes, are well known. The Spartan women were reckoned a disgrace to their sex, and Aristotle imputes the disorders which ruined the nation to their want of modesty. The Germans, with their habitual love of paradox, have lately started and as ably defended a theory that the Dorian states, including Sparta, were the first in arts, literature, and arms. But in this community there were no authors ; the arts, which form the charm and ornament of life were unknown ; and for all memorials of the virtue of the republic we are indebted to the Athenians. Consult : Mitford's History of Greece ; Bulwer's Athens, Book L ch. vi. ^ 5, &c. CARTHAGE. Dido, 890* b. c. — Carthage on the northern coast of Africa, was founded by Elisa or Dido, sister of Pygmalion king of Tyre, though others place its foundation so early as 1223 b. c. It would be wrong to take the account transmitted to us in its literal sense. It is probable that political commotions in the mother city induced a party of the dis- affected to emigrate, who proceeded to Africa, along whose northern coast Utica and other Phoenician colonies had already been settled. After the decease of Dido there is a void in the history of more than three centuries. In the time of Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, the republic was formidable by land and sea (550-480). About the same period they defeated a fleet of the Phoceans, then the most powerful * Petav. Ealion. Temp. ). ii. c. 13. EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 45 maritime state. To the same epoch must be referred their great vic- tories over their African neighbours, and the first treaty with Rome, 509 B. c. The constitution of Carthage was aristocratic, administered by two judges (suffetes), a senate of 100 members, and an assembly of the people. The judges were annually chosen from the oldest and most opulent families ; and the popular assembly was appealed to only when the opinions of the senate and the council of five (the assistants of the suffetes) were divided. Aristotle ranks this republic among those most esteemed by the ancients. The Cartha- ginian religion was of the mother-country : the heavenly bodies were wor- shipped, and the blood-stained rites of Moloch held in great honour. In times of pubhc distress, 300 noble youths were placed alive in his blazing arms. Carthage was pre-eminently a commercial city ; all its power and consequence were derived from trade ; its fleets covered the seas ; and its colonies or fac- tories were on every shore. The mines of Old Spain were worked, and with the gold thence procured, Spanish, Ligurian, and Italian soldiers were hired to form its armies. The Carthaginians held Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and Corsica ; they frequented the west of Africa as far as the Guinea coast, and visited Britain ; but the passage to the Canaries was forbidden. Their caravans travelled eastward to Egypt, and southward to Fe*«an, or even further. MACEDONIA. Towards the end of this century, a Hellenic colony from Argos, under Caranus(813,) settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundations of the Macedonian empire. Its early history, however, is obscure, and little more is known than that its princes gradually extended their territory by subjecting or expelling the neighbouring tribes. They were deli- vered from the Persian yoke, imposed in 510, by the victories of the Greeks ; and their independence was restored by the battle of Plataea, 479, although it was not distinctly acknowledged by their former masters. It was scarcely considered a Grecian state until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander. EIGHTH CENTURY. JuD^A. — 721, Captivity of the Ten Tribes— Isaiah, Habakkuk, Nahum/. Gkeece.— 776, First Olympiad.— 743, First Messenian "War. Assyria. — 759, Sai-danapalus, d. — 747, ^ra of Nabonassar. — 714, Sennacherib. Rome. — 753. Foundation of Rome — Senate. Lydia. — 727, Gyges. JUD^A. JuDAH. — ^In 810 B. c, Amaziah was succeeded by Uzziah, also called Azariah, who served the Lord so long as the prophet Zechariah lived, and all his enterprises therefore succeeded. The Arabians, Ammonites, and Philistines, became his tributaries ; and having formed an alliance with Jeroboam II. of Israel, he overcame the Syrians, and recovered the cities of Hamatb and Damascus. He retook Elath from the Idumeans, and re-established the ancient commerce of the Jews on the Red Sea ; but intoxicated with success, he forgot what he owed to the God of 46 ANCIENT HISTORY. Jacob. On a day of solemn festival, he presumed, in defiance of the high-priest, to offer incense in the temple, when he was immediately struck with leprosy, of which he died 758 b. c. Jotham, who had been appointed regent during the life of his father, received the reward of his piety in great successes over his enemies ; though from the portrait of this age left us by Isaiah, we learn that the manners of the people were very corrupted. Micah, who began to prophesy about this time, pre- dicted the misfortunes of Samaria, the birth of the Messiah at Bethlehem, the conversion of the Gentiles, and the dispersion of the Jews. The righteous Jotham was succeeded by his son Ahaz, 742, who restored the worship of Buhl, offered sacrifice to the idols of the neighbouring nations, and burnt incense on all the hi^k places. The instruments chosen by the Almighty to punish this impiety were Rezin king of Syria, and Pekah king of Israel, whose united forces, after devastating the country, blockaded Ahaz in Jerusalem, with the design of extermi- nating the house of David and changing the order of succession. In this pressing danger the prophet Isaiah restored the waning confidence of the monarch ; the siege was raised, and the two kings retired without any important conquest. Ahaz, far from being touched by so marked an interposition of Heaven, passed his own son through the fire to Moloch.* In the next year, being defeated by the King of Israel, he purchased the assistance of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, with all the gold and silver found in the temple, or in the royal treasury, 740 B. c. Elath became the prize of his ally, and the great commerce of the East was for ever taken away from Jerusalem. When Ahaz was threatened by the Assyrians, he indulged in the g-reatest excess of idolatry, in the hope of propitiating the divinities of his enemies, to whom he attributed all the misfortunes which had befallen him. Hezekiah, one of the most righteous kings that ever filled the throne of Judah, consecrated the beginning of his reign to the destruction of idols, and the restoration of the true worship, 726 e. c. He celebrated the Passover with great solemnity ; repaired many of the losses which his people had suffered in preceding reigns ; and even ventured to shake off the Assyrian yoke. Shalmaneser was diverted from attacking his kingdom, after the subjugation of Israel, by an anxiety to reduce the Phoenician states; but Sennacherib, his successor, renewing the claim, shortly after entered Judasa with a powerful army ; nor did he retire until Hezekiah had submitted, and consented to pay an annual tribute of 300 talents of silver, and 30 of gold, 713 b. c. In an expedition des- tined against Egypt, the Assyrian monarch again appeared before *MoIoch was a Phosnician ^oi., whose statue and temple were in the valley of Hin- nom, at the foot of Mount Sion. The place derived its name of Tophet from the musical instruments [tuph] used to drown the cries of the children who were sacrificed. Hence also the names of Tophet, Gehinnom or Ge-henna, given to the place of eternal torments. " Moloch, horrid kinij, besmeared with blood Of human sacrifice, and parents' tears; Though for the noise of drums and timbrels loud Their children's cries unheard, that passed through fire, To his grim idol." — Milton. The high places mentioned above were those in which Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob had sacrificed to the true God, and for which the people always preserved a great respect. Here they persisted in offering sacrifices in spite of the prohibition which confined such religious service to the temple alone. EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 47 Jerusalem, in which was the prophet Isaiah. But during the night a pestilence sent from heaven destroyed the principal officers of his army with 185,000 men, 710 b. c ; upon which he returned in haste to Nine- veh, where he was assassinated by his own sons. Shortly before, the King of Judah had been attacked with a mortal disease ; but on his humble prayer, Isaiah was commanded to predict his recovery as well as the prolongation of his life ; and to confirm this prophecy the shadow of the sun went back ten degrees upon the dial of Ahaz. Hezekiah passed the rest of his days in tranquillity ; and having embellished Jerusalem, built aqueducts, and other public works, he died 698 b. c. Israel. — A turbulent interregnum of twelve years followed the death of Jeroboam II. ; and his son Zechariah, who was murdered in the first year of his reign, 772, was the last of the house of Jehu, which had given five kings to Israel. The regicide Shallum, after a reign of one. month, was, in his turn, assassinated by Menahem, who governed ten years, to 761 b. c, and under him took place the first invasion of the Assyrians led by Pul. Little is recorded of Pekahiah who was slain by Pekah, one of his generals, and his successor (759,) This monarch, being joined by Rezin king of Damascus, invaded Judah, and carried away 200,000 prisoners, whom, in obedience to the remonstrances of the prophet Obed, he restored to their country. An interregnum of nine years followed his assassination (739,) during which period of confu- sion Tiglath-Pileser ravaged the districts beyond the Jordan. The cup of iniquity was now full, and God resolved to execute his judgments. By an alliance with the Egytian Sabacus or So, Hoshea endeavoured to shake off the Assyrian yoke ; but Shalmaneser invaded his territories with an overwhelming force, conquered Samaria, and, in 721 b. c, put an end to the kingdom of Israel, 254 years after the defection from Judah. The inhabitants were transported into Media, to provinces which had lately been depopulated in consequence of the fall of the first Assyrian empire, and to Babylon." The Israelites were replaced by Medians and Assyrians, who forsook their idolatry, erected a temple on Mount Gerizim, and instituted ceremonies similar to those of Jerusalem. These new colonists were afterwards termed Samaritans, and differed from the Jews only in their schism. Prepare : Table of contemporaneous kings of Israel and Judah. GREECE. Olympiads, 776 b. c. — With the establishment of Olympiads Grecian history begins to assume a less fabulous appearance. The narhe is derived from the Games, held every four years, near the city of Olympia, on the banks of the Alpheus, and their commencement is placed as high as 1354 B. c. They were re-established by Iphitus of Elis in conjunc- tion with Lycurgus, and Cleosthenes of Pisa, about 884 ; but a century elapsed before the names of the victors were inscribed in the gymnasium. The first year of the First Olympiad begins with July, 776 b. c* * To reduce the Olympiads to the common era, multiply the Olympiad immediately preceding the one in question by 4, and add the number of years to the given Olympiad If B. c. subtract the amount from 777 ; if a. d. subtract 776 from the amount. Thus 146 Ol. 2. is 95 B. c. and 222 OJ. 2. is 110 a. d. The Olympic year commenced with the new moon nearest to the summer solstice. 48 ANCIENT HISTORY. The four most celebrated of the public games of Greece were the Nemean, held in Argolis ; the Isthmian, in Corinth; the Pythian, at Delphi; and the Olympic ; in which a simple wreath of laurel or of olive was given to the suc- cessful competitors. The value of the prize was enhanced by its being awarded m the presence of the whole Greek nation, and by the honours which his native city paid to the victor who had contributed to its glory. If an Athenian, he was entitled to a seat in the Prytaneum ; if a Spartan, to the chief post in battle. The Eleans were the sole managers of the Olympic games, and during their celebration a kind of sacred truce was preserved. The first contentions were in the foot-race alone ; afterwards were added wrestling, leaping, throwing the quoit and javelin, boxing, with horse and chariot racing. In the Pentathlon five gymnastic exercises were combined. At Olympia were read fragments of the history of Herodotus, and while listening to his enchanting legends, Thu- cydides caught that inspiration which led him not only to excel his master, but to attain a point of great excellence. Here also Lysias recited his harangue on the fall of the tyrant Dionysius. Such exhibitions had the effect of transform- ing social pleasures into intellectual enjoyments. ASSYRIA. The annals of the first Assyrian empire are involved in obscurity not less difficult to remove than that of Egypt ; for the notices respecting the origin of the latter power as well as of Babylon, which are furnished in the Bible, are not sufficient to complete a continuous history. At the epoch of the Dispersion, Ashur was established in Shinar {Babylonia) ; but soon after, advancing northward, he founded the cities of Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen. About the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, Nimrod settled in Babylonia, from which he is supposed by many historians to have expelled Ashur. He converted the tower of Babel into a fortress, by surrounding it with strong walls, from whence he kept the neighbouring country in subjection. He next passed into Assyria, and confined Ashur within a narrower territory. In the rab- binical books Nimrod is represented as the inventor of fire-worships, and the first persecutor of the religion of the true God. After this conqueror we have no certain information of the govern- ment of the Assyrians ; and the period intervening between him and Ninus is filled by some writers with a list of thirteen kings, divided into two dynasties. Of these, Evechous, the son and successor of Nimrod, is the first; Chomas-Bel, the next, is perhaps the same as Bel-chamas, the second of the Babylonian divinities ; Por or Pong is considered to be Baal-Peor or Belphegor. The name of Chinzir, the seventh king, closes the first series. After a reign of forty-five years he was dethroned by the Arabs, and his monarchy being dismembered, was formed into the kingdoms of Shinar, Elam, Ellasar, and some others mentioned in the Book of Genesis, in connexion with the history of Abraham. — The second dynasty, composed of six Arabian kings, occupied the throne 215 years ; and the last sovereign of this race was Nabonadius, dethroned by Belus, who had already governed part of Assyria during thirty years. He reigned twenty-five years longer over the united kingdom, and dying, was succeeded by his son Ninus, 1968 b. c. {PArt de verifier lea Dates). The first conquests of Ninus were over the Babylonians, whose cities he easily reduced. After Media and Armenia had submitted to his arms, he experienced little opposition in the rest of Asia, except from EIGHTH CENTtJEY B.C. 49 the Bactrians, who were at last subdued in consequence of the wise suggestions of his wife Semiramis. The history of the early life of this remarkable woman is mingled with fable; and her elevation to the imperial throne can only be compared to that of Catherine I. of Russia. She had no sooner succeeded her husband than she endeavoured to eclipse his glory ; and as he had rebuilt in a very magnificent manner, the ancient city of Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris, she determined that Babylon should surpass it in splendour. In the execution of her great project, two millions of workmen were employed, and the city, finished in the space of two years, was ever after considered one of the wonders of the world. Nor did she limit her cares to this city alone; many others were built or improved on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. In all parts of her dominions she formed aqueducts, so valuable in hot countries, pierced or levelled mountains, filled up valleys, and opened highways in every direction. Even at the present day the communication between Bagdad and Hamadan is maintained through one of the roads constructed by this celebrated queen. After a reign of forty-two years, and at the age of sixty-two, Semiramis resigned the sceptre to her son Ninyas, who, it is said, spent his life in indolence and retirement, — a course imitated by all his successors till the reign of Sardanapalus. One circumstance alone breaks through the silence of this long interval. Tentamus, the twentieth successor of Ninyas, sent assistance to Priam ; and Plato, from whom we learn this fact, adds that Troy was a dependency of Assyria. The conquests of Sesostris king of Egypt, occurred probably under the government of these de- scendants of Ninyas ; he contented himself with levying heavy tributes, leaving the sovereign power as he found it. Sardanapalus, with whom the first Assyrian empire terminated, sur- passed all his predecessors in luxury and voluptuousness. His excesses rendered him contemptible in the eyes of his subjects, and inspired thoughts of revolt in the mind of Belesis, a priest of Babylon, who associated with him in his plot Arbaces, the governor of Media. At the first news of the projected insurrection, the king concealed himself in the most retired chambers of his palace; but soon regaining courage, he collected an army of faithful soldiers, and defeated the insurgents in three desperate battles. He was at last compelled to return to Nineveh, which held out during two years ; when the Tigris, swollen by unusual rains, overflowed its banks and destroyed great part of the walls. To prevent his falling into the.hands of the enemy, and to efface the memory of a shameful life by a vainglorious death, he caused a vast pile to be raised, on which he burnt himself, together with his wives and treasures, 759 B. c. Three empires shared the vast dominions of the successors of Ninus : — 1, The Assyrian monarchy of Babylon founded by Belesis, which, after lasting about 220 years, was conquered by Cyrus, 538 b. c. ; — 2, The ancient kingdom of the Ninevite Assyrians, perpetuated by Pul, and which, in little more than 130 years, was reunited to Babylon; — 3, The state of the Modes, indebted for its independence to Arbaces, and which, becoming monarchical under Deioces, continued about 220 years, and was at last united to the vast empire of Persia. 6 50 ANCIENT HISTORY. It has been thought, and not without sufficient reason, that the enterprise of Belesis and Arbaces has been confounded with that of Nabopolassar and Cyaxares against Chynaladan king of Assyria, and which will be treated of in the seventh century. It is certain that the revolution which destroyed Sarda- napalus, called also Empacmes or Eupalis, did not entirely destroy the Assyrian empire ; and that it scarcely did more than cause the dismemberment of several provinces, the chief of which were Babylon and Media. It would be useless to endeavour to reconcile the contradictory accounts which the ancients have transmitted to us of the last days of Sardanapalus, It seems, however, to be established by modern critics,* that there were two persons of that name ; that Nineveh was not destroyed ; and even that Sardanapalus, surviving his degradation, resigned the government to the hands of his son Pul, and passed the remainder of his days in luxurious retirement. Second Empire of Nineveh. — Pul, the first king of the new empire of Assyria, was the son of Sardanapalus, and is known to have inter- fered in the civil dissensions of the kingdom of Israel. His successors were steady in his course of policy, which was destined at no distant period to open the road to Egypt. He has been thought to be the Belus of profane history, and the founder of the Assyrian monarchy. Tiglath- Pileser, his son and successor, 747 b. c, a warlike prince, endeavoured to repair the losses which his territories had suffered during the last revolution ; and, with this view, he invaded Palestine, destroyed the kingdom of Damascus, and transported the unfortunate inhabitants of that city into his own states, 740, Ahaz also, king of Judah, was com- pelled to pay him tribute. He died after a reign of nineteen years, and was succeeded by Shalmaneser (728) who surpassed the exploits of his father. Having completed the conquest of Israel, he led Hoshea into captivity, the last sovereign of that schismatical kingdom; and after reducing the various states of Phoenicia, he compelled their inhabitants to pay tribute. He died in 714, and was followed on the throne by his son Sennacherib, the Sargon of Isaiah. He began his reign by the invasion of Judea ; but, while threatening Jerusalem, his army was smitten with pestilence or by the simoom (" the angel of death," as it is called by the Arabs), and 185,000 men perished in a single night. Rendered ferocious by his disgrace, he exercised the cruelest tyranny on his subjects. The Jews were particularly exposed to his anger. He daily massacred great numbers of them, and left their bodies in the fields without sepulture. Becoming odious to his family his two elder sons conspired and slew him, 707 b. c. ; but fleeing into Armenia, they left the throne to the youngest, Esarhaddon. Second Empire of Babylon. — Nothing is more obscure than the beginning of this empire, which, until the year 721, had no communica- tion with the Jewish people. Belesis, generally considered as the first king of this new monarchy, was, according to Diodorus, merely governor of Babylon under Arbaces the Median. It is contended by many mo- dern historians that he and his successor Nabonassar are one and the same person; an opinion which is scarcely tenable. The name of Belesis is not foimd in the list of Babylonian kings given by Ptolemy. Some writers believe that he formed the province into a sort of republic, with himself at its head, but dependent on the King of Nineveh. The actions of Nabonassar are entirely unknown, except that he is reported ♦See vol. sxi. of the Memoires de VAcademie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. EIGHTH CENTUKY B.C. 51 to have destroyed the monuments of his predecessors in the foolish hope of passing for the first king of the Babylonian nation. The epoch which bears his name, and which was adopted on the introduction of the Egyptian year, begins with 747 b. c* Beyond their names we know but little of the next four kings, Nadins, Chinzirus, Porus, and Jugeus. These were succeeded in 721 by Merodach-Baladan, who formed an alliance with the king of Judah. After the disasters of Sennacherib, Merodach endeavoured to rescue his kingdom from its state of depend- ence on Assyria; but in this he was unsuccessful, if we may judge by the weakness and disorder of the monarchy during the reigns of his five successors in the short space of seventeen years. LYDIA. The Lydians were a Pelasgian race, originally called Maeonians, from their first monarch Maeon, the epoch of whose reign has been fixed at 1545 B. c. Three dynasties occupied in succession the throne of Lydia : the Atyades, the Heraclidse, and the Mermnadae. The traditions of mythology had placed a portion of the adventures of Hercules in that country ; and assigned it as the birthplace of Marsyas, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, Arachne, and Omphale. A branch of the Heraclidae succeeded the Atyades in 1232, and about 727 b. c. they were followed by the Mermnadae, of whom Gyges, grandson of Mermnas, was the first, who dethroned and murdered Candaules. The history of the kingdom now began to separate from fable, as it gradually increased in riches and importance ; and after the expulsion of the Scythians, who in the 7th century had invaded and temporarily possessed it, Alyattes ruled over the greater part of Asia Minor. A war soon afterwards arose between Media and Lydia, during which Babylon remained neuter, and acted as mediator in the contest. A memorable battle between the two nations was interrupted by a total eclipse of the sun, 30th September 601 b. c. CrcEsus, before ascending the throne, had been associated with his father in the government. Wise but ambitious, he greatly extended the power of the kingdom, and reduced all the Greek colonies of Asia. Solon the philosopher, about 575, and the fabulist ^Esop, were entertained at his court.t He declared war against the celebrated Cyrus, who had united the Median and Persian monarchies, 559 b. c. ; but although assisted by Egypt and Babylon, he was unsuccessful ; his capital, Sardis, was taken, and himself made prisoner, 546 b.c. The whole of the Lydian dominions fell into the hands of the conqueror, and the nation never recovered its independence. Tradition ascribes to the Lydians the invention of coined money, formed from the gold dust of the river Pactolus. They were celebrated for their purpler garments, their skill in working metal, and their slave markets. *The reign of Nabonassar forms an important era in chronoloj^y. It was, according to Ptolemy, the beginning of the astronomical observations of the Chaldeans. Hence, it fixes the date of what is commonly called Ptolemy's Astronomical Canon. The method of reducing the years of this era to that employed by Christian nations, will be found in the Companion to the Almanac, 1830. fThe chronological objections to the celebrated interview between Croesus and Solon may be removed, if we suppose with Mr. Fynes Clinton, that Croesus reigned jointly with his father Alyattes. See also Larclier's Note 73, lib. i. of his translation o( Heiodotus. 62 ANCIENT HISTORY. ROME. Origin of the Soman people. At the period when history begins to throw a few rays of light upon the con- dition of Italy, we find it occupied by various tribes, speaking different lan- guages, and in different degrees of civihsation. The Umbrians, who are supposed to have come from Illyria, had penetrated to the Tiber, and occupied both its banks at a very remote era. Between them and the mouth of the river, lay the Siculans ; while in the Apennine chain, near Mount Velino, and afthe Lake Fucino, dwelt a rude and barbarous people, known by the name of Casci or Aborigines (primitive inhabitants). To the east of these were the Sahines, whose original abode was the Abruzzi, on the summits of the Apen- nines. These people seized on the Umbrian territory, and, in lapse of time, extended their frontiers as far as Rome. At this epoch, long before the date of the fall of Troy, the Aborigines settled on the south of Umbria, and there built cities and towns. The Siculans and these mountaineers were continually at war ; and after long and terrible combats, the Aborigines, assisted by some Felasgian colonists under Evander, vanquished the Siculans, and compelled them to take refuge in Trinacria, which afterwards bore the name of Sicily. The Pelasgians received their share of the conquered lands ; but were in their turn subdued and nearly exterminated about the middle of the 12th century B. 0. The Aborigines remained sole masters of the country, and were the primitive source of the Latin people. They were called Latins, from their king Latinus. The poetical traditions relate that iEneas, who had escaped the flames of Troy, married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and founded Lavinium. His son Ascanius is said to have built Alba Longa. Twelve princes reigned after him : Procas was the last. His sons Numitor and Amuhus made war upon each other, and the latter triumphed ; but he was driven from the throne by the two grandsons of Numitor, Romulus and Remus, whom the Romans supposed to be the offspring of Mars and the vestal Rhea Sylvia. The researches of Beaufort and Niebuhr have shaken the credibility of the early annals of Rome. But critical scepticism may be carried too far ; for the science of history consists not only in the knowledge of truths, but in familiarity with all that has been related of the various nations which have figured in the world. An acquaintance with what the Romans themselves believed of the origin of the city is necessary to enable us to form a correct estimate of their character. Consult : Arnold's History of Rome. Romulus, 753, — ^The founder of Rome had been a shepherd in his youth. After having restored his grandfather Numitor to the throne, he settled, "with some of his early companions, at a little distance from Alba, on the Palatine Hill, and probably on the ruins of a more ancient city. By making the new city an asylum for murderers and runaway slaves, the population increased. He established laws, divided the people into two classes — Patricians and Plebeians, and appointed a senate. At the close of a disastrous war with the Sahines, he was compelled to share his crown with Tatius, their king, though he soon became sole monarch again. After a reign of thirty-seven years he was murdered by the senators, who, fearful of the revenge of the populace, gave origin to the report that he had been carried up to heaven, and a temple was erected to him on the Quirinal hill. Romulus had the good sense to adopt many Sabine customs. The Romans always imitated this example with respect to the nations they conquered, and it was not the least cause of their renown. No people indeed ever rose to pre-eminent greatness with smaller pretensions to originality. They were indebted to the Greeks for every thing except their martial an