jK Class Book_ - CopyrigM?. — — C0EXRIGHT DEPOSm _^ l ffi"r~ A»-**jf...-ef- w I m '■■ ■ WORLD HISTORY IiY HUTTON ^EBSTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OK NEBRASKA " The true object of history is to show us the life of the human nice in its fullness, and to follow up the tale of its continuous and difficult evolution. The conception of the progress of civilization in intelligible sequence, is the greatest achievement of modern thought." — Frederic Harrison, The Meaning of History. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO WEBSTER'S HISTORIES Webster's Ancient History From prehistoric times to the Age of Charlemagne Webster's Medieval and Modern History From the fall of Rome to the present Webster's Early European History From prehistoric times to the seventeenth century Webster's Modern European History From the Age of Louis XIV to the present: a year's course Webster's European History Part I — Ancient Times Ancient history and civilization Part II — Medieval and Early Modern Times From the fall of Rome to the seventeenth century Part III — Modern Times From the Age of Louis XIV to the present: a brief course Webster's World History From prehistoric times to the present Webster's Readings in Ancient History Webster's Readings in Medieval and Modern History Webster's Historical Source Book copyright, 1921 by d. c. heath & co. 2KI PRINTED IN U.S.A. - M -4 1922 ^CU654111 PREFACE The scope, character, and purpose of this textbook perhaps require some clarification here. It covers the entire historic field, together with a chapter on prehistoric times; it presents a survey of human progress, rather than a chronological outline of events; it is intended for that large body of students who, for various reasons, do not take more than one year of history in the high school. They ought to gain from such a course, however brief, some conception of social development and some realization of man's upward march from the Stone Age until the present time. Nothing but general or universal history will give them that conception, — that realization. And only a history of the world will enable them to appreciate the contributions made by peoples widely separated in space and time to what is steadily becoming the common civilization of mankind. About two thirds of the book are devoted to the last three centuries. This period furnishes the immediate historical background of the life of to-day: it is therefore the period ordinarily most interesting and profitable to the student. The chapters dealing with it are reproduced, with some abbrevia- tion, from my Modem European History. The other chapters are based on my Early European History, but they contain much that is new, both in the text and also by way of maps and illustrations. Teachers will find in the book, as in its predecessors, a variety of aids. The "Suggestions for Further Study" provide extended bibliographies. The "Studies" at the end of each chapter may be used either in the daily recitation or for review after the entire chapter has been read. The "Table of Events and Dates," forming the appendix, should be consulted fre- quently, and pupils should be required to explain and elaborate iii iv Preface the brief statements there given concerning the significance of each dated event. Care ought also to be taken that pupils acquire a correct pronunciation of all proper names mentioned in the text and incorporated in the index and pronouncing vocabulary. Specific references in footnotes are made to the author's Readings in Ancient History, Readings in Medieval and Modem History, and Historical Source Book. The first two volumes contain sources of a narrative and biographical character; the third volume includes thirty-three documents ranging from Magna Carta to the Covenant of the League of Nations. These collections supply abundant material for outside reading, oral reports in class, and essays. The author desires once more to thank the cartographers, artists, and printers for their efficient cooperation with him in making this work. Hutton Webster Lincoln, Nebraska October, 1921 CONTENTS List of Illustrations List of Maps .... List of Plates . . . ' . Suggestions for Further Study PAGE xi xv xviii II. CI- IO. 13- Prehistoric Times i. Introductory 2. Man's Place in Nature The Old Stone Age The New Stone Age The Age of Metals Races of Man . Languages of Man 8. Writing and the Alphabet The Ancient Orient The Lands of the Near East . The Peoples of the Near East . Social Conditions Economic Conditions Commerce and Commercial Routes 14. Law and Morality . . . 15. Religion 16. Literature and Art . 17. Science 18. Orient and Occident III. Greece 19. 20. 23- 24. 25- 26. The Lands of the West The Mediterranean Basin The ^Egeans The Greeks The Greek City-States Colonial Expansion of Greece The Persian Wars, 499-479 b.c Athens, 479-431 B.C. v 15 17 23 29 32 40 44 46 49 52 55 58 62 65 68 7i 73 79 82 84 89 VI Contents PAGE 27. Athenian Culture . . . . . . -93 28. Decline of the Greek City-States, 431-338 B.C. . 97 29. Alexander the Great, and the Conquest of Persia 10 1 30. The Hellenistic Age 105 IV. V. VI. Rome 31. Italian Peoples 32. The Romans ..... i 33. The Roman City-State .... 34. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 5oa(?)-264 b.c 35. Expansion of Rome beyond Italy, 264-133 B.C. Rome the Mistress of the Mediterranean Basin Decline of the Roman City-State, 133-31 B.C. The Early Empire, 31 B.C. -284 a.d. The World under Roman Rule Christianity in the Roman World The Later Empire, 284-476 a.d. 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 4i. The Middle Ages 42. The Germans .... 43. The Holy Roman Empire 44. The Northmen and the Normans 45. Feudalism . 46. The Byzantine Empire 47. The Arabs and Islam, 622-1058 48. The Crusades, 1095-1291 49. Mongolian Peoples in Europe to 1453 50. National States during the Later Middle Ages Medieval Civilization 51. The Church 52. The Clergy 53. The Papacy 54 Country Life Serfdom City Life Civic Industry • . Civic Trade ....... Cathedrals and Universities National Languages during the Later Middle Ages 55- 56. 57- 58. 59- 60. VII. The Renaissance 61. Revival of Learning and Art in Italy . . 62. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 112 115 119 121 123 129 132 138 144 149 i53 157 161 166 169 176 180 187 190 194 203, 207 211 214 219 221 225 228 231 236 240 245 ■■■■<} *»./ Contents vii CHAFTEB PACE 63. Geographical Discovery .,„... 248 64. Colonial Umpires .... 253 65. The Old World and the New . 255 66. The Protestant Reformation 257 67. The Protestant Sects 263 68. The Catholic Counter Reformat ion 266 69. The Religious Wars .... 269 70. The European State System 278 VIII. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in Europe 71. Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings 281 72. The Struggle against Stuart Absolutism in England 282 73- The Restoration and the "Glorious Revolution" 291 74- Absolutism of Louis XIV in France, 1643- 1715 29S 75- Russia under Peter the Great, 1689-1725 302 76. Russia under Catherine II, 1 762-1 796 307 77- Austria and Maria Theresa, 1 740-1 780 309 78. Prussia and Frederick the Great, 1 740-1 786 3 l ° 79- The Partitions of Poland, 1772-1795 3H IX. Commerce and Colonies during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 80. Mercantilism and Trading Companies . . . 320 81. The Dutch Colonial Empire . . . . .322 82. Rivalry of France and England in India (to 1763) . 325 83. Rivalry of France and England in North America 328 84. The American Revolution, 17 76-1 783 . . . 334 85. Formation of the United States .... 341 86. Progress of Geographical Discovery . . . 342 X. The Old Regime 87. Reform 346 88. The Privileged Classes 347 89. The Unprivileged Classes 349 90. The Church 331 91. Liberal Ideas of Industry and Commerce; the Economists 354 92. The Scientists 355 93. Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics; the English Philosophers 357 94. The French Philosophers 359 95. The Enlightened Despots 362 Vlll Contents CHAPTER XI. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, i 789-181 5 96. Eve of the French Revolution 97. The Estates-General, 1789 98. Outbreak of the French Revolution . 99. The National Assembly, 1789-1791 100. The First French Republic, 1792 101. The National Convention, 1 792-1 795 102. The Directory and Napoleon, 1795-1799 103. The Consulate, 1799-1804 104. The First French Empire, 1804 105. Napoleon at War with Europe, 1805-1807 106. Napoleon's Reorganization of Europe 107. The Continental System . 108. Revolt of the Nations, 1808-1814 109. Downfall of Napoleon, 1814-1815 . no. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" XII. The Democratic Movement in Europe, 181 5-1 848 in. Modern Democracy 112. The Congress of Vienna 113. Restoration of the Dynasties .... 114. Territorial Readjustments ... 115. "Metternichismus" and the Concert of Europe 116. France and the "July Revolution, " 1830 117. The "July Revolution" in Europe 118. The "February Revolution" and the Second French Republic, 1848 119. The " February Revolution " in Europe XIII. The National Movement in Europe, i 848-1 871 120. Modern Nationalism .... 121. Napoleon III and the Second French Empire 122. Disunited Italy 123. Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour 124. United Italy, 1859-1870 125. Disunited Germany 126. William I and Bismarck . 127. United Germany, 1864-1871 XIV. The United Kingdom and the British Empire 128. Parliamentary Reform, 1832 129. Political Democracy, 1832-1867 468 473 Contents IX 130. Political Democracy, 1867-1918 . i.-ji. Government of the United Kingdom 132. The Irish Question 133. The British Empire XV. The Continental Countries 134. The Third French Republic 135. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium 136. Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden ........ 137. The German Empire, 1871-1918 . . . . 138. The Dual Monarchy, 1867-1918 . 130. The Russian Empire 140. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States . XVI: Colonial Expansion and World Politics 141. Greater Europe 142. The Opening-up of Africa 143. The Partition of Africa 144. The Opening-up and Partition of Asia 145. India .... 146. China .... 147. Japan .... 148. The Opening-up and Partition of Oceania 149. Australia and New Zealand 150. Canada .... 151. Latin America 152. The United States 153. Close of Geographical Discovery XVII. The Industrial Revolution 154. Modern Industrialism 155. The Great Inventions 156. Effects of the Great Inventions 157. Improvements in Transportation 158. Improved Communications 159. Commerce .... 160. Agriculture and Land Tenure . 161. The Labor Movement 162. Government Regulation of Industry 163. Public Ownership [64. Socialism .... [65. Poverty and Progress PAGE 477 479 486 490 5°5 5io 513 519 521 529 540 542 546 550 553 555 560 563 565 566 568 573 577 58i 583 588 592 597 600 605 609 610 614 616 620 Contents CHAPTER XVIII. Modern Civilization 166. Internationalism ..... 167. Social Betterment ..... 168. Emancipation of Women and Children 169. Popular Education and the Higher Learning 170. Religious Development .... 171. Science ....... 172. Literature . ... 173. Music and the Fine Arts 625 628 632 634 636 641 644 646 XIX. International Relations, 1871-1914 174. The Triple Alliance 650 175. The Dual Alliance and the Triple Entente . . 652 176. Colonial Problems . 656 177. The Eastern Question 658 178. Militarism 661 179. Pan-Germanism 665 XX. The World War, 1914-1918 180. Beginning of the War, 1914 181. The Western Front .... 182. The Eastern Front 183. The Balkan and Italian Fronts 184. The War outside of Europe and on the Sea, i9 J 7 185. Intervention of the United States 186. The Russian Revolution .... 187. End of the War, 1918 .... 1914- 669 674 680 682 686 690 697 700 189. 190. XXI. The World Settlement, 1919-1921 188. The Peace Conference . . Peace with Germany Peace with Austria, Hungary, Turkey . . . . . 191. The New Nations in Central Europe 192. The New Nations in Eastern Europe 193. Democracy and Socialism 194. Economic Reconstruction 195. The League of Nations Appendix — Table of Events and Dates Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary . Bulgaria, and 707 710 7i3 715 717 719 723 725 73i 737 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Heidelberg Lower Jaw . 6 Spy Skull .... 7 Prehistoric Stone Implements 8 A Mammoth . . . . 10 Head of a Girl . . . n Egyptian Neolithic Knives . 12 Carved Menhir ... 13 A Dolmen .... 14 Prehistoric Iron Implements . 16 Race Portraiture of the Egyp- tians ..... 20 Symbolic Picture Writing . 23 Chinese Picture Writing and Later Conventional Charac- ters 24 Cretan Writing ... 26 Egyptian and Babylonian Writing .... 27 Head of Mummy of Rameses H 33 A Philistine .... 35 An Assyrian . . . -37 An Assyrian Lion Hunt . . 38 Darius with His Attendants . 30 Court of the Pharaoh . . 41 Tax Collecting in Ancient Egypt 42 Transport of an Assyrian Colossus .... 43 Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egypt 44 A Phoenician War Galley . 48 The Judgment of the Dead . 40 Babylonian Seal . . .50 Hammurabi and the Sun God 51 An Egyptian Scarab . . 52 Amenotep IV . . . -53 PAGE The Deluge Tablet . 56 Ancient Hebrew Manuscript 57 An Assyrian Palace (Restored) 58 Egyptian and Babylonian Numeration 58 A Babylonian Boundary Stone 59 Temple of Amon-Ra at Thebes (Restored) . 61 Hittite Warrior 63 "Throne of Minos" 7i A Cretan Girl 72 The Swastika . 75 The Discus Thrower 77 An Athenian Trireme 83 A Scythian 85 Persian Archers 87 An Athenian Inscription 9i Theater of Dionysus, Athens 94 An Athenian School 95 Pericles .... 96 Demosthenes . 100 Alexander the Great 101 The Alexander Mosaic . !°3 .A Greek Cameo 105 Lighthouse of Alexandria (Restored) . 106 Suovetaurilia . 117 An Italian Plowman 117 Early Roman Bar Money 118 Curule Chair and Fasces 119 Carthaginian or Roman Hcl met .... 126 A Slave's Collar 130 Youth Reading a Papyru sRol J 3i A Roman Legionary i35 A Testudo IS<> Roman Pontoon Bridge 140 Xll List of Illustrations Wall of Hadrian in Britain 141 Cross Section of Amiens The Amphitheater at Aries 142 Cathedral . 233 A Roman Freight Ship . 143 A Hornbook . 234 Gladiators . 146 Tower of Magdalen College A Roman Aqueduct 147 Oxford 235 Interior of the Catacombs 150 A University Lecture 236 Charlemagne . 162 Mask of Dante 241 Ring Seal of Otto the Great . 164 An Early Printing Press 242 A Viking Ship 167 Desiderius Erasmus 245 A Scene from the Bayeux William Shakespeare 246 Tapestry . 168 The Santa Maria, Flagship 0: The Tower of London . 173 Columbus . 252 Mounted Knight . 175 Martin Luther 258 Naval Battle Showing Use o: Worms Cathedral . 260 "Greek Fire" 178 St. Ignatius Loyola 266 Mecca .... 181 The Spanish Armada in the The Alhambra 185 English Channel . 273 Combat between Crusaders Henry IV 2 74 and Moslems 188 Henry VIII . 276 Ef3fig3 7 of a Knight Templar 189 Hugo Grotius 278 Hut-Wagon of the Mongols A Puritan Family . 284 (Reconstruction) 191 Specimen of Cromwell's Hand- A Mongol 192 writing 287 Mohammed II 193 Great Seal of Engjand under Coronation Chair, Westmin- the Commonwealth 289 ster Abbey . 196 Hotel des Invalides, Paris 296 Religious Music 205 Marlborough 300 A Bishop Ordaining a Priest 207 Gibraltar 301 Abbey of Saint-Germain des Catherine II . 307 Pres, Paris . 209 Maria Theresa 310 Papal Arms . 211 The Partition of Poland . 3i7 Sulgrave Manor 214 New Amsterdam in 1655 324 Farm Work in the Fourteenth L Quebec .... 333 Century 2l8 A Stamp of 1765 . 335 Serf Warming his Hands 2 20 George III 336 House of Jacques Cceur Opening Lines of the Declara Bourges 223 tion of Independence . • 337 Belfry of Bruges 224 Signatures of the Treaty f A German Merchant in thf Paris, 1783 . 34o Fourteenth Century . . 226 John Wesley . • 352 Jacob Fugger . 229 Boys' Sports . • 353 Baptistery, Cathedral, anc 1 Adam Smith . • 355 "Leaning Tower" of Pisa • 232 Death Maskof Sir Isaac Newtoi 1 356 List of Illustrations Xlll F VG1 Voltaire 360 Rousseau . 3O1 Joseph 11 ... . 3»4 Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Dauphin 368 Turgot 309 Costumes of the Orders . 371 Mirabeau . . . . 372 The Storming of the Bastile 374 The Destruction of Feudalism 376 An Assignat . 377 Robespierre . 382 The Lion of Lucerne 383 Napoleon's Birthplace, Ajaccic 388 Cross of the Legion of Honor 393 A Napoleonic Medal 394 The Victory . 395 The Duke of WeHington 401 The Tomb of Napoleon . 406 Seal of the French Republic 407 Arc de Triomphe, Paris . 422 Louis Philippe 425 Facsimile of Article VII of the Treaty of 1839 . 428 La Madeleine, Paris 433 Caricature of Louis Philippe 434 Medal in Honor of Kossuth 436 The Louvre and the Tuileries 443 " France is Tranquil" • 445 Napoleon III and Eugenie • 446 Mazzini .... 449 Victor Emmanuel II • 45° "The Right Leg in the Boot a t Last" .... • 455 William I • 459 "VaeVictis" . . 466 The Union Jack • 469 Canvassing for Votes • 470 Queen Victoria • 474 Windsor Castle • 475 [nterior of the House of Com mons .... . 481 House of Commons Mace • 483 No. 10, Downing Street . St. Paul's Cathedral, London Notre Dame, Paris The Pantheon, Paris Chamber of Deputies, Paris The Vatican, Rome The Reichstagsgebiiude, Berlin The German National Monu- ment .... Francis Joseph I The Kremlin, Moscow . Nicholas I Church of the Resurrection o Christ, Petrograd "What Nicholas Heard in the Shell" Florence Nightingale David Livingstone . Henry M. Stanley . Cecil Rhodes . Count Ferdinand de Lesseps "The Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger" The Great Wall of China Empress-Dowager of China Simon Bolivar The Christ of the Andes Robert E. Peary A Spinning Wheel . Arkwright's Spinning Wheel Cart wright's First Power Loom .... Whitney's Cotton Gin . An Eighteenth-century Stage coach .... The Clermont, 1807 The Rocket, 1830 . A Precursor of the Automobile Morse's First Telegraph In- strument, 1837 . The Original Atlantic Cable . First Adhesive Penny Postage Stamp . 597 598 599 XIV List of Illustrations PAGE PAGE The First Copy of the New King Albert I 673 York Sun . 599 British Recruiting Poster 674 The Stock Exchange, New York 60 1 Sir Douglas Haig . 678 McCormick Reaper, 1834 606 "Kultur Has Passed Here" . 679 The Earl of Shaftesbury 612 Hindenburg .... 680 Robert Owen . 617 The Victoria Cross 683 Karl Marx 619 The Iron Cross 683 Spinning and Weaving in the Eleutherios Venizelos 684 Middle Ages 624 "The Last Crusade" 68; "Ridiculous Taste, or the The Lusitania . . ' . 690 Ladies' Absurdity" 626 The German Lusitania Medal 69 Elizabeth Fry 630 The United States Declaration A Lunatic 630 of War . 692 William Booth 631 Herbert Hoover 695 Susan B. Anthony . 633 Eric von Ludendorff 701 Sir Charles Lyell . 642 Ferdinand Foch 702 Victor Hugo . 646 John J. Pershing 703 Mozart's Spinet 647 Versailles .... 708 Ludwig van Beethoven . 647 Signatures of the Peace with "Dropping the Pilot" . 652 Germany .... 711 "The Blessings of Peace" 662 David Lloyd George 728 Nicholas II . 664 Woodrow Wilson . 72Q LIST OF MAPS Europe in the Ice Age Races of Man ....... Distribution of Semitic and Indo-European Peoples Physical Asia (double page) .... The Ancient Orient (double page) Solomon's Kingdom ...... Colonization of the Mediterranean Physical Features of Europe (double page) Racial Types in Western Europe .... The Mediterranean Basin Greek Conquests and Migrations .... The Persian Invasions of Greece .... The Athenian Empire at its Height .... Growth of Macedonia ...... (i) Empire of Alexander (2) Kingdoms of his Successors The World according to Ptolemy The .Etolian and Achaean Leagues (about 229 B.C.) . . . . Distribution of the Early Inhabitants of Italy . Rome in Italy ......... Facing Rome and Carthage at the Beginning of the Second Punic War . Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent (double page) Between 138 and St. Paul's Travels Prefectures of the Roman Empire about 395 Europe at Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476 . . Facing Between 28 and Between 34 and Facing Between 64 and Facing Facing Facing Facing Eleventh Centuries . Facing Facing Teutonic Migrations and Conquests Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 The Byzantine Empire during the Tenth and Expansion of Islam .... Asia under the Mongols The British Isles during the Middle Ages Unification of France during the Middle Ages Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fourteenth Century (double page) ...... Between 204 and Plan of Ilitchin Manor, Hertfordshire Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe xv PAGE 4 19 22 29 35 36 46 65 67 70 74 86 90 99 104 108 109 113 122 125 139 152 155 156 160 162 165 177 184 192 195 198 200 205 215 230 xvi List of Maps PAGE Behaim's Globe 250 Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century (double page) Between 254 and 255 Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 ...... 264 The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 271 Europe at the End of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 . . Facing 278 Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV 298 Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1 713 .... Facing 300 Growth of Russia to the End of the Eighteenth Century . . . 303 The Ottoman Empire to 1683 Facing 308 Growth of Prussia to the End of the Eighteenth Century . Facing 314 Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 316 English Trading Companies Facing 322 India 326 North America after the Peace of Paris, 1783 339 Colonial Empires in the Eighteenth Century (double page) Between 344 and 345 Europe at the Beginning of the French Revolution . . Facing 366 Revolutionary France and Italy ...... Facing 388 First French Empire, 1812 ...... Facing 398 Theater of the Waterloo Campaign 405 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 18 15 . . . Facing 416 The Netherlands in the Nineteenth Century 427 Poland in the Nineteenth Century 429 Unification of Italy, 1815-1870 454 The Germanic Confederation, 181 5— 1866 .... Facing 45 S Unification of Germany, 1815-1871 Facing 462 Alsace-Lorraine 465 Ireland 486 Growth of the British Empire . . . ... . Facing 490 The British Empire Between 494 and 495 The Hapsburg Dominions, 12 73-19 14 .... Facing 520 Russia in Europe during the Nineteenth Century . . . .524 The Ottoman Empire, 1683-1914 Facing 530 Balkan States in 1878 and 1913 Facing 538 The World Powers, 181 5 Facing 540 Peoples of Africa v . 543 Religions of Africa 545 Exploration and Partition of Africa (double page) Between 548 and 549 The Peoples of Asia Facing 552 The European Advance in Asia (double page) . Between 554 and 555 Expansion of Buddhism 556 The World Powers (double page) . . . Between 560 and 561 List of Maps XVII The Pacific Ocean Facing Exclusion of Spain and Portugal from South America . Facing Relief Map of the Panama Canal North America since 1783 Facing Discoveries of the Polar Regions Economic Europe (double page) . . . Between 582 and Industrial England in the Twentieth Century Occupations of Mankind • Facing Commercial Development of the World (double page) Between 604 and Facing Facing Facing Facing Density of the World's Population Languages of the World Religions of the World Europe in 1871 . Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway . Europe in 1914 . Plan of the Battle of the Marne The Western Front The Eastern Front The Italian Front German Barred Zone . North Sea Mine Fields The World War in 1918 Europe after the Peace Conference at Paris (double page) Between 714 and The Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century (double page) ■ . Between 718 and PAGE 564 57o 575 576 579 583 5«° 592 605 620 626 637 650 658 666 676 677 681 685 689 694 696 7i5 719 LIST OF PLATES PAGE Stonehenge Facing 12 Great Pyramid of Gizeh . . . 56 Hermes and Dionysus 80 Temple of Poseidon at Paestum 81 The Acropolis of Athens (Restoration) 94 Acropolis of Athens from the Southwest 95 Julius Caesar 136 Augustus Caesar 136 The Palace of the Caesars 142 The Roman Forum at the Present Time 143 Oriental, Greek, and Roman Coins . . . . . 148 Ancient and Medieval Gems ........ 149 Rheinstein Castle 176 Sancta Sophia, Constantinople 177 St. Peter's, Rome . . .212 Campanile and Doge's Palace, Venice 230 Reims Cathedral . . . . . . . . . .231 Italian Paintings of the Renaissance 244 Philip II 272 Elizabeth „ .273 Oliver Cromwell 286 Louis XIV 302 Peter the Great 303 Frederick the Great 310 Napoleon as First Consul 390 "1807" 391 The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815 414 Prince Metternich . . .415 Cavour 452 Garibaldi . 452 Bismarck 460 Moltke 460 Gladstone 476 Disraeli 476 Houses of Parliament, London 482 Choir of Westminster Abbey ........ 483 Thiers . 494 xviii List of Plates XIX Gambetta The Congress of Berlin, 1878 Constantinople and the Bosporus Benjamin Watt . Robert Fulton . Early Passenger Trains Charles Darwin . Louis Pasteur Inimanucl Kant . Herbert Spencer . View of Paris from an Airplane The Peace Conference, 1919 PACK Facing 404 53" 537 588 588 5«0 644 644 645 645 710 711 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY All serious students of history should have access to the American Historical Review (N. Y., 1895 to date, quarterly, $4.00 a year). This . . journal, the organ of the American Historical Association, contains articles by scholars, critical reviews of all impor- tant works, and notes and news. The Historical Outlook (formerly the History Teacher's Magazine) is edited under the supervision of a com- mittee of the American Historical Association (Philadelphia, 1909 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year). Every well-equipped school library should contain the files of the National Geographic Magazine (Washing- ton, 1890 to date, monthly, $3.50 a year) and of Art and Archaology (Washington, 1914 to date, monthly, $4.00 a year). These two periodi- cals make a special feature of illustrations. Current History (N. Y., 1914 to date, monthly, $4.00 a year) contains many of the valuable articles appearing in the daily edition of the New York Times, as well as much additional matter of contemporary interest. Useful books for the teacher's library include H. E. Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School (N. Y., 1902, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.90), Works on the Henry Johnson, The Teaching of History (N. Y., 1915, teachingof Macmillan, $1.80), H. B. George, Historical Evidence history (N- Y., 1909, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.80), J. H. Vincent, Historical Research (N. Y., 1911, Holt, $4.00), Frederic Harrison, The Meaning of History and Other His- torical Pieces (new ed., N. Y., 1900, Macmillan, $2.50), J. H. Robinson, The New History (N. Y., 191 2, Macmillan, $2.00), and H. B. George, The Relations of History and Geography (4th ed., N. Y., 1910, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $2.25). The following reports are indispensable : The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Seven (N. Y., 1899, Macmillan, $1.00). The Study of History in Secondary Schools. Report to the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five (N. Y., 1911, Macmillan, $1.00). Historical Sources in Schools. Report to the New England History Teachers' Association by a Select Committee (N. Y., 1902, out of print). A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools. Report by a Special Committee of the New England History Teachers' Association (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.60). xx Suggestions for Further Study xxi A Bibliography Oj History for Schools and Libraries. Published under the- auspices of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland (jd ed., N. Y ., 1915, Longmans, Green & Co., <>o cents). For chronology, genealogies, lists of sovereigns, and other data the nii>:U valuable works are Arthur Hassall, European History, 476-1920 (new ed., N. Y., 1920, Macmillan, $4.00), G. P. Putnam, Tabular Vines of Universal History (new ed., N. Y., Dictionaries 1915, Putnam, $3-0°), and K. J. Ploetz, A Handbook of encyc i p e dias Universal History, translated by W. H. Tillinghast (new ed., Boston, 1915, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.75). TheNew International War Book (N. Y., 1907 to date, Dodd, Mead & Co.) is an annual encyclo- pedia and compendium of the world's progress. The Statesman's Year Book (N. Y., Macmillan, $7.50) and the American Year Book (N. Y., Ap- pleton, S5.00) are other annual publications devoted to current history. An admirable collection of maps for school use is W. R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas (N. Y\, 191 1, Holt, temporarily out of print), with about two hundred and fifty maps covering the historical field. Other valuable works are E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History (N. Y\, 1907, Holt, $2.50), Ramsay Muir, Hammond's flew Historical Atlas for Students (2d ed., N. Y., 1914, Hammond, S4.00), and C. G. Robertson and J. G. Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from 17S9 to 1914 (N. Y., 1915, Oxford Univer- sity Press, American* Branch, $2.50). Much use can be made of the Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe, by J. G. Bartholomew, in " Every- man's Library " (N. Y., 1910, Dutton, $1.00). Other atlases in the same collection are devoted to Asia, Africa and Australasia, and America, respectively. Very valuable, also, is J. G. Bartholomew, An Atlas of Economic Geography (N. Y., 1915, Oxford University Press, American Branch, S3.40) with maps showing temperature, rainfall, population, races, occupations, religions, trade routes, products, etc. A similar though less extensive work is Hammond's Business Atlas of Economic Geography (N. Y., 1920, Llammond, $2.00). A series of European History maps, forty-four in number, size 48J X 38} inches, has been prepared for ancient history by Hutton Webster and for medieval and modern history by Hutton Webster, D. C. Knowlton, and C. D. Hazen (Chicago, A. J. Ny- ^"charts strom & Co., complete set with tripod stand $86. 00; in spring roller cases $176.00). These maps may also be had separately. The maps in this series are on a very large scale, omit all irrelevant detail, present place names in the modern English form, and deal with cultural as well as with political subjects. A somewhat similar series of wall maps, forty three in Dumber, size 44X32 inches, is the work of *. H. Breasted, C. F. Huth, and S. i>. Harding (Chicago, Dcnoyer- Geppert Co., complete set with tripod stand, $72.00; in spring roller xxii Suggestions for Further Study cases, $203.00). The school should also possess good physical wall maps such as the Sydow-Habenicht or the Kiepert series, both to be obtained from Rand, McNally & Co. The text is in German. Philip's Physical Maps and Johnston's New Series of Physical Wall Maps are obtainable from A. J. Nystrom & Co. The only large charts available are those prepared by MacCoun for his Historical Geography Charts of Europe. The two sections, " Ancient and Classical " and "Medieval and Modern," are sold separately (N. Y., Silver, Burdett & Co., $20.00). The " Studies " following each chapter of this book include various exercises for which small outline maps are required. Such maps are „ ,. sold by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, New York, Chicago. Outline maps TT . , , . T . ° Usetui atlases 01 outline maps are also to be had of the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia ; A. J. Nystrom & Co., Chicago ; Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover, Chicago, and of other publishers. A very useful work is Bishop and Robinson, Practical Map Exercises in Medieval and Modem European History (Boston, Ginn & Co.) The best photographs of works of art must usually be obtained from foreign publishers or from their American agents. In addition to photographs and lantern slides, a collection of stereoscopic Illustrations F . ° . F , . , ... ..'.., ■ , . . /. views is very helpful in giving vividness and interest to instruction in history. An admirable series of photographs for the stereoscope is issued by Underwood and Underwood, New York City. The same firm supplies convenient maps and handbooks for use in this connection. The Keystone stereographs, prepared by the Keystone View Company, Meadville, Penn., may also be cordially recommended. Notable collections are Lehmann's Geographical Pictures, Historical Pictures, and Types of Nations, and Cybulski's Historical Pictures (Chicago, A. J. Nystrom & Co., and Denoyer-Geppert Co. ; each picture separately mounted on rollers). The Illustrated Topics for An- cient History and Illustrated Topics for Medieval and Modern History, arranged by D. C. Knowlton (Philadelphia, McKinley Publishing Co., each 65 cents), contain much valuable material in the shape of a syllabus, outline maps, pictures, and other aids. To vitalize the study of geography and history there is nothing better Works of than the reading of modern books of travel. Among travel these may be mentioned : Allinson, F. G., and Allinson, Anne C. E., Greek Lands and Letters (Boston, 1909, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.50). An entertaining work of mingled history and geography. Clark,F.E. TheHoly Land of Asia Minor (N.Y. ,1914, Scribner, $1.25). Popular sketches. Dwight, H. G. Constantinople, Old and New (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). Forman, H. J. The Ideal Italian Tour (Boston, 1911, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). A brief and attractive volume covering all Italy. Suggestions for Further Study xxiii Jackson, V V. W-. Persia, Past and Present (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, S4.00). Kini.i aki;, A. W. Eotken (,N T . Y., 1844, Dulton, $1.00). Sketches of travel in the East. Taylor, Bayard. Views A-Foot (N. Y., 1855, Putnam, $1.50). A classic work of European travel. Warner, C. D. /;; the Levant (N. Y., Harper, 1876, out of print). The following works of historical fiction comprise only a selection from a very large number of hooks suitable for supplementary reading. For extended bibliographies see E. A. Baker, A Guide to Historical Fiction, and Jonathan Nield, A Guide to the ~ . Best Historical Novels and Talcs. An excellent list of historical stories, especially designed for children, will be found in the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts viii-ix. Bl\ck\iore, R. D. Lorna Doone (1869). Monmouth's Rebellion, 1685. Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. The Last Days of Pompeii (1834). Cox, G. W. Tales of Ancient Greece (1868). Dickens, Charles. The Tale of Two Cities (1859). London and Paris at the time of the French Revolution. Eliot, George. Romola (1863). Florence in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Hugo, Victor. Ninety-Three (1872). Insurrection in La Vendee, 1793. Notre Dame de Paris (1831). Paris, late fifteenth century. Irving, Washington. The Alhambra (1832). Sketches of the Moors and Span- iards. Kixgsley, Charles. Hypatia (1853). Alexandria, 391 a.d. Westward Ho! (1855). Voyages of Elizabethan seamen and the struggle with Spain. Kipling, Rudyard. Puck of Pook's Hill (1906). Roman occupation of Britain. Lever, Charles. Charles O'Malley (1841). The Peninsular War. Tom Bourke of "Ours" (1848). French wars of the Consulate and Empire. Reade, Charles. The Cloister and the Hearth (1861). Eve of the Ref- ormation. Scott, (Sir) Walter. The Talisman (1825). Reign of Richard I, 1193. Ivanhoe (1820). Richard I, 1 194. Shorthouse, J. H. John Inglcsant (1881). Life in England and Italy during the seventeenth century. Sienkiewicz, Henryk. With Fire and Sword (1884). Poland in the seventeenth century. Thackeray, W. M. Henry Esmond (1852). England during the reigns of William III and Queen Anne. Tolstoy, (Count) L. N. War and Peace (1864-1869). Napoleon's campaigns in Russia. Sevastopol (1855-1856). Crimean War. Wallace, Lew. Ben Eur; a Talc of the Christ (1880). Waterloo, Stanley. The Story of Ab (1905). Prehistoric life. xxiv Suggestions for Further Study It is unnecessary to emphasize the value, as collateral reading, of Historical historical poems and plays. To the brief list which poetry follows should be added the material in Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman, English History told by English Poets. Brooke, Rupert, The Soldier. Browning, Elizabeth B. The Cry of the Children, and The Forced Recruit. Browning, Robert. Pheidippides, Herve Riel, and An Incident of the French Camp. Burns, Robert. The Battle of Bannockburn. Byron (Lord). Song of Saul before His Last Battle, The Destruction of Sennacherib, Belshazzar's Feast, The Isles of Greece (Don Juan, canto iii, between stanzas 86-87), "The Eve of Waterloo" (Childe Harold, canto iii, stanzas 21-28), and Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte. Campbell, Thomas. Hohenlinden, The Battle of the Baltic, Rule Britannia, and Ye Mariners of England. Cowper, William. Loss of the "Royal George." Domett, Alfred. A Christmas Hymn. Dryden, John. Alexander's Feast. Halleck, Fitz-Greene. Marco Bozzaris. Hemans, Felicia. The Landing of the Pilgrims. Kipling, Rudyard. Recessional, and The White Man's Burden. Longfellow, H. W. The Skeleton in Armor, The Norman Baron, The Belfry of Bruges, Nuremberg, and The White Czar. Lowell, J. R. Kossuth, and Villafrajica. Macaulay, T. B. Lays of Ancient Rome, The Armada, The Battle of Ivry, and The Battle of Naseby. McCeae, John. In Flanders Fields. Markham, Edwin. The Mam with the Hoe. Miller, Joaquin. Columbus. Milton, John. Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity, and To the Lord General Cromwell. Morris, William. The Day is Coming. Norton, Caroline E. S. The Soldier from Bingen. Rossetti, D. G. The White Ship. Schiller, Friedrich. The Maid of Orleans, William Tell, Maria Stuart, and W aliens tein. Scott, (Sir) Walter. "Flodden Field" {Marmion, canto vi, stanzas 19-27,33- 35)- Shakespeare, William. Coriolanus, Julius Ccesar, Antony and Cleopatra, King John, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth, parts i and ii, Henry the Fifth, Henry the Sixth, parts i, ii, and iii, Richard the Third, Henry the Eighth, and The Merchant of Venice. Taylor, Bayard. The Song in Camp. Tennyson, Alfred. Ulysses, Boadicea, St. Telemachus, St. Simeon Stylites, Sir Galahad, " The Revenge" : A Ballad of the Fleet, Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington, The Charge of the Light Brigade, and The Defense of Lucknow. Thackeray, W. M. King Canute. Wolfe, Charles. The Burial of Sir John Moore. Suggestions for Further Study xxv Full information regarding the best translations of the sources of history may be found in one of the Reports previously cited — Historical Sources in Schools, parts iii-iv. The use of the following collections of extracts from the sources will go far toward remedying the lack of library facilities. Botsford, G. W., and Botsford, Lillie S. Source Book of Ancient History (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, S2.00). Davis, W. S. Readings in Ancient History (Boston, 1912, Allyn & Bacon, 2 vols., $2.80). I In. 1 , Mabel. Liberty Documents (N. Y., 1001, out of print). Ogg, F. A. A Source Book of Medieval History (N. Y., 1907,' American Book Co., S1.72). ROBINSON, J. H. Readings in European History (abridged cd., Boston, 1906, Ginn, $2.50). Webster, IIutton. Readings in Ancient History (N. Y., 1913, Heath, $1.60). ■ Readings in Medieval and Modern History (N. Y., 1917, Heath, $1.60). Historical Source Book (N. Y., 1920, Heath, $1.60). Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History (N. Y., 1894-1899, Longmans, Green & Co., 6 vols., each $2.00). Most of the books in the following list are inexpensive, easily procured and well adapted in style and choice of topics to the needs of high-school pupils. Some more advanced and costly works are in- dicated by an asterisk (*). For detailed bibliographies, . often accompanied by critical estimates, see C. K. Adams, A Manual of Historical Literature, and the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts iii-v. GENERAL ♦Abbott, W. C. The Expansion of Europe, 1415-17S0 (N. Y., 1918, Holt, 2 vols., S8.00). Emphasizes cultural aspects of modern European history. Beard, C. A. Introduction to the English Historians (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, S3. 50). A book of selected readings. Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (N. Y., 1840, Button, Si. 00). Chapin, F. S. An Historical Introduction to Social Economy (N. Y., 1917, Century Co., S3. 00). An elementary treatment of industrial and social history. Cheyney, E. P. Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England (rev. ed., N. Y., 1920, Macmillan, $2.60). Cowan, A. R. Master Clues in World History (N. Y., 1914, Longmans, Green & Co., S2.00). Suggestive reading. CREASY, E. S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo (X. V., 1854, Button, Si. 00). Cunningham, William. An Essay on Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects (Ancient Times) (X. V., 1898, Putnam, $1.35). Cambridge Historical Series. An E^say on Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects (Medieval and Modem Times) (N. Y., 1901, Putnam, $1.35). Cambridge Historical Scries. xxvi Suggestions for Further Study Day, Clive. A History of Commerce (2d ed., N. Y., 1914, Longmans, Green & Co., $2.50). The most scholarly treatment in English. Ellwood, C. A. Sociology and Modern Social Problems (N. Y., iqio, American Book Co., $1.48). An elementary treatment. Goodyear, W. H. Roman and Medieval Art (2d ed., N. Y., 1897, Macmillan, $2.00). Renaissance and Modem Art (N. Y., 1894, $2.00). *Hayes, C. J. H. A Political and Social History of Modern Europe (N. Y., 1916, Macmillan, 2 vols., $7.75). A college text-book, covering the period 1500-1915 ; provided with full bibliographies. Herbertson, A. J., and Herbertson, F. D. Man and His Work (3d ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $1.28). An introduction to the study of human geography. Herrick, C. A, History of Commerce and Industry (N. Y., 1917, Macmillan, $2.00). Jacobs, Joseph. The Story of Geographical Discovery (N. Y., 1898, Appleton, $1.00). Jenks, Edward. The State and the Nation (N. Y., 1919, Dutton, $2.00). A simply written work on the historical development of social institutions. Kelsey, Carl. The Physical Basis of Society (N. Y., 1916, Appleton, $2.50). An interesting introduction to the study of sociology. Kerr, P. H., and Kerr, A. C. The Growth of the British Empire (N. Y., 191 1, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.00). Libby, Walter. An Introduction to the History of Science (Boston, 1917, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.35). Macy, Jesse, and Gannaway, J. W. Comparative Free Government (N. Y., 191 5, Macmillan, $3.25). Marvin, F. S. The Living Past (2d ed., N. Y., 1915, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $2.00). Thoughtful survey of intellectual history. *Monroe, Paul. A Textbook in the History of Education (N. Y., 1905, Macmillan, $3-5o). Myers, P. V. N. History as Past Ethics (Boston, 1913, Ginn, $1.50). Pattison, R. P. D. Leading Figures in European History (N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $2.00). Biographical sketches of European statesmen from Charlemagne to Bismarck. Powers, H. H. Mornings with Masters of Art (N. Y., 1912, out of print). Christian art from the time of Constantine to the death of Michelangelo. Quennel, Marjorie, and Quennel, C. H. B. A History of Everyday Things in England (N. Y., 1919, Scribner, 2 vols., each $4.00). Covers the period between 1066 and 1799; a charmingly written and amply illustrated work. Reinach, Salomon. Apollo; an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art throughout the Ages, translated by Florence Simmonds (last ed., N. Y., 1914, Scribner, $2.00). The best work on the subject. Seignobos, Charles. History of Ancient Civilization, edited by J. A. James (N. Y., igo6, Scribner, $1.48). History of Medieval and Modern Civilisation, edited by J. A. James (N. Y., 1907, Scribner, $1.48). History of Contemporary Civilization, edited by J. A. James (N. Y., 1909, Scribner, $1.48). *Wells, H. G. The Outline of History (N. Y., 1920, Macmillan, 2 vols., $10.50). *Wilson, Woodrow. The State. Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (2d ed., N. Y., 1898, Heath, $2.68). Suggestions for Further Study xxvii PREHISTORIC TIMES Clodd, Edward. The Story of Primitive Man (N. Y., 1895, Applcton, 50 cents). .\h res, J. L. The Dawn of History (N. Y., 1912, Holt, 90 cents). Home University Library. •Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). An authoritative, interesting, and amply illustrated work. Sr\RR, FREDERICK. Some First Steps in Human Progress (Chautauqua, N. Y., 1 895, out of print). A popular introduction to anthropology. Tvlor, (Sir) E. B. Anthropology (N. Y., 1881, Appleton, $3.00). Incorporates the results of the author's extensive studies. THE ANCIENT ORIENT Baikie, James. The Story of the Pharaohs (N. Y., 190S, Macmillan, $4.25). A popular work; well illustrated. *Brf.asted, J. H. A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (2d ed., N. Y., 1909, Scribner, $7.00). The standard work on Egyptian history. Clay, A. T. Light on the Old Testament from Babel (4th ed., Philadelphia, 1915, Sunday School Times Co., $2.00). *Erman, Adolf. Life in Ancient Egypt (N. Y., 1894, out of print). Grant, Elihu. The Orient in Bible Times (Philadelphia, ig2o, Lippincott, $2.50). *Hall, H. R. Ancient History of the Near East (N. Y., 1913, Macmillan, S7.00). Hogarth, D. G. The Ancient East (N. Y., 1915, Holt, 90 cents). Home Uni- versity Library. *Jastrow, Morris. The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria (Philadelphia, 1915, Lippincott, $7.50). A finely illustrated work by a great scholar. Maspero, (Sir) Gaston. Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria (N. Y., 1892, Apple- ton, $2.50). Fascinating and authoritative. GREECE AND ROME Baikie, James. The Sea-Kings of Crete (2d ed., N. Y., 1912, Macmillan, $4.25). A clear and vivid summary of Cretan archaeology. Botsford, G. W., and Sthler, E. G. Hellenic Civilization (N. Y., 1915, Columbia University Press, $4.00). Lengthy extracts from the sources, with commentary and bibliographies. Davis, W. S. The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome (N. Y., 1910, out of print). An interesting treatment of an important theme. Fowler, W. W. Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, $3.00). Gayi.ey, C. M. The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art (2d ed., Boston, 1911, Ginn, $1.92). E, C. B. The Life, of the Ancient Greeks (N. Y., 1902, Appleton, $2.00). Well illustrated. IIoiM'.KiN, Thomas. The Dynasty of Theodosius (\ T . Y., [889, out of print). Popular lectures summarizing the author's extensive studies. Hopkinson, (Miss) L. W. Greek Lenders (Boston, 1918, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.75). Simple biographies of eleven makers <>f Creek history. xxviii Suggestions for Further Study Mahaffy, J. P. What have the Greeks done for Modern Civilization? (N. Y., 1909, Putnam, $2.50). *Mau, August. Pompeii: Its Life and Art, translated by F. W. Kelsey (N. Y., 1899, out of print). Oman, Charles. Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (N. Y., 1902, Long- mans, Green & Co., $2.25). A biographical presentation of Roman history. Pellison, Maurice. Roman Life in Pliny's Time, translated by Maud Wilkinson (Philadelphia, 1897, out of print). Powers, H. H. The Message of Greek Art (N. Y., 1913, out of print). Robinson, C. E. The Days of Alkibiades (N. Y., 1916, Longmans, Green & Co., $2.00). A picture of Greek life and culture in the Age of Pericles. *Stobart, J. C. The Glory that was Greece: A Survey of Hellenic Culture and Civili- zation (Philadelphia, 191 1, out of print). * The Grandeur that was Rome. A Survey of Roman Culture and Civilization (Philadelphia, 191 2, out of print). Tarbell, F. G. A History of Greek Art (2d ed., N. Y., 1905, Macmillan, $1.60). Tucker, T. G. Life in Ancient Athens (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $2.40). The most attractive treatment of the subject. Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul (N. Y., 1910, Macmillan, $3 -So). Zimmern, A. E. The Greek Commonwealth (N. Y., 191 1, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $3.80). MIDDLE AGES Adams, G.B. Civilization during the Middle A ges (2ded., N .Y ., 1914, Scribner, $2.75). Bateson, Mary. Medieval England (N. Y., 1903, Putnam, $2.50). Deals with economic and social life ; Story of the Nations. *Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire (new ed., N. Y., 1921, Macmillan, $3.75). A famous work, originally published in 1864. Cutts, E. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages (London, 1872, DeLaMore Press, 7s. 6d.). An almost indispensable book. Davis, H. W. C. Medieval Europe (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, 90 cents). Home Univer- sity Library. Emerton, Ephraim. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1888, Ginn, $1.92). Of special value to beginners. Foord, Edward. The Byzantine Empire (N. Y., 191 1, out of print). The most convenient short treatise ; lavishly illustrated. Guerber, H. A. Legends of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1896, American Book Co., $2.00). Haskins, C. H. The Normans in European History (Boston, 1915, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). Lawrence, W. W. Medieval Story (N. Y., 191 1, Columbia University Press, $2.00). Discusses the great literary productions of the Middle Ages. *Luchaire, Achille. Social France at the Time of Philip Augustus, translated by E. B. Krehbiel (London, 1912, Murray, 10s. 6d.). A historical masterpiece. *Munro, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. Medieval Civilization (2d ed., N. Y., 1907, Century Co., $2.50). Translated selections from standard works by French and German scholars. Suggestions for Further Study xxix Tapean, Eva M. When Knights were Bold (Boston, ion, Houghton Mifflin Co., $300). An economic and social study of the Feudal Age; charmingly written tot young people. *THOSNDlKE, Lynn. The History of Medieval Europe (Boston, 1Q17, Houghton Mifflin Co., S3. 60). An admirable college text-book. TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES BOURNE, E. G. Spain in America, 1450-15S0 (N. Y., 1904, Harper, $2.00). Ameri- can Nation Series. Cheyntey, E. P. European Background of American History, 1 300-1600 (N. Y., 1004, Harper, S2.00). American Nation Series. Hudson, W. H. The Story of the Renaissance (N. Y., 191 2, Cassell, $1.50). A well- written volume. *Htjlmr, E. M. The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reformation in Continental Europe (rev. ed., N. Y., 1915, Century Co., $3.50). The best work on the subject by an American scholar. Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution (N. Y., 1875, Scribner, $1.75). Epochs of Modern History. Smith, Preserved. Life and Letters of Martin Luther (Boston, 1910, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.50). Written from a Protestant standpoint. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Eggleston, Edward. The Transit of Civilization from England to America in the Seventeenth Century (N. Y., 1902, Appleton, $3.50). Firth, C. H. Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of tlie Puritans in England (N. Y., 1900, Putnam, S2.50). Heroes of the Nations. Hassall, Arthur. The Balance of Power, 1715-1780 (N. Y., 1896, Macmilhn, $2.50). Periods of European History. Louis XIV and the Zenith of the French Monarchy (N. Y., 1895, Putnam, S2. 30). Heroes of the Nations. Lowell, E. J. The Eve of the French Revolution (2d ed., Boston, 1S93, Houghton Mifflin Co., S3. 00). A satisfactory account of the Old Regime in France. Reddaway, W. F. Frederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia (N. Y., 1904, Putnam, $2.50). Heroes of the Nations. Tuwaites, R. G. France in America (N. Y., 1905, Harper, $2.00). American Nation Series. Tyler, L. G. England in America (N. Y., 1904, Harper, $2.00). American Nation Series. Wakeman, H. O. The Ascendancy of France, 1508-1715 (4th ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $2.75). THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC ERA *Bournte, II. E. The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1763-1815 (N. Y., 1914, Century Co., $3.50). Century Historical Series. Carlyle, Thomas. The French Revolution (N. Y., 1837, Dutton, 2 vols., each $1.00). Not a history, but a literary masterpiece. Fisher, Herbert. Napoleon (N. Y., 1913, Holt, 90 cents). Home University Library. xxx Suggestions for Further Study *Henderson, E. F. Symbol and Satire in the French Revolution (N. Y., iqi2, Putnam, $4.00). Contains 171 illustrations from contemporary prints. Madelin, Louis. The French Revolution (N. Y., 1916, Putnam, $3.50). A popular work translated from the French. Mathews, Shailer. The French Revolution (N. Y., 1900, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.35). Ends with the year 1795. Rose, J. H. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-18 15 (2d ed., N. Y., 1895, Putnam, $1.50). The work of a very competent British scholar ; Cambridge Historical Series. ♦Stephens, H. M. Revolutionary Europe, 1789-1815 (N. Y., 1893, Macmillan, $2.50). Periods of European History. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES *Andrews, C. M. The Historical Development of Modern Europe (N. Y., 1896- 1898, Putnam, two volumes in one, $4.50). Covers the period 1815-1897. Bassett, J. S. Our War with Germany (N. Y., 1920, Knopf, $4.00). A scholarly history. Davis, W. S., Anderson, William, and Tyler, M. W. The Roots of the War (N. Y., 191 8, Century Co., $2.50). A non-technical, yet scholarly, history of Europe, 1870-1914. Gibbins, H. de B. Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century (Edinburgh, 1903, Chambers, 55.). Gibbons, H. A. The New Map of Europe, IQ11-IQ14 (4th ed., N. Y., 1915, Century Co., $3.00). The New Map of Asia, iQoo-1919 (N. Y., 1919, Century Co., $3.00). The New Map of Africa (N. Y., 1918, Century Co., $3.00). Gooch, G. P. History of Our Time, 1885-1911 (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, 90 cents). Home University Library. Harris, N. D. Intervention and Colonization in Africa (Boston, 1914, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.75). Hayes, C. J. H. A Brief History of the Great War (N. Y., 1920, Macmillan, $3-So). Hazen, C. D. Modern European History (N. Y., 1917, Holt, $2.40). Chiefly a political narrative ; American Historical Series. Hearnshaw, F. J. C. Main Currents of European History, 1815-1915 (N. Y., 1917, Macmillan, $2.60). Illuminating comment; not a continuous historical narra- tive. Hornbeck, S. K. Contemporary Politics in the Far East (N. Y., 1916, Appleton, $3.So). Johnston, (Sir) H. H. The Opening-Up of Africa (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, 90 cents). Home University Library. McCarthy, Justin. The Story of tjie People of England in the Nineteenth Century (N. Y., 1899, Putnam, 2 vols., $5.00). Story of the Nations. Marvin, F. S. The Century of Hope (N. Y., 1919, Oxford University Press, $3.00). A sketch of intellectual and social history between 1815 and 1914. Moore, E. C. West and East (N. Y., 1920, Scribner, $4.00). An account of the expansion of European countries in Africa and Asia, with particular reference to foreign missions. Suggestions for Further Study xxxi Oakes, (Sir) Ai gtjstus, and Mowat, 1'.. r>. The Great European Treaties of the • nth Century (N. V., 1018, Oxford University 1'rcss, American Branch, $3-75). A very useful volume containing both historical summaries and the texts of treaties. !•'. A. The Governments of Europe (rev. ed., N. V., 1Q20, Macmillan, $4-25). * Economic Development of Modem Europe (N. Y., 1917, Macmillan, S.v.so). PHILLIPS, W. A. Modem Europe, 1815-1SQQ (5th ed., N. Y., igis, Macmillan, $2.50). Periods of European History. *Rosh, J. H. The Development of the European Nations, 1S70-1Q14 (5th ed., N. Y., 1916, Putnam, two vols, in one, $3.50). Schumro, J. S. Modem and Contemporary European History (Boston, 1018, Houghton Mifflin Co., Sj.go). An admirable college text-book covering the period from the French Revolution to the present time. Shepherd, W. R. Latin America (N. Y., 1914, Holt, 90 cents). Home University Library. Turner, E. R. Europe, 178Q-IQ20 (N. Y., 1921, Doubleday, Page & Co., $3.50). An interesting and scholarly volume, with many maps. Weir, Archibald. An Introduction to the History oj Modem Europe (Boston, 1907, out of print). A suggestive book for teachers. Mr. Punch's Ilisttry of the Great War (N. Y., 1919, Cassell, $3.50). Contains many cartoons reproduced from the English journal Punch. WORLD HISTORY CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC TIMES 1. Introductory History is a narrative of what civilized men have thought or done in past times — whether a day, a year, a century, or a millennium ago. Since men do not live in isolation, Definition of but everywhere in association, history is necessarily history concerned with social groups and especially with states and nations. Just as biography describes the life of individuals, so history relates the rise, progress, and decline of human societies. History does not limit its attention to a fraction of the com- munity to the exclusion of the rest. It does not deal solely with rulers and warriors, with forms of government, scope of public affairs, and domestic or foreign wars. More history and more, history becomes an account of the entire culture of a people. The historian wants to learn about their houses, furniture, costumes, and food ; what occupations they followed ; what schools they supported ; what beliefs and superstitions they held ; what amusements and festivals they enjoyed. Human progress in invention, science, art, music, literature, morals, religion, and other aspects of civilization is what chiefly interests the historical student of to-day. Civilization is a recent thing, almost a thing of yesterday. It began not more than five or six thousand years ago in the river valleys of Egypt and western Asia. The „ t, • , t, i i • , i • • Civilization Egyptians and Babylonians by this time were cultivating the soil, laying out roads and canals, working mines, building cities, organizing stable governments, and keeping written records. All the rest of the world was then i 2 Prehistoric Times inhabited by savage and barbarous peoples, such as are still found in every continent. The savage is a mere child of nature. He secures food from wild plants and animals ; he knows nothing of metals, but Savagery makes his tools and weapons of wood, bone, and and bar- stone ; he wears little or no clothing ; and his home is merely a cave, a rock shelter, or a rude bark hut. Such miserable folk occupy the interior of South America, Africa, Australia, New Guinea, the Philippines, and other regions. Barbarism forms a transitional stage be- tween savagery and civilization. The barbarian has gained some control of nature. He has learned to sow and reap the fruits of the earth, instead of depending entirely upon hunting and fishing for a food supply, to domesticate animals, and ordi- narily to use implements of metal. Barbarous tribes at the present time include certain North American Indians, the Pacific Islanders, and most of the African negroes. The facts collected by modern science make it certain that early man was first a savage and then a barbarian before he Human reached anywhere the stage of civilization. We progress know this, not on the evidence of written records — early man made neither inscriptions nor books — but from the things which he left behind him in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean region. These include a few of his own bones, many bones of animals killed by him, and a great variety of tools, weapons, and other objects. Systematic study of such remains began during the nineteenth century. The study is still in its infancy, but it has gone far enough to afford some idea of human progress before the rise of civilization. 2. Man's Place in Nature Astronomy and geology present a wonderful picture of the earth in past ages. The astronomer tells us that space is for the most Origin of the P ai "t mere emptiness, that at vast intervals in this earth emptiness are the so-called "fixed stars," — flam- ing, incandescent masses of matter, — that the sun is such a star, Man's Place in Nature 3 and that it threw off, one by one, the planets of the solar system. Our earth thus separated from the parent sun probably much more than a hundred million years ago. The geologist tells us that in process of time the cooling earth gradually raised over its molten interior a thin crust of fire-fused rocks. Then the steam in the atmos- Life on the phere began to condense and, falling upon this earth crust, formed the first rivers, lakes, and seas. The dust and rock particles in the water accumulated in layers, or strata, which hardened into the stratified rocks. They reach to a depth of perhaps twenty-five miles below the surface and contain fossil remains of plants and animals. The fossils show that life began in lowly forms on the earth, and that all existing life has evolved from these earlier, lowlier forms. Most of geological time since the origin of the earth is divided into three great epochs. The first or Primary epoch saw the appearance of plants, such as seaweeds, mosses, Geological ferns, and finally of huge-stemmed trees, whose time abundant vegetation formed our coal measures. It saw also the appearance of animals, beginning with simple invertebrate creatures which lived in the water and passing to fishes and amphibians. The Secondary epoch was especially the age of enormous reptiles, whose skeletons are shown in museums. During this time bird-like animals developed and became true birds as they grew wings and modified their reptilian scales into feathers. In the third or Tertiary epoch there appeared for the first time a variety and abundance of mammals. Such is the record of the rocks for untold millions of years before the first traces of man. The Tertiary epoch was characterized by a semi-tropical climate, even in the Arctic region. Toward the close of the Tertiary profound climatic changes began to occur in northern latitudes, producing what is called the Ice Age. An immense ice cap formed in the lands encircling the North Pole and gradually moved southward. North America to the valleys of the Ohio and the Missouri and Europe to the Rhine and the Thames were covered by an Prehistoric Times icy mass, estimated to have exceeded a mile in thickness. Great glaciers also arose in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Caucasus and descended from these mountains far into the plains. The Ice Age, despite its name, was not one of uninterrupted cold. There seem to have been four advances and retreats of the ice, resulting in as many more or less warm intervals. The ac- companying map represents Europe in the second glacial stage, Former Sea Level Europe in the Ice Age Discovery sites of Paleolithic man: i, Piltdown; 2, Heidelberg; 3, Neanderthal; 4, Cro- Magnon; 5, Briinn; 6, Furfooz; 7, Ofnet. the period of the greatest extension of ice fields and glaciers. Guesses about the duration of the Ice Age vary considerably ; one estimate makes it begin about 500,000 years ago. Our own postglacial stage may have begun about 25,000 years ago. The geography of Europe in the Ice Age was unlike what it is to-day. Considerable areas now submerged beneath the Europe in Atlantic Ocean were, then dry land. Great the Ice Age Britain and Ireland formed part of the Continent, and no North Sea separated them from Scandinavia. The A Tun's Place in Nature Mediterranean basin contained two inland seas. Europe was united to both Africa and Asia, where are now the strait of Gibraltar, the island of Sicily, and the Dardanelles. The land bridges thus formed afforded an easy entrance into Europe for the great African and Asiatic mammals, and perhaps for earliest man. ANTIQUITY OF MAN Geological Periods Climatic Stages Animal Life Human Types Cultural Epochs Ttme Estimates ' Modern Animals Modern Races Later Iron Age Europe, 500 B.C. Early Iron Age Europe, 1000-500 B.C. Orient, 1800-1000 B.C. Recent Copper-Bronze Age Europe, 3000-1000 B.C. Orient, 4OOO-ISOO B.C. Neolithic or New Stone Age Europe, 7000 n.c. Postglacial Reindeer Musk Sheep Elk Steppe Horse Wild Ox (Aurochs) European Bison Cave Bear Woolly Rhinoceros Woolly Mammoth Hippopotamus Elephant Rhinoceros Saber-tooth Tiger Wild Boar Lynx Lion Hyxna Cro-Magnon Later Palxo- lithic or Old Stone Age 25,000 B.C. IV. Glacial Neanderthal Early Paleolithic or Old Stone Age 50,000 B.C. 3. Interglacial Piltdown 150,000 B.C. III. Glacial Eolithic Age 175,000 B.C. Ice Age 2. Interglacial Heidelberg 375,000 B.C. II. Glacial 400,000 B.C. 1. Interglacial 475,000 B.C. I. Glacial 500,000 B.C. The first traces of man in Europe are associated with the Ice Age. In 1907 a human lower jaw was found in a sand pit near Heidelberg, Germany. It lay about eighty Heidelberg feet below the surface, in company with the man remains of various animals, including an elephant and a rhinoc- Prehistoric Times The Heidelberg Lower Jaw About one-half life size. ■ eros. The jaw presents several remarkable features. It is the largest human jaw known ; it entirely lacks a chin ; and its narrowness behind probably did not give the tongue sufficient ' play for articulate speech. Heidelberg man, as we may call him, must have been a strange-looking creature. He has been assigned to the second interglacial stage. Another important discovery was made in 1911-1912. A gravel bed at Piltdown, in the English county of Sussex, yielded „ human remains, consisting of part of a skull, a lower Piltdown man . , ' , , ■ 1 • r , jaw, and several teeth, together with remains of the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and other animals. This "find" has excited immense interest, because Piltdown man is the most ancient human type in which the form of the head and the size of the brain are approximately known. The skull is of extraor- dinary thickness, far greater than that of any modern men. Judging from its shape and size, it held a comparatively small brain. The jaw is even less human, especially in the absence of a chin. The teeth likewise exhibit non-human character- istics. We cannot be sure, however, that skull and jaw be- longed to the same individual. Piltdown man is thought to have lived during the third interglacial stage. The next important discovery of human fossils was made as far back as 1856, but its significance was not at first recog- Neanderthal nized. In that year some workmen, clearing a man small cave in the valley known as the Neander- thal, Rhenish Prussia, came upon a human skeleton. The cranium and various bones of the body were secured for pur- poses of study. The most striking features of the skull are its thickness, the low, retreating forehead, and the prominent eye- Man's Place in Nature 7 brow ridges. As long as this skull remained the only one of its kind, scientists could argue that it belonged to an idiot or to a diseased person. But during the last half century nearly thirty other examples have been found, thus proving the former existence of Neanderthal man in western Europe. In appearance, he was short (about 5 feet, 3 inches) , thickset, heavy-browed, heavy- jawed, and with a receding chin. His body was probably hairy. His thumb seems to have been less flexible than that of modern men. His head, looked at from above, was very narrow, and he could not walk absolutely erect. Neanderthal man lived during the fourth glacial stage, SpY Skull 1 ..i ,i 1 v One of two skulls of the Neander- along with the cave bear, rave lion, thal type They werc discovcred cave hvama, and other animals now in iSS6, in the cave of Spy, near extinct Namur, Belgium. Thousands of years passed before there appeared in Europe another human type, called Cro-Magnon, from the name of a French cave where five skeletons were unearthed Cro-Magnon in 1868. Cro-Magnon man, as we know from man these and other examples, was tall, with a broad face, a prom- inent nose, slightly developed eyebrow ridges, well-developed chin, and a large brain. His physical and mental development places him close to modern man, though he lived during early postglacial times, when the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, bison, reindeer, and wild steppe horse still ranged throughout western Europe. Western Europe, the scene of so much of later history, is thus unique in providing us with the physical evidence for human evolution. Though the evidence is in- Human complete, we already know that during a period evolution probably several hundred thousand years long, man was slowly working upward from an almost brute-like state. Something about the cultural development of Heidelberg, Piltdown, Nean- derthal, and Cro-Magnon men is also known. 8 Prehistoric Times 3. The Old Stone Age It takes an effort to visualize the condition of the earliest men. They were naked, tireless, houseless, without tools and Cultural weapons, without even articulate speech, and with development nothing but their human hands and brains to secure food and protect themselves from the wild animals on every side. There are no living savages so low as this, for all use tools, make fire, construct shelters against rain and wind, speak elaborate languages, and possess other elements of culture. I 2 3 Prehistoric Stone Implements i, Eolith; 2, Palaeolithic fist hatchet; 3, Neolithic ax head. The earliest men started without any culture. They had to acquire it by their own unaided efforts. Man's first tools and weapons were those that lay ready to his hand. A branch from a tree served as a spear; a thick stick in his strong arms became a club ; while stones picked up at haphazard were thrown as missiles or used as pounders to crack nuts and crush big marrow bones. Eventually, man discovered that a shaped implement was far more serviceable than an unshaped one, and so he began chipping flints into rude hatchets, knives, spearheads, borers, and the like. Such objects are called palseoliths (old- stones), and the period when they were produced is therefore Implements The Old Stone Age 9 known as the Palaeolithic, or Old Stone Age. 1 It seems to have begun in the third interglacial stage and probably lasted more than a hundred thousand years. No slight skill is required to chip a flint along one face or both faces, until it takes a symmetrical form. But practice makes perfect, and the Palaeolithic Age for the improvement most part shows steady progress in manufactur- of implements ing, not only stone implements, but also those of bone, mammoth ivory, and reindeer horn. Many different kinds of imple- ments, adapted to special uses, were gradually produced. In addition to those just mentioned, we find awls, wedges, saws, drills, chisels, barbed harpoons, and even so neat a device as a spear-thrower. Bone and wooden handles were also devised, thus adding immensely to the effectiveness of tools and weapons. Palaeolithic man learned fire-making. Just how, we cannot say. Probably he struck a piece of iron pyrites with a flint and then allowed the sparks to fall into a bed of dry i o -n 1 1 • t 1 Fire-making leaves or moss. Some savages still do this, though more often they produce fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The discovery of fire made it possible for man to cook food, instead of eating it raw, to smoke meats and thus preserve them indefinitely, to protect himself at night against animal enemies, and to make his cave home comfortable. Later, the use of fire enabled him to bake clay into pottery and to smelt the metals, but these great steps in progress were not taken in Palaeolithic times. The men of the Old Stone Age doubtless passed much of their time in the open, following the game from place to place, and, when night came on, camping out under the n™ 1 .1 , 1 r. , , . . Habitations stars. They built huts, also. Some of their pic- tures represent rude structures with a central pole and occa- 1 Some authorities hold that an Eolithic (Dawn Stone) Age preceded the Palae- olithic. Eoliths are small, rough stones, one part shaped as if to be held in the hand and the other part edged or pointed as for cutting. Some may be natural productions, but others seem to be of human workmanship. Eoliths have been found as far back as the beginning of the Ice Age and even earlier in the Tertiary eDoch. If man really did make them, they must be regarded as the earliest evidences of his life on the earth. IO Prehistoric Times sionally with props on either side. More commonly they took shelter under rock ledges and in caves, as some savages do to-day. Limestone caverns, often very deep and roomy, are especially numerous in western Europe, where they seem to have been occupied by successive generations for many cen- turies. Huge accumulations of ashes and charcoal, stone implements, bones of animals, and sometimes those of man himself cover the floor of a Palaeolithic cave to a depth of many feet. These objects are often found sealed up tight in stalag- mite deposits formed by lime-burdened water dropping from A Mammoth An engraving on a piece of ivory tusk. Found in the rock shelter of La Madeleine, France. Represents a woolly mammoth charging. Comparison with the remains of mammoths com- pletely preserved in the ice of Siberia shows that the Palaeolithic artist accurately delineated the animal's protuberant forehead, hairy covering, and huge, curved tusks. the roof. What was man's home has thus become a museum, only awaiting investigation by a trained student to reveal its story of the past. Palaeolithic man at the outset must have lived on what nature supplied in the way of wild berries, nuts, roots, herbs, honey, the eggs of wild fowl, shellfish, and grubs, suppy ^^ ^^ ^ e sma n animals which he could kill by throwing stones and sticks. As his implements improved and his skill increased, he became a fisher, trapper, and hunter of big game. He killed and ate the woolly mammoth, hippo- potamus, European bison, reindeer, and especially the steppe horse, which at one time roamed in great herds over western Europe. There is a Palaeolithic station in France estimated The Old Stone Age ii Art to contain the bones of one hundred thousand horses. The pelts of the slain animals were made into covers and clothing, as we know from the discovery of flint skin scrapers and bone needles. Some of these cave dwellers were talented artists. They decorated stone and bone implements with engravings, modeled figures in clay, made stone and ivory statuettes, and covered the walls of their cavern homes with a variety of paintings in red, yellow, brown, and other vivid colors. The subjects are generally animals, though a few representations of the human form have also been found. The best Palaeolithic pictures are remarkably life- like, far surpassing the efforts of modern savages. The men who made them were evidently close ob- servers of animal life. The cave dwellers apparently had a rude form of religion. Bodies buried in caves were sometimes surrounded by offerings of food, implements, and ornaments, which must have been intended for the use of the deceased. Such funeral rites point to a belief in the soul and in its survival after death. There are other aspects of Palaeolithic culture about which little or nothing can be learned with certainty. We can only surmise, from what is known of present-dav • i i i 'i Social life savages, that even at this remote period people had begun to cooperate in hunting and for defense against animal and human foes. Each group must have been small — a few hundred individuals at the most — for population was scanty. Religion Head of a Girl Musee St.-Germain, Paris A small head of a young girl carved from mammoth ivory. Found at Brassempouy, France, in cave deposits belonging to the Old Stone Age. The hair is arranged somewhat after the early Egyptian fashion. Of the fea- tures the mouth alone is wanting. 12 Prehistoric Times Government doubtless existed, but whether by chiefs or by the elders of the little community we cannot say. Probably the family had also appeared, and men and women were beginning to live together more or less permanently under some form of marriage. The social life of man is very ancient, as well as his religion, art, and material culture. 4. The New Stone Age The Neolithic or New Stone Age, when men began to grind and polish Europe in some of their stone imple- Neoiithic ments after chipping them, dawned in Europe proba- bly less than ten thousand years ago. The map of Europe in this period presented nearly the same outlines as to-day. Great Britain and Ireland were now separated from the Conti- nent by the shallow waters of the North Sea, English Channel, and Irish Sea. Owing to the sinking of the Mediter- ranean area, Spain and Italy were no longer joined to North Africa by land bridges. The plants which flourished in colder Palaeolithic times gave place to those characteristic of a temperate climate, and vast forests began to cover what had formerly been treeless steppes. The woolly rhinoceros, woolly mammoth, and cave bear became extinct ; the musk sheep and reindeer retreated to Arctic lati- tudes, while the hippopotamus, elephant, and other big mammals found their way to tropical zones. The animals associated with Neolithic men represented species familiar to us, except for some survivals, such as the elk, wild boar, and European bison. We do not yet know what became of Palaeolithic men. They may have become extinct ; they may have followed the retreat- Egyptian Neolithic Knives Brussels Museum Discovered in prehistoric tombs in the Nile Valley. Made of flint, ripple-flaked on one side and ground on the other. The flakes were struck off with such precision that the ripples or ribs left on the edge and back are symmetrically arranged. No finer work was ever produced by Stone Age craftsmen. The New Stone Age i3 ing ice short and the retreating reindeer toward the northeast into Siberia and Arctic America ; or they may have remained in their old locations and intermingled with the Neolithic invading Neolithic peoples. These newcomers ap- peoples parently came from western Asia and northern Africa, and gradually spread over all Europe. The Neolithic peoples belonged to the White Race. Their blood flows in the veins of modern Europeans, who are chiefly their descendants. Our knowledge of the Neolithic Age comes, not from deep-lying or sealed-up deposits, such as those Neolithic in Palaeolithic caves, but remains from remains found on or near the surface of the soil or in rubbish heaps and burial places. Along the Baltic coast stretch huge mounds of bones and shells, marking the sites of former camping places. These " kitchen mid- dens," to give them their Danish name, are sometimes a thousand feet long, two to three hundred feet wide, and ten feet high. Implements of stone, bone, and wood, together with pieces of pottery and other things of human workman- ship, are found in the " kitchen middens." Switzerland affords numerous remains of lake dwellers, who, for protection against their enemies, lived over the water in huts resting on sharpened piles driven into the bottom of the lake. The huts have disap- peared, but the mud about the piles contains thousands of ob- jects, including animal bones, seeds of various plants and fruits, implements, shreds of coarse cloth, fragments of pottery, household utensils, and bits of furniture. Neolithic men also erected many stone monuments, either single pillars (menhirs) or groups of pillars (dolmens). The former often marked a grave ; the latter usually served as sepulchers for the dead. They are rude memorials of far-off times and vanished peoples. Carved Menhir From Saint Sernin in Aveyron, a department of southern France. 14 Prehistoric Times The Neolithic Age covered only a brief space of time, as compared with its predecessor, but it was an age of rapid prog- Neolithic ress - Neolithic implements, though still of stone, culture bone, and wood, were often of exceeding beauty and finish, particularly arrowheads (testifying to the invention of the bow), and stone axes with a sharp cutting edge. The men of the " kitchen middens " began to make pottery, chiefly for cooking vessels, and they domesticated the dog. The lake dwellers possessed goats, sheep, and swine, as well as dogs, A Dolmen A Neolithic monument in Ireland. The covering stone measures about 75 feet in length and 15 feet in breadth. Its thickness varies from 3 to 5 feet. plaited baskets, spun and wove textiles, prepared leather, built boats, used wheeled carts, and, most important of all, cultivated some of the cereals, including wheat, barley, and millet. The new sources of food thus opened up enabled Neolithic peoples to abandon the migratory life of hunters and to settle in per- manent villages. Their community life must have been well organized, for the erection of lake dwellings and stone monu- ments required the cooperation of many individuals. In short, Neolithic peoples were not savages; they had passed from savagery to barbarism. Neolithic culture was not confined to Europe. It also Transition to ex i ste d i n western Asia, in Egypt, in North Africa, the use of and on the islands of Cyprus and Crete. The en- metals t - re k asm Q f ^g Mediterranean formed a Neolithic center. Here the transition to the use of metals first occurred. The Age of Metals 15 5. The Age of Metals Civilization rests on the metals. Stone is not pliable ; it is very apt to split in use ; it cannot be ground to a sharp edge. No wonder that in time men began to seek sub- , r , -iii The metals stitutes in the soiter and more easily worked metals — gold, silver, tin, and copper. These are often found in a pure state and not as ores, so that they can be readily ex- tracted and worked cold. The American Indians in this way got pure copper from mines near Lake Superior and made metal spearheads, knives, and hatchets, which were modeled on stone implements. Other barbarous peoples have done the same thing. In fact, hammering the metals generally pre- ceded smelting them. Credit for the invention of metallurgy belongs to the Egyp- tians. Some of the most ancient graves in Egypt, dating from about 4000 B.C., contain needles and chisels made by smelting the crude copper ore found in the Nile Valley. At a very early period the Egyptians began to work the copper mines on the peninsula of Sinai. The Babylonians probably obtained copper from the same region. Another source of copper was the island of Cyprus, which is rich in that metal. The very name of the island means " copper " (Greek Kiipros). Copper implements gradually spread into Europe, and with their use the Neolithic Age gave way to the Age of Metals. But copper implements were soft and would not keep an edge. Some ancient smith, more ingenious than his fellows, discovered that the addition of a small quantity of tin to the copper produced the much harder and tougher alloy called bronze. Where this simple but most important discovery took place, we cannot say. Bronze made its appearance in Egypt at least as early as 3000 B.C. and some- what later in Cyprus, Crete, Asia Minor, and the coasts of Greece. Traders subsequently carried the new metal through- out the length and breadth of Europe. The great durability and hardness of iron must have been i6 Prehistoric Times Iron soon noticed by metallurgists, but, as compared with copper and tin, it was difficult both to mine and to smelt. Hence the introduction of iron occurred at quite a late period, and in some countries after the dawn of history. The Egyptians seem to have made little use of iron before 1500 B.C. They called it the " metal of heaven," as if they obtained it from meteorites. In the first five books of the Bible iron is mentioned only thirteen times, though copper and bronze are referred to forty-four times. In the Homeric poems of the ancient Greeks we find iron considered so valuable that a Prehistoric Iron Implements From La Tene, Switzerland 1, Spearpoint; 2, shears; 3, safety pin. lump of it is one of the chief prizes at athletic games. Western and northern Europe became acquainted with iron only in the last thousand years before Christ. The superior qualities of iron have secured for it preeminence among the metals. Nevertheless, peoples without any knowl- Diffusion of edge of iron are still met with in remote parts of iron the world. The Australian tribes, for instance, continue to make stone implements as rude as those of Palae- olithic man in Europe. The South Sea Islands, owing to their peculiar formation, produce no metals. Their inhabitants, when discovered a few centuries ago, were still in the Stone Age, and so ignorant of metal that they planted the first iron nails obtained Races of Man 17 from Europeans, in the hope of raising a new crop. Among the Malays and the African negroes the knowledge and use of iron also followed immediately upon the Stone Age. The American Indians, before the discovery of the New World, knew nothing of iron. Most of them used stone implements like those of Neolithic Europe, together with unsmelted copper, gold, and silver. In Mexico and Peru, however, smelted copper and bronze were also known. India, Indo-China, and China afford evidence of the regular succession in those regions of copper, bronze, and iron. 6. Races of Man The different races arose in prehistoric times as man gradually spread throughout the habitable earth. Racial distinctions are based on physical characteristics, especially skin Racial dis- color, head form, and texture of the hair. Thus, tinctions the black-skinned peoples have long, narrow heads and crisp, woolly hair. The yellow-skinned peoples, on the contrary, have short, broad heads and straight, lank hair. Less important racial distinctions are found in the shape of the nose as thin and prominent or large and flat, in the orbit of the eyes as horizontal or oblique (compare the " almond " eyes of Orientals), and in the extent to which the upper and lower jaws project beyond the line of the face. All these physical characteristics reflect the influence of climate and natural surroundings on early man in various parts of the world. They seem to have changed little or not at all during historic times. Five or six thousand years ago they were as marked as now, judging from pictures on old Egyptian monuments and from the examination of ancient skulls. Three primary varieties of man are distinguished : The Black (Negroid) Race, the Yellow (Mongoloid) Race, and the White (Caucasian) Race. This classification is not alto- classification gether satisfactory. The Australians, among whom of races Negroid traits preponderate, nevertheless resemble Caucasians in some respects, and the Mongoloid Polynesians possess both Caucasian and Negroid resemblances ; while important physical i8 Prehistoric Times CLASSIFICATION OF MANKIND Races Peoples Languages Black or Necroid i. Negroes proper 2. Bantu Negroes 3. Dwarf Negroes or Pygmies 4. Hottentots and Bushmen 5. Dravidians (India) and Veddas (Ceylon) 6. Papuans (in New Guinea and the Melanesian Islands) 7. Australians Yellow or Mongoloid 1. Mongolians proper (Chinese, Jap- anese, Koreans, Burmans, Siamese, Manchus, Mongols, Tatars, Tibetans, Siberian tribes, Turks, Bulgarians, Mag- yars or Hungarians, Esthoni- ans, Finns, Lapps) 2. Malays (in Formosa, the Philip- pines, Malay Archipelago, Nic- obar Islands, Madagascar) 3. Polynesians (Maori of New Zea- land, Tongans, Samoans, Ha- waiians, etc.) 4. American Indians White or Caucasian 1. Hamitic (Libyans, Egyptians, East- ern Hamites) 2. Semitic (Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Aramae- ans, Arabs, Abyssinians) 3. Indo-European a. Asiatic (Hindus, Medes, Persians. Hittites, Armenians, Scythians) b. Grasco-Latin (Albanians, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Walloons, Rumanians) c. Celtic (Bretons, Welsh, Irish, Highland Scots) d. Teutonic (Germans, Frisians, Dutch, Flemings, Danes, Nor- wegians, Swedes, English, Low- land Scots) e. Lettic (Letts, Lithuanians) /. Slavic South Slavs (Serbians, Monte- negrins, Croatians, Slove- nians) West Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks, Poles) East Slavs (Great Russians, Little Russians or Ruthe- nians, White Russians) differences separate both Malays and American Indians from other members of the Yellow Race. Again, various peoples of Asiatic origin — Ottoman Turks, Bulgarians, Magyars or Hungarians, Esthonians, Finns, and Lapps — have so blended with Caucasian peoples in Europe as to lose almost entirely Races of Man 19 20 Prehistoric Times their Mongoloid characteristics. No race, indeed, is pure. Repeated migrations, raids, and conquests brought about racial intermixture almost everywhere. At the dawn of history each of the three races occupied quite distinct geographical areas. The Black Race held most Distribution of Africa south of the Sahara, southern India, of races New Guinea and the adjacent islands, and Aus- tralia. The Yellow Race held the north, east, and center of Race Portraiture of the Egyptians Paintings on the walls of royal tombs at Thebes. The Egyptians were painted red; the Semites from Palestine, yellow; the flat-nosed, thick-lipped, African negroes, black; and the fair-skinned Libyans, white, with blue eyes and blonde beards. Each racial type is also dis- tinguished by a peculiar dress. Asia, whence it spread over the Malay Archipelago, the islands of the Pacific, and the New World. The White Race was limited to Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia. The last four centuries have seen a wonderful expansion of the White Race, which now forms the bulk of the population of North America, South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Excepting the American negroes, the Black Race is still Languages of Man 21 in the savage or in the barbarian stage of culture. The same holds true of the Yellow Race, with the important The White exceptions of the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Race Japanese. Civilization has been developed and history has been made chiefly by the White Race. 7. Languages of Man The different types of language also took shape during the prehistoric period. The first languages must have been simple enough. Man doubtless eked out his imperfect Linguistic speech with expressive gestures and cries of alarm distinctions or passion, such as the lower animals make. But all this was very remote. The languages of even the lowest savages to-day are complex in structure and copious in vocabulary, thus indi- cating how far they have developed in the course of ages. The thousands of languages and dialects now spoken through- out the world belong to one or another of three groups. (1) Agglutinating languages show grammatical rela- classification tions by adding {glueing) sounds and syllables to of languages the main word. Thus the suffix lar in Turkish makes the plural (arkan, rope, arkanlar, ropes) ; the suffix lyk indicates quality (arkanlyk, the best kind of rope) ; and the suffix ly signifies possession (arkanly, with a rope, attached). English uses agglutination to a slight extent ; compare such words &sjust-ly, ■loi-jitst-ly, care-less, care-less-ness. (2) Isolating languages show grammatical relations chiefly by the order of the words. Thus in Chinese the word la means " great," " greatness," " greatly," or " to enlarge," according to its position in the phrase. (3) Inflectional languages regularly employ conjugations and de- clensions tc set forth the relations of words to one another. These three linguistic groups have a fairly definite asso- ciation with the races of man. Agglutinating languages are most widely diffused, being spoken by the Black Distribution Race and by part of the Yellow Race. Isolating of languages languages are found only in Asia, among Chinese, Indo-Chinese, Tibetans, and Malays. Inflectional languages are confined to the While Race. 2 2 Prehistoric Times The languages of the White Race belong, with some excep- tions, to one or other of the three families. Least important, Hamitic historically, is the Hamitic family, named after languages Ham, a son of Noah {Genesis x, i, 6). Hamitic languages are still spoken in northern and eastern Africa, some of them by peoples who have more or less mixed with negroes. Ancient Egyptian was a Hamitic language. Distribution of SEMITIC and INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLES The second family is that of the Semitic languages, so called from Shem, another son of Noah {Genesis, x, i, 22). Semitic- Semitic speaking peoples in antiquity included Baby- languages lonians, Assyrians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, and Arabs. To these must be added the Abyssinians of eastern Africa. The Semites, as the map shows, originally formed. a compact group, but Arabs are now found everywhere in north- ern Africa, while Hebrews (Jews) have spread all over the world. The third family is that of the Indo-European 1 languages. This name indicates that they are found in both India and Europe. The peoples using Indo-European languages in an- 1 The alternative name "Aryan" is accurately applied only to the languages of the Hindus and the ancient Medes and Persians (Iranians). Writing and the Alphabet 23 tiquity formed a widely extended group, which reached from India across Asia and Europe to the British Isles and Scandi- navia. Hindus in India, Medes and Persians Indo _ on the plateau of Iran, Greeks and Italians, and European the inhabitants of eastern and western Europe an s uages spoke related tongues. Their likeness is illustrated by the common words for relationship. Terms such as " father," " mother," " brother," and " daughter " occur with slight changes in form in nearly all the Indo-European languages. Thus, " father " in Sanskrit (the old Hindu language) is pilar, in ancient Persian, pidar, in Greek, pater, in Latin, pater, and in German, Voter. There must have been at one time a single speech from which all the Indo-European languages have descended. But where it was spoken, whether in Asia or in Europe, we cannot determine. 8. Writing and the Alphabet The first steps toward writing are prehistoric. We start with the drawings and paintings made in the Palaeolithic Age. Man, however, could not rest satisfied with simple Picture representations of objects. He wanted to record writing thoughts and actions, and so his pictures tended to become 1 2 3 4 5 Various Signs of Symbolic Picture Writing x, "war" (Dakota Indian); 2, "morning" (Ojibwa Indian); 3, "nothing" (Ojibwa Indian); 4 and s, "to eat " (Indian, Mexican, Egyptian, etc.). , symbols of ideas. The figure of an arrow might be used to in- dicate the idea of an " enemy," and two arrows directed against each other, the idea of a " fight." Many savage and barbarous peoples still have this symbolic picture writing. The American Indians employed it in most elaborate fashion. On rolls of birch bark or the skins of animals they wrote messages, stories, and songs and even preserved tribal annals extending over a century. 24 Prehistoric Times A new stage in the development of writing was reached when the picture represented not an actual object or an idea, but Sound writ- a sound of the human voice. This difficult but ail- ing; the rebus important step appears to have been taken by means of the rebus. It is a way of expressing words by pic- tures of objects whose names resemble those words or the syllables in them. What makes the rebus possible is the fact that every language contains words having the same sound but different meanings. The old Mexicans, before the Spanish conquest, had gone so far as to write names of persons and places, rebus fashion. They represented the proper name, Itzcoatl, by the picture of a snake (coatl), with a number of Song (an ear Sun Moon Mountain Tall and a bird) Light o j) m $ <*A oj) * ^ * *M ft* Chinese Picture Writing and Later Conventional Characters It is possible in some cases to recognize the original pictures out of which Chinese writing developed. Thus the sun, originally a large circle with a dot in the center, became a crossed oblong, which the painter found easier to make with his brush. Chinese is the only living language in which such pictures have survived and still denote what they denoted in the beginning. knives (itz) projecting from its back. The Egyptian words for " sun" and " goose " were so nearly alike that the royal title, " Son of the Sun," could be suggested by grouping the pictures of the sun and a goose. Rebus making is still a common amuse- ment among children, but to early man it was a serious occu- pation. In the simplest form of sound writing each separate picture or symbol stands for the sound of an entire word ; hence there must be as many signs as there are words in the language. This is the case with Chinese writing. A dictionary of Chinese contains approximately twenty-five thousand words in good usage, every one represented by a separate written sign. No student ever learns them all, of Writing and the Alphabet 25 course. It is enough for ordinary reading and writing to be familiar with four or five thousand signs. The Chinese seem to have entered upon the phonetic stage of writing in the second millennium B.C., and since then they have never im- proved upon it. A more developed form of sound writing arises when signs are employed for the sounds of separate syllables. All the words of a language may then be written with com- . , . Syllables paratively few signs. The Babylonians and Assyr- ians possessed in their cuneiform l writing signs for between four and five hundred syllables. Recent discoveries in Crete indicate that the ancient inhabitants of that island had a some- what similar system. The Japanese found it possible to express all the sounds in their language by forty-seven syllables, one standing for ro, another for fa, and so forth. The signs for these syllables were taken from Chinese writing. The final stage in the development of writing is reached when the separate sounds of the human voice are analyzed so far that each can be represented by a single letter. The Egyptians early made an alphabet. Unfortunately, they never abandoned their older methods of writing and learned to rely upon alphabetic signs alone. Egyp- tian hieroglyphs, 2 in consequence, are a curious jumble of object- pictures, symbols of ideas, and signs for entire words, separate syllables, and letters. The writing is a museum of all the steps in the progress of writing from the picture to the letter. As early, perhaps, as the tenth century B.C., the Phoenicians of western Asia were in possession of an alphabet. It con- sisted of twenty-two letters, each representing a Phoenician consonant. The Phoenicians appear to have alphabet borrowed their alphabetic signs, but whether from the Egyp- tians or the Cretans, or even in part from the Babylonians, remains uncertain. The Greeks, according to their own tradi- tions, imported the alphabet from Phoenicia and added signs 1 Latin cuneus, "wedge." 2 From the Greek words hieros, "holy," and glyphein, "to carve." The Egyp- tians regarded their signs as sacred. 26 Prehistoric Times fill yeai ifflpHiffl m mm. for vowels. The Greek form of the Phoenician alphabet sub- sequently spread to Italy, where the Romans received it, modi- fied some of the letters, and then passed it on to the peoples of western Europe. From them it has reached us. 1 Two methods of writing developed in the ancient Orient. The Egyptians traced their hieroglyphic characters with a pen Methods an d a dark pigment upon papyrus. This river of writing reec [ g rows plentifully in the Nile marshes. It was cut into strips, which were then glued together at the edges to form a roll. 2 From papyros, the Greek name of the plant, has come our word Jl Ptet }■ ■■) I^tX " paper." Similarly, the Greek biblion, a (papyrus) book, reappears in our word " Bible," as well as in vari- ous words for " library " in European languages, such as the French bibliotheque and the German Bibliothek. The Babylonians impressed their cuneiform signs with a metal instrument on tablets of soft clay. The tablets were then baked hard in an oven. 3 The Babylonian method of writing survived for a time in the clay tablets of the Cretans and various Oriental peoples and in the waxen tablets of the Ro- mans. It subsequently disappeared. The Egyptian method of writing still survives in the pen, ink, and paper of modern usage. Before the invention of writing, and particularly of sound writing, men were unable to keep a full and accurate record of 1 Our word "alphabet" comes from the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet — alpha (a) and beta (6). 2 See the illustration on page 57. 3 See the illustration on page 56. v 1 • of wheat, barley, and millet. The fruit of the date Babylonia a ' J ' seat of early palm provided a nutritious food. Although there civilization wag nQ stone ^ c } a y was everywhere. Molded into brick and afterwards dried in the sun, the clay became adobe, the cheapest building material imaginable. Nature, indeed, has done much for Babylonia. We can understand, therefore, why from prehistoric times people have been attracted to this region, and why it is here that we find a seat of early civilization. The Lands of the Near East 31 Phe Nile is the longest of the great African rivers. The White Nile rises in the Nyanza lakes, flows clue north, and receives the waters of the Blue Nile near the modern .... ^ .... . , The Nile townoi Khartum, rrom this point the course of the river is broken by a series of five rocky rapids, misnamed cataracts, which can be shot by boats. The cataracts cease near the island of Philae, and Upper Egypt begins. It is a valley about five hundred miles long and about thirty miles wide. The strip of cultivable soil on each side of the river averages, however, only eight miles in width. Not far from modern Cairo the hills inclosing the valley fall away, the Nile divides into numerous branches, and the delta of Lower Egypt begins. The sluggish stream passes through a region of mingled swamp and plain, and at length by three principal mouths empties into the Mediterranean. Egypt owes her existence to the Nile. All Lower Egypt is a creation of the river by the gradual accumulation of sediment at its mouths. Upper Egvpt has been dug out of Egypt the desert sand and underlying rock by a process of erosion centuries long. The Nile once filled all the space between the hills that line its sides. Now it Hows through a thick layer of mud which has been deposited by the yearly inundation. In Egypt, as in Babylonia, every condition made it easy for people to live and thrive. The soil of Egypt, perhaps the mest fertile in the world, produced after irrigation three E crops of grain, flax, and vegetables a year. The of early wonderful date palm was a native tree. The clay civilization of the valley and easily worked stone from the near-by mountains provided building materials. The hot. dry climate enabled the inhabitants to get along with little shelter and clothing. The Xile provided them with a natural highway for domestic trade. Such favoring circumstances allowed the Egyptians to increase in numbers and to gather in populous communities. At a time when their neighbors, even the Babylonians, were still in the darkness of the prehistoric age, the Egyptians had entered the light of history. 32 The Ancient Orient 10. The Peoples of the Near East The Nile Valley appears to have been inhabited at a remote period by Neolithic men in the barbarian stage of culture. They Prehistoric made beautiful implements of polished flint, era in Egypt fashioned pottery, built in brick and stone, sailed boats on the Nile, introduced such useful animals as the buffalo, ass, and goat, and tilled the soil. In time, they began to smelt copper 1 and to write by means of phonetic signs. 2 Both metallurgy and sound writing arose in Egypt earlier than any- where else in the world. Like other barbarous peoples, the Neolithic Egyptians must have lived at first in separate tribes, under the rule of chiefs. As civilization advanced, the tribal organization gave way to city-states, that is, to small, in- dependent communities, each one centering about a town or a city. The city-states by 4000 B.C. had coalesced into two kingdoms, one in the Delta, the other in Upper Egypt. All this progress took place before the dawn of history. The Egyptians commenced keeping written records about 3400 B.C. The date coincides pretty closely with that of the Dawn of union of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt into a na- history in tional state, under a ruler named Menes. He was gyp thus the founder of that long line of kings, or "Pharaohs" (as they are called in the Bible), who for nearly three thousand years held sway over Egypt. The Pharaohs ruled at first from Memphis, near the head of the Delta, but later Thebes in Upper Egypt became the Egyptian capital. A study of the map shows that Egypt occupies an isolated situation, being protected by deserts on each side, by the Medi- The terranean on the north, and by the cataracts of the Egyptian Nile (impeding navigation) on the south. Thus ng om sheltered from the inroads of foreign peoples, the Egyptians enjoyed many centuries of quiet and peaceful progress. About 1800 B.C., however, they came for a time under the sway of barbarous Semitic tribes, called Hyksos, who entered Egypt through the isthmus of Suez. After the expulsion 1 See page 15. 2 See page 25. The Peoples of the Near East 33 of the intruders, the Egyptians themselves began a career of conquest. The Pharaohs raised powerful armies, invaded Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, and extended their rule as far as the middle Euphrates. Even the islands of Cyprus and Crete seem to have become dependencies of Egypt. The conquered territories paid a heavy tribute of the precious metals and merchandise, while the forced labor of thousands of war captives enabled Rameses II (about 1292-1225 B.C.) and other Pharaohs to erect great monuments in every part of their realm. Gradually, how- ever, Egypt declined in warlike energy ; her Asiatic possessions fell away ; and the country itself in the sixth century B.C. became a part of the Persian Empire. The Egyptians re- mained under foreign masters from this time until our own day. The valley of the Tigris- Euphrates, unlike that of the Nile, was not iso- The Baby _ lated. It opened Ionian King- on extensive moun- om tain and steppe regions, the home of hunting or of pastoral peoples. Their inroads and migrations into the fertile plain of the two rivers formed a constant feature of Babylonian history. The earliest inhabitants of the " land of Shinar," about whom we know anything, were the Sumerians. They entered the country through the passes of the eastern or northern mountains, about four thousand years before Christ, gradually settled down to an agricultural life, and formed a number of independent city-states, each with its king and its patron god. After the Sumerians came Semitic-speaking peoples Head of Mummy of Rameses II Museum of Gizeh The mummy was discovered in 1881 in an underground chamber near the site of Thebes. With it were the coffins and bodies of more than a score of royal personages. Rameses II was over ninety years of age at the time of his death. In spite of the somewhat grotesque disguise of mummification, the face of this famous Pharaoh still wears an aspect of maj- esty and pride. 34 The Ancient Orient from northern Arabia. Under a leader named Sargon (about 2800 b.c) the Semites subdued the Sumerians and began to adopt their civilization. Sargon united all the Sumerian city- states. He also carried his victorious arms as far west as Syria and ruled over "the countries of the sea of the setting sun" (the Mediterranean). Sargon was, in fact, the first of the world conquerors. Many centuries later another great Semitic ruler, Hammurabi (about 2100 b.c), made his native city of Babylon, at first an obscure and unimportant place, the capital of what may hencefoith be called the Babylonian Kingdom. The region between the Mediterranean and the Arabian Desert contained in antiquity three small countries: Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine. Their situation made Aro.niiE3.ris them the great highway of the Near East, and through them ran the caravan routes connecting the Nile with the Euphrates. The inhabitants spoke Semitic languages and probably came from northern Arabia. They are known as Aramaeans or Syrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews. None of these peoples ever played a leading part in Oriental history, but each made important contributions to Oriental civilization. The Aramaeans were keen business men, who bought and sold throughout western Asia. The language of the Aramaeans in this way became widely diffused and eventually displaced Hebrew as the ordinary speech in Palestine. Some parts of the Old Testament are written in Aramaic. The chief center of the Aramaeans was Damascus, one of the oldest cities in the world and still a thriving place. The Phoenicians occupied a narrow stretch of coast, about one hundred and twenty miles in length and seldom more than twelve miles in width, between the Lebanon Moun- tains and the sea. This tiny land could not support a large population by farming, so the Phoenicians became a nation of sailors. They found in the cedars of Lebanon a soft, white wood for shipbuilding, and in the Egyptian vessels which had been entering their harbors for centuries a model for their own craft. The great Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre long The Peoples of the Near East 35 maintained an extensive commerce throughout the Mediter- ranean. 1 The Hebrews lived south of the Aramaeans and the Phoenicians. Hebrew history begins with the immigration of The twelve tribes (called Israelites) into Palestine. Hebrews Here they gave up the life of wandering shepherds and became farmers and townsmen. Their twelve tribes at first formed only a loose and weak confederacy. The sole authority was that held by valiant chieftains and law-givers, such as Samson, Gideon, and Samuel, who served as judges between the people and often led them against their foes. Toward the close of the eleventh century B.C. the Hebrew tribes united into one kingdom, under a The He _ ruler named Saul. His reign brew King- was filled with constant struggles against the warlike Philistines, who occupied the southwestern coast A Philistine of Palestine. David, Saul's successor, ^ E syp tian P aintin g- overthrew the Philistine power. For a capital city David selected the ancient fortress of Jerusalem, which henceforth became for the Hebrews the center of their national life. The reign of David's son, Solomon (about 955-925 B.C.), formed the most splendid period in Hebrew history. Solomon's authority reached from the peninsula of Sinai northward to the Lebanon Mountains and the Euphrates. He married an Egyptian princess, a daughter of the reigning Pharaoh. , He joined with Hiram, king of Tyre, in trading expeditions on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The same monarch supplied him with skilled Phoenician workmen, who built at Jerusalem a splendid temple for the worship of Jehovah. After Solomon's death the ten northern tribes set Division of up an independent kingdom of Israel, with its capital ^. e Hebrew at Samaria. The two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin, formed the kingdom of Judea and remained faithful 1 See page 47. 36 The Ancient Orient to the successors of Solomon. These small states led a troubled existence for several centuries. The Assyrians finally conquered Israel, and the Babylonians, Judea. Both states in the end were added to the Persian Empire. Solomon's Kingdom The supposed route of the Hebrew Exodus from Egypt through the peninsula of Sinai to the border of Palestine is traced on the map. North of Babylonia and on each side of the Tigris River lay Assyria. The inhabitants spoke a Semitic language akin to Rise of Babylonian. Their chief city was at first Assur Assyria (whence the name Assyria), and afterward the larger and more splendid Nineveh. They were a rough, hardy people, devoted to hunting and warlike exercises. Having adopted The Peoples of the Near East 37 the horse and military chariot, and later iron weapons, the Assyrians began a series of sweeping conquests. Their power culminated during the eighth and seventh centuries before Christ. The kings who then reigned at Nineveh created a dominion reaching from the neighborhood of the Black and Caspian seas to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Nile. One of the greatest of these Assyrian monarchs was Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), whose name is familiar from the references to him in the Old Testament. Force built up the Assyrian state and only force could hold it to- gether. When, there- Collapse of fore, it declined in Assyria strength, the subject countries made ready to strike a blow for freedom. The storm broke in 606 B.C. In that year the king of Babylon and the king of the Medes and Persians moved upon Nineveh, captured the city, and utterly de- stroyed it. The victors now divided the spoils. Media secured most of As- syria proper, together Partition of with the long stretch Assyria of mountain country extending from the Persian Gulf to Asia Minor. Babylonia obtained the western part of the Assyrian domains, all the way to the Mediterranean. Under Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.), Babylonia again became a great power in the Orient. It was Nebuchadnezzar who brought the kingdom of Judea to an end, captuted Jerusalem, burned Solomon's Temple, and carried away many Hebrews into cap- tivity. All this story is related in the Old Testament. Not much earlier than the break-up of Assyria, we find a new and vigorous people pressing into western Asia. They were the Persians, near kinsmen of the Medes, and like them of An Assyrian A bas-relief found at Nineveh. The original is colored. 3§ The Ancient Orient Indo-European speech. The able ruler whom history knows as Cyrus the Great (553-529 B.C.) united the Persians and the Formation Medes under his sway and then conquered the king- of the Per- dom of Lydia in Asia Minor. He also subdued Baby- sian mpire ^ on ^ a> -jhe Hebrew exiles there were now allowed to return to their native land. His son, Cambyses, annexed Egypt. The successor of Cambyses, Darius the Great (521- 485 B.C.), added northwestern India to the Persian dominions, together with some territory in Europe. Not without reason could Darius describe himself in an inscription as "the great king, king of kings, king of countries, king of all men." An Assyrian Lion Hunt British Museum, London A bas-relief found in the palace of Assurbanipal at Nineveh. The Persian Empire extended over an enormous area. Its eastern and western frontiers were nearly three thousand miles Extent of apart, or considerably more than the distance be- the Persian tween New York and San Francisco. Its northern mpire and southern boundaries were almost as remote. With the exception of Arabia, which the Persians never attempted to conquer, the Near East from the Indus to the Danube and the Nile yielded allegiance to the Great King. It was the work of Darius to establish a stable government, which should preserve what the sword had won. The problem was difficult, for the Persians had conquered many peoples The Peoples of the Near East 39 unlike in race, language, customs, and religion. Darius did not try to weld them into unity. As long as his subjects paid tribute and furnished soldiers, they were al- Organiza- lowed to manage their affairs with little interfer- ^ on ? f the ° . Persian ence. The entire empire, excluding Persia proper, Empire was divided into about twenty prov- inces, each with governors to collect taxes and command the provincial armies. Darius also provided special agents whose business it was to travel thioughout the empire and investi- gate the conduct of the royal officials. As a further means of holding his dominions together, Darius laid out military roads for the dispatch of troops and supplies. The Royal Road 1 from Susa, the Persian capital, to Sardis in Lydia was about sixteen hundred miles long; but government couriers, using relays of fresh horses, could cover the distance within a week. It is interesting to note that the present railroad from Constanti- nople to Bagdad in large part parallels this ancient highway. Oriental history has now been traced from its beginnings to about 500 B.C. We have seen how the Political earliest civilized societies deveiop- ment of the appeared in the valleys of ancient the Nile and the Tigris- 0rient Euphrates; how empire building fi Started J and how at length ncarlv nobles, one carrying the royal fan, all the Near East came together in the other the royal parasol. the widespread Persian Empire. This work of unification was accomplished only at a fearful cost. The recordr. of 1 Sec the map between pages 34~35- Darius with His Attend- ants Bas-relief at Persepolis. The monarch's right hand grasps a staff or scepter; his left hand, a bunch of flowers. His head is surmounted by a crown ; his body is enveloped in the long Median mantle. Above the king is a representation of the divinity which guarded and guided 40 The Ancient Orient Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia, not to speak of minor countries, are a terrible story of towns and cities given to the flames, of the devastation of fertile regions, of the slaughter of men, women, and children, of the enslavement of entire populations. Mankind by this time had passed from the petty robbery, murder, and border feuds character- istic of savagery and barbarism to organized warfare, in which state was ranged against state and nation against nation. Peace, indeed, formed the rare exception in the ancient Orient. Consequently, there could be no such thing as international law regulating the relations of one community to another and no conception of international cooperation for human welfare. Each community looked out for itself; each one, if it could, subdued its neighbors and imposed its rule upon them. Never- theless, Oriental peoples made much progress in social and economic conditions, in law and morality, in religion, literature, art, science, and other fields of activity during the first thirty centuries of recorded history. 11. Social Conditions Nothing like democracy existed in the ancient Orient. The common people never shared in the government as voters and lawmakers ; they knew only monarchical rule. The king, especially in Egypt, was considered to be the earthly representative of the gods. Even in a Pharaoh's lifetime temples were erected to him and offerings were made to his sacred majesty. The belief in the king's divinity led naturally to the conclusion that he deserved the unquestioning obedience of his subjects. The king was therefore an autocrat, exercising absolute, irresponsible authority. He had many duties. He was judge, commander, and high priest, all in one. In time of war, he led his troops and faced the perils of the battle- field. During intervals of peace, he was occupied with a con- stant round of sacrifices, prayers, and processions, which could not be omitted without exciting the anger of the gods. To his courtiers he gave frequent audience, hearing complaints, settling disputes, and issuing commands. A conscientious Social Conditions 4i monarch, such as Hammurabi, who describes himself as "a real father to his people," must have been a very busy man. Oriental monarchs always maintained luxurious courts. The splendor of Rameses II, of Solomon, of Sennacherib, of Nebu- chadnezzar, dazzled their contemporaries. Royal The royal magnificence reached its height with the Great King court of Persia. He lived far removed from the common eye in the recesses of a lordly palace. When he 'gave audience to his nobles, he sat on a gold and ivory throne. When he traveled, even on military expeditions, he carried with him costly fur- niture, gold and silver dishes, and gorgeous robes. About him Court of the Pharaoh Wall painting, from a tomb at Thebes. Shows a Pharaoh receiving Asiatic envoys bear- ing tribute. They are introduced by white-robed Egyptian officials. The Asiatics may be distinguished by their gay clothes and black, sharp-pointed beards. were hundreds of servants, bodyguards, and officials. All who approached his person prostrated themselves in the dust. "Whatsoever he commandeth them, they do. If he bid them make war, the one against the other, they do it ; if he send them out against his enemies they go, and break down mountains, walls, and towers. They slay and are slain, and transgress not the king's commandment." ' The aristocratic or noble class included large landowners, rich merchants and bankers, and especiallv high Nobles government officials. These persons were often very powerful. If the king failed to keep on good terms with them, 1 I Esdras, iv, 3-5. 42 The Ancient Orient they might at any time rise in revolt and perhaps dethrone him. Oriental history relates many insurrections against the reigning monarch. The priestly class also exerted much influence. Priests conducted the temple worship and acted as intermediaries between men and the gods. They were likewise scholars, who collected the old traditions and legends and set them down in writing; scientists, who in- vestigated Nature's secrets ; and teachers in the schools con- nected with the temples. The priesthoods accumulated much Priests Tax Collecting in Ancient Egypt On the left three villagers, who have failed to pay their taxes, are being brought in by officers. The latter carry staves. On the right sit the scribes, holding in one hand a sheet of papyrus and in the other hand a pen. The scribes kept records of the amount owed by each taxpayer and issued receipts when the taxes were paid. property, particularly in Egypt, where about a third of all the tillable land came under their control. The middle class included chiefly shopkeepers and pro- fessional men such as physicians, notaries, and scribes. Though Middle regarded as inferiors, still there was a chance for class them to rise in the world. If they became rich, they might hope to enter the priesthood or even the exalted ranks of the nobility. No such hope encouraged the day laborer. His lot was poverty and unending toil. The artisan received a wage Artisans and scarcely sufficient to keep him and his family from peasants starvation, while the peasant, after paying ex- cessive rents and taxes on his farm, had left only a bare subsistence. Social Conditions 43 The slaves occupied the base of the social pyramid. Every Oriental people possessed them. At first, they were prisoners of war, who, instead of being slaughtered, were forced to labor for their masters. Oriental rulers undertook military expeditions for the express purpose of gathering slaves — "like the sand," says an ancient writer. Persons unable to pay their debts often lost their freedom. Transport of an Assyrian Colossus British Museum, London A slab from a gallery of Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh. The immense block (an image of a human-headed bull or lion) is being dragged by slaves, who work under the lash. Criminals, also, were sometimes compelled to enter into ser- vitude. The treatment of slaves depended on the character of their master. A cruel and overbearing master might make life a burden for them. Slaves had plenty to do. They re- paired dikes, dug irrigation ditches, erected temples and palaces, labored in the mines, served as oarsmen in ships, and engaged in many household activities. In Babylonia and Assyria, where the servile class was more numerous than in Egypt, the whole structure of societv rested on the backs of slaves. 44 The Ancient Orient Agriculture 12. Economic Conditions Such fruitful, well-watered valleys as those of the Nile and the Euphrates encouraged agricultural life. Wheat, barley, and millet were first domesticated either in Egypt or in Babylonia. There is good reason, indeed, for believing that these most important cereals, together with domesticated cattle, were introduced into Neolithic Europe from the Near East. 1 All the methods of farming are pictured for us on Egyptian monuments. We mark the peasant as he breaks up the earth with a hoe or plows a shallow furrow with a sharp-pointed stick. We see the sheep being driven across Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egypt The picture shows from left to right a scribe, two plowmen, one holding the plow and one driving the oxen, a man with a hoe, who breaks up the clods left by the plow, and a sower scattering seed from a bag. sown fields to trample the seed into the moist soil. We watch the patient laborers as with sickles they gather in the harvest and then with heavy flails separate the chaff from the grain. Although their methods were clumsy, ancient farmers raised immense crops. The soil of Egypt and Babylonia not only supported a dense population, but also supplied food for neigh- boring countries. These two regions were the granaries of the Near East. Blacksmiths, carpenters, stonecutters, weavers, potters, glass-blowers, and workers in ivory, silver, and gold were found „ , in every Oriental city. The creations of these Industry . ancient craftsmen often exhibit remarkable skill. Egyptian linens were so wonderfully fine and transparent as 1 See page 14. Economic Conditions 45 to merit the name of "woven air." Egyptian glass, with its lines of different hues, was much prized. Babylonian tapestries, carpets, and rugs enjoyed a high reputation for beauty of design and coloring. Some of the industrial arts thus practiced thousands of years ago have been revived only in modern times. The development of arts and crafts made it necessary for merchants to collect manufactured products where they could be readilv bought and sold. The cities of Babv- 1 • • • 1 1 1_ • • . 1 Trade Ionia, in particular, became thriving markets. Partnerships between tradesmen were not uncommon. We even learn of commercial companies not so very unlike our present corporations. Business life in Babylonia wore, indeed, quite a modern look. Metallic money first circulated in the form of rings and bars. The Egyptians had small pieces of gold — "cow gold" — each of which was simplv the value of a full- Money grown cow. Jt was necessary to weigh the metal whenever a purchase took place. A common picture on the Egyptian monuments is that of the weigher with his balance and scales. Then the practice arose of stamping each piece of money with its true value and weight. The next step was coinage proper, where the government guarantees, not only the weight, but also the genuineness of the metal. The honor of inventing coinage belongs to the Lydians of Asia Minor, whose country was well supplied with the precious metals. The kings of Lydia began to coin money as early as the eighth century B.C. The Greek neighbors of Lydia quickly adopted the art of coinage and so introduced it into Europe. 1 The use of money as a medium of exchange led naturally to a system of banking. One great banking house, established at Babylon before the time of Sennacherib, carried on operations for several centuries. Hundreds of legal documents belonging to this firm have been discovered in the huge earthenware jars which served as safes. The temples in Babylonia also received money on deposit and loaned it 1 For illustrations of Oriental, Greek, and Roman coins, sec the plate facing page 148. 46 The Ancient Orient out again, as do our modern banks- Babylonian business usages and credit devices spread through Asia Minor to Greece and thence into other European countries. 13. Commerce and Commercial Routes Commerce, which has always been a means of enabling different peoples to know and influence one another, was in Beginnings eai "ly times exposed to many dangers. Wild tribes of com- and bands of robbers infested the roads and obliged the traveler to be ever on guard against their at- tacks. Travel by water had also its drawbacks. Boats were small and easily swamped in rough weather. With a single sail and few oarsmen, progress was very slow. Without compass or chart, the navigator seldom ventured into the open sea. He hugged the coast as closely as possible, keeping always a sharp eye for pirates who might seize his vessel and take him into slavery. In spite of all these risks, the profits of foreign trade were so great that much intercourse existed between Oriental lands. The Egyptians, pioneers in so many fields of human activity, are believed to have made the first seagoing ships. As Egyptian early as the thirtieth century B.C., they began to commerce venture out into the eastern Mediterranean and to carry on a thriving trade with both Cyprus and Crete, which lay almost opposite the mouths of the Nile. The ships of the Pharaohs also sailed up and down the entire length of the Red Sea. The cities of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley were admirably situated for commerce, both by sea and land. The shortest Asiatic way by water from India skirted the southern coast commerce f j ran anc ^ p ass ing up the Persian Gulf, gained the valley of the two rivers. Even more important were the over- land roads for caravan trade from India and China. They converged at Babylon and Nineveh and then radiated west- ward to Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt. All these routes have been arteries of commerce from pre- historic times. Manv of them are in use even to-dav. Commerce and Commercial Routes 47 A Semitic people, the Phoenicians, 1 were the common carriers of the Mediterranean after about 1000 B.C. Phoenician water routes soon extended to Cyprus, only a short dis- Phoenician tance away, then to Crete, then to the islands of the water routes /Egean, and, at least occasionally, to the coasts of the Black Sea. When the Phoenicians were finally driven from these regions by the rising power of the Greek states, they sailed farther westward and established trading posts in Sicily, Sar- dinia, North Africa, and Spain. At length they passed through the strait of Gibraltar into the stormy Atlantic and visited the shores of western Europe and Africa. The Phoenicians obtained a great variety of products as a result of their commercial voyages. The mines of Spain yielded iron, tin, lead, and silver. Tin, which was Phoenician' especially valuable because of its use in making imports and bronze, seems also to have been brought from south- expor s western Britain (Cornwall), where mines of this metal are still productive. From Africa came ivory, ostrich feathers, and gold; from Arabia, which the Phoenicians also visited, came incense, perfumes, and costly spices. These commodities found a ready sale throughout the Near East. Still other products were imported directly into Phoenicia to provide raw materials for her flourishing manufactures. The fine carpets and glassware, the artistic works in silver and bronze, and the beautiful purple cloths produced in Phoenician factories were exported to every part of the known world. The Phoenicians were the boldest sailors of antiquity. Some of their long voyages are still on record. We learn from the Old Testament that they made cruises on the Red p . . . Sea and Indian Ocean and brought the gold of Ophir, voyages of "four hundred and twenty talents," to Solomon. 2 ex P loration There is even a story of certain Phoenicians who, by direction of an Egyptian king, explored the eastern coast of Africa, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and after three years' absence returned to Egypt through the strait of Gibraltar. A much more probable narrative is that of the voyage of Hanno, a Carthaginian 1 See page 34. 2 Sec 1 Kings, ix, 26-28. 48 The Ancient Orient admiral. We still possess a Greek translation of his interesting log book. It describes an expedition made about 500 B.C. along the western coast of Africa. The explorers seem to have sailed as far as the Gulf of Guinea. 1 Nearly two thousand years elapsed before Portuguese navigators undertook a similar voyage to the Dark Continent. A Phoenician War Galley From a slab found at Nineveh in the palace of the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. The vessel shown is a bireme with two decks. On the upper deck are soldiers with their shields hanging over the side. The oarsmen sit on the lower deck, eight at each side. The crab catching the fish is a humorous touch. Wherever the Phoenicians went, they established settlements. Most of these were merely trading posts which contained ware- Phoenician houses for the storage of goods. Here the shy settlements natives came to barter their raw materials for the finished products — cloths, tools, weapons, wine, and oil — which the strangers from the east had brought with them. Phcenician settlements sometimes grew into large and flourishing cities. Gades in southern Spain, which was the most distant of their colonies, survives to this day as Cadiz, one of the very oldest cities in Europe. Carthage, founded in North Africa by colonists from Tyre, became the commercial mistress of the western Mediterranean. Carthaginian history, as we shall learn, has many points of contact with that of the Greeks and Romans. 1 See the map, page 10S. Law and Morality 14. Law and Morality 49 Human activities in the Near East seem to have gone on in orderly fashion much of the time. As far as we can tell, life was fairly safe, property was reasonably secure, and Egyptian people were protected in their occupations. Egypt, law we know, had courts of justice, law books (unfortunately lost), and definite rules relating to contracts, loans, leases, mortgages, partnerships, marriage, and the family. The position of woman i,wmiiiimniwnii»ii/innifiw»iw^^ The Judgment of the Dead From a papyrus containing the Book of the Dead. The illustration shows a man and his wife (at the Lft) entering the hall in the spirit world, where sits the god of the dead with forty-two jurors (seen above) as his assistants. The heart of the man, symbolized by a jar, is being weighed in balances by a jackal-headed god against a feather, the symbol of truth. An ibis-headed god records with his pen the verdict of the balances. The monster in the right-hand corner is ready to devour the soul, if the heart proves to be lighter than the feather. This picture is by far the oldest known representation of a judgment scene. was remarkably high: she had full rights of ownership and inheritance and she could engage in business on her own account. Though polygamy existed, chiefly among the upper classes, the wife was her husband's companion and not merely his domestic servant. The reverence due from children to father and mother was constantly insisted upon, and filial piety for the Egyptians ranked among the highest virtues. The most enlightening notice of Egyptian moral standards is found in a very ancient work known as the Book oj the Dead. One of the chapters describes the judgment of the soul in the other world. If the soul was to enjoy a blissful immortality, 50 The Ancient Orient it must be able to recite truthfully before its judges a so-called Negative Confession. These are some of the declarations: "I The Nega- °^ not stea l " > ' I did no t rnurder " ; "I did not lie'* ; tive Confes- "T did not kill any sacred animals"; "I did not damage any cultivated land"; "I did not do anv witchcraft" ; "I did not blaspheme a god" ; "T did not make false accusations" ; "I did not revile my father" ; "I did not cause a slave to be ill-treated by bis master" ; "I did not make any one weep." After pleading innocence of all the fortv-two sins condemned by Egyptian ethics, the soul added, '"Grant ___ that he may come v . x-'^i^^ untovou . . . he that hath given bread to the hungry and drink to the thirsty, and that hath clothed the naked with gar- ments." Some of the clauses of the Negative Confession correspond with some of the Ten Commandments, while the afhrmative statement at the end makes a close approach to Christian morality. The Babylonians were a very legal-minded people. When a man sold his wheat, bought a slave, married a wife, or made Babylonian a will, the transaction was duly noted on a contract law tablet, which was then hied away in the public archives. Instead of inscribing his name, a Babylonian stamped his seal on the soft clay of the tablet. Even* one who owned property had to have a seal. A contract tablet was protected from defacement by being placed in a hollow clay case, or envelope. A recent discovery has provided us with almost the complete text of the laws which Hammurabi, the Babylonian king, or- Code of dered engraved on stone monuments and set up Hammurabi ^ the chid dtie5 rf ^ realm Hammurabi's code shows, in general, a keen sense of justice. A man Babvloxiax Seal ? £ :: -_:- - I — i: rtir^rf a": :u: :::: ;.: Law and Morality 51 who tries to bribe a witness or a judge is to be severely pun- ished. A farmer who is careless with his dikes and allows the water to run through and flood his neighbor's land must restore the value of the grain he has damaged. The owner of a vicious ox which has gored a man must pay a heavy fine, provided he knew the disposition of the ani- mal and had not blunted its horns. On the other hand, the code contains some rude fea- tures, especially its reliance upon retaliation — "eye for eye, tooth for tooth" — as the punishment of injuries. For instance, a son who struck his father was to have his hands cut off. The nature of the punishment de- pended, moreover, on the rank of the aggrieved party. A per- son who had caused the loss of a "gentleman's"' eye was to have his own plucked out ; but if the injury was done to a poor man, the culprit had only to pay a fine. Hammurabi's code thus presents a vivid picture of Babylonian society twenty-one centuries before Christ. The laws which we find in the earlier part of the Old Testament were ascribed by the Hebrews to Moses. The Bible states that he had received them from Jehovah on Mount Sinai. These laws covered a The Mosiac wide range of subjects. They fixed all religious code ceremonies, required the observance every seventh day of the Sabbath, gave numerous and complicated rules for sacrifices, and even indicated what foods must be avoided as "unclean." No other ancient people possessed so elaborate a legal system. Hammurabi and the Sun God British Museum, London A shaft of stone, nearly S feet high, contains the code of Hammurabi. The monument was found on the site of Susa in 1901-1902. It is engraved in 44 columns and over 3600 lines. A relief at the top shows the Babylonian king receiving the laws from the sun god, who is seated at the right. Flames rising from the god's shoulders indicate his solar character. 52 The Ancient Orient The Jews, throughout the world, still follow its precepts. And modern Christendom still recites the Ten Commandments, the noblest summary of the rules of right living that has come down to us from Oriental antiquity. 15. Religion Oriental ideas of religion, even more than of law and morality, were the gradual outgrowth of beliefs which arose in prehistoric Nature times. Everywhere nature worship prevailed. The worship vault of heaven, earth and ocean, and sun, moon, and stars were all regarded as themselves divine or as the abode of divinities. The sun formed an object of particular adoration. We find a sun god, under different names, throughout the Orient. The Egyptians, very conservative in religious matters, al- fllgfifl u^s^^^m An Egyptian Scarab Animal worship ways The beetle, as a symbol of birth and resurrection, and hence of immortality, enjoyed much reverence in ancient Egypt. A scarab, or image of the beetle, was often worn as a charm and was placed in the mummy as an arti- ficial heart. tained the animal wor- ship of their barbarous ancestors. Some gods were represented on monuments in partly animal form, one hav- ing a baboon's head, another the head of a lioness, another that of a cat. Such animals as the jackal, bull, ram, hawk, and crocodile also received the utmost reverence, less for them- selves, however, than as symbols of different gods. In Babylonia and Assyria a belief in the existence of evil spirits formed a prominent feature of the religion. People supposed themselves to be constantly surrounded by a host of demons, who caused insanity, sickness, accidents, and death — all human ills. To cope with these spiritual enemies the Baby- lonian used magic. He put up an image of a pro- tecting god at the entrance of his home and wore charms upon Evil spirits Magic Religion 53 Divination Astrology his person. If he fell ill, he summoned a magician to recite an incantation which would drive out the demon inside him. The Babylonians had many ways of predicting the future. Soothsayers divined from dreams and from the casting of lots. Omens of prosperity or misfortune were also drawn from the appearance of the entrails of animals slain in sacrifice. For this purpose a sheep's liver was commonly used. Divination by the liver was studied for centuries in the temple schools of Babylonia. The practice afterwards spread to the Greeks and Romans. Astrology received much attention in Babylonia. The five planets then recognized, as well as comets and eclipses, were thought to exercise an influence for good or evil on the life of man. Babylonian astrology passed to western lands and became popular in much of Europe. When we name the days Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, we are unconscious astrologers, for in old belief the first day belonged to the planet Saturn, the second to the sun, and the third to the moon. 1 People who try to read their fate in the stars are really practicing an art of Babylonian origin. In the midst of so many nature deities, sacred animals, and evil spirits, it was indeed re- Monothe- markable that the belief ism in Egypt in one god should ever have arisen. Nevertheless, some Egyptian thinkers reached the idea of a single supreme stone and undoubtedly a striking ]. . . s\ c ,1 t->i i likeness of the Egyptian king. divinity. One of the Pharaohs, Amenhotep IV (about 1375-1358 B.C.), who saw in the sun the source of all life on the earth, ordered his subjects to worship that luminary alone. The names of other gods were erased Amenhotep IV A portrait head carved in lime- 1 The names of the other weekdays come from the names of old Teutonic deities. Tuesday i.s the day of Tiu (the Teutonic Mars), Wednesday of Woden (Mercury), Thursday of Thor (Jupiter), and Friday of the goddess Frigg (Venus). 54 The Ancient Orient from the monuments, their images destroyed, their temples closed, their priests expelled. No such lofty faith had ever appeared before, but it was too abstract and impersonal to win popular favor. After the king's death, the old deities were restored to honor. The Medes and Persians accepted the religious teachings of Zoroaster, a great prophet whose date is variously placed between Monothe- IOO ° anc ^ 7°° B - c - According to Zoroaster, Ahura- ism in mazda, the heaven-deity, is the maker and upholder of the universe. Heisagodof light and order, of truth and purity. Against him stands Ahriman, the personification of darkness and evil. These rival powers are engaged in a ceaseless struggle. Man, by doing right and avoiding wrong, by loving truth and hating falsehood, can help make Good triumph over Evil. In the end Ahuramazda will overcome Ahriman and will reign supreme over a righteous world. Zoroastrianism was the only monotheistic religion developed by an Indo-European people. It still survives in some parts of Persia, though that country is now chiefly Mohammedan, and also among the Parsees (Persians) of Bombay, India. The Hebrews, a Semitic people, also developed a monotheistic religion. The Old Testament shows how it came about. Hebrew Jehovah was at first regarded by the Hebrews as monotheism s i m ply their own national deity ; they did not deny the existence of the deities of other nations, though they re- fused to worship them. The prophets, from the eighth century onwards, began to transform this narrow, limited conception. For them, Jehovah was the God of the whole earth, the Father of all mankind. After the Hebrews returned to Palestine from captivity in Babylon, 1 the sublime faith of the prophets gradually spread through the entire nation, culminating in the doctrine of Jesus that God is a Spirit and that they who worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth. The Christian doctrine of God is thus directly an outgrowth of Hebrew monotheism. The Egyptians, as well as all other ancient peoples, believed that man has a soul which survives the death of the body. 1 See page 38. Literature and Art 55 They thought it essential, however, to preserve the body from destruction, so that it might remain to the end of time a home for the soul. Hence arose the practice of embalming. The future The embalmed body (mummy) was then placed Ufe in the grave, which the Egyptians called an "eternal dwelling." Later Egyptian thought represented the future as a place of rewards and punishments, where, as we have just learned, the soul underwent the ordeal of a last judgment. As a man lived in this life, so would be his lot in the next. The Babylonians supposed that after death the souls of all men, good and bad alike, passed a cheerless existence in a gloomy underworld. The early Hebrew idea of Sheol, "the land of darkness and the shadow of death," 1 was very similar. Such thoughts of the future life left nothing for either fear or hope. The Hebrews later came to believe in the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment, conceptions afterward taken over by Christianity. 16. Literature and Art Religion inspired the largest part of Oriental literature. The Egyptian Book of the Dead was already venerable in 2000 B.C. It was a collection of hymns, prayers, and magical The Book of phrases to be recited by the soul on its journey be- the Dead yond the grave and in the spirit land. A chapter from this work usually covered the inner side of the mummy case, or coffin. Much more interesting are the two Babylonian epics, portions of which have been found on clay tablets in a royal library at Nineveh. The epic of the Creation tells how the god Marduk overcame a terrible dragon, the symbol of , ? a y ~ J Ionian epics primeval chaos, and thus established order in the universe. With half of the body of the dead dragon he made a covering for the heavens and set therein the stars. Next, he caused the new moon to shine and made it the ruler of the night. His last work was the creation of man, in order that the service and worship of the gods might be established forever. The second epic contains an account of a Deluge, sent by the gods 1 Job, X, 21. 56 The Ancient Orient WSlijMMi The Deluge Tablet British Museum, London Contains the Babylonian Deluge narrative as pieced together and published by George Smith in 1872. There are sixteen fragments in the restoration. to punish sinful man. The rain fell for six days and nights and covered the entire earth. All people were drowned, except the Babylonian Noah, his family, and his relatives, who safely rode the waters in an ark. This an- cient narrative so closely resembles the Biblical story in Genesis that both must be traced to a com- mon source. The sacred books of the He- brews, which we call the Old Testament, include nearly every kind of litera- ture. Sober histories, beautiful stories, exquisite poems, wise The Old proverbs, and noble prophecies are found in this Testament collection. The influence of the Old Testament upon the Hebrews, and through them upon the Christian world for nineteen centuries, has been profound. We shall not be wrong in regarding this work as the most important single contribution made by any ancient people to modern civilization. The wealth and skill of the Egyptians were not lavished in the erection of fine private mansions or splendid public buildings. Egyptian The characteristic works of Egyptian architecture architecture are the tombs of the kings and the temples of the gods. Even the ruins of these structures leave upon the ob- server an impression of peculiar massiveness, solidity, and grandeur. Like the pyramids, they seem built for eternity. The architecture of the Tigris-Euphrates peoples differed entirely from that of the Egyptians, because brick, and not stone, formed the chief building material. In Babylonia the Q 3 c 3 3 j p 2 a. ^ 3-3 [?. tt B' 6* i o S a y ■-. _; *> i — n u a =r | 3" s. — , — n s b ~Z' 3" ^ H n •< a. o o 3 pi < 3 3" H O a n H 3" n IT '< - »"•» 3" o '< 5' 00 "B — o a B ft p p a. a. - s — -■ ^ < n => 32 r» ?• O C «j _ S3" -a K > o 2, ^ — 3 Is 3 p. 5 ° U 3 W base rem .ages o > ] bility of stone and have |»>*^ ^2fL^$x& lone since dissolved VnV>£ Vi-ffjjp Y>W>? -full *A>>4YhV)<*> ■'- u i ' ' • "^nvs p\*-> \vbfi «r &^-- since into shapeless mounds. The surviving ex- amples of Egyptian sculpture consist of bas-reliefs Oriental and figures sculpture in the round, carved from limestone and granite or cast in bronze. Though many of the statues appear to our eyes very stiff and ungraceful, others are wonderfully life- like. 1 Some Assyrian bas-reliefs also show a considerable develop- ment of the artistic sense, especially in the representation of animals. 2 Painting did not reach the dignity of an independent art. It was employed solely for decorative purposes. Bas-reliefs and wall surfaces were often brightly colored. The artist had 1 See the illustration on page 53. - See the illustration on page 38. Ancient Hebrew Manuscript Cambridge University Library, England A papyrus of the first century A.D., containing the Ten Commandments. It was discovered in Egypt. 58 The Ancient Orient no knowledge of perspective and drew all his figures in profile, without any distinction of light and shade. Indeed, Oriental Oriental painting, as well as Oriental sculpture, made small painting pretense to the beautiful. Beauty was born into the world with the art of the Greeks. An Assyrian Palace (Restored) The royal residence of Sargon II near Nineveh was placed upon a high platform of brick masonry, the top of which was gained by stairs and an inclined roadway. The palace con- sisted of a series of one-storied rectangular halls and long corridors surrounding inner courts. They were provided with imposing entrances, flanked by colossal human-headed bulls, repre- senting guardian spirits. The entire building covered more than twenty-three acres and contained two hundred apartments. In the rear is seen a tower-temple. 17. Science Conspicuous advance took place in the exact sciences. A very old Egyptian manuscript contains arithmetical problems with fractions as well as whole numbers, and geometrical 1=1 111111111=9 n=io nnni=i5 no = 20 C=I00 |=I000' 7=10,000 112 e c nnnim = 4434 theorems for computing Mathe- the capacity of matics storehouses and the area of fields. A Babylonian table gives squares and cubes cor- rectly calculated from 1 Egyptian and Babylonian Numeration to 60. The number 12 T=K=ioT>-=ioo - (10x100) =1000 Tm:iii, " Exploits of Alexander the Great." 65 66 Greece highlands. Beginning in the west with southern England, the great European plain stretches across northern France, Belgium and Holland (the "Low Countries"), and northern Germany, and broadens eastward into Russia. About two-thirds of the continent are included in this plain. Furthermore, the moun- tains of Europe do not present such barriers to intercourse as those of Asia. The Alps, though very abrupt on the Italian side, slope gradually northward toward Germany. No other high mountains, except the Rockies, have so many easy passes or offer so little impediment to movement across them. More- over, the outspurs of the Alps in central and southeastern Europe are separated by transverse valleys, thus establishing convenient routes of communication from one region to another. Nearly all Europe lies in the northern half of the North Temperate Zone, that is, within those latitudes most conducive Climatic to the development of a high civilization. No- Europe where, except beyond the Arctic Circle, does exces- sive cold stunt body and mind, and nowhere does enervating heat sap human energies. The climate is moderated by the Gulf Stream drift, which reaches the British Isles and Scan- dinavia. Climatic conditions are made still more favorable by the circumstance that Europe lies open to the west, with great inland seas penetrating deeply from the Atlantic, and with the higher mountain ranges extending nearly east and west. The westerly winds, warmed in passing over the Gulf Stream drift, can thus spread far into the interior, bringing with them an abundant rainfall, except in such regions as southern Spain, Italy, Greece, and eastern Russia. Europe, in conse- quence, is the only continent without extensive deserts. We learned in the first chapter that Europe was inhabited by man during Palaeolithic times and that, with the exception of Racial types certain invading peoples who came from Asia in of Europe antiquity or the Middle Ages, the present inhabit- ants of Europe belong to the White Race. 1 They may be separated into three racial types. The Baltic or Nordic (northern) type is found in the Scandinavian countries and 1 See page 13. The Lands of the West 67 throughout the great European plain : it is characterized by a long or narrow head, tall stature, very light hair, blue eyes, and blond complexion. The Mediterranean (southern) type pre- vails in the peninsulas of southern Europe and the adjoining islands: it is short in stature and brunette in complexion, but is also long-headed. The Alpine (central) type comes midway between the other two in respect to stature and complexion, Heavy-faced line! 8nflw districts where the race in.li.at.-.l is nf-iwfrT'st-t.xjit. Racial Types in Western EuRorE but has a broad head, unlike either of them. Each of these racial types, despite some fusion with the others, still occu- pies a fairly well-defined area of the continent. The Baltic type possibly originated in Europe where it is now found. The Mediterranean and Alpine types are believed to have entered Europe about the beginning of Neolithic times, the one from North Africa, the other from Asia. About sixty distinct languages are still spoken in Europe. Ancientlv, there were many more. The Turks in the Balkan 68 Greece Peninsula and the Mongols and Tatars in Russia still keep their Asiatic tongues. The same is true of the Magyars (Hun- Languages garians), Esthonians, and Finns, who in other of Europe respects have been thoroughly Europeanized. The remaining languages of any importance belong to the Indo- European family. 1 Racial and linguistic groupings do not necessarily coincide in Europe any more than in other parts of the world. The North Race and Frenchman Is more nearly allied in physical char- language acteristics to the North German than to the South in Europe Frenchman ; and the North Italian resembles the South German more closely than the South Italian or Sicilian. A study of the accompanying map will furnish other illustra- tions of the fact that race and language are not convertible terms. The almost unbroken mountain chain formed by the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkans sharply separates the northern and European central land mass of Europe from the southern peoples p ar t f the continent. Twenty- five centuries ago Europe beyond these mountain barriers had not entered the light of history. Its Celtic, Teutonic, Lettic, and Slavic- speaking inhabitants were still barbarians. During ancient times we hear little of them, except as their occasional migra- tions southward brought them into contact with the civilized Graeco-Latin peoples along the Mediterranean. 20. The Mediterranean Basin The Mediterranean, about 2200 miles in length and 500 to 600 miles in greatest breadth, is the most extensive inland sea in the Character- world. It washes the shores of three continents — Mediterra- Europe, Asia, and Africa. Nevertheless, its basin nean basin i s relatively isolated, being confined within a mountain wall on the north and an almost impassable desert on the south. The climate of the basin falls half-way between tropical conditions and the temperate conditions of central and northern Europe. The sea exercises a moderating in- 1 See the chart on page 18. The Mediterranean Basin 69 fluence, however, raising the temperature in the rainy season (winter) and lowering h in the dry season (summer). The rainfall is, on the whole, scant}', with the result that the most important trees are the vine and the olive, which offer con- siderable resistance to drought. Their northern and southern limits, together with those of the orange, are shown on the map (p. 70). In respect to both climate and vegetation, the Med- iterranean basin is thus a region of marked individuality, a separate, definite area by itself. The Mediterranean was well suited for early commerce, because of its long and contracted shape, indented northern shore, and numerous islands. Mariners seldom a " highway had to proceed far from the sight of land or at a of nations " great distance from good harbors. Though its storms are often fierce, they are usually brief, since the narrow strait of Gibraltar shuts out the great waves of the Atlantic. Freedom from high tides also facilitates navigation. Such advantages made the Mediterranean from a remote period an avenue by which everything that the older Eastern world had to offer could be passed on to the younger West. And the various European peoples themselves were able to exchange their prod- ucts and communicate their ideas and customs along this "highway of nations." The Mediterranean basin divides into two parts. The boundary between them occurs near the center, where Africa and Sicily almost touch each other across a narrow • ni .. , Divisions of strait. The western part contains, besides Sicily, the Mediter- the large islands of Sardinia and Corsica. Between ranean asm these islands and the Italian coast lies the wide expanse of the Tyrrhenian Sea. The eastern part includes the Adriatic, Ionian, and ^Egean seas. It was the last of these which had most im- portance in Greek history. The /Egean forms an almost landlocked body of water. The Balkan 1'eninsula, narrowing toward the Mediterranean into the smaller peninsula of Greece, confines it on the The jEgean west. On the east it meets a boundary in Asia Sea Minor. The southern boundary consists of a chain of islands. 7° Greece The only opening northward is found in the Dardanelles (the ancient Hellespont), the Sea of Marmora (the ancient Pro- pontis), and the Bosporus. The islands of the JEge&n are a continuation into the Medi- terranean of the mountain ranges of Europe and Asia. In size The JEgean they vary from tiny Delos, less than three miles in Islands length, to the long and narrow ridge of Crete. Hundreds of them are sprinkled throughout the ^Egean, making it possible to cross that body of water in almost any direction without losing sight of land. The islands consequently became "stepping stones" between Greece and Asia Minor. Greece proper — continental Greece — is a tiny country. Its greatest length is scarcely more than two hundred and fifty miles ; its greatest breadth is only one hundred and eighty miles. Mountain ridges, offshoots of the Balkans, break it up into numberless small valleys and glens, which seldom widen into plains. The coast-line is most irregu- lar — a constant succession of sharp promontories and curving bays. No place in Greece is more than fifty miles from a Greece The yEgeans 71 mountain range or more than forty miles from some long arm of the Mediterranean. The western coast of Asia Minor resembles Greece in its deep indentations, variety of scenery, and mild climate. Western The river valleys and plains of this region, how- Asia ever, are larger, more numerous, and more fertile than those of the Greek mainland. .21. The jEgeans The first civilization to arise in Europe was the work of gifted JEgca.11 peoples. They belonged to the dark-skinned, short-statured, long-headed branch of the White Race. This Antiquity of Mediterranean racial Mgean civi- type, as has been noted, probably originated in North Africa j3&0s?*%^% and spread entirely around the \ s wM\ Mediterranean, where its descendants still live to-day. During Neolithic : tlT,-\ 'f0&!% times it was already occupying the ;- ; _ .Egean Islands, the coasts of Greece, and western Asia Minor. Here modern excavations x have revealed centers of civilized life almost as "Throne of Minos" Venerable as those of Egypt and Excavated by' Sir Arthur Evans -r, , 1 • A 1 , 1 in the palace at Gnossus, Crete. Babylonia. As early as 3000 B.C. the The material is gypsum . This in . /Egeans began to give Up Stone im- teresting object dates from about plements in favor of copper and I5 °° BC ' bronze. These two metals were doubtless introduced from the Near East. The Copper-Bronze Age lasted in the /Egean for about two thousand years. /Egean civilization first arose in Crete and developed most highly there. We can understand why. Crete is a Qri . f kind of half-way house between Europe and the JEgean Near East. It lies only a few days' sail from the civilization 1 Especially at Gnossus in Crete, Mycena: and Tiryns in Greece, and Troy in Asia Minor. 72 Greece mouths of the Nile and the shores of western Asia. The island was consequently in a position early to receive and profit by all the culture of the Orient. From Crete, in turn, cultural in- fluences spread throughout the ^Egean. iEgean civilization shows several marked characteristics. The people lived in villages and cities, where the frowning fortress of the chief or king looked down on the humble istics of .dwellings of common ^gean men. The monarch, civilization . . as in the Orient, was doubtless a thorough despot, whose subjects toiled to build the great palaces and tombs. If life was hard and cheerless for them, it must have been pleasant enough for court ladies and gentlemen, who occupied luxurious apartments, wore fine clothing and jewelry, and enjoyed such exhibitions as bull- fights and the contests of pugilists. Remarkable progress took place in some of the arts. ^Egean archi- tects raised imposing palaces of hewn and squared stone and arranged them for a life of comfort. The palace at Gnossus in Crete even had tile water-pipes, bath- rooms, and other conveniences which have hitherto been re- garded as of recent origin. Brilliant wall paintings — hunting scenes, landscapes, portraits of men and women — excite our admiration. The costumes of the women, with their flounced skirts, puffed sleeves, low-cut bodices, and gloved hands, were astonishingly modern in appearance. ^Egean artists made porcelain vases and decorated them with plant and animal forms. They carved ivory, engraved gems, and inlaid metals. It was doubtless from these ^Egeans that the later Greeks inherited their artistic genius. : A Cretan Girl Museum of Candia, Crete A fresco painting from the palace of Gnossus. The girl's face is so astonishingly modern in treatment that one can scarcely believe that the picture belongs to the sixteenth century B.C. Art The Greeks 73 A form of recording 1 noughts had been secured. The explora- tions in Crete show that its inhabitants had passed from pic- ture writing to sound writing. The palace of Gnossus contained several thousand clay tablets, with inscriptions in a language as yet unread. 1 About seventy characters appear to have been in common use. They prob- ably denote syllables and indicate a decided advance over both Egyptian and Babylonian scripts. .Much commerce existed throughout the Mediterranean during ^Egean times. Products of Cretan art or imitations of them are found as far west as Italv, Sicilv, Sar- _ - ' • ' Commerce dinia, and Spain, and as far east as inland Asia Minor, Syria, and Babylonia. Crete also enjoyed close com- mercial relations with both Egypt and Cyprus. In those ancient days Crete was mistress of the seas, and the merchants of that island preceded the Phoenicians as carriers between the Near East and Europe. 2 .Egean civilization did not penetrate deeply into Europe. The interior of Greece remained the home of barbarous tribes, who had not yet learned to build cities, to create DoW nfall of beautiful objects of art, or to traffic on the seas. ^Egean Between about 1500 and 1000 B.C. their destruc- CIVllzaion tive inroads brought about the downfall of /Egean civilization. 22. The Greeks The invaders who plunged the /Egean region once more into barbarism were a tall, light-complexioned, fair-haired, blue- eyed people, probably of the Baltic (Nordic) racial The Greek type. Their speech was Greek, which belongs to P e °P le the Indo-European family of languages. They lived a nomadic life as hunters and herdsmen. When the grasslands became insufficient to support their sheep and cattle, these northerners began to move gradually southward into the Danube Valley and thence through the many passes of the Balkans into Greece. The iron weapons which they possessed doubtless gave them a 1 See the illustration on pag< . - See page 17. 74 Greece great advantage in conflicts with the bronze-using natives of this region. Sometimes the invaders must have exterminated or enslaved the earlier inhabitants ; more often, perhaps, they settled peacefully in the sunny south. Conquerors and con- quered slowly intermingled, thus producing the one Greek people which is found at the dawn of history. The Greeks, as we shall now call them, did not stop at the southern limits of Greece. They also occupied Crete and the The other iEgean Islands, together with the western Greek coast of Asia Minor. Their settlements in Asia Minor came to be known as vEolia (or ^Eolis) , Ionia, and Doris, after the names of Greek tribes. The entire basin of the iEgean henceforth became the Greek world. Several hundred years elapsed between the end of ^Egean civilization and the beginning of historic times in the Greek world, about 750 B.C. This period is usually known as the The Greeks 75 Homeric Age, because various aspects of it are reflected in two epic poems called the Iliad and the Odyssey. The former gives the story of a Greek expedition led by Agamemnon, The Homeric king of Mycenae, against Troy ; the latter relates A s e the wanderings of the Greek hero Odysseus on his return from Troy. The two epics were probably composed in Ionia, and by the Greeks were attributed to a blind bard named Homer. Many modern scholars, however, re- gard them as the work of several generations of poets. The Iliad and the Odyssey show how rude was the culture of the Homeric Age, as com- Culture of pared with the splendid the Homeric JEgean civilization which ge it displaced. The Greeks at this time had not wholly abandoned the life of shepherds for that of farmers. Wealth still consisted chiefly of flocks and herds. Nearly every freeman, how- ever, owned a little plot of land on which he cultivated grain and cared for his orchard and vineyard. Though iron was now used for weapons and farm implements, bronze continued to be the commoner and cheaper metal. Commerce was little followed. People depended upon Phoenician merchants for articles of luxury which they could not produce themselves. A class of skilled workmen had not arisen. There were no architects who could raise magnificent palaces and no artists who could paint or carve with the skill of their ^Egean predecessors. The back- wardness of the Homeric Greeks is also indicated by their failure to develop a system of writing to replace the old Cretan script which had utterly perished. Social life was very simple. Princes tended flocks and built houses ; princesses carried water and washed clothes. Agamemnon, Odysseus, and other heroes were not Homeric ashamed to be their own butchers and cooks, society Coined money was unknown. Values were reckoned in oxen The Swastika A prehistoric! symbol widely diffused throughout both the Old World and the New. The example here shown is on the cover of a vase found at Troy. 76 Greece or in lumps of gold and silver. Warfare was constant and cruel. Piracy, flourishing upon the unprotected seas, ranked as an honorable occupation. Murders were frequent. The murderer had to dread, not a public trial and punishment, but rather the private vengeance of the kinsmen of the victim. On the other hand, both the Iliad and the Odyssey contain many charming descriptions of family life. "There is nothing mightier or nobler," sings the poet, "than when man and wife are of one heart and mind in a house, a grief to their foes, to their friends great joy, but their own hearts know it best." x The Homeric Greeks and their successors worshiped various gods and goddesses, twelve of whom formed a select council. Ideas of It was supposed to meet on snow-crowned Olympus the gods m northern Thessaly. Many Olympian deities appear to have been simply personifications of natural phe- nomena. Zeus, "father of gods and men," as Homer calls him, was a heaven god, who gathered the clouds in storms and hurled the lightning bolt. His brother, Poseidon, ruled the sea. His wife, Hera, presided over the life of women and especially over the sacred rites of marriage. His son, Apollo, a god of light, who warded off darkness and evil, became the ideal of manly beauty and the patron of music, poetry, and the healing art. Athena, a goddess who sprang full-grown from the forehead of Zeus, embodied the ideal of wisdom and all womanly virtues. These and other divinities were really magnified men and women, with human passions and appetites, but with more than human power and endowed with immortality. Morally, they were no better than their worshipers. But Homer, who sometimes represents them as deceitful, dissolute, and cruel, could also say, "Verily the blessed gods love not evil deeds, but they reverence justice and the righteous acts of men." 2 Greek ideas of the future life were dismal to an ex- Ideas of the treme. All men, it was thought, went down after future life death to Hades and passed there a shadowy, joyless existence. The Greek Hades thus closely resembled the Hebrew Sheol and the Babylonian underworld of the dead. 3 1 Odyssey, vi, 182-185. 2 Ibid., xiv, 83-84. 3 See page 55. The Greeks 77 Oracles The Greeks believed that communications from the gods were received at certain places called oracles. The oldest of ('.reck oracles was that of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus. Here the priests professed to read the divine will in the rustling leaves of an oak tree sacred to Zeus At Delphi in Phocis the god Apollo was supposed to speak through a prophetess. The words which she uttered when thus "possessed" were interpreted by the attendant priests and delivered to inquirers. The fame of the Delphic oracle spread through- out Greece and reached foreign lands. Every year great numbers of people visited Delphi. Statesmen wished to learn the fate of their political schemes ; ambassadors sent by kings and cities asked advice as to weighty matters of peace and war ; and colo- nists sought directions as to the best country in which to settle. The oracle endured for over a thousand years. It was still honored at the close of the fourth century a.d., when a Roman emperor, after the adoption of Christianity, silenced it forever. The Greeks brought with them from on the Esquiline Hill, Rome. The ,1 • .1 -i . i p statue represents a young man, per- their northern home a great love of haps an athlete at the i ymp ian athletics. Their most ~. The famous athletic festivals Olympian were those in honor of games Zeus at Olympia in Elis. The Olym pian games took place every fourth year, in midsummer. 1 A sacred truce was proclaimed for an entire month, so that the thousands of spectators from every part of the Greek 1 The first recorded celebration of the games occurred in 776 B.C., and from this year all Greek dates were reckoned. The Discus Thrower Lancelotti Palace, Rome Marble copy of the bronze origi- nal by Myron, a sculptor of the fifth century b.c Found in 1781 games, who is bending forward to hurl the discus. His body is thrown violently to the left with a twisting action that brings every muscle into play. 7 8 Greece world might arrive and depart in safety. No one not of Greek blood and no one convicted of crime might be a competitor. The games occupied five days, beginning with contests in running. There was a short-distance dash through the length of the stadium, a quarter-mile race, and also a longer race, probably for two or three miles. Then followed a contest consisting of five events : the long jump, hurling the discus, throwing the javelin, running, and wrestling. Other contests included boxing, horse races, and chariot races. The Olympian games were religious in character, because the display of manly strength was thought to be a spectacle most Influence of pleasing to the gods. The winning athlete re- tne Olympian ceived only a wreath of wild olive at Olympia, but at home he enjoyed the gifts and veneration of his fellow citizens. The thousands of visitors to the festival gave it the character of a great fair, where merchants set up their shops and money changers their tables. Poets recited their lines before admiring audiences, and artists exhibited their masterpieces. Heralds read treaties recently framed between Greek cities, in order to have them widely known. Orators spoke on subjects of general interest. Until their abolition, along with the Delphic oracle, the Olympian games did much to preserve a sense of fellowship among Greek communities. The Greek language formed the strongest tie uniting the Greeks. Everywhere they used the same beautiful and ex- Bonds of pressive speech, which still lives in modified form union among on the lips of several million people in modern Greece. Greek literature likewise made for unity. The Iliad and the Odyssey were recited in every Greek village and city for centuries. They formed the principal text-book in the schools ; an Athenian philosopher well calls Homer the "educator" of Greece. Religion provided still another tie, for all Greeks worshiped the same Olympian gods, visited the oracles at Dodona and Delphi, and attended the Olympian games. A common language, literature, and religion were cultural bonds of union ; they did not lead to the political uni- fication of the Greek world. The Greek City-States 79 23. The Greek City-States A Greek city grew up about a hill of refuge (acropolis), to which the people of the neighborhood resorted in time of danger. This mount would be crowned with a fortress and the temples of the gods. Not far away was the market-place, where the citizens conducted business, held meetings, and enjoyed social intercourse. The most beautiful buildings in the city were always the temples and other public structures. Private houses, for the most part, were insignifi- cant in appearance, often of only one story, and covered with a flat roof. Judged by modern standards, a Greek city was small. Athens, at the climax of its power, may have had a quarter of a million people ; 1 Thebes, Argos, and Corinth, the next largest places, probably had between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants ; Sparta probably had less than 50,000. These figures include all classes of the population — citizens, slaves, and resident foreigners. The city included not only the territory within its walls, but also the surrounding district, where many of the citizens lived. Being independent and self-governing, it is properly The called a city-state. Just as a modern state, it city-state could declare war, arrange treaties, and make alliances with its neighbors. The citizens were very closely associated. They believed themselves to be descended from a common ancestor and they shared a common worship of the patron god or The hero who had them under his protection. These citizens ties of supposed kinship and religion made citizenship a privi- lege which a person enjoyed only by birth and which he lost by removal to another city-state. Elsewhere he was only a foreigner lacking legal rights — a man without a country. The independent city-states which from early times arose in the Near East eventually combined into kingdoms and em- pires under one government. 2 The like never happened in the 1 Living not only in Athens itself and its port of Piraeus, but also throughout Attica. 2 See pages 32-34 and 62. 80 Greece Greek world. Mountain ranges and deep inlets of the sea, by cutting up Greece proper into small, easily defended districts, Civic made it almost impossible for one city-state to patriotism conquer and hold in subjection neighboring com- munities for any length of time. Many city-states, moreover, were on islands or were scattered along remote coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The result was that the Greeks never came together in one nation. Their city feeling, or civic patriotism, took the place of our love of country. Religious influences sometimes proved strong enough to produce loose federations of tribes or city-states known as Amphictyo- amphictyonies. The people living around a famous nies sanctuary would meet to observe their festivals in common and to guard the shrine of their divinity. One of these local unions arose on the little island of Delos, the reputed birthplace of Apollo. A still more noteworthy example was the Delphic Amphictyony. It included twelve tribes and cities of central Greece and Thessaly. They established a council which took the temple of Apollo at Delphi under its protection and superintended the athletic games held there in honor of the god. One of the regulations binding on the members reads : "We will not destroy any amphictyonic town; we will not cut off any amphictyonic town from running water." This solemn oath did not always prevent the members of the Delphic Amphictyony from fighting one another and their neighbors; nevertheless, the federation deserves mention as the earliest peace agency known to history. During the Homeric Age each city-state had a king, "the shepherd of the people." The king did not possess absolute . authority, as in the Orient; he was more or less Government J ' ' of the controlled by a council of nobles. They helped city-state n - m m judgment and sacrifice, followed him to war, and filled the principal offices. Both king and nobles were obliged to consult the common people on matters of great importance, such as making war or declaring peace. The citizens would then be summoned to meet in the market-place, where they shouted assent to the proposals laid before them HERMES AND DIONYSUS Museum of Olympia An original statue by the great sculptor, Praxiteles. It was found in 1877 at Olympia. Hermes is represented carrying the child Dionysus, whom Zeus had intrusted to his care. The symmetrical body of Hermes is faultlessly modeled; the poise of his head is full of dig- nity; his expression is refined and thoughtful. Manly strength and beauty have never been better embodied than in this work. "3 .a The Greek City-States 81 or showed disapproval by silence. This public assembly had little importance in the Homeric Age, but later it became the center of Greek democracy. After the opening of historic times in Greece many city- states began to change their form of government. In some of them, for example, Thebes and Corinth, the nobles Political became strong enough to abolish the kingship * vej>pmen altogether. Monarchy, the rule of one, thus gave city-state way to aristocracy, the rule of the nobles. In Sparta and Argos the kings were not driven out, but their authority was much lessened. Some city-states came under the control of usurpers, whom the Greeks called "tyrants." A tyrant was a man who gained supreme power by force or guile and governed for his own benefit without regard to the laws. There were many such tyrannies during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. Still other city-states, of which Athens formed the most conspicuous instance, went through an entire cycle of changes from kingship to aristocracy, thence to tyranny, and finally to democracy, or popular rule. The city-states most prominent in Greek history were Sparta and Athens. Sparta had been founded at a remote period by Greek invaders of southern Greece (the Pelopon- nesus). It conquered some of the neighboring communities and entered into alliance with others, so that by 500 B.C. its power extended over the greater part of the Pelopon- nesus. The Spartans were obviously good soldiers, but they were little more. They had no industries of importance, cared nothing for commerce, and lived upon the produce of their farms, which were worked by serfs. The Spartans never created anything worth while in literature, art, or philosophy. When not fighting, they passed their time in military drill and warlike exercises. Even their government bore a martial stamp. It was a monarchy in form, but since there were always two kings reigning at once, neither could become very powerful. The real management of affairs lay in hands of five men, called ephors, who were elected every year by the citizens. The ephors accompanied the kings in war and directed their actions ; 82 Greece guided the deliberations of the council of nobles and public assembly; superintended the education of children; and ex- ercised a paternal oversight of everybody's private life. No- where else in the Greek world was the welfare of the individual so thoroughly subordinated to the interests of the society of which he formed a unit. The city-state of Athens stood in marked contrast to Sparta. Athens, by 500 B.C., had rid itself of kings and tyrants, had overthrown the power of the nobles, and had created the first really democratic government in antiquity. Later sections will describe this Athenian democ- cracy and set forth, also, some of the contributions of the Athenian genius to the artistic and intellectual life of mankind. 24. Colonial Expansion of Greece The Greeks, with the sea at their doors, naturally became sailors, traders, and colonizers. After the middle of the eighth Age of century B.C., the city-states began to plant nu- colonization merous settlements along the shores of the Medi- terranean and the Black Sea. The great age of colonization covered about two hundred and fifty years. 1 Trade was one motive for colonization. The Greeks, like the Phoenicians, were able to realize large profits by exchanging Motives for their manufactured goods for the food and raw colonization materials of other countries. Land hunger was another motive. The poor soil of Greece could not support many inhabitants, and, as population increased, emigration offered the only means of relieving the pressure of numbers. A third motive was political and social unrest. The city-states at this period contained many men of adventurous disposition, who were ready to seek in foreign lands a refuge from the op- pression of nobles or tyrants. They hoped to find abroad more freedom than they had at home. A Greek colony was not simply a trading-post; it was a center of Greek life. The colonists continued to be Greeks in 1 See the map facing page 46. Colonial Expansion of Greece 83 language, customs, and religion; they called themselves "men away from home." Mother city and daughter colony traded with each other and in time of danger helped each Nature of other. The sacred fire carried from the public colonization hearth of the old community to the new settlement formed a symbol of the close ties binding them together. The Greeks established many colonies along the coast of the northern ^Egean and on both sides of the passages leading into the Black Sea. Their most important settlement Co i onies in here was Byzantium, upon the site where Con- the north stantinople now stands. The colonies which and northeast fringed the Black Sea were centers for the supply of fish, wood, An Athenian Trireme Bas-relief found on the Acropolis of Athens. Dates from about 400 B.C. The part of the relief preserved shows the waist of the vessel, with the uppermost of the three banks of rowers. Only the oars of the two lower banks are seen. wool, grain, meats, and slaves. The large profits to be gained by trade made the Greeks willing to live in what was then a wild and inhospitable region. The Greeks could feel more at home in southern Italy, where the genial climate, clear air, and sparkling sea recalled their native land. They made so many settlements in Colonies this region that it came to be known as Great in the west Greece (Magna Graecia). One of these was Cumae, on the coast just north of the Bay of Naples. Emigrants from Cumae, in turn, built the city of Naples (Neapolis), which in Roman times formed a center of Greek culture and even to-day possesses a large Greek population. Other important colonies in southern 84 Greece Italy included Taranto, 1 Reggio, 2 and Messina. 3 The most important colony in Sicily was Syracuse, established by Corinth. The Greeks were not able to expand over all Sicily, owing to the opposition of the Carthaginians, who had numerous possessions at its western extremity. The Greeks were also prevented by the Carthaginians from gaining much of a foothold in Corsica and Sardinia and on the Other Medi- coast °* Spain. The city of Marseilles (Massilia), terranean at the mouth of the Rhone, was the chief Greek colonies settlement in this part of the Mediterranean. Two colonies in the southeastern corner of the Mediterranean were Cyrene, west of Egypt, and Naucratis, in the Delta of the Nile. From now on many Greek travelers visited Egypt to see the wonders of that strange old country. Greek colonies were also established in Cyprus and along the southern coast of Asia Minor. Greek colonial expansion formed one*of the most significant movements in ancient history, because it spread Greek culture Results of over so many lands. To distinguish themselves colonization f rom the foreigners, or "barbarians," 4 about them, the Greeks began to give themselves the common name of Hellenes. Hellas, their country, came to include all the terri- tory possessed by Hellenic peoples. The life of the Greeks, henceforth, was confined no longer within the narrow limits of the iEgean. Wherever rose a Greek city, there was a scene of Greek history. 25. The Persian Wars, 499-479 B.C. The creation of the Persian Empire 5 almost immediately reacted upon the Greek world. Cyrus the Great, the first , Persian conqueror, destroyed the kingdom of Conquests of n ' J ° Cyrus the Lydia, thus becoming overlord of the Greek cities Great in Asia Minor. His son, Cambyses, annexed Cyprus and after subduing Egypt proceeded to add Cyrene and other Greek colonies in Africa to the Persian dominions. The 1 Ancient Tarentum. 2 Ancient Regium. 3 Ancient Messana. 4 Greek barbaroi, "men of confused speech." 6 See page 38. The Persian Wars 85 entire coast of the eastern Mediterranean came in this way under the control of a single, powerful, and aggressive state. 1 The accession of Darius the Great to the throne of Persia only increased the dangers that overshadowed the Greek world. Darius desired to secure his possessions on the conquests of northwest by extending them as far as the Danube Darius River, which would furnish an admirable frontier. Accordingly, he entered Europe with a large army and marched against the barbarous but warlike Scythians, then living on both sides of the lower Danube. This enterprise was ap- parently a great success. Even the Scythians learned to tremble at the name of Persia's king. After the return of Darius to Asia, his lieu- tenants conquered the Greek settle- ments on the northern shore of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, to- gether with the wild tribes of Thrace and Macedonia. The Persian Em- pire now included a considerable part of the Balkan Peninsula as far as Greece. fastened under the chin. His under- garments are of chequer-oattern, with sleeves and trousers. Over these he wears a tunic, gathered in at the waist. A Scythian Bibliotheque Nationals Paris A painting on an Attic vase ot about 400 B.C. The barbarian wears Not long after the European ex- a tail cap with lappets which could be pedition of Darius, the Ionian cities of Asia Minor revolted ,-. „ T „„„„ lne Ionian against Persia. The Revolt. Ionians sought the help 4 " 493 BC of Sparta, the chief military state of Greece. The Spartans re- fused to take part in the war, but the Athenians, who realized the menace to Greece from the Persian advance, aided their Ionian kindred with both ships and soldiers. The allied forces cap- tured and destroyed Sardis, the old capital of Lydia, The rest of the Asiatic Greeks now joined the Ionians, and even Thrace threw off the Persian yoke. These successes were only tem- 1 Sec the map between pages 34-35. 86 Greece porary. The revolting cities could not hold out. against the vast resources of Persia. One by one they fell again into the hands of the Great King. Quiet had no sooner been restored in Asia Minor than Darius made ready to reassert Persian supremacy in the Balkan Pen- First Persian insula and to punish Athens for her share in the expedition Ionian Revolt. Only the first part of this program was carried out. A large army, commanded by Mardonius, The Persian Invasions of Greece the son-in-law of the Persian monarch, soon reconquered Thrace and received the submission of Macedonia. Mardonius could not proceed farther, however, because the Persian fleet, on which his army depended for supplies, was wrecked off the promontory of Mount Athos. The Persian Wars 87 The partial failure of the first Persian expedition only aroused Darius to renewed exertions. Two years later another fleet, bearing perhaps twenty thousand soldiers, set out Second from Ionia to Greece. Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian Persian leaders, sailed straight across the iEgean and ezpe * lon landed on the plain of Marathon, twenty-six miles from Athens. The situation of the Athenians seemed desper- ate. They BatUeo{ had scarcely Marathon, ten thousand 490 BC ' men with whom to face an army at least twice as large and hitherto in- vincible. The Spartans promised support, but de- layed sending troops at the critical moment. Never- theless, the Athenians de- cided to take the offensive. Their able general, Milti- ades, believed that the Persians, however numer- ous, were no match for heavy-armed Greek soldiers. The issue of the battle of Marathon proved him right. The Athenians crossed the plain at the quickstep and in the face of a shower of arrows drove the Persians to their ships. Datis and Artaphernes then sailed for home, with their errand of vengeance unfulfilled. "Ten years after Marathon," says a Greek historian, "the 'barbarians' returned with the vast armament which was to enslave Greece." l Darius was now dead, but his son Xerxes > Thucydides, i, 18. Persian Archers Louvre, Paris A frieze of enameled brick from the royal palace at Susa. It is a masterpiece of Persian art and shows the influence of both Assyrian and Greek design. Each archer carries a spear, in addition to the bow over the left shoulder and the quiver on the back. These soldiers probably served as palace guards, hence the fine robes worn by them. 88 Greece had determined to complete his task. Great quantities of provisions were collected; the Dardanelles strait was bridged Third Persian with boats ; and the promontory of Mount Athos, expedition where a previous fleet had met shipwreck, was pierced with a canal. An army, estimated to exceed one hundred thousand men, was brought together from all parts of the Great King's realm. He evidently intended to crush the Greeks by sheer weight of numbers. Xerxes did not have to attack a united Greece. Some Greek states submitted without fighting, when Persian heralds came Disunion of to demand "earth and water," the customary sym- the Greeks hols of submission. Some other states remained neutral throughout the struggle. But Athens and Sparta, with their allies, remained joined for resistance to the end. Early in the year 480 B.C. the Persian host moved out of Sar- dis, crossed the Dardanelles, and advanced as far as the pass b tti f °^ Thermopylae, commanding the entrance into Thermopylae, central Greece.. This position, one of great natural 480 B.C. strength, was held by a few thousand Greeks under the Spartan king, Leonidas. Xerxes for two days hurled his best troops against the defenders of Thermopylae, only to find that numbers did not avail in that narrow defile. There is no telling how long the handful of Greeks might have resisted, had not the Persians found a road over the mountain in the rear of the pass. Leonidas and his men were now attacked both in front and from behind. Xerxes at length won the pass — but only over the bodies of its heroic defenders. Years later a monument to their memory was raised on the field of battle. It bore the simple inscription: "Stranger, go tell the Spartans that we lie here in obedience to their commands." l The Persians now marched rapidly through central Greece to Athens, but found a deserted city. Upon the advice of Themis- Battle of tocles, ablest of the Athenian leaders, the non- Salamis, combatants had withdrawn to places of safety 480 B.C. and the ent j re fighting force of Athens had gone on shipboard. The Greek fleet, which consisted chiefly of 1 Herodotus, vii, 228. Athens 89 Athenian vessels under the command of Themistocles, then took up a position in the strait separating the island of Salamis from Attica and awaited the enemy. The Persians at Salamis had many more ships than the Greeks, but Themistocles believed that in the narrow strait their numbers would be a disadvan- tage to them. Such turned out to be the case. The Persians fought well, but their vessels, crowded together, could not navigate properly and even wrecked one another by collision. After an all-day contest what remained of their fleet withdrew to Asia Minor. The Great King himself had no heart for any more fighting. However, he left Mardonius, with a large body of picked troops, to subjugate the Greeks on land. So the real crisis of the war was yet to come. Mardonius passed the winter quietly in Thessaly, preparing for the spring campaign. The Greeks, in their turn, made a final effort. A Spartan army, supported by the Battles of Athenians and other allies, met the enemy near M a cai a e and the little town of Plataea in Bceotia. The Greek 479 B.C. soldiers, with their long spears, huge shields, and heavy swords, were completely successful. At about the same time as this battle the remainder of the Persian fleet suffered a crushing defeat at Mycale, on the Ionian coast. These two engagements really ended the Persian wars. Never again did Persia make a serious effort to conquer Greece. The Persian wars were much more than a contest for su- premacy between two rival powers. They were a struggle between East and West ; between Oriental despot- victorious ism and Occidental democracy. Had Persia won, Greece the fresh, vigorous Western civilization then being developed by Athens and other Greek states would have been submerged, probably for ages, under the influx of Eastern ideas and customs. The Greek victory saved Europe for better things. It was a victory for human freedom. 26. Athens, 479-431 B.C. Greek history, for half a century after the close of the Persian wars, centers about Athens. She was now the most populous 90 Greece of Greek cities. She possessed an extensive commerce through- out the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Her citizens Ascendancy were energetic ; her government was a democracy. of Athens The Athenians also enjoyed the prestige which resulted from their successful resistance to Persia. Herodotus even calls them the saviors of Greece. "Next to the gods," he says, "they repulsed the invader." l In order to remove the danger of another Persian attack, the Athenians formed a defensive league with their Greek Athens and kindred in Asia Minor and on the ^Egean Islands, the Delian It included, ultimately, over two hundred city- League states. Some of the wealthier members agreed to provide ships and crews for the allied fleet. All the other members preferred to make their contributions in money, allowing Athens to build and equip the ships. Athenian offi- cials collected the revenues, which were placed for protection in the temple of Apollo on the island of Delos. The Delian League formed the most promising step which the Greeks had yet taken in the direction of federal government. Athenian It might have developed into a United States of imperialism Greece, had the Athenians shown more wisdom and justice in dealing with their allies. Unfortunately, the Athenians proceeded to use the naval force which had been formed by the contributions of the league as a means of bringing its members into dependence upon Athens. The Delian com- munities were compelled to accept governments like those of Athens, to endure the presence of Athenian garrisons in their midst, to furnish soldiers for Athenian armies, and to pay an annual tribute. Even the common treasury of the league was eventually transferred from Delos to Athens. What had started out as a voluntary association of free and independent states thus ended by becoming, to all intents and purposes, an Athenian Empire. The Athenians governed imperially, but they belonged to a democratic state. Democracy, the rule of the sovereign people, was unknown in the ancient Orient. 2 It formed a Greek con- 1 Herodotus, vii, 139. 2 See page 40. Athens 91 tribution, especially an Athenian contribution, to civilization. The Athenians had now learned how unjust could be the rule of a king, a tyrant, or a privileged aristocracy. Athenian They tried, instead, to afford every free citizen, democracy whether rich or poor, whether noble or commoner, an oppor- tunity to hold office, to serve in the law courts, and to partici- pate in legislation. The center of Athenian democracy was the popular assembly. All citizens who had reached twenty years of age were members. The number present at a meeting rarely exceeded The popular five thousand, however, because so many Athe- assembly nians lived outside the walls in the country districts of Attica. An Athenian Inscription A decree of the popular assembly, dating from about 450 B.C. The popular assembly met every eight or nine days on the slopes of a hill called the Pnyx. After listening to speeches, the people voted, usually by show of hands, on the measures laid before them. They settled in this way all questions of war and peace, sent out military and naval expeditions, sanc- tioned public expenditures, and exercised general control over the affairs of Athens and her dependencies. Democracy, then, reached its height in ancient Athens. The people ruled, and they ruled directly. Every citizen could take some active part in politics. Such a government worked well in the conduct of a small city-state. It proved to be less 92 Greece successful in the management of an empire. The subject com- munities of the Delian League were unrepresented at Athens. Absence of They had no one to speak for them in the public a represents- assembly or before the law courts. Hence their ive sys em interests were always subordinated to those of the Athenians. We shall notice the same absence of a representa- tive system in ancient Rome, after that city had become mis- tress of the Mediterranean basin. But even in Athens, most democratic of all Greek city-states, democracy was really class rule. Not all the free men — to say nothing of the numerous slaves — were citizens. The law restricted citizenship to those free men who were the sons of an Athenian father (himself a citizen) and an Athenian mother. Consequently, the thou- sands of foreign merchants and artisans living in Athens could not take any part in its government. This jealous attitude toward foreigners contrasts with the liberal policy of modern countries, such as our own, in naturalizing immi- grants. Athens contained many artisans. Their daily tasks gave them scant opportunity to engage in the exciting game of Industrial politics. The average rate of wages was very low. Athens i n S pite of cheap food and modest requirements for clothing and shelter, it must have been difficult for the city workman to keep body and soul together. Outside of Athens lived the peasants, whose little farms produced the olives, grapes, and figs for which Attica was celebrated. There were also thousands of slaves in Athens, as in other city-states of Greece. Their number was so great and their labor so cheap that we may think of them as taking the place of modern machines. Slaves did most of the work on large estates owned by wealthy men, toiled in the mines and quarries, and served as oarsmen on ships. The system of slavery lowered the dignity of free labor and tended to prevent the rise of poorer citizens to positions of responsibility. In Greece, as in the Orient, 1 slavery cast a blight over industrial life. 1 See page 43. Athenian Culture 93 The Athenian city, during this period, formed the commercial center of Greece. Exports of wine and olive oil, pottery, metal wares, and objects of art were sent from Commercial Piraeus, the port of Athens, to every part of the Athens Greek world. The imports from the Black Sea region, Thrace. Asia Minor, Egypt, Sicily, and Italy included such commodities as salt, dried fish, wool, timber, hides, and, above all, great quantities of wheat. As is the case with modern England, Athens could feed all her people only by bringing in food from abroad. 27. Athenian Culture The wealth which the Athenians found in industry and commerce, together with the tribute paid by the Delian League, enabled them to adorn their city with statues and Artistic buildings. The most beautiful monuments arose Atnens on the Acropolis. Access to this steep rock was gained through a superb entrance gate, or Propylaea, constructed to resemble the front of a temple with columns and pediment. Just beyond the Propylaea stood a huge bronze statue of the goddess Athena, by the sculptor Phidias. On the crest of the Acropolis were two temples. The smaller one, named after Erechtheus, a legendary Athenian king, was of the Ionic order of architecture. The larger one, dedicated to the Virgin Athena (Athena Par- thenos), was of the Doric order. It contained a gold and ivory statue (also by Phidias) of the goddess who had the Athenian city under her protection. A Greek temple, 1 such as the Par- thenon, was merely a rectangular building, provided with doors > but without windows, and surrounded by a single or a double row of columns. The temple did not serve as a meeting place for worshipers, but only as a sanctuary for the deity. Less imposing than the majestic structures raised in Egypt, it had more beauty, because of its harmonious proportions, perfect symmetry, and exquisite workmanship. The Parthenon is now a ruin. Many of the wonderful sculptures which once decorated the exterior have survived, however, and may be viewed to-day in the British Museum at London. 1 Sec the plat'.- facing page 81. 94 Greece Up against a corner of the Acropolis, the Athenians built an open-air theater, where performances took place in midwinter and spring at the festivals of the god Dionysus. A Greek play would seem strange enough to us; there was no elaborate scenery, no raised stage, until late Roman times, and little lively action. The actors, who were all men, never numbered more than three or four. They wore elaborate costumes and grotesque masks. The The Athenian theater mgsm -.. . ^!WJ fedS^C*^ SS^Si . . - ^^'.^Vi»- ^w^SS-V*. Theater or Dionysus, Athens About sixteen thousand persons could be accommodated in this open-air theater. They sat at first on wooden benches; later, stone seats were placed against the adjacent hillside. The marble seats in the front row, next to the orchestra circle, were reserved for prominent Athenians. narrative was mainly carried on in song, by the chorus, which met with the actors in the dancing ring, or orchestra. The theater held an important part in the life of Athens and, indeed, of all Greek cities. It formed a partial substitute for our pulpit and press, for it dealt either with religious and moral themes or with leading personages and questions of the day. The trag- edies and comedies produced by Athenian playwrights origi- nated a new type of literature — the drama. The playwrights composed in verse, but there were also Athenians who learned to write in prose. The first great prose Athenian Culture 95 writer of Greece, or of any other country, was the "father of history," Herodotus. Though born in Asia Minor, he passed much of his life at Athens, mingling in its brilliant Athenian society and coming under the influences, literary prose and artistic, which that city afforded. Herodo- tus wrote about the Persian wars, but also wove into his narra- An Athenian School Royal Museum, Berlin A painting by Duris on a drinking-cup, or cylix. The picture is divided by the two handles. In the upper half, beginning at the left: a youth playing the double flute as a lesson to the boy before him; a teacher holding a tablet and stylus and correcting a composition; a slave (padagogus), who accompanied the children to and from school. In the lower half: a master teaching his pupil to play the lyre; a teacher holding a half-opened roll, listening to a recita- tion by the student before him; a bearded padagogus. The inner picture, badly damaged, represents a youth in a bath. tive accounts of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and other Oriental peoples. His work is one of our chief sources of information for ancient history. Greek prose was further developed by the orators, who flourished in democratic Athens. 9 6 Greece The Greeks really founded philosophy, which means an intelligent effort to probe the mysteries of existence and human Athenian nature. No one did more in this direction than philosophers the Athenian, Socrates. A true "lover of wisdom" and one of the greatest teachers of any age, Socrates kept no school; he never wrote anything; he taught only by conver- sation with any one willing to discuss moral or religious sub- jects. When an old man, Socrates was convicted of impiety and of corrupting the youth of Athens by his doctrines. He suffered death, in consequence, but his philosophy did not perish. It found an exponent in the Athenian Plato, whose writings, known as Dialogues, took the form of question and answer that Socrates had used. Plato's works were profound in thought and admirable in style. They have continued to influence philosophic speculation to our own day. What the Greeks, and especially the Athenians, originated in art, literature, Athens, the 0rat ° r y> and P h i loso P h y " school of still abides in the world. Hellas" Much of it is unexcelled; all of it is an inspiration. There is no exaggeration, consequently, in the proud words which the statesman, Pericles, ap- plied to Athens in the fifth century B.C. : "Our city is equally admirable in peace and in war. We are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and ostentation, but when there is real use for it. To acknowledge poverty with us is no disgrace ; the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household; and even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man who shows no Pericles British Museum, London The bust is probably a good copy of a portrait statue set up during the lifetime of Pericles on the Athenian Acropolis. Inscribed with the name Pericles in letters of the 3d or 2d century B.C. Decline of the Greek City-States 97 interest in public affairs, not as a harmless, but as a useless, character. ... In short, Athens is the school of Hellas." l 28. Decline of the Greek City-States, 431-338 B.C. The patriotic Greeks, during the Persian wars, had achieved a temporary union and had fought valiantly, successfully, in a common cause. When all danger from Persia was ,.. " Disunion removed, it became impossible to continue a work- of the ing system of federation. The old antagonisms Greeks between rival communities arose again in full vigor. The Greek people, whose unity of blood, language, religion, and customs should have welded them into one nation, continued to be divided into independent and often hostile city-states. The history of Greece, after the Persian wars, is therefore a record of almost ceaseless conflict. In 431 b.c. the fierce and exhausting Peloponnesian War broke out between Conflicts Athens and Sparta, with their allies and depend- between the encies. After ten years of fighting without a Greeks decisive result, both sides grew weary of the struggle and made peace. Athens, instead of husbanding her resources for another contest with Sparta, then tried to conquer Syra- cuse, the largest Greek city in Sicily. The failure of the Sicilian expedition so weakened Athens that Sparta felt encouraged to renew the Peloponnesian War, this time with the financial help of Persia, who was always ready to subsidize the Greeks in fighting one another. The Peloponnesian War ended in 404 B.C. with the complete triumph of Sparta. That city played the imperial role for a few years, until her harsh military rule goaded Thebes into revolt. By defeating Sparta, Thebes be- came the chief power in Greece. Athens and Sparta, however, joined forces to make headway against Theban dominion, and this, too, went down bloodily on the field of battle. By the middle of the fourth century B.C. it had become evident that no single city-state was strong enough or wise enough to rule Greece. A new influence now began to be felt in the Greek world — 1 Thucydidcs, ii, 39-41. 98 Greece the influence of Macedonia. Its people were an offshoot of those northern invaders who had entered the Balkan Penin- sula before the dawn of history. They were Macedonia . thus Greek in both blood and language, but less civilized than their kinsmen of central and southern Greece. Macedonia, however, formed a territorial state under a single ruler, in contrast to the disunited city-states of the other Greeks. Philip II, one of the most remarkable men of antiquity, be- came king of Macedonia in 359 b.c. He was not a stranger Philip II, to Greece. Part of his boyhood had been passed 359-336 B.C. as a hostage at Thebes, where he learned the art of war as the Greeks had perfected it, and also gained an insight into Greek politics. The distracted condition of Greece offered Philip an opportunity to secure for Macedonia the position of supremacy which neither Athens, Sparta, nor Thebes had held for long. He seized the opportunity. Philip created a permanent or standing army of professional soldiers and improved their methods of fighting. Hitherto, Philip's battles had been mainly between massed bodies of army infantry, forming a phalanx. Philip retained the phalanx, only he deepened it and gave to the rear men longer spears. The business of the phalanx was to keep the front of the opposing army engaged, while horsemen rode into the enemy's flanks. This reliance on masses of cavalry to win a victory was something new in warfare. Another novel feature consisted in the use on the battle-field of catapults, a kind of artillery able to throw darts and huge stones for three hundred yards into the enemy's ranks. All these different arms working together made a war machine which was the most formidable in the ancient world until the days of the Roman legion. Philip commanded a fine army ; he ruled with absolute sway a territory larger than any city-state ; and he himself Philip's possessed a genius for both war and diplomacy, conquests With such advantages the Macedonian king entered upon the subjugation of disunited Greece. His first important success was won in western Thrace. Here he founded the city of Philippi, and secured some rich gold mines, the income from Decline of the Greek City-States 99 which enabled him to keep his soldiers always under arms and to tit out a fleet. Philip next made Macedonia a maritime state by annexing the Greek cities on the peninsula of Chalcidice. He also appeared in Thessaly, occupied its principal fortresses, Growth of Macedonia and brought the frontier of Macedonia as far south as the pass of Thermopylae. Philip's conquests excited mixed feelings at Athens, Thebes, and Sparta. He had many influential friends in these cities, some paid agents, but others honest men who Demos- favored Macedonian headship as the only means thene s of uniting Greece. Those opposed to Philip found their fore- most representative in the famous Athenian orator, Demos- IOO Greece thenes. His patriotic imagination had been fired by the great deeds which free Greeks once accomplished against Persia. Athens he loved with passionate devotion, and Athens, he urged, should become the leader of Greece in a second war for independence. The stirring appeals of Demosthenes met little response, until Philip entered Battle of central Greece at the head Chaeronea of his army. Athens, Thebes, and some Pelo- ponnesian states then formed a defen- sive alliance against him. The decisive battle took place at Chaeronea, in Bceotia. On that fatal field the well drilled and seasoned troops of Macedonia, led by a master of the art of war, overcame the citizen-soldiers of Greece. The victory made Philip master of all the Greek states, except Sparta, which still pre- served her liberty. It was the victory of an absolute monarchy over free, self- governing commonwealths. The city- states had had their day. Never again did they become first-rate powers in history. Philip's restless energy now drove him forward to the next step in his ambi- After tious program. He deter- Chseronea mined to carry out the plans, long cherished by the Greeks, for the conquest of Asia Minor and perhaps even of Persia. A congress of the Greek states, which met at Corinth, voted to supply ships and soldiers for the under- taking and placed Philip in command of the Graeco-Macedonian army. But Philip did not lead it into Asia. Less than two years after Chaeronea he was struck down by an assassin, and the scepter passed to his son, Alexander. Demosthenes Vatican Museum, Rome A marble statue, probably a copy of the bronze original by the sculptor Polyeuctus. The work, when found, was considerably mutilated and has been restored in numerous parts. Both forearms and the hands holding the scroll are modern additions. It seems likely that the original Athenian statue showed De- mosthenes with tightly clasped hands, which, with his fur- rowed visage and contracted brows, were expressive of the orator's earnestness and con- centration of thought. Alexander the Great, and the Conquest of Persia 101 i; A, I 29. Alexander the Great, and the Conquest of Persia, 336 323 B.C. Alexander became king of Macedonia when only twenty years old. He had his father's vigorous body, keen mind, and resolute will. His mother, a proud, ambitious The youth- woman, told him that the blood of Achilles ran in ful Alexander his veins, and bade him emulate the deeds of that Greek hero. We know that he learned the ^^^^w^ Iliad by heart and always carried a copy of it on his campaigns. The youthful Alexander developed into a splendid athlete, skillful in all the sports of his rough-riding companions and trained in every warlike exercise. But Alexander was also well edu- cated. He had Aristotle, the most learned man in Greece, as his tutor. The influence of that philosopher, in inspiring him with an admiration for Greek civilization, remained with him throughout life. The situation which Alexander faced on his accession might well have dismayed a less dauntless spirit. Philip had not lived long enough to unite firmly his dominions ; Alexander his unexpected death proved the signal for uprisings and the against Macedonia. The Thracian tribes revolted, ree s and the Greeks made ready to answer the call of Demosthenes to arms. But Alexander soon set his kingdom in order. After crushing the Thracians, he descended on Greece and besieged Thebes. The city was captured and destroyed ; its inhabit- ants were sold into slavery. The fate of Thebes induced the other states to submit without further resistance. With Greece pacified, Alexander could proceed to the inva- '■:% s. -^ fj*. %:;%,:■ Alexander the Great After a medallion found at Tarsus in Asia Minor. 102 Greece sion of Persia. The Persian Empire had remained almost intact since the time of Darius the Great. It was a huge, Alexander loosely knit collection of many different peoples, and the whose sole bond of union consisted in their al- Persians legiance to the Great King. 1 Its resources in men and wealth were enormous. However imposing on the outside, events proved that it could offer no effective resistance to a Graeco-Macedonian army. With not more than fifty thousand soldiers, Alexander destroyed an empire before which for two centuries the Near East had bowed the knee. Alexander entered Asia Minor near the plain of Troy, visited this site made famous by his legendary ancestor, Achilles, B ... overthrew with little difficulty such troops as op- of Issus, posed him, and then marched southward, captur- ing the Greek cities on the way. Western Asia Minor was soon freed of Persian control. Meanwhile, Darius III, the king of Persia, had assembled a large army and had advanced to the narrow plain of Issus, between the Syrian mountains and the Mediterranean. In such cramped quarters superiority in numbers counted for nothing. Alexander per- ceived this, and struck with all his force. After a stubborn resistance the Persians gave way, turned, and fled. The battle now became a massacre, and only the approach of night stayed the swords of the victorious Macedonians. Alexander's next step was the siege of Tyre. This Phoenician city, the headquarters of Persia's naval power, lay on an island c half a mile from the shore. Alexander could only of Tyre, approach it by building a mole, or causeway, be- 332 B.C. tween the shore and the island. Battering rams then breached the walls, the Macedonians poured in, and Tyre fell by storm. The great emporium of the Near East became a heap of ruins. From Tyre Alexander led his army through Palestine into Alexander Egypt. The Persian officials there offered little in Egypt resistance, and the Egyptians themselves welcomed Alexander as a deliverer. He entered Memphis in triumph 1 See pages 3&-3Q. Alexander the Great, and the Conquest of Persia 103 and then sailed down the Nile to its western mouth. Here he laid the foundations of Alexandria, to replace Tyre as a com- mercial metropolis. The time had now come to turn eastward. Following the ancient trade routes, Alexander reached the Euphrates, crossed this river and the Tigris, and on a broad plain not Battle far from the ruins of Nineveh ! found himself con- of Arbela, fronted by the Persian host. Darius held an ex- ' ' cellent position and hoped to crush his foe by sheer weight of The Alexander Mosaic Naples Museum This splendid mosaic, composed of pieces of colored glass, formed the pavement of a floor in a Roman house at Pompeii, Italy. It was probably a copy of an earlier Greek painting. Alexander (on horseback at the left) is shown leading the cavalry charge against Darius III at the battle of Issus. The Great King wears the characteristic Persian headdress, with cheek pieces fastening under the chin. The royal charioteer (behind the king) lashes his horses, in order that Darius may escape. Persian nobles, meanwhile, are desperately fighting about their lord. numbers. But nothing could stop the Macedonian onset ; once more Darius fled away; and once more the Persians, deserted by their king, sought safety in ignominious flight. The battle of Arbela decided the fate of the Persian Empire. Alexander had only to gather the fruits of victory. End f th Babylon surrendered to him without a struggle. Persian Susa, with its enormous treasure, fell into the m P ire conqueror's hands. Persepolis, the old Persian capital, was 1 See page 37. 104 Greece given up to fire and sword. Darius himself, as he retreated into the eastern mountains, was murdered by his own men. The Macedonians had now overrun all the Persian territories except distant Iran and India. These regions were peopled by Conquest warlike tribes of a very different stamp from the of Iran effeminate Persians. Alexander might well have been content to have left them undisturbed, but the man could never rest while there were still conquests to be made. Long marches and many battles were required to subdue the tribes about the Caspian and the inhabitants of the countries now known as Afghanistan and Russian Turk- estan. Crossing the lofty barrier of the Hindu Kush, Alexander next led his soldiers into the valley of the Indus and quickly added northwestern India 1 to the Macedonian possessions. He then pressed forward to the conquest of the Ganges Valley, but his troops refused to go farther. They had had their fill of war. Alexander was of too adventurous a disposition to return by the way he had come. He built a fleet on the Indus and had it The return accompany the army down the river to its mouth, to Babylon His admiral, Nearchus, was then sent with the fleet to explore the Indian Ocean and to discover, if possible, a sea route between India and the Near East. Alexander him- self led the army by a long and toilsome march, through desert wastes, to Babylon. That city now became the capital of his empire. But the reign of Alexander was nearly over. In 323 B.C., Death of while planning expeditions against the Arabs, Alexander, Carthage, and the Italian states, he suddenly 000 o r* ' * sickened and died. He was not quite thirty-three years of age. Alexander was one of the foremost, perhaps the first, of the great captains of antiquity. Had he been only this, his career Alexander would not bulk so large in history. The truth is, in history fa^ during an eleven years' reign this remarkable man stamped an enduring impress upon much of the ancient world. At his death the old Greece comes to its end. During 1 See pages 20. and 38. EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 336-323 B. C. I Under Alexander ^] Allied States ^J Independent States Route of Alexander THE KINGDOMS OF ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS I 1 Kingdom of the | ] Kingdom of the l i Macedonian I ' Seleueids >■ — —"J I'tolcmies ' ' Kingdom Route '>f Noarchus The Hellenistic Age 105 the next two hundred years we follow, not the development of a single people, but the gradual spread of Greek civilization in the Near East. We enter upon the Graeco-Oriental or Hellen- istic 1 Age. 30. The Hellenistic Age The empire created by Alexander did not survive him. It broke up almost immediately into a number of Hellenistic kingdoms, including Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt. Hellenistic They were ruled by dynasties descended from kingdoms Alexander. 2 These three states remained independent, though with shifting boundaries, until the era of Roman expansion in the Near East. Alexander's conquests, and the sub- sequent establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms, resulted in the Heiienizing disappearance of the bar- the Orient riers which had so long separated Eu- rope and Asia. Henceforth the Near East lay open to Greek merchants and artisans, Greek architects and artists, Greek philosophers, scientists, and A Greek Came0 t, ■■ . , ,i , , Museum, Vienna writers. Everywhere into that hus;e, n t . . •> o ' Cut in sardonyx. Represents inert, unprogressive Orient entered the Ptolemy Phiiadciphus, king of active and enterprising men of Hellas. Egypt ' and his wife Arsino " They brought their Hellenic culture with them and became the teachers of those whom they had called "barbarians." The Heiienizing of the Orient was begun by Alexander, who founded no less than seventy cities in Egypt, in western Asia, in central Asia, and even in India. Alexander's Hellenistic successors continued city-building on a still more cities extensive scale. Unlike the old Greek city-states, the Hel- lenistic cities did not enjoy independence. They formed a part of the kingdom in which they lay and paid tribute, or •The term "Hellenic" refers to purely Greek culture; the term "Hellenistic," to Greek culture as modified by contact with the Orient. 2 The Antigonids (from Antigonus) in Macedonia, the Seleucids (from Seleucus) in Syria, and the Ptolemies (from Ptolemy) in Egypt. io6 Greece taxes, to its ruler. In appearance, also, the new cities contrasted with those of Greece. They had broad streets, well paved and sometimes lighted at night, a good water supply, and baths, theaters, gymnasiums, and parks. Such splendid foundations formed the real backbone of Hellenism in the Near East. Their inhabitants, whether Greeks or "barbarians," spoke V Lighthouse of Alexandria (Restored) The island of Pharos, in the harbor of Alexandria, contained a lighthouse built about 280. B.C. It rose in three diminishing stages, the first being square, the second octagonal, and the third round, to a height of nearly four hundred feet. On the apex stood a statue. The lighthouse was considered by the ancients one of the "Seven Wonders" of the world. It collapsed (as the result of repeated earthquakes) in 1326 a.d. The minarets of Moslem mosques and the spires of Christian churches are both derived from this famous structure. Greek, read Greek, and wrote in Greek. For the first time in history the largest part of the civilized world had a common language. Some Hellenistic cities were only garrison posts in the heart of remote provinces or along the frontier. Many more, such as Commercial Alexandria in Egypt, Seleucia in Babylonia, An- o^East 1186 tioch in Syria, and Rhodes on the island of that and West name, were thriving business centers, through which Asiatic products, even those of distant India and China, The Hellenistic Age 107 reached Greece. Kings, nobles, and rich men now began to build palaces, to keep up large households with many servants, and to possess fine furniture, carpets, tapestries, gold and silver vessels, and beautiful works of art. The standard of living was thus raised by the introduction of luxuries to which the old Greeks had been strangers. Greece and the Orient exchanged ideas as well as commodities. What the Greeks had accomplished in art, litera- intellectual ture, philosophy, and science became familiar to relations the Egyptians, Babylonians, and other Oriental East and peoples. They, in turn, introduced the Greeks to West their achievements in the realm of thought. The fusion of East and West went on most thoroughly at Alexandria in Egypt. It was the foremost Hellenistic center, because of its unrivaled site for commerce with an dria Africa, Asia, and Europe. The inhabitants in- cluded not only Egyptians, Greeks, and Macedonians, but also Jews, Syrians, Babylonians, and other Orientals. The popula- tion increased rapidly, and by the time of Christ Alexandria ranked in size next to imperial Rome. The Macedonian rulers of Egypt made Alexandria their capital and did everything to adorn it with imposing public buildings and masterpieces of Greek art. Learn- Alexandrian ing flourished at Alexandria. The city possessed culture in the royal Museum, or Temple of the Muses, a genuine uni- versity, with lecture halls, botanical and zoological gardens, an astronomical observatory, and a great library. The collec- tion of books, in the form of papyrus or parchment (sheepskin) manuscripts, ' finally amounted to over five hundred thousand rolls, or almost everything that had been written in antiquity. The more important works were carefully edited by Alexan- drian scholars, thus supplying standard editions of the classics for other ancient libraries. The learned men at Alexandria also translated into Greek various productions of Oriental literature, including the Hebrew Old Testament. Science like- wise flourished in Alexandria, for the professors, who lived in 1 Sec page 26. The Hellenistic Age 109 % c " ^F^Tqean the Museum at public expense, had the quiet and leisure so necessary for research. Much progress took place at this time in mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography, anatomy, medicine, and other branches of knowledge. The Greeks in their investigations must have been greatly helped by the scientific lore of old Egypt and Baby- lonia, which was now disclosed to the world at large. Graeco-Oriental sci- ence in turn passed over to the Romans, and later became known to the Mos- lem and Christian peoples of the Mid- dle Ages. During the period following Alexander the Greek city-states began to realize The /Etoliax and Achaean Leagues (about 229 B.C.) that the freedom they prized so much could only be secured by a close union. They now formed the ^Etolian League in central Greece and the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus. The latter was the more important. Its business lay in the hands The eminent scientist Ptolemy, who lived at Alexandria about the middle of the second century a.d., summed up in his map of the world the geographical knowledge of the ancients. Ptolemy's inaccuracies are obvious: his Europe extends too far west; his Africa is too wide; and his Asia is vastly exaggerated at its eastern extremity. He knows practically nothing of the Baltic Sea, marking only a small island as Scandia or Scandinavia. His idea of the British [sles is also vague. Ptolemy shows some knowledge of central and southern Asia, but India is not represented as a peninsula, and a huge gulf, with China on its farther shore, is placed in the remote cast. The size of Ceylon is exaggerated. Notice that Ptolemy repre- sents the Nile as rising in two lakes and that he marks the Mountains of the Moon in their approximate location. Two famous voyages of discovery have been indicated on this map ; namely, that of the Carthaginian Hanno to the Gulf of Guinea (about 500 b.c) and that of the Greek Pythcas possibly as far as the Baltic (about 330 b.c). no Greece of an assembly or congress, where each city, whether large or small, had one vote. The assembly, meeting twice a year, The iEtolian cnose a general, or president, levied taxes, raised and Achaean armies, and conducted all foreign affairs. The eagues cities, in local matters, continued to enjoy their old independence. This organization shows that the Achaean League was more than a mere alliance of city-states. It formed the first genuine federation that the world had ever seen, and its example was repeatedly cited by the American statesman who helped frame our Constitution. But the at- tempt to unify Greece came too late. Sparta refused to enter the Achsean League, and Athens failed to join the iEtolian League. Without these two powerful states, neither associa- tion could achieve lasting success. The Greeks who emigrated in such numbers to Egypt and western Asia lost citizenship at Athens, Sparta, or Thebes and Cosmopoli- formed subjects of the Ptolemies or of the Seleu- tanism cids. They surrendered local attachments and prejudices, which had so long divided them, to be "cosmopoli- tans," or citizens of the world. They likewise lost old feelings of antagonism toward non-Greeks. Henceforth the distinction between Greek and Barbarian gradually faded away, and man- kind became ever more unified in sympathies and aspirations. This Grasco-Oriental world of city-states, federations, and kingdoms about the eastern Mediterranean was now to come in contact with the great power which had been arising in the western Mediterranean — Rome. Studies I. Compare the area of Europe with that of Brazil, of Canada, and of the United States (including Alaska). 2. "In many respects Europe may be considered the most favored among the continents." Explain this statement in detail. 3. Why was Europe better fitted than Asia to develop the highest civilization? Why not so well fitted as Asia to originate civilization? 4. "The history of the Mediter- ranean from the days of Phoenicia, Crete, and Greece to our own time is a history of western civilized mankind." Comment on this statement. 5. How is Greece in its physical aspects "the most European of European lands"? 6. Why did Crete become the "cradle of our European civilization"? 7. Locate on the map Mount Olympus, Dodona, Delphi, and Olympia. 8. Define the terms monarchy, The Hellenistic Age in aristocracy, tyranny, and democracy, as the Greeks used them. 9. What differ- ences existed between Phoenician and Greek colonization? 10. Why have Greek colonies been called "patches of Hellas"? 11. What reasons can be assigned for the Greek victory in the Persian wars? 12. If the Athenian Empire had rested on a representative basis, why would it have been more likely to endure? 13. Flow far can the expression ''government of the people, by the people, and for the people" be applied to the Athenian democracy? 14. Present some differences between Athenian democracy and American democracy. 15. Using materials in larger histories, write an essay (500 words) describing an imaginary walk on the Athenian Acropolis in the days of Pericles. 16. Describe the theater of Dionysus (illus- tration on page 94). 17. Why has the Peloponnesian War been called the "suicide of Greece"? 18. On an outline map indicate the routes of Alexander, marking his principal battle-fields. Insert, also, the voyage of Nearchus. 19. What likenesses can you discover between the political condition of the Graco-Oriental world after Alexander and the condition of modern Europe? 20. Show that the founding of Hellenistic cities formed a renewal of Greek colonial expansion. 21. What resemblances are there between the Achaean League and American federal government? 22. "The seed-ground of European civilization is neither Greece nor the Orient, but a world joined of the two." Comment on this statement. 23. Enumerate some of the principal contributions of the Greeks to civilization. CHAPTER IV ROME 1 31. Italian Peoples The Italian Peninsula is long and narrow. It reaches nearly seven hundred miles from the Alps to the sea, but measures only . . about one hundred miles across, except in the Po Italy . Valley. The shape of Italy is determined by the course of the Apennines. Starting from the Alpine chain at the Gulf of Genoa, they cross the peninsula in an easterly direc- tion almost to the Adriatic. Then they turn sharply to the southeast and parallel the coast for a considerable distance. The plains of central Italy are all on the western slope of the mountains. In southern Italy the Apennines swerve to the southwest and penetrate the "toe" of the peninsula. Geographical conditions exerted the same profound influence on Italian history as on that of Greece. In the first place, Geograohv Italy is not cut up by a tangle of mountains into and Italian many small districts. It was therefore easier for history ^g Italians than for the Greeks to establish one large and united state. In the second place, Italy has com- paratively few good harbors, but possesses upland pastures and rich lowland plains. The Italian peoples consequently developed cattle raising and agriculture much earlier than commerce. And in the third place, the location of Italy, with its best harbors and most numerous islands on the western side, for a long time brought the peninsula into closer relations with the western islands and the coasts of Gaul, Spain, and 1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xiv. "Legends of Early Rome" ; chapter xv, " Hannibal arid the Great Punic War " chapter xvi, " Cato the Censor : a Roman of the Old School"; chapter xvii, "Cicero the Orator"; chapter xviii, "The Conquest of Gaul, related by Caesar" ; chapter xix, "The Makers of Imperial Rome: Character Sketches by Suetonius"; chapter xx, "Nero: a Roman Em- peror"; chapter xxi, " Roman Life as seen in Pliny's Letters"; chapter xxii, "A Satirist of Roman Society." 112 Italian Peoples 117, North Africa than with the countries of the eastern Medi- terranean. If Greece faced the civilized East, Italy fronted the barbarous West. The earliest civilization in Italy was introduced there by Etruscans from the .Egean region. Perhaps as early as iooo B.C., they landed on the western side of the peninsula, pushed back the earlier inhabitants, and founded a strong power in the region called after them Etruria (modern Etruscans DISTRIBUTION OF THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY v? A Tuscany). The Etruscan dominions in time extended along the coast from the Bay of Naples to the Gulf of Genoa and in- land to the Po Valley as far as the Alps. The Etruscans are a mvsterious people. No one has been able to read their lan- guage. It is quite unlike any Indo-European tongue, though U4 Rome the words are written in an alphabet borrowed from Greek settlers in Italy. Many other cultural influences reached the Etruscans from abroad. Babylonia gave to them the prin- ciple of the round arch l and the practice of divination. 2 Etrus- can graves contain Egyptian seals marked with hieroglyphs and vases bearing Greek designs. The Etruscans were skillful workers in bronze, iron, and gold. They built cities with massive walls, arched gates, paved streets, and underground drains. A great part of Etruscan civilization was ultimately absorbed in that of Rome. The Etruscans were followed by the Greeks. Greek colonies began to be planted in southern Italy after the middle of the eighth century B.C. 3 A glance at the map 4 shows that these were all on or near the sea, from the Gulf of Taranto to Campania. North of the "heel" of Italy extends an almost harborless coast, where nothing tempted the Greeks to settle. North of Campania, again, they found the good harbors already occupied by the Etruscans. The Greeks, in consequence, never penetrated deeply into Italy. Room was left for the native Italians, under the leadership of Rome, to build up their own power in the peninsula. Barbarous peoples of the Mediterranean racial type occupied Italy, as well as Greece, during Neolithic times. After them came invaders apparently of the Baltic (Nordic) racial type, who spoke an Indo-European lan- guage closely related both to Greek and to the Celtic tongues of western Europe. They entered the Italian Peninsula through the numerous Alpine passes, probably not long after the Greeks had found a way into the Balkan Peninsula. 5 Wave after wave of these northerners flowed southward, until the greater part of Italy came into their possession. We must assume that the invaders, having overcome all armed opposition, mingled more or less with the earlier inhabitants of Italy. There is every reason to believe that the historic Italians, like the his- toric Greeks, were a mixed people. 1 See page 60. 2 See page 53. 3 See page 83. 4 See the map facing page 122. 5 See page 73. The Romans 115 The Italians who settled in the central, eastern, and southern parts of the peninsula were highlanders. They formed manv tribes, including the Umbrians and The Umbri- _ . , Tr . ,10 • ^> ans and the the Samnites. With the Samnites Rome was one samnites day to fight a duel for the supremacy of Italy. The western Italians, or Latins, were lowlanders. They dwelt in Latium, originally only the "flat land" extending south of the Tiber River between the mountains and the sea. The Latin plain is about thirty by forty miles in size. Its soil, though not very productive, can nevertheless support a considerable population devoted to herding and farming. The Latins, as they increased in number, gave up tribal life and established little city-states, like those of Greece. The need of defense against their Etruscan neigh- bors across the Tiber and the Italian tribes in the near-by mountains bound them together. At a very early period they united in the Latin League. The chief city in this league was Rome. 32. The Romans Rome began as a Latin settlement on the Palatine Mount. It was the central eminence in a group of low hills just south of the Tiber and about fourteen miles from its ancient Founding of mouth. Shallow water and an island made the river Rome easily fordable at this point for Latins and Etruscans and facili- tated intercourse between them. Villages also arose on the neighboring mounts, and these in time combined with the Palatine community. Rome thus became the City of the Seven Hills. 1 Rome, from the start, owed much to a fortunate location. The city was easy to defend. It lay far enough from the sea to be safe from sudden raids by pirates, and it ^vantages possessed in the seven hills a natural fortress, of the site of The city was also well placed for commerce on the ome only navigable stream in Italy. Finally, Rome was almost in the 1 The Romans believed that their city was founded in 75.5 B.C., from which year all Roman dates were reckoned. n6 Rome center of Italy, a position from which its warlike inhabitants could most easily advance to the conquest of the peninsula. We cannot trace in detail the development of early Rome. The accounts which have reached us are a tissue of legends, dealing with Romulus, the supposed founder of the Early Rome . - n . , . , . „ , , . TTT1 city, and the six kings who followed him. What seems certain is that the Roman city-state very soon fell under the sway of the Etruscans, who governed it for perhaps two centuries or more. Etruscan tyranny at length provoked a successful uprising, and Rome became a republic (about 509 B.C.). While the legends contain little history they do tell us a good deal about the customs, beliefs, morals, and everyday life of The Roman the early Romans. The family, in a very real family sense, formed the unit of Roman society. Its most marked feature was the unlimited authority of the father. His wife had no legal rights : he could sell her into slavery or divorce her at will. Nevertheless, no ancient people honored women more highly than did the Romans. The wife was the mistress of the home, as the husband was its master. She was not confined, as was an Athenian wife, to a narrow round of duties within the house. Though her education did not pro- ceed far, we often find the Roman matron aiding her husband both in politics and in business. Women, as well as men, made Rome great among the nations. Over his sons and his un- married daughters the Roman father ruled as supreme as over his wife. He brought up his children to be sober, silent, modest in their bearing, and, above all, obedient. Their misdeeds he might punish with banishment, slavery, or even death. As head of the family, he could claim all their earnings ; every- thing they had was his. The father's great authority ceased only with his death. Then his sons, in turn, became lords over their families. The Romans, as well as the Greeks and other ancient peoples, were ancestor worshipers. The dead received daily offerings The family 0I I0 °d and wine and special veneration on those religion festival days when their spirits, it was supposed, came from the underworld to visit the living. The worship The Romans 117 of ancestors immensely strengthened the father's authority, for it made him the chief priest of the household. It also made SUOVETAURILIA Louvre, Paris The relief pictures the sacrifice of a bull, a ram, and a boar, offered to Mars to secure purification from sin. Note the sacred laurel trees, the two altars, and the officiating magis- trate, whose head is covered with the toga. He is sprinkling incense from a box held by an attendant. Another attendant carries a ewer with the libation. In the rear is the sacrificer with his ax. marriage a sacred duty, so that a man might have children to accord him and his forefathers all honors after death. This religion of the family endured with little change throughout Roman history, lingering in many households as a pious rite long after the triumph of Christianity over paganism. The Romans worshiped various gods connected with their lives as The state shepherds, farm- religion ers, traders, and warriors. The chief divinity was Jupi- ter, who ruled the heavens and sent rain and sunshine to nourish the crops. The war god Mars reflected the military side of Roman life. His sacred animal was the fierce wolf ; his symbols were spears and shields; his altar was the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) An Italian Plowman A bronze group from Arezzo, Italy. The peasant holds a pole. A front view of the yoke appears above. u8 Rome outside the city walls, where the army assembled in battle array. March, the first month of the old Roman year, was named in his honor. Other important deities were Mercury, who protected traders, Ceres, a vegetation goddess (com- pare our English word "cereal"), and Vesta, who kept watch over the sacred fire ever blazing in the Forum, or market- place, of Rome. Still other divinities were borrowed from the Greeks, together with many Greek myths. This religion of the state did not promise rewards or punishments in a future world. It dealt with the present life. Just as the family was bound together by the tie of common worship, so all the citizens were united in common reverence for the gods who watched over and guided the state. Agriculture was the chief occupation of the early Romans. "When our forefathers," said an ancient writer, "would praise E d a worthy man, they praised him as a good farmer social condi- and a good landlord ; and they believed that praise tlon could go no further." 1 Cattle-breeding also must have been an important occupation, since prices were originally estimated in oxen and sheep. No great inequalities of wealth could exist in such a com- munity of peasants. Few citi- zens were very rich ; few were very poor. The members of each household made their own Early Roman Bar Money clothing from flax or wool, and A bar of copper having the value of an ox, £ asn ioned Out of WOOd and clay whose figure is stamped upon it. Dates from the fourth century B.C. The Romans subse- what Utensils Were needed for quently cast copper disks to serve as coins. tne j r s i m ple life. The long USe of copper for money indicates that gold and silver were rare among the early Romans, and that luxury was almost unknown. These Romans were a manly breed, abstemious in food and Moral condi- drink, iron-willed, vigorous, and strong. Deep down tions i n their hearts was the proud conviction that Rome should rule over her neighbors. For this they freely shed 1 Cato, De agricultura, i. The Roman City-State no their blood ; for this they bore hardship, however severe, without complaint. Before everything else, they were dutiful citizens and true patriots. Such were the sturdy men who formed the backbone of the Roman state. Their character has set its mark on history for all time. 33. The Roman City-State Early Rome formed a city-state with a threefold government, as in Homeric Greece. 1 The king had wide powers : he was commander-in-chief, supreme judge, and head of ., , , . Government the state religion. A council of elders (Latin senes, "old men") made up the Senate, which assisted the king in government. The popular assembly, whenever summoned by the king, voted on important questions. After monarchy disappeared at Rome, two magistrates, named consuls, took the king's place in government. The consuls enjoved equal honor , • tt i 11 The consuls and authority. Unless both agreed, nothing could be done. They thus served as a check upon each other, as was the case with the two Spartan kings.' 2 When grave danger threatened the state and unity of action seemed imperative, the Romans sometimes appointed a dictator. The consuls relin- quished their authority to him and the people put their property and lives entirely at his disposal. The dictator's term of office might not exceed six months, but during this time he had all the power form- erly wielded by the kings. The Roman city-state seems to have been divided, during the regal age, between an aristocracy and a commons. The nobles were called patricians 3 and the com- mon people, plebeians. 4 The patricians occupied a privileged Curule Chair and Fasces A consul sat on the curule chair. The fasces (axes in a bundle of rods) symbolized his power to flog and behead offenders. 1 See page 8o. 3 From the Latin palres, "fathers." 2 Sec pape 8i. 4 Latin plebs, "crov/d." 1 20 Rome position, since they alone sat in the Senate and served as magistrates, judges, and priests. In fact, they controlled p . . society, and the plebeians found themselves ex- and eluded from much of the political, legal, and plebeians re ligi us life of Rome. The oppressive sway of the patricians resulted in great un- rest at Rome, and after the establishment of the republic the plebeians began to agitate for reforms. They soon The tribunes r „ ". f . . „ . L J . compelled the patricians to allow them to have officers of their own, called tribunes, as a means of protection. Any tribune could veto, that is, forbid, the act of a magistrate which seemed to bear harshly on a citizen. There were ten tribunes, elected annually by the plebeians. Next followed a struggle on the part of the plebeians for legal equality with the patricians. The Romans hitherto had had Th Tw l simply unwritten customs, which were interpreted Tables, 451- by patrician judges. The plebeians now de- 450 B.C. manded that the customs be set down in writing — be made laws — so that every one might know them and secure justice in the courts. A commission was finally appointed to prepare a code. The laws were engraved on twelve bronze tablets and set up in the Forum of Rome. A few sentences from them have come down to us in rude, unpolished Latin. They mark the beginning of Rome's legal system. It would take too long to tell how the plebeians broke down the patrician monopoly of office holding. The result was that Plebeian eventually they became eligible to the consulships office holding anc [ other magistracies, to seats in the Senate, and even to the priesthoods. Henceforth all citizens, whether patricians or plebeians, enjoyed the same rights at Rome. The Roman city-state called itself a republic — res publico, — "a thing of the people." The citizens in their assemblies Republican made the laws, elected public officials, and decided Rome questions of war and peace. But Rome was less democratic than Athens. The citizens could not frame, criticize, or amend public measures ; they could only vote "yes " or " no " to proposals made to them by a magistrate. All this afforded Expansion of Rome over Italy 121 a sharp contrast to the vigorous debating which went on in the Athenian popular assembly. 1 The authority of the magistrates, including both consuls and tribunes, was much limited by the Senate. It contained about three hundred members, who held office for life. Vacancies in it were filled, as a rule, by persons who had previously held one of the higher magistracies. There sat in the Senate every man who, as statesman, general, or diplomatist, had served his country well. All weighty matters came before this august body. It conducted war, received ambassadors from foreign countries, made alliances, administered conquered territories, and, in short, formed the real governing body of the republic. The Senate proved not unworthy of its high position. During the centuries when Rome was winning dominion over Italy and throughout the Mediterranean basin, the Senate conducted public affairs with foresight, energy, and success. An admiring foreigner once called it "an assembly of kings." 34. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 509(?)-234 B.C. The first centuries of the republic were filled with warfare against the Etruscans on the north and the Italian tribes of the Apennines. About 390 B.C. the republic came Rome near to destruction, as a result of an invasion of supreme in the Gauls. These barbarians, a Celtic-speaking atium people, poured through the Alpine passes, conquered the Etrus- can settlements in the Po Valley, and then fell upon the Romans. A Roman army was annihilated, and Rome itself, except the fortress on the Capitoline Mount, was captured and bufned. The Gauls, according to the story, were induced to return to northern Italy by the payment of a heavy ransom in gold. Though they made subsequent raids, they never again reached Rome, which soon rose from her ashes stronger than ever. Half a century after the Gallic invasion, she was able to subdue her former allies, the Latins, and to destroy their league. The Latin War, as it is called, ended in 338 B.C. By this time 1 See page 91. 122 Rome Rome ruled in Latium and southern Etruria and had begun to extend her sway over Campania. The expansion of the Romans southward over the fertile Campanian plain soon led to wars with the Samnites, who Rome su- coveted the same region. In numbers, courage, preme in an( j military skill the two peoples were well southern matched. Nearly half a century of hard fighting Ital y was required before Rome gained the upper hand. The close of the Samnite wars found her supreme in central Italy. A few years later she annexed the disunited Greek cities in southern Italy (Magna Grascia). Rome was now the undisputed mistress of Italy from the strait of Messina northward to the Arno (Arnus) River. Etrus- Italy under cans and Greeks, together with Latins, Samnites, Roman rule an( j other Italian peoples, acknowledged her sway. The central city of the peninsula thus became the center of a united Italy. It should be noticed, however, that as yet Rome ruled only the central and southern parts of what is the modern kingdom of Italy. The Gauls held the Po Valley, while most of Sicily and Sardinia was controlled by the Carthaginians. As Rome extended her rule in Italy, she bestowed upon the conquered peoples citizenship. It formed a great gift, for a Roman Roman citizen enjoyed many privileges. He citizens could hold and exchange property under the pro- tection of Roman law ; could contract a valid marriage which made his children themselves citizens ; and could vote in the popular assemblies at Rome and hold public office there. At the period we have reached, Italy contained about three hundred thousand such citizens, all of them feeling a common interest in the welfare of Rome. This extension of the citizenship to those who formerly had been enemies was something quite novel in history, and it was the great secret of Rome's success as a governing power. The Italian peoples who failed to receive citizenship at this time were not treated as complete subjects, but as "friends and allies" of the Romans. They lost the right of declaring war on one another, of making treaties, 10 II ] l y s ', ""■'■ : ROM|: IN ITALY | | Roman Possessions. at the End of the ^ a ™ Kingdom, 50U B. C. I 1 Additional Possessions at the Close of ' the Latin War, S38 B. C. Additional Possessions at the Beginning of the First Punic War, 261 B. C. Names underlined ( Verona l denote Latin Colonies. jfi^ ... Principal Soman Roads. r?) ° , , , Expansion of Rome beyond [taly [23 and of coining money. Rome otherwise allowed them to govern themselves, never calling on them for tribute and only requiring that they should furnish soldiers for the Roman army in time of war. These allies occupied a large part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans established what were called Latin colonies in various parts of Italy. The colonies consisted usually of veteran soldiers or poor plebeians, who wanted farms of their own. Being offshoots of Rome, the Latin colonies naturally remained faithful to her interests. The colonies were united with one another and with Rome by an extensive system of roads. The first great road, known as the Appian Way, was carried as far as Capua ,.,, -irir- • ir Roman roads during the period of the Samnite wars and after- ward to Brindisi (Brundusium) on the Adriatic, whence travelers embarked for Greece. Other trunk lines were soon built in Italy, and from them a network of smaller highways penetrated every part of the peninsula. Roman roads, like those of the Persians, 1 were intended to facilitate the rapid dispatch of troops, supplies, and official messages into every corner of Italy. Being free to the public, they also became avenues of trade and travel and so helped to bring the Italian peoples into close touch with Rome. Rome thus began in Italy the process of Romanization which she was to extend later to Sicily, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. She began to make, all Italians like herself in blood, Romaniza- language, religion, and customs. More and more tion of Ital y they came to regard themselves as one people — a civilized people who spoke Latin as contrasted with the barbarous, Celtic-speaking Gauls. 36. Expansion of Rome beyond Italy. 264-133 B.C. Rome had scarcely finished the conquest of Italy before she became involved in a life-and-death struggle with the city of Carthage. 2 This Phoenician colony occupied an admirable site, for it bordered on rich farming land and had the largest harbor 1 See page 2 Sic page 48. 124 Rome of North Africa. The Carthaginians gradually extended their control over the adjacent coast, eastward as far as the Greek city of Cyrene 1 and westward to the Atlantic. Carthaginian settlements also lined the shores of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and southern Spain. The western basin of the Mediterranean formed, to a large extent, a Carthaginian lake. The Phoenician founders of Carthage kept their own (Semitic) language, customs, and beliefs and did not mingle with the Carthaginian native African peoples. The Carthaginian govern- civiiization ment was in form republican, with two elective magistrates somewhat resembling Roman consuls. The real power lay*, however, with a group of merchant nobles, forming a council. It was a government by capitalists, who cared very little for the welfare of the poor freemen and slaves over whom they ruled. The wealth of Carthage enabled her to raise armies of mercenary soldiers and to build warships which in size, number, and equipment surpassed those of any other Mediter- ranean state. Mistress of a wide realm, strong both by land and sea, Carthage was now to prove herself Rome's most dangerous foe. The First Punic War 2 was a contest for Sicily. The Car- thaginians wished to extend their rule over all that island, which First Punic fr° m i ts situation seems to belong almost as much War, 264-242 to Africa as to Italy. But Rome, now supreme in the Italian Peninsula, also cast envious eyes on Sicily. She believed, too, that the conquest of Sicily by the Carthaginians would soon be followed by their invasion of southern Italy. The fear for her possessions, as well as the desire to obtain new ones, led Rome to fling down the gage of battle. The war lasted nearly twenty-four years. It was fought mainly on the sea. The Carthaginians at the start had things all their own way, but with characteristic energy the Romans built fleet after fleet and at length won a complete victory over the enemy- The treaty of peace ousted the Car- 1 See page 84. 2 "Punic" (Latin Punicus) is another form of the word "Phoenician." Expansion of Rome beyond Italy 125 1 baginians from Sicily. Thai island now became the first Roman province. The peace amounted to no more than an armed truce. The decisive conflict, which should determine whether Rome or Carthage was to rule the western Mediterranean, The interval had vet to come. Before it came, Rome strength- of preparation vnc(\ her military position by seizing Sardinia and Corsica, in spite of Carthaginian protests against this unwarranted action, ROJIE and CARTHAGE at the Beginning of the Second Funic Wat I I Roman Dominions and Allies in 21S B. C. i Carthaginian Dominions and Allies in 218'B. C. Acquired by Rome from Carthage between 2G4-218 B. C. ♦ -Hannibal's Route from New Carthage to Cannae. Italy Scale of Miles Longitude V East fron enwich 10 and by conquering the Gauls in the Po Valley. The Roman power now extended over northern Italy to the foot of the Alps. Carthage, meanwhile, created a new empire in Spain, as far north as the Ebro River. Spain at this time was a rich, though un- developed, country. The produce of its silver mines filled the Carthaginian treasury, and its hardy tribes, the descendants of Neolithic Europeans, made excellent soldiers for the Carthaginian army. Carthage thus had both means and men for another Struggle with Rome. 126 Rome The war which now ensued has been sometimes called the Hannibalic War, because it centered about the personality of Hannibal the Carthaginian. As a commander, he ranks with Alexander the Great. The Mace- donian king conquered for the glory of conquest ; Hannibal, burning with patriotism, sought to destroy the power which had humbled his native land. He failed ; and his failure left Car- thage weaker than he found her. Few men have possessed a more dazzling genius than Hannibal, but his genius was not employed for the lasting good of humanity. The Romans planned to conduct the war in Spain and Africa, at a distance from their own shores. Hannibal's bold move- Second Punic ments took them by surprise. The young Cartha- War, 218- ginian general had determined to fight in Italy. Since Roman fleets now controlled the western Mediterranean, it was necessary for him to lead his army, with its supplies, equipment, horses, and war elephants, from Spain through the defiles of the Pyrenees, across the wide, deep Rhone, over the snow-covered passes of the Alps, and down their steeper south- ern slopes into the valley of the Po. He did all this and at length stood on Italian soil. For fifteen years thereafter he maintained himself in Italy, marching up and down the peninsula, almost at will, and inflicting severe defeats upon the Romans. His hopes were brightest after the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.), which resulted in the annihilation of an entire Roman army. But Hannibal had no siege engines to reduce the Latin colonies that studded Italy or to capture Rome itself. His little army dwindled away, year by year, and reinforcements sent from Spain were caught and destroyed by the Romans before they could effect a junction with his troops. Meanwhile, the bril- liant Roman commander, Publius Scipio, drove the Cartha- A Carthaginian or Roman Helmet British Museum, London Found on'the battle-field of Cannae. Expansion of Rome beyond Italy 127 ginians out of Spain and invaded Africa. Hannibal was summoned home to face this new adversary. He came, and on 1 he field of Zama met his first, and only defeat (202 B.C.). Scipio, the victor, received the proud surname Africaiuts. The treaty of peace following the battle of Zama required Carthage to cede Spain, surrender all but ten of her warships, and pay a heavy indemnity. She also agreed victorious not to wage war anywhere without the consent of Rome Rome, thus becoming, in effect, a vassal state. The long duel was now over. A great nation had overcome a great man. While our sympathies naturally go out to the heroic figure of Hannibal, it must be clear that Rome's victory in the Second Punic War was essential to the continuance of European civiliza- tion. The triumph of Carthage in the third century, like that of Persia in the fifth century, 1 would have resulted in the spread of Oriental ideas and customs throughout the western Mediter- ranean. From this fate Rome saved Europe. The last chapter of Carthaginian history remained to be written. Though Carthage was no longer a dangerous rival, Rome watched anxiously for half a century the Third p ni reviving commerce of the Punic city and at length War, 149 determined to blot it out of existence. A Roman 146 BC ' army landed in Africa, and the Carthaginians were ordered to remove ten miles from the sea. It was a sentence of death to a people who lived almost entirely by overseas trade. In despair they took up arms again and for three years resisted the Romans. The city was finally captured, burned, and its site dedicated to the infernal gods. The Carthaginian terri- tories in North Africa henceforth became a Roman province. The two European countries, Sicily and Spain, which Rome had taken from Carthage presented very different problems to the conqueror. Sicily had long been accustomed Romaniza- to foreign masters. Its peace-loving inhabitants tion of Sicil y were as ready to accept Roman rule as, in the past, they had accepted the rule of the Greeks and Carthaginians. Every year the island became more and more a part of Italy and of Rome. 1 See pagi 128 Rome Spain, on the contrary, gave the Romans some hard fighting. The Spanish tribes loved liberty, and in their mountain fast- Romaniza- nesses kept up a brave struggle for independence, tion of Spain it wa s not until 133 B.C. that their resistance was finally broken. Rome continued in Spain the process of Roman- ization which she had begun in Italy and Sicily. Many farmers and traders went to Spain ; even Roman soldiers, quartered there for long periods, married Spanish wives, and, on retiring from active service, settled in the peninsula. Rome made her way by the sword ; but after the sword came Roman civilization. While Rome was subduing and Romanizing the western Mediterranean, she also began to extend her influence in the Rome and eastern Mediterranean. The kingdom of Mace- Macedonia donia was the first Hellenistic state to become subject to Rome. Thus disappeared a great power which Philip had founded and Alexander had led to the conquest of the world. Having overcome Macedonia, Rome proclaimed the "free- dom" of Greece. But this meant really subjection, as was Rome and proved a few years later when the Achaean League x Greece became involved in a struggle with the Italian re- public. The heavy hand of Roman vengeance descended on Corinth, the chief member of the league and at this time one of the most beautiful cities in the world. In 146 B.C., the same year in which the destruction of Carthage occurred, Corinth was sacked and burned to the ground. The Greeks were hence- forth subject to Rome. They remained under foreign sway until the nineteenth century of our era. Rome was also drawn into a conflict with the kingdom of Syria. 2 That Hellenistic power proved to be no more capable Rome and than Macedonia of checking the Roman arms. Syria The Seleucid king had to give up most of his terri- tories in. Asia Minor. The western part of the peninsula, together with the Greek cities on the coast, was erected in 133 B.C. into the province of Asia. The same year that wit- nessed the complete establishment of Roman rule in Spain thus 1 See page no. 2 See page 105. Rome the Mistress of the Mediterranean 129 saw Rome gain her first possessions at the opposite end of the Mediterranean. 36. Rome the Mistress of the Mediterranean Basin Rome's dealings with her new dependencies overseas did not follow the methods that proved so successful in Italy. The Italian peoples had received liberal treat- provincial ad- ment. Rome regarded them as allies and in many ministration instances conferred upon them Roman citizenship. But for non-Italians Rome adopted the same system of imperial rule that had been previously followed by Persia and by Athens. 1 She treated the foreign peoples from Spain to Asia as subjects and made her conquered territories into provinces. Their inhabitants were obliged to pay tribute and accept the over- sight of Roman officials. The proper management of conquered territories is always a difficult problem for the best-intentioned state. It cannot be trulv said, however, that even Rome's inten- ^ ., , ' _ Evils of pro- tions were praiseworthy. -There was little desire vintial admin- to rule for the good of the subject peoples. A lstratlon Roman governor exercised almost absolute sway over his province. Usually he looked upon it as a source of personal gain and did everything possible during his year of office to en- rich himself at the expense of the inhabitants. They could indeed complain of the governor's conduct to the Senate, which had appointed him, but their injuries stood little chance of being redressed by senatorial courts quite ignorant of pro- vincial affairs and notoriously open to bribery. To the extor- tions of the governors must be added that of the tax collectors, whose very name of "publican" 2 became a byword for greed and rapacity. A possible solution of the problem of provincial administra- tion might have been found, if the provincials had been allowed to send delegates to speak and act for them before the Senate 1 See pages 30 and 00. 2 In the New Testament "publicans and sinners" arc mentioned side by side. Uhew, i.\, io. 13° Rome No repre- sentative system and the popular assemblies of Rome. But the representative system met no more favor with the Romans than with the Athenians. 1 Rome, like Athens, was a city-state suddenly called to the responsibilities of imperial rule. The machinery of her government had been devised for a small republican community, and it broke down when extended to distant lands and peoples. A single city could not administer, with justice and efficiency, all Italy and the Mediterranean basin. Successful foreign wars greatly enriched Rome. At the end of a campaign the soldiers received large gifts from their com- mander, besides the booty taken from the enemy. Profitable The state itself made money from the sale of en- conquests slaved prisoners and their property. When once peace had been declared, Roman governors and tax col- lectors followed in the wake of the armies and squeezed the provin- cials at every turn. The Romans, indeed, seem to have con- quered the world less for glory than for profit. So much wealth poured into Rome from every side that there could scarcely fail to be a sudden growth of luxurious tastes, as had been Growth of the case with the Greeks and Macedonians after luxury Alexander's conquests. 2 Newly rich Romans developed a relish for all sorts of reckless display. They built fine houses adorned with statues, costly paintings, and furnish- ings. They surrounded themselves with troops of slaves. At their banquets they spread embroidered carpets, purple cover- ings, and dishes of gilt plate. Pomp and splendor replaced the rude simplicity of earlier times. 1 See page g2. a See page 108. A Slave's Collar A runaway slave, if recaptured, was sometimes com- pelled to wear a metal collar riveted about his neck. One of these collars, still preserved at Rome, bears the inscrip- tion: Servus sum dom(i)ni mei Scholastici v{iri) sp(ecla- bilis). Tene me ne fugiam de domo. — "lam the slave of my master, Scholasticus, a gentleman of importance. Hold me, lest I flee from home." Rome the Mistress of the Mediterranean 131 If the rich were becoming richer, it seems that the poor were also becoming poorer. After Rome had conquered so much of the Mediterranean basin, her markets DisapDear . were flooded with the cheap wheat raised in the ance of the provinces, especially in those granaries, Sicily P easantf y and North Africa. The price of wheat fell so low that Roman peasants could not raise enough to support their families and pay their taxes. They had to sell out, often at a ruinous sacrifice, to capitalists, who turned many small farms into extensive sheep pastures, cattle ranches, vineyards, and olive orchards. These great estates were worked by gangs of slaves from Car- thage, Spain, Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor. Thus disappeared the free peasantry, which had always been the strength of the Roman state. The decline of agriculture and the ruin of the small farmer under the stress of foreign com- The exodus petition may be studied to the cities in modern England as well as in ancient Italy. Nowadays an English- man, under the same circumstances, will often emigrate to America or to Australia, where land is cheap and it is easy to make a living. But Roman peasants did not care to go abroad. They thronged, instead, to the cities, to Rome especially, where they labored for a small wage, fared plainly on wheat bread, and dwelt in huge lodging houses, three or four stories high. We know little about these poor people of Rome. They must have lived from hand to mouth. Since their votes controlled elec- tions in the popular assemblies, they were courted „ ,. , \ ^ , , / , ,- The city mob by candidates for office and kept from grumbling by being fed and amused. Such propertyless citizens, too lazy Youth Reading a Papyri's Roll Relief on a sarcophagus The papyrus roll was sometimes very long. The entire Iliad or Odyssey might be contained in a single manuscript measuring one hundred and fifty feet in length. In the third century a.d. the un- wieldy roll began to give way to the tablet, composed of a number of leaves held together by a ring. About this time, also, the use of vellum, or parchment made of sheepskin, became common. 132 Rome for steady work, too intelligent to starve, formed, with the riffraff of a great city, the elements of a dangerous mob. And the mob, henceforth, plays an ever larger part in the history of the times. The conquest by the Romans, first of Magna Grsecia and Sicily, then of Greece itself and the Hellenistic East, familiarized r>.«i, •« them with Greek culture. Roman soldiers and vireek in- fluence at traders carried back to Italy an acquaintance with ome Greek customs. Thousands of cultivated Greeks, some slaves and others freemen, settled in Rome as actors, physicians, artists, and writers. Here they introduced the language, religion, literature, and art of their native land. Roman nobles of the better type began to take an interest in other things than farming, commerce, or war. They imitated Greek fashions in dress and manners, collected Greek books, and filled their homes with the productions of Greek art. Hence- forth every aspect of Roman society felt the quickening in- fluence of the older, richer culture of the Greek world. It was a Roman poet who wrote, — " Captive Greece captured her conqueror rude." 1 37. Decline of the Roman City-State, 133-31 B.C. The period from 133 to 31 B.C. witnessed the breakdown of republican institutions and ended with the setting-up of A century of autocracy at Rome. The Roman city-state, revolution formerly a free, self-governing commonwealth, be- came transformed into an empire. There were two principal causes of the transformation. The first cause was political strife between Roman citizens. The class struggles of this period offered every opportunity for unscrupulous leaders to mount to power, now with the support of the Senate and the nobles, now with that of the populace. The second cause was foreign warfare, which enabled ambitious generals, supported by their soldiery, to become supreme in the government. Rome, after conquering the nations, found that she must herself submit to the rule of one man. 1 Horace, Epistles, ii, 1, 156. Decline of the Roman City-State 133 The century of revolution began with Tiberius Gracchus, who belonged to a noble Roman family distinguished for its services to the republic. He started out as a Tiberius moderate social reformer. Having been elected Gracchus, one of the ten tribunes 1 of the people, he brought forward in 133 B.C. a measure intended to revive the drooping agriculture of Italy. Tiberius proposed that the public lands of Rome, then largely occupied by wealthy men, who alone had the capital to work them with cattle and slaves, should be reclaimed by the state, divided into small tracts, and given to the poorer citizens. This proposal aroused a hornet's nest about the reformer's ears. Rich people had occupied the public lands so long that they had come to look upon them as really their own. So the great land owners in the Senate got another tribune, devoted to their interests, to place his veto on the measure. The impatient Tiberius now took a false step. Though a magistrate could not legally be removed from office, Tiberius had the offending tribune deposed and thus secured the desired legislation. His arbitrary conduct further incensed the aristocrats, who threatened to impeach him as soon as his term expired. To avoid impeachment Tiberius sought re- election to the tribunate for the following year. This, again, was contrary to the constitution, which did not permit any one to hold office for two successive terms. On the day appointed for the election, while voting was in progress, a crowd of senators burst into the Forum and killed Tiberius, together with three hundred of his followers. Both sides had now begun to dis- regard the law. Force and bloodshed, henceforth, were to decide political disputes. Nine years after the death of Tiberius Gracchus, his brother Gaius became a tribune. One of Gaius's first measures per- mitted the sale of grain from public storehouses to Gaius Roman citizens at about half the market price. Gracchus, The law made Gaius popular with the poorer classes, 123 " 121 BC - but it was very unwise. Indiscriminate charity of this sort in- creased, rather than lessened, the number of paupers. Gaius 1 See rvage 129. 134 Rome showed much more statesmanship in his other measures. He encouraged the emigration of landless men from Italy to the provinces and introduced reforms in provincial administration. He even proposed to bestow the right of voting in the assemblies at Rome upon the inhabitants of the Latin colonies. 1 This effort to extend Roman citizenship cost Gaius his popularity. It aroused the jealousy of the city mob, which believed that the enrollment of new citizens would mean the loss of its privileges. There would not be so many free shows and so much cheap grain. The people therefore rejected the measure. They even failed to reelect Gaius to the tribunate, though a law had been recently passed permitting a man to hold the position of tribune year after year. When Gaius was no longer protected by the sanctity of the tribune's office, he fell an easy victim to senatorial hatred. Another bloody tumult broke out, in which Gaius and several thousand of his followers perished. Civil strife at Rome had so far left the aristocrats at the head of affairs. They still controlled the Senate, and the Senate still The senato- governed Rome. But that body had degenerated, rial aristoc- The senators were no longer such able and patriotic racy men as those who had piloted the state while Rome was gaining world dominion. 2 They now thought less of the republic than of their own interests. Hence, as we have just seen, they blocked every effort of the Gracchi to improve the condition of the poorer citizens in Italy or of the provincials out- side of Italy. Their growing incompetence and corruption, both at home and abroad, made the people more anxious than ever for a leader against the senatorial aristocracy. The popular leader who appeared before long was not another tribune but a general named Marius. He gained his greatest . distinction in a war with some of the Teutonic peoples. These barbarians, whom we now hear of for the first time, had begun their migrations southward toward the Mediterranean basin. Rome was henceforth to face them in every century of her national existence. The decisive victories which Marius gained over them in southern Gaul and northern 1 See page 123. 2 See page 121. Decline of the Roman Citv-State 135 Sulla Italy removed a grave danger threatening Rome. The time had not come for ancient civilization to be submerged under a wave of barbarism. Meanwhile, the senatorial aristocracy also found a leader in the brilliant noble Sulla. He, too, rose to eminence as a suc- cessful general, this time in a war between Rome and the Italian allies. It resulted from the refusal of the Senate and popular assemblies to extend Roman citizenship through- out Italy. The war ended only when Rome granted the desired citizenship, thus returning to her policy in former times. 1 The in- habitants of nearly all the Italian towns were soon enrolled as citi- zens at Rome, though they could not vote or stand for office unless they visited in person the capital city. In practice, therefore, the populace of Rome still had the con- trolling voice in ordinary legisla- tion. Marius and Sulla were rivals not only in war but also in politics. The one was the champion of the democrats, the other, of the aristocrats. The rivalry between them finally led to civil war, with its attendant bloodshed. Sulla Rival of triumphed, thus becoming supreme in the state. Marius and Rome now came under the rule of one man, for a the first lime since the expulsion of the kings. Sulla used his position of "Perpetual Dictator" only to pass a series of laws intended to intrench the Senate in power. He then retired to private life and died soon afterward (78 B.C.). After Sulla's death his friend Pompey was the leading figure 1 See page 122. A Roman Legionary From a monument of the imperial age. The soldier wears a metal helmet, a leather doublet with shoulder-pieces, a metal-plated belt, and a sword hang- ing from a strap thrown over the left shoulder. His left hand holds a large shield, his right, a heavy javelin. 136 Rome in Roman politics. Pompey won great fame as a commander. He crushed a rebellion of the Spaniards, put down a formidable insurrection in Italy of slaves, outlaws, and ruined peasants, ridded the Mediterranean of pirates, and won sweeping conquests in the East, where he annexed Syria and Palestine to the Roman dominions. Pompey Julius Caesar A Testudo A relief from the Column of Trajan, Rome. The name testudo, a tortoise (shell), was ap- plied to the covering made by a body of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads. The shields fitted so closely together that men could walk on them and even horses and chariots could be driven over them. Rome at this time contained another able man in the person of Julius Caesar. He belonged to a noble family, but his father had favored the democratic cause and his aunt had married Marius. Caesar as a young man threw himself wholeheartedly into the exciting game of politics as played in the capital city. He won the ear of the multitude by his fiery harangues, his bribes of money, and his gifts and public shows. After spending all his private fortune in this way, he was "financed" by the millionaire Crassus, who lent him the money so necessary for a successful career as a politician. Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey soon combined in what the Romans called a triumvirate, but what we should call a *' ring." Pompey contributed his soldiers, Crassus, his wealth, and Caesar, his Decline of the Roman City-State 137 influence over the mob. These three men were now really masters of Rome. Caesar was ambitious. The careers of Marius, Sulla, and Pompcy taught him that the road to power at Rome lay through a military command, which would furnish an army Ca , sar > s con . devoted to his personal fortunes. Accordingly, quest of Gaul, after serving a year as consul, he obtained an appointment as governor of Gaul. The story of his campaigns there he has himself related in the famous Commentaries, still a Latin text in the schools. Starting from southern Gaul, which was Roman territory at this time, he conquered the Gallic tribes in one battle after another, twice bridged the Rhine and in- vaded Germany, made two military expeditions across the Channel to Britain, and brought within the Roman dominions all the territory bounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Atlantic Ocean. Caesar's conquest of Gaul widened the map of the civilized world from the Mediterranean basin to the shores of the Atlantic. Gaul soon received and speedily adopted the Latin Romaniza- language, Roman law, and the customs and religion tlon of Gaul of Rome. "Let the Alps sink," exclaimed the orator Cicero, "the gods raised them to shelter Italy from the barbarians, but now they are no longer needed." The death of Crassus, during Caesar's absence in Gaul, dis- solved the triumvirate. Pompey and Caesar soon began to draw apart and at length became open enemies, j^,^ ot Pompey had the support of the Senate, whose Pompey and members believed that Caesar was aiming at ffiSar despotic power. Caesar, on his side, had an army disciplined by eight years of fighting. Unable to compromise with the Senate, Caesar boldly led his troops across the Rubicon, the little stream that separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and marched on Rome. Thus began another civil war. It was fought in Italy, in Spain, in Greece, and in North Africa. It ended in the defeat and death of Pompey, the overthrow of the senato- rial party, and the complete supremacy of Caesar in the Roman state. He ruled supreme for only two years, and then fell a 138 Rome victim to a group of irreconcilable nobles, who struck him down in the Senate-house at Rome (44 B.C.). After Caesar's death his grandnephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces with Antony, the most prominent of Caesar's officers, and together they defeated the senatorial party. They then divided the Roman world, Octavian taking Italy and the West, Antony taking the East, with Alexandria in Egypt as his capital. Before long the inevitable civil war broke out between them. It was decided in 31 B.C. by the victory of Octavian in a naval battle near Actium on the western coast of Greece. Antony and his Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, fled to Egypt, where both com- mitted suicide rather than fall into the conqueror's hands. The death of Cleopatra ended the Hellenistic dynasty of the Ptole- mies, rulers of Egypt since the time of Alexander the Great. 1 Egypt henceforth became a part of the Roman dominions. The battle of Actium closed the century of revolution. Octa- vian, now without a rival, stepped into Caesar's place as master The end of or the Roman world. With Caesar and Octavian an epoch Europe thus went back to monarchy, to one-man rule, such as had always prevailed in the Orient. It is only since the end of the eighteenth century that republicanism, as a form of government, has begun again to find favor among European peoples. 38. The Early Empire, 31 B.C-284 A.D. Few persons have set their stamp more indelibly on the pages of history than Octavian, whom we may now call by his The emperor more familiar name Augustus ("the Majestic"), Augustus conferred upon him by the Senate as a mark of respect. Another title borne by him and his successors was that of Imperator, from which our word "emperor" is derived. The emperor Augustus enjoyed practically unlimited power, since he was commander-in-chief of the army. He took care, however, to conceal his authority under legal forms and to pose as a republican magistrate holding office by appointment of the 1 See page 105 and note 2. Romanized section of the Empire Greek section of the Empire Oriental section of the Empire I Boundary of the Roman Empire at the death of Augustus, 14 A. D. BgltOdt Kjut 26 from Orconwlch 30 The Early Empire 139 Senate. An American president would have a somewhat similar position if he ruled for life instead of for four years, selected the members of Congress, and designated his successor. In other words, Augustus gave up the externals, only to keep the essentials, of monarchy. The Roman Empire in the age of Augustus girdled the Medi- terranean basin. 1 On the west and south it found natural barriers in the Atlantic Ocean and the Sahara ,-. The empire Desert. On the east the Euphrates River divided under it from the kingdom of the Parthians. The north- Au e ustus ern frontier, beyond which lay the Teutonic peoples, required additional conquests for its protection. Augustus therefore an- nexed the districts south of the Danube, thus securing the entire line of this wide, impetuous stream as a boundary. Between Gaul and Germany the boundary continued to be the Rhine. The successors of Augustus made two important additions to the empire. During the reign of Claudius (41-54 a.d.) the Romans began to overrun Britain, which had c onquest and been left alone for nearly a century after Caesar's Romaniza- expeditions to the island. Britain, as far as the tion of Britain Scottish Highlands, was finally brought under Roman sway and organized as a province {Britannia). It remained a part of the Roman Empire for more than three hundred years, be- coming in this time almost as completely Romanized as Spain and Gaul. Northern Scotland {Caledonia) and Ireland {Hibcr- nia) the Romans never attempted to conquer. The reign of Trajan (98-117 a.d.) saw the empire enlarged to its greatest extent. The conquests which this soldier-emperor made in Asia (Armenia and the valley of the Tigris- Conquest and Euphrates) were abandoned by his successor on Romaniza- the throne ; but those in Europe, resulting in the tion of Dacifl annexation of Dacia, north of the Danube, had more permanence. Thousands of colonists soon settled in Dacia and brought with them Roman civilization. The modern name of this country (Rumania) and the Latinized language of its people bear witness to Rome's abiding influence there. 1 See the map between pages 138-139. 140 Rome The Roman Empire, at the zenith of its power in the second century of our era, included forty-three provinces. The pro- Roman vincials enjoyed far better treatment by the new citizenship imperial government than they had ever received at the hands of the republican Senate. Furthermore, Augustus and his successors steadily extended Roman citizenship to the provincials, and in 212 a.d. Caracalla issued a decree making all freemen in the empire citizens. Henceforth, Spaniards, Gauls, Britons, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians were Romans Roman Pontoon Bridge A relief from the arch of Trajan at Rome. It shows Roman soldiers crossing the Danube. equally with the people of Italy. Rome, instead of being the ruling city of the empire, thus became merely its capital or seat of government. The provinces were protected against invasion by a standing army of about four hundred thousand men. The soldiers be- The Roman longed to all the different nationalities within the Peace empire and served for a long period of years. When not engaged in drill or border warfare, they built the great highways which, starting from Rome, penetrated every province ; erected bridges and aqueducts ; and along the exposed frontiers raised forts and walls. In her roads and fortifications, in the living rampart of her legions, Rome long found security. For two hundred years after Augustus the civilized world within the The Early Empire 141 boundaries of the empire rested under what an ancient writer calls "the immense majesty of the Roman Peace." i The peace and prosperity of the Empire during the first and second centuries of our era fostered the growth of cities. They were numerous, and many of them, even when Cities of the judged by modern standards, were large. Rome Roman had a population of between one and two millions. wor Alexandria came next in size, and Syracuse ranked as the third metropolis of the empire. Italy had such important centers as Naples, Genoa, Florence, Verona, Milan, and Ravenna. In ;•■ - . Wall of Hadrian in Britain The wall extended between the Tyne and the Solway, a distance of seventy miles. It was built of concrete, faced with square blocks. The height is nearly twenty feet; the thick- ness, about eight feet. Along the wall were numerous towers and gates, and a little to the north of it stretched an earthen rampart protected by a deep ditch. A broad road, lined with seventeen military camps, ran between the two fortifications. Gaul were Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lyons, Paris, Strasbourg, Cologne, and Mainz — all places with a continuous existence to the present day. In Spain were Barcelona, Cadiz, Cartagena, and Seville. In Britain were London, York, Lincoln, and Chester. Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa contained a great number of cities, some of them established in Hellenistic times and others of Roman formation. Every city was a miniature Rome, with its forum and senate- house, its temples, theaters, and baths, its circus for horse 1 Pliny, Natural History, xxvii, 1. 142 Rome racing, and its amphitheater for gladiatorial shows. The excava- tions at Pompeii have revealed to us the appearance of one „. ,.■, of these Roman cities. What we find at Pompeii City life r was repeated on a more splendid scale in hun- dreds of places from the Danube to the Nile, from Britain to Arabia. The Amphitheater at Arles The amphitheater at Aries in southern France was used during the Mid- dle Ages as a fortress, then as a prison, and finally became the resort of criminals and paupers. The illustration shows it before the removal of the buildings, about 1830 a.d. Bullfights still continue in the arena, where, in Roman times, animal-baitings and gladiatorial games took place. The cities of Roman origin, especially those in the western provinces, copied the political institutions of Rome. Each had City govern- a council modeled on the Senate, and a popular ment assembly, which chose magistrates corresponding to the two consuls and other officials. This Roman system of city government descended to the Middle Ages and so passed over to our own day. The Early Empire formed the golden age of Roman com- merce. Augustus and his successors put down Commerce . piracy in the Mediterranean, built lighthouses and improved harbors, policed the highways, and made travel The Early Empire H3 by land both speedy and safe. An imperial currency l replaced the various national coinages with their limited circulation. The vexatious import and export duties, levied by different coun- tries on foreign products, were swept away. Free trade flour- ished between the cities and provinces of the Roman world. A Roman Freight Ship The ship lies beside the wharf at Ostia. In the after-part of the vessel is a cabin with two windows. Notice the figure of Victory on the top of the single mast and the decoration of the mainsail with the wolf and twins. The ship is steered by a pair of huge paddles. Roman commerce followed, in general, the routes which had been used by the Phoenicians and Greeks. The annexation of Gaul, Britain, and the districts north and south of Commercial the Danube opened up trade channels between routes western and central Europe and the Mediterranean basin. Imports from the East reached the Mediterranean either by caravan through Asia or by ships which sailed across the Indian Ocean to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The slaves at Rome, like those at Athens, engaged in many occupations. They worked as farm laborers, miners, artisans, 1 For illustrations of Roman coins see the plate facing page 148. 144 Rome shopkeepers, and domestic servants. The possession of a fine troop of slaves, dressed in handsome livery, formed a favorite . , way of parading one's wealth. Not all manual Industry ° '.' labor was performed by slaves, however. Slavery tended to decline, partly because there were now no more wars to furnish captives for the slave markets and partly in consequence of the growing custom of emancipation. The free workingmen who took the place of slaves seem to have led a fairly comfortable existence. They were not forced to labor for long hours in grimy, unwholesome factories. Slums existed, but no sweatshops. If wages were low, so also was the cost of living. Wine, oil, and wheat flour were cheap. The mild climate made heavy clothing unnecessary and permitted an outdoor life. The public baths — great clubhouses — stood open to every one who could pay a trifling fee. Numerous holidays, celebrated with games and shows, brightened existence. It is perhaps significant that Roman annals contain no record of a single labor strike. We have already seen that the class of peasant proprietors disappeared from Italy during republican times. 1 It did not revive subsequently. Land was owned by the emperor and few other rich persons and was culti- vated by free tenants or by slaves. The person who tilled the soil usually depended upon his landlord for tools, domestic animals, and other farm equipment. Such great domains had long prevailed in the East under the Persians and in North Africa under the Carthaginians. The Romans extended this system of land holding to Spain, Gaul, Britain, and other prov- inces, and it afterward became general throughout western Europe during the Middle Ages, 39. The World under Roman Rule The Roman Empire consisted of three sections, differing widely in their previous history. 2 There was an Oriental section, which included such parts of the Near East as had come 1 See page 131. 2 See the map between pages 138-139. The World under Roman Rule 145 under Roman rule ; there was a Greek section centering about the .Egean ; and there was a distinctively Roman or Latin sec- tion, which consisted of the western provinces. In The GrffiC0 . the Near East the Romans came only as conquer- Oriental- ors, and Roman culture never took deep root there. oman wor The same was true of the ^Egean lands, where the Greek lan- guage and customs held their ground. In the barbarian West, however, the Romans appeared not only as conquerors, but also as civilizers. The Romanization of the western provinces — modern Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and England, together with the Rhine and Danube valleys forms quite the most significant aspect of ancient history. It was particularly their law and their language which the Romans gave to European peoples. The code of the Twelve Tables, 1 framed by the Romans almost at the beginning of the republic, was too harsh, technical, and brief to meet the needs of a growing state. ™, „ 1 11 . 11-11 Roman law 1 he Romans gradually improved their legal sys- tem, after they began to rule over conquered territories and to become familiar with the customs of foreign peoples. Roman law in this way took on an exact, impartial, liberal, and humane character. It limited the use of torture to force confession from persons accused of crime. It protected the child against a father's tyranny and wives against ill-treatment by their hus- bands. It provided that a master who killed a slave should be punished as a murderer, and even taught that all men are orig- inally free by nature and therefore that slavery is contrary to natural right. Justice it defined as "the steady and abiding purpose to give to every man that which is his own." 2 The extension of Roman citizenship to the provincials carried this better law throughout the empire. It survived the empire. During the reign of Justinian (527-565 a.d.) all the The Corpus sources of Roman law, including the legislation of J uris Civilis the popular assemblies, the decrees of the Senate, the edicts of the emperors, and the decisions of learned lawyers, were collected and put into scientific form. The result was the 1 See page 120. 2 Institutes, bk. i, tit. 1. 146 Rome famous code called the Corpus Juris Civilis, the "Body of Civil Law." It passed from ancient Rome to modern Europe, becoming the foundation of the legal systems of Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and other Continental countries. Even the Common Law of England, which has been adopted by the United States, owes some of its principles to the Corpus Juris Civilis. 1 The law of Rome, because of this widespread influ- Gladiators From a stucco relief on the tomb of Scaurus, Pompeii. Beginning at the left are two fully armed horsemen fighting with lances. Behind them are two gladiators, one of whom is appealing to the people. Then follows a combat in which the defeated party raises his hand in supplication for mercy. The lower part of the relief represents fights with various wild beasts. ence, is justly regarded as one of her most important gifts to the world. The Romans carried their language to the barbarian countries of the West, as they had carried it throughout Italy. The L f a d th Latin spoken by Roman colonists, merchants, Romance soldiers, and public officials was eagerly taken up languages ^ t k e natives, who tried to make themselves as much like their conquerors as possible. This provincial Latin became the basis of the so-called Romance languages — French, 1 Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louisiana, territories formerly belonging to France, and in all the Spanish- American countries. The World under Roman Rule 147 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Rumanian — which arose in the Middle Ages. Even our English language, which comes to us from the speech of the Teutonic invaders of Britain, con- tains so many words of Latin origin that we can scarcely utter a sentence without using some of them. The language of Rome, as well as the law of Rome, still remains to enrich the intellectual life of mankind. .z r ^- ,r A Roman Aqueduct The Pont du Gard near Nimes (ancient Nemausus) in southern France. Built by the emperor Antoninus Pius. The bridge spans two hilltops nearly a thousand feet apart. It carries an aqueduct with three tiers of massive stone arches at a height of 160 feet above the stream. This is the finest and best-preserved aqueduct in existence. It is easy, after centuries of Christian progress, to criticize numerous features of Roman society during the imperial age. The institution of slavery, an inheritance from R prehistoric times, condemned multitudes to bare, society: the hard, hopeless lives. Infanticide, especially of ar S1 e female children, was frequent enough among the lower classes, as was suicide among the upper classes. The brutal gladiatorial games were a passion with every one, from the emperor to his humblest subject. Common as divorce has now become, the married state was more and more regarded as undesirable. Augustus vainly made laws to encourage matrimony and to dis- 148 Rome courage celibacy. Both educated and uneducated people believed firmly in magic, witchcraft, and the existence of demons. The decline of the earlier paganism left many men and women without a deep religious faith to offset the doubt and worldliness of the age. Yet this picture needs correction. It may be questioned whether the luxury and vice of ancient Rome, Antioch, or Brighter Alexandria much exceeded what our great modern aspects of capitals can show. During the imperial age, more- society over, remarkable improvements took place in social life. There was an increasing kindliness and charity. The weak and the infirm were better treated. The education of the poor was encouraged by 'the founding of free schools. Wealthy citizens lavished their fortunes on such public works as baths, aqueducts, and theaters, for the benefit of all classes. Even the slaves received better treatment. Imperial laws aimed to correct the abuses of neglect, overwork, and cruelty, and philosophers recommended to masters the exercise of gentleness and mercy toward their bondmen. In fact, a great growth of the humanitarian spirit marked the first and second centuries of our era. Just as Alexander's conquests, by uniting the Near East and Greece, produced a Hellenistic civilization, so now the expan- sion of Rome throughout the Mediterranean basin Interna- ° . . . ■., tionaliza- and beyond the Alps gave rise to a still wider tlon civilization, which embraced much of Europe, with the adjacent parts of Asia and Africa. The Roman Empire contained perhaps seventy-five million people, at peace with one another, possessing the same rights of citizenship, obeying one law, speaking Latin in the West and Greek in the East, and bound together by trade, travel, and a common loyalty to the imperial government. Unconsciously, but none the less surely, local habits and manners, national religions and tongues, provin- cial institutions and customs, disappeared from the ancient world. Rome thus made a tremendous advance toward inter- nationalization, toward the formation of a society embracing civilized mankind. ORIENTAL, GREEK, AND ROMAN COINS i. Lydian coin of about 700 B.C.; the- mate-rial is electrum, a compound of sold and sil- ver. 2. Gold dark, a Persian coin worth about $5. 3. Hebrew silver shekel. 4. Athenian silver lelradraehm, showing Athena, her olive branch, and sacred owl. 5. Roman bronze as (2 cents) of about 217 B.C.; the symbols are the head of Janus and the prow of a ship. 6. Bronze sestertius (5 cents), struck in Nero's reign ; the emperor, who carries a spear, is followed by a second horseman bearing a banner. 7. Silver denarius (20 rents), of about 99 B.C. ; it shows a bust of Roma and three citizens voting. 8. Go\d solidus ($5) of Honorius, about 400 a.d.; the emperor wears a diadem and carries a scepter. I ' I -* r i 1» ,: ftr -T J r, ^ ^ v^%| 1 •j ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL GEMS i. Steatite, from Crete; two lions with forefeet on a pedestal; above a sun. 2. Sar- donyx from Elis; a goddess holding up a goat by the horns. 3. Rock crystal; a bearded Triton. 4. Carnelian; a youth playing a trigonon. 5. Chalcedony from Athens; a Bac- chante. 6. Sard; a woman reading a manuscript roll; before her a lyre. 7. Carnelian; Theseus. 8. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 9. Aquamarine; portrait of Julia, daughter of the emperor Titus. 10. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 11. Carnelian; bust portrait of the Roman emperor Decius. 12. Beryl; portrait of Julia Domna, wife of the emperor Septimius Severus. 13. Sapphire; head of the Madonna. 14. Carnelian; the judgment of Paris; Renaissance work. 15. Rock crystal; Madonna with Jesus and St. Joseph ; probably Norman-Sicilian work. Christianity in the Roman World 149 40. Christianity in the Roman World Several centuries before the rise of Christianity, many Greek thinkers began to feel a growing dissatisfaction with the crude faith which had come down to them from pre- Decline of historic times. They found it difficult to accept paganism the Olympian deities, who were fashioned like themselves and had all the faults of mortal men. For educated Romans, also, the beliefs and ceremonies of paganism came gradually to lose their meaning. Even the worship of the emperors, which helped to hold the Roman world together, failed to satisfy the spiritual needs of the age. The Asiatic conquests of Alexander, followed in later cen- turies by the extension of Roman rule over the eastern Mediter- ranean, brought the classical peoples in contact with N ew oriental new religions which had arisen in the Orient, religions These religions centered about some divine figure who was re- garded as a redeemer from sin and evil. They provided a beautiful, inspiring ritual, and they offered to their devotees the promise of a happier existence beyond the grave. Such was the worship of the Persian sun god Mithra and the Egyptian goddess Isis. Such, also, was Christianity. Christianity rose among the Jews, for Jesus x was a Jew and his disciples were Jews. The first Christians did not neglect to keep up the customs of the Jewish religion. It Rj se f was even doubted for a time whether any but Jews Christianity could properly be allowed within the Christian fold. A new convert, Saul of Tarsus, afterward the Apostle Paul, did most to admit the Gentiles, or pagans, to the privileges of the new religion. Though born a Jew, Paul had been trained in the schools of Tarsus, a city of Asia Minor which was a center of Greek culture. His education thus helped to make him an acceptable missionary to Greek-speaking peoples. During more than thirty years of activity Paul established churches in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy. He wrote to these 1 Born probably in 4 B.C., during the reign of Augustus; crucified during the reign of Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor of Judea. i5° Rome churches the letters (epistles) which have a place in the New Testament and set forth many doctrines of the Christian faith. Christianity spread rapidly over the Roman world. It was carried, as the other Oriental religions had been carried, by Spread of slaves, soldiers, traders, travelers, and missionaries. Christianity The use f Greek and Latin as the common lan- guages of the Roman Empire furnished a medium in which Christian speakers and writers could be readily understood. The early mis- sionaries, such as Paul himself, were often Roman citizens, who enjoyed the protection of Roman law and profited by the ease of travel which the imperial rule had made possible. Moreover, the destruction of Jerusalem by the Ro- mans (70 a.d.) and the subsequent exile of Jews from Palestine (135 a.d.) spread the Chosen People throughout the Roman Empire, where they famil- Interior of the Catacombs .^^ ^ pagang wkh The catacombs of Rome are underground ceme- . . teries in which the Christians buried their dead. Jewish ldealS Ot mOnOtUe- The bodies were laid in recesses in the walls of the ^ gm ^nd moral purity and galleries or underneath the pavement. Several tiers _ , . of galleries (in one instance as many as seven) lie one With Jewish UOpeS tor a below the other. Their total length has been esti- ]ty[ es siah thus preparing mated at no less than six hundred miles. The illus- . . . tration shows a small chambet or cubiculum. The the way tor Christianity. graves have been opened and the bodies taken away. ^ nQ of^er period in an- cient history were conditions so favorable for the growth of a world religion. The imperial government, which had treated other foreign faiths with careless indifference, or even with favor, which had tolerated the Jews and granted to them special privileges of Christianity in the Roman World 151 worship, made a deliberate effort to crush Christianity. The reason was that it seemed to threaten the existence of the state. Converts to the new religion condemned the The perse- official paganism as idolatrous; they refused to cutions swear by pagan gods in courts of law; they would not worship the genius (guardian spirit) of the emperor or burn incense before his statue, which stood in every town. Naturally, the Christians were outlawed and from time to time were subjected to persecu- tions in various parts of the empire. The last persecution, early in the fourth century, was the most severe. It continued for eight years, but failed to shake the constancy of the Chris- tians. They welcomed the torture and death which would gain for them a heavenly crown. Those who perished were called "martyrs," that is, "witnesses" to Christ. The imperial government at length realized the uselessness of the persecutions, and in 313 a.d. Constantine and his colleague, Licinius, issued the Edict of Milan, which pro- Triumph of claimed for the first time in history the principle of Christianity religious toleration. This edict placed Christianity on a legal equality with the other religions of the empire. Constantine himself accepted Christianity and favored it throughout his reign. Under his direction the first general council of the Church assembled in 325 a.d. at Nicaea in Asia Minor to settle a dispute over the nature of Christ. The council framed the Nicene Creed, which is still the accepted summary of Christian doctrine. Christianity continued to progress after Constantine and became the state religion by the close of the fourth cen- tury. Sacrifices to the pagan gods were henceforth forbidden, the temples closed, the Delphic oracle and Olympian games for- bidden, and even the private worship of ancestors prohibited. The new religion certainly helped to soften and refine manners by the stress which it laid upon such "Christian" virtues as humility, tenderness, and mercy. By dwelling on Christianity the sanctity of human life, it did its best to repress and Roman the practice of suicide and infanticide. It set its socie y face sternly against the obscenities of the theater and the cruelties of the gladiatorial shows. Even more original contri- The Later Empire 153 buttons of Christianity to civilization lay in its social teachings. The belief in the fatherhood of God implied a corresponding belief in the brotherhood of man. This doctrine of human equality had been expressed before by pagan philosophers, but Christianity translated the precept into practice. Christianity also laid much emphasis on the virtue of charity and the duty of supporting all institutions which aimed to relieve the lot of the poor, the sick, and the downtrodden. 41. The Later Empire, 284-476 A.D. The third century formed a very unsettled period in the history of the Roman Empire. There were many civil wars between rival pretenders to the throne ; there were constant The em _ ire inroads of Teutonic peoples upon the European under provinces and of Persians (successors of the Par- 10C etian thians) upon the Asiatic provinces. The empire, indeed, was unwieldy. One man, however able and energetic, had more than he could do to govern all of it and protect the distant frontiers on the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. Diocle- tian, a common soldier who rose from the ranks and became emperor in 284 a.d., recognized this fact and appointed a second emperor to rule jointly with himself. He took the East ; his colleague took the West. Diocletian also remodeled the provincial system, in the interest of efficiency. The entire empire, including Italy, was divided into one hundred and twenty provinces, a centralized grouped into thirteen dioceses and four prefectures. 1 monarchy Henceforth a regular gradation of public officials reached from the lowest provincial magistrates to the governors of the prov- inces, the vicars of the dioceses, the prefects of the prefectures, and finally to the emperors themselves. The Roman Empire thus became a centralized monarchy. The Roman Empire likewise became an absolute monarchy. The old republican forms which Augustus had so carefully pre- served disappeared, and the emperor stood forth frankly as the 1 The numlicr and arrangement of these divisions varied somewhat durinp the fourth century. See the map mi page 155 for the system as it existed aboUl 395 A.D. 154 Rome master of the state. He assessed the taxes, framed edicts having the force of laws, and acted as the supreme judge. He An absolute t°dk the title of "Lord and God" and required his monarchy subjects to pay him divine honors both in life and after death. He introduced all the pomp of an Oriental court. 1 His diadem of pearls, his purple robes, his throne, his scepter, all proclaimed the autocrat, and have furnished models for imitation by European sovereigns even to the present day. The emperor Constantine (sole ruler 324-337 a.d.) estab- lished another capital for the Roman world at the old Greek city of Byzantium, 2 on the European side of the Bos- A new capital ■ , ■, . ^ porus. it soon took his own name as Constanti- nople, the "City of Constantine." The new capital had a better commercial site than Rome, for it stands in Europe, looks on Asia, and commands the entrance to both the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Far more than Rome it was now the military center of the empire, being about equidistant from the Teutonic barbarians on the lower Danube and the Persians on the Euphrates. The city was no less favorably situated for defense. It resisted siege after siege and for eleven centuries was the capital of what was left of the Roman Empire. 3 Diocletian's system of "partnership emperors" and Con- stantine's transfer of the capital from Italy to the Balkan S a at' n of P enmsu l a on ty emphasized the growing separation East and of East and West. The Roman Empire tended more and more to divide into two states, and after Constantine they were never more than temporarily reunited, They had very different histories. The Roman Empire in the East, though threatened by enemies from without and weakened by civil conflicts from within, managed to endure until the end of the Middle Ages. The Roman Empire in the West lasted only until the close of the fifth century. By that time Teutonic peoples had established independent kingdoms in Britain, Gaul, Spain, and North Africa. When in 476 a.d. the barbarians in Italy deposed Romulus Augustulus ("the little 1 See page 41. 2 See page S3. 3 Until the capture of the city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 a.d. The Later Empire 155 Augustus"), whose name, curiously enough, recalled that of the legendary founder of Rome and that of its first emperor, there was no longer any Roman ruler in the West. The empire went on at Constantinople, or New Rome, but Old Rome itself passed into barbarian hands. Prefectures of THE ROMAN EMPIRE about 305 A.D. □ Prefecture 1 1 Prcfcctur< of Gaul I I of lllyricu □ Profectura r- 1 — r Prefecture of Italy I 1 of the East Scale of Miles L.r- . ti. j *i The collapse of the imperial system in the western provinces was due to many causes, but we need stress only one. The empire made no provision for local self-government, xhe "fall" Not only did the numerous slaves and serfs lack of Rome political rights, but Roman citizens, as well, took no part in managing the affairs of state. They had simply to pay taxes and take orders from the officials whom the emperor placed over them. Even the imperial armies came to be made up pre- dominantly of barbarians instead of native-born Romans. It -y to see that under such circumstances a genuine patriotism non-existent. The people looked to their all-powerful government to protect them ; when it failed to do so they could 156 Rome not, or would not, protect themselves. The "fall" of Rome then followed, inevitably. We are not to suppose that the settlement of the barbarians within the Roman Empire ended with the deposition of Romulus Transition to Augustulus, near the close of the fifth century, the Middle The following centuries witnessed fresh invasions ges and the establishment of new Teutonic states. The study of these troubled times leads us from the classical to the medieval world, from the history of antiquity to the history of the Middle Ages. Studies 1. Identify the following dates : 264 B.C.; 133 B.C.; 44 B.C. ; 31 B.C. ; 212 a.d. ; 284 a.d.; and 476 a.d. 2. Why have Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica been called the "suburbs of Italy"? Which island does not belong to the present Italian Kingdom? 3. Give the meaning of our English words " patrician, " "plebeian," "dictator," "tribune," and "veto." 4. Compare the Roman Senate and the Senate of the United States as to size, term of office of members, conditions of membership, functions, and importance. 5. Compare the nature of Roman rule in Italy with that of Athens over the Delian League. 6. Trace on the map facing page 122 the principal Roman roads in Italy, with their terminal points. 7. Com- ment on this statement: "As the rise of Rome was central in history, the Second Punic War was central in the rise of Rome." 8. Might Rome have extended her federal policy to her territories outside of Italy ? Was a provincial system really necessary? g. What contrasts can you draw between Gesar and Alexander the Great? 10. How do you account for the failure of the republican institutions of Rome? 11. What modern countries are included within the limits of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent ? 12. Compare the extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan with (a) the empire of Alexander and (6) the empire of Darius. 13. What was the Pax Romana ? What is the Pax Britannica ? 14. Give the Roman names of Italy, Spain, Gaul, Gerrnany, Britain, Scotland, and Ireland. 15. On an out- line map indicate the location of all the Roman cities mentioned in this chapter. 16. Trace on the map between pages 138-139 the principal Roman roads in the provinces. 17. Compare the Romanization of the ancient world with the process of Americanization now going on in the United States. 18. Trace on the map, page 152, the journeys of the Apostle Paul. 19. To what cities of the Roman Empire did Paul write his Epistles? 20. "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." Explain this statement. 21. What reasons may be given for the conversion of the Roman world to Christianity? 22. "The emperor of the first century was a prince, that is, ' first citizen ' ; the emperor of the fourth century was a sultan." Comment on this statement. 23. Define the terms absolutism and centralization as applied to a government. 24. What arguments might have been made for and against the removal of the capital to Constantinople? 25. What is meant by the "fall" of the Roman Empire? 26. "The Roman Empire is the lake into which all the streams of ancient history lose themselves and which all the streams of modern history flow out of." Comment on this statement. 27. Enu- merate some of the principal contributions of the Romans to civilization. CHAPTER V THE MIDDLE AGES 1 42. The Germans The period called the Middle Ages is not well defined either as to its beginning or its close. For an initial date we have selected the year 476, when the imperial provinces Lim j ts of in the West were almost wholly occupied by Teu- the Middle tonic peoples. The Roman Empire had now been g dismembered, and barbarian kingdoms, destined to become in later centuries the national states of western Europe, had been formed in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. For concluding dates we may take those of the invention of printing (about 1450), the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453), the discovery of America (1492), and the opening of a new sea- route to the East Indies (1498). Such significant events, all falling within the second half of the fifteenth century, seem to mark the end of medieval and the beginning of modern times. The student will understand, however, that it is really impossible to separate by precise dates one historic period from another. The change from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, again, from the medieval to the modern world was in each case a gradual process extending over several centuries. The truth is that the social life of man forms a continuous growth, and man's history, an uninterrupted stream. 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter i, "Stories of the Lombard Kings"; chapter ii, "Charlemagne"; chapter iv, "The Reestablishmenl of Christianity in Britain"; chapter v, "St. Boniface, the Apostle to the Germans"; chapter vi, "The Teachings of Mohammed "; chapter vii, "The Saga of a Viking"; chapter viii, "Alfred the Great"; chapter be, "William the Conqueror and the Normans in England"; chapter xii, "Richard the Lion-hearted and the Capture of Constantinople"; chapter xiv, "St. Louis"; chapter xv, "Episodes of tin- Hundred Years' War"; chapter wi, "Menu irs "t' a French Courtier," '57 158 The Middle Ages The medieval period falls into two divisions of about equal length. The first, or early Middle Ages, formed in western Divisions of Europe an era of turmoil, ignorance, and decline, the Middle consequent upon the barbarian invasions. It required a long time for the Teutonic peoples to settle in their new homes and to become thoroughly fused with the Romanized provincials. The process of absorption was practically completed by the end of the tenth century. Western Europe then entered upon the later Middle Ages, an era of more settled government, increasing knowledge, and steady progress in almost every field of human activity. The medieval period thus presents to the historical eye not a level stretch of a thou- sand years, with mankind stationary, but rather first a down- ward and then an upward slope. The region called Germany (Germania) in antiquity reached from the Rhine eastward as far as the Vistula and from the' _ Danube northward to the Baltic Sea. Germany Germany . J consisted of dense forests, extensive marshes, and sandy plains, incapable of supporting a large population. Clouds and mists enveloped the country in summer, and in winter it lay buried under snow and ice. Such unfavorable conditions retarded the development of Germany, which was also shut out from the Mediterranean basin by mountain barriers. Hence the inhabitants had not advanced in civiliza- tion as far as the Greeks and Romans. The Germans belonged principally to the Baltic (Nordic) racial type. 1 Their tall stature, blue eyes, and blonde or ruddy Inhabitants hair marked them off from the shorter and darker of Germany Mediterranean peoples. They spoke a Teutonic language, related, on the one hand, to Greek and Latin and, on the other hand, to the Celtic, Lettic, and Slavic tongues. 2 In culture they were barbarians, who had passed from the use of stone and bronze to that of iron; who hunted, fished, kept cattle, and tilled the soil; who formed tribes and tribal con- federations; and who lived in villages or small towns. Some 1 See page 66. 2 See the chart on page 18. The Germans 1 59 of the Germans nearest the Romans learned from the latter to read and write, to make better weapons and clothes, to use money, to enjoy foreign luxuries, and, what was most impor- tant, to accept Christianity. The common religion of Germans and Romans paved the way for friendly intercourse between them. The Roman Empire had long been full of Germans. Many were mercenaries in the imperial army. Augustus began the practice of hiring them as soldiers, and by the time The Ger _ of Constantine they formed the majority of the mans and troops. The emperors also admitted friendly tribes of Germans within the frontiers to fill up the gaps in popula- tion and to farm the waste lands. Still other Germans entered the empire as slaves. The result was a very considerable " barbarization " of the Roman world before the period of in- vasions. The love of fighting for its own sake, the desire for adventure, and the lust for booty explain, in part, the Germanic invasions. But only in part. They were principally due to The inva _ land hunger. When the soil of Germany, as people sions: their then understood how to use it, could no longer sustain increasing numbers, the inhabitants had the alter- native of migration or starvation. It was the same grim alternative that has confronted man at every stage of savagery, barbarism, and civilization. The Germans chose to migrate, even though that meant war, and so from the time of Marius and Julius Caesar not a century passed without witnessing some dangerous movement by them against the frontiers of the Roman Empire. The invasions were of two types. Sometimes entire peoples migrated, as was the case with the Visigoths (West Goths), Ostrogoths (East Goths), Vandals, Burgundians, The invfl . and Lombards. They all settled among a much sions: their more numerous subject population, which in time absorbed them. None of their kingdoms proved to be enduring. Sometimes, again, bands of warriors, led by military chiefs, set out from their home land and conquered possessions at the l6o The Middle Ages expense of the provincials. Such was especially the case with the Franks in the northern part of Gaul and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The Frankish and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were the only ones which developed into lasting states during the Middle Ages. Ancient civilization suffered a great shock when the Germans descended on the Roman Empire. They were unlike the pro- German vincials in dress and habits of life. They lived un- influence der different laws, spoke different languages, and obeyed different rulers. Even when they settled peaceably within the empire, they allowed aqueducts, bridges, and roads to go without repairs, and theaters, baths, and public buildings to sink into ruins. As they were without apprecia- tion of education, they failed to keep up schools, universities, and libraries. Being devoted chiefly to agriculture, they permit- ted both industry and commerce to languish. Ancient civilization had been declining before the Germans came. The invasions accelerated the decline, with the result that large parts of western Europe relapsed for several centuries into semi-barbarism. Nevertheless, the Germans had the capacity to learn, and the willingness to learn, from those whom they had conquered. Fusion of Their fusion with the Romans was helped by Germans the previous settlement within the empire of so many German soldiers, colonists, and slaves. It was very greatly helped by the fact that some of the principal peoples, including the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Bur- gundians, and Lombards, were already Christians at the time of their invasions, while other peoples, including the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, afterward adopted Christianity. Finally, as observed above, the Germans invaded the empire to seek homes for themselves, rather than simply to pillage and destroy. They accepted what they understood of Graeco-Roman culture and then imparted to the enfeebled provincials their fresh blood, youthful minds, and vigorous, progressive life. The fusion of Germans and Romans formed the great work of the early Middle Ages in western Europe. The Hoi}- Roman Empire 161 43. The Holy Roman Empire During the fifth century, while the Visigoths were finding a home in southern Gaul and Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, and the Vandals The Franks in North Africa, still another German people began under Clovis to spread over northern Gaul. They were the Franks, who had long held lands on both sides of the lower Rhine. Their leader, Clovis, conquered the kingdom of Syagrius, 1 the only fragment of the Roman Empire remaining in Gaul, and then proceeded to annex the territories of his German neighbors. He built up in this way a great Frankish state. The Franks were still heathen when they entered upon their career of conquest. Clovis, however, had married a Burgundian princess, Clotilda, who was a devout Roman Catho- christianiza- lic and an ardent advocate of Christianity. The tion of the story is told how, when Clovis was hard pressed by the Alamanni in a battle near Strasbourg, he vowed that if Clotilda's God gave him victory he would become a Christian. The Franks won, and Clovis, faithful to his vow, had himself and three thousand warriors baptized into the Roman Catholic faith. By this act the king secured the loyalty of his Christian subjects in Gaul and won the favor of Rome. The friendship between the popes and the Frankish rulers afterward ripened into a close alliance. The power which Clovis founded stood the test of time. For more than two hundred and fifty years the successors of Clovis were the strongest rulers in western and central The pranks Europe. During the eighth century they helped after Clovis, to keep Europe Christian by beating back the 5II ~ 7 Moslem Arabs, who, having seized Spain from the Visigoths, invaded Gaul and threatened to make that country also a Moslem land. At last we reach a Frankish king who created a Christian and German empire to replace the empire of Rome. This king was Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. 2 1 See the map fa> ing pagi 1 < The French form of his name, from the Latin Carolus Magnus. l62 The Middle Ages Much of Charlemagne's reign (768-814) was filled with war- fare. He conquered the Lombards, who had taken Italy from Charie- tne Ostrogoths. He invaded Spain and wrested magne's from the Moslems a considerable district south conques s Q £ ^ py renees jjis long struggle with the Saxons and various Slavic peoples farther widened the Frankish domin- ions. Charlemagne at the height of his power ruled over what is now France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Austria, western Germany, northern Italy, and northern Spain, be- sides a part of Czecho-Slovakia and Jugoslavia. In this truly gigantic realm all the surviving Teutonic peoples, except those in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Britain, were brought under the sway of one man. Charlemagne was a states- man as well as a warrior. He Charie- divided his posses- magne's sions into coun- government i 1 j 1 ties, each ruled by a count, who was expected to Charlemagne Lateran Museum, Rome A. mosaic picture made during the lifetime of Charlemagne, and probably a fair likeness of keep Order and administer JUS- him ' tice. The border districts, which lay exposed to invasion, were organized into "marks," or "marches," under the military supervision of margraves (marquises). These officials had so much power and lived so far from the royal court that Charlemagne appointed special agents, called the "lord's messengers," to travel from county to county and make sure that his orders were everywhere obeyed. It is interesting to compare this system of government with that which prevailed in the Persian Empire under Darius the Great. 1 1 See page 39. The Holy Roman Empire 163 Charlemagne did something for the promotion of education and art among the Franks. He encouraged the establishment of schools in the monasteries and cathedrals, where ch ar i e _ the sons of both freemen and serfs might be trained magne's civ- for the Christian ministry. He formed his court * zing wor into a "school of the palace," in which learned men from Italy, Spain, and England gave instruction to his own children and to those of his nobles. He also erected churches and palaces in various parts of the Frankish realm. All this civilizing work formed only a hopeful beginning. Centuries were to pass before education and art in western Europe fully recovered from the low state to which they had fallen during the Germanic invasions. Charlemagne, the champion of western Christendom and the foremost ruler in Europe, seemed to the men of his time the rightful successor of the Roman emperors. He The emperor had their power, and now he was to have their Charie- name. On Christmas Day, 800, the pope, in old magne ' °° St. Peter's Church at Rome, placed on his head a golden crown, while all the people cried out with one voice, "Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, the great and pacific emperor of the Romans, crowned by God!" The coronation of Charlemagne was regarded by his con- temporaries as the restoration or renewal of the Roman Empire, more than three hundred years after the deposition The emDire of Romulus Augustulus. 1 But Charlemagne's em- of Charle- pire did not include North Africa, Britain, or much magne of Spain, or the Roman dominions in the East, over which the emperors at Constantinople had ruled, and were still to rule, for centuries. It did include, on the other hand, extensive territories east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, which the Romans had never been able to conquer. Moreover, the German Charlemagne and his German successors on the imperial throne had little in common with the old Roman emperors, who spoke Latin, administered Roman law, and regarded the Ger- mans as their most dangerous foes. Charlemagne's empire was, 1 Sec page 155. 164 The Middle Ages indeed, largely a new creation, the result of an alliance between the Frankish Kingdom and the Roman Church. The empire of Charlemagne passed to his only legitimate son, a weak ruler, who had difficulty enough in keeping it intact. _. . . . After the latter' s death the empire was divided Division of Charle- among Charlemagne s three grandsons, though magne's on iy one cou y no ]d the imperial title. Disputes empire . . c which soon arose about the inheritance found a temporary settlement in a treaty concluded at Verdun (843). Lothair, the oldest brother, received North Italy and a narrow strip of land along the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhone, between the North Sea and the Mediter- ranean. Louis and Charles, the other brothers, received kingdoms lying to the east and west, respectively, of Lothair's territory. These arrangements have his- torical importance, because they fore- shadowed the future map of western Europe. The East Frankish kingdom of Louis, inhabited almost entirely by Ger- mans, was to develop into modern Germany. The West Frankish kingdom of Charles, inhabited mainly by descend- ants of Romanized Gauls, was to become modern France. Lothair's kingdom, however, never became one national state. A part of it now belongs to the kingdom of Italy, and another part survives as Belgium, Holland, Luxemburg, and Switzerland. The imperial idea was revived, about one hundred and fifty years after Charlemagne's death, by an able German ruler, Tt,^ ^„^r- Otto I, often called Otto the Great. Otto led his Ine emperor ' Otto the armies across the Alps, went to Rome, and had the rea , 9 2 p p 6 crown him as Roman emperor (962). Otto's dominions were considerably smaller than Charlemagne's, since they included only Germany and North Italy. Never- theless, Otto and the emperors who followed him asserted vast claims to sovereignty in Europe, as the heirs of Charlemagne and, through him, of Constantine and Augustus. The new Ring Seal of Otto the Great The inscription reads Oddo Rex. The Holy Roman Empire 165 empire came subsequently to be styled the Holy Roman Empire, the word Holy in its title expressing its intimate connection with the Papacy. It lived on in some measure for more than eight hundred years and did not quite disappear from European politics until the opening of the nineteenth century. Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 a.d. The successors of Otto the Great constantly interfered in the affairs of Italy, in order to secure the Italian crown and the imperial title. They treated that country as a conquered province which had no right to a national and Italy in life and an independent government under its ^ ie e ^ Ilddle own rulers. At the same time, they neglected their German possessions and failed to keep their powerful territorial lords in subjection. Neither Italy nor Germany, in 1 66 The Middle Ages consequence, became a united state, such as was formed in England, France, Spain, and other countries during the later Middle Ages. 44. The Northmen and the Normans Our study of central and western Europe during the early Middle Ages has so far been confined to the Germans. We ha.ve Re ewed ^^ out °^ s ig nt another group of Teutonic peoples, Teutonic in- who lived, as their descendants still live, in Den- vasions mar k, Sweden, and Norway. They were the Northmen. 1 Their settlement of the Scandinavian countries probably began long before the Christian era, but they do not appear in history until about the time of Charlemagne. The Northmen had taken no part in the earlier invasions. During the ninth century, however, the same land hunger which drove the German tribes southward made them quit their bleak, sterile country and seek new homes across the water. The invasions of the Northmen may be regarded, therefore, as the last wave of that great Teutonic movement which had previ- ously inundated western Europe and overwhelmed the Roman Empire. 2 The Northmen were barbarous and heathen, untouched either by Graeco-Roman culture or by the Christian religion. They started out as raiders and fell on the coasts of settlements western Europe. In their shallow boats they also of the found it easy to ascend the rivers and reach places far inland. Their attacks did so much damage and inspired such great terror that a special prayer was inserted in the church services: "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us." The Northmen eventually planted settle- ments in some of the lands which they visited, including a considerable part of Ireland and Scotland. The Northmen soon discovered Iceland. Colonization began in 874. The first settlement of Greenland was the work of an Icelander, Eric the Red, who reached the island toward the 1 Also called Vikings, or "inlet men," from the Norse vik, a bay or fiord. 2 See the map facing page 160. The Northmen and the Normans 167 end of the tenth century. He called the country Greenland, not because it was green, but because, as he said, "there is nothing like a good name to attract settlers." Leif The North _ Ericsson, his son, voyaged still farther westward, men in the W'est and about the year 1000 he seems to have visited the coast of North America. The Northmen, however, did not settle permanently in the New World. - ' ."S^b" A Viking Ship A Viking chieftain, after his days of sea-roving had ended, was sometimes buried in his ship, over which a grave chamber, covered with earth, would be erected. Several such burial ships have been discovered. The Gokstad vessel, shown in the illustration, is of oak, twenty eight feet long and sixteen feet broad in the center. It has seats for sixteen pairs of rowers, a mast for a single sail, and a rudder on the right or starboard side. The gunwale was decorated with a series of shields, painted alternately black and gold. The Norwegians had taken the leading part in the exploration of the West. The Swedes, on account of their geographical situation, were naturally the most active in expe- The North _ ditions to the East. They overran Finland, whose men in the rude inhabitants, the Finns, were of Asiatic origin. Sweden ruled Finland throughout the Middle Ages. The Swedes also entered Russia as early as 862, and their leader, Ruric, established a dynasty which reigned over Slavic peoples for more than seven hundred years. The history- of the Northmen in France began in 911, when a French king granted to a Viking chieftain, Rollo, dominion i68 The Middle Ages over the region about the lower Seine. Rollo agreed to accept Christianity and to acknowledge the French ruler. The dis- Normandy tr * ct ce( led to Rollo was later called the duchy and the of Normandy. Its Scandinavian settlers, hence- forth known as Normans, 1 soon became thorough- ly French in language and culture. A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry Museum of Bayeux, Normandy The Bayeux Tapestry, which almost certainly belongs to the time of the Norman Conquest, is a strip of coarse linen cloth, about 230 feet long by 20 inches wide, embroidered in worsted thread of eight different colors. There are seventy-two scenes picturing various events in the history of the Norman Conquest. The illustration given above represents an attack of Nor- man cavalry on the English shield wall at the battle of Hastings. One of the dukes of Normany, the famous William the Con- queror, added England to the Norman dominions, as the result Norman con- °* n * s v i ctor y i R tne battle of Hastings (1066). quest of The island had previously been overrun by Jutes, ng an Angles, and Saxons after the middle of the fifth century, and by the Danes during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. The Normans thus contributed a third Teutonic element to the English population. During the eleventh century the Normans found still another Norman con- field in which to display their energy and daring, quest of They turned southward to the Mediterranean and Italy and created in southern Italy and Sicily a Norman Sicil y state known as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Normans governed it for only about one hundred and fifty 1 "Norman" is a softened form of "Northman." Feudalism 169 years, but under other rulers it lasted until the middle of the nineteenth century, when the present kingdom of Italy came into existence. 45. Feudalism The ninth century in western Europe was a period of disorder. Charlemagne for a time had arrested the disintegration of society which resulted from the invasions of the Dec i ine f Germans, and had united their warring tribes the royal under something like a centralized government. au on y But Charlemagne's empire, as we have learned, did not long survive its founder. It soon broke up into separate kingdoms. The successors of Charlemagne in France, Germany, and Italy enjoyed little real authority. They reigned, but did not rule. During this dark age it was really impossible for a king to govern with a strong hand. The absence of good roads or of other easy means of communication made it difficult for him to move troops quickly from one district to another, in order to quell revolts. Even had good roads existed, the lack of ready money would have prevented him from maintaining a strong army devoted to his interests. Moreover, the king's subjects, as yet not welded into a nation, felt toward him no sentiments of loyalty and affection. They cared far less for their king, of whom they knew little, than for their own local lords who dwelt near them. The decline of the royal authority, from the ninth century onward, meant that the chief functions of government came to be more and more performed by the nobles, i ncrease( i who were the great landowners of the kingdom, power of the Under Charlemagne these men had been the king's officials, appointed by him and holding office at his pleasure. Under his successors they tended to become almost independent princes. In proportion as this change was accom- plished during the Middle Ages, European society entered upon the stage of feudalism. 1 ■The word comes from the medieval Latin feudum, from which are derived the French fief and the English fee. 170 The Middle Ages Feudalism in medieval Europe was not a unique development. Parallels to it may be found in other parts of the world. When- Parallels to ever the state becomes incapable of protecting European life and property, powerful men in each locality will themselves undertake this duty; they will assume the burden of their own defense and of those weaker men who seek their aid. Such was the situation in ancient Egypt for several hundred years, in medieval Persia, and in modern Japan until about two generations ago. European feudalism arose and nourished in the- countries which had formed Charlemagne's empire, that is, in France, Extent of Germany, and northern Italy. It also spread to European Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and the Christian states of Spain. Toward the close of the eleventh century the Normans transplanted it into England, southern Italy, and Sicily. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the crusaders introduced it into the kingdoms which they founded in the East. Still later, in the fourteenth century, the Scandinavian countries became acquainted with feudalism. The basis of feudal society was usually the landed estate. Here lived the feudal noble, surrounded by dependents over Feudal which he exercised the rights of a petty sovereign, sovereignty jj e cou \^ tax them; he could require them to give him military assistance; he could try tliem in his courts. A great noble even enjoyed the privilege of declaring war, making treaties, and coining money. How, it will be asked, did these rights and privileges arise? Owing to the decay of commerce and industry, land had be- come practically the only form of wealth in the early Middle Feudal ten- Ages. The king, who was regarded as the absolute ure of land owner of the soil, would pay his officials for their services by giving them the use of a certain amount of land. In the same way, one who had received large estates would parcel them out among his followers, as a reward for their support. Sometimes an unscrupulous noble might seize the lands of his neighbors and compel them to become his tenants. Sometimes, too, those who owned land in their own right might Feudalism 171 surrender the title to it in favor of a noble, who then became their protector. An estate in land which a person held of a superior lord, on condition of performing some "honorable" service, was called a fief. A fief was inheritable, going at the holder's death to his oldest son. If a man had no legal heir, the fief went back to the lord. The tie which bound the tenant who accepted a fief to the lord who granted it was called vassalage. Every holder of land was in theory, though not always in fact, the vassal of some lord. At the apex of the feudal pyramid stood the king, the supreme landlord, who was supposed to hold his land from God; below the king stood the greater lords (dukes, marquises, counts, barons), with large estates; and below them came the lesser lords, or knights, whose possessions were considered to be too small for further subdivision. The vassal owed various services to the lord. In time of war he did garrison duty at the lord's castle and joined him in military expeditions. In time of peace the vassal attended the lord on ceremonial occasions, gave v ice S s °and Se " him the benefit of his advice, when necessary, and money pay- ,i ii- -i • . ■ /-Hi 1 ments of the helped him as a judge in trying cases, lne vassal, vassal under certain circumstances, was also required to make money payments. When a new heir succeeded to the fief, the 16rd received from him a sum usually equivalent to one year's revenue of the estate. This payment was called a " relief. " Again, if a man sold his fief, the lord demanded another large sum from the purchaser, before giving his consent to the transac- tion. Vassals were also expected to raise money for the lord's ransom, in case he was made prisoner of war, to meet the ex- penses connected with the knighting of his eldest son, and to provide a dowry for his eldest daughter. Such exceptional pay- ments went by the name of "aids." The vassal, in return for his services and payments, looked to the lord for the protection of life and property. The lord agreed to secure him the enjoyment of his fief, to guard The lord , s him against his enemies, and to see that in all duty to the matters he received just treatment. vass 172 The Middle Ages The ceremony of homage symbolized the whole feudal rela- tionship. One who proposed to become a vassal and hold a fief „ came into the lord's presence, bareheaded and un- Homage armed, knelt down, placed his hands between those of the lord, and promised henceforth to become his "man" (Latin homo). The lord then kissed him and raised him to his feet. After the ceremony the vassal placed his hands upon the Bible, or upon sacred relics, and swore to remain faithful to his lord. This was the oath of "fealty." The lord then gave the vassal some object — a stick, a clod of earth, a lance, or a glove — in token of the fief with the possession of which he was now "invested." It is clear that the feudal tenure of land, coupled with the custom of vassalage, made in some degree for security and order. Feudalism a Each noble was attached to the lord above him by form of local the bond of personal service and the oath of fealty. govemmen r^ Q ^ vass£ j s beneath him he was at once pro- tector, benefactor, and friend. Unfortunately, feudal obli- gations were not always strictly observed. Both lords and vassals often broke their engagements, when it seemed profit- able to do so. Hence they had many quarrels and indulged in constant warfare. But feudalism, despite its defects, was better than anarchy. The feudal nobles drove back the pirates and hanged the brigands and enforced the laws, as no feeble king could do. Feudalism provided a rude form of local gov- ernment for a rude society. The outward mark of feudalism was the castle, where the lord resided and from which he ruled his fief. Defense formed the The castle as primary purpose of the castle. Until the introduc- a fortress duction of gunpowder and cannon, the only siege weapons employed were those known in ancient times. They included machines for hurling heavy stones and iron bolts, battering rams, and movable towers, from which the besiegers crossed over to the walls. Such engines could best be used on firm, level ground. Consequently, a castle would often be erected on a high cliff or hill, or on an island, or in the center of a swamp. A castle without such natural defenses would be surrounded by -■ s 8 B.3 ^ a. p" 3 a. 3 ■ ■§" e p << n S |n q 3 § I |s (5 C* -I 3 5 « p 5. re 3 re » St? p_ o re JV re S o o ~ 2. I n 3 * fflwaagfO - ft Mi i! f M'l ^||f. «-K . t. 174 The Middle Ages a deep ditch (the "moat"), usually filled with water. If the besiegers could not batter down or undermine the massive walls, they adopted the slower method of a blockade and tried to starve the garrison into surrendering. Ordinarily, however, a well-built, well-provisioned castle was impregnable. A visitor to a castle crossed the drawbridge over the moat and approached the narrow doorway, which was protected by a tower The castle as on each side. If he was admitted, the iron grating a home ("portcullis") rose slowly on its creaking pulleys, the heavy, wooden doors swung open, and he found himself in the courtyard, commanded by the great central tower ("keep"), where the lord and his family lived, especially in time of war. At the summit of the keep rose a platform whence a sentinel surveyed the country far and wide; below, two stories under- ground, lay the prison, dark, damp, and dirty. As the visitor walked about the courtyard, he came upon the hall, used as the lord's residence in time of peace, the armory, the chapel, the kitchens, and the stables. A spacious castle might contain all the buildings necessary for the support of the lord's servants and soldiers. The nobles regarded the right of waging war on one another as their most cherished privilege. A vassal might fight with each Private of the various lords to whom he had done homage, warfare ^ or( j er to secure independence from them, with bishops and abbots whom he disliked for any reason, with his weaker fellow vassals, and even with his own vassals. Fighting became almost a form of business enterprise, which enriched the nobles and their retainers through the sack of castles, the plun- der of villages, and the ransom of prisoners. Every hill became a stronghold and every plain, a battle-field. Such private war- fare, though rarely very bloody, spread havoc throughout the land. As the power of the kings increased in western Europe, they naturally sought to put an end to the constant fighting between their subjects. The Norman rulers of Normandy, England, and the Two Sicilies restrained their turbulent nobles with a strong hand. Peace came later in most parts of the Con- tinent; in Germany, "fist right" (the rule of the strongest) pre- Feudalism 175 Knighthood vailed until the end of the fifteenth century. The abolition of private warfare was the first step in Europe toward universal peace. The second step — the abolition of public war between nations — is yet to be taken. The prevalence of private warfare made the use of arms a profession requiring special training. A nobleman's son served for a number of years as a squire in his father's castle or in that of some other lord. When he became of age and had been drilled in warlike exercises, he might be made a knight. The ceremony of conferring knighthood was often most elaborate. If, however, a squire for valorous con- duct received knighthood on the battle-field, the accolade by stroke of the sword formed the only ceremony. As manners and Christian began to af- fect feudal society, knighthood devel- oped into chivalry. The Church, which opposed the warlike excesses of feudalism, took the knight under her wing and bade him be always a true soldier of Christ. To the rude virtues of fidelity to one's lord and bravery in battle, the Church added others. The "good knight" was he who respected his sworn word, who never took an unfair advantage of another, who defended women, children, and orphans against their oppressors, and who sought to make justice and right prevail in the world.' Needless to say, the "good knight" appears oftener in romance than in sober history. While chivalry lasted, it produced some improvement in manners, particularly by insisting on the ideal of personal honor and by fostering greater regard for women softened teachings Chivalry Mounted Knight Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight in complete mail armor; date about 1265. 176 The Middle Ages (though only those of the upper class). Our modern notion of the conduct befitting a "gentleman" goes back in part to the old chivalric code. Chivalry, however, expressed simply the senti- ments of the warlike nobles. It was an aristocratic institution. The knight despised and did his best to keep in subjection the toiling peasantry, upon whose backs rested the real burden of feudal society. 46. The Byzantine Empire If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented a scene of violence and confusion, while the Teutonic peoples The Greek were settling in their new homes, a different picture or Byzantine was presented in eastern Europe. Here the Roman mpire Empire survived and continued to uphold, for nearly a thousand years after the deposition of Romulus Augus- tulus, the Roman tradition of law and order. After 476 it is often called the " Greek Empire," since it became more and more Greek in character, owing to the loss of the western provinces in the fifth century and then of Syria and Egypt in the seventh century. The name "Byzantine Empire," which is in common use, most appropriately describes the empire in still later times, when its possessions were reduced to Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the neighborhood of that city. The long life of the Byzantine Empire is one of the marvels of history. Its vitality appears the more remarkable, when one Vitality of the cons iders that it had no easily defensible frontiers, Byzantine contained many different peoples with little in mpire common, and on all sides faced hostile states. The empire lasted so long, because of its vast wealth and re- sources, its despotic, centralized government, the strength of its army, and the almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the capital city. The history of the Byzantine Empire shows how constantly Importance of ^ was en g a g e d in contests with Oriental peoples the Byzan- — first the Persians, then the Arabs, and finally tine Empire thg Tur k s _ w h attacked its domains. By resist- ing the advance of the invaders, the old empire protected the Interior SANCTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE Built by Justinian and dedicated on Christmas Day, 538 a.d. The main building is roofed over by a great central dome, 107 feet in diameter and 179 feet in height. After the Ottoman Turks turned the church into a mosque, a minaret was erected at each of the four exterior angles. The outside of Sancta Sophia is somewhat disappointing, but the interior, with its walls and columns of polished marble, granite, and porphyry, is magnificent. The crystal balustrades, pulpits, and large metal disks are Turkish. The Byzanl ine Empire '77 ynuiig st;itr> o! Kurope, until they had become strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes of Asia. This service was not less important than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in the contests with the Persians and the Cartha- ginians. 1 i 1 Lands of the Eastern emperors I ' before 900 A.D. I 1 The lands conquered between I 1 960 A.D. and 1015 A.D. The Byzantine Empire During the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries The merchant ships of Constantinople carried on much of the commerce of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The products of Byzantine industry were exchanged at B vzant i ne that city for the spices, drugs, and precious stones commerce of the East. Byzantine wares also found their way an in us ry into Italy and France and, by way of the Russian rivers, reached the heart of eastern Europe. Russia, in turn, furnished Con- stantinople with honey, wax, fur, wool, grain, and slaves. A traveler of the twelfth century well described the city as a metropolis ''common to all the world, without distinction of country or religion." Many of the emperors at Constantinople were great builders. Byzantine architecture became a leading form of art. Its most 1 Sec pages 8g an-' i 7 8 The Middle Ages striking feature is the dome, which replaces the flat, wooden roof used in the churches of Italy. The exterior of a Byzantine Byzantine church is plain and unimposing, but the interior art is adorned on a magnificent scale. The eyes of the worshipers are dazzled by the walls faced with marble slabs of variegated colors, by the columns of polished marble, jasper, and porphyry, and by the brilliant mosaic pictures of Naval Battle Showing Use of "Greek Fire" From a Byzantine manuscript of the fourteenth century at Madrid. " Greek fire " in marine warfare was most commonly propelled through long tubes of copper, which were placed on the prow of a ship and managed by a gunner. Combustibles might also be kept in tubes flung by hand and exploded on board the enemy's vessel. gilded glass. The entire impression is one of richness and splendor. Byzantine artists, though mediocre painters and sculptors, excelled in all kinds of decorative work. Their carv- ings in wood, ivory, and metal, together with their embroideries, enamels, miniatures and mosaics, enjoyed a high reputation in medieval Europe. The libraries and museums of Constantinople preserved classi- cal learning. In the flourishing schools of that city the wisest Byzantine men of the day taught philosophy, law, medicine, scholarship anc j sc i en ce to thousands of pupils. It is true that Byzantine scholars were more erudite than original. Impressed by the great treasures of knowledge about them, they found it difficult to strike out into new, unbeaten paths. Most students The Byzantine Empire 179 were content to make huge collections of extracts and notes from the books which antiquity had bequeathed to them. Even this task was useful, however, for their encyclopedias contained much information which otherwise would have been lost. The East thus cherished the productions of classical learning, until the time came when the West was ready to receive them and to profit by them. The division of the Roman Empire and the removal of the capital to Constantinople brought about the gradual separation of Eastern and Western Christianity. The Eastern The Greek or Greek Church had for its spiritual head the pa- Church triarch of Constantinople, just as the Western or Roman Church had a head in the pope or bishop of Rome. The two churches remained in formal unity until 1054, when disputes between them on points of doctrine led to their final rupture. They have never since united. The missionary zeal of the Greek Church resulted in the conversion of the barbarians who entered south- eastern Europe during the early Middle Ages. At the present time, most of the Christian inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula, including Greeks, Jugoslavs, Bulgarians, and Rumanians, belong to the Greek Church. Its greatest victory was the conversion of the Russians, toward the close of the tenth century. With Christianity all these peoples received the use of letters and some knowledge of Roman law and methods of government. Constan- tinople was to them, henceforth, such a center of religion and culture as Rome was to the Germans. The heart of Byzantine civilization always continued to be Constantinople. It was the largest, most populous, and most wealthy place in medieval Europe. When London, Constanti- Paris, and Venice were small and mean towns, nople visitors to Constantinople found paved and lighted streets, parks, public baths, hospitals, theaters, schools, libraries, museums, beautiful churches, and magnificent palaces, far surpassing anything in the West. The renown of Constantinople penetrated even into barbarian lands. The Northmen called it Micklegarth, the "Great City"; the Russians knew of it as Tsarigrad, the "City of the Caesars." Both names did not lack 180 The Middle Ages appropriateness, but its own people best described it as the "City guarded by God." 47. The Arabs and Islam, 622-1058 Christianity was not the only great religion of the Middle Ages. Six centuries after it arose came Islam, the religion of A new world the Arabs. Islam did for half Asia and North religion Africa what Christianity had begun to do for medieval Europe in the work of assimilating the peoples and binding them together in one vast community irrespective of race or language. Arabia during ancient times had appeared in history mainly as a reservoir of Semitic-speaking nomads, who drifted into The Arabs Egypt, along the eastern shores of the Mediter- before ranean, and into Babylonia, yet always leaving a nucleus of tribes behind them to supply fresh invasions in the future. The interior of the peninsula, except for occasional oases, was a desert, over which Bedouin tribes wandered with their sheep, cattle, horses, and camels. Along the southern and western coasts were patches of fertile land, whose inhabitants had reached a considerable degree of civiliza- tion. They practiced agriculture, engaged in traffic upon the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, and lived in walled towns. Every year for four months the Arabs ceased fighting with one another and went on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Here stood a famous sanctuary called the Kaaba (Cube). It contained idols and a small black stone (probably a meteorite), which was regarded with particular veneration. Although most of the Arabs were idolaters, yet some of them believed in Allah, the "Unknown God" of the Semites. The many Jews and Christians in Arabia at this time also helped to spread abroad the conception of one God and thus to prepare the way for the prophet of a mono- theistic religion. The founder of Islam, Mohammed, was born at Mecca about Mohammed's 5 70. Having been left an orphan at an early age, early life j^ received no regular education and for some time earned his living as a shepherd and camel driver. His a » < ~ 3 « « a ;- 181 182 The Middle Ages marriage to a rich widow enabled him to settle down as a prosper- ous though still undistinguished, merchant at Mecca. Moham- med, however, seems always to have been spiritually minded. When he was forty years old the call came to him in a vision (he said) to preach a new religion to the Arabs. It was very simple, but in its simplicity lay its strength, "There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of God." Mohammed made his first converts in his wife, his children, and the friends who knew him best. Then, becoming bolder, he The Hegira, began to preach publicly. In spite of his eloquence 622 and obvious sincerity, he met a discouraging recep- tion. A few slaves and poor freemen became his followers, but most people regarded him as a madman. Mohammed's disci- ples, called Moslems, 1 were bitterly persecuted by the citizens of Mecca, who resented the prophet's attacks on idolatry. Finally, Mohammed and his converts took refuge in the city of Medina, where some of the inhabitants had already accepted his teachings. This was the famous Hegira (Flight of the Prophet). 2 At Medina Mohammed occupied a position of high honor and influence. . The people welcomed him gladly and made him Later life of their chief magistrate. As his adherents increased Mohammed j n num ber, Mohammed began to combine fighting with preaching. His military expeditions against the Arab tribes proved very successful. Many of the conquered Bedouins enlisted under his banner and at length captured Mecca for the Prophet. He treated its inhabitants leniently, but threw down the idols in the Kaaba. After the submission of Mecca the Arabs throughout the peninsula abandoned idolatry and accepted the new religion. The religion which Mohammed taught is called Islam, an Arabic word meaning "surrender" or "resignation." This re- 1 From the Arabic muslim, "one who surrenders himself" (to God's will). During the Middle Ages the Moslems to their Christian enemies were commonly known as Saracens, a term which is still in use. 2 The year 622, in which the Hegira occurred, marks the beginning of the Mos- lem era. The Arabs and Islam 183 ligion has a sacred book, the Koran. It contains the speeches, prayers, and other utterances of Mohammed, at various times during his career. The doctrines found in the R e ij g i ous Koran show many adaptations from the Jewish and teachings of Christian religions. Like them, Islam empha- sizes the unity of God and the immortality of the soul. Like them, also, Islam recognizes the existence of prophets, includ- ing Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (whom it regards as a prophet), but insists that Mohammed was the last and greatest of the prophets. The account of the creation and fall of man is taken, with variations, from the Old Testament. The descriptions of the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment, and the division of the future world into paradise and hell, the former for believers in Islam, the latter for those who have refused to accept it, were also largely borrowed from other religions. The Koran imposes on the faithful Moslem five great obliga- tions. First, he must recite, at least once in his life, aloud, cor- rectly, and with full understanding, the short Observances creed: "There is no god but God, and Mohammed of Islam is the prophet of God." Second, he must pray five times a day: at dawn, just after noon, before sunset, just after sunset, and at the end of the day. Before engaging in prayer the worshiper washes face, hands, and feet; during the prayer he turns toward Mecca and bows his head to the ground. Third, he must observe a strict fast, from morning to night, during every day of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year. Fourth, he must give alms to the poor. Fifth, he must, "if he is able," undertake at least one pilgrimage to Mecca. The annual visit of tens of thousands of pilgrims to the holy city helps to preserve the feeling of brotherhood among Moslems all over the world. These five obligations are the "pillars" of Islam. As a religious system Islam is exceedingly simple. It does not provide any elaborate ceremonies of worship and permits no altars, pictures, or images in the mosque. Islam Organiza- even lacks a priesthood. Every Moslem acts as tionofIslam his own priest. There is, however, an official who on Friday, the 1 84 The Middle Ages Mohammedan Sabbath, offers up public prayers in the mosque and delivers a sermon to the assembled worshipers. All work is suspended during this service, but at its close secular activities are resumed. The Koran furnishes a moral code for the adherents of Islam. It contains several noteworthy prohibitions. The Moslem is Moral teach- not ^° ma k e images, to engage in games of chance, ingsofthe to eat pork, or to drink wine. The Koran also inculcates many active virtues, including reverence toward parents, protection of widows and orphans, charity toward the poor, kindness to slaves, and gentle treatment of the lower animals. On the whole, it must be admitted that the regulations of the Koran did much to restrain the vices of the Arabs and to provide them with higher standards of right and wrong. Islam marked a great advance over Arabian heathenism. Islam was a conquering religion, for it proclaimed the righteous- ness of a "holy war" against unbelievers. Pride and greed also Arab combined with fanaticism to draw the Arabs out conquests OI fa e desert upon a career of conquest. The map shows how large a part of the civilized world, from the Indus westward to the Pyrenees, came under their sway within about a century after the death of Mohammed. The Arabs failed, however, to capture Constantinople, which endured a desperate siege by the combined Moslem army and navy (716-717), and the Franks checked their farther advance into western Europe at the bloody battle of Tours (732). The Arabs treated their subjects with liberality. No massacres and no persecutions occurred. The conquered peoples were not compelled to accept Islam at the point of the sword. In course of time, however, many Christians in Syria and Egypt and most of the Zoroastri- ans x in Persia embraced the new religion, in order to avoid paying tribute and to acquire the privileges of Moslem citizen- ship. The title of caliph, meaning "successor" or "representative," had been first assumed by Mohammed's father-in-law, who was 1 See page 54. j.H; 1 86 The Middle Ages chosen to succeed the Prophet as the political and religious head of Islam. Disputes between rival claimants to this ofhce before The cali- long split up the Arabian Empire into two caliph- phate ateSj one ru li n g a t Bagdad over the Moslems in Asia, the other ruling at Cordova in Spain. A third caliphate, with its capital at Cairo in Egypt, afterward arose in North Africa. The dismemberment and consequent weakening of the Arabian Empire ended for a time the era of Moslem conquest. The Arabs lacked the Roman genius for empire-building, but they rivaled the Romans as absorbers and spreaders of civilization. Arabian Their conquests brought them into contact with culture thg highly civilized peoples of the Near East and along the shores of the Mediterranean. What they learned from Greeks, Syrians, Persians, Jews, and Hindus they im- proved upon, thus building up a culture which for several cen- turies far surpassed that of western Europe. The Arabs prac- ticed farming in a scientific way, understood rotation of crops, employed fertilizers, and knew how to graft and produce new varieties of plants and fruits. Their manufactures, especially of textile fabrics, metal, leather, glass, and pottery, were cele- brated for beauty of design and perfection of workmanship. They did much in mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, geogra- phy, and medicine, carrying further the old Greek investigations in these branches of science. Arab universities, libraries, and observatories, especially in Spain, were visited by Christian students, who became acquainted with Moslem learning and helped to introduce it into Italy, France, and other countries. Painting and sculpture owe little to the Arabs, but their archi- tecture, based in part on Byzantine and Persian models, reached a high level of excellence. The influence of the Arabs upon our civilization is shown by the Arabic origin of such words as "muslin," "damask," "mattress," "cupola," "zenith," and "cipher," and especially of words beginning with the prefix al (the definite article in Arabic). In English these include "algebra," "alkali," "alcohol," "almanac," "alcove," "Aldeb- aran" (the star), and "alchemy" (whence "chemistry"). The Arabian Empire in Asia was overrun during the eleventh The Crusades 187 Century by the Scljuk Turks, whose leader assumed in 1058 the caliph's political authority at Bagdad. The coming of the Seljuk Turks into the Near East was a very great misfor- The Arabs tune, for these barbarians did nothing to preserve andtheSel- and extend Arabian culture. They did begin, how- JU ever, a new era of Moslem conquest, and within a few years they had won almost all Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire. The new Turkish menace to Christendom induced the emperor at Constantinople to call on the chivalry of western Europe for aid, thus inaugurating the crusades. L ^^^— 48. The Crusades, 1095-1291 The crusades, in their widest aspect, may be regarded as a renewal of the age-long contest between East and West, in which the struggle of Greeks and Persians and of Romans The crusades and Carthaginians formed the earlier episodes. mhlstor y The contest assumed a new character when Europe had become Christian and Asia, Mohammedan. It was not only two con- trasting types of civilization, but also two rival world religions, which in the eighth century faced each other under the walls of Constantinople and on the battle-field of Tours. Now, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they were to meet again. Throughout this period there was an almost continuous move- ment of crusaders to and from the Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The crusades were first and foremost a spiritual enterprise. They sprang from the pilgrimages which Christians had long been accustomed to make to the scenes of Christ's The crusa des life on earth. Men considered it a wonderful and pil- privilege to visit the place where He was born, gnmage£ to kiss the spot where He died, and to kneel in prayer at His tomb. The eleventh century saw an increased zeal for pil- grimages, and from this time travelers to the Holy Land were very numerous. For greater security they often joined them- selves in companies and marched under arms. It needed little to transform such pilgrims into crusaders. The Arab conquests had not interrupted the stream of pilgrims, for the early caliphs i88 The Middle Ages were more tolerant of unbelievers than Christian rulers were of heretics. After the conquests of the Seljuk Turks pilgrimages became more difficult and dangerous. The stories which floated back to Europe of the outrages on Christian pilgrims and shrines awakened an intense desire to res- cue the Holy Land from "infidels." But the crusades were not simply an The crusades ex P res " and the sion of upper classes , , the sim- ple faith of the Middle Ages. Something more than religious enthus- iasm sent an unend- ing procession of soldiers along the Combat between Crusaders and Moslems highways of Europe A picture in an eleventh-century window, formerly and Qver ^ trackless in the church of St. Denis, near .Fans. wastes of Asia Minor to Jerusalem. The crusades, in fact, appealed strongly to the warlike instincts of the feudal nobles. They saw in an expedition against the East an unequaled opportunity for acquiring fame, riches, lands, and power. The Normans were especially stirred by the prospect of adventure and plunder which the crusading movement opened up. By the end of the eleventh century they had established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, from which they now looked across the Mediterranean for additional lands to conquer. Norman knights formed a very large element in several of the crusading armies. The crusades also attracted the lower classes. The misery of The lower ^ e common people in medieval Europe was so classes and great that for them it seemed not a hardship, but the crusades j-^gj. a Ye \[ e f } to leave their homes in order to better themselves abroad. Famine and pestilence, poverty The Crusades 189 and oppression, drove them to emigrate hopefully to the golden East. The first crusade, which began in 1095, resulted in the cap- ture of Jerusalem and the setting up of several small cru- saders' states in Syria. These Course of possessions were defended by the crusades two orders of fighting monks, known as the Hospitalers and the Templars. The Christians managed to keep Jerusalem for somewhat less than one hundred years. Acre, their last post in Syria, did not fall to the Moslems until 1291, an event com- monly regarded as the end of the crusades. The Hospitalers still retained the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, which long served as a barrier to Moslem expansion over the Mediterranean. The crusades, judged by what they set out to accomplish, must be accounted a failure. After two centuries Th e Crusad es of conflict, and after a great and feudal- expenditure of wealth and ism human lives, the Holy Land remained in Moslem hands. The indirect results of the crusades were, nevertheless, important. Effigy or a Knight For instance, they helped to undermine Temple Church, London feudalism. Thousands of nobles mort- <.. , xrc .. ... . amnr snows the kind of armor gaged or sold their lands in order to raise worn between noo and money for a crusading expedition. Thous- I22S ' ands more perished in Syria, and their estates, through failure of heirs, reverted to the crown. Moreover, feudal warfare, that curse of the Middle Ages, also tended to die out with the depar- ture for the Holy Land of so many turbulent lords. The crusades created a constant demand for the transpor- tation of men and supplies, encouraged shipbuilding, and extended the market for eastern wares in Europe. The pro- ducts of Damascus, Mosul, Alexandria, Cairo, and other great 190 The Middle Ages cities were carried across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports, whence they found their way into all European lands. „ , The elegance of the Orient, with its silks, tapes- The crusades ° ' . ■ , and Medi- tries, precious stones, perfumes, spices, pearls, terranean anc j i vor y was s0 enchanting that an enthus- commerce . iastic crusader is said to have called it "the vestibule of Paradise." The crusades also contributed to intellectual and social pro- gress. They brought the inhabitants of western Europe into The crusades c l° se relations with one another, with their fellow and Euro- Christians of the Byzantine Empire, and with the pean cu ure na j-j ves f Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The intercourse between Christians and Moslems was particularly stimulating, because the East at this time surpassed the West in civilization. The crusaders enjoyed the advantages which come from travel in strange lands and among unfamiliar peoples. They went out from their castles or villages to see great cities, marble palaces, superb dresses, and elegant manners; they returned with finer tastes, broader ideas, and wider sympathies. The crusades opened up a new world. 49. Mongolian Peoples in Europe to 1453 The extensive steppes of central Asia 1 have formed, for thousands of years, the abode of nomad ic tr ibes belonging to Asiatic the Mongolian or Yellow Race. They were ever nomadism on ^ e movej w ith their horses, oxen, sheep, and cattle, from one pasturage to another. They dwelt in tents and hut-wagons. Severe simplicity was their rule of life, for property consisted of little more than flocks and herds, clothes, and weapons. Constant practice in riding and scouting inured them, to fatigue and hardship, and the daily use of arms made every man a soldier. (When population increased too rapidly, or when the steppes dried up and water failed, the inhabitants had no course open but to migrate farther and farther in search of foody Some of them overflowed into the fertile valleys of 1 See the map between pages 28-29. Mongolian Peoples in Europe 191 China, until at the close of the third century b. c. the Chinese rulers built the Great Wall, fifteen hundred miles in length, to keep them out. Others turned westward and entered Europe between the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains, where the Asiatic steppes merge into the plains of Russia. 1 Hut-wagon of the Mongols (Reconstruction) On the wagon was placed a sort of hut or pavilion made of wands bound together with narrow thongs. The structure was then covered with felt or cloth and provided with latticed windows Hut-wagons, being very light, were sometimes of enormous size. One such nomadic people were the Huns, whom we find north of the Black Sea during the fourth century a. d. Roman writers describe their olive skins, little, turned-up-noses, Huns black, beady eyes, and generally ferocious char- acter. They spent much of their time on horseback, sweeping over the country like a whirlwind and leaving destruction and death in their wake. It was the pressure of the Huns from behind which drove the Visigoths against the Roman frontiers, thus beginning the Germanic invasions. The Huns subsequently crossed the Carpathians and occupied the region now called after them Hungary. Their leader, Attila, built up a military power, obeyed by many barbarous tribes from the Black Sea to the Rhine. Attila devastated the lands of the eastern emperor almost to the walls of Constantinople and then invaded Gaul. 1 See the map between pages 34-35- 192 The Middle Ages Bulgarians In this hour of danger Gallo-Romans and Germans united their forces and at the famous battle of Chalons (451) saved western Europe from being submerged under a wave of Asiatic barbarism. Attila died soon afterward, his empire went to pieces, and the Huns themselves mingled with the peoples whom they had conquered. The Bulgarians, who were akin to the Huns, made their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh century. For more than three hundred years these barbarians, fierce and cruel, formed a menace to the Byzantine Empire. They settled in the country which now bears their name, accepted Christianity from Constantinople, and adopted the speech and cus- toms of the Slavs. Modern Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state. The JVIagyars entered central Europe toward the close of the ninth century. Again and again they swept into Germany, France, and northern Italy, ravaging far and wide. It was Otto the Great who stopped their raids. The Magyars now retired to their lands about the middle Danube, became Roman Catholic Christians, and founded the kingdom of Hungary. Modern Hungarians, except for their Asiatic language, are thoroughly Europeanized. In the thirteenth century came the Mo ngols ^ proper, (or Their original home seems to have been northern Mongolia. The genius of one of their leaders, Jenghiz Khan, united them into a vast, conquering host, which to ruthless cruelty and passion for plunder added extraordinary efficiency in warfare. It may be said with truth of Jenghiz Khan that he had the most victorious of military careers and that he constructed the most extensive empire Magyars A Mongol After a Chinese drawing Tatars). Mongols Mongolian Peoples in Europe 193 exposed it to the forceof the known to history. The map shows what an enormous stretch of territory — Christian, Moslem, heathen, and Buddhist — was overrun by Jenghiz Khan and his immediate successors. The Mongol Empire was very loosely organized, however, and during the fourteenth century it fell apart into a number of independent states, or khanates. The location of Russia full x^'^-'-,,. Russia Mongol under the a 1 1 a c k . Monsols The cities of Moscow and Kiev fell in quick succession, and before long the greater part of the country became a part of the Golden Horde, as the western section of the Mongol realm was called. The Mongols are usually said to have Oriental- ized the Russian people. It seems clear, however, that they did not interfere with the language, religion, or laws of their subjects. The chief result of the Mongol conquest was to cut off Russia from the civilization of the rest of Europe for upwards of three centuries. In 1227, the year of Jenghiz Khan's death, a small Turkish horde, driven westward from central Asia by the Mongol advance, settled in Asia Minor. There they en- ottoman joyed the protection of their kinsmen, the Scljuk Turks Turks, and accepted Islam. Their chieftain Othman (whence the name Ottoman) founded a new empire. During the first half of the fourteenth century the Ottom an Turks firmly estab- lished themselves in northwestern Asia Minor, along the beau- tiful shores washed by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. The second half of the same century found Mohammed II A medal showing the strong face of the conqueror of Constantinople. 194 The Middle Ages them in Europe, wresting province after province from the feeble hands of the eastern emperors. All that remained of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople and a small district in its vicinity. Only a crusade, on a greater scale than any in the past, could have saved Constantinople. No crusade occurred, and in 1453 Capture of ^ e c *ty ^ e ^ to Mohammed II. The capture of Con- Constantino- stantinople.is rightly regarded as an epoch-making event. It meant the end, once for all, of the empire which had served so long as the rearguard of Christian civiliza- tion, as the bulwark of the West against the East. Europe stood aghast at a calamity which she had done so little to prevent. The Christian powers have been paying dearly, even to our own age, for their failure to save Constantinople from Moslem hands. Unlike the Bulgarians and the Magyars, the O ttom an Turks never entered the European family of nations. Preserving their Asiatic language and Moslem faith, they remained Southeast- ,, ^ .,, em Europe m southeastern Europe, not a transitory scourge, under the but an abiding oppressor of Christian lands. The Turks isolation of the Turks prevented them from assimi- lating the higher culture of the peoples whom they conquered. They never created anything in science, art, litera- ture, commerce, or industry. Conquest was the Turks' one business in the world, and when they ceased conquering their decline set in. But it was not until the end of the seventeenth century that the Turkish Empire entered on that downward road which has now led to its practical extinction as a European power. 50. National States during the Later Middle Ages Europe in 1914 included twenty national states. More have been added as a result of the World War. Their present boun- Geo phi- daries only in part coincide with those fixed by cal boun- geography. The British Isles, it is true, constitute dd.Fl 6 S a single political unit, as nature seems to have intended, but Ireland remains a very unwilling member of the United Kingdom. The Iberian Peninsula, bounded on the I* I Dominions of \\ 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 > lli. r,.iiiniemr. liM',ii-.s7 W*ns: Independence suppressed by Edward I, 1284; inrorpornt.il willi Knuhind l.y ll.im Mil, ir.:it! Bdoiuhd; Independence recognized by Edward ,„.„.„„ lolned with England in n personal union' un- dar Junta I, 1603; legislative union with England] 1701 [■■laxd: Oonqueal completed by Oromwell. nun- united with Great Britain, lsoi , English Pale at the end of the 15th century The British Isles during the Middle Ages 105 196 The Middle Ages north by the Pyrenees, seems to form another natural political unit, yet within the peninsula there are two independent states. On the whole, such great mountain ranges as the Alps, Car- pathians, and Balkans, and such great rivers as the Rhine, Danube, and Vistula, have failed to provide permanent frontiers for European states. It is still more difficult to trace racial boundaries in modern Europe. Peaceful migrations and in- vasions, beginning in prehistoric times and contin- uing to the present, have led to much mixture of peoples. Nor is every European state one in language. France includes the district of Brittany, where a Celtic speech prevails. Switzer- land has French, German, and Italian speaking cantons. In the British Isles one may still Racial and linguistic boundaries Coronation Chair, West- minster Abbey Every English ruler since Edward I has been crowned in this oak chair. Under the seat is the "Stone of Scone," said to have hear Welsh, Gaelic (in the High- been once used by the patriarch Jacob. l an ds), and Irish. The pOSSeS- sion of a common language Edward I brought it to London in 1291, as a token of the subjection of Scotland. undoubtedly tends to bring peoples together and keep them together, but it is not an indis- pensable condition of their unity. History, rather than geography, race, or even language, explains the present grouping of European states. When the Christian era opened, all the region between the State-making r North Sea and the Black Sea and from the Mediter- ranean to the Rhine and the Danube belonged to the Roman Empire. This Romanized Europe made a solid whole, with one government, one law, and one language. Five hundred years passed, and Europe under the influence of the Germanic inva- sions began to split up into a number of separate, independent National States during the Later Middle Ages 197 states. The process of state-making continued throughout the Middle Ages, as the result of renewed invasions (principally those of the Northmen, Slavs, Arabs, Bulgarians, Magyars, Mongols, and Turks). The three strongest states in Europe at the end of the medieval period were England, France, and Spain. The dominions which William the Conqueror and his Nor- man knights won by the sword in 1066 included neither Wales, Scotland, nor Ireland. Their inhabitants (except Expansion in the Scottish Lowlands) were Celtic-speaking of England peoples, whom the Anglo-Saxon invaders of England never attempted to subdue. It was almost inevitable, however, that in process of time the British Isles should come under a single government. Unification began with the conquest of Wales by Edward I, near the close of the thirteenth century. He also annexed Scotland, but his weakling son, whom the Scots had defeated in the battle of Bannockburn, abandoned all claims to the country. It remained independent for the remainder of the medieval period. The English first entered Ireland in the second half of the twelfth century, but for a long time held only a small district about Dublin, known as the Pale. Ireland by its situa- tion could scarcely fail to become an appanage of Great Britain, but the dividing sea has combined with differences in race, language, and religion, and with English misgovernrhent, to prevent anything like a genuine union of the conquerors and the conquered. Nature seems to have intended that France should play a leading part in European affairs. The geographical unity of the country is obvious. Mountains and seas form its physical permanent boundaries, except on the northeast, France where the frontier is not well defined. The western coast of France opens on the Atlantic, now the greatest highway of the world's commerce, while on the southeast France touches the Mediterranean, the home of classical civilization. This intermediate position between two seas helps us to understand why French history should form, as it were, a connecting link between ancient and modern times. But the greatness of France has been due, in addition, to the 198 The Middle Ages Unification of France during the Middle Ages qualities of the French people. Many racial elements have con- tributed to the population. The blood of prehistoric men, Racial whose monuments and grave mounds are scattered France over t h e i anc [, still flows in the veins of Frenchmen. At the opening of historic times France was chiefly occupied by the Gauls, whom Julius Caesar found there and subdued. The Gauls, a Celtic-speaking people, formed in later ages the main stock of the French nation, but their language gave place National States during the Later Middle Ages 199 to Latin after the Roman conquest. In the course of five hundred years the Gauls were so thoroughly Romanized that they may best be described as Gallo-Romans. The Burgundians, Franks, and Northmen afterward added a Teutonic element to the population, as well as some infusion of Teutonic laws and customs. France, again, became a great nation because of the greatness of her rulers. The old line of French kings, descended from Charlemagne, died out in the tenth century, and. a The Cape- nobleman named Hugh Capet then founded a new han d y nast y dynasty. His accession took place in 987. The Capetian dynasty was long-lived, and for more than three centuries son followed father on the throne without a break in the succession. During this time the French sovereigns worked steadily to unite the feudal states of medieval France into a real nation under a common government. Hugh Capet's duchy — the original France — included only a small stretch of inland country centering about Paris on the Seine and Orleans on the Loire. His election to unification the kingship did not increase his power over the ofFrance great lords who ruled in Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, and other parts of the country. They did homage to the king for their fiefs and performed the usual feudal services, but otherwise regarded themselves as independent. The accompanying map shows how the French rulers enlarged the royal domain, or territory under the king's control, until by the end of the fif- teenth century the unification of France was almost complete. Spain in historic times was conquered by the Carthaginians, who left few traces of their occupation; by the Romans, who thoroughly Romanized the country; by the Visi- Unification got.hs, who founded a Teutonic kingdom ; and lastly of Spam by the Moors, 1 who introduced Arabian culture and the faith of Islam. The Moors never wholly overran a fringe of mountain territory in the extreme north of the peninsula. Here arose several Christian states, including Leon, Castile, Navarre, and 1 The name Moor (derived from the Roman province of Mauretania) is applied to the Arab awl Berber peoples who occupied North Africa and Spain. 200 The Middle Ages Aragon. They fought steadily to enlarge their boundaries, with such success that by the close of the thirteenth century Moorish Spain had been reduced to the kingdom of Granada. Mean- while, the separate states were coming together, and the mar- The dates are those of Christii .Conquest of Moorish Territory Territory added \t beginning of to the end of loth 12th Century Century (14921 Aragon Q WM Navarre llllll I;:;;?;':;! Portugal H Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages riage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile completed the process. Ferdinand and Isabella captured Granada in 1492, thus ending Moorish rule in Spain. No effort was made by the Ottoman Turks, who shortly before had taken Constantinople, to defend this last stronghold of Islam in the West. The complete establishment of feudalism in any country meant, as has been shown, 1 its division into numerous small Feudalism communities, each with an army, law court, and and royalty treasury. A king often became little more than a figurehead, equaled or perhaps surpassed in power by some of his own vassals. The sovereigns, who saw themselves thus stripped of all but the semblance of authority, were naturally 1 See page 170. National States during the Later Middle Ages 201 anti-feudal, and during the later Middle Ages they began to get the upper hand of their nobles. They formed permanent armies by insisting that all military service should be rendered to themselves and not to the feudal lords. They put down private warfare between the nobles and took over the adminis- tration of justice. They developed a revenue system, with the taxes collected by royal officers and deposited in the royal treasury. The sovereigns thus succeeded in creating a unified, centralized government, which all their subjects feared, respected, and obeyed. The triumph of royalty over feudalism was in many ways a gain for civilization. Feudalism, though better than no govern- ment at all, did not meet the needs of a progressive The new society. Only strong-handed kings could keep the monarchies peace, punish crime, and foster industry and trade. The kings, of course, were generally despotic, repressing not only the privileges of the nobles but also popular liberties. Despotism never became so pronounced in England as on the Continent, because the Eng- lish people during the Middle Ages developed a Parliament to represent them and the Common Law to protect them from royal oppression. They also compelled various sovereigns to issue charters, especially Magna Carta, which was secured from King John in 1215. This famous document, among other things, provided that henceforth no one might be arrested, im- prisoned, or punished in any way, except after a trial by his equals and in accordance with the law of the land. Magna Carta contained the germ of legal principles upon which English- men ever afterward relied for protection against their rulers. The new monarchies, by breaking down feudalism, promoted the growth of national or patriotic sentiments. Loyalty to the sovereign and to the state which he represented The new gradually replaced allegiance to the feudal lord, nationalism Nobles, clergy, city folk, and peasants began to think of them- selves as one people and to have for their "fatherland" the warmest feelings of patriotic devotion. This new nationalism was especially well developed in England, France, and Spain at the close of the Middle Ages. 202 The Middle Ages Studies i. What happened in 622? in 732? in 800? in 843? in 962? in 1066? in 1095? in 1215? and in 1453? 2. "The Germans had stolen their way into the very citadel of the empire long before its distant outworks were stormed." Comment on this statement. 3. Set forth the conditions which hindered, and those which favored, the fusion of Germans and Romans. 4. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of Charle- magne's empire, distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he ac- quired by conquest. 5. Compare the invasions of the Northmen with those of the Germans as to (a) causes, (b) area covered, and (c) results. 6. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither the kings of France nor those of Italy or Germany, but the feudal lords." Comment on this statement. 7. Contrast feu- dalism as a political system with (a) the classical city-states; (b) the Roman Empire; and (c) modern national states. 8. Explain the terms "Greek Empire," "Byzantine Empire," and "Roman Empire in the East." 9. Compare the respective areas in 800 of the Byzantine Empire and the empire of Charlemagne 10. "The Byzan- tines were the teachers of the Slavs, as the Romans were of the Germans." Comment on this statement. 1 1 . On an outline map indicate the Arabian Empire at its great- est extent, together with ten important cities 12. Show that Islam was an heir to the Hellenistic civilization of antiquity. 13 "From the eighth to the twelfth cen- tury the world knew but two civilizations, that of Byzantium and that of the Arabs '' Comment on this statement 14. "Mixture or at least contact of races, is essential to progress." How do the crusades illustrate this statement? 15. Were the crusades the only means by which western Europe was brought into contact with Arabian civilization? 16. What parts of Asia were not included in the Mongol Empire at its greatest extent? 17. Why were the invasions of the Mongols and Ottoman Turks more destructive to civilization than those of the Germans, the Arabs, and the Northmen? 18. " Good government in the Middle Ages was only another name tor a public-spirited and powerful monarchy." Comment on this statement CHAPTER VI MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION 1 51. The Church The most important civilizing influence in western Europe during the Middle Ages was the Roman Church. The Church performed a double task. On the one hand, it gave „. „. , ,- • , i - , The Church the people religious instruction and watched over and medie- their morals; on the other hand, it took an impor- ^ civiliza - tion tant part in secular affairs. Priests and monks were almost the only persons of education; consequently, they controlled the schools, wrote the books, framed the laws, acted as royal ministers, and served as members of the Parliament or other national assembly. The Church thus directed the higher life of a medieval community. The Church held spiritual sway throughout western Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of Spain, France, Territorial the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Bohemia, extent of Hungary, Poland, the British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland yielded obedience to the pope of Rome. Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. All people, except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person joined the Church by baptism, a rite usually The Church performed in infancy, and remained in it as long as as universal he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least out- wardly, to the doctrines and practices of the Church, and any one attacking its authority was liable to punishment as a heretic. ' Webster, Readings in if "rial and Modern History, chapter iii, "The Bcnedic- tine Rule"; chapter x, "Monastic Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter si, "St. Francis and the Franciscans"; chapter xvii, ".Medieval Tales"; chapter xviii, "Three Medieval Epics." 204 Medieval Civilization The existence of one Church in the western world furnished a bond of union between European peoples. The Church took The Church no heed of political boundaries, for men of all as inter- nationalities entered the ranks of the priesthood and joined the monastic orders. Priests and monks were subjects of no country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they sometimes called themselves. Even differences of language counted for little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of the educated classes. One must think, then, of the Church as a great international state, in form a monarchy, pre- sided over by the pope, and with its capital at Rome. The Church taught a belief in a personal God, all-wise, all- good, all-powerful, to know whom was the highest goal of life. . The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith in the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since the unaided human reason could not properly interpret the Scriptures, it was necessary for the Church, through her officers, to declare their meaning. The Church thus appeared as the repository of religious knowledge, as the "gate of heaven." Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain beliefs. There were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in which the faithful Christian must participate, if he was not to be cut off eternally from God. They formed channels of heavenly grace; they saved man from the consequences of his sinful nature and filled him with the "fullness of divine life." Bap- tism and the Eucharist (Lord's Supper) were the two most important sacraments. Since priests alone could administer them, the Church presented itself as the necessary mediator between God and man. As soon as Christianity had triumphed in the Roman Empire, thus becoming the religion of the rich and powerful as well as of the poor and lowly, more attention was devoted to the conduct of worship. Magnificent church build- ings were often erected. Their architects seem to have followed as models the basilicas, or public halls, which formed so familiar a sight in Roman cities. Church interiors were adorned with paintings, mosaic pictures, images of saints, and the figure of the GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 3 Extent of Christianity about 400 A. D. I I Mohammedanism is D Area Christianized 400-800 A. D. shown by white bands I D Area Christianized 800-1100 A. D, SS SS SS SSl j Division between the Greek and Roman Churches 3 Area Christianized 1100-1300 A. D. Boundaries (in 622 A.D) of the patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria '' BtSping - yosti. The Church 205 cross. Lighted candles on the altars and the burning of fragrant incense lent an additional impressiveness to worship. Beautiful prayers and hymns were composed. Organs and church bells also came into use during the Middle Ages. Many cases, which to-day would be decided according to the civil or criminal law of the State, in the Middle Ages came before ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage was Ecclesiasti- considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself cal courts to decide what marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of first cousins, of second cousins, and of godparents and godchildren. It re- fused to sanction divorce, for whatever cause, if both parties at the time of mar- riage had been baptized Christians. The Church dealt with inheritance un- der wills, for a man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and con- fession formed part of the sacrament of penance. All contracts made binding by oaths came under Church jurisdiction, because an oath was an appeal to God. The Church tried those who were charged with any sin against religion, in- cluding heresy, blasphemy, the taking of interest (usury), and the practice of witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the families of pilgrims or crusaders also enjoyed the special protection of the Church. Disobedience to the regulations of the Church might be fol- lowed by excommunication. This was a coercive measure which cut off the offender from Christian fellowship. He Excommu- could neither attend religious services nor enjoy J" ^ 011 the sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommuni- cate, his body could not be buried in consecrated ground. By Religious Music From a window of the cathedral of Bourges, a city in central France. Shows a pipe organ and chimes. 206 Medieval Civilization the law of the State he lost all civil rights and forfeited all his property. No one might speak to him, feed him, or shelter him. Such a terrible penalty, it is well to point out, was usually im- posed only after the sinner had received a fair trial and had spurned all entreaties to repent. Excommunication still retains an important place among the spiritual weapons of the Church. We may now consider the attitude of the Church toward the social and economic problems of the Middle Ages. In regard The Church td private warfare, the prevalence of which formed and warfare one f t h e g rea test evils of the time, the Church, in general, cast its influence on the side of peace. It forbade attacks on all defenseless people, including priests, monks, pilgrims, merchants, peasants, and women. It also established a "Truce of God," which required all men to cease fighting from Wednesday evening to Monday morning of each week, in Lent, and on various holy days. The truce would have given western Europe peace for about two-thirds of the year, but it was never strictly observed, except in limited areas. The feudal lords could not be deterred from warring with one another, even though they were threatened with the torments of hell. The Church did not carry its pacific policy so far as to condemn war- fare against heretics and infidels. Christians believed it a religious duty to exterminate these enemies of God. The Church was distinguished for charitable work. It dis- tributed large sums to the needy. It also multiplied hospitals, The Church orphanages, and asylums. Medieval charity, how- and charity ever, was very often injudicious. The problem of removing the causes of poverty seems never to have been raised; and the indiscriminate giving multiplied, rather than reduced, the number of beggars. Neither slavery nor serfdom, into which slavery gradually passed, was ever pronounced unlawful by pope or Church coun- The Church c ^* The Church condemned slavery only when it and slavery was the servitude of a Christian in bondage to and serfdom & j ew Qr an infidel _ Abbots, bishops, and popes possessed slaves and serfs. The serfs of some wealthy monas- teries were counted by thousands. The Church, nevertheless, The Clergy 207 encouraged the freeing of bondmen as a meritorious act and always preached the duty of kindness and forbearance toward them. The Church also helped to promote the cause of human free- dom by insisting on the natural equality of all men in the sight of God. "The Creator," wrote one of the popes, Democracy "distributes his gifts without regard to social of the Church classes. In his eyes there are neither nobles nor serfs." The Church gave practical expres- sion to this atti- tude by opening the priesthood and monastic or- ders to every one, whether high- born or low-born, whether rich or poor. Naturally enough, the Church attracted to its service the keenest minds of the age. 52. The Clergy A Bishop Ordaining a Priest From an English manuscript of the twelfth century. The bishop wears a miter and holds in his left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head. Some one has said that in the Mi' k lie Ages there were just three classes of society: the nobles who fought; the peasants who worked; and the clergy who prayed. Parish An account of the clergy naturally begins with the P nests parish priest, who had charge of a parish, the smallest division of Christendom. He was the only Church officer who came continually into touch with the common people. He baptized, married, and buried his parishioners. He celebrated mass at least once a week, heard confessions, and imposed penance. He 208 Medieval Civilization watched over all their deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to come. A group of parishes formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was his business to look after the property belonging Bishops and to the diocese, to hold the ecclesiastical courts, to archbishops v j s ^ ^g clergy, and to see that they did their duty. Since the Church held many estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was usually a territorial lord, owing a vassal's obligations to the king or to some powerful noble for his land, and himself ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As symbols of his power and dignity, the bishop wore on his head the miter and carried the pastoral staff, or crosier. Above the bishop stood the archbishop. In England, for example, there were two arch- bishops, one residing at York and the other at Canterbury. The latter, as "Primate of All England," was the highest ecclesi- astical dignitary in the country. A church which contained the official throne * of a bishop or archbishop was called a cathedral. It was ordinarily the largest and most magnificent church in the diocese. The earlier monks were hermits. They devoted themselves, as they believed, to the service of God, by retiring to the desert for prayer, meditation, and bodily mortification. A life shut off from all contact with one's fellows is difficult and beyond the strength of ordinary men. The mere human need for social intercourse gradually brought the hermits together, at first in small groups and then in larger communities, or monasteries. The next step was to give the scattered monasteries a common organization and government. Those in western Christendom gradually adopted the regulations which St. Benedict (about 529) drew up for the guidance of his monastery at Monte Cassino in Italy. The monks obeying the Benedictine Rule formed a corpora- tion, presided over by an abbot, 2 who held office for life. Every The Bene- candidate for admission took the vow of obedience dictineRule to ^ e aD bot. Any man, rich or poor, noble or peasant, might enter the monastery after a year's probation; 1 Latin cathedra. 2 From a Syrian word, abba, meaning "father." The Clergy 209 having once joined, however, he must remain a monk for the rest of his days. The monks lived under strict discipline. They could not own any property; they could not go beyond the monastery walls without the abbot's consent; and they Abbey of Saint-Germain des Pres, Paris This celebrated monastery was founded in the sixth century. Of the original buildings only the abbey church remains. The illustration shows the monastery as it was in 1.561, with walls, towers, drawbridge, and moat. Adjoining the church were the cloister, the refectory, and the dormitory. followed a regular round of worship, reading from the Bible, private prayer, and meditation. For most of the day, however, they worked hard with their hands, doing the necessary washing and cooking for the monastery, raising the necessary supplies of vegetables and grain, and performing all the other tasks required to maintain a large establishment. This emphasis on labor, as a religious duty, was a characteristic feature of western monas- ticism. "To labor is to pray" became its motto. 210 Medieval Civilization The civilizing influence of the Benedictine monks during the early Middle Ages can scarcely be over-emphasized. A monas- The monks tery was often at once a model farm, an inn, a hos- as civilizers pital, a school, and a library. By the careful cultivation of their lands the monks set an example of good farming wherever they settled. They entertained pilgrims and travelers at a period when western Europe was almost destitute of inns. They performed many works of charity, feeding the hungry, healing the sick who were brought to their doors, and distributing their medicines freely to those who needed them. In their schools they trained both boys who wished to become priests, and those who intended to lead active lives in the world. The monks, too, were the only scholars of the age. By copying the manuscripts of classical authors, they preserved valuable books that would otherwise have been lost. By keeping records of the most striking events of their time, they acted as chroniclers of medieval history. To all these services must be added the work of the monks as missionaries among the heathen. Yet even the Benedictine system had its limitations. The monks lived apart from their fellow-men and sought chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new conception of The friars - . ,.. ..... . the religious life arose early in the thirteenth cen- tury, with the coming of the friars. 1 Their aim was social service. They devoted themselves to the salvation of others. The foundation of the orders of friars was the work of two men, St. Francis in Italy and St. Dominic in Spain. The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in many ways. They went on foot from place to place, and wore coarse robes tied round the waist with a rope. They possessed no property, but lived on the alms of the charitable. They were also preachers, who spoke to the people, not in Latin, but in the common language of each country which they visited. The Franciscans worked especially in the slums of the cities; the Dominicans addressed themselves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time went on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty 1 Latin frater, "brother." The Papacy 211 and became very wealthy. They still survive, scattered all over the world and engaged chiefly in teaching and missionary activity. The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great deal to call forth a religious revival in Europe during the thir- teenth century. In particular, they helped to The friars strengthen the papal authority. Both orders re- and the ceived the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed papacy many privileges at his hands; and both looked to him for direc- tion. The pope employed them to raise money, to preach crusades, and to impose excommunications. The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents of the Papacy. 53. The Papacy i. . lU The claim of the Roman bishops to spiritual supremacy over the Christian world had a The Petrine double basis. Certain supremacy passages in the New Testament, where St. Peter is represented as the rock on which the Church is built Papal Arms According to the well-known pas- sage in Matthew (xvi, 19), Christ gave to St. Peter the "keys of the and the doorkeeper of the kingdom kin « d ° m of heaven," with the power , "to bind and to loose." These keys Of heaven, appear tO indicate that are always represented in the papal he was regarded by Christ as the arms - t°g ether with the tia *a °* head- ' dress, worn by the popes on certain chief of the Apostles. Furthermore, occasions. a well-established tradition made St. Peter the founder of the Roman Church and its first bishop. It was then argued that he passed to his successors, the popes, all his rights and dignity. As St. Peter was the first among the Apostles, so the popes were to be the first among bishops. Such was the doctrine of the Petrine supremacy, expressed as far back as the second century, strongly asserted by many popes during the Middle Ages, and maintained to-day by the Roman Church. 212 Medieval Civilization The name "pope" x seems at first to have been applied to all priests as a title of respect and affection. The Greek Church •pi,- „«„»>«, still continues this use of the word. In the West it Ine pope s exalted gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of posi on Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed in speaking as "Your Holiness." His exalted position was further indicated by the tiara, or headdress with triple crowns, worn by him in processions. He went to solemn ceremonies sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders of his guard. He gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who approached him kissed his feet in reverence. The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Church. His decrees might not be set aside by any other person. He made The pope's new laws in the form of "bulls" 2 and by his "dis- authority pensations" could in particular cases set aside old laws, such as those forbidding cousins to marry or monks to obtain release from their vows. The pope was also the supreme judge of the Church, for all appeals from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for decision. Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church. He confirmed the elec- tion of bishops, deposed them, when necessary, or transferred them from one diocese to another. The pope also exercised control over the monastic orders and called general councils of the Church. The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the "legates," 3 whom he sent out as his representatives at the The papal various European courts. These officers kept the legates pope in close touch with the condition of the Church in every part of western Europe. A similar function is per- formed in modern times by the papal ambassadors known as "nuncios." For assistance in government the pope made use of the car- dinals, 4 who formed a board, or "college." At first they were 1 Latin papa, "father." 2 So called from the lead seal (Latin bulla) attached to papal documents. 3 Latin legalus, "deputy." 4 Latin cardinalis, "principal." Exterior Interior ST. PETER'S, ROME St. Peter's, begun in 1506 A.D., was completed in 1667, according to the designs of Bra- mante, Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated architects. It is the largest church in the world. The central aisle, nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length; the great dome, 140 feet in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade en- circles the piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the right of St. Peter's. The Papacy 2 1 3 chosen only from the clergy of Rome and the vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The number of car- _ .. , Cardinals dinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is never full, and there are always several "vacant hats," as the saying goes. The cardinals, in the eleventh century, received the right of choosing a new pope. A cardinal's dignity is indi- cated by the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title of "Eminence" applied to him. The pope was a temporal sovereign, ruling over Rome and the States of the Church. These possessions included during the Middle Ages the greater part of central Italy, states of The pope did not lose them altogether until the the Church formation of the present Italian Kingdom, in the second half of the nineteenth century. To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the splendor of the papal court required a large annual income. This came partly from the States of the Church, partly income of from the gifts of the faithful, and partly from the the PaDac y payments made by the abbots, bishops, and archbishops when the pope confirmed their election to office. Still another source of revenue consisted of "Peter's pence," a tax of a penny on each hearth. It was collected every year in England and in some Continental countries until the time of the Reformation. The modern "Peter's pence" is a voluntary contribution made each year by Roman Catholics in all parts of the world. Rome, the Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known world had been ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital of the Papacy. Few traces now remain of The capital the medieval city. Old St. Peter's Church, where of the Papacy Charlemagne was crowned emperor, gave way in the sixteenth century to the world-famous structure" that now occupies its site. The Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years served as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now live in the splendid palace of the Vatican, adjoin- ing St. Peter's. ^- — 214 Medieval Civilization 54. Country Life Civilization has always had its home in the city. Nothing marks more strongly the backwardness of the early Middle Ages Decline of than the absence of the flourishing cities which urban life ^j filled western Europe under the Roman Em- pire. 1 The Teutonic invasions led to a gradual decay of manu- facturing and commerce and hence of the cities in which those activities centered. As urban life declined, the mass of the -ft«U^"^** — .,,:':-,,„,; Sulgrave Manor Sulgrave, in Northhamptonshire, was the ancestral home of the Washington family. The manor house, built by Lawrence Washington about the middle of the sixteenth century, bears the family coat-of-arms on the porch. This historic dwelling has been purchased by an English committee for preservation as a memorial of the friendship and blood-relationship between England and the United States. population came to live more and more in isolated rural com- munities. This was the great economic feature of the early Middle Ages. An estate in land, when owned by a lord and occupied by dependent peasants, was called a manor. 2 It naturally varied in size according to the wealth of its lord. Every noble had at least one manor; great nobles might have several manors, usually scattered throughout the country; The manor 1 See page 141. 2 From the Old French manoir, 'mansion" (Latin manere, "to dwell"). Country Life 215 and even the king depended upon his many manors for the food supply of the court. England, during the period following the Norman Conquest, contained more than nine thousand of these manorial estates. Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire Lord's demesne, diagonal lines. Meadow and pasture lands, dotted areas. Normal holding of a peasant, black strips. The lord reserved for his own use a part of the arable land of the manor. This was his "demesne," or domain. The rest of the land he allotted to the peasants who were his „ r . Common cul- tenants. They cultivated their holdings in com- tivation of mon, according to the "open-field" system. A the arable fanner, instead of having his land in one compact mass, had it split up into a large number of small strips (usually an acre or a half-acre) scattered over the manor, and separated, not by fences or hedges, but by banks of unplowed turf. The appearance of a manor, when under cultivation, has 216 Medieval Civilization been likened to a vast checkerboard or a patchwork quilt. The reason for the intermixture of strips seems to have been to make sure that each farmer had a portion both of the good land and of the bad. It is obvious that this arrangement com- pelled all the peasants to labor according to a common plan. A man had to sow the same kinds of crops as his neighbors, and to till and reap them at the same time. Agriculture, under such circumstances, could not fail to be unprogressive. Farmers did not know how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers and a proper rotation of crops. Consequently, they Farming divided all the arable land into three parts, one of methods which was sown with wheat or rye, and another with oats or barley, while the third was allowed to lie fallow (uncultivated) for a year, so that it might recover its fertility. Eight or nine bushels of grain represented the average yield of an acre. Farm animals were small, for scientific breeding had not yet begun. Farm implements, also, were few and clumsy. It took five men a day to reap and bind the harvest of two acres. Besides his holding of arable land, which in England averaged about thirty acres, each peasant had certain rights over the r rtmm ™ „co non-arable land of the manor. He could cut a Common use of the non- limited amount of hay from the meadow. He could an ^ um sQ man y f arm animals — cattle, geese, swine — - on the waste. He also enjoyed the privilege of taking so much wood from the forest for fuel and building purposes. A peasant's holding, which also included a house in the village, thus formed a complete outfit. The peasants on a manor lived close together in one or more villages. Their small, thatch-roofed, and one-roomed houses Description were grouped about an open space (the "green"), of a village or on ^q^ s [^ es f a single, narrow street. The only important buildings were the parish church, the parsonage, a mill, if a stream ran through the manor, and possibly a black- smith's shop. The population of one of these communities often did not exceed one hundred souls. A village in the Middle Ages had a regular staff of officials. First came the headman or reeve, who represented the peasants Country Life 217 in their dealings with the lord of the manor. Next came the constable or beadle, whose duty it was to carry messages around the village, summon the inhabitants to meetings, village and enforce the orders of the reeve. Then there officials were the pound-keeper, who seized straying animals; the watch- man, who guarded the flocks at night; and the village carpenter, blacksmith, and miller. These officials, in return for their ser- vices, received an allowance of land, which the villagers culti- vated for them. Perhaps the most striking feature of a medieval village was its self-sufficiency. The inhabitants tried to produce at home everything they required, in order to avoid the a village as uncertainty and expense of trade. The land gave self-sufficing them their food; the forest provided them with wood for houses and furniture. They made their own clothes of flax, wool, and leather. Their meal and flour were ground at the village mill, and at the village smithy their farm implements were manufac- tured. The chief articles which needed to be brought from some distant market included salt, used to salt down farm animals killed in autumn, iron for various tools, and millstones. Cattle, horses, and surplus grain also formed common objects of exchange between manors. Life in a medieval village was rude and rough. The peasants labored from sunrise to sunset, ate coarse fare, lived in huts, and suffered from frequent pestilences. They were Hard lot of often the helpless prey of the feudal nobles. If the peasants their lord happened to be a quarrelsome man, given to fighting with his neighbors, they might see their land ravaged, their cattle driven off, and their village burned, and might them- selves be slain. Even under peaceful conditions the narrow, shut- in life of the manor could not be otherwise than degrading. Yet there is another side to the picture. If the peasants had a just and generous lord, they probably led a fairly comfortable existence. Except when crops failed, they had an Alleviations abundance of food, and possibly wine or cider to of the peas- drink. They shared a common life in the work of the fields, in the sports of the village green, and in the services Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century Plowing. Harrowing. Cutting Weeds. Reaping. 2l8 Serfdom 219 of the parish church. They enjoyed many holidays; it has been estimated that, besides Sundays, about eight weeks in every year were free from work. Festivities at Christmas, Easter, and May Day, at the end of ploughing and the com- pletion of harvest, also relieved the monotony of labor. 55. Serfdom A medieval village usually contained several classes of labor- ers. There might be a number of freemen, who paid a fixed rent, either in money or produce, for the use of Freeman their land. A few slaves might also be found in the slaves, and lord's household or at work on his demesne. By this time, however, slavery had about died out in western Europe. Most of the peasants were serfs. A slave belonged to his master; he was bought and sold like other chattels. A serf had a higher position, for he could not be sold apart from the land nor could his holding be Nature of taken from him. He was fixed to the soil. On serfdom the other hand, a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he could not change his abode, nor marry outside the manor, nor bequeath his goods, without the permission of his lord. The serf did not receive his land as a gift; for the use of it he owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the form of personal services. He must labor on the Obligations • lord's demesne for two or three days each week, of the serf and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting. he must do extra work. At least half his time was usually demanded by the lord. The serf had also to make certain pay- ments, either in money or more often in grain, honey, eggs, or other produce. When he ground the wheat or pressed the grapes which grew on his land, he must use the lord's mill or the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman Empire and in the early Middle Ages. Many serfs seem to have been descendants of the tenants, both free and origin of servile, who had worked the great Roman estates serfdom in western Europe. The serf class was also recruited from the 2 20 Medieval Civilization n z ranks of free Germans, whom the disturbed conditions of the time induced to seek the protection of a lord. Serfdom, being a system of forced labor, was not very profita- ble to the lord, and it was irksome to his dependents. After Decline of the revival of trade and industry in the twelfth serfdom an( j thirteenth centuries had brought more money into circulation, the lord discovered how much better it was to hire men to work for him, instead of depending on serfs who shirked their tasks as far as possible. The latter, in turn, were glad to pay the lord a fixed sum (rent) for the use of the land, since now they could devote themselves entirely to its cultivation. [ i^A/At-Y (II Both parties gained by an arrange- ment which converted the manorial lord into a landlord and the serf into Jl -T—rp^ A\ \)\\\ a free tenant-farmer. The emancipation of the peasantry was hastened, strangely enough, as The Black the result of perhaps the Death most terrible calamity that has ever afflicted mankind. About the middle of the fourteenth century a pestilence of Asiatic origin, now known to have been the bubonic plague, reached the West. The Black Death, so called because among its symptoms were dark patches all over the body, moved steadily across Europe. The way for its ravages had been prepared by the unhealthful conditions of ventilation and drainage in villages and towns. After attacking Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain, France, and Germany, the plague entered England in 1349, and within less than two years swept away probably half the population. The pestilence in England, as in other countries, caused a great scarcity of labor. For want of hands to bring in the harvest, crops rotted on the ground, while sheep and cattle, with no one to care for them, strayed through the deserted fields. The free Serf Warming his Hands After a medieval manuscript. City Life 221 peasants who survived demanded and received higher wages. Even the serfs, whose labor was now more valued, found them- selves in a better position. The lord of a manor, Effects of the in order to keep his laborers, would often allow Black Death them to substitute money payments for personal services. When the serfs secured no concessions, they frequently took to flight and hired themselves to the highest bidder. All this went on in spite of numerous statutes passed by Parliament ordering workmen to accept the old rate of wages and forbidding them to migrate in search of better employment. The emancipation of the peasantry continued throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Serfdom by 1500 had virtually disappeared in Italy, in parts of France Extinction and Germany, and in England. Some less favored of serfdom countries retained serfdom much longer. Prussian, Austrian, and Russian serfs did not secure freedom until the nineteenth century. 56. City Life The great economic feature of the later Middle Ages was the growth of cities. Developing trade, commerce, and manufac- tures led to the increase of wealth, the growth of The civic markets, and the substitution of money payments revival for those in produce or services. Flourishing cities arose, as in the days of the Roman Empire, freed themselves from the control of the nobles, and became the homes of liberty and democracy. A number of medieval cities stood on the sites, and even within the walls, of Roman municipalities. Particularly in Italy, southern France, and Spain, and also in the Rhine and Danube regions, it seems that some u!!^!„ „,„- » Roman origin ancient cities had never been entirely destroyed during the Teutonic invasions. They preserved their Roman names, their streets, aqueducts, amphitheaters, and churches, and possibly vestiges of their Roman institutions. Among them were such important centers as Milan, Florence, Venice, Lyons, Marseilles, Paris, Vienna, Cologne, London, and York. 222 Medieval Civilization Many medieval cities were new foundations. Some began as small communities which increased in size because of exceptional Origin of advantages of situation. A place where a river other cities could be forded, where two roads met, or where a good harbor existed, would naturally become the resort of traders. Some, again, started as fortresses, behind whose ram- parts the peasants took refuge when danger threatened. A third group of cities developed from villages on the manors. A thriving settlement was pretty sure to spring up near a monas- tery or castle, which offered both protection and employment to the common people. The city at first formed part of the feudal system. It arose upon the territory of a lord and owed obedience to him. The The city and citizens ranked not much higher than serfs, though feudalism ^gy were traders and artisans instead of farmers. They enjoyed no political rights, for their lord collected the taxes, appointed officials, kept order, and punished offenders. In short, the city was not free. As its inhabitants became more numerous and wealthy, they refused to submit, to oppression. Sometimes they won their freedom by hard fighting; more often they purchased it, perhaps from some noble who needed money to go on a crusade. In France, England, and Spain, where the royal power was strong, the cities only obtained exemption from their feudal burdens. In Germany and Italy, on the other hand, the weakness of the central government permitted many cities to secure complete independence. One of them survives to this day as the little Italian republic of San Marino, and three others — Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck — entered the German Empire in the nineteenth century as separate common- wealths. The free city had no room for either slaves or serfs. All ser- vile conditions ceased inside its walls. The rule prevailed that Rise of the any one who had lived in a city for the term of a middle class y ear an( j a ^ay cou ld no longer be claimed by a lord as his serf. This rule found expression in the famous saying, "Town air renders free." The freedom of the cities naturally attracted many immigrants to them. There came into existence City Life 223 a middle class of city people, between the clergy and nobles on the one side and the peasants on the other side — what the French call the bourgeoisie. 1 Henceforth the middle class, or bourgeoisie, distinguished as it was for wealth, intelligence, and enterprise, exerted an ever greater influence on European affairs. 1 iTTv^r^ , J-/;;;^>^ ! ~tyjtow House of Jacques Cceur, Bourges Built in the hitter part of the fifteenth century by a very wealthy French merchant. It is an admirable example of Gothic domestic architecture. The visitor approaching a medieval city through miles of open fields saw it clear in the sunlight, unobscured by coal smoke. It looked like a fortress from without, a city from with walls, towers, gateways, drawbridges, and wlthout moat. Beyond the fortifications he would see, huddled to- gether against the sky, the spires of the churches and the cathedral, the roofs of the larger houses, and the dark, frown- ing mass of the castle. The general impression was one of wealth and strength and beauty. 1 From French bourg, "town." 224 Medieval Civilization The visitor would not find things so attractive within the walls. The streets were narrow, crooked, and ill-paved, dark A city from during the day because of the overhanging houses, within an( } w ithout illumination at night. There were no open spaces or parks except a small market-place. The whole city was cramped by its walls, which shut out light, air, and view, and prevented expansion into the neighboring country. Medieval London, for instance, covered an area of less than one square mile. A city in the Middle Ages lacked sanitary Unsanitary ar range- conditions ments. The only water supply came from polluted streams and wells. Sewers and sidewalks were quite unknown. " Belery~oe Bruges Peo P le P iled U P their Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, contains many refuse in the backyard fine monuments of the Middle Ages. Among these is the or flung it into the belfry, which rises in the center of the facade of the market - hall. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. Street, tO be deVOUr- Its height is 352 feet. The belfry consists of three stories, e( J J-jy £he dogS and the two lower ones square, and the upper one, octagonal. . i • 1 j pigs which served as scavengers. The holes in the pavement collected all man- ner of filth, and the unpaved lanes, in wet weather, became quagmires. The living were crowded together in many-storied houses, airless and gloomy; the dead were buried close at hand in crowded churchyards. Such unsanitary conditions must have been responsible for much of the sickness that was prevalent. The high death rate could only be offset by a birth Civic Industry 225 rate correspondingly high, and by the constant influx of country people. The inhabitants of the city took a just pride in their public buildings. The market-place, where traders assembled, often contained a beautiful cross and sometimes a market Public hall to shelter goods from the weather. Not far buildings away rose the city hall for the transaction of public business and the holding of civic feasts. The hall might be crowned by a high belfry with an alarm bell to summon the citizens to mass meetings. There were also a number of churches and abbeys and, if the city was the capital of a bishop's diocese, an imposing cathedral. The small size of medieval cities — few included as many as ten thousand inhabitants — simplified the problem of governing them. The leading merchants usually formed a Municipal council presided over by a head magistrate, the government burgomaster 1 or mayor, 2 who was assisted by aldermen. 3 In some places the guilds chose the officials and manged civic affairs. These associations had many functions and held a most important place in city life. It will be necessary, therefore, to describe them in some detail. 57. Civic Industry The Anglo-Saxon word "guild," which means "to pay," came to be applied to a club or society whose members made contributions for some common purpose. This form of association is very old. Some of the guilds of imperial Rome had been established in the age of the kings, while not a few of those which flourish to-day in China and India were founded before the Christian era. Guilds existed in Continental Europe as early as the time of Charlemagne, but they did not become prominent until after the crusades. A guild of merchants grew up when those who bought and sold goods in any place united to protect their own interests. 1 German burgermeisler, fn>m burg, "castle." 2 French mairr, from Latin major, "greater." 'Anglo-Saxon caldormati {add means "old"). 226 Medieval Civilization The membership included many artisans, as well as profes- Merchant sional traders, for in medieval times a man might guilds se r{ j n th e f ron t room of his shop the goods which he and his assistants made in the back rooms. The chief duty of a merchant guild was to Commercial preserve to monopoly its Qwn mem _ bers the monopoly of trade within a town. Strangers and non- guildsmen could not buy or sell there except un- der conditions imposed by the guild. They must pay the town tolls, con- fine their dealings to guildsmen, and as a rule sell only at wholesale. They were forbidden to purchase wares which the townspeople wanted for themselves, or to set up shops for retail trade. They enjoyed more free- dom at the numerous fairs, which were intended to attract outsiders. After a time the traders and artisans engaged in a particular occupation began to form associations of their own. Thus arose the craft guilds, composed of weavers, shoe- makers, bakers, tailors, carpenters, and so on, until almost every form of industry had its separate organization. The names of the various occupations came to be used as the surnames of those engaged in them, so that to-day we have such common family names as Smith, Cooper, Fuller, Potter, Chand- ler, and many others. The number of craft guilds in an impor- tant city might be very large. London and Paris at one time A German Merchant in the Fourteenth Century After a miniature in an illuminated manuscript. Craft guilds Civic Industry 227 each had more than one hundred, and Cologne in Germany had as many as eighty. The members of a particular guild usually lived in the same street or quarter of the city, not only for companionship, but also for better supervision of their labor. Just as the merchant guilds regulated town trade, so the craft guilds had charge of town industry. No one could engage in any craft without becoming a member of the industrial guild which controlled it and submitting to the monopoly guild regulations. A man's hours of labor and the prices at which he sold his goods were fixed for him by the guild. He might not work elsewhere than in his shop, because of the difficulty of supervising him, nor might he work by artificial light, lest he turn out badly finished goods. Everything made by him was carefully inspected to see if it contained shoddy materials or showed poor workmanship. Failure to meet the test meant a heavy fine or perhaps expulsion from the guild. The industrial monopoly possessed by the craft guild thus gave some protection to both producer and consumer. Full membership in a guild was reached only by degrees. A boy started as an apprentice, that is, a learner. He paid a sum of money to his master and agreed to serve him organization for a fixed period, usually seven years. The of craft master, in turn, promised to provide the apprentice with food, lodging, and clothing, and to teach him all the secrets of the craft. At the end of his period of service the appren- tice had to pass an examination by the guild. If he was found fit, he then became a journeyman and worked for daily wages. As soon as he had saved enough money, he might set up as a master in his own shop. A master was at once workman and employer, laborer and capitalist. The guilds had their charitable and religious aspects. Each one raised large benefit funds for the relief of members or their widows and orphans. Each one had its private Activities altar in the cathedral, or often its own chapel, of craft where masses were said for the repose of the souls of deceased members, and where on the day of its patron saint religious services were held. The guild was also a social organiza- 228 Medieval Civilization tion, with frequent meetings for a feast in its hall or in some inn. The guilds in some cities entertained the people with an annual play or procession. It is clear that the members of a craft guild had common interests and shared a common life. As the craft guilds prospered and increased in wealth, they tended to become exclusive organizations. Membership fees Dissolution were ra *i se( l so high that few could afford to pay of craft them, while the number of apprentices that a gul s master might take was strictly limited. It also became increasingly difficult for journeymen to rise to the sta- tion of masters; they often remained wage-earners for life. The mass of workmen could no longer participate in the bene- fits of the guild system. In the eighteenth century most of the guilds lost their monopoly of industry, and in the nineteenth century they gave way to trade unions. 58. Civic Trade Nearly every town of any consequence had a weekly or semi- weekly market, which was held in the market-place or in the churchyard. Marketing often occurred on Sunday. Outsiders who brought cattle and produce for sale in the market were required to pay tolls, either to the town authorities or -sometimes to a neighboring nobleman. These market dues survive in the octroi collected at the gates of some European cities. People in the Middle Ages did not believe in unrestricted com- petition. It was thought wrong for any one to purchase goods outside of the regular market ("forestalling") or "Just price" , P . .\. A , to purchase them in larger quantities than necessary ("engrossing"). A man ought not to charge for a thing more than it was worth, or to buy a thing cheap and sell it dear. The idea prevailed that goods should be sold at their "just price," which was not determined by supply and demand, but by an estimate of the cost of the materials and the labor that went into their manufacture. Laws were often passed fixing this "just price," but it was as difficult then as now to prevent the "cornering of the market" by shrewd and unscrupulous traders. Civic Trade 229 Many towns also held fairs once or twice a year. The fairs often lasted for a month or more. They were especially necessary in medieval Europe, because merchants did not . keep large quantities or many kinds of goods on their shelves, nor could intending purchasers afford to travel far in search of what they wanted. A fair at an English town, such as Stourbridge, Winchester, or St. Ives, might attract Venetians and Genoese with silk, pepper, and spices of the East, Flemings with fine cloths and linens, Spaniards with iron and wine, Norwegians with tar and pitch from their forests, and Baltic merchants with furs, amber, and salted fish. The fairs, by fos- tering commerce, helped to make the various European peoples better acquainted with one another. Commerce in western Europe had almost disappeared as a result of the Teutonic invasions and the es- tablishment of feudalism. What little commercial intercourse there was encountered many obstacles. A merchant who went by land from country to country might expect to find bad roads, few bridges, and poor inns. Goods were transported on pack-horses instead of wagons. Highway robbery was so common that travelers always carried arms and usually united in bands for better pro- tection. The feudal lords, often themselves not much more than highwaymen, demanded tolls at every bridge and ford and on every road. If the merchant proceeded by water, he must face, in addition to the ordinary hazards of wind and wave, the danger from the ill-lighted coasts and from attacks by pirates. No wonder commerce languished in the early Middle Ages and for a long time lay chiefly in the hands of Byzantines and Arabs. Even during the dark centuries that followed the end of the Jacob Fugger After a wood engraving. This merchant prince, a contemporary of Columbus, lived at Augsburg in Germany, where he amassed an enormous fortune. Decline of commerce in the early Middle Ages 230 Medieval Civilization Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe in the 13TH and 14TH Centuries Roman Empire, some trade with the Orient had been carried Commercial on ^y tne cities of Italy and southern France, revival after The crusades, which brought East and West face e crusa es ^ f ace ^ g rea tly increased this trade. 1 The Mediter- ranean lands first felt the stimulating effects of intercourse with 1 See pages 189-190. REIMS CATHEDRAL The cathedral of Notre Dame at Reims in northwestern France stands on the site where Clovis was baptized by St. Remi. Here most of the French kings were consecrated with holy oil by the archbishops of Reims. Except the west front, which was built in the four- teenth century, the cathedral was completed by the end of the thirteenth century. The towers, 267 feet high, were originally designed to reach 394 feet. The facade, with its three arched portals, exquisite rose window, and "gallery of the kings," is justly celebrated. The cathedral — walls, roof, statues, and windows — was terribly damaged by the German bom- bardment during the late war. Cathedrals and Universities 231 the Orient, but before long the commercial revival extended to other parts of Europe. Before the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope the spices, drugs, incense, carpets, tapestries, porcelains, and gems of India, China, and the East Indies reached the West by Asiatic trade three main routes. 1 All had been used in ancient routes times. The central and most important route led up the Persian Gulf and Tigris River to Bagdad, from which city goods went by caravan to Antioch or Damascus. The southern route reached Cairo and Alexandria by way of, the Red Sea and the Nile. By taking advantage of the monsoons, a merchant ship could make the voyage from India to Egypt in about three months. The northern route, entirely overland, led to ports on the Black Sea and thence to Constantinople. It traversed high mountain passes and long stretches of desert, and hence was profitably used only for the transport of valuable articles small in bulk. The conquests of the Ottoman Turks greatly inter- fered with the use of this route by Christians after the middle of the fifteenth century. Oriental goods, upon reaching the Mediterranean, could be transported by water to northern Europe. Every year the Venetians sent a fleet loaded with eastern products European to Bruges in Flanders, a city which was the most traderoutes important depot of trade with Germany, England, and Scan- dinavia. Bruges also formed the terminus of the main overland, route leading from Venice over the Alps and down the Rhine. Many other commercial highways also linked the Mediterranean with the North Sea and the Baltic. C*~~ 69. Cathedrals and Universities For several centuries after the barbarian invasions, archi- tecture made little progress in western Europe, outside of Italy, which was subject to Byzantine influence, and Romanesque Spain, which was a center of Arabian culture. The architecture architectural revival dates from the time of Charlemagne, with 1 See the map facing page 192. 232 Medieval Civilization the adoption of the style of building called Romanesque, because it made use of vaulting, domes, and the round arch, as in Roman structures. 1 The style of building called Gothic (after the Goths) prevailed during the later Middle Ages. It formed a natural development Gothic from Romanesque. The architects of a Gothic architecture cathedral wished to retain the vaulted ceiling, but at the same time to do away with thick, solid walls, which had Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" or Pisa These three buildings in the piazza of Pisa form one of the most interesting architectural groups in Italy. The baptistery, completed in 1278, is a circular structure, 100 feet in diameter and covered with a high dome. The cathedral was consecrated in n 18. The finest part of the building is the west front with its four open arcades. The campanile, or bell tower, reaches a height of 179 feet. Owing to the sinking of the foundations, it leans from the per- pendicular to a striking extent (now about i6>^ feet). so little window space as to leave the interior of the building dark and gloomy. They solved this problem, in the first place, by using a great number of stone ribs, which rested on columns and gathered up the weight of the ceiling. Ribbed vaulting made possible higher ceilings, spanning wider areas, than in Roman- esque churches. In the second place, the columns supporting the ribs were themselves connected by means of flying buttresses 1 See the illustrations on pages 232 and 260. Cathedrals and Universities 233 with stout piers of masonry outside the walls of the church. These walls, relieved from the pressure of the ceiling, now be- came a mere screen to keep out the weather. They could be built of light materials and filled with high and wide windows. Gothic builders also substituted for the Roman round arch the lighter and more graceful pointed arch, which had long been known and used by the Arabs. The labors of the Gothic archi- tect were admirably seconded by those of other artists. Gothic The sculptor CUt fig- ornament ures of men, animals, and plants in the utmost profusion. The painter covered vacant wall spaces with brilliant frescoes. The wood- carver made exquisite choir stalls, pulpits, altars, and screens. Master workmen filled the stone tracery of the windows with stained glass unequaled in color- ing by the finest modern w r ork. The interior of a Gothic cathe- dral, with its vast nave rising in swelling arches to the vaulted roof, its clustered columns, its glowing windows, and infinite variety of ornamentation, forms the most awe-inspiring sanctuary ever raised by man. The universities developed from cathedral and monastic schools, where boys were trained to become priests or monks. The teaching, which lay entirely in the hands of the Elementary clergy, was elementary in character. Pupils learned educat »on enough Latin grammar to read religious books, if not always to understand them, and enough music to follow the services of the Church. They also studied arithmetic by means of the awkward Roman notation, received a smattering of geometry Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral A, vaulting; B, ribs; C, flying but- tresses; D, buttresses; E, low windows; F, clerestory. 234 Medieval Civilization ■hD 10 4H K & Jfl". OH M8 * 19 ^. h _ J& & ft £ & © ac ecieftc ut ^s&sjb it) eb uO a "e i o u'^f fcabebi bo bu/I ca.re n'co n'Kl Da|iebi ao>^jJH| V^|Wrt V-/ b^*b^iffofee().|f;t^p^ia'"'^H £ijp iftingi&om jj9£l. SEftf fie Uone in €@tt%" as ft f*i;i jpj$ ijen. <§4b* lis tfns ba? tfiir ?p3 TO25. $ta$'ro?gibe us wf xnyjjgOi |ft$, as toe fe^g ibe%:ifiiaf ' ^gain!) «s* defeat) us not infi! US! and astronomy, and sometimes gained a little knowledge of such subjects as geography, law, and philosophy. Besides these Church schools, others were main- tained by the guilds and also by private benefactors. There are about fifty European uni- Rise of versities universities dating from the later Middle Ages. They arose, as it were, sponta- neously. Western Europe in the elev- enth and twelfth cen- turies felt the thrill of a great intellectual revival. It was stim- ulated by intercourse with the highly cul- tivated Arabs in Spain, Sicily, and the East, and with the Greek scholars of Constantinople dur- ing the crusades. The desire for instruction became so general that the elementary schools could not satisfy it. Other schools were then opened in the cities, and to them flocked eager learners from every quarter. Such was the origin of the University of Paris, which at one time had more than five thousand students. It furnished the model for A Hornbook A child's primer framed in wood and covered with a thin plate of transparent horn. It included the alphabet in small letters and in capitals, with vowel combinations and the Lord's Prayer in English. This particular ex- ample was found at Oxford and is now in the Bodleian Library. Cathedrals and Universities 235 the English university of Oxford, as well as for the learned insti- tutions of Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, and Germany. Those in Italy and Spain were modeled, more or less, upon the university of Bologna. V The word "university" 1 meant at 'first simply a union or association. In the Middle Ages all artisans University belonged to guilds, 2 and organization when teachers and pupils associated themselves for study they naturally copied the guild form of organization. After passing part of his examination, a student (apprentice) became a "bachelor of arts" (journeyman) and might teach certain elementary subjects to those beneath him. Upon the completion of the full course — usually six years in length — the bachelor took his final examination and, if successful, received the coveted degree of "master of arts." The members of a university usually lived in a number of colleges. These seem to have been at first little more than lodging- houses, where poor students were cared for at the expense of some benefactor. As the colleges increased in wealth, through the gifts made to them, they became centers of instruction under the direction of masters. At Oxford and Cambridge, where the collegiate system has been retained to the present time, each college possesses separate buildings and enjoys the privilege of self-government. A university of the Middle Ages did not need an expensive collection of libraries, laboratories, and museums. Its only 1 Latin univcrsitas. 2 Sec page 227. Colleges Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford Magdalen (pronounced Maudlin) is perhaps the most beautiful college in Oxford. The bell tower stands on High Street, the principal thoroughfare of Oxford, and adjoins Mag- dalen Bridge, built across the Chenvell. Begun in 1492; completed in 1505. From its summit a Latin hymn is sung every year on the morning of May Day. This graceful tower has been several times imitated in American collegiate struc- tures. 236 Medieval Civilization Teaching Studies necessary equipment consisted of lecture rooms for the pro- fessors. Not even benches or chairs were required, for students often sat on the straw-strewn floors. The high price of manuscripts compelled professors to give all in- struction by lectures. This method of teaching has been re- tained in modern universities, because even the printed book is a poor substitute for a scholar's inspiring words. The studies in a medieval university were grouped under the f$ur faculties of arts, theology, law, and medicine. The first- named faculty taught the ''seven liberal arts," that is, gram- mar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astron- omy. Theology, law, and medicine then, as now, were professional studies, taken up after the completion of the Arts course. Owing to the constant movement of students from one university to another, each institution tended to specialize in one or more fields of learning. Thus, Paris came to be noted for theology, Montpellier, Padua, and Salerno for medicine, and Orleans, Bologna, and Salamanca for law. A University Lecture After a fifteenth-century manuscript in the British Museum. 60. National Languages during the Later Middle Ages Latin continued to be an international language throughout Latin as an the me dieval period. The Roman Church used it for international papal bulls and other documents. Prayers were re- cited, hymns were sung, and sometimes sermons were preached in Latin. It was also the language of men of culture National Languages During Later Middle Ages 237 everywhere in Christendom. University professors lectured in Latin, students spoke Latin, lawyers addressed judges in Latin, and the merchants in different countries wrote Latin letters to one another. All learned books were composed in Latin until the close of the sixteenth century. This practice has not yet been entirely abandoned by scholars. Each European country during the later Middle Ages had also its own national tongue. The Romance languages, including modern French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and The Rumanian, were derived from the Latin spoken by Romance the Romanized inhabitants of the lands now known anguage as France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Rumania. 1 Their col- loquial Latin naturally lacked the elegance of the literary Latin used by Caesar, Cicero, and other ancient authors. The dif- ference between the written and spoken forms of the language became more marked from the fifth century onward, in con- sequence of the barbarian invasions. Gradually in each coun- try new and vigorous tongues arose, related to, yet different from, the old classical Latin in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The popular Latin of the Gallo-Romans gave rise to two groups of languages in medieval France. The first was used in the southern part of the country; it was called Provencal (from Provence). The second was spoken in the north, particularly in the region about Paris. The unification of the French kingdom under Hugh Capet and his successors 2 gradually extended the speech of northern France over the entire country. Modern French contains less than a thousand words introduced by the German invaders of Gaul, while the words of Celtic origin are even fewer in number. Nearly all the rest are derived from Latin. The Teutonic peoples who remained outside what had been the limits of the Roman world continued to use their native tongues during the Middle Ages. From them have The Teutonic come modern German, Dutch, Flemish, and the languages various Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, 1 See page [46. - Sec page 199. 238 Medieval Civilization and Icelandic). 1 All these languages in their earliest known forms show unmistakable traces of a common origin. Britain was the only Roman province in the west of Europe where a Teutonic language took root and maintained itself. Here the rough, guttural speech of the Anglo- Saxons completely drove out the popular Latin. In course of time Anglo-Saxon underwent various changes. Christian missionaries, from the seventh century onward, intro- duced many new Latin terms for church offices, services, and observances. The Danes, besides contributing some place- names, gave us that most useful word are, and also the habit of using to before an infinitive. The coming of the Normans deeply affected Anglo-Saxon. Norman-French influence helped to make the language simpler, by ridding it of the cumbersome declensions and conjugations which it had in common with all Teutonic tongues. Many new Norman-French words also crept in, as the hostility of the English people toward their con- querors disappeared. Anglo-Saxon, by the middle of the thirteenth century, had so far developed that it may now be called English. In the poems of Chaucer (about 1340-1400), especially his Canterbury Tales, English wears quite a modern look, though the reader is sometimes troubled by the old spelling and by certain words not now in use. The changes in the grammar of the language have been so extremely slight since the end of the fifteenth century that any Englishman of ordinary education can read without difficulty a book written more than four hundred years ago. English has been, and still is, extremely hospitable to new words, so that its vocabulary has grown very fast by the adoption of terms from Latin, French, and other tongues. These have immensely increased the expressiveness of English, while giving it a position midway between the very different Romance and Teutonic languages. Our survey of medieval civilization has been largely confined to the later Middle Ages — the period from about 1000 to about 1 Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandinavian. Danish and Norwegian are practically the same; in fact, their literary or book-language is one. National Languages During Later Middle Ages 239 1 500. When the Arabs had brought the culture of the Near East lo Spain and Sicily, when the Northmen after their wonderful expansion had settled down in Normandy. England „ .. Medieval and other countries, and when the peoples of civilization western Europe, whether as pilgrims or crusaders, and the Re- 1 naissance had visited Constantinople and the Holy Land, men's minds received a wonderful stimulus. The intellectual life of Europe was ''speeded up," and the way was prepared for the even more rapid advance of civilization in the sixteen tli century, as the Middle Ages passed into the Renaissance. Studies 1. What parts of Europe were Christianized before Soo, between Soo-noo, and after i too (map between pages 204-205)? 2. ''Medieval Europe was a camp with a church in the background." Comment on this statement. 3. Mention some respects in which the Roman Church during the Middle Apes differed from any religious society at the present, day. 4. Distinguish between the faith of the Church, the organisation of the Church, and the Church as a. force in history. 5. "The monks and the friars were the militia of the Church." Comment on this statement. 6. Enumerate the principal benefits which the monastic system conferred on Europe. 7. Who is the present pope? When and by whom was he elected? In what city does he reside? What is his residence called? 8. Describe the agricultural processes and implements shown in the illustration on page 218. 9. Show that the serf wa not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer paying rent. 10. Why has the medieval city been called the "birthplace of modern democracy''? n. Compare the merchant guild with the modern chamber of commerce, and craft guilds with modem trade unions. 12. Why was there no antagonism between labor and capital under the guild system? 13. Show that Venice in medieval times was the seaport nearest the heart of commercial Europe. 14. Trace on the map facing page ni2 tlie chief hind and water routes between Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages. 15. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles of architecture. What is the origin of each term? 10. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Creek temple, particularly in regard to size, height, supporl uf the roof, windows, and decorative features. 17. Compare medieval with modern universities, noting both ablances and difference between them. t8. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages. id. Knumerate the most important contributions to civilization made during the Middle Ages. CHAPTER VII THE RENAISSANCE 1 61. Revival of Learning and Art in Italy The French word Renaissance means Rebirth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all the change in society, law, and Transition government, in science, philosophy, and religion, to modem and in literature and art which transformed medieval civilization into that of modern times. The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character, cannot be exactly dated. In general, it covers the sixteenth century. Many Renaissance movements, however, began much earlier. Among those which we have already noticed were the rise of strong national states, replacing feudalism as a system of government, the growth of cities, the decline and ultimate ex- tinction of serfdom, and the commercial progress which attended and followed the crusades. The Renaissance thus appears as a gradual development out of the Middle Ages, not as a sudden revolution. The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth or revival of man's interest in the civilization of classical an- Original tiquity. Italy was the original home of this home of the Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it found widest acceptance, and there it reached its highest development. From Italy the Renaissance spread be- yond the Alps, until it had made the round of western Europe. Italy was a land particularly favorable to the growth of learning and the arts. The great cities of Milan, Pisa, Genoa, 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xix, "A Scholar of the Renaissance"; chapter xx, "Renaissance Artists"; chapter xxi, "The Travels of Marco Polo"; chapter xxii, "The Aborigines of the New World"; chap- ter xxiii, "Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation"; chapter xxiv, "England in the Age of Elizabeth." 240 Revival of Learning and Art in Italy 241 Florence, Venice, and many others had early succeeded in throw- ing off their feudal burdens and had become independent, self- governing communities. Democracy flourished in Italian cities them, as in the old Greek city-states. Noble birth of theRenais- counted for little; a man of ability and ambition might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts within their walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life full, varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure, bred a taste for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture, palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists who could produce such things. It is not without significance that the birth- place of the Italian Renaissance was democratic, industrial, and wealthy Florence. The literature of Rome did not entirely disappear in western Europe after the Teutonic invasions. The monastery and cathedral schools of the Middle Ages had nourished devoted students of ancient books. The Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying the works of R enewe d i n _ pagan as well as Christian authors. The rise of terest in the universities made it possible for the student to pursue a fairly extended course in Latin literature at more than one institution of learning. Reverence for the classics finds constant expression in the writings of the Italian poet Dante (1265-1321), whose Divine Comedy, describing an imag- inary visit to hell, purgatory, and paradise, ranks among the world's masterpieces of literature. Petrarch (1304-1374) did much to spread a knowledge of Latin authors. He traveled widely in Italy, France, and other countries, searching every- Mask of Dante 242 The Renaissance Humanism where for ancient manuscripts and employing copyists to transcribe those which he discovered or borrowed. Petrarch, however, knew almost no Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often kissed, though he could not read it. Renewed interest in the literature of Greece dates from the fifteenth century, when the advance of the Ottoman Turks, culmin- ating in the capture of Constantinople, 1 sent a stream of Greek exiles into Italy. Some of them were learned men, and their conversation and lectures greatly stimulated the study of Greek in the West. The languages and liter- atures of ancient Greece and Rome opened up a new world of thought and fancy to scholars. They were delighted by the fresh, original, and liberal ideas which they dis- covered in the pages of Homer, Plato, Cicero, and other ancient writers. Humanism, 2 as the study of the classics was called, before long gained an entrance into university courses, displacing theology and philosophy as the chief subject of instruction. From the universities it descended to the lower schools, where Greek and especially Latin — the "humanities" — still hold a prominent place in the curriculum. The revival of learning was immensely stimulated when books printed on linen paper by movable type made their 1 See page 104. 2 Latin kumanitas, "literary culture." An Early Printing Press Enlarged from the printer's mark of I. B. Ascensius. Used on the title pages of books printed by him between 1507-1535. Revival of Learning and Art in Italy 243 appearance. Paper-making originated in China, and the Arabs introduced the art into Spain and Italy during the Middle Ages. A long time elapsed, however, before paper .. , , , , ' V l Printing became abundant and cheap enough to serve as a substitute for papyrus and parchment. Movable type had been used for several centuries in the Far East, and in Europe several printers have been credited with its invention. A German, Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, seems to have set up the first practical printing press with movable type about 1450, and from it issued the first printed book. This was a Latin translation of the Bible. Printing met an especially warm wel- come in Italy, where people felt so keen a desire for reading and instruction. By the end of the fifteenth century Venice alone had more than two hundred printing presses. Printed books could be multiplied far more rapidly than manuscripts copied by hand. They could also be far more accurate than manuscripts, for, when an entire edi- significance tion was printed from the same type, mistakes in the of P nntin § different copies were eliminated. Furthermore, the invention of printing destroyed the monopoly of learning possessed by the universities and people of wealth. Books were now the posses- sion of the many, not the luxury of the few. Any one who could read had opened to him the gateway of knowledge; he became a citizen, henceforth, of the republic of letters. Printing, which made possible popular education, public libraries, and ulti- mately cheap newspapers, thus became a force emancipating mankind from bondage to ignorance. Gothic architecture, with its pointed arches, flying buttresses, and traceried windows, never struck deep roots in Italy. The architects of the Renaissance went back to Greek temples and Roman domed buildings for their models, just as the humanists went back to Greek and Latin literature. Long rows of Ionic or Corinthian columns, spanned by round arches, became again the prevailing architectural style. Perhaps the most important feature of Renaissance architecture was the use of the dome, instead of the vault, for the roofs of churches. The majestic cupola of St. Peter's at 244 The Renaissance Rome has become the parent of many domed structures in the Old and in the New World. 1 Architects, however, did not limit themselves to churches. The magnificent palaces of Florence, as well as some of those in Venice, are monuments of the Renais- sance era. The development of architecture naturally stimulated other arts. Italian sculptors began to copy the ancient bas-reliefs „ , and statues preserved in Rome and other cities. Sculpture . The greatest of Renaissance sculptors was Michel- angelo (1475-1564). Though a Florentine by birth, he lived for most of his life in Rome. Michelangelo also won fame in archi- tecture and painting. The dome of St. Peter's was finished after his designs, while the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican display his genius as a painter. Italian painting began in the service of the Church and long remained religious in character. Artists usually chose subjects from the Bible or the lives of the saints. They did Painting not trouble themselves to secure correctness 01 costume, but painted ancient Jews, Greeks, and Romans in the garb of Italian gentlemen. Many of their pictures were frescoes, that is, the colors were mixed with water and applied to the plaster walls of churches and palaces. After the process of mix- ing oils with the colors was discovered, pictures on wood or canvas (easel paintings) became common. Italian painters ex- • celled in portraiture. They were less successful with landscapes. A list of the "Old Masters" of Italian painting always includes the names of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Titian. Another modern art, that of music, arose in Italy during the Renaissance. In the sixteenth century, the three-stringed rebeck received a fourth string and became the violin, the Music . . 1 • a most expressive of all musical instruments. A forerunner of the pianoforte also appeared in the harpsichord. A papal organist and choir-master, Palestrina (1 526-1 594), was the first of the great composers. He gave music its fitting place in worship by composing melodious hymns and masses still 1 For instance, the Invalides in Paris, St. Paul's in London, and the Capitol at Washington. Assumption of the \ irgin — Titian Sistine Madonna - -Raphael 1 + p^nj ■SR^BW .^s '.>.T£r i I H P "5 ' v S- • w | w+&k ■T-* ' ^ ~ ~ w The Last Supper — Leonardo da Vinci Marriage of St. Catherine Mona Lisa Gioconda Correggio Leonardo da Vinci ITALIAN PAINTINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE Spread of humanism in Europe Revival of Learning and Art Beyond Italy 245 sung in Roman Catholic churches. The oratorio, a religious drama set to music but without action, scenery, or costume, had its beginning at this time. The opera, however, was little de- veloped until the eighteenth century. 62. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy Italy had fostered the revival of learning by recovering the long-buried treasures of the classics and by providing means for their study. Scholars in Ger- many, France, and England, who now had the aid of the printing press, continued the intellectual movement and gave it wide- spread currency. The fore- most of these scholars was Erasmus (1466-1536), a native of Rotterdam in Holland. His travels and extensive cor- respondence brought him in touch with many learned men of the day. The most impor- tant achievement of Erasmus was an edition of the New Testament in the original Greek, with a Latin version. This work led to a better understanding of the New Testament and also prepared the way for translations of the Scriptures into the vernacular tongues. The renewed interest in classical studies for a while retarded the development of national languages and literatures in Europe. Humanists regarded only Latin and Thevernacu- Greek as worthy of attention. But a return to the lar tongues vernacular was bound to come. The common people, who understood little Latin and less Greek, had now learned to read and had the printing press. Before long many books composed Desideritjs Erasmus Louvre, Paris A portrait by the German artist, Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543). Prob- ably an excellent likeness of Erasmus. 246 The Renaissance in Italian, Spanish, French, English, and other national lan- guages made their appearance. This revival of the vernacular meant that henceforth European literature would be more creative and original than was possible when writers merely imitated or translated the classics. The sixteenth century, we remember, was the age of the Spaniard, Cervantes, whose Don Quixote is still so popular, of the Frenchman, Montaigne, author of many essays delightful in style and full of wit and wisdom, and of the Englishman, William Shakespeare, whose genius trans- cended national boundaries and made him a citizen of the world. Italian architects found a cor- dial reception in France, Spain, The artistic the Netherlands, and revival in other countries, William Shakespeare " where the y intro " From the copper-plate engraved by duced Renaissance styles of build- Martin Droeshout as frontispiece to the j n g an(1 Ornamentation. The Cele- First Folio edition of Shakespeare's works , , , , r . , T in 1623. in this engraving the head brated palace of the Louvre in is far too large for the body and the dress Paris, which is Used to-day as an is out of perspective. The only other .. , , authentic likeness of Shakespeare is the art gallery and museum, dates bust over his grave in Holy Trinity from the sixteenth Century. 1 At Church, Stratf ord-on-Avon. ,, . ,. -„ , , , ■. this time French nobles began to replace their somber feudal dwellings by elegant country houses. Renaissance sculpture also spread beyond Italy and throughout Europe. Painters in northern countries at first followed Italian models, but afterward produced masterpieces of their own. The Middle Ages were not by any means ignorant of science, Humanism but its study received a great impetus when the and science Renaissance brought before educated men all that the Greeks and Romans had done in mathematics, physics, 1 See the illustration on page 443. • Revival of Learning and Art Beyond Italy 247 astronomy, medicine, and other subjects. The invention of printing also fostered the scientific revival by making it easy to spread knowledge abroad in every land. The pioneers of Renaissance science were Italians, but students in France, England, Germany, and other countries soon took up the work of enlightenment. The first place among Renaissance scientists must be given to Copernicus (1473-1543), the founder of modern astronomy. He was a Pole, but lived for many ^^ Jbeory years in Italy. Research and calculation led him to the conclusion that the earth turns upon its own axis, and, together with the planets, revolves around the sun. The book in which he announced this conclusion did not appear until the very end of his life. Astronomers before Copernicus generally accepted the doctrine, formulated by the Greek scientist Ptolemy in the second century, that the earth was the center of the universe. Some students had indeed suggested that the earth and planets might rotate about a central sun, but Coper- nicus first gave adequate reasons for such a belief. An Italian astronomer, Galileo, made one of the first telescopes — it was about as powerful as an opera glass — and turned it on the heavenly bodies with wonderful results. He found the sun moving unmistakably on its axis, Venus showing phases accord- ing to her position in relation to the sun, Jupiter accompanied by revolving moons, or satellites, and the Milky Way composed of a multitude of separate stars. Galileo rightly believed that these discoveries confirmed the theory Of Copernicus. Copernicus, Galileo, and their fellow workers built up the scientific method. Students in the Middle Ages had mostly been satisfied to accept what Aristotle and other The scien- philosophers had said, without trying to verify their tlfic method statements. The new scientific method rested on observation and experiment. As Lord Bacon, one of Shakespeare's con- temporaries, declared, "All depends on keeping the eye steadily fixed upon the facts of nature, and so receiving their images simply as they are, for God forbid that we should give out a dream of our own imagination for a pattern of the world." 248 The Renaissance Modern science, to which we owe so much, is a child of the Renaissance. 63. Geographical Discovery There was also a geographical Renaissance. The revival of exploration brought about the discovery of ocean routes to the Revival of Far East and the Americas. In consequence, exploration commerce was vastly stimulated, and two conti- nents, hitherto unknown, were opened up to civilization. The geographical Renaissance thus cooperated with the other movements of the age in bringing about the transition from medieval to modern times. The Greeks and Romans had become familiar with a large part of Europe and Asia/ but much of their learning was either Medieval forgotten or perverted during the early Middle ignorance of Ages. Even the wonderful discoveries of the Northmen in the North Atlantic gradually faded from memory. The Arabs, whose conquests and commerce spread over so much of the Orient, far surpassed the Christian peoples of Europe in knowledge of the world. The crusades first extended geographical knowledge by fos- tering pilgrimages and missions in Oriental lands. Numerous The Polos merchants also visited the East. Among them in the East, were the Venetians, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, and : Nicolo's son, Marco. The Polos made an adven- turous journey through the heart of Asia to the court of the Kublai Khan at Peking, or Cambaluc. The Mongol ruler, who seems to have been anxious to introduce Christianity and European culture among his people, received them in a friendly manner, and they amassed much wealth by trade. Marco entered the Khan's service and went on several expeditions to distant parts of the Mongol realm. Many years passed before Kublai would allow his useful guests to return to Europe. When they reached Venice after an absence of twenty-four years, their relatives were slow to recognize in them the long-lost Polos. 2 1 See the footnote on page 109. 2 For Marco Polo's route see the map facing page 192. Geographical Discovery 249 The story of the Polos, as written down at Marco's dictation, became one of the most popular works of the Middle Ages. In this book people read of far Cathay (China), with Marco its wealth, its huge cities, and swarming population, Polo ' s book of mysterious and secluded Tibet, of Burma, Siam, and Cochin- China, with their palaces and pagodas, of the East Indies, famed for spices, of Ceylon, abounding in pearls, and of India, little known since the days of Alexander the Great. Even Cipango (Japan) Marco described from hearsay as an island whose inhabitants were white, civilized, and so rich in gold that the royal palace was roofed and paved with that metal. The accounts of these countries naturally made Europeans more eager than ever to reach the East. The new knowledge concerning the land routes of Asia was accompanied by much progress in the art of ocean navigation. The most important invention was that of the Aids to mariner's compass. It enabled sailors to find their ex P loratlon bearings even in murky weather and on starless nights. The astrolabe, which the Greeks had invented and used for astronom- ical purposes, seems to have been introduced into Europe through the Arabs. It was employed to calculate latitudes by observation of the height of the sun above the horizon. The charting of coasts became a science during the last centuries of the Middle Ages. Manuals were prepared to give information about the tides, currents, and other features of sea-routes. The increase in size of ships made navigation safer and permitted the storage of bulky cargoes. For long voyages the sailing vessel replaced the medieval galley rowed by oars. As the result of all these aids to exploration, sailors no longer found it neces- sary to keep close to shore, but could push out into the ocean. The needs of commerce largely account for early exploring voyages. Eastern spices — cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and ginger — were used more freely in medieval commercial times than now, when people lived on salt meat motive for during the winter and salt fish during Lent. Even exp 0ratl0n wine, ale, and medicines had a seasoning of spices. Besides spices, all kinds of precious stones, drugs, perfumes, gums, dyes, 2 5° The Renaissance and fragrant woods came from the East. Since the time of the crusades these luxuries, after having been brought overland or by water to Mediterranean ports, had been distributed by Behaim' s Globe The ideas of European geographers in the period just preceding the discovery of America are represented on a map, or rather a globe, which dates from 1402. It was made by a German navigator, Martin Behaim, for his native city of Nuremberg, where it is still pre- served. Behaim shows the mythical island of St. Brandan, lying in mid-ocean, and beyond it Cipango, the East Indies, and Cathay. The outlines of North America and South America here shown, do not appear, of course, on the original globe. Venetian and Genoese merchants throughout Europe. 1 Two other European peoples — the Portuguese and Spaniards — now appeared as competitors for this Oriental trade. Their efforts to break through the monopoly enjoyed by the Italian cities 1 See page Geographical Discovery 251 led to the discovery of the sea-routes to the Indies. The Port- uguese were first in the field. Gradual exploration of the western coast of Africa and the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 had convinced the Portuguese that the Indies could be reached by a Da Q ama > s maritime route. A daring mariner, Vasco da voyage, Gama, soon proved this true by sailing from Lisbon I497 " 149 to Calicut on the southwestern coast of India. When Da Gama returned to Lisbon, he brought back a cargo which repaid sixty times the cost of the expedition. The Portuguese king received him with high honor and created him Admiral of the Indies. Six years before Vasco da Gama cast anchor in the harbor of Calicut, another intrepid sailor, seeking the Indies by a western route, accidentally discovered America. It does The giobu- not detract from the glory of Columbus to show lar tneor y that the way for his discovery had been long in preparation. In the first place, the theory that the earth is round had been familiar to the Greeks and Romans, and to some learned men even in the darkest period of the Middle Ages. The awakening of interest in Greek science, as a result of the Renaissance, called renewed attention to the statements by ancient geogra- phers. After the revival of Ptolemy's works in the fifteenth century, scholars very generally accepted the globular theory; and they even went so far as to calculate the circumference of the earth. In the second place, men had long believed that west of Europe, beyond the strait of Gibralter, lay mysterious lands. This notion first appears in the writings of the Atlantis and Greek philosopher, Plato, who repeats an old St. Brandan's tradition concerning Atlantis. According to Plato, Atlantis had been an island, continental in size, but thousands of years before his time it had sunk beneath the sea. A wide- spread legend of the Middle Ages also described the visit made by St. Brandan, an Irish monk, to the "promised land of the saints," an earthly paradise far out in the Atlantic. St. Bran- dan's Island was marked on early maps, and voyages in search of it were sometimes undertaken. 252 The Renaissance All know the story of the first voyage of Columbus. When he started out, he firmly believed that a journey of only four First voyage thousand miles would bring him to Cipango and of Columbus, the realms of the Great Khan of Cathay. The error was natural enough, for Ptolemy had reckoned the earth's circumference to be about one-sixth less than it. is, and Marco Polo had given an exaggerated idea of the distance to which Asia ex- tended toward the east. The name West Indies, applied to the islands discovered by Columbus, still re- mains as a testimony to this error. Shortly after the return of Columbus The demarca- from his tion line, 149a firstvoy- age, Pope Alexander VI, in response to a request by Ferdinand and Isabella, issued a bull granting these sovereigns exclusive rights over the newly dis- covered lands. In order that the Spanish possessions should be clearly marked off from those of the Portuguese, the pope laid down an imaginary line of demarcation in the Atlantic, three hundred miles west of the Azores. All new discoveries west of the line were to belong to Spain and all those east of it, to Port- ugal. 1 But this arrangement, which excluded France, England, and other European countries from the New World, could not be long maintained. The demarcation line had a good deal to do in bringing about the first voyage around the globe. So far no one had yet realized 1 In 1494 the demarcation line was shifted about eight.hundred miles farther to the west. Six years later, when the Portuguese discovered Brazil, that country was f<5und to lie within their sphere of influence. See the map between pages 254-255. The "Santa Maria," Flagship or Columbus After the model reproduced for the Columbian Exposi- tion at Chicago, 1893. Colonial Empires 253 the dream of Columbus to reach the lands of spice and silk by sailing westward. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the ser- vice of Spain, believed that the Spice Islands lay _. 1 ... Circumnavi- within the Spanish sphere of influence and that a gation of the route to them could be found through some strait £ lobe > J 5i9- at the southern end of South America. The Spanish ruler, Charles V, grandson of the Isabella who had supported Columbus, looked with favor upon Magellan's ideas and pro- vided a fleet of five vessels for the undertaking. After exploring the eastern coast of South America, Magellan came at length to the strait which now bears his name. He sailed boldly through this strait into an ocean called by him the Pacific, because of its peaceful aspect. A voyage of ninety-eight days across the Pacific brought him to the Ladrone or Marianas Islands. Magellan then proceeded to the Philippines, where he was killed in a fight with the natives. His men, however, managed to reach the Spice Islands. A single ship, the Victoria, subsequently carried back to Spain the few sailors who had survived the hardships of a journey lasting nearly three years. Magellan's voyage forms a landmark of geographical discovery. It proved that America, at least on the south, had no connection with Asia; it showed the enormous extent of the Pacific Ocean; and it led to the discovery of many large islands in the East Indies. Henceforth men knew of a certainty that the earth is round and in the distance covered by Magellan they had a rough estimate of its size. The circumnavigation of the globe ranks with the discovery of the sea-routes to the Indies and to America among the most significant events of history. 64. Colonial Empires After Da Gama's voyage the Portuguese made haste to appropriate the wealth of the Indies. By the middle of the sixteenth century they had acquired almost com- p ortU g Ue se plete ascendancy throughout southern Asia and ascendancy the adjacent islands. Their colonial empire included many trading coasts in Africa, Ormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, the western coast of India, Ceylon, Malacca 254 The Renaissance at the end of the Malay Peninsula, and various possessions in the Malay Archipelago. The Portuguese came to the East as the successors of the Arabs, who for centuries had conducted an extensive trade Portuguese on the Indian Ocean. Having dispossessed the trade mo- Arabs, the Portuguese took care to shut out all nopo y European competitors. Only their own merchants were allowed to bring goods from the Indies to Europe by the Cape route. Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, formed the chief depot for spices and other eastern commodities. The French, English, and Dutch came there to buy them and took the place of Italian merchants in distributing them throughout Europe. The triumph of Portugal was short-lived. This small coun- try, with a population of not more than a million, lacked the Collapse of strength to defend her claims to a monopoly of the the Portu- Oriental trade. During the seventeenth century guese power ^ e F re nch and English broke the power of the Portuguese in India, while the Dutch drove them from Ceylon and the East Indies. The discoverers of the New World were naturally the pioneers in its exploration. The adventures of Ponce de Leon, who dis- Spanish covered Florida in 15 13, of Balboa, who sighted the ascendancy Pacific in the same year, of Cortes, who overthrew the Aztec power in Mexico, of Pizarro, who con- quered the Incas of Peru, of De Soto, and of Coronado are familiar to every reader of American history. There men laid the foundations of the Spanish colonial empire. It included Florida, New Mexico, California, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and all South America except Brazil. 1 The rule of Spain over these dominions lasted nearly three hundred years. During this time she gave her language, her government, and her religion to half the New World. The government of Spain administered its colonial dominions in the spirit of monopoly. As far as possible, it excluded 1 The Philippines, which Magellan discovered in 1521, also belonged to Spain, though by the demarcation line these islands lay witliin the Portuguese sphere of influence. 160° 140 Longitude 120° West 80° 60° 40° 20° 20° 40° 60° 80° The Old World and the New 255 French, English, and other foreigners from trading with Spanish America. It also discouraged ship-building, manufacturing, and i. \ en the cultivation of the vine and the olive, lest Spanish the colonists should compete with home industries, colonial The colonies were regarded only as a work-shop p0icy for the production of the precious metals and raw materials. This unwise policy partly accounts for the economic backward- ness of Mexico, Peru, and other Spanish-American countries. 65. The Old World and the New The New World contained two virgin continents, rich in natural resources and capable of extensive colonization. The native peoples, comparatively few in number and Expansion barbarian in culture, could not offer much resistance of Eur °P e to the explorers, missionaries, traders, and colonists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portuguese in the sixteenth century', followed by the French, English, and Dutch in the seven- teenth century, repeopled America and brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a Greater Europe beyond the ocean. In the Middle Ages the Mediterranean and the Baltic had been the principal highways of commerce. The discovery of America, followed immediately by the opening of the Cape shifting of route to the Indies, shifted commercial activity trade routes from these inclosed seas to the Atlantic Ocean. Venice, Genoa, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bruges gradually gave way, as trading centers, to Lisbon and Cadiz, Bordeaux and Cherbourg, Ant- werp and Amsterdam, London and Liverpool. One may say, therefore, that the year 1492 inaugurated the Atlantic period of European history. The discovery of America revealed to Europeans a new source of the precious metals. The Spaniards soon secured large quantities of gold by plundering the Indians of Mexico and Peru of their stored-up wealth. The production output of silver much exceeded that of gold, as soon of the P re ~ ~ 1 r 11 cious metals as the Spaniards began to work the wonderfully rich silver mines of Potosi in Bolivia. It is estimated that, by 256 The Renaissance the end of the sixteenth century, the American mines had produced at least three times as much gold and silver as had been current in Europe at the beginning of the century. The Spaniards could not keep this new treasure. Having few industries themselves, they were obliged to send it out, as fast as they received it, in payment for their imports of quences of European goods. Spain acted as a huge sieve the enlarged through which the gold and silver of America en- money supply . tered all the countries of Europe. Money, now more plentiful, purchased far less "than in former times; in other words, the prices of all commodities rose, wages advanced, and manufacturers and traders had additional capital to use in their undertakings. The Middle Ages suffered from the lack of sufficient money with which to do business; from the beginning of modern times the world has been better supplied with the in- dispensable medium of exchange. But America was much more than a treasury of the precious metals. Many commodities, hitherto unknown, soon found their New com- wa y ^ rom t ^ ie -^ ew World to the Old. Among these modities were maize, the potato, which, when cultivated in impor e Europe, became the "bread of the poor," chocolate and cocoa made from the seeds of the cacao tree, Peruvian bark, or quinine, so useful in malarial fevers, cochineal, the dye-woods of Brazil, and the mahogany of the West Indies. America also sent to Europe large supplies of cane-sugar, molasses, fish, whale- oil, and furs. These new American products became common articles of consumption and so raised the standard of living in European countries. To the economic effects of the discoveries must be added their effects on politics. The Atlantic Ocean now formed, not only P lit' al the commercial, but also the political center of the effects of the world. The Atlantic-facing countries, first Por- lscovenes tugal an d Spain, then Holland, France, and England, became the great powers of Europe. Their trade rivalries and contests for colonial possessions have been potent causes of European wars for the last four hundred years. The sixteenth century in Europe was the age of that revolt The Protestant Reformation 257 against the Roman Church called the Protestant Reformation. During this period, however, the Church won her victories over the American aborigines. What she lost of territory, wealth, and inlluence in Europe was offset bv what she mined in _, , ' . . , Effects of America, furthermore, the region now occupied the discov- by the United States furnished in the seventeenth eries upon , , ... . religion century an asylum from religious persecution, as was proved when Puritans settled in New England, Roman Catholics in Maryland, and Quakers in Pennsylvania. The vacant spaces of America offered plenty of room for all who would worship God in their own way. The New World became a refuge from the intolerance of the Old. 66. The Protestant Reformation The Reformation has a place beside the revival of literature, art, and science, the development of invention, and the progress of geographical discovery, among the great move- u ature f ments ushering in the modern world. It involved, the Refor- as we shall learn, a decisive break with both the teachings of the Church and the authority of the Papacy. There were several causes of the Reformation. Politically, it expressed the opposition of European sovereigns to the secular authoritv wielded by the Church. 1 Having tri- _ . , , ... . • 1 j Political and umphed over feudalism, the sovereigns wished to economic bring the Church, as well, within their jurisdiction. causes of tha ' ..... Reformation They tried to restrict the privileges of ecclesiastical courts, to impose taxes on the clergy, as on their own subjects, and to dictate the appointment of bishops and abbots to office. The result was constant friction between Church and State in one European country after another. Economically, the Refor- mation voiced a protest, on the part of both upper and lower classes, against the increasing luxury and extravagance of the papal court. 2 The protest rang loudest in Germany, when there was no strong king to prohibit the drainage of money to Rome, as French and English rulers had done. 1 See page 205. - Sec page 213. 2 5 8 The Renaissance The political and economic causes of the Reformation com- bined with those strictly religious in character. Thoughtful men T> u,rj^,<, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries had criti- Religious causes of the cized the worldliness of the Church, as reflected in e orma ion ^g ij ves { man y f its officers, and had urged that even popes, cardinals, and bishops should imitate the poverty of the Apostles. Some reformers, such as John Wycliffe in England and John Huss in Bohemia, went much further and demanded wholesale changes in Catholic belief and worship. The views of Wycliffe and Huss were now to be expressed in Germany during the six- teenth century by the real founder of the Reforma- tion, Martin Luther. Luther was the son of a German peasant, who, by Martin industry and Luther frugality, had gained a small competence. Thanks to his father's self- sacrifice, Luther received a good education in theol- ogy and philosophy at the University of Erfurt. He took the degrees of bachelor and master of arts and then began to study law, but an acute sense of his sinfulness and a desire to save his soul soon drove him into a monastery. A few years later Luther visited Rome, only to be shocked by the general laxity of life in the capital of the Papacy. After returning to Germany he became a professor of theology in the Uni- versity of Wittenberg, where his sermons and lectures attracted large audiences. Luther's reforming career began with an attack upon the indulgence system as found in Germany. An indulgence is a Martin Luther A portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder of Luther in 1526. Now in the possession of Richard von Kaufmann, Berlin. I The Protestant Reformation 259 letter of pardon relieving a truly penitent sinner from some or all of the penances (punishments) which the Church would otherwise impose upon him. Its benefits are also ap- The Ninety- plied to the souls of the dead in purgatory. During five Thcses the Middle Ages the pope granted indulgences to crusaders, pilgrims, and to those who contributed money for a pious object, such as the erection of a church or a convent. Many German princes opposed this method of raising funds for the Church, because it took so much money out of their dominions. Luther condemned it on religious grounds, pointing out that common people, who could not understand the Latin in which indulgen- ces were written, often thought that they wiped away the penalties of sin, even without true repentance. Luther also denied the efficacy of indulgences for souls in purgatory. These and other criticisms were set forth by him in ninety-five theses or propositions, which he offered to defend against all opponents. In accordance with the custom of medieval scholars, Luther posted the theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg, where all might see them. They were composed in Latin, but were at once translated into German, printed, and spread broadcast over Germany. Their effect was so great that before long the grant- ing of indulgences in that country almost ceased. The pope, at first, had paid little attention to the controversy about indulgences, declaring it a "mere squabble of monks," but he now issued a bull against Luther, ordering Diet of him to recant within sixty days or be excommuni- Worms > x S2i cated. The papal bull did not frighten Luther or withdraw from him popular support. He burnt it in the market square of Wit- tenberg, in the presence of a concourse of students and towns- folk. This dramatic action deeply stirred all Germany. The pope then urged the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, to put Luther under the ban of the empire. Charles was willing to comply, but the German princes insisted that Luther must not be condemned unheard. Accordingly, Luther was summoned before a great assembly (Diet) of princes and ecclesiastical dig- nitaries at Worms. Here he refused to retract anything he had written, unless his statements could be shown to contradict e iiau :l the 260 The Renaissance Bible. ' It is neither right nor safe to act against conscience, " Luther said. " God help me. Amen. " The Diet of Worms proclaimed Luther a heretic and outlaw, but his friends spirited him away to the castle of the Wartburg. Luther's He remained in seclusion for many months, en- leadership gaged upon a translation of the Bible. Though still under the ban of the empire, Luther now returned to Witten- :#*§ Worms Cathedral The old German city of Worms possesses in the Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul one of the finest Romanesque structures in Europe. The exterior, with its four round towers, two large domes, and a choir at each end, is particularly imposing. The cathedral was mainly built in the twelfth century. berg and devoted himself to the reformatory movement. His translation of the Bible, simple, forcible, and easy to under- stand, enjoyed wide popularity and helped to fix for Germans the form of their literary language. Luther also composed many fine hymns and a catechism, flooded the country with pamphlets, and wrote innumerable letters to his ad- herents. He became in this way the leader of the German Reformation. The Protestant Reformation 261 The Reformation in Germany made a wide appeal. To patriotic Germans it seemed a revolt against a foreign power — the Italian Papacy. To men of pious mind it The (iRe _ offered the attractions of a simple faith based formed directly on the Bible. Worldly-minded princes e gl0n saw in it an opportunity to despoil the Church of lands and revenues. Luther's teachings, accordingly, found acceptance among many people. Priests married, monks left their monas- teries, and the "Reformed Religion" took the place of Roman Catholicism in most parts of northern and central Germany. South Germany, however, did not fall away from the pope and has remained Roman Catholic to the present time. Luther's doctrines also spread into Scandinavian lands. The rulers of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden closed Lutheranism the monasteries and compelled the Roman Cath- in Scandi- olic bishops to surrender ecclesiastical property to the Crown. Lutheranism became henceforth the official religion of these three countries. The Reformation in Switzerland began with Huldreich Zwingli. He was the contemporary, but not the disciple, of Luther. From his pulpit in the cathedral of Zurich, Huldreich Zwingli proclaimed the Scriptures as the sole guide Zwm g u of faith and denied the supremacy of the pope. Many of the Swiss cantons accepted his teaching and broke away from obedience to Rome. Another founder of Protestantism was the Frenchman, John Calvin. His Institutes of the Christian Religion set forth in orderly, logical manner the main principles of Protestant theology. He also translated the Bible into French and wrote commentaries on nearly all the Scriptural books. Calvin passed most of his life at Geneva. The men whom he trained there, and on whom he set the stamp of his stern, earnest, God-fearing character, spread Calvinism over a great part of Europe. In Holland and Scotland it became the prevailing type of Protestantism, and in France and in England it deeply affected the national life. During the seventeenth century the Puritans carried Calvinism across the sea to 262 The Renaissance New England, where it formed the dominant faith in colonial times. The Reformation in Germany and Switzerland started as a national and popular movement; in England it began as the Beginning of act °^ a despotic sovereign, Henry VIII, the second the English king of the Tudor dynasty. He broke with the pope because the latter would not consent to his divorce from his queen, Catherine of Aragon, who was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor and Spanish monarch, Charles V. Henry VIII finally obtained the desired divorce from an English court, and in defiance of the papal bull of excommunication married a pretty maid-in- waiting, named Anne Boleyn. The king's next step was to secure from his subservient Parliament a series of laws abolishing the pope's authority in England. An Act of Supremacy (1534) declared the English king to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England," with power to appoint all ecclesiastical officers and dispose of the papal revenues. The suppression of the monasteries and the appropriation of their wealth for himself and his favorites soon followed this legislation. While Henry VIII thus separated England from the control of the Papacy, he remained Roman Catholic in belief to the day of his death. The Reformation made rapid progress in England during the reign of Henry's son and successor, Edward VI. The young , . king's guardian allowed reformers from the Conti- Completion 00 _,.,,,,. of the Eng- nent to come to England, and the doctrines of lishRefor- Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin were freely preached there. In order that religious services might be conducted in the language of the people, Archbishop Cranmer and his co-workers prepared the Book of Common Prayer. It consisted of translations into noble English of various parts of the old Latin service books. With some changes, it is still used in the Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. The short reign of Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, was marked by a temporary setback to the Protestant cause. The queen prevailed on Parliament to secure a reconciliation with Rome. She also The Protestant Sects 263 married her Roman Catholic cousin, Philip II of Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary now began a severe persecution of the Protestants. Many eminent reformers perished, among them Cranmer, the former archbishop. Mary died childless, after ruling about five years, and the crown passed to Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth. Under Elizabeth Anglicanism again replaced Roman Catholicism as the religion of England. 67. The Protestant Sects The Reformation was practically completed before the close of the sixteenth century. In 1500 the Roman Church embraced all Europe west of Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. Extent of By 1600 nearly half of its former subjects had Protestant- renounced their allegiance. The greater part of Germany and Switzerland and all of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Holland, England, Wales, and Scotland became independent of the Papacy. The unity of western Christendom, which had been preserved throughout the Middle Ages, thus disappeared and has not since been revived. The reformers agreed in substituting for the authority of popes and church councils the authority of the Bible. They went back fifteen hundred years to the time of _ Common the Apostles and tried to restore what they believed features of to be apostolic Christianity. Hence they rejected protestant- such doctrines and practices as were supposed to have developed during the Middle Ages. These included belief in purgatory, veneration of relics, invocation of saints, devotion to the Virgin, indulgences, pilgrimages, and the greater number of the sacraments. The Reformation also abolished the mon- astic system and priestly celibacy. The sharp distinction between clergy and laity disappeared; for priests married, lived among the people, and no longer formed a separate class. In general, Protestantism affirmed the ability of every man to find salvation without the aid of ecclesiastics. The Church was no longer the only "gate of heaven." l 1 See page 204. 264 The Renaissance Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 a.d. But the Protestant idea of authority led inevitably to dif- ferences of opinion among the reformers. There were various Divisions ways of interpreting that Bible to which they among appealed as the rule of faith and conduct. Conse- quently, Protestantism split up into many sects or denominations, and these have gone on multiplying to the present day. Nearly all, however, are offshoots from the three main varieties of Protestantism which appeared in the sixteenth century. Lutheranism and Anglicanism presented some features in common. Both were state churches, supported by the govern- ment; both had a book of common prayer; and both recog- The Protestant Sects 265 nized the sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist, and confirma- tion. The Church of England also kept the sacra- L Utneran _ ment of ordination. The Lutheran churches in ism and An- Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as the glcamsm Church of England, likewise retained the episcopate. Calvinism departed much more widely from Roman Catholi- cism. It did away with the episcopate and had only one order of clergv — the presbvters. 1 It provided for a _ . . . ■ i r ' 1 • /-!!••• Calvinism very simple form of worship. In a Calvmistic church the service consisted of Bible reading, a sermon, ex- temporaneous prayers, and hymns sung by the congregation. The Calvinists kept only two sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist. They regarded the first, however, as a simple under- taking to bring up the child in a Christian manner, and the sacond as merely a commemoration of the Last Supper. The break with Rome did not introduce religious liberty into Europe. Nothing was further from the mind of Luther, Calvin, and other reformers than the toleration of beliefs ..... _, , _ The Refor- unhke their own. The early Protestant sects mation and punished dissenters as zealously as the Roman freedom of Church punished heretics. Lutherans burned the followers of Zwingli in Germany, Calvinists put non-Calvinists to death, and the English government, in the time of Henry VIII and Elizabeth, executed many Roman Catholics. Com- plete freedom of conscience and the right of private judgment in religion have been secured in most countries of Europe only within the last hundred years. The Reformation, however, did deepen the moral life of European peoples. The faithful Protestant or Roman Catholic tried to show by his conduct that his particular The Re f or _ form of belief made for better living than any mation and other faith. The impulse to higher standards of mora s morality, which we owe to the Reformation, is still felt at the present day. 1 Churches governed by assemblies of presbyters were called Presbyterian; those which allowed each congregation to rule itself were called Congregational. 266 The Renaissance 68. The Catholic Counter Reformation The rapid spread of Protestantism soon brought about a Catholic Counter Reformation in those parts of Europe which The reform- remained faithful to Rome. The popes now turned ing popes from the cultivation of Renaissance art and litera- ture to the defense of their threatened faith. They made needed changes in the papal court and appointed to ecclesiastical offices men distinguished for virtue and learning. This reform of the Papacy dates from the time of Paul III, who became pope in 1534. Still more important was his sup- port of the Society of Jesus, which had been established in the year of his accession to the papal throne. The founder of the new society was a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius St. Ignatius Loyola. He had seen Loyola a g OOC j deal of service in the wars of Charles V against the French. While in a hospital re- covering from a wound, Loyola read devotional books, and these St. Ignatius Loyola After the painting by Sanchez de Coeiio in the House of the Society of produced a profound change within Jesus at Madrid. No authentic portrait hi m JJ e now donned a beggar's of Loyola has been preserved. Coello's . . picture was made with the aid of a wax robe, practiced all the kinds of cast of the saint's features taken after asceticism which his books de- scribed, and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Still later he became a student of theology at Paris, where he met the six devout and talented men who became the first members of his society. They intended to work as missionaries among the Moslems, but, when this plan fell through, they visited Rome and placed their energy and enthusiasm at the disposal of the pope. Loyola's military training deeply affected the character of the new order. The Jesuits, as their Protestant opponents The Catholic Counter Reformation 267 styled them, were to form an army of spiritual soldiers, living under the strictest obedience to their head, or general. Like sol- diers, again, they were to remain in the world and The Society there fight manfully for the Church and against of J esus heretics. The society grew rapidly; before Loyola's death it included over a thousand members; and in the seventeenth century it became the most influential of all the religious orders. The activity of the Jesuits as preachers, confessors, teachers, and missionaries did much to roll back the rising tide of Protes- tantism in Europe. The Jesuits gave special attention to education, for they realized the importance of winning over the young people to the Church. Their schools were so good that even Jesuit Protestant children often attended them. The scnools popularity of Jesuit teachers arose partly from the fact that they always tried to lead, not drive, their pupils. Light punish- ments, short lessons, many holidays, and a liberal use of prizes and other distinctions formed some of the attractive features of their system of training. It is not surprising that the Jesuits became the instructors of the Roman Catholic world. They called their colleges the "fortresses of the faith." The missions of the Jesuits were not less important than their schools. The Jesuits worked in Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other countries where Protestantism threatened Jesuit to become dominant. Then they invaded all the missionaries lands which the great maritime discoveries had laid open to European enterprise. In India, China, the East Indies, Japan, the Philippines, Africa, and the two Americas their converts from heathenism were numbered by hundreds of thousands. Another agency in the Counter Reformation was the great. Church Council summoned by Pope Paul III. The council met at Trent, on the borders of Germany and Italy, council of It continued, with intermissions, for nearly twenty Trent, 154s- years. The Protestants, though invited to par- I5 3 ticipate, did not attend, and hence nothing could be done to bring them back within the Roman Catholic fold. This was 268 The Renaissance the last general council of the Church for more than three hundred years. 1 The Council of Trent made no essential changes in Roman Catholic doctrines, which remained as theologians had set Work of them forth in the Middle Ages. It declared that the council foe tradition of the Church possessed equal authority with the Bible and reaffirmed the supremacy of the pope over Christendom. The council also passed decrees for- bidding the sale of ecclesiastical offices and requiring bishops and other prelates to attend strictly to their duties. Since the Council of Trent the Roman Church has been distinctly a religious organization, instead of both a secular and a religious body, as was the Church in the Middle Ages. The council, before adjourning, authorized the pope to draw up a list of works which Roman Catholics might not read. _, „ . This action did not form an innovation. The The Index Church from an early day had condemned heretical writings. However, the invention of printing, by giving greater currency to new and dangerous ideas, seemed to increase the necessity for the regulation of thought. The "Index of Pro- hibited Books" still exists, and additions to the list are made from time to time. It was matched by the strict censorship of printing long maintained in Protestant countries. Still another agency of the Counter Reformation consisted of the Inquisition. This was a system of church courts for the The Inqui- discovery and punishment of heretics. Such sition courts had been set up in the Middle Ages. After the Council of Trent they redoubled their activity, especially in Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. The Inquisition probably contributed to the disappearance of Protestantism in Italy. In the Netherlands, where it worked with great severity, it only aroused exasperation and hatred and helped to provoke a successful revolt of the Dutch people. The Spaniards, on the 1 Until the Vatican Council (i 869-1 870), which promulgated the dogma of papal infallibility. The dogma means that when the pope speaks ex cathedra, that is, by virtue of his apostolic authority, on matters of faith and morals, he cannot err. His decisions, therefore, bind the whole Church. The Religious Wars 269 other hand, approved of the methods of the Inquisition and welcomed its extermination of heretics. The Spanish Inquisition was not abolished until the nineteenth century. 69. The Religious Wars The young man who as Holy Roman Emperor presided at the Diet of Worms had assumed the imperial crown only two years previously. A namesake of Charlemagne, Charles V held sway over dominions even more extensive Holy Roman than those which had belonged to the Frankish Em P eror » king. Through his mother, a daughter of Ferdi- nand and Isabella, he inherited Spain, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Spanish possessions in the New World. Through his father, he received the Netherlands and the extensive possessions of the Hapsburgs in central Europe. Charles V, as a devout Roman Catholic, felt no sympathy with Lutheranism and might easily have extinguished it, had he undertaken the task promptly. A revolt in Spain and wars with the French and the Ottoman Turks led, however, to his long absence from Germany and kept him from proceeding effectively against the Lutherans until it was too late. The emperor, finally, brought Spanish troops into Germany, but the Lutheran princes were now too strong for him. Civil war raged until 1555, when both sides agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. It was a compromise. The ruler of each state — Germany then contained over three hun- dred states — was to decide whether his subjects should be Lutherans or Catholics. The peace by no means established re- ligious toleration, since all Germans had to believe as their prince believed. However, it recognized Lutheranism as a legal religion and ended the attempts to crush the German Reformation. Soon after the peace of Augsburg, Charles V determined to abdicate his many crowns and seek the repose of a monastery. The plan was duly carried into effect. His brother, _, ... _ 11 i-i Philip II, Ferdinand I, succeeded to the title of Holy Roman king of Emperor and the Austrian territories, while his s P a » n > x ss6- son, Philip II, received the Spanish possessions in Italy, Sicily, the Netherlands, and America. There were now 270 The Renaissance two branches of the Hapsburg family — one in Austria and one in Spain. Philip II, the new king of Spain, aimed to make his country the foremost state in the world and to secure the triumph of Roman Catholicism over Protestantism. Though he had vast possessions, enormous revenues, mighty fleets, and armies reputed the best of the age, he could not dominate western Europe. His first defeat was in the Netherlands. The Netherlands were too near Germany not to be affected by the Reformation. Lutheranism soon appeared there, only to Protestant- encounter the hostility of Charles V, who intro- ism in the duced the terrors of the Inquisition. Many heretics were burned at the stake, or beheaded, or buried alive. But there is no seed like martyrs' blood. The number of Protestants swelled, rather than lessened, especially after Calvinism entered the Netherlands. In spite of the cruel treatment of heretics by Charles V, the Netherlanders remained loyal to the emperor, because he had Philip 11 been born and reared among them and always and the considered their country as his own. Philip II, a Spaniard by birth and sympathies, seemed to them, however, only a foreign master. The new ruler did nothing to conciliate the people, but governed them despotically through Spanish officials supported by Spanish garrisons. Arbitrary taxes were levied, cities and nobles were deprived of their cherished privileges, and the activity of the Inquisition was redoubled. Philip intended to exercise in the Netherlands the same absolute power enjoyed by him in Spain. His policies soon produced a revolt of both Roman Catholics and Protestants against Spanish oppression. The southern provinces of the Netherlands, mainly Roman Catholic in population, did not long continue their resistance. Separation They effected a reconciliation with Philip and of the continued for over two centuries to remain in et eran s jjapg^uj-g hands. Modern Belgium has grown out of them. The seven northern provinces, where Dutch was the language and Protestantism the religion, came together in 1579 in the Union of Utrecht. Two years later they declared The Religious Wars 271 (ENGLAND Hook of aollak^^ii^gyy^^^i~^<. , ' The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 a.d. their independence of Spain. In this way the Dutch Re- public of the United Netherlands, or simply "Holland," took its place among European nations. 272 The Renaissance The struggle of Holland against Spain forms one of the notable episodes in history. The Dutch, under a resourceful leader, Holland William, Prince of Orange, better known as and Spain William the Silent, fought stubbornly behind the walls of their cities and on more than one occasion repelled the enemy by cutting the dikes and letting in the sea. Philip's successor consented in 1609 to a twelve years' truce with the revolted provinces, but their freedom was not recognized offi- cially by Spain until many years later. The long struggle bound the Dutch together and made them one nation. During the seventeenth century they took a The Dutch prominent part in European affairs. The republic Republic which they founded ought to be of special interest to Americans. Holland had the earliest system of common schools supported by taxation, early adopted the principles of religious toleration and freedom of the press, and in the Union of Utrecht gave to the world the first written constitution of a modern state. The Dutch, indeed, were pioneers of modern democracy. The attempt of Philip II to conquer England, a stronghold of Protestantism under Queen Elizabeth, 1 likewise ended disas- Philip II and trously. It must be admitted that Philip could Queen plead strong justification for his hostility. Eliza- beth allowed English " sea-dogs," such as Sir Francis Drake, to plunder Spanish colonies and seize Spanish vessels laden with the treasures of the New World. ' Moreover, she aided the rebellious Dutch, at first secretly and at length openly, in their struggle against Spain. Philip put up with these aggressions for many years, but finally came to the con- clusion that he could never subdue the Netherlands or end the piracy and smuggling in Spanish America without first conquer- ing England. Philip seems to have believed that, as soon as a Spanish army landed on the island, the Roman Catholics there would rally to his cause. But the Spanish king never had a chance to verify his belief; the decisive battle took place on the sea. 1 See page 263. PHILIP II After the painting by Titian in the Prado Museum, Madrid QUEEN ELIZABETH After the painting by Zucchero The Religious Wars 273 Philip had not completed his preparations before Sir Francis Drake sailed into Cadiz harbor and destroyed a vast amount of The "invinci- nava l stores and shipping. This exploit, which bie Arma- Drake called "singeing the king of Spain's beard," delayed the expedition for a year. The " Invincible Armada" l set out at last in 1588. The Spanish vessels, though somewhat larger than those of the English, were inferior in The Spanish Armada in the English Channel One of a series of engravings of a tapestry (now destroyed) in the House of Lords. In the left foreground Drake's ship is shown cutting out a Spanish man-of-war. number, speed, and gunnery to their adversaries, while the Spanish officers, mostly unused to the sea, were no match for men like Drake, Frobisher, and Raleigh, the best mariners of the age. The Armada suffered severely in a nine-days' fight in the Channel, and many vessels which escaped the English guns met shipwreck off the Scotch and Irish coasts. Less than half of the Armada returned in safety to Spain. England in the later Middle Ages had been an important naval power. During the sixteenth century, however, she was over-matched by Spain, especially after the annexation of Armada was a Spanish name for any armed fleet. 274 The Renaissance Portugal, by Philip II, added the naval forces of that country to the Spanish fleets. 1 The defeat of the Armada showed that English a new people had arisen to claim the supremacy of sea-power ^ e ocean . Henceforth the English began to build up what was to be a sea-power greater than any other known to history. The French Protes- tants, or Huguenots, The naturally Huguenots accepted the doctrines of Calvin, who was himself a Frenchman and whose books were written in the French language. Though bitterly perse- cuted, the Huguenots gained a large follow- ing, especially among a the prosperous middle \ class of the towns. \ Many nobles also be- came Huguenots, some- times because of relig- ious conviction, but often because the new movement offered them an opportunity to re- cover their feudal independence and to plunder the estates of the Church. In France, as well as in Germany, the Reformation had its worldly side. During most of the second half of the sixteenth century, fierce The Hugue- conflicts raged in France between the Roman Cath- notwars olics and the Huguenots. Philip II aided the former, and Queen Elizabeth gave some assistance to the latter. Henry IV After an old engraving. The king wears a hat with plumes and an aigrette, a ruff, and an embroid- ered cloak. On his breast is the order of Saint Esprit. 1 Portugal separated from Spain in 1640 and has since remained an independent state. The Religious Wars 275 France suffered terribly in the struggle, not only from the constant fighting, but also from the pillage, burnings, and other barbarities in which both sides indulged. The Huguenot wars ended during the reign of Henry IV, the first of the Bour- bon kings. Though originally a Protestant, he became a Roman Catholic, in order to conciliate the great majority of his subjects. King Henry did not break with the Huguenots, however. He now issued in their interest the celebrated Edict of Nantes. The Huguenots henceforth were to enjoy freedom of Edict of private worship everywhere in France, and freedom Nantes » x 598 to worship publicly in a large number of villages and towns. Only Roman Catholic services, however, might be held in Paris and at the royal court. Though the edict did not grant com- plete religious liberty, it marked an important step in that direction. A great European state had recognized for the first time the principle that two rival faiths might exist peaceably side by side within its borders. The Peace of Augsburg gave repose to Germany for more than sixty years, but it did not form a complete settlement of the religious question in that country. There was still R e Ugious room for bitter disputes, especially over the owner- antagonism ship of Church property which had been secularized m ermany in the course of the Reformation. Furthermore, the peace recog- nized only Roman Catholics and Lutherans and allowed no rights whatever to the large body of Calvinists. The failure of Lutherans and Calvinists to cooperate weakened German Protestantism just at the period when the Counter Reformation inspired Roman Catholicism with fresh energy and enthusiasm. Politics, as well as religion, also made for dissension. The Roman Catholic party relied for support on the Hapsburg emperors, who wished to unite the German states p i[ t j ca j under their control, thus restoring the Holy Roman friction in Empire to its former proud position in the affairs erman y of Europe. The Protestant princes, on the other hand, wanted to become independent sovereigns. Hence they resented all efforts to extend the imperial authority over them. 276 The Renaissance War, 1618 1648 Religious antagonism and political friction together produced the Thirty Years' War. It was not so much a single conflict in Thirty Years' Germany as a series of conflicts, which ultimately involved nearly all western Europe. At one time Sweden took a prominent part in the struggle, under her heroic king, Gustavus Adolphus, who came to the aid of the Protestant princes against the Holy Roman Em- peror. After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in battle, the German Protes- tants found an ally, strangely enough, in Cardinal Richelieu, the all-powerful minister of the French king. Riche- lieu entered the struggle in order to humble the Austrian Hapsburgs and ex- tend the boundaries of France toward the Rhine. Since the Spanish Hapsburgs were aiding their Austrian kinsmen, Richelieu naturally fought against Spain also. The Holy Roman Emperor had to yield at last and consented to the treaties of peace signed at two cities in the province of Westphalia. The Peace of Westphalia ended the long series of wars which Peace of followed the Reformation. Il practically settled Westphalia foe religious question, for it put Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists in Germany all on the same footing. Henry VIII After a portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger. The Religious Wars 277 Henceforth the idea that religious differences should be settled by force gradually passed away from the minds of men. The territorial readjustments made at this time have deeply affected the subsequent history of Europe. France received from the Holy Roman Empire a large part of Alsace, in this way obtaining a foothold on the upper Rhine. She also secured the recognition of her claims to the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine. Sweden gained the western half of Pomerania and the bishopric of Bremen. These possessions enabled her to control the mouths of the rivers Oder, Elbe, and Weser, which were important arteries of German commerce. Brandenburg — the future kingdom of Prussia — acquired eastern Pomerania and several bishoprics, thus becoming the leading state in North Germany. The independence of Switzerland and of the United Netherlands was also recognized. During the Thirty Years' War Germany had seen most of the fighting. She suffered from it to the point of exhaustion. The population dwindled from about sixteen millions Condition to one-half, or, as some believe, to one-third that of German y number. The loss of life was partly due to fearful epidemics, such as typhus fever and the bubonic plague, which spread over the land in the wake of the invading armies. A great many villages were destroyed or were abandoned by their inhabitants. Much of the soil went out of cultivation, while trade and manufacturing nearly disappeared. Added to all this was the decline of education, literature, and art, and the brutalizing of the people in mind and morals. It took Germany at least one hundred years to recover from the injury inflicted by the Thirty Years' War; complete recovery, indeed, came only in the nineteenth century. The savagery displayed by all participants in this long contest naturally impressed thinking men with the necessity of formu- lating rules to protect non-combatants, to care for Rise of inter- prisoners, and to do away with pillage and massa- natl0nal ,aw ere. The worst horrors of the war had not taken place before a Dutch jurist, named Hugo Grotius, published at Paris in 1625 a work On (he Laws of War and Peace. It may be said to have 278 The Renaissance founded international law. The success of the book was re- markable. Gustavus Adolphus carried a copy about with him during his campaigns, and its leading doctrines were recognized and acted upon in the Peace of Westphalia. Since the time of Grotius, the field of international law has widened, and now not only the regulation of warfare, but also the preservation of peace has become the ideal of statesmen, publicists, and all lovers of mankind. 70. The European State System After the Peace of West- phalia statesmen generally Balance agreed that the of power various European nations unequal in size, popu- lation, and resources, ought to form a sort of federal community in which the secu- rity of all was ensured. If any nation became so power- ful as to overshadow the others, then they must com- bine against it and endeavor to hold it in check. The main- tenance of such a balance of power has been a leading object of European diplomacy from the time of the Thirty Years' War to the present day. But the balance of power remained only a weak ideal, in an age when diplomacy was corrupt and international immor- National ality was universal. The strong countries often aggrandize- robbed their weaker neighbors with impunity. The result was that the vanity, selfishness, or ambition of individual rulers and dynasties plunged Europe into one war after another. Henceforth, national aggrandizement began to replace religious dissension as the main cause of European strife. Hugo Grotius After the portrait by Miervelt of Grotius at the age of forty-nine. The European State System 279 The map of western Europe in 1648 was very much the same as now. The British Isles had a common ruler, but Scotland continued to be a separate kingdom and Ireland Western was only loosely joined to England. The Iberian Eur °P e Peninsula included the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. Both were declining in wealth, population, and political importance. France had nearly her existing boundaries, except on the east and northeast toward the Rhine. Switzerland and the United Netherlands (Holland) were independent confeder- ations. The Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) remained, how- ever, a province of Spain. The map of central Europe in 1648 was very unlike what it is to-day. Most of Germany was then divided into more than three hundred states and feudal domains. Many of Central them were free to coin money, raise armies, make Eur °P e war, and negotiate treaties without consulting the Holy Roman Emperor. The imperial title and dignity were now hereditary in the Austrian Hapsburg family. If they meant little, the Hapsburg ruler, as archduke of Austria, king of Bohemia, king of Hungary, and lord of many smaller territories, held, neverthe- less, a proud position in Europe. Italy, like Germany, presented a picture of disunion. The northern part of the peninsula con- tained the independent duchy of Savoy, the duchy of Milan (a Spanish possession), the republics of Venice and Genoa, and the little states of Parma, Modena, and Lucca. Central Italy included the duchy of Tuscany and the States of the Church. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies belonged to Spain. In 1648 there were only two Scandinavian kingdoms, for Norway was joined to Denmark. Sweden, then a first-class power, held sway over Finland and adjacent terri- Northern tories. The duchy of East Prussia belonged to and eastern the Elector of Brandenburg. The huge kingdom urope of Poland, which had united with the grand duchy of Lithuania in the preceding century, stretched from the Baltic almost to the Black Sea. Farther east lay Russia, so backward in civiliza- tion as to be scarcely a European country. The Ottoman Turks in 1648 ruled in southeastern Europe. 280 The Renaissance They occupied Greece, all the Balkan Peninsula except Monte- negro, most of Hungary, and the territory now included in Southeast- Rumania and part of southern Russia. Never em Europe ^ a( j ^ e shadow of the crescent loomed more darkly over Europe. Studies i. Distinguish and define the three terms, "Renaissance," "Revival of Learn- ing," and "Humanism." 2. "Next to the discovery of the New World, the recovery of the ancient world is the second landmark that divides us from the Middle Ages and marks the transition to modern life." Comment on this statement. 3. Why did the Renaissance begin as an "Italian event"? 4. Why was the revival of Greek more important in the history of civilization than the revival of Latin? 5. Show that printing was an "emancipating force." 6. Why did the classical scholar come to be regarded as the only educated man? 7. Why has Marco Polo been called the "Columbus of the East Indies"? 8. Explain this statement: "The American isthmus was discovered because an Asiatic one existed; in trying to avoid Suez the early mariners ran afoul of Darien." g. On an outline map indicate the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, Columbus (first voyage), and Magellan. 10. How did Lisbon in the sixteenth century become the commercial successor of Venice? 11. Show that the three words "gospel, glory, and gold" sum up the principal motives of European colonization in the sixteenth century. 12. Compare the motives which led to the colonization of the New World with those which led to Greek colonization. 13. "The opening-up of the Atlantic to continuous exploration is the most momentous step in the history of man's occupation of the earth." Does this statement seem to be justified? 14. Identify the following dates: 1517, 1555, 1588, 1598, and 1648. 15. On the map, page 264, trace the geographical extent of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. 16. Why did the reformers in each country take special pains to translate the Bible into the vernacular? 17. Why is the Council of Trent generally considered the most important Church council since that of Nicaga? 18. On an outline map indicate the European countries ruled by Charles V. 19. Compare the Edict of Nantes with the Peace of Augsburg. 20. Show that political, as well as religious, motives affected the revolt of the Netherlands, the Huguenot wars, and the Thirty Years' War. /1 ■ , ' 1 CHAPTER VIII THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES IN EUROPE 1 71. Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings Most European states in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were absolute monarchies. The rulers of Europe, having triumphed over the feudal nobility of the ,,.... i ■ i i i ii i Absolutism Middle Ages, proclaimed themselves to be the sole source of authority. Absolutism prevailed everywhere on the Continent, except in such small states as Holland, Switzer- land, and Venice, where aristocracies held the reins of power. Democracy was non-existent. The middle and lower classes had no real part in law-making, no representative assemblies, and no constitutional safeguards against arbitrary authority. The kings were everything; their subjects, nothing. Absolutism was supported by divine right. The kings declared that they held their power, not from the choice or consent of their subjects, but by the "grace of „,,, rr ... , .... ., _ , Divine right God. This theory of divine right first took shape during the Middle Ages, out of the controversies between the Papacy and the secular rulers of Europe. The popes, as God's vicars on earth, claimed the obedience of all Christians, as well in temporal as in spiritual matters. Emperors and kings, resenting what they regarded as papal interference in politics, then set up a counter-claim for the divine origin of the imperial and royal power. During the Reformation Luther and his followers also exalted the authority of the State against 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modem History, chapter xxv, "Characters and Episodes of the Great Rebellion"; chapter xxvi, "Oliver Cromwell"; chapter xxvii," English Life and Manners under the Restoration"; chapter xxviii, "Louis XIV and His Court." Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 4, "Petition of Right, 1628"; No. 6, "Instrument of Government, 165V'; No. 7, "Habeas Corpus Act, 1679"; No. 8, "Bill of Rights, 1689"; No. 9, "Act of Settlement, 1701." 281 282 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries the authority of the Church, which they condemned and rejected. Providence, they argued, had never sanctioned the Papacy, but Providence had really ordained the State and had placed over it a ruler whom it was a religious duty to obey. Lutherans, therefore, defended the theory of divine right. The same may be said of Anglicans, for the Church of England from the first was a religion of the State. A very different theory found acceptance in those parts of Europe where Calvinism prevailed. In his Institutes, one of Popular the mos t widely read books of the age, Calvin sovereignty declares that magistrates and parliaments are the guardians of popular liberty "by the ordinance of God." x Calvin's adherents, amplifying this statement, argued that rulers derive their authority from the people and that those who abuse it may be deposed by the will of the people. The Christian duty of resistance to royal tyranny became a cardinal principle of Calvinism among the French Huguenots, the Dutch, the Scotch, and most of the American colonists of the seven- teenth century. We shall now see how influential it was in seventeenth-century England. 72. The Struggle against Stuart Absolutism in England, 1603-1660 Absolutism in England dated from the time of the Tudors. Henry VII humbled the nobles, while Henry VIII and Elizabeth Tudor ab- brought the Church into dependence on the Crown, soiutism These three sovereigns, though despotic, were excellent rulers and were popular with the influential middle class in town and country. The Tudors gave England order and prosperity, if not political liberty. The English Parliament in the thirteenth century had be- come a body representative of the different estates of the „ ,. realm, and in the fourteenth century it had sepa- Parhament . 1 under the rated into the two houses of Lords and Commons. Tudors Parliament enjoyed considerable authority at this time. The kings, who were in continual need of money, 1 Institutes of the Christian Religion, IV, xx, 31. Stuart Absolutism in England 283 often summoned it, sought its advice upon important ques- tions, and readily listened to its requests. The despotic Tudors, on the other hand, made Parliament their servant. Henry VII called it together on only five occasions during his reign ; Henry VIII persuaded or frightened it into doing anything he pleased ; and Elizabeth consulted it as infrequently as possible. Parliament under the Tudors did not abandon its old claims to a share in the government, but it had little chance to exercise them. The death of Elizabeth in 1603 ended the Tudor dynasty and placed James I, 1 the first of the Stuarts, on the English throne. England and Scotland were now joined in a per- j ames j sonal union, though each country retained its own k^e. 1603 1625 Parliament, laws, and established Church. The new king was well described by a contemporary as the "wisest fool in Christendom." He had a good mind and abundant learning, but throughout his reign he showed an utter inability to win either the esteem or the affection of his subjects. This was a misfortune, for the English had now grown weary of despotism and wanted freedom. They were not prepared to tolerate in James, an alien, many things which they had over- looked in "Good Queen Bess." The manifest purpose of James to rule as an absolute monarch aroused much opposition in Parliament. That body felt little sympathy for a king who proclaimed himself the Parliament source of all law. When James, always extrava- and J ames * gant and a poor financier, came before it for money, Parliament insisted on its right to withhold supplies until grievances were redressed. James would not yield, and got along as best he could by levying customs duties, selling titles of nobility, and imposing excessive fines, in spite of the protests of Parliament. A religious controversy helped to embitter the dispute be- tween James and Parliament. The king, who was a devout Anglican, made himself very unpopular with the Puritans, as the reformers within the Church of England were called. The 1 James VI of Scotland (1567-1625). His mother, Mary Queen of Scots, was a granddaughter of Henry VII, the first of the Tudors. 284 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Puritanism Puritans had at first no intention of separating from the national or established Church, but they wished to "purify" it of certain customs which they described as "Romish." Among these were the use of the surplice, of the ring in the marriage service, and of the sign of the cross in baptism. Some Puritans wanted to get rid of the Book of Common Prayer al- together. Since the Puritans had a large majority in the House of Commons, it was inevitable that the parliamentary struggle against Stuart absolut- ism should assume in part a religious char- acter. The political and religious difficulties which marked the reign of James I did not disappear when his son, Charles I, came to the throne. Charles was a true Stuart in his devotion to absolutism and divine right. Almost immediately he began ,to quarrel with Parliament. When that body withheld supplies, Charles resorted to forced loans from the wealthy and even imprisoned a number of persons who refused to contribute. Such arbitrary acts showed plainly that Charles would play the tyrant if he could. The king's attitude at last led Parliament to a bold assertion of its authority. It now presented to Charles the celebrated Petition of Petition of Right. One of the most important Right, 1628 clauses provided that loans without parliamentary sanction should be considered illegal. Another clause de- clared that no one should be arrested or imprisoned except according to the law of the land. The Petition thus repeated and reinforced some of the leading principles of Magna Carta. 1 1 See page 201. A Puritan Family Illustration in an edition of the Psalms published in 1563- Charles I, king, 1625 1649 Stuart Absolutism in England 285 The people of England, speaking this time through their elected representatives, asserted once more their right to limit the power of kings. Charles signed the Petition, as the only means of securing parliamentary consent to taxation ; but he had no intention of observing it. For the next eleven years he man- , , . , ..... . John Hamp- aged to get along without calling Parliament in den and session. One of his devices to fill his treasury " ship "„ was the levying of "ship-money." According to an old custom, seaboard towns and counties had been re- quired to provide ships or money for the royal navy. Charles revived this custom and extended it to towns and counties lying inland. It seemed clear that the king meant to impose a permanent tax on all England without the assent of Parlia- ment. The demand for "ship-money" aroused much opposi- tion, and John Hampden, a wealthy squire of Buckinghamshire, refused to pay the twenty shillings levied on his estate. Hamp- den was tried before a court of the royal judges and was con- victed by a bare majority. He became, however, a popular hero. Archbishop Laud, the king's chief agent in ecclesiastical matters, detested Puritanism and aimed to root it out from the Anglican Church. He put no Puritans to death, L au a' S but he sanctioned cruel punishments of those who ecclesiastical would not conform to the established religion. p ° While the restrictions on Puritans were increased, those affecting Roman Catholics were relaxed. Many people thought that Charles, through Laud and the bishops, was preparing to lead the Church of England back to Rome. They therefore opposed the king on religious grounds, as well as for political reasons. But the personal rule of Charles was now drawing to an end. When the king tried to introduce a modified form of the English prayer book into Scotland, the Scotch Calvinists drew up a national oath, or Covenant, by which Parliament, they bound themselves to resist any attempt to 16 *° change their religion. Rebellion quickly passed into open war, and the Covenanters invaded northern England. Charles was then obliged to summon Parliament in session. It met in 1640 286 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and did not formally dissolve until twenty years later. Hence it came to be known as the Long Parliament. This body at once assumed the conduct of government. Under the leadership of John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, it proceeded to abolish the royal courts which had tried cases arbitrarily without a jury. It forbade the imposition of " ship-money " and other irregular taxes. It also took away the king's right of dissolving Parliament at his pleasure and ordered that at least one parliamentary session should be held every three years. These measures stripped the Crown of the despotic powers acquired by the Tudors and the Stuarts. The Long Parliament thus far had acted along the line of reformation rather than revolution. Had Charles been content to accept the new arrangements, there would have Outbreak of , ... . . & _, . . ' the Great been little more trouble. JBut the proud and rni- Rebeilion, perious king was only watching his chance to strike a blow at Parliament. Taking advantage of some differences of opinion among its members, Charles sum- moned his soldiers, marched to Westminster, and demanded the surrender of five leaders, including Pym and Hampden. Warned in time, they made their escape, and Charles did not find them in the chamber of the Commons. "Well, I see all the birds are flown," he exclaimed, and walked out baffled. The king's attempt to intimidate the Commons was a grave blunder. It showed beyond doubt that he would resort to force, rather than bend his neck to Parliament. Both Charles and Parliament now began to gather troops and prepare for the inevitable conflict. The opposing parties seemed to be very evenly matched. Around the king rallied nearly all the nobles, the Anglican " c l* " c ^ er §y' the Roman Catholics, a majority of the and " Round- "squires," or country gentry, and the members heads " Q f ^ un i V ersities. The royalists received the name of "Cavaliers." The parliamentarians, or "Round- heads," 1 were mostly recruited from the trading classes in the 1 So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in contrast to the flowing locks of the "Cavaliers." | tl ji '*& JKVV> V OLIVER CROMWELL After the painting L,y Sir Peter Lely in 1653, Pitti Gallery, Florence Stuart Absolutism in England 287 towns and the small landowners in the country. The working people remained as a rule indifferent and took little part in the struggle. Both Pym and Hampden died in the second year of the war, and henceforth the leadership of the parliamentarians fell to Oliver Cromwell. He was a country gentleman Oliver from the east of England, and Hampden's cousin. Cromwell Cromwell represented the university of Cambridge in the Long Parliament and displayed there great audacity in oppos- ing the government. An unfriendly critic at this time de- scribes "his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untuneable, and his eloquence full of fervor." Though a zealous Puritan, who believed himself to be the chosen agent of the Lord, Cromwell was not an ascetic. He hunted, bis*** 4&n. Specimen of Cromwell's Handwriting hawked, played bowls and other games, had an ear for music, and valued art and learning. In public life he showed him- self a statesman of much insight and a military genius. Fortune favored the royalists, until Cromwell assumed com- mand of the parliamentary forces. To him was due the for- mation of a cavalry regiment of "honest, sober _. „_ . J ° The Iron- Chnstians, whose watchwords were texts from sides " and Scripture and who charged in battle singing psalms. !^ e " ^? w These "Ironsides," as Cromwell said, "had the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what they did." They were so successful that Parliament permitted Cromwell to reorganize a large part of the army into the " New Model," a body of professional, highly disciplined soldiers. The "New Model" defeated Charles decisively at the battle of Naseby, near the center of England (1645). Charles then surrendered to the Scotch, who soon turned him over to Parliament. 288 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries The surrender of the king ended the Great Rebellion, but left the political situation in doubt. The Puritans by this time Presby- nac ^ divided into two rival sects. The Presby- terians and terians wished to make the Church of England, epen en s j^ e j.]^ f Scotland, Presbyterian l in faith and worship. Through their control of Parliament, they were able to pass acts doing away with bishops, forbidding the use of the Book of Common Prayer, and requiring every one to accept Presbyterian doctrines. The other Puritan sect, known as Independents, 2 felt that religious beliefs should not be a matter of compulsion. They rejected both Anglicanism and Presby- terianism and desired to set up churches of their own, where they might worship as seemed to them right. The Inde- pendents had the powerful backing of Cromwell and the "New Model," so that the stage was set for a quarrel between Parlia- ment and the army. King Charles, though a prisoner in the power of his enemies, hoped to profit by their divisions. The Presbyterian majority " Pride's m tne House of Commons was willing to restore Purge," the king, provided he would give his assent to the establishment of Presbyterianism in England. But the army wanted no reconciliation with the captive monarch and at length took matters into its own hand. A party of soldiers, under the command of a Colonel Pride, excluded the Presbyterian members from the floor of the House, leaving the Independents alone to conduct the government. This action is known as "Pride's Purge." Cromwell approved of it, and from this time he became the real ruler of England. The "Rump," as the remnant of the House of Commons was contemptuously called, immediately brought the king Execution of before a High Court of Justice composed of his Charles I, bitterest enemies. He refused to acknowledge the right of the court to try him and made no defense whatever'. Charles was speedily convicted and sen- tenced to be beheaded, "as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and 1 See page 265, note 1. 2 Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationalists. Stuart Absolutism in England 289 public enemy to the good of the people." He met death with quiet dignity and courage on a scaffold erected in front of White- hall Palace in London. The king's execution went far beyond the wishes of most Englishmen; "cruel necessity" formed its only justification ; but it established once for all in England the principle that rulers are responsible to their subjects. Great Seal of England under the Commonwealth (reduced) The reverse represents the House of Commons in session. The "Rump" also abolished the House of Lords and the office of king. It named a Council of State, most of whose members were chosen from the House of Commons, The c m- to carry on the government. England now be- monwealth came a national republic, or Commonwealth, the first in the history of the world. 1 The new republic was clearly the creation 1 The Swiss Confederation (1291) and the United Netherlands (1581) were fed- erative republics. 290 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries of a minority. Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics were ready to restore the monarchy, but as long as the power lay with the army, the small sect of Independents could im- pose its will on the great majority of the English people. Meanwhile, the "Rump" had become more and more un- popular. Cromwell at length dissolved it by force. Another The Parliament, made up of "God-fearing men," Protectorate proved equally incapable and after a few months resigned its authority into Cromwell's hands. His reluctance to play the autocrat led him to accept a so-called Instrument of Government drawn up by some of his officers, and notable as the only written constitution which England has ever had. It is also of extreme interest as the first example of a con- stitution which attempts to draw a sharp dividing line between the powers of the legislative and executive departments. The Instrument of Government vested supreme power in a single person styled the Lord Protector, holding office for life. He was to be assisted, and to some extent controlled, by a council and a parliament. The Protectorate, which thus supplanted the Commonwealth, really formed a limited or constitutional mon- archy in all but name. The Lord Protector governed England for five years. His successful conduct of foreign affairs gave to that country an importance in European politics which it Lord Pro- had not enjoyed since the time of Elizabeth, tector, 1653- jje died in 1658, leaving the army without a master and the country without a settled government. Two years later the nation, now grown weary of military rule, recalled the eldest son of Charles I to the throne. It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a complete failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution The Puritan arrested the growth of absolutism and divine right Revolution i n England. It created among Englishmen a lasting hostility to despotic rule, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Protector, or army. Furthermore, it sent forth into the world ideas of popular sovereignty, which, during the eighteenth cen- tury, helped to produce the American and French revolutions. The Restoration and the " Glorious Revolution " 291 73. The Restoration and the " Glorious Revolution," 1660-1714 Charles II pledged himself to maintain Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and various statutes limiting the royal power. The people of England wished to have a king, but Charles II they also wished their king to govern by the advice kin e- 1660- of Parliament. Charles, less obstinate and more astute than his father, recognized this fact, and, when a conflict threatened with his ministers or Parliament, always avoided it by timely concessions. Whatever happened, he used to say, he was resolved "never set out on his travels again." Charles's charm of manner, wit, and genial humor made him a popular monarch, in spite of his grave faults of character. He was a king who "never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one." The Restoration brought back the Church of England, together with the Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the king, made the use of the Book of Common The Dis- proves compulsory and required ministers to ex- senters press their consent to everything contained in it. Rather than do so, nearly two thousand clergymen resigned their positions. Among them were found Presbyterians, Inde- pendents (or Congregationalists), Baptists, and Quakers. The members of these sects, since they refused to accept the national Church, were henceforth classed as Dissenters. 1 They might not hold meetings for worship, or teach in schools, or hold any public office. Thus Dissenters, as well as Roman Catholics, had to endure persecution. One of the most important events belonging to the reign of Charles II was the passage by Parliament of the Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of habeas corpus 2 is an order, issued by a judge, requiring a person held in custody to be brought before the court. If upon examination good reason is shown 1 Or Nonconformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants not members of the Anglican Church. s A Latin phrase meaning "You may have the body." 292 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries for keeping the prisoner, he is to be remanded for trial ; other- wise he must either be freed or released on bail. This writ Habeas na d been long used in England, and one of the Corpus Act, clauses of Magna Carta expressly provided against arbitrary imprisonment. It had always been pos- sible, however, for the king or his ministers to order the arrest of a person considered dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge against him. The Habeas Corpus Act estab- lished the principle that every man, not charged with or con- victed of a known crime, is entitled to his liberty. Most of the British possessions where the Common Law prevails have accepted the act, and it has been adopted by the United States. The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern party system in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, Whigs and very largely out of a religious controversy. The Tones king, from his ldng life in France, was partial to Roman Catholicism, though he did not formally embrace that faith until the moment of death. His brother James, the heir to the throne, became an avowed Roman Catholic, much to the disgust of many members of Parliament. A bill was now brought forward to exclude Prince James from the succession, because of his conversion. Its supporters received the nick- name of Whigs, while those who opposed it were called Tories. The former were successors of the old "Roundheads," the latter, of the "Cavaliers." x The bill did not pass the House of Lords, but the two parties in Parliament continued to divide on other questions. They survive to-day as the Liberals and the Conservatives, and still dispute the government of England between them. James II lacked the attractive personality which had made his brother a popular ruler; moreover, he was a staunch be- T TT liever in the divine right of kings. He soon James II, ° b king, 1685- quarreled with Parliament and further antagonized 1688 his Protestant subjects by "suspending" the laws against Roman Catholics and by appointing them to positions 1 See page 286 and note 1. The Restoration and the " Glorious Revolution " 293 of authority and influence. Englishmen might have tolerated James to the end of his reign (he was then nearing sixty), in the hope that he would be succeeded by his Protestant daughter Mary. But the birth in 1688 of a son to his Roman Catholic second wife changed the whole situation by opening up the prospect of a Roman Catholic succession to the throne. At last a number of Whig and Tory leaders invited William, prince of Orange, stadholder or governor-general of Holland, to rescue England from Stuart despotism. 1 William landed in England with a small army and marched unopposed to London. James II, deserted by his retainers and soldiers, soon found himself alone. He fled to Accession France, where he lived the remainder of his days of William as a pensioner at the French court. Parliament an ary granted the throne conjointly to William and Mary, William to rule during his lifetime and Mary to have the succession if she survived him.' 2 Should they have no children, the throne was to go to Mary's sister Anne. At the same time Parliament took care to perpetuate its own authority and the Protestant religion by enacting the Bill of Rights, which has a place by the side of Magna The Bill of Carta and the Petition of Right among the great Rights, 1689 documents of English constitutional history. This act decreed that the sovereign must henceforth be a member of the Anglican Church. It forbade him to "suspend" the operation of the laws, or to levy money or maintain a standing army except by consent of Parliament. It also declared that election of mem- bers of Parliament should be free, that they should enjoy free- dom of speech and action within the two Houses; and that excessive bail should not be required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Finally, it affirmed the right of subjects to petition the sovereign and ordered the holding of frequent Parliaments. These were not new prin- ciples of political liberty, but now the English people were 1 William was Mary's husband. See the genealogical table, page 295 note r. . * Mary, however, died in i6<)4. 294 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries strong enough to give them the binding form of laws. They reappear in the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States. Parliament also passed a Toleration Act, conceding to Dis- senters the right of public worship, though not the right of The Tolera- holding any civil or military office. The Dis- tion Act, 1689 senters might now worship as they pleased, with- out fear of persecution. Unitarians and Roman Catholics, as well as Jews, were expressly excluded from the benefits of the act. The passage of this measure did much to remove religion from English politics as a vital issue. The Revolution of 1688- 1689 struck a final blow at ab- solutism and divine right in England. An English king be- The " Gl '- came henceforth the servant of Parliament, hold- ous Revolu- ing office only on good behavior. An act of Parlia- ment had made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the Revolution did not form a popular movement. It was a suc- cessful struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper classes. The government of England still remained far removed from democracy. The supremacy won by Parliament was safeguarded, a few years later, by the passage of the Act of Settlement. It pro- Act of vided that in case William III or his sister-in-law Settlement, Anne died without heirs, the crown should pass to Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her descend- ants. She was the granddaughter of James I and a Protestant. This arrangement deliberately excluded a number of nearer representatives of the Stuart house from the succession, because they were Roman Catholics. Parliament thus asserted in the strongest way the right of the English people to choose their own rulers. Queen Anne died in 17 14, and in accordance with the Act The of Settlement, George I, the son of Sophia of Hanoverian Hanover, ascended the throne. He was the first member of the Hanoverian dynasty, which has since continued to reign in Great Britain. In 191 7, however, Absolutism of Louis XIV in France 295 the official name of the English ruling family was changed to "House of Windsor." 1 74. Absolutism of Louis XIV in France, 1643-1715 France in the seventeenth century furnished the best ex- ample of an absolute monarchy, during the reign of Louis XIV. He was a man of handsome presence, slightly be- Louis xiv, low the middle height, with a prominent nose and the man abundant hair, which he allowed to fall over his shoulders. In manner he was dignified, reserved, courteous, and as majestic, it is said, in his dressing-gown as in his robes of state. A con- temporary wrote that he would have been every inch a king, "even if he had been born under the roof of a beggar." Louis possessed much natural intelligence, a retentive memory, and great capacity for work. It must be added, however, that his 1 Stuart and Hanoverian Dynasties. James I (1603-1625) Charles I (1625-1649) I Charles II (1660-1685) Mary, m. William, Prince of Orange Elizabeth, m. Frederick V, Elector of the Palatinate Sophia, m. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover George I (1714-1727) James II (168S-1688) William III, m. Mary Anne Prince of (1689-1694) (1702-1714) Orange, King of England (1689-1702) George II (1727-1760) Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 175O George 1 1 1 (1760-1820) George IV William IV (1820-1830) (I830-X837) Edward, Duke of Kent I Victoria (1837-1901) Edward VII (1001-1910) George V (1910- ) 296 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries general education had been neglected, and that throughout his life he remained ignorant and superstitious. Vanity formed a striking trait in the character of Louis. He accepted the most fulsome compliments and delighted to be known as the "Grand Monarch" and the "Sun-king." Hotel des Invalides, Paris Built by Louis XIV as a home for infirm or disabled soldiers. Napoleon Bonaparte is entombed here. The famous saying, "I am the State," x though not uttered by Louis, accurately expressed his conviction that in him were Louis XIV, embodied the power and greatness of France. the king p ew monarc hs have tried harder to justify their despotic rule. He was fond of gayety and sport, but he never permitted himself to be turned away from the punctual dis- 1 L'Etat, c'est moi. Absolutism of Louis XIV in France 297 charge of his royal duties. Until the close of his reign — one of the longest in the annals of Europe — Louis devoted from five to nine hours a day to what he catted the " trade of a king." Louis gathered around him a magnificent court at Versailles, near Paris. Here a whole royal city, with palaces, parks, groves, terraces, and fountains, sprang into being The French at his order. The gilded salons and mirrored court corridors of Versailles were soon crowded with members of the nobility. They now spent little time on their estates, pre- ferring to remain at Versailles in attendance on the king, to whose favor they owed offices, pensions, and honors. The splendor of the French court cast its spell upon Europe. Every king and prince looked to Louis as the model of what a ruler should be and tried to imitate him. During this period the French language, manners, dress, art, and literature became the accepted standards of polite society in all civilized lands. How unwise it may be to concentrate authority in the hands of one man is shown by the melancholy record of the wars of Louis XIV. To make France powerful and gain French fame for himself, Louis plunged his country into a militarism series of struggles from which it emerged completely exhausted. He dreamed of dominating all western Europe, but his aggres- sions provoked against him a constantly increasing number of allies, who in the end proved to be too strong even for the king's able generals and fine armies. Of the four great wars which filled a large part of Louis's reign, all but the last were designed to extend the dominions of France on the east and northeast as far as the The Rhine Rhine. That river in ancient times had separated boundary Gaul and Germany, and Louis regarded it as a "natural bound- ary" of France. Some expansion in this direction had already been made by the Peace of Westphalia, when France gained much of Alsace and secured the recognition of her old claims to the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine. A treaty negotiated with Spain in 1659 also gave to France posses- sions in Artois and Flanders. Louis thus had a good basis for operations in the Rhinelands. 298 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries The French king began his aggressions by an effort to annex the Belgian or Spanish Netherlands, which then belonged to Three wars Spain. A triple alliance of Holland, England, for the and Sweden forced him to relinquish all his con- quests, except some territory in Flanders (1668). Louis blamed the Dutch for his setback and determined to Acquisitions of Louis XIV Acquisitions of Louis XV Acquisitions or Louis XIV and Louis XV punish them. Moreover, the Dutch represented everything to which he was opposed, for Holland was a republic, the keen rival of France in trade, and Protestant in religion. By skillful diplomacy he persuaded England and Sweden to stand aloof, while his armies entered Holland and drew near to Amsterdam. Absolutism of Louis XIV in France 299 At this critical moment William, prince of Orange, 1 became the Dutch leader. He was a descendant of that William the Silent, who, a century before, had saved the Dutch out of the hands of Spain. By William's orders the Dutch cut the dikes and interposed a watery barrier to further advance by the French. William then formed another Continental coalition, which carried on the war till Louis signified his desire for peace. The Dutch did not lose a foot of territory, but Spain was obliged to cede to France the important province of Franche-Comte (1678). A few years later Louis sought additional territory in the Rhinelands, but again an alliance of Spain, Holland, Austria, and England compelled him to sue for terms (1697). The treaty of peace concluding the third war for the Rhine confirmed the French king in the possession of Strasbourg, to- gether with other cities and districts of Alsace Alsace and which he had previously annexed. Alsace was Lorraine now completely joined to France, except for some territories of small extent which were acquired about a century later. The Alsatians, though mainly of Teutonic extraction, in process of time considered themselves French and lost all desire for union with any of the German states. The greater part of Lorraine was not added to France until 1766, during the reign of Louis's successor. The Lorrainers, likewise, became thor- oughly French in feeling. The European balance of power had thus far been pre- served, but it was now threatened in another direction. The king of Spain lay dying, and as he was without The Spanish children or brothers to succeed him, all Europe succession wondered what would be the fate of his vast possessions in Europe and America. Louis had married one of his sisters, and the Holy Roman Emperor another, so both the Bourbons and the Austrian Hapsburgs could put forth claims to the Span- ish throne. When the king died, it was found that he had left his entire dominions to one of Louis's grandsons, in the hope that the French might be strong enough to keep them undivided. Though Louis knew that acceptance of the inheritance would 1 Subsequently \\ illiam 111 of England. See page 203. 3oo The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries involve a war with Austria and probably with England, whose ruler, William III, was Louis's old foe, ambition triumphed over fear and the desire for glory over consideration for the welfare of France. Louis proudly presented his grandson to the court at Versailles, saying, "Gentlemen, behold the king of Spain." In the War of the Spanish Succession France and Spain faced the Grand Alliance, which included England, Holland, Austria, several of the War of the Spanish German states, and Succession, Portugal. Europe had never known a 1701-1713 war that concerned sO many coun- tries and peoples. William III died shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, leaving the continuance of the contest as a legacy to his sister-in-law, Queen Anne. Eng- land supplied the coalition with funds, a fleet, and also with the ablest commander of the age, the duke of Marlborough. In Eugene, prince of Savoy, the Allies had another skillful and daring general. Their great victory at Blenheim in 1704 was the first of a series of successes which finally drove the French out of Germany and Italy and opened the road to Paris. But dissensions among the Allies and the heroic resistance of France and Spain enabled Louis to hold his enemies at bay, until the exhaustion of both sides led to the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht. This peace ranks among the most important diplomatic arrangements of modern times. First, Louis's grandson was recognized as king of Spain and her colonies, on condition that the Spanish and French crowns should never be united. Since Marlborough A miniature in the possession of the duke of Buccleugh. fla- 3 g- M « w up- , 302 The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries this time Bourbon sovereigns have continued to rule in Spain. Next, the Austrian Hapsburgs gained the Spanish dominions Peace of ^ n ^ ta ^> that i s > Milan and Naples, the island of Utrecht, Sardinia, and the Belgian or Spanish Nether- 1713 lands (thenceforth for a century called the Aus- trian Netherlands). Finally, . England obtained from Fiance extensive possessions in North America, and from Spain, Mi- norca and the rock of Gibraltar, commanding the narrow en- trance to the Mediterranean. Two of the smaller members of the Grand Alliance likewise profited by the Peace of Utrecht. The right of the elector of B , Brandenburg to hold the title of king of Prussia burg-Prussia was acknowledged. This formed an important and Savoy step - m ^ f ortunes f t h e Hohenzollern dynasty. The duchy of Savoy also became a kingdom and received the island of Sicily (shortly afterwards exchanged for Sardinia). The house of Savoy in the nineteenth century provided Italy with its present reigning family. France lost far less by the war than at one time seemed probable. Louis gave up his dream of dominating Europe, Position of but he kept all the Continental acquisitions made France earlier in his reign. Yet the price of the king's warlike policy had been a heavy one. France paid it in the shape of famine and pestilence, excessive taxes, huge debts, and the impoverishment of the people. Louis, now a very old man, survived the Peace of Utrecht only two years. As he lay dying, he turned to his little heir * and said, "Try to keep peace with your neighbors. I have been too fond of war; do not imitate me in that, nor in my too great expenditure." 75. Russia under Peter the Great, 1689-1725 The Russians at the opening of modern times seemed to be rather an Asiatic than a European people. Three hundred years of Mongol rule had isolated them from their Slavic neighbors and had interrupted the stream of civilizing in- 1 His great-grandson, then a child of five years. The reign of Louis XV covered the period 1715-1774. LOUIS XIV After the painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud, Louvre, Paris PETER THE GREAT After the painting by Karel de Moor Russia under Peter the Great 303 The Russians fluences which in earlier days flowed into Russia from Scandi- navia and from the Byzantine Empire. 1 The absence of seaports discouraged foreign commerce, through which Euro- pean ideas and customs might have entered Russia, while at the same time the nature of the country made agri- culture rather than industry the principal occupation. Most of the Russians were ignorant, superstitious peasants, who led secluded lives in small farming villages scattered over the plains and throughout the forests. Even the inhabitants of the towns lacked the education and enlightened manners of the 1 For Russian history during the Middle Ages see pages 167 arid 193. 3led Philip II to close the port of Lisbon to tions to the the Netherlanders, who had already begun their revolt against the Spanish monarch. Philip also seized a large number of Dutch ships lying in Spanish and 1 See page 254. 2 Dissolved in 1640. The Dutch Colonial Empire 323 Portuguese harbors, thus disclosing his purpose to destroy, if possible, the profitable commerce of his enemies. The Dutch now began to make expeditions directly to the East Indies, whose trade had been monopolized by Portugal for almost a century. They captured many Portuguese and Spanish ships, obtained ports on the coasts of Africa and India, and established themselves securely in the Far East. The Dutch government presently chartered the East India Company and gave to it the monopoly of trade and rule from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait Dutch of Magellan. The company operated chiefly in the East India rich islands of the Malay Archipelago. Here much bitter fighting took place with the Portuguese, who were finally driven from nearly all of their eastern posses- sions. Ceylon, Malacca, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, passed into the hands of the Dutch. The headquarters of the Dutch East India Company were located at Batavia in Java. This city still remains one of the leading commercial centers of the Far East. The Dutch possessions included the Cape of Good Hope, where the Dutch East India Company made a permanent settlement (Cape Town). It was intended, at The Dutch first, to be simply a way-station or port of refresh- in South ment for ships on the route to the Indies. Before long, however, Dutch emigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers, together with Huguenots who had fled from France to escape persecution. These farmer-settlers, or Boers, passed slowly into the interior and laid there the foundation of Dutch sway in South Africa. The Cape of Good Hope became a British possession at the opening of the nineteenth century, but the Boer republics retained their independence until our own day. Fired by their success and enriched by their gains in the East, the Dutch started out to form another colonial empire in the West. It was a Dutchman, Henry Hudson, The Dutch who, seeking a northwest passage to the East in Amenca Indies, discovered in 1609 the river which bears his name. The 3 2 4 Commerce and Colonies Dutch sent out ships to trade with the natives and built a fort on Manhattan Island. The Dutch West India Company soon received a charter for commerce and colonization between the west coast of Africa and the east coast of the Americas. The company's little station on Manhattan Island became the flourishing port of New Amsterdam, from which the Dutch New Amsterdam in 1655 After Van der Donck's New Netherland. settlement of New Netherland spread up the Hudson River. The company also secured a large part of Guiana, as well as some of the West Indies. The Dutch in the seventeenth century were the leaders of commercial Europe. They owned more merchant ships than Commercial an y other people and almost monopolized the decline of carrying trade from the East Indies and between the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Yet with the advent of the eighteenth century the Dutch had begun to fall behind their French and English rivals in the race for commerce and colonies. They suffered from trade warfare with England during the Commonwealth and the reign of Charles II. The long and exhausting War of the Spanish Succession, in which Holland was a member of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV, struck a further blow at Dutch prosperity. Though Holland fell from the first rank of commercial states, it has kept most of its dominions overseas to the present time. Rivalry of France and England in India 325 82. Rivalry of France and England in India (to 1763) The Portuguese and Dutch enjoyed a profitable trade with India, which supplied them with cotton, indigo, spices, dyes, drugs, precious stones, and other articles of i n di a and luxury in European demand. In the seventeenth Eur ope century, however, the French and the English became the princi- pal competitors for Indian trade, and in the eighteenth century the rivalry between them led to the defeat of the French and the secure establishment of England's rule over India. A region half as large as Europe began to pass under the control of a single European power. The conquest of India was made possible by the decline of the Mogul (or Mongol) Empire, which had been founded by the Turkish chieftain Baber in the sixteenth cen- India under tury. That empire, though renowned for its the Moguls pomp and magnificence, never achieved a real unification of India. The country continued to be a collection of separate provinces, whose inhabitants were isolated from one another by differences of race, language, and religion. The Indian peoples had no feeling of nationality, and when the Mogul Empire broke up they were ready, with perfect indifference, to accept any other government able to keep -order among them. Neither France nor England began by making annexations in India. Each country merely established an East India company, giving to it a monopoly of trade between The East India and the home land. The French company, India chartered during the reign of Louis XIV, had its compar headquarters at Pondicherry, on the southeastern coast of India. The English company, which received its first charter from Queen Elizabeth, possessed three widely separated settle- ments at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The French were the first to attempt the task of empire making in India, under the leadership of Dupleix, the able governor-general of Pondicherry. Dupleix saw clearly that the dissolution of the Mogul Empire and the defenseless condition of the native states opened the 326 Commerce and Colonies way to the European conquest of India. In order that the French should profit by this unique opportunity, he entered into alliance with some of the Indian princes, fortified Pondi- Rivalry of France and England in India 327 cherry, and managed to form an army by enlisting native sol- diers ("sepoys"), who were drilled by French officers. The English afterwards did the same thing, and to this day "se- poys" comprise the bulk of the Indian forces of Great Britain. Upon the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession the French captured Madras, but it was restored to the English by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix continued, however, to extend French influence in the south and east of India. The English could not look unconcernedly upon the progress of their French rivals, and it was a young Englishman, Robert Clive, whose genius checkmated Dupleix's am- bitious schemes. To Clive, more than any other man, Great Britain owes the beginning of her present Indian Empire. Clive had been a clerk in the employ of the East India Company at Madras, but he soon got an ensign's com- mission and entered upon a military career. His first success was gained in southeastern India. Here he managed to over- throw an upstart prince whom Dupleix supported and to restore English influence in that part of the peninsula. Dupleix was recalled in disgrace to France, where he died a disappointed man. Clive now found an opportunity for even greater service. The native ruler of Bengal, a man ferocious in temper and consumed with hatred of the English, suddenlv „ „, . ' J Battle of captured Calcutta. He allowed one hundred and piassey, forty-six prisoners to be confined in a tiny room, 1757 where they passed the sultry night without water. Next morning only twenty-three came forth alive from the "Black Hole." This atrocity was sufficiently avenged by the wonder- ful victory of Piassey, in which Clive, with a handful of soldiers, overthrew an Indian army of fifty thousand men. Piassey showed conclusively that native troops were no match for Europeans and made the English masters of Bengal, with its rich delta, mighty rivers, and teeming population. Meanwhile, the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe renewed the contest between France and England on Indian soil. The English were completely successful, for their control $2% Commerce and Colonies of the sea prevented the French government from sending reinforcements to India. France recovered her territorial pos- The Seven sessions by the Peace of Paris in 1763, but agreed Years' War not to fortify them. This meant that she gave up her dream of an empire in India. England henceforth enjoyed a free hand in shaping the destinies of that vast region. 83. Rivalry of France and England in North America (to 1763) Englishmen, under the Tudors, had done very little as col- onizers of the New World. Henry VII, indeed, encouraged Lateness J onn Cabot to make the discoveries of 1497-1498, of English n which the English claims to North America were based. During Elizabeth's reign Sir Martin Frobisher explored the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, and another " sea-dog," Sir Humphrey Gilbert, sought with- out success to colonize Newfoundland. Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, planned a settlement in the region then called Virginia, 1 but lack of support from home caused it to perish miserably. The truth was that sixteenth-century Eng- lishmen had first to break the power of Spain in Europe before they could give much attention to America. The destruc- tion of the Spanish Armada in 1588 at length enabled them to establish American colonies without interference from Spain. The first permanent settlements of Englishmen in America were made at Jamestown, Virginia (1607), and Plymouth (1620), The Thirteen during the reign of James I. The reign of Charles I Colonies gaw ^ foundation of Massachusetts and Maryland, and that of Charles II, the foundation of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas. By the end of the seventeenth century Massachu- setts had absorbed Plymouth and had thrown out the offshoots which presently became Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. The Dutch colony of New Netherland soon passed into the hands of the English and became New York. Charles II 1 After Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." Rivalry of France and England in North America 329 granted it to his brother James, duke of York and Albany, who afterwards reigned as James II. James, in turn, bestowed the region between the Hudson and Delaware rivers upon two court favorites, and it received the name of New Jersey. The small Swedish settlement on the Delaware, which had been established by the South Company of Sweden, under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus, was annexed by the Dutch and then by the English. Delaware subsequently became a separate colony. Georgia, the southernmost of the Thirteen Colonies, was not settled until the reign of George II, in whose honor it was named. Both New England and the southern colonies were chiefly English in blood. Many emigrants also came from other parts of the British Isles. The emigrants from Anglo-Saxon Continental Europe included French Huguenots ex P ansion and Germans from the Rhenish Palatinate. The popula- tion of the middle colonies was far more mixed. Besides Eng- lish and a sprinkling of Scotch and Irish, it comprised Dutch in New York, Swedes in Delaware, and Germans in Pennsyl- vania. But neither France, Holland, Sweden, nor Germany contributed largely to the settlement of the Thirteen Colonies. The French at the opening of the seventeenth century had gained no foothold in the New World. For more than fifty years after the failure of Jacques Cartier's settle- Lateness of ment near Quebec (1542), they were so occupied French with the Huguenot wars that they gave little thought to colonial expansion. The single exception was the ill-starred colony which Admiral de Coligny attempted to es- tablish in Florida (1564). The Spaniards quickly destroyed it, not only because the settlers were Protestants, but also be- cause a French settlement in Florida directly threatened their West India possessions. The growing weakness of Spain, together with the cessation of the religious struggle, made possible a renewal of the colonizing movement. The French again turned to the north, attracted by the fur trade and the fisheries, and founded Canada during the same decade that the English were founding Virginia. 33° Commerce and Colonies The first great name in Canadian history is that of Samuel de Champlain, who enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. Champiain Champlain explored the coast of Maine and Massa- and Canada c husetts, discovered the beautiful lake now called after him, traced the course of the St. Lawrence River, and also came upon lakes Ontario and Huron. He set up a permanent French post at Quebec in 1608, and three years later founded Montreal. During the reign of Louis XIV the exploration of Canada went on with renewed energy. The French, hitherto, had been La Salle and spurred by the hope of finding in the Great Lakes Louisiana a western passage to Cathay. Joliet, the fur trader, and Marquette, the Jesuit missionary, believed that they had actually found the highway uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific, when their birchbark canoes first glided into the upper Mis- sissippi. It was reserved for the most illustrious of French explorers, Robert de La Salle, to discover the true character of the "Father of Waters" and to perform the feat of descend- ing it to the sea. He took possession of all the territory drained by the Mississippi for Louis XIV, naming it Louisiana. Where La Salle had shown the way, missionaries, fur traders hunters, and adventurers quickly followed. The French now began to realize the importance of the Missis- New France . sippi Valley, which time was to prove the most extensive fertile area in the world. Efforts were made to occupy it and to connect it with Canada by a chain of forts reaching from Quebec and Montreal on the St. Lawrence to New Or- leans 1 at the mouth of the Mississippi. All of the continent west of the Alleghenies was to become New France. However audacious this design, it seemed not impossible of fulfillment. New France, a single royal province under one Strength and military governor, offered a united front to the weakness of divided English colonies. The population, though small compared with the number of the English colonists, consisted mostly of men of military age, good fighters, 1 Named after the Due d'Orleans, who was regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. See page 302, note 1. Rivalry of France and England in North America 331 and aided by numerous Indian allies. Lack of home support largely offset these real advantages. While the French were contending for colonial supremacy, they were constantly at war in Europe. They wasted on European battle-fields the resources which might otherwise have been expended in America. Furthermore, the despotism of Louis XIV and Louis XV hampered private enterprise in New France by vexatious re- strictions on trade and industry, and at the same time deprived the inhabitants of training in self-government. The French settlers never breathed the air of liberty, while the English colonists in political matters were left almost entirely to them- selves. The failure of France to become a world-power at this time must be ascribed, therefore, chiefly to the unfortunate policies of her rulers. The struggle between France and England began, both in the Old World and the New, in 1689, when the " Glorious Revo- lution" drove out James II and placed William A new of Orange on the English throne as William III. Hundred Vgarc' "WoF The Dutch and English, who had previously been enemies, now became friends and united in resistance to Louis XIV. The French king not only threatened the Dutch, but also incensed the English by receiving the fugitive James and aiding him to win back his crown. England at once joined a coalition of the states of Europe against France. This was the beginning of a new Hundred Years' War between the two countries. 1 The struggle extended beyond the Continent, for each of the rivals tried to destroy the commerce and annex the colonies of the other. The first period of conflict closed in 17 13, with the Peace of Utrecht. England secured Newfoundland, Acadia (rechristened Nova Scotia), and the extensive region drained by . . the rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. France, how- of the Peace ever, kept the best part of her American territories °* Utrecht, and retained control of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. The possession of these two waterways gave her a strong strategic position in the interior of the continent. 1 Sec the chart on page 332. 332 Commerce and Colonies The two great European wars which came between 1740 and 1763 were naturally reflected in the New World. The War of the Austrian Succession, known in American history as King George's War, proved to be indecisive. The Seven Years' War, similarly known as the French and Indian War, resulted in the expulsion of the French from North America. France had no resources to cope with those of England in America, and the English command of the sea proved decisive. King George's War and the French and Indian War European and Colonial Wars, i 689-1 783 [In Europe Dates Contestants Treaty In America War of the 1689-1697 France vs. Great Ryswick King Wil- League of Britain, Hol- liam's War Augsburg land, Spain, Austria, Sweden, etc. War of the 1701-1713 France, Spain, Utrecht and Queen Spanish Bavaria vs. Rastatt Anne's Succession Great Britain, Holland, Aus- tria, Portugal, Savoy, Prus- sia, etc. War War of the 1 740-1 748 Prussia, France, Aix-la- King Austrian Spain, Bavaria Chapelle George's Succession vs. Austria, Great Britain, Holland War (i744- 1748) Seven Years' 1756-1763 Prussia, Great Paris and French and War Britain vs. Hubertus- Indian Austria, France, burg War Russia, Sweden, (i754- Saxony 1763) War of the 1 7 76-1 783 Great Britain vs. Paris and American United States, Versailles Revolution France, Spain, Holland Rivalry of France and England in North America 333 One French post after another was captured. Wolfe de- feated the gallant Montcalm under the walls of Quebec and the fall of that stronghold quickly followed. What remained of the French army at Montreal also surrendered. The British flag was now raised over Canada, where it has flown ever since. Quebec After an old engraving. The second period of conflict closed in 1763, with the Peace of Paris. France ceded to England all her North American possessions east of the Mississippi, except two _ . . „ . . Provisions small islands kept for fishing purposes off the coast of the of Newfoundland. Spain, which had also been ^ eace <°L„ 1 ' Pans, 1763 involved in the war, gave up Florida to England, receiving as compensation the French territories west of the Mississippi. New France was now only a memory. But modern Canada has two millions of Frenchmen, who still hold aloof from the British in language and religion, while Loui- siana, though shrunk to the dimensions of an American state, still retains in its laws and in many customs of its people the French tradition. The Peace of Paris marked a turning point in the history of the Thirteen Colonies. Relieved of pressure from without 334 Commerce and Colonies and free to expand toward the west and south, they now felt less keenly their dependence on England. Close ties, the ties England and °f common interests, common ideals, and a common the Thirteen origin, still attached them to the mother country ; but these were soon to be rudely severed during the period of disturbance, disorder, and violence which culmi- nated in the American Revolution. 84. The American Revolution, 1776-1783 Englishmen in the New World for a long time had been drawing apart from Englishmen in the Old World. The politi- Preparation ca ^ training received by the colonists in their local for inde- meetings and provincial assemblies fitted them for self-government, while the hard conditions of life in America fostered their energy, self-reliance, and impatience of restraint. The important part which they played in the conquest of Canada gave them confidence in their military abilities and showed them the value of cooperation. Renewed interference of Great Britain in what they deemed their private concerns before long called forth their united resistance. Some of the grievances of which the colonists complained were the outcome of the British colonial policy. The home Restrictions government discouraged the manufacture in the on colonial colonies of goods that could be made in England, manu ac ures p ar ^ amentj f or instance, prohibited the export of woolens, not only to the British Isles and the Continent, but also from one colony to another, and forbade the colonists to set up mills for making wrought iron or its finished products. Such regulations aimed to give British manufacturers a monop- oly of the colonial markets. The home government also interfered with the commerce of the colonies. As early as 1660 Parliament passed a " Navi- Restrictions gation Act" providing that sugar, tobacco, cotton, on colonial and indigo might not be exported direct from the colonies to foreign countries, but must be first brought to England, where duties were paid on them. A sub- sequent act required all imports into the colonies from Conti- The American Revolution 335 nental Europe to have been actually shipped from an English port, thus compelling the colonists to go to England for their supplies. These acts, however, were so poorly enforced for many years that smuggling became a lucrative occupation. All this legislation was not so repressive as one would suppose, partly because it was so constantly evaded and partly because Great Britain formed the natural market for most Alleviations colonial products. Moreover, the home govern- and com- ment gave some special favors in the shape of pensa 10ns "bounties," or sums of money to encourage the production of food and raw materials needed in Great Britain. Twenty- four colonial industries were subsidized in this manner. Colonial shipping was also fostered, for ships built in the colonies en- joyed the same exclusive privileges in the carrying trade as British-built ships. In fact, the regulations which the American colonists had to endure were light, com- pared with the shackles laid by Spain and France upon their colonial possessions. It ^^ "MiS must always be remembered, finally, that , „ ... A Stamp of 1765 Great Britain defended the colonists in return for trade privileges. As long as her help was needed against the French, they did not protest seriously against the legislation of Parliament. After the close of the Seven Years' War George III and his ministers determined to keep British troops in America as a protection against outbreaks by the French or Indians. The colonists, to whose safety an army Act and would add, were expected to pay for its partial t] ? e J ?^ n ' support. Parliament, accordingly, took steps to enforce the laws regulating colonial commerce and also passed the Stamp Act (1765). The protests of the colonists led to the repeal of this obnoxious measure, but it was soon replaced by the Townshend Acts (1767), levying duties on certain commodi- ties imported into America. These acts, in turn, were repealed three years later. Parliament, however, kept a small duty on 336 Commerce and Colonies " No tax- ation with- out repre- sentation " tea, in order that the colonists might not think that it had abandoned its assumed right to tax them. The Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts thus brought up the whole question as to the extent of parliamentary control over the colonists. They argued that taxes could be rightfully voted only by their own representative assemblies. It was a natural attitude for them to take, since Parliament, sitting three thousand miles away, had little insight into American affairs. The British view was that Parlia- ment "virtually" represented all Englishmen and hence might tax them wherever they lived. This view can also be understood, for the "Glorious Revolution" had definitely established the su- premacy of Parliament in England. 1 In any case, how- ever, taxation of the colonies was clearly contrary to cus- tom and very impolitic in the face of the popular feeling which it aroused in America. Some British statesmen themselves espoused the cause of the colonists. Edmund Burke, the great Irish orator, declared that the idea of a virtual representation of America in Parliament was "the most contemptible idea that ever entered the head of a man." Even William Pitt (then earl of Chatham), while maintaining the right of Parliament to legislate for America, applauded the "manly wisdom and calm resolution" displayed by the colonists. But these were the voices of a minority, of a helpless minority. Parliament 1 See page 204. George III After a painting by John Zoffany in Buckingham Palace, London. Attitude of British statesmen The American Revolution 337 was then utterly unrepresentative of the people and was packed with the supporters of George III (the "king's friends"). To this would-be despot, therefore, belongs the chief responsibility for the measures of oppression which provoked the resistance of the Thirteen Colonies. The colonists were so opposed to the principle of parliamen- tary taxation that they refused to buy tea from British merchants and in Boston even boarded a tea Declaration ship and threw the cargo into the water. Parlia- ° f Independ- ment replied to the " Boston Tea Party " by closing the harbor of that city to commerce and by depriving Mas- sachusetts of self-government. These measures, instead of X/hjUTi. *TV irUL. t-m^U. fl Lu-rruv*. u*li/ [A (urm— ( t ]iiw * j un i t • n ~ t n L~~ ±JGZ 2EZ£Z 3£ » > < » r e g . ^ which deals with quantities infinitely small, has been of immense service in engineering and other applied science. Credit for its discovery is divided between the German Leibniz (i 646-1 71 6) and his English contemporary Sir Isaac Newton (1642-17 2 7). The profound mind of Newton formulated the so-called law of gravitation. He showed by mathematical calculation that the motion of the planets about the sun, and of the moon about the earth, can be explained as due to the same mysterious force of gravity which makes the apple fall to the ground. This discovery that all the movements of the heavenly bodies obey one simple physical law forms perhaps the greatest achievement in the history of science. Scarcely less important was the nebular hy- pothesis of the French astronomer Laplace (1749- 1827). He conjectured that our own and other solar systems had been produced by the conden- sati©n of nebulous matter once diffused through space; in other words, that the nebulae were stages in the formation of stars. The further Death Mask achievements of eighteenth-century astronomy include the discovery beyond Saturn of a new planet, Uranus, the computation of the distance between the earth and the moon, and the proof that our solar system as a whole is moving toward a point in the constellation Hercules. Various investigators at this time laid the foundation of modern physics, particularly in the departments of electricity and magnetism. Benjamin Franklin, by his kite experiment, demonstrated that lightning is really an electrical phenomenon. The memory of the Italian Volta is perpetuated whenever an electrician refers to a "voltaic cell" or uses the term "volt." Two Frenchmen, the Montgolfier of Sir Isaac Newton In the possession of the Royal Society of London. Physics Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics 357 Brothers, invented the balloon, thus beginning the conquest of the air. The first successful ascents in balloons took place at Paris in 1783. Chemical research made rapid progress. Greek philosophers had taught that earth, air, water, and fire comprise the original "elements" out of which everything else was made. The chemists now disproved this idea by decom- emis ry posing water into the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The Frenchman Lavoisier (1 743-1 794) also showed that fire is really a union of oxygen with earthy carbon. Until his time it had been supposed that objects burn because they contain a com- bustible substance known as "phlogiston." We further owe to Lavoisier the modern doctrine of the indestructibility of matter. Eighteenth-century explorers brought back to Europe from America and the Pacific many new species of animals and plants, thus greatly encouraging biological study. Here the most eminent name is that of the Swede Lin- 10 ogy nseus (1 707-1 778), whose careful classification of plants es- tablished botany as a science. Scientific investigations, in previous times pursued by lonely thinkers, now began to be carried on systematically by the members of learned societies. Italy led the way Learned with the foundation at Naples and Rome of the societies first academies of science, and her example was followed at Paris, Berlin, and other European capitals. Shortly after the "Glorious Revolution" a group of English investigators ob- tained a charter forming them into the Royal Society of London. It still exists and enrolls the most distinguished scientists of Great Britain. Never before had there been so much interest in science and so many opportunities to uncover the secrets of nature. 93. Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics ; the English Philosophers The advance of science, which immensely broadened men's conceptions of the universe, could not fail to affect their atti- tude toward religion. The idea of the reign of natural law 35$ The Old Regime in the physical world was now extended to the spiritual world. Thinking men began to argue that the doctrines of Christianity Rationalism should not be accepted on the authority either of in religion the church or of the Bible, but must be submitted to free inquiry. These champions of reason — the rationalists — especially flourished in Great Britain, where thought was less fettered than on the Continent. Some of the rationalists, including John Locke, defended Christianity as being the most reasonable of all religions. John Locke, Nevertheless, in his famous Letters on Tolerance, 1632-1704 Locke made a plea for individual liberty of con- science. To persecute unbelievers, he argued, only transformed them into hypocrites. Religious belief is a state of mind, and the mind cannot be compelled to believe. If infidels were to be converted by force, it would be easier for God to do it "with armies of heavenly legions than for any son of the Church, how potent soever, with all his dragoons." Other rationalists went beyond Locke and questioned the special claims of Christianity. They declared that the ques- _,, _' tions over which Christian sects had disputed for The Deists . * centuries were really of minor importance ; the essential thing was the doctrine common to all mankind. Thus they arrived at the conception of "natural religion," which included simply the belief in a personal God and in man's immortal soul. These thinkers received the name of Deists. 1 By casting doubt on the efficacy of particular religions, the Deists gave an impetus to the demand for toleration of Influence of all. Their speculations found a warm welcome the Deists j. n p rance; w here they helped to undermine rever- ence for the Church among the more intelligent classes. Deism in this way acted as a revolutionary ferment. Rationalism also invaded politics. British thinkers, of whom Locke in his Two Treatises on Government was again Rationalism the mos t prominent representative, developed a in politics theory of politics utterly opposed to the old doc- trine of the divine right of kings. According to Locke, all 1 Latin Dens, "God." The French Philosophers 359 men possess certain natural rights to life, liberty, and the owner- ship of property. To preserve these rights they have entered into a contract with one another, agreeing that the majority shall have power to make and execute all necessary laws. If the government, thus created, breaks the contract by violating man's natural rights, it has no longer any claim to the allegiance of its subjects and may be legitimately overthrown. To say that all government exists, or should exist, by the consent of the governed is to set up the doctrine of popular sovereignty. How influential it was may be seen Popular from passages in the Declaration of Independence soverei s nt y which reproduce the very words of Locke and other British writers. But their ideas found the heartiest reception in France. Enlightened members of the nobility and bourgeoisie, weary of royal despotism, took them up, expounded them, and spread them among the people. 94. The French Philosophers France during the eighteenth century had not been able to maintain the high position among European states to which she had been raised by Louis XIV, and in the intellectual struggle for colonial empire she had been defeated leadership by Great Britain. Her intellectual leadership com- pensated for all that she had lost. Throughout this century France gave birth to a succession of philosophers, whose ideas fell like fertilizing rain upon the arid soil of the Old Regime. Some of them had lived for a time in Great Britain as refugees from the persecution which too bold thinking involved at home. Their life there made them acquainted with the British system of constitutional monarchy — so unlike the absolutism of French kings — with the political theories of Locke, and with the ideas of the Deists, from whom they learned to submit time-honored beliefs to searching examination. A nobleman, lawyer, and judge, Montesquieu, spent twenty years in composing a single book on the Spirit of Laws. It is a classic in political science. There was nothing revolutionary in Montesquieu's conclusions. He examined each form of 360 The Old Regime government in order to determine its excellencies and defects. The British constitution seemed to him most admirable, as Montesquieu, combining the virtues of monarchy, aristocracy, 1689-1755 anc j democracy. Montesquieu especially insisted upon the necessity of separating the executive, legislative, and judicial functions of government, instead of combining them in the person of a single ruler. This idea influenced the French revolutionists and also had great weight with the framers of the Constitution of the United States. The foremost figure among the philosophers was Voltaire, Voltaire, who sprang from 1694-1778 ^g bourgeoisie. He was not a deep thinker like Montesquieu, but was rather a brilliant and somewhat super- ficial man of letters. For more than half a century he poured forth a succession of poems, dramas, essays, biographies, histories, and other works, so clearly written, so witty, and so satirical as to win the applause of his contemporaries. Voltaire devoted a long life to the preaching of enlighten- ment. He was in no sense a revolutionist, and favored reform Voltaire and by royal decree as being the simplest and most the Church expeditious method. He made it his particular work to bring discredit on ecclesiastical authority. The Church he regarded as an invention of self-seeking priests. A typical Deist, Voltaire insisted on the need of toleration. "Since we are all steeped in error and folly," he said, "we must forgive each other our follies." His exposure of bigotry and fanaticism was needed in the eighteenth century. It has helped to create the freer atmosphere in which religious thought moves to-day. If Voltaire was the destroyer of the old, Rousseau was the prophet of the new. This son of a Geneva watchmaker, who Voltaire A statue by J. A. Houdon in the Comedie Francaise, Paris. The French Philosophers 361 wandered from one European capital to another, made a failure of everything he undertook and died poverty-stricken and demented. The discouragements and miseries of Rousseau, his career found expression in what he wrote. 1712 1778 Rousseau felt only contempt for the boasted civilization of the age. He loved to picture what he supposed was once the "state of nature," before governments had arisen, before the strong had begun to oppress the weak, when nobody owned the land, and when there were no taxes and no wars. "Back to nature" was Rousseau's cry. Such fancies Rousseau applied to politics in what was his most important book, The .« Social the Social Contract. Contract," Starting with the assertion that "man was born free and everywhere he is in chains," he went on to describe a purely ideal state of society in which the citizens are ruled neither by kings nor parlia- ments, but themselves make the laws directly. The only way to reform the world, according to Rousseau, was to restore the sovereignty of the people, with "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" for all. As we have just learned, the idea that governments and laws arise by voluntary agreements among men, who may overthrow them when necessary, was not new ; but Rousseau first gave it wide currency. Frenchmen of every class read the Social Contract with avidity, and during the Revolution they proceeded to put its democratic teachings into effect. Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu were among the con- tributors to the famous Encyclopedia, a work in seventeen volumes, which appeared after the middle of the eighteenth century. As the name indicates, it formed a repository of Rousseau A portrait by Ramsay made in 1766. 362 The Old Regime all the scientific and historical knowledge of the age. The En- cyclopedists, as its editors are known, sought to guide opinion, The En- as well as to give information. They were radical cyclopedists thinkers, who combined in a great effort to throw the light of reason on the dark places of the social order. Among the abuses attacked by them were religious intolerance, the slave trade, the cruel criminal law, and the inequitable system of taxation. The Encyclopedists even ventured to criticize absolutism in government. Their work thus set in motion a current of revolt which did much to undermine both Church and State in France. 95. The Enlightened Despots The ideas of the philosophers spread throughout those parts of Europe where French models were followed. Even kings and statesmen began to be affected by the spirit Paternalism ° . of reform. European rulers did not intend to surrender the least fraction of absolute power; they were still autocrats who believed in government by one strong man rather than by the democratic many ; but with their despotism they combined a paternal solicitude for the welfare of their subjects. They took measures to secure religious toleration, to relieve poverty, to codify the laws, to provide elementary education, and to encourage scientific research. These activi- ties have won for them the name of the "enlightened despots." In Russia Catherine the Great posed as an enlightened despot. Catherine was a learned woman, at least for an empress. She Catherine wrote flattering letters to Voltaire and the other the Great Encyclopedists and conferred on them gifts and pensions. Montesquieu she especially admired, saying that were she the pope she would canonize him. But Catherine paid little more than lip-service to the ideas of the French phi- losophers. If she abolished torture, she did not do away with the knout; for capital punishment she only substituted the living death of exile in Siberia. Her toleration of dissenters from the Orthodox Church stopped short of allowing them to build chapels for public worship, and her passion for legislative The Enlightened Despots 363 reform grew cold when she found that she must begin by freeing the serfs. Catherine's real attitude is exhibited in a letter to the governor of Moscow: "My dear prince, do not complain that the Russians have no desire for instruction ; if I institute schools it is not for us, it is for Europe, where we must keep our position in public opinion. But the clay when our peasants shall wish to become educated both you and I will lose our places." Catherine's contemporary, Frederick the Great, was a des- pot more sincere and more enlightened. He worked harder and had fewer pleasures than any other king of his Frederick day. "Monarchs," he once wrote, "are not in- the Great vested with authority that they may riot in voluptuousness." Although Frederick's resources had been so completely drained by the Seven Years' War that it was necessary for him to melt the silver in the royal palaces and debase the currency, his vigorous measures soon restored the national prosperity. He labored in a hundred ways to make Prussia the best-governed state in Europe. Thus, he founded elementary schools so that his subjects could learn at least to read and write, and reformed the courts so that everybody from high to low might be assured of impartial justice. A Deist in religion, the correspondent and friend of Voltaire, Frederick declared that every one should be allowed to get to heaven in his own way, and backed up his declaration by putting Roman Catholics on an equality with Protestants throughout the Prussian dominions. No less than thirty volumes, all in French, contain the poems, letters, and treatises on history, politics, and military matters which Fred- erick managed to compose in the spare moments of a busy life. This philosopher on the throne held the attention of his genera- tion in the world of ideas as well as in that of diplomacy and war. In Austria, Joseph II, 1 the eldest son of Maria Theresa, pre- sented a less successful type of the enlightened despot. Joseph regarded Frederick the Great as the ideal of a modern ruler. He wished to transform the various peoples in the Hapsburg realm, with all their differences of race, 1 Holy Roman Emperor, 1765-1700, and sole ruler of the Hapsburg realm, 1780- 1790. 3 6 4 The Old Regime speech, religion, and aspirations, into a single unified nation. German officials sent out from Vienna were to administer the affairs of each province. The army was to be built up by com- pulsory service after the Prussian model. German was to be used everywhere as the official language. Most unwisely, however, Joseph tried to do in a short lifetime what all the Hapsburg rulers after him could not accomplish. The result was that his measures to Germanize Hungarians, Bohemians, Italians, and Netherlanders only aroused hostility and did not. survive his death. The sen- tence that the king himself proposed as his epitaph was a truthful summary of his reign: "Here lies the man who, with the best inten- tions, never succeeded in anything." Paternal government had two serious weaknesses. First, the despots could not determine the policy of Failure of their succes- paternalism sors> An able Joseph II After a painting by A. von Maron. and liberal-minded ruler might be followed by a ruler who was indolent, extrava- gant, and unprogressive. In Prussia, for instance, the weak reign of Frederick the Great's successor undid much of his work. The same thing happened in Spain and Portugal. Second, the despots, however enlightened, treated their subjects as children and enacted reforms without first discovering whether reformation was popularly desired. Because of these weak- nesses, the eighteenth-century conception of absolute monarchs ruling for their people's good was certain to be superseded by the modern idea of the people ruling themselves. But to bring this about, a revolution was necessary. The Enlightened Despots 365 Studies 1. Do monarchy and autocracy necessarily mean the same thing? 2. What was the origin of the names Quaker and Methodist? 3. Contrast the leading ideas of Mercantilism and Physiocracy. 4. What do you understand by laws of nature? Give some examples of such laws. 5. Mention some instances of the international character of science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 6. Distinguish between deism (or theism) and atheism. 7. How did Locke's theory of the social contract provide the intellectual justification for the "Glorious Revolution"? 8. Is there any reason to suppose that Rousseau's "state of nature" ever existed anywhere? o. Why has Rousseau's Social Contract been called "the Bible of the French Revolution" and "the gospel of modern democracy"? 10. Show that Rousseau's ideas of government were far more radical than the ideas of Montesquieu. n. Why did not the reforms of the enlightened despots make a revolution unnecessary? 12. "No reform can produce real good unless it is the work of public opinion, and unless the people themselves take the initiative." Dis- cuss the justice of this statement. 13. Describe those features of the Old Regime which led to the demand for "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." 14. "The evils of European society were rooted in feudalism and entrenched in privilege." Com- ment on this statement. 15. How do the facts presented in this chapter support the statement that "Great thinkers control the affairs of men, and by their discov- eries regulate the march of nations" ? CHAPTER XI THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC ERA, 1789-1815 i 96. Eve of the French Revolution What we call the French Revolution refers to a series of events in France, between 1789 and 1799, ^Y which divine- Revoiu- right monarchy gave way to a republic, and class tionary distinctions and privileges disappeared in favor of social equality. This revolution started in France, not because the misery of the people had become more intolerable there than in other parts of the Continent, but because France was then the most advanced of Continental countries. French peasants and artisans were free enough and intelligent enough to be critical of their government. Next to Great Britain, France contained the most numerous, prosper- ous, and influential bourgeoisie. Members of this class furnished the Revolution with its principal leaders. Even the nobility and clergy included many men who realized the abuses of the Old Regime and wished to abolish them. In short, the revo- lutionary impulse stirred all ranks of French society. That impulse came in part from across the Channel. The spectacle of the Puritan Revolution and the "Glorious Revo- England lution" in the seventeenth century affected and the Frenchmen in the eighteenth century. The Eng- lish had put one king to death and had expelled another; they had established the supremacy of Parliament in the state. It was the example of parliamentary England 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxx, "France on the Eve of the Revolution"; chapter xxxi, "Scenes of the 'French Revolu- tion"; chapter xxxii, "Letters and Proclamations of Napoleon"; chapter xxxiii, "Napoleon." Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 16, "Decree Abolishing the Feudal System, 1789"; No. 17, "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789"; No. 18, "Address to All Peoples, 1792." 366 Eve of the French Revolution 367 which Montesquieu held up to the emulation of his country- men. It was the political philosophy of the Englishman, John Locke, upon which Rousseau founded his doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. A second impulse came from across the Atlantic. After the close of the War of American Independence, the French common soldiers, together with Lafayette and America other officers, returned home to spread republican and the doctrines. Very important was the work of Ben- jamin Franklin, who for nearly a decade represented the Ameri- can government at Paris. His engaging manners, practical wisdom, and high principles won general admiration. The portrait of the Philadelphia printer hung in every house, and at republican festivals his bust figured side by side with that of Rousseau. "Homage to Franklin," cried an enthusiastic Frenchman, "he gave us our first lessons in liberty." To understand the outbreak of the French Revolution it is necessary to go back to the long reign of Louis XV. 1 France had never had so unkingly a sovereign as this Louis xv successor of the "Grand Monarch." All his life king, he was an idler. He hunted, he danced, he gambled, he sank deep in the frivolities and immoralities of Versailles, he did everything but rule. The government fell more and more into the hands of courtiers and adventurers, whose main concern was to line their own pockets at the expense of the public treasury. The foolish alliances and fatal wars upon which Louis XV was persuaded to enter reduced France to the position of a second-rate power. In the Seven Years' War Decline of French armies were repeatedly vanquished on France Continental battle-fields, and French fleets were swept from the high seas. When the Peace of Paris was signed in 1763, the French flag ceased to fly in North America, and it flew in India only by permission of England. The annexation of Lorraine and Corsica did not compensate for the loss of a colonial empire. 2 1 Great-grandson of Louis XIV. See page 302, note 1. 2 See the map on page 298. 368 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era The military failures of the king's reign humiliated his subjects and undermined their loyalty to him. The wars and extravagance of Louis XV added to the legacy of debt with which his predecessor on the throne had saddled Financial France. The treasury every year faced a chronic distress deficit. It could only be met by the dangerous expedient of fresh loans, involving still larger outlays for in- terest charges. As long as the govern- ment refused to take proper measures of economy and con- tinued to exempt the clergy and nobility from their share of taxation, little im- provement of the financial situation was possible. France, the richest country in Europe, with a population greater than that of any rival state, became virtually bankrupt. The French mon- archy, so despised abroad, had to face a growing volume of complaints at home. Louis XV did his best to stifle them. A rigid censorship muzzled the press. Postoffice officials opened letters passing through the mails and revealed their con- tents to the king. Books and pamphlets, obnoxious to the government, were burned by the common hangman, and their authors were imprisoned. No man's personal liberty was safe, Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Dauphin After a painting by P. Sauvage. Complaints against the monarchy Eve of the French Revolution 309 for the police, if provided with an order of arrest signed by the king (a lettre de cachet), could send any one to jail. Suspected persons sometimes remained prisoners for years without trial. Yet in spite of all measures of repression, opposition to the monarchy steadily increased. Louis XVI, the grandson of Louis XV, mounted the throne when only twenty years old. Virtuous, pious, and well-meaning, he was the sort of ruler who in quiet times might Louis XVI> have won the esteem of the French people. He ^ in s, 1774- 1792 was, however, weak, indolent, slow of thought, and very slow of decision. It has been well said that Louis XVI "could love, forgive, suffer, and die," but that he did not know how to reign. The youthful king began his reign auspiciously by ap- pointing a new ministry, in which Turgot held the most responsible position. He was a friend of Voltaire, a contributor to the Encyclo- pedia, an economist of the Physiocratic school, and a successful administrator. Turgot summed up his finan- cial policy in the three maxims, "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, no loans." Expenses were to be reduced by cutting off the pensions to courtiers, whose only merit was, in the words of a contemporary writer, "to have taken the trouble to be born." The taxes bearing most heavily on the Third Estate were to be replaced by a general tax on all landowners. Peasants were to be no longer forced to work without pay on public highways and bridges. The old guilds, which hampered industry, were to be abolished. The vexatious tolls and duties on the passage of grain from one province to another were to be swept away. Turgot's ministry of reform, 1774-1776 Turgot A medal in joint honor of Turgot and Adam Smith, struck by the Societe d'Economie Poli- tique in 1876. 370 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Could such reforms have been carried out, France would have had a bloodless and orderly revolution. But they were not carried out. The privileged classes would not surrender their privileges, nor favorites their pensions, nor Dismissal monopolists their unjust gains, without a struggle. of Turgot 'pjjg wea k king, who once declared that "the only persons who truly love the people are Monsieur Turgot and myself," failed to support him against the intrigues of the court party, led by his own wife, Marie Antoinette. 1 Turgot's dis- missal from office after two years of power removed the one man who could have saved absolutism in France. The finances of the government went from bad to worse after the fall of Turgot. His successors in the ministry relied Financial mainly on fresh loans to cover the deficits of the chaos treasury and avert bankruptcy. From the stand- point of French interests, Louis XVI committed a fatal error in allowing himself to be persuaded to intervene in the War of American Independence. America was freed ; Great Britain was humbled ; but the war forced up the public debt of France by leaps and bounds. When at last it became impossible to borrow more money, the king yielded reluctantly to the popular demand for the convocation of the Estates-General. He ap- pealed to the nation for aid, thereby confessing the failure of absolutism. 97. The Estates-General, 1789 The Estates-General, the old feudal assembly of France, had not met for one hundred and seventy-five years. Suddenly Th awakened from their long slumber, the repre- General sentatives of the clergy, the nobles, and the Third convenes Estate appeared at Versailles to take counsel May 5, 1739 1 r with the king. The written instructions drawn up in every part of the country for the guidance of each repre- sentative, though not revolutionary in wording, set forth a long list of abuses to be removed. While Louis XVI would have been satisfied with measures to increase the revenues, most Frenchmen wanted thoroughgoing reforms. 1 A daughter of Maria Theresa. The Estates-General, 1789 37i Not quite half of the twelve hundred-odd members of the Estates-General belonged to the two privileged orders. About two-thirds of the delegates of the Third Estate were members of the legal profession. A few of the were liberal nobles. the lower classes, represented the most prosperous and intelligent people of France. Less than a dozen came from Estates- General As a whole, the Estates-General Costumes of the Orders After an old print. The cleric wears a robe and ornamented mantle; the noble, a suit of black silk and a cap adorned with plumes; the representative of the Third Estate, a simple black suit without gold buttons or plumed cap. The Third Estate possessed two very competent leaders in Count Mirabeau and the Abbe Sieves. The former belonged by birth and the latter by ofhee to the privileged Mirabeau classes, but both gladly accepted election as repre- and Sie y es sentatives of the Third Estate. Mirabeau, a born statesman and orator, had a sincere belief in constitutional government. He wished to set up in France a strong monarchy, limited by a constitution after the English model. Sieyes, a cleric more devoted to politics than to theology, had recently stirred all Frenchmen by a remarkable pamphlet entitled 11 'hat is tin- Third Estate? He answered, "Everything." "What has it" been hitherto?" "Nothing." "What does it ask?" "To be something." 372 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Organization of the Estates- General The three estates in former days sat as separate chambers and voted by orders. If this usage were now followed, the clergy and the nobility would have two votes to one for the Third Estate. The commoners in- sisted, however, that the new Estates-General no longer represented feudal France, but the united nation. They wished, therefore, that it should organize as a single body, in which the members voted as individuals. Since the Third Estate had been permitted to send twice as many delegates as either the clergy or the no- bility, this arrangement would enable it to out- vote the privileged orders and carry any reforming measures de- sired. The debate over the organization of the Estates-General con- tinued for several weeks and resulted in a dead- The National lock. At Assembly last, on the declared, June 17, motion of 1789 Sieyes, the Third Estate cut the Gordian knot by boldly declaring itself the National Assembly. Then and there it asserted its right to act for the nation as a whole. Representatives of the clergy and nobility might come in if they pleased, but the National Assembly could do without them. Louis XVI, left to himself, might have been too inert for resistance, but his wife, his two brothers, and the court party " Tennis- persuaded him to make a stand. Troops were Court Oath," now posted before the doors of the hall which had been set apart in the palace of Versailles for the Third Estate. Finding their entrance barred, the undaunted MlRABEAU After a miniature (1791) by J. Lemoine in the possession of M. F. Flameng. Outbreak of the French Revolution 373 commoners adjourned to a building near by, which had been used as a tennis court. Here they took a solemn oath never to separate, but to continue to meet, under all circumstances, until they had drawn up a constitution for France. This action brought to their side the representatives of the lower clergy {cures), who were inclined to the popular cause. But the king persisted in his opposition. Summoning the three estates before him, he made known the royal will that they should deliberate apart. The higher clergy The National and nobility immediately withdrew to their sepa- f e s c s e ™j > z 1 J di rate chambers. The Third Estate, with its clerical June 27, supporters, did not stir. When the master of 1789 ceremonies repeated the king's command, Mirabeau retorted, "We are assembled by the national will; force alone shall disperse us." Louis XVI did not dare to use force, especially after many of the nobles, headed by Lafayette, joined the commoners. The king now gave way and requested the rest of the clerical and noble representatives to unite with the Third Estate in the National Assembly. 98. Outbreak of the French Revolution Thus far we have been following a constitutional movement confined to the upper and middle classes of French society. Now, however, the lower classes began to make Revolu- their influence felt upon the course of events, first tlonaf y Pans in Paris, and later in the provinces. Paris was a manufacturing center, with a large population of artisans, very poor, often idle, and inclined to be turbulent. Their ranks were swelled at this time by crowds of peasants, whom the bad harvests and severe winter of the preceding year had driven into the city. Here, in fact, were all the elements of a dangerous mob, on whose ignorance and passion reformers, agitators, and dema- gogues could play what tunes they willed. Soon came ominous news. Louis XVI had hardly accepted the National Assembly before he changed his mind and de- termined to dissolve that body. A large number of troops, mainly German and Swiss regiments in the service of France, 374 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era were massed near Paris, obviously with intent of awing, per- haps seizing, the representatives of the people. It was then r. 11 t xu that the Parisians made the cause of the National Fall of the Bastille, Assembly their own. Rioting broke out in the 1789 14 capital, and for several days anarchy prevailed. Reinforced by deserters from the army, the mob attacked and captured the Bastille, a fortress where political The Storming of the Bastille A picture by a contemporary artist. Lafayette sent the key of the Bastille to Washington at Mount Vernon, with these words : "It is a tribute which I owe as a son to my adopted father, as an aide-de-camp to my general, as a missionary of liberty to its patriarch." offenders had been often confined through lettres de cachet. The Bastille at this time contained only seven prisoners, all there for just cause, but it symbolized the tyranny of the Old Regime, and its fall created an immense sensation throughout Outbreak of the French Revolution 375 France and in other countries. Louis XVI, on hearing the news, exclaimed, "Why, this is a revolt!" "No, Sire," replied a courtier, "this is a revolution." Now that Paris was practically independent of royal control, the more prominent and well-to-do citizens took steps to secure an orderly government. They formed a munici- pal council, or Commune, made up of representa- mune and tives elected from the different wards of the citv. *? e National J Guard m A militia force, called the National Guard, was also organized, and the popular Lafayette was selected as com- mander. Meanwhile, Louis XVI had seen the necessity of submission. He withdrew the troops, got rid of his reactionary ministers, and paid a visit of reconciliation to the Parisians. In token of his good intentions, the king put on a red, white, and blue cockade, red and blue being the colors of Paris and white that of the Bourbons. This was to be the new tricolor of France. The example set by Pans was quickly copied by the provinces. Many cities and towns set up communes and formed national guards. In the country districts the peasants Revolution sacked and burned numerous castles of the nobility, in the taking particular pains to destroy the legal docu- ments by which the nobles exercised their manorial rights. Monasteries, also, were often pillaged. The government showed itself unable to maintain order or to protect life and property. Troops in the garrison towns refused to obey their officers and fraternized with the populace. Royal officials quitted their posts. Courts of justice ceased to act. Public works stopped, and the collection of taxes became almost impos- sible. From end to end of France the Old Regime collapsed amid universal confusion. The revolution in the provinces led directly to one of the most striking scenes of French history. On the night of Au- gust 4-5, while the National Assembly had under The night of consideration measures for stilling the unrest in August 4-5, . 1789 France, one of the nobles — a relative of Lafayette — urged that it remove the feudal burdens still resting on the peasantry. Then, amid hysterical enthusiasm, noble after 376 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era noble and cleric after cleric arose in his place to propose equality of taxation, the repeal of the game laws, the freeing of such serfs as were still to be found in France, the abolition of tithes, tolls, and pensions, and the extinction of all other long-established privileges. A decree "abolishing the feudal system" was passed by the National Assembly within the next few days and was signed by the king. The reforms which Turgot labored in The Destruction of Feudalism A contemporary cartoon representing the French people hammering to pieces with their flails all the emblems of the feudal system, including the knight's armor and sword and the bishop's crosier and miter. vain to secure thus became accomplished facts. It is well to remember, however, that the Old Regime had already fallen in France ; the decree of the National Assembly did little more than outlaw it. 99. The National Assembly, 1789-1791 The National Assembly remained in session for the next two years. One of its most important undertakings was the reform The departe- of local government. During the eight centuries ments between Hugh Capet and Louis XVI, France had been built up by the gradual welding together of a number of The National Assembly 377 provinces varying greatly in size, and each with its own privi- leges, customs, and laws. Eighteenth-century France, in con- sequence, did not form a compact, well-organized state. The old provinces were now replaced by eighty-three artificial dis- tricts (departcments), approximately uniform in size and popu- lation and named after some river, mountain, or other natural feature. A map of contemporary France still shows the de- partcments. The National Assembly next undertook a reorganization of the Church. It ordered that all Church lands should be declared national property, broken up into small Ecciesias- lots, and sold to the peasants at a low price, tical By way of partial indemnity, the government agreed to pay fixed salaries to the clergy. All appointments to ecclesiastical positions were taken from the hands of king legislation ■H9|ifflP M Domaincsmationawx. AssLgnat derdioc/lWres , payaHej^ao-rporteur. Serle 6329 me §|g|§§||l GU iJaagjgssrs^l E3 IIKSM An Assignat and pope and placed in the hands of the people. The National Assembly also suppressed the monasteries, but undertook to pension the monks and nuns. The desperate condition of the finances led to the adoption of a desperate remedy. The National Assembly passed a decree authorizing the issue of notes to the value The of four hundred million francs on the security of assi g nats the former Church lands. To emphasize this security the title of assignats was given to the notes. If the issue of assignats could have been restricted, as Mirabeau desired, to less than 378 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era the value of the property pledged to pay for them, they might have been a safe means of raising a revenue ; but the continued needs of the treasury led to their multiplication in enormous quantities. Then followed the inevitable consequences of paper money inflation. Gold and silver disappeared from circulation, while prices rose so high that the time came when it needed a basket of assignats to buy a pair of boots. The as signals in the end became practically worthless. The finances of the government, instead of being bettered by this resort to paper money, were left in a worse state than before. The National Assembly gave to France in 179 1 the written constitution which had been promised in the "Tennis-Court The Con- Oath." The constitution established a legis- stitution of lative assembly of a single chamber, with wide powers over every branch of the government. The hereditary monarchy was retained, but it was a monarchy in little more than name. The king could not dissolve the legislature, and he had only a "suspensive veto" of its measures. A bill passed by three successive legislatures became a law even without his consent. Mirabeau wished to accord the king greater authority, but the National Assembly distrusted Louis XVI as a possible traitor to the Revolution and took every precaution to render him harmless. The distrust which the bourgeois framers of the constitution felt toward the lower classes was shown by the clause limiting the privilege of voting to those who paid taxes equivalent to at least three days' wages. Almost a half of the citizens, some of them peasants but most of them artisans, were thus excluded from the franchise. The National Assembly prefixed to the constitution a Decla- ration of the Rights of Man. This memorable document, which ^ . .. shows Rousseau's influence in almost every line, Declaration J . of the formed a comprehensive statement of the pnn- Rightsof ciples underlying the Revolution. All persons, so ran the Declaration, shall be equally eligible to all dignities, public positions, and occupations, according to their abilities. No person shall be arrested or imprisoned ex- cept according to law. Any one accused of wrongdoing shall The First French Republic 379 be presumed innocent until he is adjudged guilty. Every citizen may freely speak, write, and print his opinions, including his religious views, subject only to responsibility for the abuse of this freedom. All the citizens have the right to decide what taxes shall be paid and how they are to be used. No one shall be deprived of his property, except for public purposes, and then only after indemnification. These clauses of the Declara- tion reappeared in the constitutions framed in France and other Continental countries during the nineteenth century. The document, as a whole, should be compared with the English Bill of Rights and the first ten amendments to the American Constitution. 100. The First French Republic, 1792 The first phase of the French Revolution was now ended. Up to this point it has appeared rather as a reformation, which abolished the Old Regime and substituted a limited phases of monarchy for absolutism and divine right. Many the Revoiu- men believed that under the new constitution France would henceforth enjoy the blessings of peace and prosperity. They were quickly undeceived. The French people, unfortunately, lacked all training in the difficult art of self-government. Between their political incapacity and the opposition of the reactionaries and the radicals, the revo- lutionary movement drifted into its second and more violent phase, which was marked by the establishment of a republic. The reactionaries consisted, in part, of nobles who had hastily quitted the country upon the outbreak of the Revo- lution. Their emigration continued for several The years, until thousands of voluntary exiles (emi- 6mi s r es grcs) had gathered along the northern and eastern frontier of France. Headed by the king's two brothers, the count of Provence ' and the count of Artois, 2 they kept up an unceasing intrigue against the Revolution and even organized a little army to recover by force their titles, privileges, and property. 1 Afterwards Louis XVIII (1814-1824). 2 Afterwards Charles X (1824-18.50). 380 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era • Had the reactionaries included only the emigres beyond the borders, they might not have proved very troublesome. The non- But they found support in France. The Consti- junng clergy tution of 1791 had made the clergy state officials, elected by the people and paid by the government. Such an arrangement could not be acceptable to sincere Roman Catho- lics, because it separated the Church from papal control. The pope, who had already protested against the confiscation of Church property and the dissolution of the monasteries, forbade the clergy to take the oath of fidelity to the new constitution. Nearly all the bishops and perhaps two-thirds of the cures obeyed him ; these were called the non-juring clergy. Until this time the parish priests had generally supported the revo- lutionary movement. They now turned against it, carrying with them their peasant flocks. The Roman Catholic Church, with all its spiritual influence, was henceforth arrayed against the French Revolution. To Louis XVI, the new order of things was most distasteful. The constitution, soon to be put into effect, seemed to him a _ . . violation of his rights as a monarch, while the Opposition ° . of Louis XVI treatment of the clergy deeply offended him as a and Marie Christian. As long as Mirabeau lived, that- states- Antoinette ° Till- man had always been able to dissuade the king from seeking foreign help, but Mirabeau's premature death deprived him of his only wise adviser. Louis's opposition to the revolutionists was strengthened by Marie Antoinette, who keenly felt the degradation of her position. The king and queen finally resolved to escape by flight. Disguising themselves, Marie Antoinette as a Russian lady „,. , , , and Louis as her valet, they drove away in the Flight of the ' J / king and evening from the palace of the Tuileries a and 2« e «?' /^ e made straight for the eastern frontier. But Louis 20-21, 1791 . 6 exposed himself needlessly on the way; recogni- tion followed ; and at Varennes excited crowds stopped the royal fugitives and turned them back to Paris. This ill-starred adventure greatly weakened the loyalty of the French people 1 See the illustration, page 443. The First French Republic 381 for Louis XVI, while Marie Antoinette, the "Austrian woman," became more detested than ever. Besides the reactionaries who opposed the Revolution, there were the radicals who thought that it had not gone far enough. The radicals secured their chief following among „,, .. , . b 6 The ra dicals the poverty-stricken workingmen of the cities, those without property and with no steady employment. Of all classes in France, the urban proletariat seemed to have gained the least by the Revolution. No chance of future betterment lay before them, for the bourgeois Constitution of 1 79 1 expressly provided that only tax-payers could vote or hold public office. The proletariat might well believe that, in spite of all high-sounding phrases about the "rights of man," they had merely exchanged one set of masters for another, the rule of the privileged classes for that of the bourgeoisie. The radical movement naturally centered in Paris, the brain and nerve center of France. It was fostered by inflammatory newspapers, which agitated for a popular up- Radical rising against the government, by the bitter P r °P a g anda speeches of popular orators, and especially by numerous political clubs. The control of these clubs lay largely in the hands of young lawyers, who embraced the cause of the masses and soon became as hostile to the bourgeoisie as to the aristoc- racy. The famous Jacobin Club, so named from a former monastery of the Jacobin monks where its meetings were held, had hundreds of branches throughout France, all engaged in radical propaganda. The leaders of the Jacobin Club included two men who were destined to influence profoundly the subsequent course of the Revolution. One was Danton, who sprang from Danton and the middle class. Highly cultivated, a successful Robes P ierre advocate at the bar, Danton with his loud voice and forcible gestures could arouse his audience to wild enthusiasm. The other was Robespierre, also a middle-class lawyer with demo- cratic sympathies. This austere, precise little man, whose youth had been passed in poverty, early became a disciple of Rousseau and the oracle of the Jacobins. Mirabeau once 382 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era War with Austria and Prussia, April, 1792 prophesied of Robespierre that he would "go far; he believes all that he says." We shall soon see how far he went. A new influence began at this point to affect the course of the French Revolution. Continental monarchs, however "enlightened," felt no sympathy for a popular movement which threatened the stability of their own thrones. If absolutism and divine right were overthrown in France, they might before long be overthrown in Austria and Prussia. The Austrian monarch, a brother of Marie Antoinette, now joined with the Prussian king in a statement to the effect that the restoration of the old government in France formed an object of "common interest to all sovereigns of Europe . ' ' The two rulers also agreed to prepare their armies for active service abroad. Their an- nounced intention to suppress the Revolution by force provoked the French people into a declaration of war. Though directed only at the Austrian monarch, it also brought his Prussian ally into the field against France. The French began the contest with immense enthusiasm. They re- The uprising garded themselves as of August armed apostles to spread the gospel of freedom throughout Europe. But their troops, poorly organized and disciplined, suffered severe reverses, one result of which was further to exasperate public opinion against the monarchy. Suspicion pointed to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette as the traitors who were secretly revealing the French plan of campaign to the enemies of France. Suspicion passed into hatred, when the allied commander-in-chief, as he led his army across the frontier, issued a proclamation threatening Paris with destruction if the slightest harm befell the royal family. At Robespierre A reputed portrait by J. B. Greuze, in the possession of Lord Rosebery. The First French Republic 383 this juncture the Jacobins under Danton organized an uprising of the Parisian proletariat. The mob stormed the Tuileries, massacred the Swiss Guard, and compelled the National As- sembly to suspend the king from office. A new assembly, to be called the National Convention, was summoned to pre- pare another constitution for France. The Lion of Lucerne This celebrated work at Lucerne in Switzerland was designed by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen and was dedicated in 1821. It represents a dying lion, which, pierced by a lance, still guards with its paw the Bourbon lilies. The figure is hewn out of the natural sandstone. The monument commemorates the officers and men of the Swiss Guard who were slain in 1792, while defending the Tuileries against the Parisian mob. Then followed the next scene in the bloody drama. The Commune of Paris, now controlled by the Jacobins, emptied the prisons of persons suspected of royalist lean- Proclamation ings and butchered them without mercv. "We of th * J , republic. must stop the enemy, " said Danton, " by striking September terror into the royalists." More than one thou- 22 1792 sand men, women, and children perished in the "September massacres." Shortly afterwards the National Convention held its first meetings and by a unanimous vote decreed the abolition of the monarchy. All public documents were henceforth to be dated from September 22, 1792, the beginning of "the first year of the French Republic." 384 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era 101. The National Convention, 1792-1795 The National Convention contained nearly eight hundred members, all republicans, but republicans of diverse shades of Parties in opinion. One group was that of the Girondists, the National so-called because its leaders came from the de- partement of the Gironde. The Girondists repre- sented largely the bourgeoisie ; they desired a speedy return to law and order. Opposite them sat the far more radical and far more resolute group of Jacobins, who leaned for sup- port upon the turbulent populace of Paris. The majority of the delegates belonged to neither party and voted now on one side and now on the other. Eventually, however, they fell under Jacobin domination. The feud between the two parties broke out in the first days of the National Convention. The Jacobins clamored for the _ . , . death of Louis XVI as a traitor ; most of the Giron- Tnal and execution dists, less convinced of the king's guilt, would have yw°17m spared his life. Mob influence carried through the assembly, by a small majority, the vote which sent "Citizen Louis Capet" to the guillotine. The king's accusers did not have the evidence, which we now possess, proving that he had been in constant communication with the foreign in- vaders. His execution was a political measure. "Louis must die," urged Robespierre, " that the country may live." Danton, railing against the enemies of France, could now declare, "We have thrown them as gage of battle the head of a king." Meanwhile, the tide of foreign invasion receded rapidly. Two days before the inauguration of the republic the French Coalition stayed the advance of the allies at Valmy, scarcely against a hundred miles from Paris. The battle of Valmy France, 1793 wag & small affair, but it first gave confidence to the revolutionary armies and nerved them for further re- sistance. The French now took the offensive and invaded the Austrian Netherlands. Fired by these successes, the National Convention offered the aid of France to all nations The National Convention 385 which were striving after freedom ; in other words, it proposed to propagate the Revolution by force of arms throughout Europe. This was a blow in the face to autocratic rulers and privileged classes everywhere. After the execution of Louis XVI Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Holland, Spain, and Sardinia leagued together to overthrow republican France. The republic at the same time was threatened by domestic insurrection. The peasants of La Vendee, a district to the south of the lower Loire, were royalists in feeling Domestic and deeply devoted to Roman Catholicism. When insurrection an attempt was made to draft them as soldiers, they refused to serve and broke out in open rebellion. The important naval station of Toulon, a royalist center, surrendered to the British. A tremor of revolt also ran through the great cities of Lyons, Marseilles, and Bordeaux, whose bourgeoisie resented the radi- calism of the Parisian proletariat. The peril to the republic, without and within, showed the need of a strong central government. The National Conven- tion met this need by selecting twelve of its mem- _ .„ • . . . Committee bers to serve as a Committee of Public Safety, in of Public which at first Danton, and later Robespierre, was Safet y the leading figure. The committee received almost unlimited authority over the life and property of every one in France. It proceeded to enforce a general levy or conscription, which placed all males of military age at the service of the armies. This earliest of draft laws ran as follows : "The young men shall go to fight ; married men shall forge weapons and transport supplies ; the women shall make tents and uniforms or serve in the hospitals; the children shall make lint; the old men shall be carried to the public squares to excite the courage of soldiers, hatred of kings, and enthusiasm for the unity of the republic." Carnot, another member of the committee, the "organizer of victory" as he came to be called, drilled and disciplined the new national forces and sent them forth, singing the Marseillaise, 1 to battle. 1 A patriotic song, the words and music of which were composed in 1702 by Rouget de Lisle. 386 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era The mercenary troops of old Europe could not resist these citizen-soldiers. Filled with enthusiasm and in overwhelming Treaty of numbers, they soon carried the war into enemy Basel, 1795 territory. The grand coalition dissolved under the shock. By the Treaty of Basel in 1795 Prussia ceded her provinces on the west bank of the Rhine to France, which thus secured the "natural boundary" so ardently desired by Louis XIV. 1 During this year Spain and Holland also made peace with France. Holland became the Batavian Republic under French protection. The Committee of Public Safety likewise dealt effectively with domestic insurrection. It resorted to a policy of terrorism, . as a means of suppressing the anti-revolutionary elements. A law was passed which declared "suspect" every noble, every ofhce-holder before the Revo- lution, every person who had had any dealings with an emigre, and every person who could not produce a certificate of citizen- ship. No one could feel safe under this law. As a wit after- wards remarked, all France in those days went about conju- gating, "I am suspect, -thou art suspect, he is suspect," etc. Special courts were set up in Paris and the provincial cities to try the "suspects" and usually to order them to the guillotine. France endured the Reign of Terror for over a year. During this time several thousand persons were executed under form of Reign of ^ aw ' while many more were massacred without the Terror, pretense of a trial. The carnage spread beyond the non-juring clergy and the aristocracy to include the bourgeoisie and even many artisans and peasants. Among the distinguished victims at Paris were Marie Antoinette, the sister of Louis XVI, the duke of Orleans (a member of the royal house who had intrigued to get himself raised to the throne), and the principal Girondist leaders. Then the Terror began to consume its own authors. Danton, who had wearied of the bloodshed and counseled moderation, suffered death. " Show my head to the people," he said to the executioner, "they do not see the like every day." The fanatical Robespierre now became 1 See the map facing page 388. The Directory and Napoleon 387 the virtual dictator of France. He continued the slaughter for a few months until his enemies in the National Convention secured the upper hand, and hurried him without trial to the death to which he had sent so many of his fellow-citizens. Robespierre's execution ended the Reign of Terror. The policy of terrorism, however effective in crushing the enemies of the republic, had long since been perverted to The Con . partv and personal ends. The inevitable reaction stitution of 1795 against Jacobin tyranny followed. The bourgeoisie gained control of the National Convention, which now resumed its task of preparing a constitution for republican France. The new instrument of government provided for a legislature of two chambers and vested the executive authority in a Di- rectory of five members, with most of the powers of the former Committee of Public Safety. Before the constitution went into effect, Paris became the scene of another mob outburst. Royalists and radicals joined forces and advanced to the attack of the Tuileries, „ , . . . Napoleon where the National Convention was sitting. Here and the the rioters met such a cannonade of grape shot National . . , Convention that they fled precipitately, leaving many of their number dead in the streets. The man who most distinguished himself as the defender of law and order was the young artillery general, Napoleon Bonaparte. 102. The Directory and Napoleon, 1795-1799 Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1769, only a year after that island became a French possession. He was the second son of an Italian jlawyer of Early life of noble birth but decayed fortunes. Napoleon Na P° leon attended a preparatory school in France and went through the ordinary curriculum with credit, showed proficiency in mathe- matics, and devoted much of his leisure to reading history. After a brief military training in Paris, he entered an artillery regiment, thus realizing his boyish desire to be a soldier. He was then a youth of sixteen years, poor, friendless, and with- out family influence. 388 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Napoleon took a keen interest in the reform movement then stirring France. A devoted admirer of Rousseau's phi- Rise of losophy, he hated all privileges, all aristocracy, Napoleon an( j f or a time, at least, he became a Jacobin. The Revolution gave him his first opportunities. He commanded the artillery which compelled the British to evacuate Toulon in 1794 and two years later he helped defend the National Convention against the Parisian mob. Shortly afterwards Carnot, who divined Napoleon's genius, persuaded his colleagues on the Directory to intrust the young man with the command of the French army in Italy. When the Directory as- sumed office, France still numbered Great Britain, Napoleon in Sardinia, and Italy, 1796- Austria among 1797 her foes. Great Britain could not be as- sailed, because of the weakness of the French navy, but the other two countries offered fronts open to attack through northern Italy. Napo- leon's army, small and shabbily equipped, seemed a weak instrument for so formidable a task. But the "Little Corporal," as his men nicknamed him, overcame all difficulties. His brilliant strategy first sepa- rated the Sardinians from their Austrian allies. The king of Sardinia then purchased peace by the cession of Savoy and Nice to France. After another year of fighting, which turned the Austrians out of northern Italy and brought the French to within eighty miles of Vienna, the Hapsburg monarch also stooped to make terms with this ever-victorious republican general. Napoleon's Birthplace, Ajaccio The Directory and Napoleon 389 Austria ceded to France the Austrian Netherlands, which had already been occupied by the republican armies, and agreed to the annexation by France of the Ger- Treaty of manic lands west of the Rhine. She also recog- Campo nized the independence of the Cisalpine Republic, one of Napoleon's creations in northern Italy. In return for these concessions, Austria received most of the Venetian terri- tories conquered by Napoleon, including a valuable sea-coast along the Adriatic. France likewise profited by this Italian settlement, for both the Cisalpine Republic and the tiny Ligu- rian Republic (Genoa and the adjacent district) were under French influence. 1 Great Britain now remained the only country to contest French supremacy in Europe. Napoleon determined to strike at her through her Oriental possessions. It was Napoleon in necessary, first of all, to wrest Egypt from the Egypt, 1798- Ottoman Turks, for, as Napoleon never tired of asserting, "the power that is master of Egypt is master of India." Napoleon easily persuaded the Directory to give him the command of a strong expedition, which set sail from Toulon and reached Alexandria in safety. The Egyptian campaign had hardly begun before Lord Nelson, the British admiral, destroyed most of the French fleet, thus severing Napoleon's communications with Europe. The French soon overran Egypt, but met a severe check when they carried the war into Syria. Faced by the collapse of his Oriental dreams, Napoleon left his army to its fate and escaped to France. Here his highly colored reports of victories caused him to be greeted as the conqueror of the East. Affairs had gone badly for France during Napoleon's absence in Egypt. Great Britain, Austria, and Russia formed a second coalition against the republic, put large armies in the field, and drove the French from Italy. This of the misfortune sapped the authority of the Directory ? 7 gg Ctory ' and turned the eyes of most Frenchmen to Napoleon, as the one man who could guarantee victory abroad 1 Sec the map facing page 388. 390 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era and order at home. He took advantage of the situation to plan with Sieves and other politicians a coup d'etat. 1 Three of the directors were induced to resign ; the other two were placed under military guard ; and the bayonets of Na- poleon's devoted soldiers forced the assemblies to dissolve. Napoleon now became virtually master of France. " I found the crown of France lying on the ground," he once remarked, "and I picked it up with the sword." Thus, within little more than ten years from the meeting of the Estates- General at Versailles, popular government gave way to the rule of one man. Autocracy supplanted democracy. 103. The Consulate, 1799-1804 After the coup d'etat Napoleon proceeded to frame a consti- tution. It placed the executive power in the hands of three The Con- consuls, appointed for ten years. The First stitution of Consul (Napoleon himself) was really supreme. 1799 To him belonged the command of the army and navy, the right of naming and dismissing all the chief state officials, and the proposal of all new laws. Napoleon then submitted the constitution to the people for ratification. The popular vote, known as a plebiscite, 2 showed an overwhelming majority in favor of the new government. The French accepted Napoleon's rule the more readily be- cause of the threatening war-clouds in Italy and on the Rhine. Marengo Though Russia soon withdrew from the second andHohen- coalition, Austria and Great Britain remained in in en ' arms against France. Napoleon now led his troops across the Alps by the pass of the Great St. Bernard, a feat rivaling Hannibal's performance, descended unexpectedly into Italy in the rear of the Austrian forces, and won a new triumph at Marengo. A few months later the French general Moreau inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Hohenlinden in Bavaria. These reverses brought the Hapsburg monarch 1 French for a "stroke of state." 2 From the Latin plebiscitum, referring to a vote or decree of the common people (pkbs). NAPOLEON AS FIRST CONSUL After the painting by J. 14. Isabey, Versailles Gallery The Consulate 391 to his knees, and he agreed to a peace which reaffirmed the pro- visions of the Treaty of Campo Formio. 1 Great Britain and France now took steps to end the long war between them. The former country was all-powerful on the sea, the latter, on the land ; but neither could strike a vital blow at the other. The Peace of Amiens, Amiens 1802 which they concluded, proved to be a truce rather than a peace. However, it enabled the First Consul to drop the sword for a time and take up the less spectacular but more enduring work of administration. He soon showed himself as great in statecraft as in war. One of Napoleon's most important measures put the local government of all France directly under his control. He placed a prefect over every departement and a France subprefect over every subdivision of a departement. centralized Even the mayors of the larger towns and cities owed their positions to the First Consul. This arrangement enabled Napoleon to make his will felt promptly throughout the length and breadth of France. It survived Napoleon's downfall and still continues to be the French system of local government. The same desire for unity and precision led Napoleon to complete the codification of French law. Before the Revolution nearly three hundred different local codes had The law existed in France, giving force to Voltaire's re- codlfied mark that a traveler there changed his laws as often as he changed his post-horses. The National Convention began the work of replacing this multiplicity of laws — Frankish, Roman, feudal, and royal — by a single uniform code. Napoleon and the commission of legal experts over whose deliberations he presided finished the task after about four years' labor. The Code Napoleon embodied many revolutionary principles, such as civil equality, religious toleration, and jury trial, and carried these principles into the foreign lands conquered by the French. It is still the prevailing law of both France and Belgium, while the codes of modern Holland, Italy, and Portu- gal have taken it as a model. 1 Treaty of LuneVille (1801). 392 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Napoleon also healed the religious schism which had divided France since the Revolution. Though not himself an adherent The Church of any form of Christianity, he felt the necessity restored f conciliating the many French Catholics who remained faithful to Rome. An agreement, called the Con- cordat, was now drawn up, providing for the restoration of Catholicism as the state religion. Napoleon reserved to himself the appointment of bishops and archbishops, and the pope gave up all claims to the confiscated property of the Church. The Concordat formed a singularly politic measure, for by confirming the peasantry in their possession of the ecclesiastical lands it bound up their interests with those of Napoleon. It continued to regulate the relations between France and the Papacy for more than a century. 1 Nor did Napoleon forget the emigres. A law was soon The emigres passed extending amnesty to the nobles who had repatriated fl e( j f rom p rance> More than forty thousand families now returned to their native land. A long list might be drawn up of the other measures which exhibit Napoleon's qualities as a statesman. He founded Napoleon's the Bank °f France, still one of the leading financial other institutions of the world. He established a system of higher education to take the place of the colleges and universities which had been abolished by a decree of the National Convention. He planned and partly carried out a vast network of canals and inland waterways, thus improving the means of communication and trade throughout France. Like the Roman emperors, he constructed a system of military highways radiating from the capital city to the remotest dis- tricts, in addition to two wonderful Alpine roads connecting France with Italy. Like the Romans, also, he had a taste for building, and many of the monuments which make Paris so splendid a city belong to the Napoleonic era. Napoleon's conquests proved to be transitory, but what he accomplished for France in peaceful labors has endured to the present day. 1 From 1802 to.1905. The First French Empire 393 104. The First French Empire, 1804 Napoleon's victories in war and his policies in peace gained for him the support of all Frenchmen except the Jacobins, who would not admit that the Revolution had _ T Napoleon, ended, and the royalists, who wished to restore emperor of the Bourbon monarchy. When in 1802 the the French people were asked to vote on the question, "Shall Napoleon Bonaparte be consul for life?" the answering "ayes" numbered over three and a half millions, the "noes" only a few thousands. Another pleb- iscite in 1804 decided, by an equally large majority, that the First Consul should become emperor. Before the high altar of Notre Dame Cathedral at Paris and in the presence of the pope, the modern Charlemagne placed a golden laurel wreath upon his own head and assumed the title of Na- poleon 1, emperor of the French. Napoleon also proceeded to erect a monarchy on Italian soil. At Milan he crowned him- self king, as Charle- magne had done, with the "Iron Crown" of the Lombards. North Italy thus became practically an annex of France. The emperor-king set up again at Napoleon, king of Italy Cross of the Legion of Honor Instituted by Napoleon in 1802 ; given to both soldiers and civilians for distinguished services to the state. In the present order of the French Republic the symbolical head of the republic appears in the center, the Tuileries the etiquette and cere- and a laurdmeatJi replaces the bn- monial of the Old Regime. Already ptria crown - he had established the Legion of Honor to reward those who most industriously served him. Now he created The imperial a nobility. His relatives and ministers became glory kings, princes, dukes, and counts; his ablest generals be- came marshals of France. "My titles," Napoleon declared, 394 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era "are a sort of civic crown; one can win them through one's own efforts." France, intoxicated with the imperial glory, forgot that she had come under the rule of one man. What hostile criticism The imperial Frenchmen might have leveled against Napoleon despotism was s ^fl e( j by ^g se cret police, who arrested and imprisoned hundreds of persons obnoxious to the emperor. The censorship of books and newspapers prevented any ex- A Napoleonic Medal A medal prepared by Napoleon to be issued at London in honor of his expected triumph. It represents Hercules overthrowing a merman and bears the legend Frappee a Londres — " Struck in London " — 1804. After a cast in the British Museum. pression of public opinion. Many journals were suppressed; the remainder were allowed to publish only articles approved by the government. Even the schools and churches were made pillars of the new order, and Napoleon went so far as to pre- pare a catechism setting forth the duty of good Christians to love, respect, and obey their emperor. In all these ways he established a despotism as unqualified as that of Louis XIV. 105. Napoleon at War with Europe, 1805-1807 The wars of the French Revolution, beginning in a conflict between democracy and monarchy, gradually became a means The ivapo- of gratifying the French lust for territorial expan- leonic wars ^ on With the advent of Napoleon they appeared still more clearly as wars of conquest. The "successor of Charlemagne," who carried the Roman eagles on his military standards, dreamed of universal sovereignty. Supreme in France, he would also be supreme in Europe. No lasting peace Napoleon at War with Europe 395 was possible with such a man, unless the European nations submitted tamely to his will. They would not submit, and as a result the Continent for ten years was drenched with blood. Austria in the revolutionary wars had been the chief opponent of France ; in the wars of Napoleon Great Britain became his most persistent and relentless enemy. That island- kingdom, which had defeated the grandiose Great schemes of Philip II and Louis XIV, could never ^ T ntai , n t0 r Napoleon consent to the creation of a French empire re- stricting her trade in the profitable markets of the Continent and dominating western Europe. To preserve the European The "Victory" Nelson's flagship at the battle of Trafalgar. Now moored in Portsmouth Harbor, England. balance of power Great Britain formed coalition after coalition, using her money, her ships, and her soldiers unsparingly, and at length successfully, in the effort. The peace of Amiens lasted little over a year. The war between Great Britain and France being then renewed, Napo- leon made every preparation to overthrow "per- Trafalgar, fidious Albion." He collected an army and a flo- 1805 tilla of flat-bottomed boats near Boulogne, apparently intending to "jump the ditch," as he called the Channel, and lead his sol- diers to London. If this was indeed his intention, it became 396 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era impossible of accomplishment after Lord Nelson's victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined French and Spanish fleets. Nelson received a mortal wound in the action, but he died with the knowledge that his country would henceforth remain in un- disputed control of the seas. " England," said William Pitt, 1 "has saved herself by her own energy, and will, I trust, save Europe by her example." Meanwhile, Pitt had succeeded in forming still another coali- tion against France and Napoleon. Great Britain, Austria, uim and Russia, and Sweden were the four allied powers. Austerlitz, Before they could strike a blow, Napoleon suddenly broke up his camp at Boulogne, moved swiftly into Germany, captured an entire Austrian army at Ulm, and entered Vienna. These successes were followed by the cele- brated battle of Austerlitz, a masterpiece of strategy, at which Napoleon with inferior numbers shattered the Austro-Russian forces. With his capital lost, his territory occupied, his armies destroyed, the Hapsburg monarch once more consented to an ignominious peace. The Venetian lands, which Austria ac- quired by the Treaty of Campo Formio, were now added to Napoleon's kingdom of Italy. 2 Prussia was next to feel the mailed fist of Napoleon. Rely- ing upon the help of Saxony and Russia, she attempted to stay Jena, 1806, ^ s victorious progress, only to suffer the loss of and Fried- two armies in the double battle of Jena. Napoleon soon entered Berlin in triumph. Russia still re- mained formidable, until a bad defeat at Friedland induced the tsar, Alexander I, to make overtures for peace. The two emperors met at Tilsit on the river Niemen, near the frontier between Prussia and Russia, and concluded a Peace of bargain for the partition of Europe. The tsar Tilsit, 1807 agreed to throw over his allies and allow Napoleon a free hand in the West. Napoleon permitted the tsar to seize Finland from Sweden and promised French aid in expelling the Turks from Europe. When, however, the tsar, asked for 1 Son of the earl of Chatham and prime minister, 1783-1801, 1804-1806. 2 Treaty of Pressburg (1805). Napoleon's Reorganization of Europe 397 the Turkish capital, Napoleon exclaimed, "Constantinople! Never ! That would be the mastery of the world." No sovereign in modern times was ever so powerful as Napo- leon after Tilsit. If he had failed on the sea, he had won complete success on the land, and the triumphs of The Napo- Ulm, of Austerlitz, of Jena, and of Friedland hid leonic armies from view the disaster of Trafalgar. Napoleon's victories are explained only in part by his mastery of the art of war. The emperor inherited the splendid citizen-soldiery of the revolutionary era, a whole nation under arms and filled with the idea of carrying "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" through- out Europe. The hired troops of the absolute monarchies, on the contrary, had little enthusiasm for their cause. Slight wonder that in conflict with them Napoleon's legions always gained the day. 106. Napoleon's Reorganization of Europe Napoleon at the zenith of his power ruled directly over a large part of western Europe. Even before the Peace of Tilsit he had added Genoa (the Ligurian Republic) and Piedmont to France and had converted Holland (the former Batavian Republic) into a dependent kingdom. Holland imperial subsequently became a part of the French France Empire. After Tilsit he annexed the German coast as far as Denmark, what remained of the States of the Church, in- cluding Rome, and the Illyrian provinces east of Italy. Im- perial France touched the Baltic on the north, and on the south faced the Adriatic. Beyond the empire stood a belt of dependencies. Northern Italy, including the former Cisalpine Republic and the ancient possessions of Venice, formed a separate kingdom, Dependent held by Napoleon himself and administered by states his stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. 1 His brother Joseph gov- erned the kingdom of Naples in central and southern Italy. Switzerland, enlarged by six new cantons added to the thir- teen old cantons, became a vassal republic, which Napoleon . ' Son of Napoleon's wife, Josephine, by her first husband. 398 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era ruled with the title of Mediator. The sections of Polish terri- tory seized by Prussia and Austria in the second and third partitions, went to form the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; not, however, under a Polish ruler, but under Napoleon's new ally, the king of Saxony. "Roll up the map of Europe," William Pitt had cried, when he heard the news of Austerlitz, "it will not be wanted these ten years." Napoleon's power in central Europe rested upon the Con- federation of the Rhine. This organization included Bavaria, Confedera- Baden, and Wurtemberg, and in its final form all tion of the the German states except Austria and Prussia. As sovereign of the league, under the title of Pro- tector, Napoleon disposed of its military forces and conducted its foreign relations. The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine gave the death-blow to the Holy Roman Empire. That venerable in- „ x . x . stitution, which went back to Otto the Great Extinction of the Holy and Charlemagne, had become little more than a Roman name, an empty form, a shadow without sub- Empire, 1806 ' ^ J stance. When Napoleon declared that he would recognize it no longer, the Hapsburg ruler laid down the crown and contented himself with the title of emperor of Austria. Many other European states not actually dependent on Napoleon were allied with him. They included Spain, which ... , subsequently became a dependency, Denmark, Allied STiAtCS Norway, the kingdom of Prussia, now reduced to about a half of its former size, and the weakened Austrian Empire. But Great Britain, mistress of the seas, still held out against the master of the Continent. 107. The Continental System The failure of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition prevented him from striking at Great Britain through her possessions in Economic the East. His hope of invading her vanished at warfare Trafalgar. His efforts to destroy her commerce by sending out innumerable privateers to prey upon it were foiled when British merchantmen sailed in convoys under the The Continental System 399 protection of ships of war. One alternative remained. If British manufacturers could be deprived of their Continental markets and British ship-owners and sailors of their carrying trade, it might be possible to compel the "nation of shop- keepers" l to make peace with him on his own terms. Napoleon's successes on land enabled him to devise a scheme for the strangulation of Great Britain. By two decrees issued at Berlin and Milan he placed that country under fi a commercial interdict. British ships and goods Milan were to be excluded from France and her de- igo^is^ pendencies, while neutral vessels sailing from any British port were to be seized by French warships or privateers. Napoleon endeavored to enforce these decrees in the French Empire, the Italian kingdom, the Confederation of the Rhine, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Russia and Extent of the Prussia agreed to enforce them by the terms of the Continental Peace of Tilsit. At one time or another all the states of Europe, except Great Britain and Turkey, came into the Continental System. The British government replied to the Berlin and Milan decrees by various Orders in Council, which forbade neutral ships from trading with France, her dependencies, The Orders in or her allies, under penalty of capture. As Napo- Council leon sought to exclude Great Britain from Continental markets, so that country sought to shut out Napoleon from maritime commerce. The sea-power of Great Britain enabled her to blockade the Continent with some degree of effectiveness. Napoleon, on the other hand, could not make the Continental System effective. British merchants always managed to smug- gle large quantities of goods into the European Tfae Conti _ countries. Some commodities which the French nentai absolutely required, such as woolens, had to be i„ y e s ^™ ive admitted into France under special license. Na- poleon clad his own armies in British cloth, and his soldiers marched in British shoes. Though Great Britain suffered acutely from the emperor's interference with her trade, the 1 A Napoleonic phrase. 400 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Continental nations, deprived of needed manufactures and colonial wares, suffered still more. The result was to excite great bitterness against Napoleon. Nevertheless, he persisted in the attempt to humble his only rival by this economic war- fare ; as we shall now see, he staked his empire on the success of the Continental System. 108. Revolt of the Nations, 1808-1814 Napoleon hitherto had been fighting kings, not nations ; and he had been uniformly victorious. A change came after National Tilsit. The emperor's treatment of the con- resistance to quered peoples aroused the utmost hatred for him. They saw their sons dragged away by the conscription to fight and die in his armies ; they paid excessive war taxes; above all, they had to endure the high prices re- sulting from the Continental System. The time was near at hand when these burdens could no longer be borne. Hence- forth our chief interest is with the various nations which one after another rose against their common oppressor. France in arms made Napoleon ; Europe in arms overthrew him. The little kingdom of Portugal had been linked to Great Britain by close commercial ties for more than a century. Napoleon's When the Portuguese refused to close their ports interference to British ships, as Napoleon demanded, he sent in Portugal r ' r ' and Spain, an army into the country, seized Lisbon, and 1807-1808 drove the royal family to Brazil. Napoleon then proceeded to deprive his friend and ally, Ferdinand VII, of the Spanish crown and gave it to his brother Joseph. These high-handed acts enabled the emperor to extend the Conti- nental System over the Iberian Peninsula. What he gained there was more than offset elsewhere. As soon as the Portu- guese government removed to Brazil, it opened that country to British trade, and after the Spanish monarchy fell, its colo- nies revolted from the mother country and admitted British goods. Napoleon thus unwittingly created lucrative markets in Latin America for his rival. The Portuguese and Spaniards declined to accept their Revolt of the Nations 401 French overlords and everywhere rose in revolt. Great Britain took a lively interest in the situation and sent an R evo i t f army commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, better Portugal known by his subsequent title of duke of Welling- ton, to help the insurgents. The French were soon driven out of Portugal, nor could they maintain themselves securely in Spa-in. The Peninsular War, as it is called, dragged on for years. Encouraged by the Spanish re- sistance, Austria tried to throw off the Napoleonic The Austrian yoke. The effort revolt, 1809 proved to be premature, though Austria, fighting this time alone, gave Napoleon far more trouble than when previously she had the help of allies. The French again occupied Vienna and won the hard battle of Wagram. The peace which followed cost the Hapsburg ruler additional territory and a heavy indemnity. It also cost him his daughter Maria Louisa, whose hand Napo- leon demanded in marriage after divorcing Josephine. When Maria Louisa presented the emperor with a son and heir, the so-called "king of Rome," it must have seemed to him that his dynasty was at length firmly fixed on the French throne. 1 The Duke of Wellington After a painting by Goya in the possession of the duke of Leeds. 1 The Bonapartes Charles Bonaparte m. Letitia Ramolino JOS I'M Napo eon I king of Naples, 1806- 1808; king of Spain, 1808-1813 Napoleon II "king of Rome," d. 1832 Louis king of Holland, 1806-1810 Napoleon III I I Caroline Jerome m. Murat, king of Westphalia, king of Naples, 1807-1813 1S0S-1815 Napoleon d. 1879 402 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Europe, except in Spain and on the seas, now enjoyed peace for two years. It was a brief breathing-spell, while Napoleon made ready for a new and much more terrible contest. Until now he had induced Tsar Alexander to adhere to the Con- tinental System, which pressed with special severity upon War with Russia, an agricultural country needing large im- Russia, 1812 p 0rts of British manufactures. The tsar at length decided to break his shackles and renew trade relations between Russia and Great Britain. This decision left Napoleon no choice but go to war with him, if the Continental System was to be preserved. Rather than give up hope of humbling Great Britain, the emperor, against the advice of his wisest counselors, threw down the gage of battle. More than half a million men formed the Grand Army with which Napoleon began the invasion of Russia. About one- The ad- third of the soldiers were French ; the rest were vance to Germans, Italians, Poles, and other subjects of the empire. All western Europe had banded together under the leadership of one man to overthrow the only great state remaining unconquered on the Continent. The Russians offered at first little resistance, and the Grand Army reached the river Borodino before they turned at bay. A murderous conflict followed ; the French won ; and eight days later Napoleon entered Moscow. But to occupy Moscow was not to conquer Russia. The French did not dare follow their enemy farther into the wil- derness, nor could they remain for the winter in Moscow, owing to the scarcity of food for men and horses. The Rus- sian peasants burned their grain and fodder rather than The retreat supply the French. Moreover, a great fire, perhaps from Moscow ^incllecl by the Russians themselves, had destroyed much of the city just as the French entered it. Napoleon lingered for a month among the ruins of Moscow in the belief that Alexander would open negotiations for peace. But no message came from the tsar, and at last the emperor gave orders for the retreat. A southerly route, which the army attempted to follow, was blocked, and the troops had to return by the way Revolt of the Nations 403 they had come, through a country eaten bare of supplies. Famine, cold, desertions, and the incessant raids of the Cossacks thinned their ranks ; and at last only a few thousand broken fugitives recrossed the Niemen to safety. The Grand Army had ceased to exist. This disaster, unparalleled in military annals, thrilled Prussia with hopes of freedom. Thanks te the labors of Baron vom Stein and other statesmen, it was a new Prussia The which confronted Napoleon. Serfdom had been Prussian declared illegal ; all occupations and professions had been opened to noble, commoner, and peasant alike; a state system of both elementary and secondary education had been established ; and the army had been reorganized on the basis of military service for all classes. These reforms gave to Prussia many of the advantages of the French Revolution and aroused a patriotic spirit which united the entire nation in a common love of country. Prussia now joined forces with Russia and began the War of Liberation. Yet so vast were Napoleon's resources that he was soon able to recruit a new army and take the offensive in Germany. He gained fresh victories, but could not follow Battle of them up because of the lack of cavalry. Austria Lei P zl s. 1813 then threw in her lot with the Allies. Outnumbered and out- maneuvered, Napoleon fell back on Leipzig r and there in a three- days' "Battle of the Nations" suffered a sanguinary defeat. All Germany now turned against him, and he withdrew his shattered troops across the Rhine. The Allies would have made peace with Napoleon, had he been willing to give up his claims to the overlord- Abdication ship of Europe. They offered him the Rhine, the of Napoleon, Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Atlantic as the French boundaries, but he refused to accept the territorial limits that would have satisfied the ambitions of Louis XIV. Napoleon's campaigns during the early months of 1814 against three armies, each one larger than his own, are justly celebrated ; they postponed but did not prevent his overthrow. After Paris surrendered, the emperor gave up the useless struggle and 404 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era signed an act of abdication renouncing for himself and for his heirs the thrones of France and Italy. 109. Downfall of Napoleon, 1814-1815 The Allies treated Napoleon with marked consideration. They allowed him to retain the title of emperor and assigned Napoleon him the island of Elba as a possession. He spent at Elba ^ en mon ths in this tiny principality and ruled it with all his accustomed energy, meanwhile keeping a watchful eye upon the course of events in France. Suddenly Europe heard with amazement that Napoleon had returned to France and that Louis XVIII, 1 his Bourbon suc- The cessor on the throne, was once more an exile. "Hundred ^g enthusiastic welcome which greeted the em- March-June, peror, as he advanced to Paris with only a small 1815 bodyguard, bore witness at once to the magnetism of his personality and to the unpopularity of the Bourbons. In a manifesto to the French people he declared that hence- forth he would renounce war and conquest and would govern as a constitutional sovereign. The Allies, however, refused to accept the restoration of one whom they described as the "enemy and destroyer of the world's peace." The four great powers, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, proclaimed Napoleon an outlaw and set their armies in motion toward France. The allied armies lay in two groups behind the Sambre River. A mixed force ^of British, Belgians, Dutch, and Ger- „ iX , t mans, under the duke of Wellington, covered Battle of Waterloo, Brussels, and the Prussians, under Bliicher, held J""® 18 > a position farther east. Napoleon hoped to overcome them separately before they could con- centrate their overwhelming numbers. He did beat Bliicher at Ligny, compelling the Prussian general to retreat north- ward to Wavre. Bliicher's defeat made it necessary for Wel- lington to fall back on a strong defensive position near Waterloo, 1 See page 379 and note 1. The young son of Louis XVI ("Louis XVII") is supposed to have died in a revolutionary prison in 1795. Downfall of Napoleon 405 twelve miles -south of Brussels. Here, all through a hot Sunday in June, Napoleon hurled his infantry and < .valry in fierce but ineffectual attacks against the "Iron Duke's" lines. The timely arrival of the Prussians from Wavre — Napoleon sup- posed that they had retreated toward Namur — compelled the French to fight a double battle ; their situation soon became des- perate ; and even a last charge of the Old Guard failed to restore the day. Repulse soon turned into a rout, and Napo- leon's splendid army broke up into a mob of fugitives. The emperor himself escaped with diffi- culty to Paris. Napoleon again abdicated and to avoid the Prussians (who had orders to take him dead or alive) threw himself upon the generosity of the British government. Then fol- The lowed exile to the desolate rock of St. Helena, where Napoleonic the fallen emperor lived for six years, without wife gei or child, but surrounded by a few intimate friends to whom he dictated his memoirs. After his death, at the early age of fifty-two, France forgot the sufferings he had caused her and remembered only his glory. Poets, painters, and singers created out of the "Little Corporal" a purely legendary figure. The world-despot appeared as the heii of the Revo- lution, a crusader for liberty, a foe of tyrants; and in this guise he found his way irresistibly to the hearts of the French people. Theater of the Waterloo Campaign 406 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era After Napoleon's first abdication in 1814 the victorious Allies concluded with France a peace which stripped her of all her Treatment conquests. After the emperor's second abdication of France - n I g I ^ foe allied powers deemed it necessary to impose still more humiliating conditions of peace. Though The Tomb of Napoleon In 1840 Napoleon's body was removed from St. Helena, taken with great pomp to Paris, and deposited in a sarcophagus of red Finland granite under the gilded dome of the Hotel des Invalides. Twelve colossal statues, representing the chief victories of Napoleon, surround the tomb, and between the figures are battleflags captured at Austerlitz. Two of the emperor's brothers are buried in adjoining chapels. France was not dismembered, she was reduced to substantially her old boundaries before the Revolution. 1 Furthermore, she had to restore all the works of art which Napoleon had pilfered 1 See the map facing page 388. " Liberty, Equality, Fraternity " 407 from other countries, to pay an indemnity of seven hundred million francs, and for five years to support a foreign army in her chief fortresses. It is noteworthy, however, that the desire of Prussia for the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was not at this time gratified. 110. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" The French Revolution differed sharply from previous revolu- tionary movements. The Puritan Revolution and the "Glori- ous Revolution" in England were carried out by Principles men of the upper and middle classes, who wished of 1789 to limit the royal power and establish the supremacy of Parlia- ment. Even the American Revolution was guided by conservative statesmen, at least as solicitous for the rights of property as for the rights of man. The French Revolution also be- gan mainly as a middle- class movement, but it soon reached the lower classes. Their principles found ex- pression in the famous motto, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." "Liberty" meant the recognition of popular sovereignty. Government was to be no longer the privilege of a divine- right ruler, however benevolent or "enlightened"; henceforth, it was to be conducted constitutionally in accordance with the will of the people. Since the first con- stitution (that of 1 791) the French have often changed their form of government, but they have always had a written con- stitution. Napoleon's plebiscites show that he paid at least lip homage to the principle of popular sovereignty, and it is certain that during both the consulate and the empire he en- joyed the support of the great majority of Frenchmen. On the Seal or the French Republic Liberty 408 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era other hand, he did not respect all the "rights of man" which the revolutionists had proclaimed with such enthusiasm. Freedom of worship prevailed under Napoleon, but the emperor allowed neither free speech nor a free press. "Equality" meant the abolition of privilege. The Revolu- tion made all citizens equal before the law. It opened to every „ one the positions in the civil service, the Church, and the army. It abolished serfdom and manorial dues, thus destroying the last vestiges of feudalism. It sup- pressed the guilds, thus releasing industry from medieval shackles. It canceled all exemptions from taxation and sub- stituted a new fiscal system which taxed men according to their means. Most Frenchmen were content to accept Napoleon's rule largely because he retained and extended these achieve- ments of the Revolution. "Fraternity" meant a new consciousness of human brother- hood. The revolutionists set out to make France a better . place for every one to live in. This fraternal feel- ing inspired all ranks and classes of the people. It led to a great outburst of patriotic and national sentiment, which enabled the French, single-handed, to withstand Europe in arms. The principles of 1789 were not confined to France. The revolutionary and Napoleonic soldiers passed from land to land, The spirit bringing in their train the overthrow of the Old of 1789 Regime. The effect was profound in the Nether- lands, in western Germany, and in northern Italy, countries where the masses of the people had grievances and aspirations like those of the French. During the nineteenth century the revolutionary spirit permeated other European countries, re- sulting everywhere in a demand for the abolition of the estab- lished privileges of wealth, birth, and social position. Such has been the service of France as a liberator. Studies 1. "The principal cause of the ruin of royalty in France was the lack of a King." What does this statement mean? 2. Why is July 14 observed by the French as the "birthday of the nation"? 3. Compare the assignats with the paper money " Liberty, Equality, Fraternity " 409 issued by the Confederacy during the Civil War. 4. How did the Austrian* and Prussians justify their invasion of France in 1792? 5. In your opinion was there greater or less justification for the execution of Louis XVI than of Charles I? 6. What excuse can be offered for the policy of terrorism adopted by the Jacobins in 7. Mention some conspicuous instances of mob action during the French Revolution. Why are mobs so often cruel and bloodthirsty? 8. Why may Na- poleon's coup d'etat in 1709 be regarded as the final scene of the French Revolution? 9. How did the First Consul, to use his own words, "close" the French Revolution and "consolidate" its results? 10. Why was Napoleon styled by the lawyers a new Justinian and by the clergy a new Constantine? n. Is it correct to call Napoleon an "enlightened" despot? Is it incorrect to call him a "usurper"? 12. Compare as to results the battle of Trafalgar with the destruction of the Spanish Armada. 13. On an outline map indicate the Napoleonic Empire at its height, noting also the battle-fields mentioned in this chapter. 14. How did the Conti- nental System help to bring about the downfall of Napoleon? 15. Why is Waterloo included among the world's "decisive battles"? Would it have been equally de- cisive if Napoleon, and not Wellington, had won ? 16. It has been said of Napoleon that "he was as great a* a man can be without virtue." Does this seem to be a fair judgment? 17. Write a character sketch (400 words) of Napoleon, baser! partly on the statements in the text and partly on your outside reading. 18. " Eng- land is the mother of liberty, France, the mother of equality." Explain this state- ment. 19. What was meant by describing the French revolutionary armies as "equality on the march"? CHAPTER XII THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN EUROPE, 1815-1848 111. Modern Democracy The idea of democracy, so emphasized by the American and French revolutions, has been a potent influence in molding What is modern history. What is democracy? The word democracy ? comes from the Greek and means popular rule — "government of the people, by the people, and for the people." Democracy is thus distinguished from autocracy, the rule of one, and from aristocracy or oligarchy, the rule of a few. Ancient democracy was exclusive. All the people did not rule, even in the most democratic of Greek cities. Slaves, " The a very considerable element of the population, people enjoyed no political rights, while freedmen and foreigners were seldom allowed to take part in public affairs. A democratic state at the present time does not recognize any slave class, freely admits foreigners to citizenship, and grants the suffrage to all native-born and naturalized men, irrespective of birth, property, or social condition. The recent extension of the suffrage to women in several progressive countries marks the final step in broadening the conception of "the people" to include practically all adult citizens. As a working system of government, democracy implies the sway of majorities. It is usually impossible to wait until Majorities a ^ the P eo pl e ar e of one mind regarding proposed and minori- measures or policies. A unanimous or nearly unanimous decision is best, of course ; failing that, we must "count heads" and see which side has the more ad- herents. A democratic government which did not enforce the will of the majority would be a contradiction in terms. How far should the sway of a majority go? If it goes so far 410 Modern Democracy 411 as to suppress free opinion, free speech, and free discussion in a public press, then there is little to choose between the abso- lutism of a democracy and the absolutism of an autocracy. A majority can be as tyrannical as any divine-right monarch. The danger of abusing majority rule makes it necessary to safeguard the rights of minorities, whether great or small. After a decision has been reached upon any question, the minority should still be entitled to convert (if it can) the major- ity to its views by free and open debate. In this way demo- cratic government comes to rest upon common consent, upon the willing cooperation of all the citizens. Democracy in antiquity was direct, while that of to-day is representative. Every citizen of Athens or Rome had a right to appear and vote in the popular assembly. With the growth of modern states this form of represent- eovernment became impossible. The population ative de ~ ° * r r mocracy was too large, the distances were too great, for all the citizens to meet in public gatherings. Voters now simply choose some one to represent them in a parliament or congress. The representative system, though not unknown to the Greeks and Romans, was little used by them. It developed during the Middle Ages, when such countries as Denmark, _ ' ' Develop- Sweden, the Netherlands, France, and England ment of established legislative bodies representing the representa- three "estates" of clergy, nobility, and commoners. Most of these medieval legislatures afterwards disappeared or sank into insignificance, but the English Parliament continued to lead a vigorous existence. It thus furnished a model for imitation, first by the American colonies, then by revolutionary France, and during the past hundred years by nearly all Europe. We have already learned how the builders of the United States set up what may be called a presidential system. 1 They provided for a president elected for a fixed term, presidential gave him executive authority, and sharply sepa- and cabinet rated his functions from those of the legislature. sys ' In Great Britain, on the other hand, a so-called cabinet system 1 See page 342. 412 The Democratic Movement in Europe arose during the eighteenth century, by which a cabinet, or body of ministers, executes the laws subject to the oversight and control of the legislature. 1 This system has now been extended by Great Britain to her self-governing Dominions in South Africa, Australasia, and Canada. It has also been adopted by most Continental states. Both presidential and cabinet systems are democratic. The differences between them relate simply to the machinery by which the people rule. Democracy does not necessarily imply a republican form of government. The establishment of the United States did, indeed, lead almost immediately to the formation and dem- of the first French Republic, and the examples ocratic fa us se |- were soon followed by the Spanish- monarchies . , . American colonies after their separation from the mother country. On the other hand, Great Britain, Italy, and certain other European states have succeeded in developing governments which, though monarchical in form, are democratic in substance. The king still reigns by hereditary succession, but he does not rule. The popularly elected president of a republic often has more power than one of these democratic monarchs. Modern democracy is constitutional in form. There is generally a written constitution, of a more or less liberal type, . 1# to guarantee the rights of the people. The Constitutions c . r- x- first document of this sort for any country was the Union of Utrecht (1579), by which the northern provinces of the Netherlands bound themselves together, "as if they were one province," to maintain their liberties "with life- blood and goods" against Spain. The second was the Crom- wellian Instrument of Government (1653). The third was the Constitution of the United States, framed in 1787. The fourth was the French constitution which went into effect in 1 791. All these documents, it should be noticed, were of revolutionary origin; they testified to the success of armed rebellion against the legal government. The same thing will be found true of many other constitutions secured by European peoples during the nineteenth century. 1 See page 483. Restoration of the Dynasties 413 112. The Congress of Vienna The close of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era found Europe in confusion. The French Revolution had destroyed the Old Regime in France, and Napoleon Bona- Purpose of parte had given new rulers or new boundaries the con £ ress to almost every Continental state. While the fallen emperor was still at Elba, a great international congress met at Vienna in September, 1814, to restore the old dynasties and remake the European map. The powers represented were Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and France. The congress formed a brilliant assemblage of emperors, kings, princes of every rank, and titled diplomats. A single drawing room sometimes held Alexander I, tsar Membership of Russia ; Francis I, emperor of Austria ; Fred- of the erick William III, king of Prussia; the duke of Wellington, the German patriot Stein, the Austrian minister Metternich, and the French representative Talleyrand. The final decision as to all questions obviously lay with the four powers whose alliance had overthrown Napoleon, until Talley- rand's skillful management secured the admission of France to their councils as a fifth great power. When the wheels of diplomacy had been well oiled by banquets, balls, and other festivities, the monarchs and their advisers undertook the reconstruction of Europe. Only by courtesy could the meeting at Vienna be called a congress. As a matter of fact, it never held open sessions with general debates. All the work was done Nature of privately by committees of plenipotentiaries, who the co 11 ^ 83 signed treaties between the various states. These treaties were then brought together in a single document called the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (June, 181 5). 113. Restoration of the Dynasties The aristocrats who assembled at Vienna were opposed, naturally enough, to all the democratic or liberal sentiments which had been awakened in Europe since 1789. The French 414 The Democratic Movement in Europe Revolution appeared to them as merely a revolt against authority, a revolt which had overturned the social order, de- The congress stroyed property, sacrificed countless human lives, and de- and introduced confusion everywhere. Blind to the true significance of the demand for liberty and equality, they sought to bring back the Old Regime of abso- lutism, privilege, and divine right. Their ideal was Europe before 1789. The first business at Vienna was therefore the restoration of the old dynasties. The congress asserted the right of Euro- " Legiti- pean monarchs to govern their former subjects, ir- macy respective of the latter's wishes or of the claims of the rulers whom Napoleon had established. Talleyrand dignified this principle under the name of "legitimacy." Louis XVIII, who now went back to France, was an old gentleman of sixty, and so fat and gouty that he could not Louis xvili sit a horse. This cool, cautious Bourbon wanted in France ^ Q en j y his power in peace ; like Charles II of England, he had no desire to set out on his travels again. He realized that to most Frenchmen absolutism had become in- tolerable and that the main results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era must be preserved. Accordingly, Louis XVIII retained such institutions as the Code, the Concordat, the Bank of France, and the imperial nobility, and renewed a charter or constitution, which he had granted in 18 14. It guaranteed freedom of the press, religious toleration, and the inviolability of sales of land made during the Revolution. The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy did not mean the restoration of the Old Regime in France. Ferdinand VII, another king whom Napoleon had de- throned, went back to Spain. This Spanish Bourbon had no Ferdinand sooner recovered his crown than he began to VII in spam swee p away all traces of revolutionary ideas and institutions introduced by the French. A constitution, modeled upon that of France, which the Spaniards had framed in 181 2, was suppressed, because it denied divine right and asserted the sovereignty of the people. The old privileges of the clergy PRINCE METTERNICH After the painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence. In possession of Prince Richard Metter- nich-Winneburg. Territorial Readjustments 415 and nobility were reaffirmed. The censorship of books and news- papers, the prohibition of public meetings, and the imprison- ment or banishment of all those suspected of liberal opinions showed clearly the reactionary character of the new government. Still other dispossessed monarchs profited by the principle of "legitimacy." The king of Sardinia regained Nice, Savoy, and Piedmont on the mainland, together with Restorations the former republic of Genoa as an additional in Italy protection against France. "Republics are no longer fashion- able," said the tsar to a Genoese deputation which had objected to this arbitrary arrangement. Sicily and Naples were again combined to form the kingdom of the Two Sicilies under a Bourbon ruler. The pope, whom Napoleon had deprived of temporal sovereignty, recovered the States of the Church. All these restored princes governed without constitutions or parliaments. They used their absolute power to get rid of every trace of the revolutionary era, even uprooting French plants in the botanical gardens and abolishing vaccination and gas street lamps as nefarious French innovations. The restorations in Italy also spelled reaction. 114. Territorial Readjustments As we have already learned, the fraternal or patriotic feel- ings so deeply stirred during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era put renewed emphasis on the rights of nation- The congress alities. Patriots in one country after another and national- boldly declared that no nation, however small or weak, should be governed by foreigners. Every nation, on the contrary, ought to be free to choose its own form of govern- ment and manage its own affairs. To such "submerged nationalities" as the Belgians, Bohemians, Poles, and Magyars this principle held out the hope of independence ; to the Italians and the Germans it held out the hope of unification. Like the "enlightened despots," however, the rulers and diplo- mats at Vienna willfully disregarded all national aspirations. They treated the European peoples as so many pawns in the game of diplomacy. 416 The Democratic Movement in Europe In general, the territorial readjustments made by the congress were intended to compensate the great powers for their exertions " Compensa- against Napoleon. Land hunger thus influenced tions " ^g Vienna settlement, as it had influenced the earlier treaties of Utrecht and Westphalia. The principle of "compensations," however, had to be modified by the assumed necessity of strengthening the neighbors of France against future aggression on the part of that country. The total result was a new map of Europe. The oldest and most successful of Napoleon's enemies, Great Britain, did not desire Continental territories. She received Great colonial possessions as payment, including Helgo- Britain j and in ^ N or th Sea and Malta and the Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean. Great Britain also retained the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Guiana, which had been appropriated during the Napoleonic wars. 1 A new state arose across the Channel. In order to com- pensate the Dutch for the loss of their possessions overseas Kingdom of anc ^ at tne same time to set up a strong bulwark the Nether- against France, the congress united the Austrian Netherlands — modern Belgium — with Holland. The kingdom of the Netherlands, as thus established, was under the rule of the house of Orange. This arbitrary union of Belgians and Dutch soon led to acute friction between the two peoples. As compensation for the cession of the Austrian Netherlands, Austria secured Lombardy and Venetia, the two richest prov- inces in Italy. She also received the Illyrian Austris. lands along the Adriatic coast, part of Poland (Galicia), and all the other territory taken from her by Napo- leon. Austria was now a state geographically compact, center- ing round the middle Danube and controlling North Italy and the northern Adriatic. The Prussian kingdom, whose limits had been so reduced by Napoleon, recovered part of Poland (Posen), took over from Sweden what remained of western Pomerania, and ab- i A part of Guiana (Surinam) was kept by the Dutch. Territorial Readjustments 417 sorbed about half of Saxony, a state which had been one of Napoleon's allies. Prussia also annexed much additional terri- tory on the lower Rhine. In spite of these terri- _ r t Prussia torial acquisitions, Prussia remained almost as unformed as in the eighteenth century, with her dominions scattered throughout Germany. Another great power widened its boundaries at this time. Russia kept Finland, taken from Sweden in 1809, and Bes- sarabia, wrested from Turkey in 181 2. In addi- _ J Russia tion, Russia obtained the lion's share of Napo- leon's Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Tsar Alexander proceeded to set up a kingdom of Poland, with himself as king. For the cession of western Pomerania to Prussia and of Finland to Russia, Sweden found compensation in taking Norway from Denmark. The only excuse for this action was the former alliance of the Danes with Napoleon, an alliance which had been practically forced upon them. The Norwegians themselves resented the new arrangement, preferring a Danish to a Swedish ruler. Though compelled to submit, they succeeded in keeping their own government, constitution, and laws. Their union with the Swedes lasted just ninety years. The Swiss Confederation, or Switzerland, whose independence had been recognized at the Peace of Westphalia, received its final form at the Congress of Vienna. Three new cantons were added to the nineteen in existence before 1815. The great powers also signed a treaty promising never to declare war against Switzerland or to send troops across the Swiss borders. The little Alpine republic became in this way a neutral buffer state in the heart of Europe. The settlement of Vienna left Italy a mosaic of nine states. 1 Of these, Sardinia formed an independent kingdom. Lom- bardy and Venetia were Austrian provinces. Disunion of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Lucca were duchies, Italy in 18i5 all but the last under rulers belonging to the Hapsburg family. Austrian influence also prevailed in the States of the Church 1 Eleven, if Monaco and San Marino be included. Sec the map on page 454. 4i 8 The Democratic Movement in Europe and in the Two Sicilies. Thus Austria, a foreign power, fixed its grip upon the Italian peninsula. Italy, in Metternich's contemptuous phrase, was only "a geographical expression." Germany after the settlement of Vienna included thirty- nine states and free cities, of which the most extensive were Disunion of the Austrian Empire and the five kingdoms of Germany in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and Han- . over. Stein and his fellow-patriots wished to bring them all into a strongly knit union. This proposal encountered the opposition of Metternich, who feared that a united Germany would not serve Austrian interests. Metter- nich found support among the German rulers themselves, not one of whom would surrender any particle of his authority. The outcome was the creation of the Germanic Confeder- ation, a loose association of sovereign princes with a Diet or assembly presided over by a representative of the Austrian emperor. 1 The Congress of Vienna may properly be charged with grave shortcomings. It rode rough-shod over popular rights Balance of and disappointed the hopes of Germans, Italians, power Norwegians, Poles, and Belgians for freedom. Its failure to satisfy either the democratic or national aspirations of Europe has left a heritage of trouble even to our own day. The political history of the last hundred years is very largely concerned with the triumph of both democracy and nationalism, and the consequent changes of territory and government. What the Viennese map makers constructed was not a lasting settlement of the difficult problems before them, but rather a new balance of power, cunningly contrived yet nevertheless unstable. There now remained, as in the eighteenth century, five great states : Great Britain and France in the west ; Austria and Prussia competing in the center; and in the east Russia. No one of them was strong enough to dominate the others. Together they managed to preserve peace in Europe for the next forty years. 1 Both the kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire contained territories not included in the confederation. See the map facing page 462. " Metternichismus " and the Concert of Europe 419 115. " Metternichismus " and the Concert of Europe, 1815- 1830 Austria, now the leading Continental state, consisted of more than a score of territories inhabited by uncongenial Germans, Magyars, Slavs, Rumanians, and Reactionary Italians. To keep them united under a single Austna scepter, the Hapsburgs deliberately repressed all agitation for independence or self-government. The Hapsburgs felt it equally necessary to discourage every popular movement, which, starting in Italy or Germany, might spread like an infection to their own dominions. "My realm," confessed the emperor Francis I, "is like a worm-eaten house ; if a part of it is removed, one cannot tell how much will fall." Force of circumstances thus placed Austria at the forefront of the reaction against democracy. The spirit of reactionary Austria seemed incarnate in Prince Clemens Metternich. He belonged to an old and distinguished familv from the Rhinelands, entered the diplo- __ „ r Metternich matic service of Austria, and during the Napoleonic era rose to be the chief representative of the Hapsburg emperor at Paris. An aristocrat to his finger-tips, polished, courtly, tactful, clever, this man soon became the real head of the Austrian government and the most influential diplomat in Europe. To the rule of Napoleon succeeded the rule of Metter- nich. The German word Metternichismus has been coined to express the ideas which he championed and the measures which he enforced. Metternich regarded absolutism and divine right as the pillars of stable government. Democracy, he declared, could only "change daylight into darkest night." All The Metter- demands for constitutions, parliaments, and repre- mch s y stem sentative institutions must consequently be opposed to the uttermost. In order to stamp out the "disease of liberalism," let spies and secret police be multiplied, press and pulpit kept under gag-laws, the universities sharply watched for dangerous teachings, and all agitators exiled, imprisoned, or executed. 420 The Democratic Movement in Europe Such measures of repression seemed quite feasible at a time when the majority of European peoples were ignorant peasants, far removed from public life. Democratic ideas could only find followers among the workingmen of the cities and in the educated bourgeoisie, both very small and defenseless when confronted by the powerful forces at the disposal of govern- ments. Metternich first established his system in Austria and then found in the Concert of Europe the means of extending it to other parts of the Continent. The states whose coalitions overthrew Napoleon became in 1 815 the arbiters of Europe. Great Britaifi, Austria, Prussia, Formation of and Russia renewed their alliance, in order to the Concert preserve the dynastic and territorial arrangements made by the Congress of Vienna. In 1818 France under Louis XVIII was admitted into the sacred circle of the alliance. The French, during three years' probation, had fulfilled the obligations imposed upon them by the Allies after Waterloo and, as far as appearances went, had extinguished forever their revolutionary fires. These five great powers, as long as they worked in harmony, could enforce their will on all the smaller states. They formed, in effect, a European Concert. The agreements establishing the Concert pledged its members to the maintenance of "public peace, the tranquillity of states, Defects of the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of the Concert treaties." High sounding words ! Europe in 181 5 was not ready for a genuine international league to safeguard the rights of each country, whether big or little. The defects of the Concert were obvious. First, it did not extend to Tur- key in Europe, whose Christian inhabitants languished under the tyranny of the Sultan. Second, it was dynastic rather than popular in character — a union of sovereigns instead of peoples. Of the five leading states, all but Great Britain were divine-right monarchies. Third, it lacked effective machinery for reconciling the contrary interests, ambitions, and jealousies of the members. The Concert, in short, formed only a distant approach to the ideal of a confederated Europe, of a common- wealth of nations. " Metternichismus " and the Concert of Europe 421 One of the clauses of the treaty of alliance between the powers had provided that they should hold congresses from time to time for consideration of the measures i nter na- "most salutary for the repose and prosperity of tionai con- nations and for the peace of Europe." Four such congresses ' were convoked by Metternich, whose diplomatic genius turned them into agencies of reaction. At the Con- gress of Troppau in 1820 he even succeeded in inducing the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia to sign a protocol, or declaration, formally outlawing all revolutions. According to the principle there announced, a state which underwent a revolutionary change of government was to be brought back, peacefully or by force, "into the bosom of the Great Alliance." The Protocol of Troppau announced a doctrine new to inter- national law. The European autocrats now boldly asserted their right, and even their duty, to intervene Armed in the affairs of any country for the suppression interventlon of democratic or national movements. France did not sign this outrageous document. Neither did Great Britain. Her statesmen, members of a government which dated from the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, had now begun to compre- hend the real character of the Concert as directed by Metter- nich, and to see in it a deadly menace to the liberties of Europe. Undaunted by British protests, however, the three eastern powers prepared for armed intervention. 1820 was a year of revolutions. A widespread uprising in Spain against Ferdinand VII forced that tyrannical monarch to restore the constitution of 181 2 and to convene Revolutions a liberal parliament. An insurrection in Portugal of 1820 overthrew the regency which had governed there since the removal of the royal family to Brazil during the Napoleonic era. 2 John VI, then reigning in Brazil, returned to Portugal and promised to rule as a constitutional sovereign. Encour- aged by these successes, the people of Naples (a part of the 1 Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Troppau (1S20), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822). 2 See page 400. 422 " Metternichismus " and the Concert of Europe 423 kingdom of the Two Sicilies) compelled their Bourbon prince to grant a constitution. Metternichismus did not long remain on the defensive. An Austrian army quickly occupied Naples and restored "order" and absolutism. In the reaction which followed „ . . i-iiii 1 • Revolution the liberal leaders were hurried to the dungeon suppressed and the scaffold. Almost at the same time a 1 "i! aly ' 1821 revolt in the Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont) collapsed under the pressure of eighty thousand Austrian bayonets. Metternich felt well satisfied with his work. "I see the dawn of a better day," he wrote. "Heaven seems to will it that the world shall not be lost." Armed intervention soon registered another triumph. The three eastern powers commissioned France to act Revolution as their agent to subdue the turbulent Spaniards, suppressed Great Britain protested vigorously against this m pain ' action and asserted the right of every people to determine its own form of government. Her protests were unheeded. French troops crossed the Pyrenees and put Ferdinand once more on his autocratic throne. The king then proceeded to inaugurate a reign of terror, exiling, imprisoning, and execut- ing liberals by the thousands. It is a sorry chapter in Spanish history. The sovereigns were now ready to crusade against freedom in Spain's American colonies, which had revolted against the mother land. Both Great Britain and the United Breaches in States felt thoroughly alarmed at the prospect the Euro- of European interference in the affairs of the New World. George Canning, the British foreign minister, made it clear to the governments of France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia that, as long as Great Britain controlled the seas, no country other than Spain should acquire the colonies either by cession or by conquest. Canning's policy received the em- phatic support of President Monroe in his message to Con- gress (1823), in which he said : "We owe it, therefore, to candor, and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers, to declare that we should consider any 424 The Democratic Movement in Europe attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety." l Shortly afterwards both the United States and Great Britain recognized the independence of the Spanish-American republics. A second breach in the European Concert opened when Russia, absolutist but orthodox, supported a rebellion of the Greeks against their Turkish oppressors. It remained, however, for another democratic revolution in France to deal the most effective blow against Metternich and all his works. 116. France and the "July Revolution," 1830 Though Louis XVIII called himself king "by the grace of God" and kept the white flag of the Bourbon family, he ruled Reign of ^ n ^ ac ^ as a constitutional monarch. The Charter Louis xvill, of 1814 2 established a legislature of two houses, the upper a Chamber of Peers appointed for life, the lower a Chamber of Deputies chosen for a term of years. A high property qualification for the suffrage restricted the right of voting for deputies to less than one hundred thousand persons out of a population of twenty-nine million. The mass of the citizens — bourgeoisie, workingmen, and peasants — could neither elect nor be elected to office. The French govern- ment thus remained far removed from democracy. As long as Louis XVIII lived, he kept some check upon the royalists, who wished to get back all their old wealth and Reign of privileged position. The accession of his brother, Charles x, the count of Artois, 3 under the title of Charles X, seated the reactionary elements firmly in the saddle. It was well said of Charles X that after long years of exile he had "learned nothing and forgotten nothing." A thorough believer in absolutism and divine right, the king tried to rule as though the Revolution had never taken place. His disregard of the constitution and arbitrary conduct soon pro- voked an uprising. Paris in July, 1830, as in July, 1789, was the storm-center of the revolutionary movement. Workingmen and students raised 1 The so-called Monroe Doctrine. 2 See page 414. 3 See page sjq and note 2. France and the "July Revolution" 425 barricades in the narrow streets and defied the government. After three days of fighting against none-too-loyal Divine right troops, the revolutionists gained control of the overthrown capital. Charles X fled to England, and the tricolor once more flew to the breeze in France. Those who carried through the uprising in Paris wanted a republic, but C onstitu- thev found little tionalism preserved support among the liberal bourgeoisie. Men of this class feared that a re- publican France would soon be at war with monarchical Europe. Largely influenced by the aged Lafayette, the Republicans agreed to accept another king, in the person of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. He took the crown now offered to him by the Chamber of Deputies, at the same time promising to respect the constitution and the liberties of Frenchmen. The new sovereign belonged to the younger, or Orleans, branch of the Bourbon family. 1 He had participated in the 1 Bourbon Dynasty Henry IV (1589-1610) I Louis XIII (1610-1643) Louis Philippe After a painting made in 1S41. Louis XIV (1643-1715) I Louis X\ 1 1 7 1 5—1 774) great-grandson of Louis XIV I Louis the I tauphin (d. 1765) tike of Philippe, duke of Orleans Louis Philippe (executed 1793) Louis Philippe I [830 1848) Louis XVI (1774-1792) Louis XVIII Charles X great-great-great-grandson (1814-1824) (1824-1830) of Philippe count of Provence count of Artois "Louis XVII" (d. 1795) 426 The Democratic Movement in Europe events of 1789, had joined the Jacobin Club, had fought in revolutionary battles, and during a visit to the United States The " Citizen had become acquainted with democratic ideals and King " principles. To this "Citizen King," who reigned "by the grace of God and by the will of the people," France now gave her allegiance. 117. The "July Revolution" in Europe The events in France created a sensation throughout Europe. The reactionaries were horrified at the sudden outburst of a Effect of revolutionary spirit which for fifteen years they the "July had endeavored to suppress; the liberals were encouraged to renewed agitation for self-gov- ernment and national rights. Widespread disturbances in the Netherlands, Poland, Italy, and Germany compelled Metter- nich to abandon all thought of intervening to restore "legit- imacy" in France. The union between the former Austrian Netherlands and Holland, made by the Congress of Vienna, proved to be very unfortunate. Differences of language, religion, Antagonism ... between and culture kept the two countries apart. Though Belgians about one-half of the Belgians were Flemings and Dutch . . and hence closely akin to the Dutch in blood and speech, the other half were French-speaking Walloons. Both Flemings and Walloons felt a religious antipathy to the Prot- esta'nt Dutch. Both alike had French sympathies and looked toward Paris for inspiration rather than toward The Hague. The antagonism between the two peoples might have lessened in time, had not the government of Holland incensed Belgian patriots by imposing upon them Dutch law, Dutch as the official language, and Dutch control of the army, the civil service, and the schools. Just a month after the uprising in Paris, Brussels responded to the revolutionary signal. The insurrection soon spread The insur- to tne provinces and led to a demand for com- rection in plete separation from Holland. The French government under Louis Philippe naturally favored this course, and Great Britain, a champion of small nationalities, The " July Revolution " in Europe 427 also gave it her approval. The three eastern powers would gladly have intervened to prevent such a breach of the Vienna settlement, but Austria and Russia had disorders of their 428 The Democratic Movement in Europe own to quell, and Prussia did not dare, single-handed, to take action which might bring her into collision with France. Under these circumstances an international conference met at London in 183 1. It decided that Belgium should be "an Independent independent and perpetually neutral state," with and neutral Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as the first ruler. The British had to blockade the Dutch coast and the French to occupy Antwerp before the king of Holland would consent to this arrangement. He did not recognize the in- dependence of Belgium until 1839. In that year Belgian neutrality was further guaranteed by a treaty to which Great CtrtU&. VT1 IVO^KX, fiS^i^/L^jnJ- mu£ such as Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, formed and Sheffield, which had grown up since the Mid- dle Ages, were without representation. Other places — the so-called "rotten" boroughs — con- tinued to enjoy representation long after they had so decayed House of Commons ilsaa »'%S y&s -.|^.v,;-- y .. -; j^« g Canvassing for Votes One of Hogarth's Election Prints, made in 1757. The scene is laid before an inn. The landlord in the middle foreground is seen contending with an officer of the Crown for the vote of a newly arrived farmer, who slyly takes bribes from both. that nothing remained of them but a single house, a green mound, a park, or a ruined wall. The electoral system was equally an- tiquated. Only landowners could vote in the counties, while in many of the boroughs a handful of well-to-do people alone exercised the franchise. Not more than five per cent of all the adult males in Great Britain had the right to vote. There were some "pocke-t" boroughs, where a rich man, generally a noble- man, had acquired the privilege of naming the representatives. Parliamentary Reform 471 The restricted franchise in the boroughs made it easy to corrupt elections to the House of Commons. Bribery of voters reached its height under George III, who fostered the system in order to strengthen his and own authority. Not only were individual voters | ntiniid ation , ' ' , A ' ' ', in elections bribed, but "rotten" and pocket" boroughs were often sold outright to the highest bidder. Thanks to the custom of open polling, voters in the counties were particularly subject to intimidation by landlords, employers, and officials. The evils of bribery and coercion were increased in borough and county alike by the drunkenness and turmoil which prevailed during elections. Efforts to improve these conditions began in the eighteenth century, but for a long time accomplished nothing. Sober people, alarmed by the events in France, coupled . ., . ,. , . , . . ' . Agitation for parliamentary reform with revolutionary designs parlia- against the government. After 1815, however, ^ntary the Reign of Terror and Napoleon Bonaparte were no longer bogeys; and public opinion grew steadily more hostile to a system of representation which excluded so many educated, prosperous members of the middle class from political power. Great Whig nobles also espoused the liberal cause and made it a party question. The Tories, on their side, stood rock- like against anything which savored of democracy. The duke of Wellington, who had become the Tory prime minister, even declared that nothing better than the existing system could be devised "by the wit of man." This obstinate refusal to make even the slightest concessions caused the downfall of the duke's ministry. In 1 830, the year of the ' ' July Revolution ' ' in France, the Whigs returned to office, under pledge to introduce a meas- ure for parliamentary reform. The events which followed cast much light on British methods of government. The Reform Bill introduced by Earl Grey, the Whig prime minister, failed to pass the House p assage f of Commons. Parliament was then dissolved, in the First order to test the sentiment of the country by means of a general election. "The bill, the whole bill, and nothing 472 The United Kingdom and the British Empire but the bill," cried the reforming Whigs. They triumphed, and another Reform Bill passed the new House of Commons by a large majority. The House of Lords, staunchly Tory, threw it out. During the next session yet a third bill was put through the Commons. The Lords insisted upon amendments which the ministry would not accept. Meanwhile, popular excitement rose to fever pitch, and in one mass meeting after another the Lords were denounced as a corrupt and selfish oligarchy. Earl Grey advised the king 1 to create enough Whig peers to carry the measure in the upper chamber. The king refused to do so ; the premier and his associates resigned ; and the duke of Wel- lington tried without success to form another Tory ministry. Earl Grey then resumed office, having secured the royal prom- ise to create the necessary peers. This extreme step was not taken, however, for the mere threat of it brought the Lords to terms. In 1832 the long-debated bill quietly became law. The First Reform Act achieved two results. It suppressed most of the "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs, thus setting Provisions of ^ ree a l ar g e number of seats in the House of Com- the First Re- mons for distribution among towns and counties which were either unrepresented or insufficiently represented. It also gave the franchise to many persons who owned or rented buildings in the towns or who rented land in the country. Workingmen and agricultural laborers — the majority of the population — still remained without a vote. The First Reform Act effected a momentous change in British politics. The Revolution of 1 688-1 689 had trans- Advent of the f erred the chief power from the sovereign to the middle class U pp er c lass, or landed aristocracy. 2 The par- liamentary revolution of 1832 shifted the balance to the middle class of merchants, manufacturers, and professional men — the Continental bourgeoisie. Henceforth for many years it continued to rule Great Britain. The events of 1832 have another significance as well. They proved that the Tory aristocracy, entrenched in the House of Lords, could not permanently defy the popular will, that "it 1 William IV (1830-1837), a brother of George IV. 2 See page 294. Political Democracy 473 was impossible for the whisper of a faction to prevail against the voice of a nation." The Lords yielded, however ungra- ciously, to public opinion. Their action meant R e f orm that for the future Great Britain would progress by versus « ( peaceful, orderly reform, rather than by revolution. That country is the only considerable state in Europe which during the past century has not undergone a revolutionary change of government. 129. Political Democracy, 1832-1867 The passage of the First Reform Act profoundly affected the two historic parties. The Whigs appeared henceforth as the particular champions of all liberal, progressive Liberals and measures. They soon discarded their old name Conserva- and began to call themselves Liberals. The Tories, now known as Conservatives, were in theory opposed to further changes, but when holding office generally went as far as their opponents in the direction of reform. Both parties realized that the time had come for Great Britain to correct old abuses and to modernize her institutions. The next thirty-five years constituted a veritable era of reform in almost every field. During these years Parliament abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, An era of enacted laws to reduce pauperism, passed legisla- reform tion ameliorating conditions of employment in factories and mines, modified the harshness of the criminal code, began to establish a system of popular education, and adopted free trade. Nothing was done, however, toward further extension of the suffrage. The failure of Parliament to enfranchise the masses pro- duced much popular discontent, and during the early years of Queen Victoria's reign l the movement known as Chartism began to make headway among work- ingmen. The Chartists derived their name from a charter of liberties which they proposed to secure. It demanded Six 1 Victoria (1837-igoi) was the niece of George IV and William IV. 474 The United Kingdom and the British Empire Points: (i) universal manhood suffrage; (2) secret voting; (3) equal electoral districts; (4) removal of the property- qualifications for membership in Parliament ; (5) payment of members of Parliament; and (6) annual parliamentary elec- tions. All but the last of these demands, which seemed so radical at the time, have since been granted. The "February Revolution" in Paris, reverberating in London, led to preparations for a great Chartist demonstration. The Chartist Six million persons, it was announced, had signed Petition, 1848 a petition for the Six Points, and half a million men, many of them armed, made ready to carry it to Parlia- ment. The government took alarm and put a large force of special constables under the command of the aged but still courageous duke of Wellington, to protect life and property. The government's firm atti- tude, coupled with a downpour of rain on the day appointed for the procession, dampened the spirits as well as the bodies of the Chartists, and they dis- persed. Their monster peti- tion, upon examination, was found to contain less than half the boasted number of signa- tures, and of these many were fictitious. This exposure dis- credited the whole Chartist movement. The collapse of Chartism did not end the agitation for a more democratic Great Britain. The popular movement there New political owed much to the outcome of the American Civil leaders War, which was regarded as a triumph for democ- racy. It began to seem anomalous that British workingmen should be denied the vote about to be granted negroes in the United States. Two great statesmen — one a Liberal and the Queen Victoria After Sir Edwin Landseer's picture of Victoria at the age of twenty. In Windsor Castle. 475 476 The United Kingdom and the British Empire other a Conservative — perceived this clearly, and each became an advocate of further parliamentary reform. The two states- men were Gladstone and Disraeli. William Ewart Gladstone, the son of a rich Liverpool mer- chant of Scottish birth, had been educated at aristocratic Gladstone, Eton and Oxford. When only twenty-four years 1809-1898 oldj ne en tered Parliament from a "pocket" borough. Gladstone's rise was rapid, for he had wealth, family influence, an attractive personality, wide knowledge both of books and of men, enormous energy, and oratorical gifts of a high order. All things considered, no Englishman of Glad- stone's generation equaled him as a public speaker. His voice, singularly clear and far-reaching, his eagle glance, his command of language, and his earnestness made him an impressive figure, whether in the House of Commons or on the platform. This "rising hope of the stern, unbending Tories," in time dis- appointed his political backers by joining the Liberal Party. It was as a Liberal that Gladstone four times became prime minister of Great Britain. 1 Benjamin Disraeli belonged to a converted Jewish family of London. His father, a well-known author, had him educated Disraeli, privately. He first appeared before the public 1804-1881 as a n0V elist, and in one book after another pro- ceeded to heap ridicule upon the upper classes. Entering Parliament as an independent radical, Disraeli's florid speech and eccentricities of dress — he wore bright-colored waistcoats and decked himself with rings — at first only provoked derision. Gradually, however, the young man's cleverness and courage overcame the prejudice against him. His own radical view- point altered, and before long he became a Conservative, posing henceforth as a staunch defender of the Crown, the Estab- lished Church, and the aristocracy. Disraeli proved to be an expert parliamentarian, always formidable in debate. For thirty years he absolutely dominated the Conservative Party and twice he realized a once "wild ambition" to be prime minister . 2 1 In 1868-1874, 1880-1885, 1886, and 1802-1894. 2 In 1868 and 1874-1880. Political Democracy 477 In 1866 Gladstone, then leader of the House of Commons, introduced a measure for franchise reform. Such old-fash- ioned Liberals as were opposed to further conces- p assage f sions to democracy combined with the Conserva- the Second tives to defeat the bill and overthrow the ministry. The Conservatives then returned to power, with Disraeli the real, though not the titular, chief of the party. The Conserva- tive ministry was even less friendly to reform than its Liberal predecessor, but popular demonstrations throughout the coun- try convinced Disraeli that an extension of the suffrage could no longer be delayed. He decided "to dish the Whigs" by granting it himself. This was done in 1867. The Second Reform Act gave the vote in the boroughs to all householders, whatever the value of their property, and to all lodgers who paid ten pounds or more a year for provisions of unfurnished rooms. By thus enfranchising work- tne Second ingmen, it almost doubled the electorate. The only considerable class still without the vote was that of the agricultural laborers. 130. Political Democracy, 1867-1918 Disraeli expected that the Second Reform Act would unite under the Conservative banner both aristocrats and working people against the great middle class represented Ballot Act, by the Liberals. He was disappointed. The next 1872 election showed that the enfranchised workingmen preferred Gladstone's Liberal leadership. In 1872 Gladstone, who had now become premier, secured the passage of a bill providing for the secret or Australian 1 ballot, in place of open elections. The Ballot Act did away with the old-time corruption and intimidation in elections. During his second ministry Gladstone carried democratic reform still further by the passage of the Third Reform Act. It made the county franchise practically identical with that of the boroughs, thus giving the vote to agricultural laborers. 1 First used by British colonists in Victoria, Australia, and now found in the United States and many other countries. 478 The United Kingdom and the British Empire Most Conservatives and many Liberals thought it danger- ous to go to such lengths. But Gladstone answered: "I take Third Reform my stand upon the broad principle that the en- Act, 1884 franchisement of capable citizens, be they few or be they many — and if they be many so much the better — is an addition to the strength of the state." The United Kingdom after 1884 enjoyed virtually universal manhood suffrage, such as had already been established in Agitation for France (1848), Germany (1871), and the United woman suf- States. But the demand for "votes for women," which began to be heard from about this time, only aroused the anger or ridicule of Liberals and Con- servatives alike. Nevertheless, woman suffrage organizations were formed, debates were held on the platform and in the newspapers, and equal franchise bills were introduced into Parliament. The movement for many years made slow progress, though some women received the right to vote in local elections. The World War gave women the vote in the United King- dom. Their patriotic service in the hospitals, in munition Equal factories, and on the farms had its reward in 1918, Franchise when both parties in Parliament assented to an Equal Franchise Act. This measure ranks in importance with the three acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884. It not only confers the franchise for the House of Commons upon substantially every man over twenty-one years of age in G-reat Britain and Ireland, but also confers it upon every woman over thirty years of age who has hitherto voted in local elections or is the wife of a local elector. There are now about sixteen million voters in the United Kingdom, or one in three of the population. After almost a century of gradual reform Great Britain has thus definitely abandoned the old theory, rooted in feudal Democratic conceptions, of the franchise as a privilege attached Great Britain to foe ownership of property, especially land. Voting henceforth becomes a right to be enjoyed by every citizen, whether man or woman. A general election for mem- bers of Parliament is now an appeal to a responsible people, Government of the United Kingdom 479 and the will of the majority of the people must be carried out by Parliament. Politically, Great Britain ranks among the most democratic of modern countries. 131. Government of the United Kingdom The written constitution of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 1 consists, first, of royal charters, second, of parliamentary statutes, third, of the Common Law The British as expressed in court decisions, and fourth, of inter- constitution national treaties. Besides such documents, it includes a large mass of customs and precedents, which, though unwritten, are none the less binding on Crown and Parliament. The British constitution, easily modified and ever growing with the increase of law and legislation, affords a sharp contrast to that of the United States, which can be amended only slowly and with difficulty. The one is a "flexible" constitution, the other, a "rigid" constitution. As far as appearances go, the sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland is a divine-right monarch. Coins and proclamations still recite that he rules "by the grace of God" (dei gratia), and the opening words of the British national anthem are "God Save Our Lord and King." He is also, as far as appearances go, an absolute monarch. What- ever the government does, from the arrest of a criminal to the declaration of a war, is done in his name. But every one knows that the British sovereign now only acts by and with the ad- vice of his responsible ministers. Should George V attempt to revive the absolutism of James II, he would meet the fate of James II. This figurehead king occupies, nevertheless, a useful place in the British governmental system. As the representative of the nation, he often exercises a restraining, moderating Position of influence upon public affairs, especially through the Crown his consultations with politicians of both parties. He himself stands above party. A common loyalty to the Crown, as an 1 Ireland by the Act of Union (effective in 1801) was joined to Great Britain to form the United Kingdom. 480 The United Kingdom and the British Empire ancient, dignified, and permanent institution, also helps to bind together the self-governing commonwealths of the British Em- pire. It is a symbol of imperial unity such as could scarcely be afforded by an elective and constantly changing Presidency. The rising tide of republicanism has thus failed to affect the British monarchy, and the personal popularity of Queen Victoria, Edward VII, and George V seems to have established it more solidly than a century ago in the esteem of their subjects. British legal theory makes Parliament consist of the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. The share of the Crown is now limited to expressing assent to a bill after its passage by the Commons and the Lords. Such assent the king must give. The royal veto has not been expressly taken away, but Queen Anne in 1707 was the last sovereign to exercise this former prerogative. Nor may the courts set aside an act of Parliament as unconstitutional, for every statute is a part of the constitution. An American student, accustomed to the water-tight division of powers be- tween President, Congress, and the federal courts, finds it hard to appreciate the legal omnipotence of the British Parliament. The only check upon it is the political good sense of the British people. The House of Lords contains upwards of seven hundred members: the Lords Spiritual (archbishops and bishops) and House the Lords Temporal (princes of the royal blood, of Lords 1 a n_ English peers, and a certain number of Scotch and Irish peers). There are also four law lords, who, with the Lord Chancellor, form the highest court of appeal for certain cases. The Lord Chancellor presides over the House of Lords. The power to create new peers belongs to the Crown, but usually the prime minister decides who shall be selected for this honor. Distinction in any field is frequently recognized by the grant of a peerage. Lawyers, authors, artists, scientists, and generals rub shoulders with gentlemen landlords, capitalists, and politicians on the floor of the House of Lords. The House of Lords was the dominant chamber until the pas- sage of the First Reform Act. Since then it has been understood 482 The United Kingdom and the British Empire that the Lords might not oppose the Commons on any measure supported by a majority of the electorate. This purely con- Parliament ventional restriction was written into the consti- Act, 1911 tution by the Parliament Act of 191 1. The Lords agreed to it only when confronted, as in 1832, with the prospect of being "swamped" by a large number of newly created Liberal peers. The Parliament Act deprives the upper chamber of all control of money bills, that is, bills levying taxes or making appropriations. Such measures become laws one month after being sent from the Commons to the Lords, whether accepted by the latter or not. The act further provides that every other bill, passed by the Commons in three successive sessions (extending over two years at least) and rejected by the Lords at each of the three sessions, shall become law. The House of Lords is thus left with only a "suspensive veto" of legislation. The hereditary House of Lords is so frankly an anachronism in democratic Great Britain that from time to time various pro- Position of posals have been made for its " mending or ending." the House Many reformers would like to see it become an elec- tive upper chamber like the French and Ameri- can Senates. Some radicals would abolish the House of Lords altogether, thus doing away with the bicameral system. There seems reason to believe, however, that in one form or another it will survive for many years. Birth and family still count for much in British society, and the average citizen retains a profound respect for the aristocracy. The House of Commons consists of seven hundred and seven members, chosen by universal suffrage from equal electoral The House districts in Great Britain and in Ireland. Com- of Commons moners se rve for five years, which is the maximum life of a single Parliament. This period is curtailed whenever the Crown, on the advice of its ministers, dissolves the House of Commons and orders a new general election. Voting does not take place on one day throughout the United Kingdom; it may extend over as much as two weeks. Nor need a candidate be a resident of the district which he proposes to represent. CHOIR OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY The church formerly attached to the Benedictine abbey of St. Peter in Westminster was built in the 13th century, upon the site of an earlier church raised by Edward the Confessor in the nth century. Since the Norman Conquest all but one of the English sov- ereigns have been crowned here, and until the time of George III, it served as their last rest- ing place. The abbey is now England's Hall of Fame, where many of her distinguished statesmen, warriors, poets, artists, and scientists are buried. Government of the United Kingdom 483 Defeat in one constituency, therefore, does not necessarily exclude a man from Parliament ; he may always "stand" for another constituency. Prominent politicians, as a rule, retain seats in the House of Commons year after year. The property qualification for members of the House of Commons has been abolished, and since 191 1 they have received salaries. Parliament works through a committee known as the cabinet. 1 This body, which developed during the eighteenth century, The cabinet exists purely by custom and has no place whatever in the written constitution of the United Kingdom. The cabinet usually includes about twenty commoners and lords, who belong to the party in power. During the World War, however, a "coalition" cabinet, representing both parties carried on the govern- ment. Members of the cabinet are selected by a caucus of the majority party in Parlia- ment, always, of course, with the approval of the prime minister, who is the recognized leader of the party. The cabinet acts together in all matters, thus presenting a united front to Parlia- ment and the country. The cabinet shapes legislation, determines policy, and administers the laws. In secret sessions it drafts the more im- Cabinet portant measures to be laid before g° vernment the House of Commons. That body may amend bills thus presented to it, but amendments are usually few and unimportant. Should a cabinet measure fail to pass the Commons, or should the Commons vote a resolution of "no confidence," House of Com- mons Mace 1 The terms "cabinet" and "ministry" are used interchangeably. The minis- try, however, contains a large number of administrative officers who do not attend cabinet meetings. 484 The United Kingdom and the British Empire Public opinion and the cabinet custom requires the cabinet to resign or "go to the country." In the former case, the king "sends for" the leader of the opposite party and invites him to form a cabinet which will have the support of the Commons. In the latter case, the king dissolves Parliament and calls a general election. The return of a majority favorable to the cabinet permits it to remain in office ; otherwise the prime minister and his associates give way to a cabinet formed by the Opposition. However powerful, the cabinet is not an irresponsible oligarchy. Public opinion prevails in Great Britain as in other democratic countries. Proposals for new legis- lation, as a rule, are thoroughly discussed in newspapers and on the platform before and after their submission by the cabinet to the House of Commons. No cabinet would think of backing a measure which in its judg- ment was not favored by the great body of the electorate. As has been noted, general elections must be held at least every five years and may be held at any time in order to secure an expression of the popular will. Furthermore, a defeat at a general election or a defeat or vote of censure in the House of Commons is not always necessary for the downfall of a cabinet. The prime minister sometimes resigns office even when he retains a majority in the Commons, if he feels that his policies are no longer acceptable to the country at large. Public opinion thus affects all legislative measures and deter- mines the rise and fall of cabinets. No. 10, Downing Street The larger of the two houses here shown is the official residence of the British prime minister. It faces a little street opening into Whitehall and near the Parliament buildings. The Irish Question 485 The Liberals and Conservatives continue to control Parlia- ment in the twentieth as in the nineteenth century. The last general election (December, 1918) returned a large Political number of Laborites, some of them trade unionists parties and others socialists. From the middle 'eighties the Irish Nationalists, who advocated Home Rule for Ireland, formed an important minority party, usually in alliance with the Liberals. In the last election, however, the Nationalists were swallowed by the Sinn Feiners, whose program is a completely independent Ireland. 132. The Irish Question The English entered Ireland during the reign of Henry II in the twelfth century. They first occupied the region around Dublin, which received the name of the Pale. The English Later sovereigns, especially Henry VIII and in Ireland Queen Elizabeth, extended English dominion throughout the island and sought to Anglicize it by introducing the English language, the Common Law, and the Anglican Church. The Irish, however, would not give up their own Celtic speech, their 'tribal customs, and their Roman Catholic faith. Ireland con- stantly seethed with rebellion, and it required the iron hand of Oliver Cromwell to bring peace to the distracted country. ■ At the time of the "Glorious Revolution" the Roman Catholic Irish espoused the side of James II, but William of Orange (William III) completely defeated James II at the battle of the Boyne in 1690. For the next century Ireland remained quies- cent under alien rule. The government of England in its efforts to subdue Ireland early adopted the policy of colonizing parts of it with immi- grants, who would be more tractable than the Land con- natives. Early in the reign of James I Protestant fiscations Scotch and English were settled in the province of Ulster, where they received ample estates and privileges. After Cromwell's pacification of Ireland, other "plantations" of Englishmen took place in Leinster and Munster. William III subsequently rewarded his adherents by granting them more than a million acres of Irish soil. 486 The United Kingdom and the British Empire l !;j<>\ The English Pale (Time of Henry VIII) ~\ The English Pale (Time of Charles I) Plantations of English and Scots (Time of Elizabeth and the first two Stuarts) . Ireland These confiscations gave rise to an acute agrarian problem in Ireland. Much of the country belonged to the heirs and suc- Absentee cessors of the Englishmen who had received Irish landlordism estat es. They usually lived in England, seldom or never visited Ireland, and took no interest in the welfare of the Irish tenantry. The management of their property was left to hard-hearted agents, who seized every opportunity to raise the rents of tenants. Such opportunities constantly arose. There were few ways The Irish Question 487 of earning a living in Ireland except from the soil, and keen competition among the peasantry for farms forced up rentals to an exorbitant amount. The landlord, as a " Rack- rule, received everything above a bare subsistence rentin s for the tenant and his family. "Rack-renting" increased the misery of the peasants. All improvements on a farm had to be made by the tenant, but if he made them his rent was im- mediately raised. Refusal to pay it meant eviction from his cottage home. No wonder that under this system the soil was wretchedly cultivated. Year after year Irish peasants sank deeper in poverty. The high rents and the scanty yield of the ill-used soil kept them constantly on the verge of starvation. They did The Potato starve whenever there was a failure of the potato Famine crop, on which they chiefly relied for food. 1 Conditions were worst during the Potato Famine of 1 846-1 847. Eighty thousand persons, it is estimated, perished at this time, in spite of charity and government aid. The survivors emigrated in great numbers to America. Within four years the population of the country decreased by more than a million. The decline continued to the end of the nineteenth century, until Ireland had lost by mortality and emigration half of its people. Many years elapsed before the British government made a resolute attempt to remedy agrarian distress in Ireland. Glad- stone's Land Act in 1881 marks the first con- Land structive legislation to meet the Irish demand le g lslatl0n for the three " F's" — fair rent (a rent fixed by public authority instead of by competition) , fixity of tenure (the right of a peasant to hold his land as long as he paid rent) , and free sale (his right to sell to his successor any improvements made by him). The Land Purchase Acts, passed by the Conservative Party in 1891 and 1903, create a state fund from which tenants may borrow money on easy terms to buy their holdings. Thousands of Irish- men have already availed themselves of this opportunity to get rid of the hated landlords and become independent proprietors. The agrarian problem in Ireland bids fair soon to be solved. 1 The potato had been introduced into Ireland from America. 488 The United Kingdom and the British Empire The religious problem has already been solved. Ireland, it will be remembered, did not become Protestant at the time of Disestablish- the Reformation, and to this day three-fourths of ment, 1869 ^ population remain attached to the Roman Catholic faith. Nevertheless, Irish Catholics had to pay tithes for the support of the Anglican Church in Ireland, until after the middle of the nineteenth century. Gladstone's first ministry removed this grievance by disestablishing the Angli- can Church in Ireland. Disestablishment meant that Ireland would no longer have a state church to which all the people, irrespective of their religious beliefs, were obliged to contribute. The third problem is that of Home Rule. After the Act of Union in 1801, Ireland continued to be governed by the British __. „ , Parliament, in which the English and Scots hold an Home Rule ... overwhelming majority. Irishmen objected to this arrangement and demanded the restoration of the former Irish Parliament, which sat in Dublin. The first leader of the Home Rule agitation was the celebrated orator and patriot, Daniel O'Connell. His failure to secure by constitutional means the repeal of the Act of Union led to the formation of a Young Ireland Party, which unsuccessfully imitated the Continental revolutions of 1848. During the 'seventies and 'eighties of the last century the cause of Home Rule found its ablest advocate in Charles Stewart Home Rule Parnell. He was a landlord and a Protestant, bllls but nevertheless won the enthusiastic support of all Irish patriots. Parnell took the leadership of the Irish Nationalists, a political party devoted to Home Rule. When Gladstone entered upon his third ministry in 1886, the Nation- alists were numerous enough to hold the balance of power in the House of Commons. Gladstone could only secure their support by introducing a Home Rule Bill. So bitter was the opposition to it that nearly a hundred Liberals deserted their party and joined the Conservatives, thus defeating the measure. In 1893 the " Grand Old Man," now premier for the fourth time, brought in his second Home Rule Bill. It passed the Commons but met defeat in the Lords. Mr. Asquith's Liberal ministry The Irish Question 489 subsequently introduced a third Home Rule Bill. Having thrice passed the House of Commons, it became a law in 1914, notwithstanding its rejection by the House of Lords. The outbreak of the World War, however, suspended the operation of the measure. It proved to be so unpopular with all classes of Irishmen that in 1920 Mr. Lloyd George secured the enact- ment of still another Home Rule Bill. It provides for the crea- tion of two legislative bodies, one in the north of Ireland (Ul- ster) and one in the south, with a council selected by the two legislatures to form a connecting link between them. They are to control all local matters and most of the administrative machinery except the army and navy, and are to have extensive powers over taxation. The two legislatures may at any time agree to combine into a single legislature for all Ireland. After this Home Rule Bill becomes effective, the representation of Ireland in the British Parliament at Westminster will be reduced to forty-two members. Meanwhile, an agitation in favor of complete independence has made rapid progress everywhere in Ireland except in Ulster. It owes much to a group of quiet scholars, The who devoted themselves to the revival of Irish liter- Sinn Fein ature, the old Irish language (Erse), and the sentiment of Irish nationality. This national movement gave birth to the Sinn Fein 1 Party. The members insist upon the entire separation of Ireland from Great Britain. In the spring of 1916 they allied themselves with radical workingmen of Dublin, and proclaimed an Irish Republic. British troops put down the insurrection and executed some of its leaders. Though the Sinn Feiners secured nearly all the Irish representation in Parliament at the last general election, they refused to take their seats at Westminster. Members of the organization entered in 192 1 upon negotiations with Great Britain in the effort to secure for Ireland, if not complete freedom, at least complete self-government. Britishers believe that some form of political union between Ireland and Great Britain is essential to their own safety. An independent Ireland, it is argued, would be the prey of the first 1 Irish for "Ourselves alone." 490 The United Kingdom and the British Empire great power to quarrel with her or the tool of the first to quarrel with Great Britain. In either case the British people would be The case for gravely imperiled, for Ireland commands the most Great Britain important sea routes over which come the food- stuffs and raw materials indispensable to their existence. This is the principal reason why forty-four million Britishers con- tinue to deny political sovereignty to four million Irishmen. 133. The British Empire The United Kingdom is the cradle and present center of the British Empire. That empire is of comparatively recent Growth of formation. In 1603, at the accession of James I, the empire England did not possess a mile of foreign territory, excepting the Channel Islands. Since then imperial expansion has gone on in India, Africa, Australia, North America, and the islands of the seas, until now the Union Jack floats over a quarter of the land surface of the globe. The British Empire, unlike most of the great empires of the Sea-power past, does not stretch continuously on land. Its -nd the territorial possessions are found in every conti- nent. Its trade routes and lines of communication by steamship and submarine cable lie across thousands of miles of water. Without sea-power, the empire would speedily break into fragments, some becoming independent countries and others being annexed by their stronger neighbors. Sea-power depends primarily on superiority of naval force, which the British secured by their maritime warfare with the The British Dutch and French in the seventeenth, eighteenth, navy and nineteenth centuries. The World War, re- sulting in the capture or destruction of most of the German fleet, has confirmed Great Britain's position as mistress of the seas. This position she intends to keep. It is her declared purpose to maintain a navy at least as strong as any two foreign navies. A smaller margin of strength, the British people be- lieve, would endanger the safety of their empire. Sea-power is also dependent to some degree upon the existence of naval bases, where warships may obtain coal and other d g 1 > w o > - - 5 o B CI o > en ►a > 5 h-4 H > t- 1 k! 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TO rv,_j W ° *** 3 p s" -5 p 3 3 - ' p&ELsfp £ p P3 3- 5 - 3/P CI. < 3 O » p 3 3-p HV 3 3 3 £. n S^nrsZSoig p.- piS,- 2-Sp h 3 ^gr" " Hjp p 1 grip's- 2 gs. s- ^3 g JpSp c ^trp.o-f» 3 ir3 CO e o c p 3' t"> rf- r^ 3 3 5 O-re - d£& C yre n era 3" re - H ££§ 3?_s p 3 H 3 o 2, S-3 S' n ■5"°r.< P r 2-~ Cu P o p ETp c 3" 3 g.r C P **& Op 3 P fire 3 ogo. W p § § g- 0!Z- 32j O a' 3 3_ p 3 2- d c ■°i 5' p o en c 5 p 3 HJ hj3 ^3 -•"■3 3 ci -O fin 3 £ S'3" »" ^n p^oE. 3 =•£ P B.-2 P 3 C o-P S S"hH 3 C? ^jd 3 S^ n ' 3 1* s- - p §i cn3- ™ r^ip^^i^g.g 0- cTg >t>2 - p m <^ ! — is:-- l-^x^ S E 3 g |1:|Iq| § p g-s-^np mPq.^-3'k td Oop w.." 1 - »- 5 3 hS.OIC 523 524 The Continental Countries RUSSIA I> EUROPE during the NINETEENTH CENTURY Scale of Miles | Russia at death of Catherine II, 1796 A.D. I Acquisitions under Paul, 1796-1801 A.D. I | Acquisitions under Alexander 1, 1801-1825 A.D. 1 I Acquisitions under Nicholas I, 1825-1855 A.D. | Acquisitions under Alexander II, 1855-1881 A.D. L'Misitiidi' KilPt SO of G slice of Poland (1815), and began the conquest of Caucasia. The Caucasian territory with its mixed population (Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, etc.) was not finally incorporated in the empire until after the middle of the century. Russia then reached her territorial limits in Europe. The break-up of the country since the World War has enabled most of these frontier peoples to establish independent states. The hodge-podge of tenitories and Babel of peoples com- posing the Russian Empire in the nineteenth century was ruled by an autocratic tsar. His decrees were binding on all The Russian Empire 525 his subjects. Russian laws called him an "independent and absolute sovereign" and declared that God "orders men to submit to his superior authority, not only from Russian fear of punishment, but as a religious duty." autocrac y Many educated Russians, who perhaps were not greatly im- pressed by this appeal to divine right, nevertheless considered autocratic government a practical necessity for Russia. The enormous size and varied population of the country, the dense ignorance of most of its inhabitants, and the absence of a prosperous, progressive middle class, which could take part in political life, seemed to indicate that the triumph of democracy would be long postponed in the tsar's domains. The chief interest of Russian history during the last century lies, there- fore, in the development of liberalism, which gradually under- mined the whole fabric of autocracy, and in the revolutionary year of 1917 brought it crashing to the ground. 1 Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, began as a monarch of enlightened views. Under the influence of his Swiss tutor, he imbibed many democratic ideas of the revo- Alexander I, lutionary period in Europe, and he aspired to 1801_182 5 put them into practice. His ardor for reform grew cold, how- ever, after he came under the influence of that foe of liberalism, Prince Metternich. The tsar not only signed the Protocol of 1 Romanov Dynasty (1762-1917) Catherine II (1762-1796) Paul I (1796- 1801) 1 Alexander I 71 Nicholas I (1801-1825) (1825-1855) Alexander II (1855-1881) Alexander III ( 1 881-1894) Nicholas II (1894-1917) 526 The Continental Countries Troppau, 1 but also cooperated with his brother monarchs in putting down the first liberal uprisings in Italy and Spain. The last years of his life found him equally reactionary at home. Nicholas I, unlike his brother, never felt any sentimental sympathy with liberalism. To prevent liberal ideas from Nicholas I, spreading among his subjects, the tsar relied on 1825-1855 a strict censorship of the press, passport regula- tions which made it difficult for any one to enter Russia or to leave it, an army of spies, and the secret police known as the Third Section. The chief of the Third Section had unlimited power to arrest, imprison, or deport a political suspect, with- out warrant and without trial. During the thirty years' reign of Nicholas I, Liberals by tens of thousands languished in jail or trod the path of exile to Siberia. Nicholas was no less autocratic in his foreign policy. We have already learned how ruthlessly heput down the Polish insurrection and how he aided Francis Joseph I to destroy the Hungarian Republic. 2 Once only did the tsar espouse a revo- lutionary cause. In 1828 he sided with the Greeks who had risen against the Turks, but even then his purpose was not so much to free Greece as to exalt Russia. Nicholas afterwards waged the Crimean War, a venture which brought him into conflict with Great Britain, France, and Sardinia as the allies of Turkey. He died before the war ended. Alexander II started out as a benevolent despot. The earlier part of his reign was marked by notable reforms, es- pecially those which freed the serfs and created elective pro- 1 See page 421. 2 See pages 430 and 437. Nicholas I The Russian Empire 527 vincial assemblies for local government. But the tsar was not a liberal at heart, and his counselors were men trained in the school of Nicholas I. They convinced him, as Alexander II, Metternich had convinced the first Alexander, that 1855 ~ 1881 liberalism was a Western novelty, quite unsuited to holy Russia, Church of the Resurrection of Christ, Petrograd Built on the spot where Alexander II was assassinated. and bound to be followed by revolution and the overthrow of autocracy. After a Polish insurrection in the early 'sixties, which thoroughly frightened the tsar, reaction had full swing in Russia. 528 The Continental Countries The intense disappointment of the educated classes at Alex- ander's relapse into the traditional ways of Russian mon- archs gave rise to nihilism. 1 It began as an academic doctrine. „...,. Radical thinkers, building where the French Nihilism 7 ° philosophers of the eighteenth century had left off, set up reason and science as the twin guides of life. Russia, they urged, must make a clean sweep of autocracy, of the Orthodox Church, and of every other institution that had come down from an unreasoning, unscientific past. Only when the ground had been thus cleared, would it be possible to re- construct a new and better society. The nihilists before long began to seek converts among the masses. Under the guise of doctors, school teachers, factory hands, and common laborers, they preached the gospel of political, social, and economic freedom to artisans in the towns and peasants in the coun- try. The government soon got wind of the revolutionary movement and imprisoned or exiled those who took part in it. The nihilist propaganda of words now passed into a propa- ganda of deeds. Since the government ruled by terror, it was henceforth to be fought with terror. A secret committee at St. Petersburg condemned to death a number of prominent officials, spies, and members of the hated Third Section, and in some cases succeeded in assassinating them. Alexander II himself was murdered in 1881. The reign of Alexander III is chiefly significant for the sys- tematic efforts made by the government to compel all the Alexander non-Russians in the empire to use the Russian ill, 1881- language, accept Russian customs, and worship according to the rites of the Orthodox Church. This policy led to severe treatment of the Finns, Esthonians, Letts, Lithuanians, Poles, Germans, and Jews. The perse- cution of the Jews was followed by their migration in great numbers to the United States. The accession of Nicholas II brought no change in the po- litical situation. The young man was amiable and well- meaning, but as much an autocrat by nature as any of his 1 Latin nihil, "nothing." The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 529 predecessors. The reactionaries surrounding him now redoubled their efforts to keep Russia "frozen." Teachers, students, journalists, professional men, in fact, every one Nicholas II, who dared think aloud suffered under the iron 1894 1917 regime. No person was secure against arbitrary arrest, im- prisonment, exile, or execution. Meanwhile, the opposition to autocracy developed rapidly in Russia, not only among the working people and peasants, but also among the middle classes and enlightened members of the nobility. All the liberal and discontented elements combined to demand for Russia the free institutions which were now no longer novelties in western Europe. Revolutionary disorders at length com- pelled the tsar to issue decrees in 1905-1906, granting franchise rights and providing for a representative assembly (Duma). The Duma met four times and accomplished some useful legis- lation. It did not succeed, however, in winning liberty for the people. When the World War broke out, the corrupt and in- efficient autocracy seemed to be as firmly seated as ever in Russia. 140. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States In its general contour the Balkan Peninsula resembles an inverted triangle, the apex of which ends in the Morea (an- ciently the Peloponnesus). Examination of a The Balkan physical map shows that the surface is almost en- Peninsula tirely mountainous, the only extensive plains being those formed by the valleys of the Danube and the Maritza, and the basin of Thessaly. The line of the Balkans clearly separates the upper from the lower portion of the peninsula, but so many routes cross them that they have always formed simply an obstacle, never a barrier, to invading peoples from the north. Owing to the distribution of the mountain ranges, the principal rivers empty into the Black Sea and the ^Egean, rather than into the Adriatic. The best harbors and most numerous islands are also located on the eastern side of the peninsula. The Balkans, in fact, form a part of the Near East, and their history during modern times is indissolubly linked with the Eastern Question. 530 The Continental Countries No other part of Europe of equal extent contains so many different peoples as the Balkan Peninsula. 1 The original Inhabitants inhabitants are represented to-day by the Alba- of the Balkan nians. The Greeks rank as the next oldest inhabit- ants of the peninsula, though the original purity of their blood has been adulterated by intermixture with Al- banians and Slavs. Toward the end of the sixth century A.D., the South Slavs (Jugoslavs) began to leave their homes among the Carpathians and to occupy the region south of the Danube. The Bulgarians, a people of remotely Asiatic origin and akin to the Magyars and Turks, first appeared in the seventh cen- tury. They adopted the speech, religion, and culture of the South Slavs. The Rumanians claim descent from the Roman colonists of Dacia north of the Danube; they seem to be, however, chiefly the descendants of Slavic immigrants. The Turks descend from the Ottoman invaders of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and from later immigrants. Inter- marriage with their Christian captives and converts from Chris- tianity to Islam has made the Turks substantially European in physique. The Turkish population is nowhere found in compact masses except in northeastern Bulgaria and in the vicinity of Adrianople and Constantinople. The empire of the Ottoman Turks formed a typical Oriental despotism. The sultan was not only lord of the Turkish realm The Otto- in both Asia and Europe, but also the caliph, or man Empire spiritual head, of all Islam. He lived shut up in his seraglio at Constantinople and depended upon his vizier (prime minister) and divan (council of ministers) to execute his will. Each province had a pasha (governor) nominally subject to the sultan, but more often than not practically inde- pendent of him. The professional soldiers known as Janizaries, who at first had been exclusively recruited from Christian chil- dren, comprised the standing army. Only those who accepted Islam were citizens of the Ottoman Empire. The Turks tolerated the presence of Christians, but deprived them of all political rights. Unbelievers could not 1 See the map between pages 718-719. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 531 hold any civil office or serve in the army. They also had to pay heavy taxes not imposed upon Moslems. Some Chris- tians accepted the faith of their conquerors in Turks and order to secure the privileges of citizenship. Even Chnstians including these converts, the Turks in southeastern Europe remained a small minority of the population. Impassable barriers, raised by differences of race, language, religion, and customs, separated them from their subjects. The Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century showed plain signs of the blight which inevitably descends upon states built up by the sword and maintained only by the Decadence sword. Few of its despotic sovereigns possessed of Turke y real ability, and the control of affairs passed more and more into the hands of self-seeking ministers and favorites. The Janizaries, a turbulent body, often used their power to set up and depose sultans at will. The weakness of the central admin- istration was reflected in the provinces, where the pashas acquired substantial independence and in many instances made their power hereditary. Turkey's internal decadence offered a promising opportunity for its partition among European powers. Ever since the fateful year, 1683, 1 the Turks had lost ground in Europe, Austria soon recovered Hungary, Transylvania, and much of Croatia and Slavonia. Russia under Dismember- Catherine II seized the Crimea, with the adjoining m ent of territory, and under Alexander I took Bessarabia. The settlement of 181 5 made the Ionian Islands a British pro- tectorate. Then, as the nineteenth century progressed, the Christian peoples of the Balkans, stirred by the same enthu- siasm for nationality which had moved Italians, Germans, Belgians, Poles, and Bohemians, threw off the Ottoman yoke and declared for freedom. The dismemberment of Turkey began. The warlike inhabitants of Montenegro never fully accepted Ottoman sovereignty. A corner of the "Black _, J Montenegro Mountain" country held out for four hundred years against the Turks. The independence of Montenegro as 1 See page 308. 532 The Continental Countries a principality was finally recognized by the sultan in 1799. In 1 9 10 it became a kingdom. The Serbians have a memorable history. In the fourteenth century one of their rulers, Stephen Dushan, built up an empire „ . '. which covered nearly the entire Balkan Peninsula. Serbia J It was Dushan's ambition to unite Serbians, Greeks, and Bulgarians, and by their union to prevent the Ottoman power from taking root in southeastern Europe. His empire collapsed as a result of the battle of Kossovo (1389), and for the next four hundred years Serbia lay under the heel of the Turk. All this time its people never forgot their glorious past. The exploits of Dushan and other national heroes were handed down by minstrels, who kept alive the memory of the days when Serbia held first place in the Balkans. After two revolts early in the nineteenth century the country received self-govern- ment as a principality. It became a kingdom in 1882. The Greeks had not been a free people since their conquest by the Romans in the second century B.C. Byzantines, crusad- ing Franks, and Venetians occupied Greece during medieval times. By the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury the entire country came under the Turks, whose dominion endured until the nineteenth century had run one-quarter of its course. The French Revolution awakened the longing of the Greeks for independence, and in 1821 they raised the stand- ard of revolt. Volunteers from every European country, as well as a few Americans, came to help them. The powers at first stood coldly by, for Metternich, the presiding genius of the Concert of Europe, considered the Greeks simply rebels against "legitimate" Ottoman authority. As the struggle proceeded and the Greeks seemed likely to be overwhelmed, public opinion in Great Britain and France increasingly favored intervention, and the accession of Nicholas I brought to the throne a tsar ready to follow the traditional Russian policy toward the Turks. The three powers finally took decisive action. An allied fleet destroyed the Turkish navy at Navarino, a French army drove the Turks out of the Morea, and the Rus- sians, crossing the Balkans, moved upon Constantinople. The The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 533 sultan had to yield, and in 1829 signed a treaty which granted complete independence to central and southern Greece. The kingdom of Greece, as originally established, com- prised only a small part of ancient Hellas. More than half of the Greek people remained under Turkish rule, p an _ distributed in Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, Hellenism the Ionian Islands, the islands of the JEgean, Crete, Cyprus, and the western coast of Asia Minor (the classic Ionia ) . A Pan- Hellenic movement soon began to recover as much as possible of these regions from the Turks. Great Britain fostered it by ceding the Ionian Islands, and also by inducing the sultan to relin- quish Thessaly. The Balkan Wars of 19 1 2- 19 13, which will be described presently, gave Greece southern Epirus, a valuable part of Macedonia, Crete, and many smaller islands. When the World War broke out and Turkey sided with the Central Powers, it was the hope of the Greek premier, Venizelos, that Greece might now completely realize her Pan-Hellenic ambitions by entering the struggle on the side of the Allies. Twenty-five years after the winning of Greek freedom, Nicholas I, who often spoke of the sultan as the "sick man" of Europe and of his approaching funeral, reopened the Eastern " What Nicholas Heard in the Shell " A cartoon by Sir John Tenniel which appeared in the English journal Punch for June 10, 1854. The tsar is shown holding a bombshell to his ear and, as he listens to it (as children do to sea shells), having a vision of armed men. 534 The Continental Countries Question by invading Turkey. The result was the Crimean War. The Turks did not fight alone. Great Britain supported Crimean War, them because of the fear that the downfall of the 1854-1856 Ottoman Empire would be followed by Russian occupation of Constantinople and Russian control of the eastern Mediterranean, thus menacing British communications with India. France joined Great Britain, principally because the adventurous Napoleon III, who had recently become emperor, wished to pay off the grudges against Russia which Napoleon I had ac- cumulated. 1 Count Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II added the Sardinian kingdom to the alliance, in order to further their plans for the uni- fication of Italy. 2 The Rus- sians fought alone, for both Austria and Prussia preserved neutrality. The war was mainly confined to the Crimea, where the allies sought to capture Sevastopol, Russia's naval base on the Black Sea. Florence Nightingale After its fall Russia withdrew Miss Florence Nightingale (1820-1010) did from the unequal contest. remarkable work during the Crimean War for The Deace treatv Save a the relief of sick and wounded British soldiers. ' . u r\ To her self-sacrificing labors are also due many new lease Of life tO the UttO- improvements in hospital management, sanita- T>reatv of man Empire. The tion, and the training of nurses. T> a ^o iorc 1 fans, .looo p 0wers guaranteed the integrity of the sultan's possessions, only exacting from him promises of freedom of worship and better government for his Christian subjects. The promises were never kept ; and the 1 See page 447. " See page 451. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 535 lot of Christians in Turkey became harder than ever. In their desire to keep Russia out of Constantinople, Great Britain and France thus abandoned the tradition, which had come down from the crusades, that the Turks were a barbarous people and the enemies of civilization. Turkey was to be treated henceforth as no longer outside the pale, but as a respectable member of the European family of nations. The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire recommenced soon after the Treaty of Paris. Turkey's principalities of Mol- davia and Walla chia had been semi-independent „ 1 Rumania under a Russian protectorate since 1829. They command the lower Danube, and their acquisition would have enabled Russia to control the navigation of the most important river of Europe. Consequently, the diplomats at Paris con- verted Moldavia and Wallachia into self-governing states, with Turkey as their nominal overlord. The Rumanians, who inhabit both principalities, desired, however, to form a united nation. The powers and the sultan gave a grudging consent, and the new state of Rumania came into existence. Russia's desire to rescue the Christians of the Balkans from oppression and, incidentally, to take Constantinople, brought about another war between the two countries. r usso . Sufficient justification for it existed in the cruelty Turkish War, with which Turkish soldiers had suppressed an insurrection of the Bulgarians. This time western Europe re- mained neutral and watched the duel between Slav and Turk. Russian armies promptly crossed the Danube, only to be held up for months before the fortress of Plevna in Bulgaria. The Turks fought well, and their defense of Plevna is celebrated in military annals. Its fall allowed the tsar's troops to advance within sight of the Golden Horn. Here they paused, for both Great Britain and Austria-Hungary threatened hostilities, in case Russia occupied Constantinople. Russia and Turkey now made peace. By the treaty of San Stefano 1 the sultan agreed to the creation of a new state, Greater Bulgaria, stretching from the Danube to the iEgean 1 A suburb of Constantinople. 536 The Continental Countries and including nearly all Macedonia. Both Greece and Serbia protested vigorously against this arrangement, which upset their Treaty of own pl ans for expansion in the Balkans. Far more San stefano, serious was the opposition of the Western powers. Austria did not relish the idea of a strong Balkan state lying across her path to the Mediterranean, while Great Britain feared that Greater Bulgaria would be merely the will- ing tool of Russia. A general European conflict threatened, until the tsar agreed to submit the treaty to revision by an international congress to be held at Berlin, under Bismarck's presidency. The assembled diplomats attempted still another solution of the Eastern Question. The Treaty of Berlin recognized Monte- Treaty of negro, Serbia, and Rumania as sovereign states, Berlin, 1878 w h Hy independent of Turkey. That part of Bul- garia between the Danube and the Balkans became a self- governing principality under Turkish sovereignty. Bulgaria south of the Balkans — Eastern Rumelia — went back to the sultan, together with Macedonia. Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and administer the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Great Britain was given the right to hold the island of Cyprus. These arrangements having been made, the powers again solemnly guaranteed the " integrity" of the sul- tan's remaining possessions in Europe. The Ottoman Empire thus remained in Europe, a decadent empire propped up by Christian arms. Diplomacy did not bring peace to the Balkans. The inhabit- ants of Eastern Rumelia before long revolted against the Turks _ . and united with Bulgaria. The European powers protested against this infraction of the Berlin treaty, but took no measures to prevent the union of the two Bulgarian territories. Bulgaria remained tributary to the sultan until 1908. By that time she had grown strong enough to repudiate another clause of the Berlin treaty and to set up as an inde- pendent kingdom. Her ruler, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, then exchanged his princely dignity for the more pretentious title of tsar of the Bulgarians. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 537 The year 1908 saw also a revolution in the sultan's dominions. This was the work of the Young Turks, a group of patriotic reformers who aimed to revive and modernize the The Young Ottoman Empire. They won over the army and Turks carried through a sudden, almost bloodless, coup d'etat. The terrified sultan (Abdul Hamid II) had to issue a decree re- storing the constitution' granted by him at his accession, but abrogated soon afterwards. His despotism, vanished, and the Ottoman Empire, with an elective parliament, a responsi- ble ministry, and a free press took a place among democratic states. It soon became evident, however, that the Young Turks were nationalists as well as democrats. They intended to weld together all the peoples of the Ottoman Empire ottoman- into a single nation, with Turkish as the favored lzatlon language and Islam the only privileged faith. Just as the Russian policy was one of Russification, so that of the Young Turks was one of Ottomanization. Cruel oppression and massacres of Christians in various parts of the empire followed, particularly in Macedonia. This Turkish province was peopled by Greeks, Serbians, and Bulgarians. Large numbers of them fled to their respective countries, carrying their grievances with them, and agitated for war against Turkey. The war soon came. Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Bul- garia, forgetting for the moment the jealousies which divided them, came together in a Balkan alliance, issued „,. ' First and to the sultan an ultimatum demanding self- Second Bal- government for Macedonia, and when this was ^"^"^ ° ' 1912-1913 refused, promptly began hostilities. They were everywhere successful, and Turkey was compelled to give up all her European dominions west of a line drawn from Enos on the ^gean Sea to Midia on the Black Sea. She likewise ceded Crete to Greece. The allies then proceeded to quarrel over the disposition of Macedonia. A second Balkan War resulted, with Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, and Turkey ranged against Bulgaria. Tsar Ferdinand could not cope with so many foes and sued for peace. 538 The Continental Countries European Governments Country Capital Ruler Parliament Albania . . . Durazzo Austria . . . Vienna President M. Hainisch Belgium . . . Brussels Albert H1909-) Senate and Chamber of Representa- tives Bulgaria . . . Sofia Boris III (1918-) National Assembly or Sobranje Czecho- Prague President T. G. Senate and Chamber of Deputies slovakia . . Masaryk Denmark . . . Copenhagen Christian X Rigsdad (Landsthing and Folkething) Esthonia . . . Reval (191 2—) Finland . . . Helsingfors President K. J. Stahlberg House of Representatives France . . . Paris President A. Millerand Senate and Chamber of Deputies Germany . . . Berlin President F. Ebert Bundesrat and Reichstag Great Britain London George V (1910-) House of Lords and House of Com- mons Greece . . . Athens Constantine I Bule (Council of State and Chamber of (1913-1917, Deputies) 1920-) Holland . . . The Hague Wilhelmina Estates-General (First Chamber and (1890-) Second Chamber) Hungary . . . Budapest Iceland . . . Reykjavik Christian X Althing (Upper House and Lower (1912-) House) Italy .... Rome Victor Emmanue III (1900-) Senate and Chamber of Deputies Jugoslavia . . Belgrade Alexander I National Assembly or Naroda Skup- (1919-) shtina Latvia. . . . Riga Lithuania . . Vilna President A. Smetona Norway . . . Christiania Haakon VII (1905-) Storthing (Lagthing and Odelsthing) Poland . . . Warsaw- President J. Pilsudski Parliament or Seym Portugal . . Lisbon President A. Almeida National Council and Second Chamber Rumania . . . Bukharest Ferdinand I Senate and Chamber of Deputies Russia. . . . Moscow (1914-) Spain .... Madrid Alfonso XIII (1886-) Cortes (Senate and Congress) Sweden . . . Stockholm Gustav V Diet (First Chamber and Second (1907-) Chamber) Switzerland Berne Standerat and Nationalrat Turkey . . . Constantinople Mohammed VI (1918-) Senate and Chamber of Deputies Ukrainia . . . Kiev The treaty signed at Bukharest completely altered the aspect of the Balkans. Bulgaria surrendered to Rumania districts The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 539 south of the Danube, and allowed Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia to annex most of Macedonia. These three states were now nearly doubled in size. The Turkish province Treaty of of Albania became an independent principality. Bukharest, Turkey, though ignored at the Peace Conference, escaped dismemberment and even secured an accession of terri- tory. The Treaty of Bukharest thus left the Turk in Europe, and by sowing seeds of enmity between Bulgaria and her sister states helped further to postpone a satisfactory solution of the Eastern Question. Studies 1. Contrast the circumstances under which the Third Republic came into exist- ence with those leading to the organization of the First and Second Republics. 2. Why may the French government be described as a "parliamentary republic"? 3. Compare the powers of the French and American presidents, respectively. 4. How does the party system of France differ from that of Great Britain? 5. Why is the pope called the "prisoner of the Vatican"? 6. How does Spain happen to have a Bourbon dynasty? 7. "The disappearance of the Spanish colonial empire is one of the most significant features of the nineteenth century." Comment on this statement. 8. When did Switzerland become a neutralized state? 9. Com- pare the Swiss referendum with the French plebiscite. 10. Compare the German Empire as a federation with the United States. 11. What was the historical origin of the free cities of the German Empire? 12. Explain the distinction between the titles " German Emperor" and "Emperor of Germany." 13. Why was the Reichstag described by its own members as merely a " hall of echoes"? 14. Why was Germany called the "political kindergarten of Europe"? 15. Why was the Austrian Em- pire called a "ramshackle empire"? 16. Why has Russia been called the "adopted child" of Europe? 17. Why was the character and personality of the tsars always an important factor in Russian history? 18. Comment on the tsar's title "Auto- crat of all the Russias." 19. What was meant by calling the Russian imperial government a "despotism tempered by assassination"? 20. Account for the slow progress of liberalism in Russia. 21. "The two forces that have constantly un- dermined the power of Turkey are religion and nationality." How does Turkish history during the last hundred years confirm this statement? 22. Mention three occasions in the nineteenth century when the Ottoman Empire seemed to be on the point of dissolution. 23. Why did Russia favor nationalism in the Balkans and oppose it in other parts of Europe? 24. Explain the strategic value of Constan- tinople. 25. Why has the Balkan Peninsula been called the "danger zone" of Europe? CHAPTER XVI COLONIAL EXPANSION AND WORLD POLITICS 1 141. Greater Europe Colonial expansion, begun by Spaniards and Portuguese in the sixteenth century and continued in the seventeenth and Expansion of eighteenth centuries by Russians, Dutch, French, Europe an( j Engijg]^ culminated during the past hundred- odd years. It is principally this movement which gives such significance to European history. The civilization of Europe, as affected by the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Revo- lution, has been spread throughout the world. The languages, literatures, religions, laws, and customs of Europe have been extended to almost all mankind. Great Britain in 1815 was the leading world power. France had been well-nigh eliminated as a colonial rival by the Seven Colonial Years' War, and Holland had lost valuable pos- empires sessions overseas in the revolutionary and Napo- leonic wars. The spectacle of the British Empire, so populous, so rich in natural resources, so far-flung, stirred the imagination and aroused the envy of the witnessing nations. They, also, became eager for possessions in savage or half-civilized lands. France, from the time of Louis Philippe, began to conquer northwestern Africa and Madagascar and to acquire territories in southeastern Asia. Italy and Germany, having attained nationhood, entered into the race for overseas dominions. Portugal and Spain annexed new colonies. Diminutive Bel- gium built up a colonial empire in Africa. Mighty Russia 1 Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 19, "Washington's Farewell Address, 1796"; No. 21, "Monroe Doctrine, 1823"; No. 23, "Durham Report, 1839"; No. 26, "Lincoln's First Inaugural Address, 1861 "; No. 27, "Gettysburg Address, 1863"; No. 30, "Roosevelt's Inaugural Address, 1905." 54° Greater Europe 541 spread out eastward over the whole of Siberia and, having reached the Pacific, moved southward toward the warmer waters of the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, the United States expanded across the American continent, acquired the Philip- pines and other dependencies, and stood forth at length as an imperial power. Few and unimportant were those regions of the world which remained unappropriated at the opening of the twentieth century. The word "imperialism" conveniently describes all this activity of the different nations in reaching out for colonial dependencies. Imperialism, of course, is not a r r r , Imperialism new phenomenon; empire building began almost at the dawn of history. We are concerned here only with its most recent aspects. Sometimes it leads to the declaration of a protectorate over a region, or, perhaps, to the marking off a sphere of influence where other powers agree not to interfere. Sometimes it goes no further than the securing of concessions in undeveloped countries such as Mexico, Brazil, or China. Most commonly, however, imperialism results in the complete annexation of a distant territory, with or without the consent of the inhabitants. The imperialistic ambitions of the great powers more than once led them to disregard the rights of weaker nations in Africa, Asia, and other parts of the world. Thus, im per i a ii sm Great Britain subdued the two Boer republics in and South Africa, Italy attempted to conquer the independent nation of Abyssinia, and Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia at one time threatened the integrity of China. It should be said, however, that in most cases colonial dependencies have been secured only at the expense of savage or semi-civilized peoples. Though there are many things to condemn in the conduct of the European powers toward their subjects, much improvement is to be observed within recent years. Great Britain, France, and other colonial states expend large sums annually in their dominions for roads, railways, schools, medical service, and humanitarian work of various sorts. 542 Colonial Expansion and World Politics It has been manifestly impossible for even the most demo- cratic of modern nations to grant self-government to their rude Imperialism an( ^ backward subjects. Where the level of civili- and zation is higher, as in Egypt and India, the pre- emocracy vailing illiteracy of the inhabitants forms a great obstacle in the way of democracy. We have already noted, however, that Great Britain during the last century raised round herself a circle of self-governing daughters in Canada, Australia, and South Africa, and that France permits some of her colonies to send representatives to the French legislature. 1 Other in- stances of the bestowal of free institutions upon native peoples will be referred to as we proceed with the story of European expansion in Africa and Asia. 142. The Opening-up of Africa Speaking broadly, Africa consists of an elevated plateau with a fringe of unindented coastal plain. Penetration of the Physical interior was long delayed by mountain ranges Africa which approach close to the sea, by rapids and falls which hinder river navigation, by the barrier of dense forests and extensive deserts, and by the unhealthiness of the climate in many regions. Though lying almost in sight of Europe, Africa remained until our own time the "Dark Continent." Many different peoples have found a home in Africa. All the northern part of the continent is occupied by the White Racial Race, divided into the three great groups of Africa Semites (Arabs), Eastern Hamites, and Western Hamites, or Libyans. The Black Race since prehistoric times has held the rest of the continent. The true negroes are con- fined to the Sudan and adjacent parts. Some negroes in the course of time blended more or less with Hamites, giving rise to the Bantu-speaking peoples, who dwell chiefly south of the equator. To these elements of the native population must be added the curious Pygmies of the equatorial districts, together with the Hottentots and Bushmen in the extreme south. 1 See pages 494 and 504 The Opening-up of Africa 543 Little more than the Mediterranean shore of Africa was known in antiquity. Here were Egypt, the first home of civilization, and Carthage, Rome's most formidable rival for supremacy. During the earlier Middle Ages all North Africa fell under Arab domination. Arab missionaries, warriors, and 544 Colonial Expansion and World Politics slave-hunters also spread along the eastern coast and estab- lished trading posts as far south as the mouth of the Zambesi River. The vast extent of the continent was Africa until the nine- first revealed to Europeans by the Portuguese teenth cen- discoveries in the second half of the fifteenth tury century. 1 Except for the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope, Europeans, however, did not try to settle in Africa. Nothing tempted them to do so. The shores of the continent were plague-ridden, and its interior was supposed to consist of barren deserts or of impenetrable forests. Maps of Africa a hundred years ago show the interior decorated with pic- tures of the hippopotamus, the elephant, and the negro, to conceal the ignorance of geogra- phers. The penetration of Africa has been mainly accomplished by The Niger following the course of its four great rivers. In the last decade of the eighteenth century the British African Association, then recently founded, sent Mungo Park to the Niger. He and his immediate successors explored the basin of that river and revealed the existence of the mysterious city of Timbuktu, an Arab capital never previously visited by Europeans. The determination of the sources of the Nile — a problem which had interested the an- cients — met with success shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century. Captain Speke first saw the waters of the lake which he named Victoria Nyanza, in honor of England's queen, and Sir Samuel Baker found the smaller lake called by him Albert Nyanza, in honor of the Prince Consort. The dis- covery of snow-clad mountains in this part of Africa confirmed 1 See page 251. and the Nile basins David Livingstone The Opening-up of Africa 545 what Greek geographers had taught regarding the "Mountains of the Moon." Meanwhile, an intrepid Scotch missionary and explorer, David Livingstone, had traced the course of the Zambesi. 546 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Starting from the Cape, he worked his way northward, found the wonderful Victoria Falls, and crossed the continent from Basins of the sea to sea - Livingstone's work was carried further Zambesi and by Henry M. Stanley, a newspaper correspond- ent who became one of the eminent explorers of modern times. He discovered Lake Albert Edward Nyanza, showed that Lake Tanganyika drained into the Congo, and followed that mighty stream all the way to its mouth. Stan- ley's fascinating narra- tives of his travels did much to arouse Euro- pean interest in Africa. Mission work in Af- rica went hand in hand African with geograph- missions \ ca \ discovery. Not a great deal has been accomplished in North Africa, where Is- lam is supreme from Morocco to Egypt and from the Mediterra- nean to io° north of the equator. Abyssinia, the negro republic of Libe- ria, and South Africa, as far as it is white, are entirely Chris- tian. The accompanying map shows how mission stations, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, have been planted throughout the broad belt of heathenism in Central Africa. a Iff- Vfj r 1 Henry M. Stanley After a photograph taken in iS 143. The Partition of Africa The division of Africa among European powers followed promptly upon its exploration. Spain, Portugal, Belgium, The Spanish Germany, Italy, France, and Great Britain all and Portu- profited by the scramble for African territory, guese in . , , , . ..... n , , . Africa particularly during the 'eighties and the nineties of the last century. The Spanish possessions are small, The Partition of Africa 547 compared with those of the other powers, and, except for the northern coast of Morocco, not of great importance. Por- tugal, however, controls the two valuable regions of Angola and Mozambique. The Congo basin, in the heart of the Dark Continent, is controlled by Belgium. The area of the Belgian The Belgians Congo has now been considerably increased by m Afnca the acquisition of former German territories. Soon after Germany attained national unity, she made her appearance among colonial powers. Treaties with the native chiefs and arbitrary annexations resulted in the The Germans acquisition of extensive regions in Southwest in Afnca Africa, East Africa, the Cameroons, and Togo. They were all conquered by the Allies during the World War. Italy was another late-comer on the African scene. She secured Eritrea on the Red Sea and Italian Somaliland. An Italian attempt to annex Abyssinia ended, dis- The Italians astrously, and the ancient Abyssinian "empire" in Africa still remains independent. Italy's most important African colony is Libya, conquered from Turkey in 1911-1912. It says much for the liberal principles underlying Italian colonial policy that a constitution has recently been granted to the Libyans. The beginnings of French dominion in Africa reach back to the seventeenth century, when Louis XIV began to acquire trading posts along the western coast and in The French Madagascar. It was not until the nineteenth m Afnca century, however, that the French entered seriously upon the work of colonization. France now holds Algeria, the conquest of which began in 1830; Tunis, taken from Turkey in 1881 ; most of Morocco, a protectorate since 191 2 ; the valleys of the Senegal and Upper Niger ; part of the Guinea coast ; French Somaliland ; and the island ot Madagascar. A glance at the map shows that the African possessions of France exceed in area those of any other power, but they include the Sahara Desert. Great Britain has secured, if not the lion's share, at any rate the most valuable share of Africa. Besides extensive posses- sions on the Guinea coast, she holds a solid block of territory 548 Colonial Expansion and World Politics all the way from the Cape of Good Hope to Egypt. Cape Colony was captured from the Dutch during the Napoleonic The British wars. The Dutch farmers, or Boers, did not take in South kindly to British rule. Many of them, with their families and flocks, moved from Cape Colony into the unknown country beyond. This wholesale emigration resulted in the formation of the Boer republics of Natal, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. Natal was soon annexed by Great Britain, but the other two republics remained independent. The discovery of the world's richest gold mines in the Trans- vaal led to a large influx of Englishmen, who, since they paid taxes, demanded a share in the government. The champion of British interests was Cecil Rhodes, an Oxford student who j*^ found riches in the Kimberley % diamond fields and rose to be prime minister of Cape Colony. The Dutch settlers, under the lead of President Kruger of the Transvaal, were just as deter- mined to keep the government in their own hands. Disputes between the two peoples culminated in the South African War (1899-1902), in which the Boers were overcome by sheer weight of numbers. The war had a happy outcome. Great Britain showed a wise liberality toward her former foes and granted them self- Union of government. Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free South Africa, State, and the Transvaal soon came together in 1909-1910 the Union of South Africa> The union has a governor-general appointed by the British Crown, a common parliament, and a responsible ministry. Cape Town and Pretoria are the two capitals, and both English and Dutch are official languages. LLGEmAJjTT i r/z ) 7 %• \^\< ?! 'T S V. TriDoli |oroc£o,^ TugRUrt \ \ 5>^Xn S /lorocco } . bfe v..T/ V_ n t I tit .■;./•.•'.•' \i/ TRIPOLITANIA V CANARY IS.^ Ifn j/",,„daB^" ^ .:/ " .*V.-'iv • 1 LIB ' Good Hope The Partition of Africa 549 The Union may ultimately include other British possessions in Africa. Great Britain asserts a protectorate over Bechuana- land, which is still very sparsely settled by Euro- The British peans. She also controls the imperial domain m East Afnca acquired by Cecil Rhodes and called after him Rhodesia. During the World War loyal Boers conquered German South- west Africa and cooperated with the British in the conquest of German East Africa. Great Britain has still other territories in this part of the Dark Continent. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, comprising the region of the Upper Nile, was secured in the last decade of the nineteenth century, as the result of General Kitchener's victorious campaigns. The Egyptians have been subject to foreigners for over twenty-four hundred years. The Persians came to Egypt in the sixth centurv B.C. : then the Macedonians ,, Egypt under Alexander the Great ; then the Romans under Julius Caesar ; and subsequently the Arabs and the Ottoman Turks. Turkish sultans controlled the country until the early part of the nineteenth century, when an able pasha made himself almost an independent sovereign. After 1882 Egypt was ruled by Great Britain. Once established in Egypt, the British began to make it over. They restored order, puri- fied the courts, levied taxes fairly, reorganized the finances, paid the public debt, abolished forced labor, and took measures to improve sanitary conditions. British engineers built a rail- road along the Nile, together with the famous Assuan Dam and other irrigation works which reclaimed millions of acres from the desert. For the first time in centuries, the peasants were assured of peace, justice, and an opportunity to make a decent living. Nevertheless, economic prosperity did not reconcile the people to foreign rule. In 1920, after much agitation and revolutionary outbreaks, Great Britain finally conceded the independence of Egypt. The British, however, retain control of the foreign relations of that country. The strategic importance of Egypt as the doorway to Africa will be much increased by the completion of the Cape-to-Cairo Railway. This transcontinental line starts from Cape Town, 550 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Cairo Railway Suez Canal crosses Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, and will ultimately link up with the railway already in operation between Khartum, Cape-to- Cairo, and Alexandria on the Mediterranean. The unfinished part is mainly in the Congo region. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway owes its inspiration to Cecil Rhodes, who dreamed of an "all-red" route across Africa, and then with characteristic pluck and energy set out to make his dream come true. The completion of the Suez Canal has likewise put Egypt on the main oceanic highway to the Far East. The canal is a monument to the great French engineer, Ferdi- nand de Lesseps. It was opened to traffic in 1869. The money for the undertaking came chiefly from European in- vestors. Great Britain possesses a controlling interest in the enterprise. The canal, how- ever, may be freely used by the ships of all nations. More than half of the voyages from Europe to the Far East are now made through the canal rather than round the Cape of Good Hope. MmiWKfiWPii, Count Ferdinand de Lesseps 144. The Opening-up and Partition of Asia The Europeanization of Asia was not far advanced at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Europe knew only Europe and Siberia, which Russia had appropriated, and those Asia parts of India which had been annexed by Great Britain. All western Asia belonged to the Ottoman Empire and remained unaffected by European influence. On the eastern side of the continent lay China and Japan, old and civilized but stagnant countries, whose backs were turned upon the rest The Opening-up and Partition of Asia 551 of the world. Within the past hundred years, however, Euro- pean traders, missionaries, and soldiers have broken through the barriers raised by Oriental' peoples,- and now almost the whole of Asia is either politically or economically dependent upon Europe. The Russians were established throughout Siberia before the close of the seventeenth century. Their advance over this enormous but thinly peopled region was facilitated Russia in by its magnificent rivers, which furnished high- northern Asia ways for explorers and fur traders. Northern Siberia is a waste of swamp and tundra, where the terrible climate blocks the mouths of the streams with ice and even in summer keeps the ground frozen beneath the surface. Farther south comes a great belt of forest, the finest timbered area still intact on the face of the earth, and still farther south extend treeless steppes adapted in part to agriculture and in part to herding. The country also contains much mineral wealth. In order to secure an outlet for Siberian products, Russia compelled China to cede the lower Amur Valley with the adjoining seacoast. The Russians in their newly acquired territory founded Vladivostok as a naval base. Vladivostok is also the eastern terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The western terminus is Petrograd, three thousand miles distant. The railway was completed in The x rans . iooo by the imperial government, partly to facili- Siberian ., . . .,., Railway tate the movement of troops and military sup- plies in Siberia and partly to develop that region as a home for Russian emigrants and a market for Russian manufactures. A branch line extends to Port Arthur, which, unlike Vladivostok, is an ice-free harbor on the Pacific. Russia also widened her boundaries in central Asia by absorb- ing Turkestan east of the Caspian and south of Lake Balkash and the Aral Sea. Alarmed by the steady progress Russia and southward of the Russian colossus, Great Britain Great Britain began to extend the northern and northwestern £ si " ntral frontiers of India, in order to secure a mountain barrier for her Indian possessions. Half a century of feverish 552 Colonial Expansion and World Politics fears and restless advances on both sides was ended by the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. It dealt with Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. The Persian kingdom became a buffer state between Russia and Great Britain. The northern part of Persia was recog- „ . nized as a Russian sphere of influence, the southern Persia . ^ > part as a British sphere, and the central part as a neutral zone where the two powers pledged themselves not to interfere except by mutual consent. The unsettled conditions arising out of the World War enabled Persia to rid herself of Russian control. With Great Britain she has concluded a new agreement, by which the former power guarantees the security of the Persian frontiers and promises assistance in developing Persian trade and industries. The kingdom of Afghanistan also became a buffer state. Great Britain engaged not to annex any of its territory, while .. . . , Russia, on her side, agreed to regard it as within Afghanistan ; ' ° ° the British sphere of influence and under British protection. Though a very mountainous region, Afghanistan contains numerous passes, over which in historic times con- quering peoples have repeatedly descended into India. The Chinese dependency of Tibet was little known until a few years ago, when a British military expedition penetrated _.. , to the sacred city of Lhasa and obtained conces- Tibet ,.i -i sions for trade within the country. Russia also professed to be interested in Tibet. By the Anglo-Russian Con- vention both nations promised to respect its territorial integrity and not to interfere with Chinese sovereignty over the country. Indo-China, except for the nominally independent state of Siam, is now under British and French control. Great „ . . Britain holds Burma and the Straits Settlements. Great Britain and France in France holds Tonkin, Anam, Laos, Cambodia, southeastern an( ^ Cochin-China. All these possessions have Asia c been acquired at the expense of China, which formerly exercised a vague sovereignty over southeastern Asia. Siam occupies a position comparable to that of Persia. By an agreement between Great Britain and France in 1896, the India 553 country was divided into three zones: the eastern to be the French sphere of influence; the western to be the British sphere of influence ; and the central to be neutral. „. Siam It will be thus seen that a belt of protected or neu- tral states — Afghanistan, Persia, Tibet, and Siam — separates the possessions of Russia and France in Asia from those of Great Britain and forms the real frontier of India. 145. India British expansion in India, begun by Clive during the Seven Years' War, 1 has proceeded scarcely without interruption to the present day. The conquest of India was Conquest almost inevitable. Sometimes the Indian princes of India attacked the British settlements and had to be overcome; sometimes the lawless condition of their dominions led to inter- vention; sometimes, again, the need of finding defensible frontiers resulted in annexations. The entire peninsula, cover- ing an area half as large as the United States, is now under the Union Jack. The East India Company continued to govern India until after the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1857 came the Sepoy Mutiny, a sudden uprising of the native Government soldiers in the northern part of the country. of India The mutiny disclosed the weakness of company rule and at once led to the transfer of all governmental functions to the Crown. Queen Victoria subsequently assumed the title, Empress of India. A viceroy, whose seat is the old Mogul capital Delhi, and the officials of the Indian Civil Service ad- minister the affairs of about two-thirds of the country. The remainder is ruled by native princes under British control. The fact that a handful of foreigners has been able to subdue and keep in subjection more than three hundred million Indian peoples is sufficiently explained by their disunion. Peoples of There are many racial types, speaking upwards of India fifty distinct languages. The Aryan Hindus dwell in the river valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. Southern India belongs 1 See page 327. 554 Colonial Expansion and World Politics chiefly to the dark-skinned Dravidians, who speak non-Aryan tongues and probably represent the aboriginal inhabitants of the peninsula. The slopes of the Himalayas are occupied by the descendants of Turkish (Mogul) and other invaders. On the northeast, reaching down into Burma, are Mongolian peoples allied to the Chinese. All these elements, however, have become inextricably mingled, and their representatives are found in every province and native state. ^w/im r *-w>- "The Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger" A cartoon by Sir John Tenniel which appeared in the English journal Punch for August 22, 1857. , Religion likewise acts as a divisive force. The Hindus accept Brahmanism, a name derived from Brahma, the Supreme Religions Being or First Cause. In its original form, three of India thousand years ago, Brahmanism appears to have been an elevated faith, but it has now so far declined that its adherents generally worship a multitude of gods, venerate idols, revere the cow as a sacred animal, and indulge in many debasing rites. The Dravidians are only nominal Brahmanists ; their real worship is that of countless village deities. Islam prevails especially in the northern fringe of provinces, but Moslem missionaries have penetrated almost every part of the country. Buddhism, which arose out of the teaching of the great religious reformer, Gautama Buddha (about 568-488 ^* O A , 8 U A I «* China 555 B.C.), is now practically extinct in the land of its birth, though Ceylon and Burma are strongholds of this ancient faith. 1 Nor are the Hindus themselves united. The all-pervading caste system splits them up into several thousand distinct groups, headed by the Brahmans or priests. The caste Members of a given caste may not marry outside s y stem it ; may not eat with any one who does not belong to it ; and may not do work of any sort unrecognized by it. Caste, in fact, regulates a man's actions from the cradle to the grave. It has lasted in India for ages. The spread of European civilization in India promises to remove, or at least to lower, the barriers of race, religion, and caste. Great Britain enforces peace throughout Indian the peninsula, builds railways and canals linking nationalism every part of it together, stamps out the famines and plagues which used to decimate the inhabitants, and has begun their education in schools of many grades. All this tends to foster a sense of nationality, something hitherto lacking in India. Educated Hindus, familiar with the national and democratic movements in Europe, now demand self-government for their own country. This may come in time, but a united Indian nation must necessarily be of slow development. 146. China Between Russian Asia and British and French Asia lies China, with a larger area than Europe and probably quite as populous. China proper consists of eighteen „. . .,',., China proper provinces in the fertile valleys of the Yangtse and the Hoangho, or Yellow River. The great length of the country accounts for the variety of its productions, which range from hardy grains in the north to camphor and mulberry trees, tea, and cotton in the south. The mineral wealth includes deposits of copper, tin, lead, and iron, much oil, and coal fields said to be the most extensive in the world. The traditions of the Chinese throw no light on their origin. They probably developed out of the Mongolian stock inhabiting 1 See the map on page 556. 556 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Expansion of Buddhism China proper. In the course of centuries they pushed into Th _, . Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan (Sin- kiang), Tibet, Indo-China, and Korea, until the greater part of eastern Asia came under Chinese influence. The Chinese boast a civilization already old when Rome was young. They are famous for artistic work in wood and metal, Chinese the manufacture of silk, and the production of civilization porcelain or chinaware. Rudimentary forms of such inventions as the compass, gunpowder, paper, and movable type were early known to them. Their cumbrous, non alpha- betic writing, used for thousands of years, is now to be super- seded by a phonetic script of thirty-nine characters. The government of China, until recently, had always been a monarchy. The emperor, in theory absolute, was really China 557 under the thumb of the office-holding or mandarin class, which took the place of a hereditary nobility. Any one, high or low, could enter its ranks by passing a rigid examination in the sacred books. These were in part collected and , society and edited by Confucius (551-478 B.C.), the reformer religion in who did so much to make reverence for ancestors and imitation of their ways the Chinaman's cardinal virtues. Confucianism is a code of morals rather than a religion. It has not supplanted among uneducated people a lively belief in The Great Wall of Chlna The wall was begun in 214 B.C. to protect the northern frontier of China from the inroads of Tatar tribes, and was gradually extended until it reached a length of 1500 miles. It consists of two ramparts of brick, resting upon granite foundations. The space within is filled with stones and earth. The breadth of the wall is about 25 feet; its height is between 20 and 30 feet. Watch towers, 40 feet high, occur every 200 yards. In places of strategic importance there are sometimes as many as five huge loops, with miles of country between, so that if one loop were captured the next might still be defended. Many parts of this colossal fortification are even now in good repair. many spirits, good and bad. Buddhism has spread so widely over China and the adjoining countries that to-day it forms the creed of about one-third of mankind. Christianity and Islam are also making some headway in China. The rugged mountains and trackless deserts which bound three sides of China long shut it off from much isolation of intercourse with the western world. The proud China disposition of its people, to whom foreigners were only bar- 558 Colonial Expansion and World Politics barians ("foreign devils"), likewise tended to keep them iso- lated. Before the nineteenth century the only Europeans who gained an entrance into the "Celestial Empire" were a few missionaries and traders. The merchants of Portugal estab- lished themselves at Macao, and those of Holland and Great Britain at Canton. There was some traffic overland between Russia and China. Foreign trade, however, had no attraction for the Chinese, who discouraged it as far as possible. The difficulties experienced by merchants in China led at length to hostilities between that country and Great Britain. Foreign The British, with their modern fleet and army, aggression j^ an eaS y v j c tory and in 1842 compelled the Chinese government to open additional ports and cede the island of Hongkong. Other nations now hastened to secure commercial concessions in China. Many more ports were opened to foreign merchants, Europeans were granted the right to travel in China, and Christian missionaries were to be protected in their work among the inhabitants. But all this made little impression upon perhaps the most conservative people in the world. The Chinese remained absolutely hostile to the western civilization so rudely thrust upon them. Foreign aggression soon took the form of annexations in outlying portions of Chinese territory. We have seen how Great Britain appropriated Burma ; France, Indo- Annexations rr r China; and Russia, the Amur district. Mean- while, Japan, just beginning her national expansion, looked en- viously across the sea to Korea, a tributary kingdom of China. The Chino- Japanese War (1 894-1 895) followed. Completely defeated, the Chinese had not only to renounce all claim to Korea, but also to surrender to Japan the island of Formosa and the extreme southern part of Manchuria, including the coveted Port Arthur. At this juncture of affairs Russia, Germany, and France intervened and induced the Japanese to accept a money indemnity in lieu of territorial acquisitions on the mainland. The coalition then seized several Chinese harbors 1 1 1 Russia took Port Arthur ; Germany, Kiauchau ; and France, Kwangchauwan. Great Britain also acquired Weihaiwei. China 559 and divided much of the country into spheres of influence. The partition of China seemed at hand. But Europe was not to have its own way in China. A secret society called the "Boxers," whose members claimed to be in- vulnerable, spread rapidly through the provinces The and urged war to the death against the "foreign "Boxers," devils." Encouraged by the empress-dowager, Tze-hsi, who was regent of China for nearly forty years, the "Boxers" murdered many traders and missionaries. s The foreigners in Peking took refuge within the legations, where after a desperate de- fense they were finally re- lieved by an international army composed of European, Japanese, and American troops. The allies then made peace with China and prom- ised henceforth to respect her territory. They insisted, however, on the payment of a large indemnity for the out- rages committed during the anti-foreign outbreak. Events now moved rapidly. Educated Chinese, many of whom had studied abroad, saw clearly that their coun- try must adopt The Chinese western ideas Revolution, 1912 and methods, if it was to remain a great power. The demand for thorough reforms in the government soon became a revo- lutionary propaganda, directed against the unprogressive Manchu (or Manchurian) dynasty, which had ruled China for nearly three hundred years. The youthful emperor finally Empress-Dowager of China A portrait by a Chinese artist. The empress is represented as a goddess of mercy. She stands upon a lotus petal floating on the waves of the sea. 560 Colonial Expansion and World Politics abdicated, and the oldest empire in the world became a republic. This sudden awakening of China from her sleep of centuries is a prodigious event in world history. Already China possesses many thousands of miles of railroads and telegraph the^ccident l mes > besides numerous factories, mills, and mines equipped with machinery. She has begun the cre- ation of a modern army. She has abolished long-established customs, such as the torture of criminals and the foot-binding of women. She has prohibited the consumption of opium, a vice which sapped the vitality of her people. Her temples have been turned into schools teaching the sciences and foreign languages, and her students have been sent in large numbers to foreign universities. Such reforms promise to bring China into the fellowship of Occidental nations. 147. Japan Nippon ("Rising Sun") is the name which the inhabitants give to the six large islands and about four thousand smaller The Japanese ones stretching crescent-like off the coast of eastern Archipelago Asia. Because of its generally mountainous char- acter, little more than one-eighth of the archipelago can be cultivated. Rice and tea form the principal crops, but fruit trees of every kind known to temperate climates flourish, and flowers bloom luxuriantly. The deep inlets of the coast pro- vide convenient harbors, and the numerous rivers, though neither large nor long, supply an abundance of water. Below the surface lie considerable deposits of coal and metals. The Japanese are descended mainly from Koreans and Chinese, who displaced the original inhabitants of the archi- The Japanese pelago. The immigrants appear to have reached people Japan in the early centuries of the Christian era. Except for their shorter stature, the Japanese closely resemble the Chinese in physique and personal appearance. They are, however, more quick-witted and receptive to new ideas than their neighbors on the mainland. Other qualities possessed by the Japanese in a marked degree include obedience, the result the wo: I French Danish J Japanes XWERS J Belgian J Chinese Portuguese Spanish Hs^ef I 1 Russian Japan 561 of n "V centuries of autocratic government ; a martial spirit ; and ai. intense patriotism. "Thou shalt honor the gods and love thy country" is the first commandment of the national faith. The Japanese naturally patterned their civilization upon that of China. They adopted a simplified form of Chinese writing and took over the literature, learning, Japanese and art of the "Celestial Empire." The moral conization system of Confucius found ready acceptance in Japan, where it strengthened the reverence for parents and the worship of ancestors. Buddhism, introduced from China by way of Korea, brought new ideas of the nature of the soul, of heaven and hell, and of salvation by prayer. It is still the prevailing religion in Japan. Like the Chinese, also, the Japanese had an emperor (the mikado). He became in time only a puppet emperor, and another official (the shogun) usurped the chief functions of government. Neither ruler exerted much author- ity over the nobles (daimios), who oppressed their serfs and waged private warfare against one another very much as did their contemporaries, the feudal lords of medieval Europe. The first European visitors to Japan were Portuguese mer- chants and Jesuit missionaries, who came in the sixteenth century. The Japanese government welcomed European them at first, but the growing unpopularity of intercourse the foreigners before long resulted in their expul- W1 sion from the country. Japan continued to lead a hermit life until the middle of the nineteenth century. Foreign inter- course began in 1853-1854, with the arrival of an American fleet under Commodore M. C. Perry. He induced the shogun to sign a treaty which opened two Japanese ports to American ships. The diplomatic ice being thus broken, various European nations soon negotiated commercial treaties with Japan. Thoughtful Japanese, however great their dislike of foreign- ers, could not fail to recognize the superiority of the western nations in the arts of war and peace. A group The Japanese of reformers, including many prominent daimios, Revolutlon now carried through an almost bloodless revolution. As the 562 Colonial Expansion and World Politics first step, they compelled the shogun to resign his office, thus making the mikado 1 the actual as well as titular sovereign (1867). Most of the daimios then voluntarily surrendered their feudal privileges (187 1). This patriotic act made possible the abolition of serfdom and the formation of a national army on the basis of compulsory military service. Japan subsequently secured a written constitution, with a parliament of two houses and a cabinet responsible to the mikado. He is guided in all important matters by a group of influential nobles, called the "Elder Statesmen," who form the real power behind the throne. The revolutionary movement affected almost every aspect of Japanese society. Codes of civil, commercial, and criminal European- ^ aw were drawn up to accord with those of west- ization of em Europe. Universities and public schools were established upon Occidental models. Railroads and steamship lines were multiplied. The abundant water power, good harbors, and cheap labor of Japan facilitated the introduction of European methods of manufacturing ; factories sprang up on every side ; and machine-made goods began to displace the artistic productions of handworkers. Japan thus became a modern industrial nation and a competitor of Europe for Asiatic trade. Once in possession of European arts, sciences, and industries, Japan entered upon a career of territorial expansion in eastern Expansion Asia. Her merchants and capitalists wanted of Japan opportunities for money-making abroad ; above all, her rapidly increasing population required new regions suitable for colonization beyond the narrow limits of the archi- pelago. As we have learned, the Chino- Japanese War (1894- 1895) brought Korea 2 under Japanese influence and added Formosa to the empire. Just ten years later Japan and Russia clashed over the disposition of Manchuria. The Russo-Japanese War (1904- 1 905) seemed a conflict between a giant and a pygmy, but the inequality of the Japanese in numbers and resources was 1 The youthful Mutsuhito, who reigned 1867-1012. 2 Known as Chosen since its formal annexation by Japan. Though new Japanese subjects, the Koreans continue to agitate for the restoration of their ancient kingdom- The Opening-up and Partition of Oceania 563 more than made up by their preparedness for the conflict, by their irresistible bravery, and by the strategic genius which their generals displayed. After much bloody fighting by land and sea, both sides accepted the suggestion of President Roose- velt to arrange terms of peace. The treaty, as signed at Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, recognized the claims of Japan in Korea, gave to Japan a lease of Port Arthur, and provided for the evacuation of Manchuria by both contestants. Russia also ceded to Japan the southern half of the island of Sakhalin. No indemnity was paid by either country. Even before the Russo-Japanese War Great Britain had recognized the new importance of Japan by concluding an offensive and defensive alliance with the "Island japan as a Empire." Each contracting party pledged itself world P° wer to come to the other's assistance, in case the possessions of either in eastern Asia and India were attacked by another state. After the Russo-Japanese War both France and Russia also entered into a friendly understanding with Japan for the preser- vation of peace in the Far East. 148. The Opening-up and Partition of Oceania The term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands. The continental group includes, in addition to the Japanese Archipelago and Formosa, \J C C & HI 9 the Philippines, the Malay Archipelago, Australia, and Tasmania. Many of these islands appear to have been connected at a remote period, and still more remotely to have been joined to the Asiatic mainland. The oceanic group in- cludes, besides New Zealand, a vast number of islands and islets either volcanic or coralline in formation. They fall into the three divisions named Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The natives of Oceania exhibit a wide variety of culture, ranging from the savage aborigines of Australia to the semi- civilized Filipinos, Malays, and Polynesians. The Oceanic first emigrants to the continental islands doubt- P e °P Ies less came from Asia and walked dryshod from one archipelago to another. On the other hand, the oceanic islands could only 564 Colonial Expansion and World Politics have been reached by water. Their inhabitants, at the time of European discovery, were remarkable navigators, who sailed up and down the Pacific and even ventured into the icy Antarc- tic. No evidence exists, however, that they even once sighted the coast of America. Magellan discovered the Philippines on his voyage of cir- cumnavigation in 1 52 1, and for more than three hundred and Spain in the fifty years they belonged to Spain. The conquest Philippines £ ^ e islands was essentially a peaceful mission- ary enterprise. Spanish friars accomplished a remarkable work in carrying Christianity to the natives. These converted Fili- pinos are the only large mass of Asiatics who have adopted the Christian religion in modern times. The United States, which took over the Philippines from Spain in 1898, adopted a liberal and enlightened policy toward Th D'td ^ e mna bitants. A constabulary or police force, States in made up of native soldiers and officered by white the Philip- men, was organized to maintain order. The agri- pines JO o cultural lands belonging to the friars were pur- chased for the benefit of the people. Hundreds of American school teachers were introduced to train Filipino teachers in English and modern methods of instruction. Large appropri- ations were made for roads, harbors, and other improvements. True to democratic traditions, the United States also set up a Filipino legislature, which at the present time is entirely elected by the natives. But home rule does not satisfy them; they want complete independence. The separation movement has gained ground rapidly since the World War, which stirred the nationalist longings of the Filipinos as of the Koreans, Hindus, and Egyptians. American public opinion seems to favor withdrawal from the islands, as soon as the inhabitants have clearly shown themselves capable of maintaining a stable gov- ernment. The possessions which Portugal acquired in the Malay Archi- pelago were seized by Holland in the seventeenth century. All the islands, except British Borneo, the Portuguese part of Timor, and the eastern half of New Guinea, belong to the Dutch. THE PACIFIC OCEAN ~2 BRITISH \^_ ~\ PORTUGUESE |j FRENCH ~2 JAPANESE 'J DUTCH | | AMERICAN Australia and New Zealand 565 They were transferred at the end of the eighteenth century from the Dutch East India Company to the royal government. The Dutch have met the usual difficulties of Europeans „ „ .. r Holland ruling subject peoples, but their authority seems in the to be now thoroughly established throughout the ]^ a !* y archipelago. The government is fairly enlightened, and considerable progress has been made in educating the natives and in raising their economic condition. Although Holland freely opens her possessions to traders of other nations, Dutch merchants continue to control the lucrative commerce of the islands. Geographical knowledge of the Pacific islands dates from Captain Cook's discoveries in the eighteenth century, but their partition among European powers has been com- pleted only in the twentieth century. Most of Micronesia, them have been annexed by Great Britain and * n ? Polynesia France. The United States controls Guam, part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands. The German possessions in the Pacific were surrendered to the Allies shortly after the opening of the World War. 149. Australia and New Zealand Australia deserves its rank as a separate continent. In area it equals three-fourths of Europe and one-third of North America. The characteristic features of Australian Australian geography are the slightly indented coast, the lack geography of navigable rivers communicating with the interior, the central desert, the absence of active volcanoes or snow-capped moun- tains, the generally level surface, and the low altitude. Australia is the most isolated of all inhabited continents, while the two large islands of New Zealand, twelve hundred miles to the southeast, are still more remote from the center of the world's activities. Much of Australia lies in the temperate zone and therefore offers a favorable field for white settlement. Captain Cook, on the first of his celebrated voyages, raised the British flag over the island continent. Colonization began with the founding 566 Colonial Expansion and World Politics of Sydney on the coast of New South Wales. For many years Australia served as a penal station, to which the British Settlement transported the convicts who had been previ- of Australia ous ly sent to America. More substantial colonists followed, especially after the introduction of sheep-farming and the discovery of gold in the nineteenth century. They settled chiefly on the eastern and southern coasts, where the climate is cool and there is plenty of water and rich pasture land. New South Wales, the original colony, had two daughter colonies, Victoria and Queensland. Two other colonies — South Australia and Western Australia — were The Austra- founded directly by emigrants from Great Britain, monwealth All these states, together with Tasmania, have 1900 now united into the Australian Commonwealth. This federation follows American models in its written constitution, its senate and house of representatives, and its high (or supreme) court. A governor-general, sent from England, represents the British Crown. The Common- wealth, however, is entirely self-governing, except in foreign affairs. Great Britain annexed New Zealand in 1839. Its temperate climate, abundant rainfall, and luxuriant vegetation soon at- The tracted settlers, who now number more than a Dominion of million. In 1907 New Zealand was raised from ew ea the rank of a colony to that of a dominion, thus taking a place beside South Africa, Australia, and Canada among the self-governing divisions of the British Empire. 150. Canada The population of Canada in 1763 was almost entirely French. After the American Revolution Canada received a large influx Upper and °* "Tories" from the Thirteen Colonies, 1 together Lower w ith numerous emigrants from Great Britain. The new settlers had so many quarrels with the French Canadians that Parliament passed an act dividing 1 See page 338. Canada 567 the country into Upper Canada for the British and Lower Canada for the French. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland remained separate provinces. When Great Britain, in retaliation for Napoleon's Continental System, issued the Orders in Council, 1 the United States, as the chief neutral, was also the chief sufferer. The War of injury to American trade, coupled with the quar- 1812 ~ 1814 rel over the impressment of seamen, provoked the second war with Great Britain. It seemed to furnish a good opportunity for the conquest of Canada, but British and French Canadians united in defense of their country and drove out the American armies. The treaty of peace left matters as they were before the war. A few years later the United States and Great Britain agreed to dismantle forts and reduce naval arma- ments on the waterways dividing American from Canadian territory. This agreement has been loyally observed on both sides for more than a century. The unfortified boundary from the Atlantic to the Pacific is an eloquent testimony to the good relations between Canada and the United States. Canada had done her duty to the British Empire during the War of 1812-1814, but she waited more than thirty years for her reward in the shape of self-government. The Durham Great Britain, after losing the Thirteen Colonies, Re P° rt - 1839 did not favor any measures which might result in Canadian independence as well. Finally, Parliament sent over a wise statesman, Lord Durham, to investigate the political discon- tent in Canada. Lord Durham in his Report urged that the only method of keeping distant colonies is to allow them to rule themselves. If the Canadians received freedom to manage their domestic affairs they would be more, and not less, loyal, for they would have fewer causes of complaint against the mother country. The Durham Report produced a lasting effect on British colonial policy. Not only did Great Britain grant parliamentary institutions and self-government to the Canadian provinces, but, as we have seen, she also bestowed the same privileges upon her Australasian and South African dominions. 1 See page 309. 568 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Another of Lord Durham's recommendations led to the union of Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec) . The Domin- " I n ^67 Ontario and Quebec formed with Nova ion of Scotia and New Brunswick the confederation known as the Dominion of Canada. It has a governor-general, representing the British sovereign, a senate whose members hold office for life, and an elective house of commons, to which the cabinet of ministers is responsible. Each Canadian province also maintains a parliament for local legislation. The distinguishing feature of the Canadian con- stitution is that all powers not definitely assigned by it to the provinces belong to the Dominion. Consequently, the ques- tion of "states' rights" can never be raised in Canada. The new Dominion expanded rapidly. It purchased from the Hudson Bay Company the extensive territories out of which Territorial the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and expansion Alberta have been created. British Columbia and Prince Edward Island soon came into the confederation. All the remainder of British North America, except Newfound- land, which still holds aloof, was annexed in 1878 to the Domin- ion of Canada. One government now holds sway over the whole region from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Circle. Equally rapid has been the development of the Dominion in wealth and population. The western provinces, formerly Economic left to roving Indian tribes and a few white traders, development are attracting numerous foreign immigrants. Two transcontinental railroads — the Canadian Pacific, com- pleted in 1886, and the more recent Canadian Northern — make accessible the agricultural resources of the Dominion, its forests, and its deposits of coal and minerals. Canada now ranks as the largest, richest, and most populous member of the British Empire. 151. Latin America The motives which led to Spanish colonization in America may be summed up in the three words "gospel, glory, and gold." Missionaries sought converts in the New World; Latin America 569 warriors sought conquests ; and adventurers sought wealth. Together, they created for Spain an empire greater in extent than any ever known before. After the middle of The the sixteenth century homeseekers also came to the Spanish colonies, but never in such numbers as to crowd out the Indian aborigines. Intermixture between the races soon became common, resulting in the half-breeds called ''mestizos." Although the white element remained dominant in public affairs, the racial foundation of most of Spanish America was and continues to be Indian. The fact is important, for the large proportion of imperfectly civilized Indians and half-breeds, together with the negroes who were soon introduced as slaves, operated to retard the progress of the Spanish colonies. Spain governed her American colonies for her own benefit. She crippled their trade by requiring the inhabitants to buy only Spanish goods and to sell only to Spaniards. The yoke She prohibited such colonial manufactures as of s P ain might compete with those at home. Furthermore, she filled all the offices in Church and State with Spaniards born in the mother country, to the exclusion of those born in the colonies (the Creoles) . This restrictive system made the colonists long for freedom, especially after they heard the stirring story of the revolutions which had created the United States and republican France. When Napoleon invaded Spain, forced the abdication of Ferdinand VII, and gave the crown to his own brother Joseph, 1 the colonists set up practically independent states throughout Spanish America. Ferdinand VII, who returned to his throne after Napoleon's overthrow, was a genuine Bourbon, incapable of learning anything or of forgetting anything. 2 His refusal Revolt to satisfy the demands of the colonists for equal a e ainst s P ain rights with the mother country precipitated the revolt against Spain. Its greatest hero is Simon de Bolivar, who, in addi- tion to freeing his native Venezuela, helped to free the countries now known as Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. One by one all the colonies in South America, together with Central |J See page 400. 2 See page 414. 570 Colonial Expansion and World Politics America and Mexico, threw off the Spanish yoke. The United States followed the movement with sympathetic eyes, and sent commissioners to establish commercial relations with the re- volting colonies. Great Britain also took an interest in their struggle for liberty and helped them with money, ships, and munitions of war. In 1826 the Spanish flag was finally lowered on the American conti- nents. The people of Brazil also severed the ties uniting them to the mother country. They Revolt set U P an against independ- Portugal , e n t em- pire in 1822, with Dom Pedro, the oldest son of the Portuguese king, as its first ruler. He abdicated nine years later, in favor of his infant son. Brazil prospered under the benevolent sway of the second Dom Pedro, who was the last monarch to occupy an American throne. A peaceful revolution in 1889 overthrew the imperial government and transformed Brazil into a republic. The revolts from Spain and Portugal produced seven in- dependent states in South America. These were subsequently The South increased to ten by the secession of Uruguay from American Brazil and the break-up of the Great Colombia, established by Bolivar, into the three states of Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia. All the South American republics possess constitutions and the forms of democracy. Frequent revolutions and civil wars characterized their history during most of the nineteenth century. Nothing else could have been looked for, considering that the masses of semi- Simon Bolivar A medallion by David d'Angers, 1832. Latin America 57i civilized Indians, half-breeds, and negroes lacked all polit- ical experience. They were easily swayed by ambitious politicians and generals, who often became dictators with well-nigh absolute power. But the South Americans have now served their apprenticeship to liberty. They are learning to rule themselves, and the several states seem to be entering upon a period of settled, orderly government. Erected in 1904 to commemorate the peaceful settlement of a boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile. The monument stands at an elevation of twelve thousand feet and above the tunnel on the Trans-Andean Railroad. The figure of the Christ, twenty-six feet high, was cast from bronze cannon. A tablet on the pedestal reads: "Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than the people of Argentina and Chile break the peace which they have sworn to maintain at the feet of Christ the Redeemer." The most prosperous, best governed, and by all odds the most important of South American states are Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. These states, it may be observed, are The precisely the ones which have received the greatest " A-B-C " amounts of foreign capital and the largest number powers of foreign immigrants. The three "A-B-C" powers — to use their popular designation — maintain very friendly relations 572 Colonial Expansion and World Politics and generally cooperate in furthering the interests of South America abroad. The Spanish dependencies in Central America declared their independence in 1 821, and two years later formed a federation. The Central ^ soon disintegrated into the five diminutive re- American publics of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, 1 Nic- aragua, and Costa Rica. Subsequent attempts to bring them together were unsuccessful until 192 1, when repre- sentatives of Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras signed a con- stitution creating the Federation of Central America. The ad- hesion of Costa Rica and possibly of Nicaragua is expected in the near future. The government of the new union is modeled to a large extent on that of the United States. Mexico also secured independence in 1821, only to enter upon a long period of disorder. Counting regencies, emperors, The presidents, triumvirates, dictators, and other Mexican rulers, the "republic" had as many administra- repu ic tions during the first half century of its existence as the colony had viceroys throughout the whole period of Spanish rule. Porfirio Diaz governed the country for many years, until an uprising in 191 1 compelled him to withdraw to Europe. Civil conflict between rival generals and their fol- lowers then ensued. It has now died down, leaving Alvaro Obregon as the recognized president. The problems before him are difficult. Mexico needs not only a stable government, but also land reforms which will raise the "peons " — mostly ignorant Indians — from their condition of practical serfdom on the estates of great proprietors to that of free men. Whether these problems will be solved remains to be seen. Most of the smaller West India islands are still held by Great Britain, France, and Holland. Haiti, once a French possession, The West declared its independence at the time of the Revolu- Indies ^ Qn anc j succe ssf ully resisted Napoleon's efforts at reconquest. The two negro republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo now divide the island between them. Cuba, thanks to American intervention during the Spanish-American War, 1 British Honduras is a Crown colony of Great Britain. The United States 573 also forms a republic. The United States took Porto Rico from Spain in 1898 and in 191 7 purchased from Denmark the three islands of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. Their acquisition reflects the increased importance of the West Indies to the American people. 152. The United States The expansion of the United States beyond the limits fixed by the Treaty of Paris in 1783 x began with the purchase of the Louisiana territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. This immense region, Louisiana originally claimed by France in virtue of La Salle's fano hase ' discoveries, had passed to Spain at the close of the Seven Years' War and had been reacquired for France by Na- poleon Bonaparte. The French emperor, about to renew his conflict with Great Britain, 2 realized that he could not defend Louisiana against the mistress of the seas. Rather than make a forced present of the country to Great Britain, he sold it to the United States for the paltry sum of $15,000,000. The possession of Louisiana gave the United States an out- let upon the Gulf of Mexico. This was greatly extended by the purchase of Florida from Spain in 181 9 and Acquisitions, the annexation of Texas in 1845. The settlement 1803 18 67 of the dispute of Great Britain as to the Oregon country, the Mexican Cession, and the Gadsden Purchase brought the United States to the Pacific. Every part of this western territory is now linked by transcontinental railroads with the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic-facing states. Alaska had been a Russian province since Bering's voyages in the eighteenth century. 3 Russia, however, never realized the value of her distant dependency and in 1867 Purchase of sold it to the United States for $7,200,000. Since Alaska - 18 67 then Americans have taken from Alaska in gold alone many times the original cost of the territory. Its resources in coal, lumber, agricultural land, and fisheries are also very great, though as yet little has been done to exploit them. 1 See page 339. 2 See page 395. 3 See page 344. 574 Colonial Expansion and World Politics In the last decade of the nineteenth century the United States began to secure possessions overseas. The Hawaiian Acquisitions, Islands, lying about two thousand miles off the 1867-1917 coast of California, were annexed in 1898. This action was taken at the request of the inhabitants. The same year saw the acquisition of the Philippines, Guam, and Porto Rico, as the result of the war with Spain. The Samoan island of Tutuila and the Danish West Indies (renamed the Virgin Islands) have also come into American hands. The United States, though not unwilling to obtain colonies in the New World, denies the right of any European nation to The Monroe acquire additional territory here. This policy Doctrine Q f "America for Americans" is known as the Mon- roe Doctrine. It was first formulated partly to stave off any attempt of the Old World monarchies, led by Metternich, to aid Spain in the reconquest of her colonies, and partly to pre- vent the further extension southward of the Russian province of Alaska. The interests of Great Britain in both these direc- tions coincided with those of the United States. Relying on the support of the British government, President Monroe sent his celebrated message to Congress (1823), in which he declared that the American continents were henceforth "not to be con- sidered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." x The solemn protest of the United States, backed by Great Britain, removed for a time the danger of European inter- „ , ference in America. During the Civil War, how- Enforcement ° ' of the ever, Napoleon III took advantage of our difficul- Monroe ^ es t0 senc j a F rencn army to Mexico. It conquered Doctrine J ... the country and set up the archduke Maximilian, brother of Francis Joseph I, as emperor. The United States protested vigorously, and after the close of the Civil War re- quired Napoleon III, under threat of hostilities, to withdraw his troops. The French Empire in Mexico then quickly col- lapsed. No further assaults on the Monroe Doctrine have occurred. 1 See page 423. The United States 575 The enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine makes it necessary for the United States not only to defend the Latin-American republics against foreign aggression, but also to p a n- intervene from time to time in their domestic Ameri canism affairs. Our warships and soldiers have been repeatedly sent =n ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN Relief Map of the Panama Canal to the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America for the purpose of protecting American and European citizens and their prop- erty from rioters or revolutionists. Though grateful to her 576 Colonial Expansion and World Politics mighty neighbor for help, Latin America has trembled lest our intervention to restore order might pass into downright con- quest. The benevolent purposes of this country are now being better understood. It has inaugurated a series of Pan-American conferences, composed of delegates from all the independent nations of the New World. With the assistance of the Latin- American republics, it has also established the Pan-American Union at Washington, which seeks to spread information about the resources and trade of the different countries and also to cultivate friendly relations between them. The coopera- tion of most of the Central American and South American nations with the United States, during the World War, cannot fail to strengthen the bonds between the republics of the New World. The idea of an artificial waterway at Panama or some other suitable point had been broached almost as soon as the Spanish Panama conquest of Central America and had been re- Canal peatedly discussed for more than three centuries. Nothing was done until 1881, when a French company, headed by De Lesseps, 1 began excavations at Panama. Extravagance and corruption characterized the management of the company from the start ; it went into bankruptcy before the work was half done. The United States in 1902 bought its property and rights for forty million dollars. Shortly afterwards, the secession of Panama from Colombia enabled the United States to obtain from the new republic occupation and control of a canal zone, ten miles wide, for the purposes of the canal. The work was completed in 1914. It is now open to the shipping of all nations, on the payment of moderate tolls. The Panama Canal is bound to exercise a profound effect upon the relations of North America and South America, because it so lessens the distance between the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific coasts of the New World. This means lower freight rates and im- provement in the passenger and mail service. Increased com- merce, travel, and communication will do much in the future to bring together and keep together the two Americas. 1 See page 550. 70° 80° ^y' o J^t V-" ^> ^^\^// BO % £,:m KM ?l/3 '''at ifeSL W 1 , I >-^B <-SSLV ' To Ontario ^IV 55 ^ 1 J" .' •£ jJ sSw* o o C- 1 a ciL n^ -J$S 1846 I V&EXIcfo ^%-dndepe^n, ife since J$21)\ \Mexico © , Ne^Orleans 4 Gw£/ o/ Mexico Charleston ' Bft HAUA \ V Key West • | °. ^_ _ -^^fic ° F c * ; - NORTH AMERICA ^'S^r i WEST ^! JAMAICA. pO<^ 5 .Vo^vJ>\>» Vl ^V Sea . ..... /» ^\ SINCE 1783 A. D. Scale of Miles AMERICA , iooo {Independent <.«*.*' -• since.lSZDcO* 3 British - Independent Countries J formerly French -. Independent Countries J formerly Spanish 'j French Dutch Ceded to United States by Great Britain. "by France by Spain by JMexico Under the names of the Canadian 5'™"* provinces, are the dates of their j by Denmark accession to the Dominion ] Acquired by U. S. by Discovery 110° Longitude 100° West from 90° Gre Close of Geographical Discovery 577 153. Close of Geographical Discovery Half the globe was still unmapped in 1800. Canada, Alaska, and the Louisiana territory were so little known that a geography published at this time omits any reference to the Unmapped Rocky Mountains. South America, though long re g ions - 180 ° settled by white men, continued to be largely unexplored. Scant information existed about the Pacific islands and Australia. Much of Asia remained sealed to Europeans. Accurate knowl- edge of Africa did not reach beyond the edges of that continent. The larger part of the Arctic realm had not yet been discovered, and the Antarctic realm had barely been touched. Discoveries and explorations during the nineteenth century carried forward the geographical conquest of the world. The great African rivers were traced to their sources Filling in in the heart of what had once been the " Dark Con- the ma P tinent." In Asia, the headwaters of the Indus and the Ganges were reached; the Himalayas measured and shown to be the loftiest of mountains; Tibet, the mysterious, penetrated; and the veil of darkness shrouding China, Korea, Indo-China, and other Asiatic countries lifted. Travelers penetrated the deserts of inner Australia and finally crossed the entire continent from south to north. The journeys of Alexander von Humboldt in the Amazon and Orinoco valleys (1799-1804) inaugurated the systematic exploration of South America, while those of Lewis and Clark (1 804-1 806) opened up the Louisiana territory. Still later, Alaska, the northern territories of Canada, and Labrador began to emerge from their obscurity. Even Green- land was crossed by Nansen, a Norwegian, and its coast was charted by Danish geographers and the American Peary. Voyages in search of the Northwest Passage l had already revealed the labyrinth of islands, peninsulas, and ice-bound channels north of the American continent. Many Arctic heroic but fruitless attempts had also been made exploration to reach the North Pole. Nansen in 1892-1895 utilized the 1 The Northwest Passage was first completely navigated by the Norwegian Amundsen between 1903 and 1906. 578 Colonial Expansion and World Politics ice drift to carry his ship, the Fram, across the polar sea. Find- ing that the drift would not take him to the pole, he left the Fram and with a single companion advanced to 86° 14' N., or within two hundred and seventy-two miles of the pole. An Italian expedition, a few years later, got still farther north. The honor of actually reaching the pole was carried off by Peary in 1909. He traveled the last stages of the journey by sledge over the ice and reached his goal in company with a colored servant and several Eskimos. Nansen's and Peary's journeys showed that no land exists in the north polar basin, only a sea of great but unknown depth. The south polar region, on the other hand, is a land mass of Antarctic continental dimen- exploration gions First ap _ proached by Cook on his second voyage, it has since been visited by many explorers. They have traced the course of the great ice barrier, discovered exten- sive mountain ranges, and even found two volcanoes belching forth lava amidst the snows. In 1 907-1 909 a British expedition under Sir Ernest Shackleton attained 88° 23' S., or within ninety-seven miles of the pole. Amundsen, who reached the pole in 191 1, was soon followed by Captain R. F. Scott, but this gallant Englishman and his four companions died of cold and starvation on the return journey. The records of polar exploration are, indeed, full of tragedies. Considerable spaces of the earth's surface still await scientific investigation. The Antarctic continent and Greenland offer Regions still many problems to geographers. The enormous unmapped basin of the Amazon is still little known. Practi- cally no knowledge exists of the interior of New Guinea, the largest of islands, if Australia be reckoned as a continent. Robert E. Peary 579 580 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Australia itself has not been completely explored. In Asia, there is still much information to be gained concerning the great central plateau, the Arctic coast, and inner Arabia. Equatorial Africa affords another promising field for discov- ery. It thus remains for the twentieth century to complete the geographical conquest of the world. Studies 1. "Europe to-day is no more than a portion of the European world." Com- ment on this statement. 2. What parts of the Old World are occupied or colonized by Anglo-Saxon peoples? By Latin peoples? By Slavic peoples? 3. What is the origin of the names Liberia, Rhodesia, Philippines, Tasmania, and New Zealand ? 4. Distinguish between the Near East and the Far East, as these expressions are commonly used. 5. Trace the routes followed by the Cape-to-Cairo and Trans- Siberian railways. 6. Show how Africa has become an "annex of Europe." 7. Why has the Suez Canal been called the "spinal cord" of the British Empire? 8. What possessions in India are still kept by Portugal and France? 9. Look up in an en- cyclopedia an account of the life and teachings of the Buddha. 10. Do the Chinese form a genuine nation? How is it with the Japanese? n. On the map be- tween pages 554-555 trace the Great Wall of China. 12. Show that the Chino- Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars contributed to the awakening of China. 13. Compare the Europeanization of Japan in the nineteenth century with that of Russia in the eighteenth century. 14. Why has Japan been called "the Great Britain of the Far East " ? 15. Why are the Hawaiian Islands called the ' ' crossroads of the Pacific ' ' ? 16. What parts of the New World are to-day occupied or colonized by Anglo- Saxon peoples? By Latin peoples? 17. What is the origin of the names Alberta, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Louisiana? 18. Why has Lord Durham's Report been styled the "Magna Carta of the British colonies"? 19. What Euro- pean powers retain possessions in South America, Central America, and the West Indies? 20. How was the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine a check to Metter- nichismus? 21. On the map, page 579, follow Nansen's, Peary's, and Amundsen's routes in the polar regions. CHAPTER XVII THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1 154. Modern Industrialism The year 1776, the year of the Declaration of Independence and of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, also marks, approxi- mately, the commencement of the Industrial p er i 0( i f Revolution. No other word except "revolution" the Industrial so well describes those wholesale changes in manufacturing, transportation, and other industries, which, within a century and a half, have transformed modern life. This revolution originated in Great Britain, spread after 181 5 to the Continent and the United States, and now extends throughout the civilized world. The rapid expansion of European peoples over Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America, as described in the preceding chap- ter, was itself largely an outcome of the Indus- Colonial trial Revolution. Improvements in means of ex P an s ion transportation — railroads, canals, steam navi- industrial gation — by facilitating travel permitted an ex- Revolution tensive emigration from Europe into other continents. Im- proved communication — the telegraph and the telephone — by annihilating distance made easier the occupation and govern- ment of remote dependencies. The growth of manufacturing in Europe also gave increased importance to colonies as sources of supply for raw materials and foodstuffs, as markets for finished goods, and as places of investment for the surplus wealth accumulated by the capitalists whom the Industrial Revolution created. The Industiial Revolution also created a numerous body of 'Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 24, "Communist Manifesto, 1848"; No. 25, "Declaration of Paris, 1856." 58i 582 The Industrial Revolution wage-earners, who moved from rural districts and villages into the factories, sweatshops, and tenements of the great cities. There, in spite of a crowded, miserable and the existence, they gradually learned the value of industrial organization. They formed trade unions in order to secure higher wages and shorter hours. They read newspapers and pamphlets, listened to speeches by agi- tators, and began to press for laws which would improve their lot. Then they went further and demanded the right to vote, to hold office, to enjoy all the liberty and equality which the bourgeoisie, or middle class, had won from monarchs and aristocrats. The Industrial Revolution furnished much of the driving power for the democratic movement which has been so marked in Europe during the nineteenth century. It thus reinforced the new ideas of democracy introduced into the world by the American and French revolutions. The Industrial Revolution likewise fostered the national movement in Europe during the last century. Railroads, __ canals, steamboats, telegraphs, and telephones and the have been compared to a network of veins and Industrial arteries carrying the blood of the nation from the capital to the remotest province. Such increased facilities for travel and communication inevitably caused the disappearance of local prejudices and provincial limitations. It was now far easier for the people of each country to realize their common interests than when they lived isolated in small rural communities. Old nations, like Great Britain and France, became more closely knit ; new nations, like Italy and Germany, arose; and the "submerged nationalities" of Europe started an agitation for self-government or for complete independence. Great Britain took the lead in the Industrial Revolution. Her damp climate proved to be very favorable to the manu- Th 1 d facture of textiles, her swift streams supplied trial Revolu- abundant water power for machinery, and beneath Britain Gfeat ^ er s0 ^ * a y stores °f coa ^ an d i ron ore - There were other favoring circumstances. Industry in Great Britain was less fettered by guild restrictions than on the c «tf. AUSTR ""^-Xl-/ H r §7V|fT' ^ei'oW b 9 fi s'CAr UU?k4 JL "• J ? s, w s i Ob "■^o "i"i 'iV 'ac/ a «rta HE MATTHEW3-N0RTHRUP WORKS, BUFFALO 0° LongiLudi; Bast from Greenwich The Great Inventions 583 Continent. She possessed more surplus capital for investment, more skilled laborers, and a larger merchant marine than any other country. Furthermore, Great Britain had emerged from the Seven Years' War victorious over all her rivals for maritime and commercial supremacy. Her trade in the markets of the world grew by leaps and bounds after 1763. The enormous demand for British goods in its turn stimulated the mechanical genius of British artisans and so produced the era of the great inventions. 155. The Great Inventions Man has advanced from savagery to civilization chiefly through invention. Beginning in prehistoric times, he slowly discovered how to supplement hands and feet and teeth and nails by the use of tools. From the tool it was a forward step to the machine, which, when supplied with muscular energy, only needed to be directed by man to do his work. The highest type of machine is one driven by natural forces — by wind, waterfall, steam, gas, or electricity. Invention thus gives man an ever-increasing control over nature. He becomes nature's conqueror, rather than its slave. A list of prehistoric tools and machines would include levers, rollers, and wedges ; oars, sails, and rudders; fishing nets, lines, and hooks; the plow and the wheeled cart; Development the needle, bellows, and potter's wheel; the dis- of invention taff and spindle for spinning; and the hand loom for weav- ing. Few important additions to this list were made in antiquity, even by such cultivated peoples as the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans. The Middle Ages were also singularly barren of inventions. It was only toward the close of the medieval period that the mariner's compass, paper, and movable type reached Europe from Asia. More progress took place during the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, which produced the telescope, microscope, thermometer and barometer, clocks and watches run by weights, sawmills driven by wind or water, an improved form of the windmill, 584 The Industrial Revolution and the useful though humble wheelbarrow. Manufacturing and transportation continued, however, to be carried on in much the same rude way as before the dawn of history. The revolution in manufacturing began with the textile in- dustry. Old-fashioned spinning formed a slow, laborious pro- Old-fashioned cess. The wool, flax, or cotton, having been fas- spinning tened to a stick called the distaff, was twisted by hand into yarn or thread and wound upon a spindle. 1 The spinning wheel — long known in India and not unknown in Europe as early as the fourteenth century — after- wards came into general use. The spinner now no longer held the spindle in her hand, but set it upon a frame and connected it by a belt to the wheel, which, when revolved, turned the spindle. The subsequent addition of a treadle to move the wheel freed both hands of the spinner, so that she could twist two threads instead of one. Weaving was done on the hand loom, a wooden frame to which verti- Old-fashioned cal threads (the warp) weaving were attac h e d. Hori- zontal threads (the weft or woof) were then inserted by means of an enlarged needle or shuttle. The invention of the " flying shuttle" in the eighteenth century enabled the operator, by pull- ing a cord, to jerk the shuttle back and forth without the aid of an assistant. This simple device not only saved labor but also doubled the speed of weaving. The demand for thread and yarn quickly outran the supply, for the spinners could not keep up with the weavers. Prizes were then offered for a better machine than the spinning 1 See the illustration, page 624. A Spinning Wheel A band or cord {E) connected the large wheel with the small wheel (D). Another cord (F) con- nected the small wheel with the grooved pulley, or wharve, on the spindle (C). The revolutions of the large wheel turned the small wheel very rapidly, thus com- municating motion to the spindle through the wharve. The Great Inventions 5*5 wheel. At length, James Hargreaves, a poor workman of Lan- cashire in northern England, patented what he named the "spinning jenny," in compliment to his industrious Hargreaves's wife. This machine carried a number of spindles " s v in ™ n z 1 i 1 j jenny, 1770 turned by cords or belts from the same wheel, and operated by hand. It was a very crude affair, but it spun at first eight threads, then sixteen, and within the inventor's own lifetime eighty, thus doing the work of many spinning wheels. The thread spun by the "spinning jenny" was so frail that it could be used only for the weft. The spinners needed a ma- Arkwright's chine to produce a hard, " water _ , , - frame," 1769 strong thread for the warp. Richard Arkwright met this need by the invention of the "water frame," so called because it was run by water power. The machine con- tained two sets of rollers, one rotating at a higher speed than the other. The cotton was drawn out by the rollers to the requisite fineness and was then twisted into thread by revolving spindles. Arkwright's Spinning Wheel As patented in 1769. Above, draft rollers; below, flyer spindles; at the left, wheel which propelled the entire mechanism. Samuel Crompton soon combined the essential features of the Hargreaves and Arkwright machines into what became known as the "mule, " because of its hybrid origin, crompton's When the mechanism was drawn out on its wheels " mule," 1779 one way, the strands of cotton were stretched and twisted into threads ; when it was run back the other way, the spun threads were wound on spindles. The "mule" quite superseded Hargreaves's device. It has been steadily improved, and at the present time may carry as many as two thousand spindles. 586 The Industrial Revolution Cartwright's power loom, 1785 Cartwright's First Power Loom The shuttle was propelled mechanically through the long, trough-shaped form extending out at the sides. These three inven- tions again upset the balance in the textile industry, for now the spinners could pro- duce more thread and yarn than the weavers could con- vert into cloth. The invention which revolutionized weav- ing was made by Edward Cartwright, an English clergy- man, who had never even seen a weaver at work. He con- structed a loom with an automatic shuttle operated by water power. Improvements in this machine enable a single operator to produce more cloth than two hundred men could weave on the old-fashioned hand loom. Both spinners and weavers required for the The cotton new machinery gin, 1794 an abundant supply of raw material. They found it in cotton, which previously had been much less used than either wool or flax. Eli Whitney of Connecticut, while visit- ing a cotton plantation in Georgia, conceived the idea of what he called an engine, Whitney's Cotton Gin After the original model. The teeth of the saws caught the lint, pulling it from the seeds, and a revolving cylinder, studded with nails, removed the detached lint from the saws. Power was applied by the crank. The Great Inventions 587 or gin, for separating the seeds from the raw cotton much more rapidly than negro slaves could do it by hand. His cotton gin stimulated enormously American production of cotton for the mills of Great Britain. What was to furnish motive power for the new machinery? Windmills were obviously too unreliable to be profitably used. Human hands had at first operated Hargreaves's Watt's steam "spinning jenny," and horses had worked Ark- engine, wright's original machine. Both inventors, how- ever, soon turned to water power to drive the wheel, and nu- merous mills were built along the streams of northern England, Then came steam power. The expansive force of steam, though known in antiquity, was first put to practical service at the close of the seventeenth century, when steam pumps were in- vented for ridding mines of water. James Watt, a Scotchman of mechanical genius, patented an improved steam pump in 1769 and subsequently adapted his engine for the operation of spinning machines and looms. In 1785 it began to be used in factories. The nineteenth century has been called the age of steam. The steamboat, the steam locomotive, and the steam printing press are some of the children of Watt's epochal The age invention. Toward the close of the century of steam electricity began to compete with steam as a motive force, after the invention of that mystic marvel of science, the dy- namo, and in the twentieth century the gas engine, as applied to automobiles, airplanes, tractors, and other machines, con- tinued the Industrial Revolution. The growing use of machinery called for an increased produc- tion of iron. Northern and north-central England contained vast deposits of iron ore, but until the latter part The age of of the eighteenth century they had been little iron and steel worked. Improved methods of smelting with coal and coke, by means of the blast furnace, were then adopted. Steel, a product of iron, whose toughness and hardness had been prized for ages, was not manufactured on a large scale until after 1850. Better methods of manufacture now enable the poorest iron to be converted into excellent steel, thus opening 588 The Industrial Revolution up extensive fields of low-grade ore in France, Germany, and other countries. Used in every form, from building-girders to watch springs, steel is now the mainstay of modern industry. The manufacture of iron and steel and the operation of the new machinery required an abundant, inexpensive fuel. Coal The age had long been burned in small quantities for of coal domestic purposes ; applied to the steam engine and the blast furnace it was to become an almost boundless source of power and heat. Various improvements in mining cheapened its production, one of the most notable being the safety lamp, which protected miners against the deadly fire- damp and thus enabled the most dangerous mines to be worked with comparative safety. Great Britain furnished nearly all the coal for manufacturing until the middle of the nineteenth century ; later, much of the world's supply has come from the mines of France, Germany, and the United States. Mineral oil, or petroleum, has become an industrial rival of coal, since the first oil well was sunk in Pennsylvania in The age 1 859. There are now more than three hundred of oil products of petroleum, the most important being kerosene for illumination, gasolene (petrol) for gas engines, and fuel for oil-burning ships and locomotives. The United States is still the chief producer of oil, but we now consume even more than we produce. Many new sources of supply will have to be opened up throughout the world, if the present consumption of petroleum in the United States, Great Britain, and other countries is to continue indefinitely. 156. Effects of the Great Inventions The great inventions, besides hastening the transition from hand-labor to machine-labor, also did much to separate labor Guild and capital. No such separation was possible system m ^q Middle Ages. A master who belonged to a craft guild purchased his raw materials at the city market or at a fair, manufactured them in his own house, assisted by the members of his family and usually by a few journeymen and apprentices, and himself sold the finished article to the person u bo K -5 Effects of the Great Inventions 589 who had ordered it. This guild system, as it is called, has not entirely disappeared. One may still have a pair of shoes made by a "custom" shoemaker or a suit of clothes made by a "cus- tom" tailor. The growing exclusiveness of the craft guilds, toward the close of the medieval period, 1 prevented many apprentices and journeymen from ever becoming masters. Conse- Domestic quently, workers often left the cities and settled s y stem in the country or in villages where there were no guild re- strictions. The movement gave rise to the domestic system, as found, for example, in the British cotton industry. A middle- man with some capital would purchase a supply of raw cotton and distribute it to the spinners and weavers to convert into cloth on their own spinning wheels and hand looms. They worked at home and usually eked out their wages by cultivating a small garden plot. Something akin to the domestic system still survives in the sweatshops of modern cities, where clothing is made on "commission." It is clear that under the domestic system the middleman provided the raw materials, took all the risks, and received all the profits. The workers, on the other hand, had Factory to accept such wages and labor upon such con- s y stem ditions as he was willing to offer. The separation of labor and capital, which thus began under the domestic system, became complete under the factory system. Arkwright's, Crompton's, and Cartwright's machines were too expensive for a single family to own ; too large and heavy for use in private houses ; and they needed water power or steam power to operate them. The consequence was that the domestic laborer abandoned his household industry and went with hundreds of others to work in a mill or factory. The capitalist employer now not only provided the raw materials and disposed of the finished product, but he also owned the machinery and the work- shop. The word "manufacturer" 2 no longer applied to the 1 See pages 228 and 350. 2 Latin manu, facere, to make by hand. Manufacture by machinery has been well-named machinofacture. INDUSTRIAL ENGLAND IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Principal Manufacturing Districts are indic- ated by showing Important Industrial Cen- ters having a population of 100,000 or in 1911 • ^5«5» CoaLFields % Densest Population in 1911 f_ : j Densest Population in 1750 . Nort '""'"'_ Scale of Miles 25 60 76 100 NORTH ENGL I S H C H A N N E WORKS, BUFFALO, Longitude West 2 from Greenwich 590 Effects of the Great Inventions 591 hand-worker, but to the person who employed others to work for him. The factory system introduced a minute division of labor into industry. Thus, there are forty operations involved in the manufacture of ready-made clothing; nearly Division one 'hundred in the manufacture of shoes ; and of labor over a thousand in the construction of a fine watch. Many men, working together, may turn out in a few minutes an article which one man formerly required weeks or months to produce. Machinery, the factory system, and the division of labor made it possible to manufacture on a large scale and in enormous quantities for world-wide markets. For example, Large-scale the value of British cotton goods has increased P roduction six hundred per cent during the last century and a half. Simi- lar increases have been registered in other textile manufactures and in the iron industry of Great Britain. The Industrial Revolution soon changed the face of Great Britain. Instead of farms, hamlets, and an occasional small town, appeared great cities crowded with workers p r j macy f who had left their rural homes to seek employ- Great Britain ment in factories. The movement of population m in us ry was especially toward the northern and northwestern counties, where there were many streams to furnish water power, and abundant supplies of coal and iron. The Industrial Revolu- tion began later on the Continent than in Great Britain, partly because of the opposition of the guilds, which feared that the new machinery would deprive workers of employ- ment; partly because Continental manufacturers showed less enterprise than their British rivals; but chiefly because the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars left France and Germany too exhausted to compete in manufacturing. Great Britain thus became by 1815 the world's workshop and the richest of European nations. The map of the occupations of mankind affords a summary view of the progress of the Industrial Revolution throughout the world. As far as Europe is concerned, we see that the western half of the continent has now been pretty thoroughly 592 The Industrial Revolution industrialized, except for such areas as western Ireland, north- ern Scotland, central Spain, southern Italy, the Alpine region, Indus- and the Scandinavian peninsula. The industrial tnahzation development of Russia is limited to the west- ern and southern sections ; that of the Balkan states is negligible. Large and growing manufacturing districts are found in India, China, Japan, eastern Australia, and New Zealand. The man- ufacturing districts of Africa and South America are too slight for representation on a small-scale map. In North America both Mexico and Canada have begun to share with the United States in the benefits of the Industrial Revolution. fashioned conveyances 157. Improvements in Transportation Civilized man until the Industrial Revolution continued to use the conveyances which had been invented by uncivilized 01d _ man in prehistoric times. Travel and transport were still on horseback, or in litters, wheeled carts, rowboats, and sailboats. Various improvements produced the sedan chair, the stagecoach, and large ocean- going ships, without, however, finding any substitutes for mus- cles or wind as the motive power. The roads in west- ern Europe scarcely deserved that name ; they were little more than track ways, either deep with mud or dusty and full of ruts. Passengers in stagecoaches seldom made more than fifty miles a day, while heavy goods had to be moved on pack horses. Condi- tions in Great Britain improved during the latter part of the eighteenth century, for the enormous quantity of goods produced by the new machinery increased the need for cheap and rapid transport. The turnpike system, allowing tolls to be charged An Eighteenth-century Stagecoach After an old print. Roads Improvements in Transportation 593 for the use of roads, encouraged the investment of capital by private companies in these undertakings ; and it was not long before engineers covered the country with well-bottomed and well-surfaced highways. The splendid highways which attract the attention of Americans on the Continent were all built in the nineteenth century, chiefly before the era of railroads. The expense of transportation by road led people in antiquity and the Middle Ages to send their goods by river routes when- ever possible. Canal-building in # Europe began toward the close of the medieval period, especially after the invention of locks for controlling the flow and level of the water. The great era of the canal was between 1775 and 1850, not only in Great Britain and on the Continent, but also in the United States. Canals relieved the highways of a large part of the growing traffic, but the usefulness of both declined after the introduction of railroads. Ship canals, how- ever, have begun to be constructed within recent years, as a re- sult of the general adoption of steam navigation on the ocean. The "Clermont," 1807 A reconstruction prepared by the Hudson-Fulton Celebration Committee, 1907. steamboat The earliest successful steamboat appears to have been a tug built in Scotland for towing canal boats. Robert Fulton, an American engineer who had lived in England The and France, adapted the steamboat to river navi- gation. His side-wheeler, the Clermont, equipped with a Watt engine, began in 1807 to make regular trips on the Hudson between New York and Albany. Twelve years later an Ameri- can vessel, provided with both sails and a steam engine, crossed 594- The Industrial Revolution the Atlantic in twenty-nine days. The first ship to cross without using sails or recoaling on the way was the Great West- em, in 1838. The trip took her fifteen days. Various improvements since the middle of the nineteenth century added greatly to the efficiency of ocean steamers. Steam Iron, and later steel, replaced wood in their con- navigation struction, with a resulting gain in strength and buoyancy. Screw propellers were substituted for clumsy paddle wheels, and turbine engines, which apply the energy W r X The "Rocket," 1830 Built by Stephenson to compete in a trial of locomotive engines for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The greatest speed it attained in the trial was 29 miles an hour, but some years later it ran at the rate of 53 miles an hour. The total weight of the engine and tender was only about 7! tons. of a jet of steam to secure the rotation of a shaft, were intro- duced. The size of steamers, also, has so increased that the Great Western, a boat of 1378 tons and 212 feet in length, would appear a pygmy by the side of the fifty- thousand ton "levia- thans" which now cross the Atlantic in less than five days. Wooden or iron rails had long been used in mines and quar- ries to enable horses to draw heavy loads with ease. George The steam Stephenson, who profited by the experiments of locomotive other inventors, produced in 1814 a successful lo- comotive for hauling coal from the mine to tide-water. He improved his model and eleven years later secured its adoption Improvements in Transportation 595 on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first line over which passengers and freight were carried by steam power. Stephenson also built the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, on which his famous engine, the Rocket, made its maiden trip. Many technical improvements — the increased size of loco- motives and cars, air brakes, and the use of steel rails in place of iron rails which supported only light loads and R a ii roa( i wore out rapidly — have extended the usefulness transporta- of the railroad far beyond the dreams of its earlier promoters. The greatest development of railroad transporta- tion came in the latter part of the nineteenth century, with A Precursor of the Automobile An old picture of F. Hill's steam carriage running between London and Birmingham, 1839-1843. the construction of great "trunk" lines and branches ("feed- ers") radiating into the remotest districts. Western Europe and the United States are now covered with a network of rail- roads, and these are being extended rapidly to all civilized and even semi-civilized lands. Modern electric traction dates from the early 'eighties of the last century, when the overhead trolley began to supplant horse cars and cable cars in cities. The develop- Electric ment of the electric locomotive promises to bring tractl0n about a partial substitution of electricity for steam on rail- roads through tunnels and over heavy grades. 596 The Industrial Revolution The earliest application of steam power to transportation was neither the railway nor the steamboat but the road engine. The As far back as 1801 an English inventor con- automobiie structed a steam carriage for passengers. Re- peated efforts were made during the next forty years to popularize the new mode of travel in England, but bad roads and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors. The automobile had to wait for the gas or "internal com- bustion" engine (as patented in the last decade of the nineteenth century) to become a commercial success. The history of the airplane illustrates the truth that great inventions do not spring fully developed from the brain of one „ . , man, but, on the contrary, represent the long and The airplane ' ' V patient experimentation of many men. An Ameri- can scientist, S. P. Langley, who himself owed much to the work of others, produced in 1903 a heavier-than-air machine which was driven by steam. The accidents attending its first trials caused it to be abandoned. The Wright Brothers, using an airplane fitted with a gas engine, soon followed where Lang- ley had led the way. As every one knows, the exigencies of the World War resulted in an extraordinarily rapid develop- ment of the airplane. Its powers were most strikingly revealed by two British aviators, Alcock and Brown, who in June, 1919, made a non-stop flight across the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland, covering the distance in less than sixteen hours. Experiments in balloon navigation continued through- out the nineteenth century, and finally Count Zeppelin, an . . . officer in the German army, produced an airship The airship . in 1 which consisted, not of one balloon, but of a row of bags inclosed in an enormous shell of aluminium trellis work. It carried two cars, each provided with a gas motor. The trial of this Zeppelin in 1900 showed how nearly the problem of a dirigible balloon had been solved. Other successful air- ships were soon constructed in France and England. The World War stimulated their development, as was the case with the airplane. To the British dirigible, the R-34, belongs the renown of having been the first to cross the Atlantic (July 2-6, Improved Communications 597 1919). The R-34 carried a crew and passengers from Scotland to Long Island, covering the distance of 3200 miles in a trifle more than 108 hours. The return trip took only three days. As far back as the Revolutionary War, an American inventor constructed a tiny submarine and tried, without success,' to sink a British warship. Robert Fulton, encour- The aged by Napoleon, made several submarines. In submarm e one of them he descended to a depth of twenty-five feet, re- mained below for four hours, and succeeded in blowing up a small vessel with a torpedo. Under-water boats, propelled by steam power, were used by the Confederates in the Civil War. From about this time inventors in several countries worked on the problem of the submarine. One of the most successful was an Irish-American, J. P. Holland, who sold the boat named after him to the United States in 1898. The improvement of the submarine from this time is a familiar story. Thus, in the course of about a century, man has com- pleted the conquest of land and air and sea. 158. Improved Communications Scientists of the eighteenth century often discussed the idea of using electricity to communicate at a dis- tance, but a practi- cable apparatus for convert- The ing the telegraph electric current into intelligible signs did not appear until the 'thirties of the nine- teenth century. Samuel F.B. Morse, an American, de- serves perhaps the greatest credit for the invention. He . Morse s First Telegraph Instrument, 1837 also devised the In the U. S. National Museum, Washington. 598 The Industrial Revolution "Morse alphabet." The telegraph found an immediate appli- cation on the railroads and in the transmission of government messages. Later, it made its way into the business world. Hardly any one at first believed that a telegraph line could be carried across the ocean. Experiments soon showed, how- Submarine ever, that wire cords, protected by wrappers of cables gutta percha, would conduct the electric current under water. The first cable was laid from Dover to Calais. A group of American promoters, including Cyrus W. Field, then took up the project of an Atlantic cable which should "moor the New World alongside the Old." Discouraging fail- ures marked the enterprise. The first cables were broken by the ocean, and the line which was finally laid soon became useless, owing to the failure of its electrical insu- lation. After the Civil War Field renewed his efforts, and in 1866 a cable two forming a conductor; a wrapping of thread (3) thousand miles long was SUC- soaked in pitch; several layers of gutta percha (2); cessfully laid and COmmuni- and the covering of twisted wires ( 1 ). . . , __ . cation perfected. JNo less than fourteen lines now stretch across the Atlantic, while all the other oceans have been electrically bridged. Experimentation with rude forms of the telephone began in the same decade which produced the telegraph. Little The tele- progress took place until 1875, when Alexander phone Graham Bell, a native of Edinburgh but later a resident of Boston, patented his first instrument. Many improvements have since been made in it by Bell himself, Thomas A. Edison, and others. The invention of wireless telegraphy by the Italian, Guglielmo Marconi, may be said to date from 1899, when wireless messages were sent be- tween France and England across the Channel. A trans- Atlantic service by "wireless" began eight years later, The Original Atlantic Cable The illustration shows seven copper wires (4) Wireless telegraphy and telephony Improved Communications 599 and since then improvements of Marconi's apparatus have enabled wireless messages to be sent half-way around the world. The still more recent introduction of wireless teleph- ony promises to work another revolution in long-distance communication. Already speech without wires is possible between Paris and New York. A regular postal service under government management existed in Europe as early as the seventeenth century, but it was The postal slow, expensive, and little used. service Stamps were unknown, prepayment of postage p IEST Adhesive was considered an insult, and rates increased Penny Post- according to distance. The modern postal AGE Stamp service began in Great Britain in 1840, with The design, a con- .... . - . . . ventionalized head of the adoption of a uniform charge irrespective Queen victoria, was of distance (penny postage), prepayment, and used without change the use of stamps. These reforms soon spread to other countries and everywhere resulted in greatly in- creased use of the mails. The International Postal Union, with a central office at Berne, Switzerland, makes arrange- ments for common rates of foreign postage and for coopera- tion in carrying the mails from country to country. THE SUN. Number 1 1 NEW YORK. TL'ESDAV, SEPTEMBER 3, 1833 PUBLISHES DAILV, The First Copy of the New York "Sun" The New York Sun, established in 1833, was the first penny newspaper in the United States. Weekly and daily newspapers also began to appear in the seventeenth century, but they were luxuries reserved for sub- scribers of the middle and upper classes. The _ T ^^ Newspapers cheap newspaper for the masses is a product of the Industrial Revolution. The London Times installed the 600 The Industrial Revolution first steam printing press in 1814. A paper-making machine, which produced wide sheets of unlimited length, came into use soon after. To these inventions must be added the lino- type machine. In newspaper offices, where rapid composition is necessary, it has largely superseded hand-work in setting type. Many inventions in communication — the instantaneous camera, the cinematograph or motion picture, the phonograph, The new the automatic piano — are so new that we have communica- scarcely as yet begun to realize their possibilities. Properly directed, they will furnish the common people in civilized countries with an education in art, music, and the drama which in former days could be secured only by per- sons of wealth and leisure. Their great service promises to be that of democratizing culture, as cheap newspapers and books have democratized knowledge. 159. Commerce A tremendous expansion of commerce followed the improve- ments in transportation and communication. Macadamized Commercial roads, inland and ship canals, ocean steamships, expansion an( j railroads reduced freight rates to a mere fraction of those once charged, while the telegraph, telephone, cheap postage, and newspapers made possible the rapid spread of information relating to crops and markets. It is estimated that the commerce of the world (including even backward countries) increased over twelve hundred per cent in the nine- teenth century. Rapid as was the growth of the world's population during this period, commerce grew much faster; so that the average share of each human being in international trade amounted in 1900 to a sum six times that in 1800. During the first two decades of the twentieth century commercial expansion has been on a still more colossal scale. The organization of commerce shows wonderful changes since the Middle Ages. There is now so steady a flow of com- ,, i modifies from producers through wholesalers and Exchanges ^ ° retailers to consumers that the old system of weekly markets and annual fairs is all but obsolete. Dis- Commerce 601 tinctively modern are produce exchanges for trade in the great staples (wheat, cotton, wool, sugar, etc.) and stock exchanges for buying and selling the stocks and bonds of corporations. Speculation on the exchanges confers a benefit upon commerce by safeguarding producers against the risks of sharp fluctua- tions in prices. When, , , , however, it results in an artificial scarcity of com- modities or securities through "corners " and "squeezes," it becomes an economic evil. The difficulty in practice is to draw the line between legitimate speculation and simple gambling. The system of insur- ance is altogether an eco- nomic bene- Insurance fit, in view c° m P*mies of the risks involved in most commercial under- takings. For a small payment the farmer in- sures his growing crop against hail or wind- storm ; the merchant, his stock against fire; the shipowner, his vessel against loss at sea. Ma- rine insurance arose in ,. , Ti , i L r The Stock Exchange, New York medieval Italy, but for centuries it has centered in London. The first fire insurance policies were written in London after a great fire in the reign of Charles II. Other forms of business insurance originated much more recently. The present tendency seems to be to insure against every possible contingency which can be foreseen. 602 The Industrial Revolution A commercial bank, as distinguished from a savings bank or a trust company, may be denned as an institution which deals in money and credit. It attracts the deposits of many persons, thus gaining control of enormous sums available for loans to manufacturers and merchants. Banks do not increase the amount of capital (factory buildings, machinery, raw materials, etc.) in a community, but they help to put it at the disposal of active business men ; in other words, banks make capital fluid. Furthermore, bank checks, drafts, and foreign bills of exchange provide a cheap and elastic substitute for money. It is possible through their use to discharge a large volume of indebtedness without the transfer of cash. The earliest medieval banks were the private establishments of moneyed men in Italian cities. Venice and Genoa sub- Develop- sequently founded public or state banks, and dur- ment of ing the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries similar institutions arose in many Euro- pean capitals. All the great European banks, as well as the national banks of the United States, have the privilege of issu- ing redeemable notes which circulate in place of gold. In spite of the extensive use of checks and bank notes, the growth of commerce continues to absorb immense quantities of The gold gold, the money metal. The supply has kept supply p ace w i tn t ne demand. The mines of California, Australia, South Africa, Alaska, and other countries produced in the second half of the nineteenth century nine times as much gold as had been produced between 1800 and 1850. The supply of silver increased during the nineteenth century far in excess of the demand. Its declining value led the principal The gold commercial states to diminish or suspend silver standard coinage. Great Britain first abandoned the double or bimetallic standard and adopted the single gold standard. Her example has been followed by the Conti- nental nations, the British colonies, Japan, the South American republics, and the United States. China and Mexico are the only important countries which remain on a silver basis. Commerce 603 The almost universal use of gold as the standard of value facilitates the creation of a world market for money. Capital- ists and bankers in progressive countries are thus international enabled to supply funds for investment in less finance progressive countries. Statisticians estimate that up to 1914 not less than twenty billion dollars had been invested abroad by Great Britain, about half of it in her colonies and about half in foreign lands. French investments in Russia and other countries totaled about ten billion dollars, while those of Germany abroad also reached an impressively high figure. All through the nineteenth century the United States was a debtor nation, owing to the immense sums borrowed for the development of American railroads, mines, farms, and factories. This situation changed with startling suddenness during the World War, when the Allied nations purchased in the United States enormous amounts of food, raw materials, and muni- tions. Not only has the United States wiped off its indebted- ness to Europe ; it has now made Europe its debtor. Commercial progress has been frequently interrupted during the past century by periods of depression called crises. They are a product of the Industrial Revolution. Aris- . ing in one country, perhaps as a result of bad banking, over-issue of paper money, speculation, unwise in- vestments, or failure of crops, they tend to spread widely until all civilized countries are involved. What happens during a crisis is familiar to every one. Capitalists refuse to invest in new railroads, factories, and other undertakings; bankers will not lend money; merchants, unable to borrow, go into bankruptcy ; and manufacturers, receiving fewer orders, either reduce their output or shut down their plants. Then ensues a period of "hard times," with low prices, low wages, much un- employment, and widespread destitution. The wave of pros- perity sets in again, eventually, and times once more become "good." Crises have occurred at intervals of about ten or eleven years since 1800, but recently with lessening severity. They may cease altogether as modern commerce becomes still more efficient. 604 The Industrial Revolution Many obstacles impeding the exchange of goods in the Middle Ages disappeared in modern times, especially after the Commercial French Revolution. State police finally suppressed freedom highway robbery. Piracy, once so common, be- came obsolete in the era of modern steam navigation. The burdensome tolls imposed by feudal lords on transportation and travel were no longer exacted, now that feudalism itself had died out. A movement also began to reduce the high duties levied by every European nation on imports and exports. One nation went still further in the nineteenth century and adopted free trade. Great Britain, we have learned, enjoyed Free trade Dv I ^ I 5 a virtual monopoly in most lines of in- in Great dustry. Having no reason to fear the competi- tion of foreign manufacturers, it was to her ad- vantage to lower or abolish the duties on imports, especially those on raw materials. The Younger Pitt, influenced by the writings of Adam Smith, began the work of tariff reform ; Sir Robert Peel continued it in the 'forties; and Gladstone com- pleted it. Great Britain is now a free-trade nation. She im- poses no restrictions whatever on exports and levies import duties only on a few articles, including coffee, tea, tobacco, alcoholic liquors, and sugar. Even these are for revenue, not for protection. They do not encourage the production at home of anything which can be produced more cheaply abroad. "To buy in the cheapest market and sell in the dearest" is the British policy. Another feature of the free-trade movement in Great Britain was the repeal of the Corn 1 Laws. These laws restricted Repeal of or entirely prohibited the importation of wheat the Corn or other grains, in the interest of British farmers and landlords. Manufacturers, on the other hand, objected to legislation which made food dear for the working classes. After prolonged agitation the laws were repealed in 1846. Since then Great Britain has secured the bulk of her food abroad, from the fertile wheat areas of the United States 1 "Corn" to an Englishman means wheat ; to a Scotsman or an Irishman, oats ; and to an American, maize, or Indian corn. Agriculture and Land Tenure 605 and the British colonies, and has paid for it with the products of her mines and factories. The Navigation Acts 1 were repealed three years later, after having been in operation for nearly two centuries. Foreign ships were henceforth allowed to compete with R epea i f ^e those of Great Britain in the carrying trade. Navigation Competition has resulted in lower freight rates c ' and consequently in cheaper food for the British people. The free-trade movement spread to the Continent, where it led at first to a general lowering of tariff walls. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, however, Protection on France, Germany, and other countries returned the Continent to the policy of protection. Rightly or wrongly, they saw in protection the means of building up their own "infant in- dustries," in order to supply the home market and even to compete with Great Britain in the markets of the world. The triumph of protectionism thus formed a sequel to the intense nationalism which had developed in Europe. The economic cooperation of the Allies during the World War and their continued cooperation under the League of Nations may lead to a reaction in favor of freer commercial intercourse between them. 160. Agriculture and Land Tenure The agricultural system of the Middle Ages, with its wasteful "open fields" and fallow lands, its backward methods, and its scanty yield, began to be revolutionized with the . approach of modern times. The Dutch were in the the first scientific farmers, and from them English ei gh teentn century farmers learned many secrets of tillage. Deeper plowing, more thorough pulverization of the ground, more diligent manuring, the shifting or rotation of crops from field to field, so that the soil would not have to lie fallow every third year, and the introduction of new crops, including turnips, clover, and rye, were some of the improvements which doubled the yield of agricultural land. The weight of cattle and sheep was also increased by half through careful selection in breeding. 1 See page 334. 606 The Industrial Revolution The improvements in agriculture have now extended to every progressive country. Machinery replaces the ancient scythe, . . sickle, flail, and other implements. One machine, in the of American invention, not only reaps the grain, nineteenth ^ut threshes it, winnows it, and delivers it into century ' ' sacks at a single operation. The introduction of cheap artificial fertilizers makes profitable the cultivation of poor lands formerly allowed to lie idle. The advance of en- gineering science leads to the reclamation of marshes and arid wastes. Finally, steam navigation allows a country to draw supplies of wheat, meat, and other foodstuffs from the most McCormick Reaper, 1834 The reaper with a vibrating cutter, as first patented by the inventor. distant regions, with the result that the specter of famine, so common in the Middle Ages, has well-nigh disappeared from the modern world. The "open-field" system of cultivation, whereby the same person tilled many small strips in different parts of the manor, T , was so wasteful of time and labor that medieval Inclosures farmers began to surrender their scattered strips for compact holdings which could be inclosed with hedges or fences and cultivated independently. This inclosure move- ment continued in western Europe all through the modern period, until in the nineteenth century the old "open fields" had been practically abandoned in favor of separate farms and individual tillage. Inclosures meant better farming everywhere, but in Great Britain they also helped to create the large estates so character- Agriculture and Land Tenure 607 istic of that country. The lord of the manor, not satisfied with inclosing his demesne lands, often managed to inclose those of the peasants as well, and even the meadows and British forests, which had been formerly used by them landlordlsm in common. At the present time ten thousand persons own two- thirds of all England and Wales ; seventeen thousand persons own nine-tenths of Scotland. The rural population of Great Britain consists of a few landlords; numerous tenant farmers who rent their farms from the lords ; and a still larger number of laborers who work for daily wages and have no interest in the soil they till. British economists and statesmen have long felt that, as a mere matter of national safety, Great Britain ought to raise more of her own food supply. Were the country Agrarian effectively blockaded in time of war, the starvation reform in of its crowded industrial population would soon re- sult. As a result of the World War, millions of acres formerly withdrawn from cultivation were put under the plow. Efforts have also begun to break up the large estates by such heavy taxes that it will be no longer profitable to hold them. There seems reason to believe that Great Britain may yet become what Ireland under the Land Purchase Acts l has already be- come — a country of small farmers. A considerable part of the agricultural land belonged to the French peasants even before the Revolution. Their posses- sions increased in the revolutionary era, as the French result of legislation confiscating the estates of the peasant pro- ^ , „i i ii. 1 i o prietorships Crown, the Church, and the emigrant nobles/ France to-day is emphatically a country of small but prosperous and contented farmers. In no European state would a social- istic revolution, involving the abolition of private ownership of land, have fewer chances of success. The agrarian reforms of the French Revolution spread to Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, western Germany, and northern Italy, where peasant proprietorships are common. They are rare in much of Spain and in southern Italy and Sicily. Cen- 1 See page 487. * See pages 377 and 392. 6c8 The Industrial Revolution tral and eastern Europe remained under the medieval manorial system throughout the nineteenth century. The land was owned bv a few noble families and was worked Land tenure in other by peasants, either as tenants or as day laborers. Continental Outside of Russia proper, there were five of these countries . r r ' landed aristocracies : in eastern Germany (Bran- denburg, Pomerania, West Prussia, East Prussia), where serf- dom disappeared only in the Napoleonic era ; in Austria-Hun- gary, where it disappeared during the disorders of 1 848-1 849; in the Baltic provinces controlled by nobles of German origin ; in Poland and Lithuania ; and in Rumania. The revolutionary movements since 19 14 promise to destroy the land monopoly of the aristocrats in all these countries. There will arise, in- stead, a new democratic society of peasant proprietors. This triumph of the small land owner in central and eastern Europe must be accounted one of the most important economic results of the World War. The abolition of Russian serfdom by Alexander II in 1858- 1 86 1, 1 which freed nearly fifty million people, was followed by Land tenure measures establishing a new system of land tenure. in Russia ^g no bles were required to sell a portion of their estates to the peasants, about half of the agricultural area of European Russia thus changing hands. Except in certain districts where individual ownership prevailed, the farming land was intrusted to the entire village (mir) for redistribution at intervals among the inhabitants. All that the peasant really possessed in his own right was a house and a garden plot. The Russian Revolution of 191 7 broke up the mir economy and also enabled the peasants to appropriate the estates of the nobles. The Bolsheviki have been obliged to countenance this procedure, in order to win the support of the peasantry. If Russia adopts complete individual ownership of land, it will mark a significant step in the progress of that country, where about nine-tenths of the population live wholly or mainly by agriculture. Russia may yet develop into one of the most stable of nations because its people have their feet on the ground, their own ground. 1 See page 526. The Labor Movement 609 161. The Labor Movement The craft guilds, which modern Europe inherited from the Middle Ages, gradually became obsolete after the Industrial Revolution. They were out of place in a world Disappear- of whirling machinery, crowded factories, free ance of the cr3.1t cfuilds competition, and the separation of labor and capital. Few of them in Great Britain survived the eight- eenth century. In France it required a decree of the National Assembly to end their existence. Those in Germany did not completely disappear until late in the nineteenth century. As contrasted with craft guilds, trade unions are combinations of wage-earners to maintain or improve the conditions under which they labor. These associations began to Rise of trade appear in Great Britain between 1700 and 1800, unions especially after the domestic system gave way to the factory system. Under the new conditions of industry, an employer could not know many of his employees personally; their re- lations, henceforth, tended to become cold-blooded and im- personal. At the same time, the workers in any one establish- ment or trade, being thrown more closely together, came to realize their common interests and to appreciate the need foi organization. The unions immediately encountered opposition. The Con- mon Law treated them as conspiracies in restraint of trade and hence as illegal. Moreover, the employers used Trade unions their influence in Parliament to secure the passage P rohlbited of a long series of acts designed to prevent what were styled "unlawful combinations of workmen." The last of these acts even provided the penalty of imprisonment at hard labor for persons who combined with others to raise wages, shorten hours, or in any way control the conditions of industry. Agitation by trade-union leaders induced Parliament in 1825 to repeal all the Combination Acts and to replace them by a new and more liberal statute. Laborers Trade unions might now lawfully meet together for the purpose le 8 alized of agreeing on the rate of wages or the number of hours which 610 The Industrial Revolution they would work, as long as the agreement concerned only those who were present at the meeting. This qualification was removed a number of years later. Finally, the Trade Union Act of 1875 declared that nothing done by a group of laborers should be considered illegal unless it was also illegal when done by a single person. The act thus gave the working classes the full right of combination for which they had long been striv- ing. It has been called the Magna Carta of trade unionism. The trade unions of Great Britain have made much progress within recent years. They enroll several million factory opera- British trade tives, railway workers, coal miners, and agricul- unionism tural laborers. They send their representatives to Parliament and exercise great influence on labor legislation. Their officers also frequently serve as factory inspectors. Many unions enjoy a considerable income, which goes to support members who are temporarily out of work, sick, disabled, or infirm. Continental trade unions are modeled upon the British organ- izations, but do not equal them in numbers, wealth, or influence. Trade union- Many have a political character, being closely ism on the connected with socialist parties. In general, Con- tinental workingmen rely for improvement in their condition rather upon State action than upon collective bar- gaining with their employers. The cooperative movement also started in Great Britain. There are in that country a large number of societies, open to _ .. . workingmen on the payment of a small fee, and Cooperation ° r J . selling goods to members at prices considerably lower than those charged by private concerns. Members share in the profits in accordance with the amount of their purchases. The success of cooperation in retailing has brought about its extension to wholesaling and even to manufacturing and bank- ing. Similar societies are numerous on the Continent. 162. Government Regulation of Industry Improvement in the lot of the working classes has taken place not only through the activities of trade unions, cooperative Government Regulation of Industry 611 societies, and other voluntary associations, but also by legis- lation. The need for government regulation of industry very soon became apparent. The crowded factories Evils of were unsanitary. Hours of labor were too long, the factory Wages were on the starvation level. Furthermore, sys em the use of machinery encouraged the employment of women and children, for whose labor there had been previously little demand outside the home. Their excessive toil amid unhealthy surroundings often developed disease and deformity or brought premature death. Much excuse existed for the passionate words of one reformer that the slave trade was "mercy com- pared to the factory system." These evils were naturally most prominent in Great Britain, where the Industrial Revolution began. Little effort was made at first to remedy them. The working classes The " let- exercised no political influence; indeed, by the alone P° lic y Combination Acts they had been prohibited from forming trade unions for their protection. Statesmen, instead of meeting the situation by remedial legislation, adopted the laissez-faire, or "let-alone" policy. 1 The government, they declared, should keep its hands off industry. The greatest good to the greatest number could only be secured when "economic laws" of supply and demand were allowed to determine the wages and conditions of employment, just as they determined the prices, quantity, and quality of commodities produced. "Let alone" naturally became the watchword of selfish employers, to whose avarice and cruelty it gave full rein. Yet there were also humane employers who felt that Early labor the government ought to protect those who could le g lslation not protect themselves. After some agitation the first British factory act was passed in 1802. This measure, which applied only to cotton factories, prohibited the binding-out for labor of pauper children under nine years of age, restricted their working hours to twelve a day, and forbade night work. Little more was done for thirty-one years. During this time several philanthropists, among whom Lord Ashley, 1 See page 355. 6l2 The Industrial Revolution afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, had the greatest influence, took up the cause of the oppressed workers and on the floor of Par- liament, on the platform, in the pulpit, and in the newspapers waged a campaign to arouse the public to the need of ad- ditional legislation. The result was the passage in 1833 of an act which applied to all textile factories and provided for their regular inspection by public officials. A few years later Ashley, whose life was devoted to philanthropy and social re- form, carried through Parliament an act forbidding the employ- ment in mines of women and children. Parliament subse- quently took the still more radical step of passing the Ten- Hour Act, which limited the labor of women and children in textile factories to ten hours a day. This measure became a law only after the fiercest opposi- tion on the part of many manu- facturers, but it proved so bene- ficial that henceforth the desir- ability of factory legislation was generally admitted. Government regulation of industry now began to become a reality. Mines, bakeries, laundries, docks, retail and wholesale shops, and many other establishments were grad- ually brought under control. At the present time the State restricts the employment of children so that they may not be deprived of an education. It limits the hours of labor, not only of children and women in most industries, but also of men in mines and factories. It requires employers to install safety appliances in their plants and to take all other precautions necessary for the preservation of the lives, limbs, and health of their employees. Recent legis- lation provides for the establishment of wage boards in certain The Earl of Shaftesbury After a bust by Sir J. E. Boehm, in the National Portrait Gallery, London. British labor legislation to-day Government Regulation of Industry 613 "sweated trades," where men and women work long hours for starvation pay. These boards, representing employees, employers, and the government, have power to fix a minimum wage — the lowest wage consistent with health and efficiency — and to forbid the payment of anything less, except to appren- tices. The principle of the minimum wage has also been ex- tended to miners and agricultural laborers. The government supports employment bureaus or labor exchanges, in order that the idle may find work. A national insurance act provides for the compulsory insurance of nearly all employees against sickness and loss of employment. An old-age pension law gives British subjects who have reached seventy years of age and who receive an income not exceeding £31, lod. (about $150) a year, a maximum pension of 55. (about $1.25) weekly. It is now proposed that every citizen of the United Kingdom, irre- spective of his income, shall be qualified to draw a pension, upon reaching the required age. The labor legislation of France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, and the Scandinavian states compares favorably with that of Great Britain. In no Continental country has Labor legis- it gone farther than in Germany. Bismarck lation on the gave it his powerful support, in order to check the spread of socialism. Germany has laws establishing a maximum number of working hours, limiting child and female labor, and providing a system of workingmen's insurance against accidents, sickness, incapacity, and old age. The youthful commonwealths of Australia and New Zealand, unhampered by tradition, are trying a number of interesting experiments in government regulation of industry. Australasian Both countries give compensation to workingmen labor legisla- injured by accidents and old-age pensions to poor people. New Zealand, in addition, provides fire, life, and ac- cident insurance, conducts postal savings banks, rents model homes to workingmen, and makes arbitration of labor disputes compulsory, in order to do away with strikes. If it turns out that under such paternalism more people are free and happy than under the individualism which prevails in the United 6 14 The Industrial Revolution States and even in Great Britain, then Australia and New Zealand will have set an example to the rest of the world ; if it is found that too much public regulation cramps private enterprise and takes away the incentive to industry, they will have warned the rest of the world off a dangerous course. But all this legislation is too recent for final judgment to be pronounced upon it. There has been a growing movement within recent years to secure concerted action by the various nations in the interest international °f tne working classes. The movement received labor official recognition at the Peace Conference in legislation ^^ The p eace Treaty with Germany estab- lishes a permanent International Labor Office, under the League of Nations, and provides for annual international labor con- ferences to discuss needed legislation and recommend it to the different governments. Like the League of Nations of which it forms a part, this new labor machinery has only begun to function, but it promises to become an agency of enormous usefulness. 163. Public Ownership The modern State, in all civilized countries, does many things which private individuals themselves did during the Extension Middle Ages. It maintains an army and navy, of state administers justice, provides a police system, and furnishes public education. No one now ques- tions either the need or the desirability of such activities. As we have just learned, the State also subjects private industry to ever-increasing regulation for the benefit of the less fortu- nate members of society. Furthermore, it engages in a variety of industrial undertakings. Governments sometimes monopolize different branches of business in order to raise a revenue. A good instance is the tobacco monopoly of France. The post office is always in Examples government hands, not so much for revenue as of State for the furtherance of cheap communication be- enterpnse t ween different parts of the country. In Great Britain and on the Continent telegraphs and telephones are Public Ownership 615 managed by the government in connection with the post office, and the government parcel post does all the business which in the United States is partly absorbed by private express companies. Coinage is everywhere a public function, as well as banking in most European countries. In the United States banks are private institutions under state or national regulation. Ger- many and Russia have public forests; Prussia has public mines; and France has a number of canals belonging to the government. On the Continent (Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, Russia) railroads are mostly State-owned and State- managed. Nearly all the French lines are pri- vately owned, but they will revert to the govern- ment upon the expiration of their franchises. Great Britain and the United States took over their railroads for military purposes during the World War. The American lines, together with the express companies, have now been returned to private ownership. In Australia the government built the principal railroads and owns and operates all of them. Both British and Continental cities generally own and oper- ate such public utilities as street railways, gas and electric lighting plants, and waterworks. Markets, slaugh- Municipal ter houses, baths, pawn shops, docks, and harbor enter P nse improvements are likewise often municipal monopolies. In the United States municipal ownership has been common in the case of waterworks, somewhat less common in the case of elec- tric lighting plants, rare in that of gas plants, and scarcely known in that of street railways. Since free competition cannot pre- vail in these industries, the only choice is between municipal ownership or private ownership subject to municipal regulation of charges and service. It must now be obvious that the laissez-faire policy finds few adherents at the present time. Defense against external aggression, preservation of internal order, and the Decline of maintenance of a few public institutions do not laissez " faire exhaust the responsibilities of the State, as these are conceived to-day. The reaction against laissez-faire has been very marked 616 The Industrial Revolution during the last half century, one reason being the success of Germany in public regulation and ownership. Continental countries go farther in this direction than either Great Britain or the United States, because the Continental peoples have been accustomed to paternal rule for centuries. But as Aus- tralia and New Zealand show, even English-speaking peoples tend to abandon that system of "natural liberty" which, in Adam Smith's words, leaves every man "perfectly free to pursue his own interest in his own way, and to bring both his industry and capital into competition with those of any other man or order of men." 164. Socialism Contemporary socialists unite in making the following de- mands. First, the State shall own and operate the instruments What of production, that is, land and capital. Under socialism is fyis arrangement rent, interest, and profits, as sources of personal income, would disappear, and private property would consist simply of one's own clothing, household goods, money, and perhaps a house and a garden plot. Second, the leisure class shall be eliminated by requiring everybody to perform useful labor, either physical or mental. Third, the income of the State shall be distributed as wages and salaries among the workers, according to some fairer principle than obtains at present. Socialism, thus explained, is not identical with public owner- ship of railroads, telegraphs, telephones, the postal service, What and other utilities. There is still a leisure class socialism and there are still personal incomes in those countries where public ownership has been most completely developed. Similarly, labor legislation is not prop- erly described as socialistic, since it fails to abolish private property, the factory system, and rent, interest, and profits. Socialism is, in part, an outcome of the Industrial Revolution, which completed the separation of capital and labor. The gulf between the capitalists and the landless, propertyless, wage-earning proletariat became wider, the contrasts between Socialism 617 rich and poor became sharper, than ever before. Vastly more wealth was now produced than in earlier ages, but it was still unequally distributed. The few had too much ; _ . ,. ,,,,., Socialism the many had too little. Radical reformers, dis- and the tressed by these inequalities and dissatisfied with Industrial J r 1 1 Revolution the slow progress of the labor movement and government regulation of industry, began to proclaim the< necessity of a wholesale reconstruction of society. In Great Britain the most prominent of these early radicals was Robert Owen, a rich manufacturer and philanthropist, who did much to improve the conditions of life „ . ^ Robert Owen, for his employees. Among his innovations were and coopera- cooperative shops, where workmen could buy tive ?°. m ~ , . , . mumties good things cheaply and divide the profits between them. This principle of cooperative distribution subsequently attained great success in England, and Owen deserves credit as its originator. He also advocated cooperation in production. His special remedy for social ills was the establishment of small co- operative communities, each one living by itself on a tract of land and producing in common every- thing needed for its support. He thought that this arrangement would retain the economic ad- vantages of the great inventions without introducing the factory system. Owen's experiments in cooperation all failed, including the one which he established at New Harmony, Indiana. Owen thus belongs in the class of Utopian socialists, men who dreamed of ideal social systems which were never realized. Socialism is also, in part, an outcome of the French Revo- lution. That upheaval destroyed so many time-hallowed in- stitutions and created so many new ones that it gave a great Robert Owen After a plaster medallion by Miss Beech. 618 The Industrial Revolution impetus to schemes for the regeneration of society. French radical thinkers soon set out to purge the world of capitalism Socialism and as tne ^ r fathers had purged it of feudalism. Their the French ideas began to become popular with workingmen after the factory system, with its attendant evils, gained an entrance into France. The workers found a leader in Louis Blanc, a journalist and author of wide popularity. The revolution of 1789, he declared, Louis Blanc ^ a( ^ benefited the peasants ; that of 1830 the and national capitalists or bourgeoisie ; the next must be for the benefit of the proletariat. Blanc believed that every man had an inalienable right to remunerative em- ployment. To provide it, he proposed that the State should furnish the capital for national workshops. These were to be managed by the operatives themselves, who would divide the profits of the industry between them and thus eliminate capi- talists altogether. Blanc's ideas triumphed for a time in the "February Revolution" of 1848, which had been brought about by the Parisian proletariat. The second French Republic ex- pressly recognized the "right to labor, " set up the national work- shops, and promised two francs a day to every registered work- ingman. The drain upon the treasury and the demoralization of the people by this State charity soon led to the abandonment of the entire scheme. The result was a popular uprising only crushed by military force. It should be said in justice to Blanc that the government appears to have purposely mismanaged the national workshops, in order to discredit the socialistic move- ment in France. Meanwhile, a new socialism, more systematic and practical than the old, began to be developed by German thinkers. Its Karl Marx, chief representative was Karl Marx. His parents 1818-1883 were well-to-do Jews who had embraced Chris- tianity. Marx as a young man studied at several German universities and received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Becoming interested in economic subjects, he founded a socialist newspaper to advocate the cause of the working classes. The government suppressed it, after the failure of the revolutionary Socialism 619 ^ "1^. m £1 ^Jwf^-y. movement of 1848-1849, and expelled Marx from Germany. He went to London and lived there in exile for the rest of his days, rinding time, in the midst of a hard struggle for existence, to write his famous work, Das Kapital. 1 It has a place beside Rousseau's Social Contract and Smith's Wealth of Nations among the books which have profoundly influenced human thought and action. Marx felt little sympathy with Utopian schemes to make over society. In opposition to Owen, Blanc, and other earlier socialists, he sought to build up a system of __ ' ° . Marxism socialism based on economic principles. Put in its simplest form, Marxism asserts that, while labor is the source of all value, laborers receive, in fact, only a frac- tion of what they produce. All the rest goes to the capitalistic bourgeoisie, or middle class, who produce nothing. Capitalism, how- ever, is the inevitable re- sult of the factory system. Like feudalism, it forms a stage, a necessary stage, in || the development of man- kind. It is fated to disap- pear with the progress of democracy, which, by giving the proletariat the vote, will enable them to displace the bourgeoisie, take production into their own hands, and peacefully inaugurate the socialist state. During the 'seventies of the last century the co-workers of Marx in Germany founded the Social Democratic Party. The government, under Bismarck's leadership, tried to suppress it by prohibiting meetings of socialists and the circulation of 1 The first volume of Das Kapital appeared in 1867. The second and third volumes were not published until after Marx's death. Karl Marx 620 The Industrial Revolution socialist literature. Any effort to propagate socialist doctrine was made punishable by fines and imprisonment. The police The Social were also authorized to deport all suspected per- Democratic sons. Persecution failed to check the movement, which grew phenomenally. However, many per- sons voting for Social Democratic candidates were not socialists, but German liberals who wanted to protest as effectively as possible against autocracy and militarism. The Social Democratic Party provided a model for similar organizations of Marxian socialists in Great Britain, France, National Italy, Austria, Russia, and the other European socialist countries, as well as in the United States, Aus- par les tralia, and Japan. Congresses of delegates from the national parties have been held from time to time, in order to bring together the working classes of every land. In 1914 the socialists throughout the world polled about eleven million votes and elected over seven hundred representatives to the various parliaments. 165. Poverty and Progress The most important consequence of the Industrial Revolu- tion is the increased population of the leading nations. The Increase of figures for Europe show an increase from about population 175,000,000 to over 400,000,000 during the nine- teenth century, and for the continental United States from about 5,000,000 in 1800 to over 105,000,000 in 1920. The number of people who can be supported in a given region now depends less on the food which they raise, than on their pro- duction of raw materials and manufactured goods to exchange for food. Thus Belgium and Great Britain, with only a limited agriculture, support more inhabitants to the square mile than any other countries. There are, of course, certain agricultural countries (Egypt, the Ganges valley and delta in India, part of China) where the exceptionally rich soil, coupled with a very low standard of living on the part of the inhabitants, has also made possible an enormous growth of population within the last century. Little of the world is now entirely uninhabited; Poverty and Progress 621 still less is permanently uninhabitable and unlikely to receive a considerable population in the future. Even sandy and alka- line deserts can be rendered productive through irrigation, while vast tracts of fertile territory, in both the temperate and tropical zones, can support many more people than at present. The increased population of the leading industrial nations has been largely concentrated in cities. The rise of the factory system and the improvement of facilities for concentra- travel and transportation soon led to an unprece- tion of dented urban development. Old cities grew with marvelous rapidity, while former villages and towns became transformed into new cities. The concentration of population is well illustrated in the case of the United States. This country in 1800 contained only six cities of over eight thousand inhabitants; now, according to the census of 1920, more than half of the American people are city dwellers. The Industrial Revolution is further chiefly responsible for the enormous emigration of Europeans during the past hundred years to lands beyond the seas. The United E . States received over 27,000,000 immigrants be- tween 1800 and 1910, nearly all coming from Europe. Mil- lions more went to the British colonies and to South America. The migration movement has been most marked since the middle of the nineteenth century, when the improvements in steam navigation so greatly multiplied and cheapened facilities for travel on the ocean. The increased wealth of the leading nations is another con- sequence of the Industrial Revolution. Statistics of govern- ment revenues and expenditures, imports and ex- increase of ports, income tax returns, deposits in savings banks, wealth and assets of life insurance companies show how wealth has multiplied, especially within recent years. Other indications are furnished by the increase in the annual production of coal, in the amount of iron ore mined annually, in railway construc- tion, and in the tonnage of merchant vessels. The enormous public loans, successfully floated during the World War, also reveal the resources now at the command of industrial peoples. 622 The Industrial Revolution Notwithstanding the creation of huge individual fortunes as the result of the Industrial Revolution, the general standard Diffusion of of living has been raised by the addition of in- wealth numerable things — sugar, coffee, linen, cotton goods, glass, chinaware, wall paper, ready-made clothing, books, newspapers, pictures — which were once enjoyed only by a few wealthy persons. If the rich are undoubtedly getting richer, the poor are not getting poorer in western Europe and the United States. As a matter of fact, poverty is most acute in such thickly populated countries as Russia, India, and China, which modern industrialism has only begun to pene- trate. Nevertheless, no one conversant with social conditions in large cities can deny the existence there of very many people Causes of below or scarcely above the poverty line. So- poverty cialists allege that poverty is caused by the un- equal and inequitable distribution of wealth under the pres- ent economic organization of society. The truth seems to be that no single condition — over-population, property in land, competition, the factory system — explains poverty, for each one has been absent in previous social stages. The causes of poverty, in fact, are as complex as modern life, some being due to faults of personal character or physical and mental defects, and others being produced by lack of education, bad surround- ings, corrupt or inefficient government, and economic condi- tions which result in lack of employment, high cost of living, monopolies, and the like. Since there is no single cause of poverty, there can be no single remedy for it. Putting aside socialism as undesirable, Prevention one may still look forward confidently to the and abolition prevention of much poverty by trade-union ac- tivity, by government regulation of industry (in- cluding old-age pensions, State insurance against sickness and disability, protection against non-employment, and the mini- mum wage), by education of the unskilled, by improved hous- ing, and by all the agencies and methods of private philan- thropy. One may even reasonably anticipate the complete Poverty and Progress 623 abolition of poverty, at least all suffering from hunger, cold, and nakedness, in those progressive countries which have already abolished slavery and serfdom. Indeed, with the increase of wages, the growing demand for intelligent work, and the spread of popular education, skilled laborers have multiplied so rapidly as to outnumber those whose labor is entirely un- skilled; they belong no longer to the "lower classes," but al- ready live better than did the majority of the upper classes before the Industrial Revolution. The evils of modern industrialism, though real, have been exaggerated. They are and were the evils accompanying the transition from one stage of society to another. Economic Few would wish now to retrace their steps to an democrac y age when there were no factories, no railroads, and no great mechanical inventions. Machinery now does much of the roughest and hardest work and, by saving human labor, makes it possible to shorten hours of toil. The world's workers, in consequence, have opportunities for recreation and education previously denied them. After one hundred and fifty years of modern industrialism, we begin to see that, besides helping to produce political democracy, it is also creating economic democracy. It is gradually diffusing the necessaries and com- forts, and even many of the luxuries of life, among all peoples in all lands. Studies 1. For what are the following persons famous: Arkwright; Cartwright; Watt; Stephenson; Whitney; Fulton; Morse; Bell; Langley; and Marconi? 2. Ex- plain what is meant by the following : (a) capital ; (6) capitalism ; (c) domestic sys- tem; (d) factory system; and (e) division of labor. 3. Name in order the early inventions in the textile industry and explain the changes which each one produced. 4. On the map, page sgo, indicate the principal manufacturing districts and cities of Great Britain. 5. "Of all inventions, the alphabet and the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civili- zation of our species." Comment on this statement. 6. "Next to steam-locomo- tion, the telegraph is probably the most powerful mechanical agent invented for promoting the unification of the world." Comment on this statement. 7. Show how modern commerce has been facilitated by the submarine cable, wireless teleg- raphy, the postal system, and marine insurance, or underwriting. 8. How has the construction of the Suez and Panama canals affected oceanic trade routes? 9. Why did Great Britain adopt a free-trade policy? Why does she maintain it, 624 The Industrial Revolution when other nations follow a policy of protection? 10. Comment on some of the social effects of peasant proprietorships, n. Compare the modern trade union with the medieval craft guild. 12. Why must labor legislation, to become entirely effective, be international in scope? 13. Is it true, as Marx asserted, that labor is the source of all value? 14. Mention some of the probable advantages and some of the probable disadvantages of the socialist state. 15. "The growth of large cities constitutes perhaps the greatest of all the problems of modern civilization." Comment on this statement. 16. Why may the Industrial Revolution be considered as an "era still in progress"? 17. Using material in encyclopedias, prepare reports for class presentation upon the following inventions and discoveries: (a) the bicycle; (b) the typewriter; (c) lucifer matches; (d) illuminating gas; (e) electric lighting; (J) dynamite; and (g) photography. Spinning, Carding, and Weaving in the Middle Ages CHAPTER XVIII MODERN CIVILIZATION 166. Internationalism The world, which seemed so large to our forefathers, to us seems very small and compact. Railroads, steamships, and airplanes bind the nations together, and the tele- unity of graph, the submarine cable, and the "wireless" ™° d . ern . keep them in constant communication. The oceans, no longer barriers, serve as highways uniting East and West, Orient and Occident. Commerce and finance are inter- national; capital finds investment in foreign countries as readily as at home ; and trade unionism, labor legislation, and socialism become common to all the world. National isolation disappears as ideas and ideals tour the globe. Everywhere people build the same houses, use the same furniture, and eat the same food. Everywhere they enjoy the same amusements and distractions : concerts, uniformity "moving pictures," the theater, clubs, magazines, of modern automobiles. They also dress alike. Powder, gold lace, wigs, pigtails, three-cornered hats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and silver-buckled shoes passed away in revolu- tionary France with the other follies of the Old Regime, and the loose coat and long trousers of the working classes became the accepted style for men's apparel, not only in France, but eventually in all civilized countries. Women's apparel still changes year by year, but the new fashions, emanating from Paris, London, or New York, are speedily copied in San Francisco, Melbourne, and Tokio. The inconveniences resulting from the diversity of languages were never greater than to-day, when travel is a general habit and when nations read one another's books and profit by 625 626 Modern Civilization one another's discoveries and inventions. The international- ism of modern literature, science, philosophy, and art de- Universal mands an international medium of expression, languages Latin was the speech of learned men in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and French has been the speech of polite society and diplomacy for more than two centuries. What is needed, how- ever, is a universal lan- guage, which can be readily mastered by any one. Crude attempts at such a language have al- ready appeared in Vola- piik and Esperanto, but a really satisfactory arti- ficial idiom remains to be created. Meanwhile, the spread of English-speaking peo- The English pies through- language out the globe seems destined to make English, in some sort, a universal language. It is now used by perhaps ,, im( , lul TASTl . oi; . THK u !t i 7 5mimonpeople,either Absurdity" as their mother Ian- One of the many caricatures of the extravagant g ua g e or as an acquired fashions in headdress of both sexes during the eighteenth tOngUC 1 Those Using Russian are estimated at ioo millions; German, 80 millions; Italian, 50 millions; Spanish, 50 millions, and French, 40 millions. The simple grammar and cosmopolitan vocabulary of English adapt it to an international role. In spite of an often arbitrary spelling and pronunciation, "United Kingdom, 45,000,000; Canada and Australia, 12,000,000; British Africa, 5,000,000; British India and other possessions, 3,000,000; the United States, 110,000,000. ... Internationalism 627 it is more easily learned than any other of the great languages of the world. The idea of a universal exposition, to which all countries should send their art treasures or the marvels of their industry, first took shape in the Crystal Palace Exhibition Universal (London, 1851). Since then European expositions ex P 0Sltl0ns have been numerous, each one larger than its predecessor. The Universal Exhibition (Paris, 1900) attracted 51,000,000 visitors. The United States began with the Philadelphia Centennial of 1876. This was followed by the World's Fair at Chicago in 1893 and by the more recent expositions at St. Louis and San Francisco. World congresses are constantly being held to deal with such matters of common interest as the metric system of weights and measures, monetary standards, protection The « j nter _ of patents and copyrights, improvement in the national condition of the working classes, advancement of social reform, woman suffrage, and the establishment of uni- versal peace. Two thousand such gatherings took place in the half century immediately preceding the World War. Some of them have resulted in the formation of permanent organiza- tions such as the Red Cross Society 1 and the Postal Union. 2 Frequent meetings of distinguished scholars and men of letters from the different countries also help to produce what has been well called the "international mind." Increased intercourse between civilized peoples not only broadens their outlook but also widens their sympathies. Feel- ings of human brotherhood, once limited in pre- The ■« inter- historic times to the members of one's clan or national tribe and during antiquity and the Middle Ages to one's city or state, expand to include all mankind. There develops an "international conscience," which emphasizes the obligations of the strong toward the weak and protests against the oppression of any members of the world community by any others. Let us consider some of its manifestations during the past century. 1 See page 632. 2 See page 599. 628 Modern Civilization 167. Social Betterment Little more than one hundred years ago the slave trade was generally regarded as a legitimate business. Hardly any one Abolition of thought it wrong to kidnap or purchase African the slave negroes, pack them on shipboard, where many died in the stifling holds, and carry them to the West Indies or the American mainland to be sold as slaves. It is estimated that by the close of the eighteenth century more than three million negroes were brought to the New World and that at least a quarter of a million more perished on the way thither. Denmark first abolished this shameful traffic. Great Britain and the United States took the same step in 1 807-1 808, and in subsequent years the Continental nations, one after another, agreed that it should no longer enjoy the protection of their flags. Since the last decade of the nineteenth century the European powers have also taken con- certed measures to stamp out what remains of the slave trade in the interior of the Dark Continent. Slavery was all but extinct in Christian lands by the close of the Middle Ages. It revived, on a much larger scale, after Abolition the era of geographical discovery, which opened of slavery U p Africa as a source of slaves and America as a field for their profitable employment. The French revolution- ists abolished slavery in the colonies of France, but Napoleon restored it. Great Britain in 1833 passed an act to free the slaves in the British West Indies, paying one hundred million dollars to their former masters as compensation. This aboli- tion of slavery, as well as of the slave trade, is a monument to the humanitarian labors of William Wilberforce, who for nearly half a century devoted his wealth, his energies, and his power- ful oratory to the cause of the oppressed negroes. Within the next thirty years slavery peacefully disappeared in the colonial possessions of France, Portugal, and Holland, but in the United States only at the cost of civil war. Brazil, in 1888, was the last Christian state to put an end to slavery. The penal code of eighteenth-century Europe must be de- Social Betterment . 629 scribed as barbarous. Torture of an accused person, in order to obtain a confession, usually preceded his trial. Only a few nations, Great Britain among them, forbade its The old use. Prisons were private property, and the in- penal code mates, whether innocent or guilty, had to pay their keeper for food and other necessaries. Men, women, and children were herded together, the hardened criminals with the first offenders. Branding, flogging, and exposure in the pillory formed common punishments. Death was the punishment for murder, arson, burglary, horse-stealing, theft, forgery, counterfeiting, and many other crimes. The British code included over two hun- dred capital offenses. A man (or a woman) might be hanged for stealing as little as five shillings from a shop or for picking a pocket to the value of a single shilling. Transportation to America or to Australia was often substituted, however, for the death penalty. Executions took place in public, on the mistaken theory that to see them would deter from crime. The great name in penal reform is that of the Italian Bec- caria, whose Essay on Crimes and Punishments appeared in 1764. It bore early fruit in the general abolition R e f orm f of torture and of such ferocious punishments as the penal burning alive, breaking on the wheel, and draw- ing and quartering. Penal reform in France was hastened by the Revolution. Great Britain from about 181 5 began to re- duce the number of capital offenses, until only high treason, piracy, and murder remained. One consequence of the re- form was a striking diminution of crime, though judges and other conservative persons had predicted just the reverse. Capital punishment has now been abolished by several European countries, including Italy, Portugal, Holland, Norway, and Rumania. A few American states do not inflict the death penalty. Prison reform accompanied the reform of the criminal code. One of the leaders of this humanitarian movement was a Quak- eress, Mrs. Elizabeth Fry. Much has been done Prison within the past century to improve sanitary con- reform ditions in prisons, to abolish the lock-step, striped clothing, 630 Modern Civilization Elizabeth Fry and other humiliating practices in the treatment of prisoners, and, by means of juvenile courts and reformatories, to separate first offenders from hardened criminals. Even as regards the latter, the idea is now to make confinement less a punishment than a means of developing the convict's self-respect and manhood, so that he may re- turn to free life a useful mem- '• ber of society. Prison reform in the various countries has been much advanced by inter- national congresses. The modern attitude toward the feeble-minded and the in- sane contrasts sharply with earlier ideas concerning them. Treatment Mentally defective persons are of defectives no i on g er regarded with amuse- ment or contempt, but are rather considered as pitiful victims of heredity or of circum- stances for which they were not responsible. Every civilized country now provides asy- lums for their proper care under medical supervision. There are also special schools for the benefit of the blind and of the deaf and dumb. An increasing sympathy with the brute creation also characterizes our age. The Treatment of British Society for the Preven- animals t j on Q f Cmdtv to Animals was founded in 1824. Ten years later Parlia- ment did away with bull baiting and cock fighting, which had long been favorite amusements of the lower classes, and pro- hibited cruel treatment of all domestic A Lunatic After an eighteenth cen- tury engraving, showing a lunatic, barefoot, scantily clothed, and chained by the neck to a wall. Social Betterment 631 j^T^t. animals. Similar legislation has been enacted on the Continent, as well as in the United States. The crusade against alcoholism further illustrates humani- tarian progress. The use of intoxicants, formerly uncon- demned, more and more comes under moral repro- Abolition of bation, as it is realized that they form one of the the liquor ^ most potent agencies of man's degeneration. The World War led Russia to abolish the government monopoly of vodka and other countries to restrict the consumption of alcoholic liquors. Norway and Belgium have adopted partial prohibition (excluding beer and light wines), while Finland has declared for unlimited prohibition. Abolition of the liquor traffic in the United States was long agitated by private organ- izations, such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union (under the presi- dency of Miss Frances E. Willard) and more recently by the Anti-Saloon League. Maine early adopted legal prohibition. Many states in the Middle West and the South subsequently took the same action. Prohibition senti- ment became at length so strong that a constitutional amendment, forbidding the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors throughout the country, and their im- portation into it, was ratified in 1918-1919 by more than three- fourths of the state legislatures. This Eighteenth Amendment went into effect one year after ratification. Efforts to relieve poverty and suffering have given rise to charity organization societies, associations for improving the condition of the poor, dispensaries, anti-tuber- phiian- culosis leagues, fresh-air funds, and numerous thropic other philanthropic agencies in both Europe and agei America. The Salvation Army was started in Great Britain by William Booth, a Methodist minister, with the idea of better- William Booth 632 Modern Civilization ing both the physical and spiritual condition of those who are not reached by other religious bodies. The Young Men's Christian Association also arose in Great Britain. The Inter- national Red Cross Society, with headquarters at Geneva, has now become a world-wide institution for the relief of all suffer- ing, whether caused by war or by pestilence, floods, fire, or other calamities. It is the greatest single agency at work for the amelioration of mankind. 168. Emancipation of Women and Children Woman's position in Europe a century ago was what it had been in the Middle Ages — a position of dependence on man. Disabilities She received little or no education, seldom en- of woman gaged in Anything but housework, and for support relied on husband, father, or brother. After marriage she became subject to her husband. In Great Britain she could neither make a will nor enter into a contract without his con- sent. All her possessions belonged to him. Any money that she earned or inherited was his and might be taken to pay his debts. The law even deprived her of control over her own children. Similar disabilities rested upon Continental women. The humanitarian sentiment evoked by the French Revo- lution began by freeing slave and serf, but presently demanded Woman's the emancipation of woman also. The demand rights received a powerful impetus from the Industrial Revolution, which opened new employments to woman out- side the home and thus lessened her economic dependence on man. The agitation for woman's rights has so far succeeded that most civilized countries now permit her to own property, engage in business, and enter the professions on her own account. Her educational opportunities have also steadily widened, until to-day both elementary and higher education are open to women in most European countries. Woman suffrage scored its first victories in Scandinavia. During the decade before the World War, both Finland and Norway permitted women to vote at general elections. Den- Emancipation of Women and Children 633 mark and Sweden extended voting privileges to women shortly after the outbreak of the war. The women of Holland have now received full suifrage, and those of Belgium, woman partial suffrage. Republican Germany, Austria, suffrage Czecho- Slovakia, and Poland give women the vote. The Equal Franchise Act, 1 passed by the British Parliament in 1918, practically doubles the electorate of the United Kingdom. Australia and New Zealand also have woman suffrage. As far back as 1869, when the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, granting suffrage to negroes, was before Con- gress, Miss Susan B. Anthony and her associates appealed to the legislators for the recognition of suffrage in women as well. The appeal was denied. The ^ e Umted women then organized the National Woman Suffrage Association and began a campaign of education to convince thinking people of the justice of their cause. Years passed without much apparent progress being made. Wyoming, when admitted to statehood, gave the ballot to women, and by 1918 fourteen other states had done the same. Finally, the constitutional amendment for woman suffrage (sometimes called the "Susan B. Anthony Amendment"), which had been constantly before Con- gress for forty years, received the SusAN B - Anth o n * approval of that body and was After a photograph taken at the age of 48. speedily ratified by three-fourths of the states in 1920. With its ratification the United States has established complete politi- cal democracy. The divorce laws of the Christian world exhibit a bewildering variety. Roman Catholic countries, including Italy and Spain (and Portugal until the recent revolution there), preserve the medieval conception of marriage as a sacrament and therefore 1 See page 478. 634 Modern Civilization do not allow divorce under any circumstances. The same is true of most Latin American states. Countries adhering to the _. Greek Church allow divorce. Those governed or Divorce . ° influenced by the Code Napoleon, in particular, France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and Germany, do the same. Divorce is rare in Great Britain, as well as in Canada. The laws of the United States present no uniformity, some states permitting divorce on much easier terms than others. This country now grants more divorces than all the rest of Christen- dom. In general, modern legislation tends to treat marriage as a civil contract and to permit its dissolution for immorality, cruelty, desertion, habitual drunkenness, and serious crime, that is, for such behavior of one party to the contract as makes married life impossible or unbearable to the other party. The decline of the husband's power over his wife has been accompanied by a decline of the father's authority over his Emancipation children. Among early peoples, the ancient of children Romans for example, the father's control of his offspring was absolute, and their liberty was often sacrificed to his despotic rule. The Roman idea of family obligations sur- vived in Europe through the Middle Ages and still lingers in Latin countries at the present time. In Anglo-Saxon countries, on the other hand, both law and custom regard the grown-up child as independent of the father. Even his authority over minors is considered mainly in the light of guardianship. This liberal conception of paternal rights bids fair to prevail among all civilized peoples. 169. Popular Education and the Higher Learning The schools of the Middle Ages were neither public nor free nor secular. All were private schools where pupils paid fees Popular for their tuition, and almost all were founded and education conducted by the clergy. The beginnings of popu- lar education reach back to the Reformation era, when ele- mentary schools, supported by general taxation, began to spring up in Germany, Holland, Scotland, and Puritan New Popular Education and the Higher Learning 635 England. This free common school system, which it is the glory of the reformers to have established, gradually spread throughout the United States during the nineteenth century and became entirely secular in character. Secondary edu- cation was also democratized by the founding of free high schools for both boys and girls. The advance of democratic ideas in Europe has produced a similar movement there in favor of popular education. British statesmen for a long time looked with disfavor upon projects for public schools. Education, they thought, unfits the people for manual labor and nourishes revolu- p UD ij C tionary ideas. " If a horse knew as much as a man, schools in I should not like to be its rider," declared a peer in Parliament, when voting against an appropriation for edu- cational purposes. After the passage of the Second Reform Act, 1 which enfranchised the working classes, the government set up for the first time a national system of instruction. Ele- mentary education in Great Britain is now free, compulsory, and secular. Many parents, however, prefer to send their children to private institutions under the control of the Estab- lished Church. The public and private schools together have well-nigh abolished illiteracy. The French revolutionists believed with Danton that "next to bread, education is the first need of the people." They pre- pared an elaborate scheme for public schools, but p UD ii C never carried it into effect. Napoleon also aimed schools in to set up a State system of education through primary and grammar grades to the lycees, or high schools. Lack of funds and of experienced lay teachers handicapped the emperor's efforts, and at the close of the Napoleonic era the majority of French children still attended private schools con- ducted by the Church. France waited until the 'eighties of the last century before securing a truly national system of edu- cation. In recent decades the government has appropriated large sums for educational purposes, and illiteracy is to-day practically non-existent. 1 See page 477. 636 Modern Civilization Prussia began to reorganize elementary education along modern lines as early as the reign of Frederick the Great and carried the work further after her crushing defeat schools else- by Napoleon. 1 The public school movement has where on the mac [ e muc h progress in other Continental coun- tries during recent years. The percentage of il- literacy is still high in Italy and higher still in Spain, Portugal, and the Balkan states, while in Russia most of the peasants are too ignorant to sign their names. With such exceptions, how- ever, Europe now agrees with the United States that at least the rudiments of an education should be the birthright of every child, that common schools are the pillars of democracy. The United States has done much more than Europe in popularizing the higher learning. The American state univer- The higher sity, with its wide curriculum of both liberal and learning practical subjects, is another nineteenth-century innovation. Previous to its establishment private denomina- tional institutions prepared men for the ministry and a few other learned professions. State universities, admitting both men and women, are now found in all the American common- wealths south and west of Pennsylvania. Their work is supple- mented not only by private colleges and universities, but also by the splendid benefactions associated with the names of Rockefeller and Carnegie. A university education in Europe is still commonly restricted to people of means. There is a growing tendency, however, to make the higher learning more accessible to poor but ambitious students. 170. Religious Development Few of us realize how gradually the principle of religious toleration has won acceptance in modern times. At first Religious only certain Protestant sects, such as the Lu- toieration therans in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg and the Huguenots in France after the Edict of Nantes, enjoyed liberty of conscience and worship. Next, the same privileges were granted to all Protestant sects, as in Holland, in England 1 See page 403. 638 Modern Civilization by the Toleration Act, and in the American colonies. Finally, toleration was extended to every one, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, Christian or non-Christian. The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make no law prohibiting the "free exercise of religion." The French revolutionists in the Declaration of the Rights of Man also announced that no one should be dis- turbed on account of his religious opinions, provided he did not thereby trouble public order. Prussia secured religious toleration under Frederick the Great. It was secured in the rest of Germany and in Austria-Hungary and Italy only during the latter part of the nineteenth century. While Roman Catholicism is the prevailing faith in all the Latin American republics, freedom of worship is commonly permitted by them. It may be said, broadly, that throughout the Christian world the various countries have now abandoned the practice of com- pulsion in religion. The Church in the Middle Ages controlled, or tried to con- trol, the State, upon the theory that temporal as well as spiritual Separation authority is derived from the pope. The Refor- of ? e^! 11 • mation, in those countries where it succeeded, and State in ' ' the New merely substituted a number of separate national World churches for the one Church of Rome. To Roger Williams and William Penn in the seventeenth century belongs the honor of having established in Rhode Island and Pennsyl- vania, respectively, the first political communities where re- ligious matters were taken entirely out of the hands of the civil government. The ideas of Williams and Penn found expres- sion in the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. Congress is forbidden to make any law "respecting an establishment of religion." This means that the federal government cannot appropriate money for the support of any church. No such restriction binds the several states, but most of their constitutions repeat the federal prohibition. Church and State are absolutely separate in Canada, as well as in Mexico, Brazil, and some of the smaller Latin American countries. Religious Development 639 The separation of Church and State prevails in Australia, South Africa, and other parts of the British Empire. The Liberal Party under Gladstone disestablished the Anglican Church in Ireland and under Lloyd ushmentin George disestablished it in Wales. The French $J r jJ d revolutionists separated Church and State, but Napoleon's Concordat with the pope again made Roman Catholicism the official religion. The Concordat was abrogated as recently as 1905, and both Catholic and Protestant bodies in France now depend entirely upon voluntary contributions for support. The Portuguese revolutionists, when founding a republic in 1910, disestablished the Roman Church, and the Russian revolutionists in 191 7 disestablished the Greek (Ortho- dox) Church. The new constitution of republican Germany practically disestablishes the Prussian Protestant Church, whose head was the kaiser. This action has considerable significance, for before the German Revolution the Protestant Church in Prussia formed a leading prop of divine-right monarchy ; altar and throne justified and blessed each other. The constitutions of Czecho-Slovakia and Poland also provide for the separation of Church and State. The liberal movement in religion has carried further that multiplication of sects which began with the Reformation. 1 Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists arose in Great g Britain during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies. 2 Other sects, including the Adventists, Universalists, and Disciples of Christ, and even new religions, such as Mor- monism, Spiritualism, and Christian Science, have originated in the United States. Both Freemasonry and Oddfellowship took their present form in Great Britain about two centuries ago. They now have thousands of lodges and several millions of Secret members throughout the world. Their insistence societies upon religious toleration makes it possible for them to admit votaries of even non-Christian faiths, as in India. Considerably over a third of the earth's peoples are Chris- 1 See page 264. 2 See page 352. 640 Modern Civilization tians. The adherents of Roman Catholicism number perhaps 275,000,000; those of the Protestant denominations, perhaps The world 175,000,000; and those of the Greek Church, religions perhaps 125,000,000. The Jews are estimated at 15,000,000. For the other world religions the following figures must be considered merely rough approximations : Moslems, 225,000,000; Brahmanists (in India), 225,000,000; Buddhists (China, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Indo-China), 450,000,000. In this estimate the entire populations of China and Japan are counted as Buddhists, owing to the difficulty of separating Buddhism in those countries from the national faiths. The conversion of the non-Christian world, including per- haps 150,000,000 heathen in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and „. . America, is the stupendous task to which Chris- Missions tian peoples have addressed themselves since the Middle Ages. The work of Roman Catholic missionaries in christianizing most of the Filipinos and the Indians of Latin America and Canada was largely accomplished in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Several Protestant denomina- tions founded missionary societies in the eighteenth century, and by the middle of the nineteenth century almost every branch of Protestantism, both in Europe and America, had representatives throughout the non-Christian world. The number of Christians attached to missions is reckoned at 10,000,000, about equally divided between Catholic and Prot- estant converts. But the results of Christian missions cannot be expressed statistically. Missionaries have been well called the advance- Missions guard of modern civilization. They establish and schools and colleges, build hospitals, introduce civuzation scientific medicine and sanitation, familiarize the natives with inventions and discoveries, and often succeed in stamping out such debasing practices as cannibalism and human sacrifice. Native converts become, in turn, the means of ex- tending the benefits of modern civilization among their country- 1 men. The effect of missionary enterprise is therefore enor- Science 641 mous, even when conversions are relatively few. We may safely include Christian missions among the most important of all agencies for bringing backward peoples into the common brotherhood of mankind. 171. Science A hundred years ago, science enjoyed only a limited recog- nition in universities and none at all in secondary and ele- mentary schools. The marvelous achievements Science in of scientific men fixed public attention on their modernllfe work, and courses in science began to displace the older "classical" studies. At the same time science has become an international force which recognizes no national bound- aries, no distinctions of race or religion. Scientists in every land follow one another's researches ; they carry on their labor in common. Many pages would be needed merely to enumerate the scientific discoveries of our age. The astronomer found a new planet, Neptune ; x measured the distances of the Pure fixed stars ; and began the enormous task of photo- science graphing the heavens and cataloguing the five hundred to one thousand billion suns which form our universe. The physicist determined the velocity of light and showed that light, radiant heat, electricity, and magnetism are due to waves or undula- tions of the ether ; are, in fact, interconvertible forms of cosmic energy. The chemist proved that matter exists in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state according to the degree of heat to which it is subjected; that it is composed of one or more of eighty- odd elements ; and that these elements combine with one another in fixed proportions by weight, as when one pound of hydrogen unites with eight pounds of oxgyen to form nine pounds of water. The biologist discovered that all plants and animals, from the lowest to the highest, are made up of cells containing the transparent jelly or protoplasm which is the basis of life. ' Uranus had been discovered in the eighteenth century. See page 356. 642 Modern Civilization formitarian theory New conceptions of the earth were set forth by Sir Charles Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830-1833). He explained The uni- the changes which have produced mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, sea-coasts, and other natural features, not as the result of convulsions or catas- trophes, as had been previously supposed, but as due to erosion by water, the action of frost and snow, and other forces working gradually over im- mense periods of time. The acceptance of LyelPs uni- formitarian theory, coupled with the discovery of fossils in the rocks, made it neces- sary to reckon the age of the earth by untold millions, instead of a few thousands, of years. The further dis- covery in western Europe of rude stone implements and human bones associated with the remains of extinct animals, such as the mam- moth, woolly rhinoceros, and cave bear, indicated the exist- ence of man himself at a remote period. Even before Charles Darwin published the Origin of Species (1859), naturalists argued that existing plants and animals, The evo- instead of being separately created, had evolved lutionary from a few ancestral types. Darwin was first to show how evolution might have occurred by means of "natural selection." He pointed out that many more in- dividuals of each species are born than can possibly live to rear their offspring; that, in consequence, there is a constant "struggle for existence" between them; and that the fittest who survive are the strongest, the swiftest, the most cunning, the most adaptable, — in other words, those who possess char- acteristics that give them a superiority over their competitors. Sir Charles Lyell After a painting by T. H. Maguire. Science 643 Such characteristics, transmitted by heredity, tend to become more and more marked in succeeding generations, until at length entirely new species arise. Investigators since Darwin have made important additions to the evolutionary theory, especially the Dutch naturalist Hugo de Vries, who assumes that new species are produced from existing forms by sudden leaps, instead of by the slow accumulation of slight , successive variations. Evolution is now a scientific commonplace, like gravitation, but we have still much to learn about the origin and development of life on the earth. The practical applications of science are innumerable. Ap- plied physics gave us the telegraph, telephone, electric lighting, and electric motive force. More recently, wireless Applied telegraphy and telephony have developed from the physics and discovery of the "Hertzian waves," or electro-mag- netic vibrations in the other. In 1895 the German Rontgen discovered the X-rays, and three years later the French pro- fessor Curie, assisted by his Polish wife, obtained from the mineral called pitchblende the mysterious radium. It is a more intense producer of the X-rays than any other substance, yet wastes away with incredible slowness. Physicists have now found many other radioactive bodies and have proved that radioactivity is due to the breaking-up of atoms, which are not the indivisible entities they were once supposed to be. This revelation of vast atomic energy leads to the belief that, long before our supplies of coal and oil are exhausted, a source of unlimited power may be found in the disintegration of the atom. Applied chemistry gave us illuminating gas, friction matches, such powerful explosives as dynamite and nitroglyc- erine, which are produced from animal or vegetable fats, arti- ficial fertilizers, beet sugar, aluminium, and various derivatives of coal tar, including the aniline dyes, carbolic acid, naphtha, and saccharine. The chemist now creates in his laboratory many organic substances which had previously been produced only by plants or in the bodies of animals. The practical applications of biology are seen in the germ theory of disease. The researches of the Frenchman, Louis 644 Modern Civilization Pasteur, upon vegetable microorganisms (bacteria) proved that the harmful kinds are responsible for definite diseases in Medicine both plants and animals. Dr. Robert Koch of and surgery Berlin soon isolated the germs which produce tuberculosis and cholera, and during recent years those pro- ducing diphtheria, typhoid fever, influenza, pneumonia, lock- jaw, bubonic plague, and other dread scourges have been identi- fied. In some cases remedies called antitoxins are now admin- istered to counteract the bacterial toxins or poisons. Another step in medicine is the discovery that certain diseases are spread in some one particular way. The bite of one species of mosquito causes malaria and that of another yellow fever; lice transmit typhus; the tsetse-fly carries the sleeping sick- ness; and fleas on rats convey the bubonic plague to man. All this new knowledge enables us to look forward with con- fidence to a time when contagious and infectious diseases will be eliminated from civilized countries. Meanwhile, surgery has been revolutionized by the use of anaesthetics and the in- troduction of antisepsis and asepsis. The wonderful progress of modern science has been largely due to the improvement of apparatus. The giant telescope Scientific enables the astronomer to measure the movements apparatus f s t ars so incredibly remote that their light rays, which we now see, started earthwards before the dawn of the Christian era. The spectroscope analyzes the constituents of the most distant heavenly bodies and proves that they are composed of the same kinds of matter as our planet. The com- pound microscope reveals the existence of a hitherto unsuspected realm of minute life in earth and air and water. The scientific possibilities of the photographic camera, especially in the form of moving pictures, have only recently been revealed. Science now depends on the use of precise instruments of research as much as industry depends on machinery. 172. Literature Since the beginning of modern times man has become more and more interested in himself ; he has resolved to learn what Literature 645 he is, whence he came, and what he shall be. These are the old questions of philosophy. Perhaps no other great thinker has more influenced his age than Immanuel Kant _.., , , Philosophy (1724-1804). During a long and quiet life of lecturing and writing at the Prussian university of Konigs- berg, Kant produced epoch-making works in almost every field of philosophy, as well as in theology and natural science. He found the real basis of faith in God, free-will, and immortality in ma'n's moral nature. A later and also very influential philosopher was Herbert Spencer (1820- 1903). The close friend of Darwin, Spencer sought to build up a philosophic system upon evolutionary principles. The ten volumes of his Synthetic Philosophy form an ambitious attempt to explain the develop- ment of the universe as a whole, from the atom to the star, from the one-celled organism to man. Spencer was a pioneer in the study of psychology, that branch of philosophy dealing with the mental processes of both man and the lower animals. Spencer also broke fresh ground in the study of sociology. He carried over the principle of evolution into human society, with the purpose of showing how languages, laws, . religions, customs, and all other institutions naturally arise and develop among mankind. "Sociology," as the name for this new subject, had been previously introduced by the French philosopher, Auguste Comte. The study of history has been transformed under the in- fluence of the sociologists. It is no longer merely a narrative in chronological order of political and military History and events, but rather an account of the entire culture anthr °P ol °gy of a people. Some historical students do not limit inquiry to civilized man, but also investigate the culture of savage and barbarous peoples, as found to-day, or once found in remote s,ges. History, so considered, is closely related to anthropology, one of the most fascinating of the newer branches of learning. Public schools, public libraries, and cheap books, magazines, and newspapers have multiplied readers. Literature, in con- sequence, is now a profession, and the successful novelist or poet may secure a world-wide audience. Sir Walter Scott did 6 4 6 Modern Civilization Fiction much to give the novel popularity through his historical tales. Dickens, Thackeray, and other English writers made it a presen- tation of contemporary life. On the Continent al- most all the celebrated authors of the past century have been novelists. It is sufficient to mention three only, whose fame has gone out into many lands : the Frenchman Victor Hugo; the Russian Tolstoy; and the Pole Sienkiewicz. The drama rivals the novel in popularity „ among all Poetry & classes. It presents either a pic- ture of bygone ages or scenes from everyday life. In no country does it assume more impor- tance than in France, where the theater is considered a branch of public instruction. Much dramatic poetry, however, is written to be read, rather than for acting on the stage, for instance, the Faust of Goethe. Lyric poetry has been produced in all countries, notably in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States, and has become the favorite style of poetic expression. 173. Music and the Fine Arts Music now takes almost as large a place as literature in modern life. Even more than literature, it ranks as an inter- Music in national force, for the musician, whatever his modem life nationality, uses a language which needs no trans- lation to be intelligible. '~^/%^2%i Victor Hugo After a painting by Leon Bonnat. Music and the Fine Arts 647 secular music Mozart's Spinet Stadt Museum, Vienna The spinet had only one string to a note, plucked by means of a quill or a plectrum of leather. During medieval times music was chiefly used in the services of the Church. The Renaissance began to secularize music, so that it might Sacred and express all hu- man joy, sad- ness, passion, and aspira- tion. The secular art thus includes operas, chamber music (for rendition in a small apartment instead of in a theater or concert hall), compositions for soloists, and orchestral symphonies. The Middle Ages knew the pipe-organ, harp, flute, drum, trumpet, and many other instruments. These were often played together, but with no other purpose than to increase the volume The of sound. There was not the slightest idea of orchestra orchestration. After the Ren- aissance new instruments began to appear, including the violin, viols of all sizes, the slide trombone, and the clarinet. Percussion action, applied to the old-fashioned spinet and harpsichord, pro- duced in the eighteenth cen- tury the pianoforte. The sym- phony, a tone poem combining all musical sounds into a har- monious whole, now began to assume its present form. The great symphonists — Haydn, Mozart, that supreme genius Beethoven, and their successors in the nineteenth century — thus created a new art to enrich the higher life of mankind. Ludwig van Beethoven After a painting by A. Kloeber, 1817. 648 Modern Civilization Another master of music, Richard Wagner, created the musical drama, which unites music, poetry, and acting. Wagner The musical believed that the singer should also be an actor drama an( j sho^d adapt both song and gesture to the orchestra. He also gave much attention to the scenery and stagesetting, in order to heighten the dramatic effect. Wagner's most famous work, The Ring of the Nibelung, consists of four complete dramas based on old Teutonic legend. A new source of music has been opened up in the melodies of the European peasantry — their folk songs. Almost every _ „ country in Europe is rich in these musical wild Folk songs J r iii-i flowers, and they are now being gathered by trained collectors. Lullabies, marriage ditties, funeral dirges, and ballads are some of the varieties of folk songs. Like music, sculpture illustrates the internationalism of art. The three greatest sculptors of the nineteenth century were „ , ± Canova, an Italian, Thorwaldsen, a Dane, and Sculpture ' ' ' ' Rodin, a Frenchman. The first two found in- spiration mainly in classic statuary, which seeks ideal beauty of form ; the third expressed in marble the utmost realism and naturalism. Much fine work has also been done in bronze, for instance, the Chicago statue of Abraham Lincoln by St. Gaudens, who is rightly considered the most eminent sculptor produced by America. No century has witnessed more activity in the construction of churches, town halls, court houses, theaters, schools, and . ■ other public edifices than the nineteenth, but A.rciiit6ctur€ j- ' these have usually been reproductions of earlier buildings. Architects either went to Greece and Rome for models or imitated the Romanesque and Gothic styles. The extensive use of structural steel has now begun to produce an entirely new architectural style, more appropriate to modern needs, in the "skyscraper" of American cities. It is sometimes criticized as being "not architecture, but engineering with a stone veneer." The criticism seems hardly just in all cases. Such a structure as the Woolworth Building in New York has a beauty of its own and truly expresses the spirit of our industrial age. Music and the Fine Arts 649 Modern painters, no longer restricted to religious pictures, often choose their subjects from history or contemporary life. They excel in portraiture, and their landscape . paintings unquestionably surpass the best which even the "old masters" of the Renaissance could produce. Painting flourishes especially in France, where the leading artists receive their training and exhibit their pictures at an annual exposition, the Salon at Paris. Studies 1. What is the "international mind"? The "international conscience"? 2. Look up in an encyclopedia accounts of the Rhodes Scholarships and the Nobel Prizes. 3. What arguments are often urged against capital punishment? 4. What is the work of the Rockefeller Foundation? Of the Carnegie Institution? 5. Name and locate ten of the great European universities. 6. Prepare an oral report on the kindergarten movement in Europe and America. 7. Show that re- ligious toleration and an established church may exist side by side. 8. What have been some of the services of missionaries in geographical exploration? g. Why has Darwin been called "the Newton of biology"? 10. Explain the germ theory of disease, n. Distinguish between antisepsis and asepsis. 12. How are the X-rays used in medicine and surgery? 13. Mention some of the most famous novels by Dickens, Scott, and Thackeray. 14. Have you read any novels by Victor Hugo, Tolstoy, or Sienkiewicz? 15. Name six great lyric poets of Great Britain during the nineteenth century. Can you name any of France, Germany, and Italy? 16. Mention some of the great composers of the nineteenth century. 17. "Civil- ization, which once was fluvial — as on the Nile, the Euphrates, the Ganges, the Hoang-ho ; then maritime — as on the Persian Gulf, the ^Egean, the Mediterranean, the Yellow Sea ; then oceanic — as was possible after Columbus and Magellan; has lately become planetary." Comment on this statement. CHAPTER XIX INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, 1871-1914 1 174. The Triple Alliance Modern civilization, which on the one side creates an inter- national current drawing the world's peoples together in art, National literature, science, and industry, on the other side rivalries and creates a national current tending to keep them apart. Internationalism or cosmopolitanism lays stress on our common humanity, on the brotherhood of man. Nationalism or patriotism emphasizes love of country and devo- tion to the "fatherland." National rivalries and antipathies were never stronger than in the nineteenth century, and in the twentieth century they brought forth the calamitous World War. The national movement in Europe, we have learned, arose during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, helped to pro- duce the popular revolts between 1815 and 1830, Germany on and assumed special importance between 1848 and the Con- 1 87 1, when both Italy and Germany won by the sword their long-desired unification. The creation of a united Italy, and especially of a united Germany, quite upset the delicate equilibrium of European politics as estab- lished at the Congress of Vienna. The old balance of power disappeared, for the German Empire, from the hour of its birth, took the first place on the Continent. Bismarck's former policy of "blood and iron" had resulted in the wars with Denmark, Austria, and France. Now that Franco- Germany was "satiated," as he declared, he be- German came a man of peace. His policy, henceforth, hinged upon France. The catastrophe of the Franco-German War seemed to remove that country from the 1 Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 28, "Peace Circular of Nicholas II, 1898"; No. 29, "Final Act of the First Hague Peace Conference, 1899." 650 The Triple Alliance 651 ranks of the great powers, but she recovered rapidly under a republican government and soon paid off the indemnity im- posed upon her by the Treaty of Frankfort. But France was not reconciled to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. 1 The annexa- tion of these two provinces kept alive the spirit of revenge in France and made her Germany's irreconcilable enemy. The French in 1870-1871 had fought alone; should they secure the support of Austria-Hungary, Italy, or Russia, the issue of a second Franco-German War might be quite unlike that of the first. Accordingly, Bismarck did all he could to keep France friendless among the nations. The "Iron Chancellor" turned first to Austria-Hungary. He had prepared the way for good relations by his moderation in arranging terms of peace with Francis Joseph I at the close of the "Seven Weeks' War." 2 After and 187 1 the Hapsburgs began to seek compensation Austna- in the Balkans for the territory which they had lost in Germany and Italy. Bismarck supported their pretensions at the Congress of Berlin. Here the "honest broker," as he called himself, successfully opposed the extension of Russian influence in the Balkan Peninsula and agreed to an Austrian occupation of the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 3 In 1879 Germany and Austria-Hungary made a secret alliance binding themselves to aid each other if either should be attacked by Russia or by another power which had the help of Russia. Bismarck scored a further triumph in 1882, when he induced Italy to throw in her lot with Germany and Austria-Hungary, thus forming the Triple Alliance. Italy took this Germany action, partly to secure good friends on the Conti- and Italy nent, but chiefly because of resentment against France, which had just established a protectorate over Tunis, a region marked for Italian colonization. Rumania also joined the group of Central Powers in 1883. The Triple Alliance continued un- broken until Italy declared war against Austria-Hungary. Ru- mania likewise repudiated it, upon entering the World War. Bismarck also did his best to convince Russia of Germany's 1 See page 466. 2 See page 463. 3 See page 536. 652 International Relations " Dropping the Pilot " A cartoon by Sir John Tenniel which appeared in the English journal Punch for March 9, 1890. good will. During the 'eighties the two countries actually bound Germany themselves to benevo- and Russia j ent neu t ra lity in case one or the other should be assailed. This "reinsurance compact" was secretly signed in 1884 and was renewed three years later. But William II, who forced Bismarck's retirement in 1890, 1 did not con- tinue the friendly understanding with Russia. The kaiser seems to have believed that the Triple Alli- ance sufficiently guaranteed the security of Germany and that the "reinsurance compact" would in- terfere with Germany's obligations to Austria-Hungary, whose rivalry with Russia in the Balkans had now become more acute than ever. Russian relations 175. The Dual Alliance and the Triple Entente The creation of the Triple Alliance was a challenge to France and Russia to form an opposing alliance. Bismarck's diplomatic Franco- skill had postponed it as long as he remained chancellor, but even before 1890 the two countries had begun to draw together. An alliance between them seemed very improbable, in view of the fact that they had fought each other bitterly in the Napoleonic and Crimean wars and of the further fact that one was a revolutionary republic and the other a reactionary autocracy. International politics sometimes makes strange bedfellows, however. ' Feelings of both revenge and fear stirred France: revenge for the hu- miliating defeats of 1870-1871 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine; fear lest with the rapid increase of German wealth, population, 1 See page 519. The Dual Alliance and the Triple Entente 653 and military power she might be suddenly attacked and over- whelmed by her Teutonic neighbor. Under Bismarck, Germany had pursued a peaceful policy ; what would be her policy under the kaiser no one could say. In any case, mighty Russia seemed a most desirable ally. Russia, on her part, now realized more keenly the conflict between her interests in the Balkans and the interests of Germany's ally, Austria-Hungary ; she held Germany responsible for her failure at the Congress of Berlin ; and she, too, felt alarm at the growing preponderance of Ger- many in European affairs. The time was obviously ripe for a Franco-Russian understanding. Close relations between France and Russia began in the financial sphere, when the tsar's government, in order to build the Trans-Siberian Railway and develop Russian The Dual industries, sold large blocks of securities to French Alliance, investors. A secret treaty between the two countries was concluded in 1891 and was publicly announced four years later. The precise terms of the treaty are unknown. Apparently, France and Russia agreed that in case either nation was attacked the other nation would come to its as- sistance, and that peace should be made in concert. The Dual Alliance, like the Triple Alliance, thus appears to have been a defensive undertaking on the part of the powers concerned. France no longer stood alone, and Germany on her eastern flank had a potential enemy. It was the "nightmare coalition" so feared by Bismarck. Ever since the Crimean War Great Britain had kept aloof from Continental entanglements. She was no friend either of France or Russia, for the colonial aspirations of i so i a ti n these powers, the one in Africa and the other in of Great Asia, clashed with her own. Lord Salisbury, 1 Disraeli's successor as leader of the Conservative Party during the last two decades of the nineteenth century, continued the traditional Francophobe and Russophobe policies of Great Britain. Toward Germany and the other members of the Triple 1 Prime minister, 1885-1886, 1886-1892, and 1895-1902. 654 International Relations Alliance the British attitude was most amicable throughout the period of Bismarck's chancellorship. To avoid giving Anglo- offense to Great Britain Bismarck scrupulously German observed Belgian neutrality during the war of 1870- 187 1, and for the same reason he long opposed the acquisition of colonies by Germany. The supposed kin- ship of Germans and Anglo-Saxons and the close connections of the German and British courts (William II was a grandson of Queen Victoria) also made for good relations between the two countries. Nevertheless, as the 'nineties advanced, Great Britain and Germany began to draw apart. One reason was the amazing industrial development of Germany, which by this time had made her a serious competitor of Great Britain in foreign markets. ' Another reason was the aggressive colonial policy of Germany and her apparent intention of founding a world empire rivaling that of Great Britain. But the most important reason was Germany's declared purpose to build up a great navy as well as a great army. To the average Britisher the new German navy seemed a dagger pointed at his country's heart. The sympathetic attitude of the kaiser and his associates towards the Boers, both before and during the South African War, further disturbed the serenity of Anglo- German relations. The early years of the twentieth century saw Great Britain emerge from her isolation, which some described as "splendid" but others as "dangerous," and seek new friend- The „ . entente ships on the Continent. The first step was recon- cordiale, ciliation with France. The two nations found it 1904 possible to adjust their conflicting claims in Africa and to arrive at a "cordial understanding" {entente cordiale). This was not a formal alliance ; it did not provide for mili- tary measures, either of defense or of offense ; nor did it have special reference to Germany or any other Continental power. The significance of the entente cordiale lay in the fact that it healed the ancient feuds between the two na- tions and prepared the way for their closer cooperation in the future. The Dual Alliance and the Triple Entente 655 Three years later Great Britain and Russia, who for half a century had jealously watched each other's expansion in Asia, composed their differences. The Anglo-Russian The Triple Convention 1 settled the troublesome questions Entente, relating to Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet in a manner satisfactory to both powers. The entente cordiale thus became transformed into a Triple Entente, for Russia was already an ally of France. Japan, a British ally since 1902, 2 also reached an understanding with Russia in regard to their respective spheres of influence in the Far East. The change in international relations which made Great Britain an actual ally of Japan and a potential ally of France and Russia, has been called a diplomatic revolu- The tion. Its significance was not lost on Germany, diplomatic While British statesmen believed that they were only preparing defensive measures against a possible German attack, most Germans pictured Great Britain as plotting their country's ruin. The rift between the two nations steadily widened ; by 1 914 it had become a chasm. Such, in outline, was the tangled skein of European diplomacy for nearly forty years following the Franco-German War. The Triple Alliance under Bismarck's guidance had Balance of dominated Europe without a competitor, before the P° wer creation of the Dual Alliance. Something like a balance of power then replaced the earlier primacy of Germany. The old coalition, however, continued to be far stronger than the new, until Great Britain aligned herself with France and Russia. Germany, resentful at what she described as the "encirclement policy" of her enemies, at the "iron ring" which she professed to see being forged around her, now bent every effort to break up the Triple Entente by diplomatic action and bV Military threats. At the same time she tried to create a " Middfe^tirbpe " which, with its annexes in Asia, would effectually^ icSarate Great Britain and France from their Russian ally. Bir Tne < s > e German projects raised new colonial problems and reop^eriedrrie Eastern ^ ,- ..all bs J Question. 1 See page 552. 2 See pageRjdg.a'T^ 656 International Relations 176. Colonial Problems Something has been said in a previous chapter about the Greater Europe which arose during the nineteenth and twentieth Nationalism centuries. European expansion went on most f nd rapidly after 1871, when one country after another endeavored to form an empire overseas. This new imperialism was especially fostered by the revival of national sentiment in Europe. Both Italy and Germany wished to obtain colonial dependencies where their people could settle and maintain the language, customs, and traditions of the home land. France sought compensation for her " Lost Provinces "by acquiring African possessions. Russia, Japan, and the United States annexed additional territories. Great Britain, the leading colonial power in the world for more than a century, took re- newed pride in her dominions and prepared to extend them as occasion offered. European peoples could not compete for mar- kets, trading-posts, spheres of influence, protectorates, and colo- nies in every part of the world without becoming as bitter rivals abroad as they were at home. Imperialism, as well as nation- alism, thus sowed the seeds of future conflict between them. A late-comer in the family of nations, Germany found that the best regions for colonization in the temperate zone already Germany's belonged to other powers. The colonies which " place in she acquired in Africa and Oceania did not attract settlers, provided no important markets, and im- posed a heavy burden on the imperial treasury for mainte- nance. If Germany was to secure "a place in the sun," 1 it could only be at the expense of other countries and by reliance upon "the good German sword." 2 William II made prepara- tions for the partition of China, but the uprising of the Chinese under the "Boser^sr' led to the abandonment of this enterprise. He tried to ge£ a foothold in South America by sending his warships to aemahd from Venezuela the payment of German debts, onl^ia beguiled up sharply by President Roosevelt, who concentrated the American fleet in the West Indies and in- 1 The kaiser's phrase (1901). 2 The crown prince's phrase (1003). Colonial Problems 657 voked the Monroe Doctrine. Not more successful was the kaiser's policy in Morocco. Morocco at the beginning of the twentieth century was a Moslem state inhabited by half-civilized and very unruly tribes. The rich natural resources of the country and its Firgt proximity to Algeria made it an inviting field for Moroccan French expansion. Germany also had some eco- 590(Ki906 nomic interests there. William II precipitated the first Moroccan crisis, at a time when Russia, the ally of France, was involved in war with Japan. He paid a visit to the native ruler, openly flouted the French claims, and asserted in vigorous language the independence of Morocco. France could not afford to accept the challenge thus flung in her face and agreed to submit the matters in dispute to an international conference, which met at Algeciras, Spain, in 1906. The assembled powers prohibited the annexation of Morocco, but left France free to continue her policy of "peaceful penetration." The outcome of the conference thus proved disappointing to the kaiser. Germany soon found another occasion to test the strength of the Anglo-French entente. Owing to the anarchy in Morocco, a French army had occupied the capital (Fez), second The kaiser at once dispatched a warship to Agadir Moroccan on the Moroccan coast, as a notice to France to withdraw her troops. Feeling mounted high in both countries, and Europe for the moment seemed to be on the verge of the long-dreaded war. Great Britain, however, made common cause with France, for Agadir in German hands and converted into a naval base would have formed a palpable threat to British trade routes in the Atlantic. Germany now decided to yield. She agreed to the establishment of a French protectorate over Morocco, accepting as compensation some territory in the French Congo. This "Agadir incident" further embittered in- ternational relations. The French regarded their Congo cession as so much blackmail levied by Germany; the Germans looked upon Great Britain's support of France as an un- warranted interference which had inflicted upon them a diplo- matic defeat. 658 International Relations 177. The Eastern Question Bismarck had treated the whole Eastern Question with contempt, declaring it "not worth the bones of a single Germany Pomeranian grenadier." Under William II, how- and Turkey ever, Germany managed to supplant Great Britain as the protector of the Ottoman Empire against Russia. The ® Petrograd THE BERLIN TO BAGDAD RAILWAY q 100 200 300 400 50 Scale of Miles kaiser twice visited the sultan, 1 a bloodthirsty despot whose massacres of Bulgarians and Armenians had aroused the horror of Christian Europe, and ostentatiously proclaimed himself the champion of all Moslems, the ally of Allah. 1 Abdul Hamid II ("Abdul the Damned"), 1 876-1 909. See page 537. The Eastern Question 659 Germany now began the "peaceful penetration" of Asiatic Turkey. The fertile regions of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, sparcely settled and undeveloped, offered many The Bagdad opportunities for the investment of German capi- RaUwa y tal, markets for German goods, and homes for the superfluous population of Germany. Economic exploitation was to be followed by military and political control of the Ottoman Empire, with Germany in command of the Turkish armies and supreme throughout the wide area from the Black Sea to the Indian Ocean. All these dazzling possibilities were fore- shadowed in the scheme for a railway intended to unite Con- stantinople with Bagdad and the head of the Persian Gulf. Nearly all the line as far as Bagdad had been completed by the opening of the World War. German capitalists also began to construct a branch line running from Aleppo in Syria to Medina and Mecca in Arabia. It is obvious that the Bagdad Railway, with its connections, menaced the position of Great Britain in India and British control of Egypt and the Suez Canal. The practical annexation of Asiatic Turkey formed only a part of the kaiser's ambitious policy. European Turkey, the Balkan states, and Austria-Hungary were to unite with " Middle Germany into a huge combination for purposes of Eur °P e offense and defense. "Middle Europe" might ultimately draw within its embrace Holland, the Scandinavian states, and a pro- jected Polish kingdom to include almost the entire manufactur- ing area of Russia. German commerce would exploit and German militarism would dominate every one of these countries. The success of the "Middle Europe" project depended upon the attitude of the independent Christian states of the Balkans. It was essential that they should be _ J Germany amenable to German, or at least to Austro-Hun- and the garian, influence and that the influence of Russia Balkan ° ' states should be entirely eliminated from their councils. Dynastic relationships seemed to make this possible. Prince (afterwards Tsar) Ferdinand of Bulgaria was a German ; King Charles of Rumania was the kaiser's kinsman; and the wife of the future King Constantine of Greece was the kaiser's 660 International Relations sister. Even Serbia had a pro- Austrian ruler until 1903, when a revolution of Belgrade brought to the throne King Peter, who leaned toward Russia. The Balkan policy of the Central Powers consequently received a setback, for Serbia lay on the line of the railway from Berlin to Constantinople. Events now moved rapidly in the Balkans. Taking advan- tage of the Young Turk Revolution, 1 Austria-Hungary in 1908 First Balkan proceeded to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, crisis, 1908 These two provinces had been freed from the direct control of the Turks by Serbia and Russia, during the Russo- Turkish War of the 'seventies, but the Congress of Berlin had handed them over to Austria-Hungary to occupy and administer. 2 Their annexation, violating the Berlin settle- ment, raised a storm of protests in Serbia. The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are Slavs, and Serbia expected some day to incorporate them and the Montenegrins in a South Slavic state stretching from the Danube to the Adriatic. Rus- sia also seethed with indignation at what she considered an affront to Slavic peoples by a Teutonic power. Russian troops now began to move toward the Austrian border. At this moment Germany ranged herself by the side of Austria- Hungary "in shining armor," as the kaiser afterwards expressed it, and dared Russia to attack her ally. Both France and Great Britain refused to join Russia in a general European war, and that country, not yet recovered from the struggle with Japan, thereupon gave way, withdrew her support from Serbia, and looked on in deep humiliation while the Central Powers pro- ceeded to reap the fruits of their diplomatic triumph. The First Balkan War (1912-1913) produced another inter- national crisis. Early in the course of the struggle the Serbians Second seized Durazzo, a port in the Turkish province of Balkan crisis, Albania, in order to gain access to the Adriatic. 1912-1913 ^j ie Montenegrins a lso captured Scutari, another important Albanian town. Austria-Hungary would not consent to these annexations, which barred her own expansion to the southeast, and demanded that Durazzo and Scutari be evacu- 1 See page 537. 2 See page 536. Militarism 66 1 ated. Germany, as before, backed her ally. A general Eu- ropean war again seemed very near, until Serbia and Monte- negro yielded to the pressure put upon them by the great powers and gave up their conquests. The result was the forma- tion of a new Albanian state with a German prince as its ruler and under German influence. The Central Powers had won a second diplomatic triumph in the Balkans. The outcome of the Second Balkan War (1913), however, profoundly disappointed the Central Powers. The Treaty of Bukharest * left Germany's vassal, Turkey, with The Balkan only a footing in Europe ; it humiliated Bulgaria, situation the friend of Austria-Hungary; and it planted a hostile Serbia squarely in Macedonia, where she blocked the "Middle Europe" scheme. Even before the treaty had been signed, Austria-Hungary made ready to attack Serbia, but held her hand when Italy refused to cooperate, on the ground that the terms of the Triple Alliance required its members to aid each other only in the case of a defensive war. Germany also seems to have dissuaded Austria-Hungary from undertaking her perilous adventure in 1913. The hour had not yet struck to precipitate a European conflict. Meanwhile, the Central Powers feverishly hastened military preparations, and the other countries, seeing the war clouds on the horizon, likewise took steps to increase their arms and armies. 178. Militarism Between 1871 and 1914 there were wars in the Balkans, in Asia, and in Africa. The nations of western Europe, however, did not draw the swoid against one another for " Armed more than forty years. Yet at no other period P eace " had there been such enormous expenditures for armaments, such huge standing armies, and such colossal navies. Western Europe enjoyed peace, but it was an "armed peace" based upon fear. The improvements in weapons in the latter part of the nine- teenth century made warfare a branch of applied science 1 See page 538. 662 International Relations requiring expert technical knowledge both on the battle-field and in the munition factory. One needs only refer to the New means breech-loading rifle, machine gun, and smokeless powder, together with the continuous enlargement of cannon and the use of long-range, high-explosive projectiles. In death-dealing efficiency these rev means of of destruc tion " The Blessings of Peace " "Hans and Jacques (together) : ' And I hear there's more to come I'" A cartoon that appeared in Punch, February 26, 1913. destruction threw all previous inventions into the shade. Hav- ing created modern civilization, science seemed ready to de- stroy it. The changed methods of fighting demanded the "nation in arms," rather than the old-fashioned armies composed of Militarism 663 volunteers and mercenaries. As early as the eighteenth cen- tury, European monarchs began to draft soldiers from among their subjects, but at first only artisans and peas- standing ants. During the revolutionary era France re- armies sorted to forced levies, allowing, however, many exemptions. Prussia went further during the Napoleonic era and adopted universal military service, as well in time of peace as in time of war. All able-bodied men were to receive several years' training in the army and then pass into the reserve, whence they could be called to the colors upon the outbreak of hos- tilities. This Prussian system, having proved its worth in the War of Liberation against Napoleon, 1 was extended by Wil- liam I soon after his accession to the throne. 2 The speedy triumphs of Prussia in 1866 and 1870 led all the principal nations, except Great Britain, to adopt universal military serv- ice. Europe thus became an "armed camp," with five million men constantly under arms. Great Britain found sufficient protection in her fleet, which it has long been the British policy to maintain at a strength at least equal to that of any two other powers. Her . widespread empire depends upon control of the seas, and, being no longer self-supporting, she would face starva- tion in time of war were she blockaded by an enemy. Germany, however, would not acquiesce in British maritime supremacy, and under the inspiration of the kaiser, who declared that the "trident must be in our hands," started in 1898 to build a mighty navy. Helgoland, 3 off the mouth of the Elbe, was converted into a naval base, a second Gibraltar. The Kiel Canal, originally completed in 1896, was reconstructed in 19 14 to allow the passage of the largest warships between the Baltic and the North Sea. Great Britain watched these preparations with unconcealed dismay. Her answer was the complete re- organization of the British fleet, the scrapping of nearly two hundred vessels as obsolete, and the laying-down of dread- noughts and super-dreadnoughts. The naval rivalry threatened 1 See page 403. 2 See page 460. 3 Acquired by Great Britain in 1815 and ceded to Germany in 1890. 664 International Relations Peace rescript of Nicholas II, 1898 to become so enormously expensive that British statesmen twice proposed a "naval holiday," that is, an agreement to keep down the rate of increase. But Germany refused to enter into an arrangement which would have left Great Britain still mistress of the seas. The crushing burden of standing armies and navies pro- duced a popular agitation in many countries to abolish warfare. The movement took practical shape as the result of a proposal by Nicholas II for an international conference, which should arrange a general dis- armament. The tsar's rescript of 1898 was a telling indictment of militarism in these words : "The preserva- tion of peace has been put forward as the object of international policy. In its name the great states have concluded between themselves powerful alliances ; the better to guarantee peace, they have developed their military forces in proportions hitherto unprece- dented, and still continue to in- crease them without shrinking from any sacrifice. All these efforts, nevertheless, have not yet been able to bring about the beneficent results of the desired pacification. ... In proportion as the arma- ments of each power increase, do they less and less fulfill the objects which the governments have set before themselves. Economic crises, due in great part to the system of armaments a outrance, 1 and the continual danger which lies in this accumulation of war material, are transform- ing the 'armed peace' of our days into a crushing burden which the peoples have more and more difficulty in bearing. It appears evident, then, that if this state of things continues, it will inevitably lead to the very cataclysm which it is desired 1 "To the utmost." Nicholas II Pan-Germanism 665 to avert, and the horrors of which make every thinking being shudder in anticipation." As the result of the tsar's rescript, delegates from twenty-six sovereign states met in 1899 at The Hague, Holland, in the First Peace Conference. A Second Peace Con- p ea ce ference of forty-four sovereign states assembled in conferences 1907. Attempts were made at these gatherings to mitigate the horrors of future wars, for instance, by prohibiting the use of asphyxiating gases and "dumdum" bullets and the dropping of projectiles from balloons. Every proposal to reduce arma- ments encountered, however, the strenuous opposition of Germany. The German government would not abandon those deep-laid schemes for conquest, first in Europe and ultimately throughout the world, which are summed up in one word — Pan- Germanism. 179. Pan-Germanism The material development of Germany between 1871 and 1914 was perhaps unparalleled in European history. Her popula- tion increased from forty-one to sixty-five millions ; Kultur and her foreign trade more than trebled ; and she be- natlonalism came an industrial state second in Europe only to Great Britain. Proud of their army, navy, and police, of their handsome, well- ordered cities, of their technical schools and universities, of their science, literature, music, and art, the Germans came to believe that they enjoyed a higher culture (Kultur) than any other people. The Russians, by comparison, were barbarians ; the French and Italians decadent ; and the British and Ameri- cans, mere money-grabbers. "We are the salt of the earth," the kaiser told his countrymen. Such ideas found a fertile soil in the exaggerated nationalism which had been fostered by the creation of the German Empire. The ardent belief in the superiority of German Kultur seemed to impose the duty of extending it to alien and therefore in- ferior peoples. This was Germany's divine mission, Kultur and according to her philosophers, historians, clergy- imperialism men, and government officials. Even the kaiser could say in all 666 International Relations seriousness that "God has called us to civilize the world; we are the missionaries of human progress." Before the world could be remade upon the German model, it had to be first conquered. Both backward and "decadent" Kultur and nations possessed their own standards of civiliza- miiitarism tion, which they would not willingly abandon even for Germany's so-called beneficent Kultur. World- power, in fact, meant war. Accordingly, the leaders of German society labored in press and school and pulpit to prove that war is a holy and righteous thing ; that it corresponds in the life of nations to the "struggle for existence" l in animal life ; and that by war the weaker, incompetent states are weeded out and room is made for those stronger, more efficient states which alone deserve to inherit the earth. At the same time the people were led to consider war inevitable because of the hostile at- titude of Russia, the "Slavic peril"; because France wanted revenge for her "Lost Provinces"; and because Great Britain only awaited a favorable opportunity to take the German navy and stifle German commerce. It was taught that Germany ought not to delay until her enemies were ready for a combined attack ; she should attack first and reap the advantage of her military preparedness. This idea of an offensive-defensive war particularly appealed to a people who owed their national greatness to successful conflicts deliberately incurred by un- scrupulous rulers. The autocratic nature of the German government, vesting the control of foreign affairs so largely with the emperor, 2 made the egotistical, domineering personality of William II a very important factor in the inter- national situation. The kaiser inherited the warlike traditions of Frederick the Great and William I ; and even the shadowy claims to universal dominion put forth during the Middle Ages by the Holy Roman Emperors. His public utterances for thirty years were a constant glorification of war and conquest. One of his first speeches after mounting the throne had an ominous sound : " I solemnly vow always to be mindful of the fact that 1 See page 642. 2 See page 513. Pan-Germanism 667 the eyes of my ancestors are looking down upon me from the other world, and that one day I shall have to render to them an account both of the glory and the honor of the army." And on another occasion he said : "It is the soldiers and the army, not parliamentary majorities, that have welded the German Em- pire together. My confidence rests upon the army." During the earlier years of his reign the kaiser seemed to find sufficient outlet for his restless energy in the development of Germany. The task lost its novelty and interest p after a time, and he turned his uneasy gaze outside German the empire to the aggrandizement of Germany Lea s ue abroad. More and more he came to be in sympathy with the aggressive policies advocated by the German militaristic class. It included the army and navy officers, both active and re- tired ; the large landowners {Junkers) ; the merchant princes, bankers, and manufacturers; the university professors, dip- lomats, and higher government officials — all, in short, who ex- pected to profit from a greater and enormously more wealthy Germany. These men organized in 1890 the Pan-German League, which soon became the most powerful political or- ganization in the empire. The- Pan-Germans thought that they could conquer Europe, nation by nation. They expected to overwhelm France by a sudden blow, capture Paris, seize the former Franche-Comte and what remained of French German Lorraine, 1 together with the Channel ports, take P r °g ram the French colonies, and levy an indemnity large enough to pay the expenses of the war. Then they intended to turn against Russia and annex her Polish and Baltic provinces. Their Austrian ally, meanwhile, would overrun Serbia and open the German "corridor" to the Orient. Once mistress of the Continent, Germany might look forward confidently to the issue of a future struggle with Great Britain and the British Empire for the dominion of the world. Every preparation was made, every precaution was taken, to insure a prompt, decisive victory. By the summer of 1914, 1 Once part of the Holy Roman Empire. See page 290. 668 International Relations a special war tax, to be expended on fortifications and equip- ment, had been collected. The army had been much increased. .. ™_ ^ „ Enormous stocks of munitions had been accumu- The Day lated. The Kiel Canal had been reconstructed. Strategic railways leading to the Belgian, French, and Russian frontiers had been laid down. All things were ready for "The Day." Germany required only a pretext to launch the World War. Studies i. Explain the following: (a) entente cordiale; (b) the "Lost Provinces"; (c) "Middle Europe"; (d) "Agadir incident"; and (e) "reinsurance compact." 2. "The Franco-German War of 1870-1871 was the starting point of a new era in European diplomacy." Comment on this statement. 3. How was Alsace-Lorraine the "open sore" of European politics after 1871? 4. "The history of Europe in recent years often has hinged upon such remote points as a railroad in Asia Minor, or a protectorate in northern Africa, or a harbor in China." Comment on this statement. 5. How would you define (a) militarism and (6) imperialism, as these terms have been used in the present chapter? 6. What are some of the arguments for and against compulsory military service? 7. "England's navy is a necessity; Germany's a luxury." Explain this statement. 8. Why has war been called the "national industry" of Prussia? 9. Point out on the map the European countries included in the Pan-German program. 10. On the map between pages 718-719 trace the present Slav- German boundary in Europe. CHAPTER XX THE WORLD WAR, 1914-1918 » 180. Beginning of the War, 1914 The pretext was soon supplied. On June 28, 19 14, the arch- duke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Hapsburg throne, and his wife were assassinated at Sarajevo, the capital of , Bosnia. The murderer, a Bosnian and therefore Sarajevo an Austrian subject, belonged to a Serbian secret assassination society which aimed to separate Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Dual Monarchy and add them to Serbia. The Austrian government, after conducting an investigation, alleged that he had been aided by Serbian officials, with the connivance of the government of Serbia. This accusation has never been proved. No doubt exists, however, that the Sarajevo assassination was a political crime, the natural outcome of the propaganda among the South Slavs (Jugoslavs) for the expulsion of Austria from the Balkans as she had been expelled from Italy and Germany. Nearly a month passed. Then on July 23, Austria-Hungary sent a note to Serbia, harsh, peremptory, and, except in name, an ultimatum. It demanded that Serbia suppress ultimatum anti-Austrian publications and organizations, dis- to Serbia miss from the army or the civil service all those implicated in the anti-Austrian propaganda, and eliminate anti-Austrian teachers from the public schools. Serbia was further to allow the "collaboration" of Austrian officials in carrying out these measures. Forty-eight hours only were granted for the uncon- ditional acceptance or rejection of the ultimatum. 'Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxxv, "Diplo- macy of the Great War." Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 31, "Wilson's Fourteen Points, 1918"; No. 32, "Declaration of Independence of the Czecho- slovak Nation, 1918." 669 670 The World War Serbia replied on July 25. She agreed to all the Austriar demands except those which required the presence on Serbian Serbia's so ^ °^ representatives of the Dual Monarchy. reply Such an arrangement, Serbia pointed out, would violate her rights as a sovereign state — would make her, in fact, an Austrian vassal. She concluded by offering to submit the entire dispute to arbitration by the international tribunal at The Hague or to the mediation of the great powers. Austria- Hungary rejected the Serbian reply as insincere and on July 28 declared war upon her little neighbor. Russia, the protector of the Slavs of the Balkans, could not look on without concern while a great Teutonic power destroyed _ _ ' the independence of a weak Slav state. But if Ineffective ^ peace Russia intervened to aid Serbia, by making war proposals on Austria-Hungary, then Germany, as the latter's ally, would surely attack Russia ; and France, bound to Russia in firm alliance, would be obliged to attack Germany. Efforts to preserve the peace of Europe began at once. The Triple Entente first asked Austria-Hungary to extend the time limit for the answer from Serbia. Austria-Hungary declined to do so. Then Great Britain and France urged Serbia to make her answer to the ultimatum as conciliatory as possible. After the Serbian reply had. been delivered, Great Britain, through Sir Edward Grey, Minister for Foreign Affairs, suggested that the four great powers not directly involved should hold a conference in London to adjust the Austro- Serbian difficulty. France, Italy, and Russia accepted the suggestion. Germany rejected it. Finally, Great Britain invited Germany herself to propose some method of mediation, but the German govern- ment declared that the whole dispute concerned only Austria- Hungary and Serbia and that Russia should not interfere in it. If Russia did interfere, Germany would back her ally. We know now why these and other peace proposals during The that last fateful week of July, 1914, were ineffect- decision ive. Germany and Austria-Hungary had already decided for war. The present republican govern- ment of Austria published in the latter part of 1919 an official Beginning of the War 671 volume 1 of documents found in the archives of the former imperial government, from which it appears that a ministerial meeting held in Vienna, July 7, 1914, took the momentous decision to force war on Serbia. This was to be done by send- ing a note with such impossible demands that the Serbian government would be compelled to reject them. An Aus- tro-Hungarian declaration of war would then follow in due course. The Foreign Minister, Count Berchtold, who presided at the meeting and afterwards signed the note to Serbia, de- clared to the ministers that the kaiser had "emphatically" assured him of the "unconditional support of Germany in case of a warlike complication with Serbia." Germany was thus pre- pared to support Austria-Hungary to the uttermost. Russia had yielded to the Central Powers in the Balkan crises of 1908 and 1912-1913 ; in 1914 she accepted their chal- lenge. Russian troops began to mobilize against Austria-Hungary on July 29 and against Germany at war with on July 30. The German government, which Russia had already begun military preparations, sent an ultimatum to Russia ordering that country to start demobilization within twelve hours or accept the consequences (July 31). Russia did not reply. The kaiser, exercising his right to make "defen- sive warfare," immediately signed the document declaring that a state of hostilities existed between Germany and Russia (August 1). Asked by Germany what was to be her attitude in the coming struggle, France replied that she "would do that which her in- terests dictated," and began to mobilize. Ger- _ ' ° Germany many then declared war on France (August 3). at war with It is now known 2 that had France decided to France remain neutral, thus repudiating her treaty with Russia, the German government intended to demand the surrender of the fortresses of Toul and Verdun as a pledge of French neutrality ' Diplomatic Documents on the Antecedents of the War of 1914, Part I, Vienna, 1919. State Printing Office. 3 Revelations of M. Pinchon, Minister for Foreign Affairs, at the Sorbonne, Paris, March 1, 1918. 672 The World War until the close of the war. Germany thus showed herself so anxious to embroil France in the conflict that she made demands which that country could not and was not expected to accept. Germany also tried to learn the attitude of Great Britain. The German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, promised that if Attitude Great Britain would stand aloof, Germany would of Great agree not to take any European territory from France, but he refused to give assurances as to the French colonies. Sir Edward Grey retorted that Great Britain could never conclude such a disgraceful bargain with Germany, at the expense of France. The British Foreign Minister, however, made it clear that Great Britain would not be drawn into a Franco-German War unless France and Russia rejected "any reasonable proposal" for peace put forward by the Central Powers. After the German declaration of war on Russia and the German invasion of neutral Luxemburg, 1 Great Britain promised France the help of the British fleet in case the German fleet operated against the unprotected western coast of France. The British government could not honorably do less, for, in accordance with the Anglo-French entente, France since 191 2 had concentrated her fleet in the Mediterranean so that the British fleet might be concentrated in the North Sea against the possibly hostile German navy. The neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by the European powers, including France and Prussia, both in 1831 and 1839; furthermore, the Second Peace Conference in 1907, with Ger- many consenting, expressly declared the territory of neutral Violation of states to be inviolable. True to its treaty engage- Belgian ments, the French government on August 1 an- nounced its intention to respect Belgian neutrality. The next day, however, Germany addressed a note to Belgium demanding permission to move troops across the country into France and threatening, in case of a refusal, to leave Belgium's fate to the "decision of arms." The Belgian government, under King Albert, declined to "sacrifice the honor of the nation and betray its duty toward Europe." On August 4 the 1 See page 428 and note 1. Beginning of the War 673 German army invaded Belgium. Bethmann-Hollweg frankly admitted before the Reichstag, the same day, that the invasion was "a breach of international law," and the kaiser, in a cable message to President Wilson 1 acknowledged that Belgian neu- trality "had to be violated by Germany on strategical grounds." An invasion of Belgium was, in fact, vital to the success of the German plan of cam- _. \ , Strategic paign, which involved importance a swift, crushing blow of Bel s ium at the French before Russian mobilization could be completed. No rapid movement against France was possible from the east, first, because the high bluffs and narrow river valleys in this part of the country made defense easy; and, second, because the eastern frontier had been protected, since the Franco-German War, by fortresses all the way from Verdun to Belfort. An attack from the northeast presented fewer difficulties, for a comparatively level plain, well provided with roads and railways, stretches from Germany through Belgium and France to the environs of Paris. Furthermore, France had not strongly fortified her frontier on the side of Belgium, having trusted to the neutrality of that country for protection. The neutrality of Belgium has been a cardinal point in British foreign policy since the Middle Ages. To Great Britain it seems essential that the Belgian coast shall not be occu- Germany pied by a strong military power, thus menacing at war with tl . . / . ? v ™ J , ' it . . Great Britain British control of the Channel. Over this question she fought with Philip II of Spain in the sixteenth century and later with Louis XIV and Napoleon. Great Britain, moreover, had her explicit treaty obligations to Belgium, obligations which 1 Sent August 10, 1914. King Albert I 674 The World War no honorable nation could fail to respect. When, therefore, news came that German troops were entering Belgium, the British government, at this time controlled by the Liberals under Mr. Asquith, sent an ultimatum to Germany, requiring assurances by midnight, August 4, that Belgian neutrality would be respected. Germany refused, and Bethmann-Hollweg, in his final interview with the British ambassador at Berlin, complained that Great Britain was about to fight a kindred nation just for "a scrap of paper." About midnight Great Britain declared war on Germany. 181. The Western Front The war quickly converted the Triple Entente into a Triple Alliance. Great Britain, France, and Russia engaged not to The Allies, make peace separately and to accept a general peace only on terms agreeable to all of them. The instinct of self-preserva- tion, which had united Europe against France under Louis XIV and 1914 BEHEMBERTOUM Napoleon , was now aroused against the military domi- nation of Germany under the kaiser. As on previ- ous occasions, Great Brit- ain, with her fleet, her money, and eventually her army, formed the keystone of the coalition. Germany and Austria- Hungary, though less pop- ulous and wealthy than their antagonists, held a better geographical posi- tion, and at the outset they possessed a superiority both in the number of trained soldiers and in guns, munitions, and equipment. Above all, British Recruiting Poster The Western Front 675 they were prepared. Austria- Hungary had already massed part of her army against Serbia, while Germany, by means of her strategic railroads, could move and concentrate The Central troops on her eastern or western frontier with p °wers, 1914 greater speed than either Russia or France. Should it prove to be a short war, the Central Powers seemed likely to win an overwhelming victory. Hostilities began on the western front with the converging advance of the German armies in three groups, one through Bel- gium, one through Luxemburg, and one from Lor- raine against the eastern fortresses of France. German The Germans occupied Luxemburg without re- advance sistance and then threw themselves upon the Belgians. The fortresses of Liege and Namur, supposedly impregnable, were smashed to pieces by the huge German siege guns, and Brussels itself was captured. Nevertheless, the Belgian resistance — heroic, unexpected — delayed by at least twelve days the arrival of the Germans on the frontiers of France. The French gained time to complete mobilization and the British to send an ex- peditionary force of one hundred thousand men. After the first clash at Mons, the Anglo-French armies retired southward, fighting delaying actions all the way. The invaders soon crossed the Marne and at the nearest point came within fifteen miles of Paris. The opposing forces were now extended in an immense semi-circle, one hundred and fifty miles in length, from the vicinity of Paris to a little below Verdun. At the Marne the Allied commanders, General Toff re and Sir John French, stayed the retreat. A new army (the Sixth Army), which had been quietly prepared in Paris ... . . _, . Battle of and of whose existence the Germans were ignorant, the Marne, was suddenly launched at their exposed right September n , a , • ^ , tT , , 6-12, 1914 Hank. At the same time General Poors mag- nificent assault drove in their center on both sides of the marshes of St.-Gond. The weight of the combined attack sent them back in confusion, and with heavy losses of men and material, across the Aisne River. The importance of these successes was vastly increased by the simultaneous victories of the French on 676 The World War their eastern frontier, where they held the enemy back in the Argonne and before Nancy. Such was the seven days' battle of the Marne. The Germans had been out-generaled and out- Plan of the Battlf of the Marne British army (Field-Marshal French). VI. French army (Manoury). V. " " (Franchet d'Esperey). IX. " " (Foch). IV. " " (Langle de Cary). III. " " (Sarrail). 1. German army (Von Kliftk). 2. " " (VonBulow). 3- " " (VonHausen). 4- " " (Duke of Wiirtemberg). 5. " " (Crown Prince of Prussia). fought ; German plans for a speedy triumph had been upset ; and Paris had been saved. Both sides now bent every effort to extend their lines north- ward to the sea. The Germans hoped to seize Dunkirk and The race Calais, two important Channel ports, and thus to the sea to interrupt the direct line of communication be- tween Great Britain and France; but the Allies reached the Channel first and farther north at Nieuport. Then followed in October and November, 1914, the first battle of Ypres, when the Germans, by massed attacks, tried vainly to break through the British lines. Near the coast the Belgians cut the dikes of the river Yser, flooding the lowlands and stopping 677 678 The World War any advance in this direction. Trench warfare now began to replace open fighting all along the western front from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier, a distance of six hundred miles. Repeated efforts to break the deadlock on the western front marked the year 191 5. Both French and British made some The progress in clearing enemy trenches by means of deadlock concentrated shell-fire, but as yet the production of high-explosive shells was insufficient for prolonged "blasting operations." The Germans, on their part, employed poison- gas — contrary to the terms of the Hague Conventions — in the second battle of Ypres, during April and May. The situ- ation was critical for a time, until the French and British manu- factured gas masks to overcome the choking fumes. The Allies were eventually obliged themselves to use this hideous device against the enemy. The first half of 19 16 was marked by the German assault upon Verdun, the most important French stronghold on the eastern frontier. The siege of Siege of . . , • . Verdun, the city lasted nearly February- nve months and cost the lives of at least half a million men on both sides. The Ger- mans under the crown prince were determined to take the place at any cost. The French were equally de- termined to defend it at any cost. "They shall not pass !" became the battle-cry of all France. They did not pass. More than that, in the fall of 19 1 6 the French resumed the offensive and within seven hours drove the Germans back almost to their original lines. Ruined Verdun, like ruined Ypres, thus remained in Allied hands. What more than anything else relieved the pressure on Verdun was the Anglo-French attack against the German lines along the river Somme. By this time Great Britain had Sir Douglas Haig The Western Front 679 adopted conscription and had built up a magnificent army commanded by Sir Douglas Haig. The Allies now possessed more heavy guns and munitions than the Germans, Battle of and in the "tanks" a weapon destined to prove its the Somme, value in breaking the trench deadlock. The Allied November, advance took place on a front of twenty miles to 1916 a maximum depth of about nine miles. It was finally checked by German counter-attacks and by bad weather, which turned the battle-field into a sea of mud. k i To forestall another attack, the Germans in the spring of 191 7 retired on a wide front to the shorter and more defensible Hindenburg Line. Theter- Hindenburg ritory evacu- Line ated by them was laid completely waste, every building being destroyed, vineyards uprooted, and orchards cut down. The Allies advanced over this wilderness and from April to December conducted a steady offensive, which brought them appreciable gains. The Hindenburg Line still held, however, when the approach of winter PUt an end tO active ^ ne °^ a serles °* Powerful cartoons by Louis Rae- maekers, a Dutch artist. operations. The German treatment of Belgium and northern France aroused the horror of the civilized world. Deliberate, systematic massacres of the civil population to prevent or punish resistance, the looting and burning of entire atrodties villages, the destruction of Louvain with its and famous university, the shelling of the Cloth Hall outrages of Ypres and the cathedral of Reims, the imposition of excessive taxes and heavy fines on Belgian and French cities, the robbing " Kultur has Passed Here " 68o The World War of Belgium and northern France of coal, metals, machinery, and raw materials, finally, the forcible deportation of tens of thousands of civilians, both men and women, for forced labor in Germany — these were some of the atrocities and outrages which characterized German treatment of the conquered terri- tory. The inhabitants would have perished had it not been for the efficient system of relief Organized by an American, Mr. Herbert C. Hoover, who enlisted the help of the Allies and of the United States in providing food, clothing, and other neces- saries of life for the invaded districts. 182. The Eastern Front There was no deadlock on the eastern front. The Russians mobilized more rapidly than had been expected and put large forces in the field, under the general command in East °f the g ran( l duke Nicholas, an uncle of the tsar. Prussia, Their plan of campaign involved a simultaneous advance against the Germans in East Prussia and the Austrians in Galicia. The Russian armies which entered East Prussia, a difficult country of lakes, marshes, and rivers, were surprised and well-nigh an- nihilated by Hindenburg at the battle of Tannenberg (August, 1 9 14). The following January, when the Russians again ven- tured into this part of Germany, Hindenburg won another over- > whelming victory at the battle of the Mazurian Lakes. The Russians met better luck in „„_ „ . Galicia. They over- The Russians in Galicia, ran all this Austrian 1914-1915 province and by the spring of 191 5 began to penetrate the Carpathian passes into Hungary. These successes had the further result of causing the withdrawal of German troops from the western front, -\T- Hindenburg The Eastern Front 681 j Central Powers | Farthest Russian advance, 19H-1915 Russian advance, 1916 (Brusilov's drive) Battle line, March 1918 (signing of Brest-Litovsk TreloyT The Eastern Front 682 The World War with a consequent weakening of Germany's offensive power against the French and British. The summer of 19 15 saw some of the most tremendous en- gagements of the entire war. Hindenburg now assumed com- Hindenburg's man d of the eastern armies of both the Central "drive," Powers and started a terrific "drive" in Poland 1915 and Galicia. The result of the fighting is best traced on the accompanying map, which shows the enormous territory reoccupied or newly acquired by the Central Powers. At the end of 191 5 the battle-line on the eastern front stretched from the Gulf of Riga to the Rumanian frontier. Russia's recuperative power was strikingly exhibited the fol- lowing year. General Brusilov attacked the Austro-German ., , armies on a wide front between the Pripet Marshes Brusilov s . 1 1 r " drive," and Bukowma, pushing them back from twenty to 1916 fifty miles and making huge captures of men and supplies. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution, early in 191 7, made it impossible to continue the offensive. From this time there was little more fighting on the eastern front. Never- theless, Russia's part in the World War should not be mini- mized. The sacrifices which she made without stint during the first three years of the struggle were essential to the ulti- mate victory of the Allies. 183. The Balkan and Italian Fronts As soon as the war broke out, Montenegro made common cause with Serbia. The three other Christian states of the Balkans at first did not declare themselves. Bul- Neutrahty ' . , of the garia had no love for Austria-Hungary, but she Balkans cordially hated Serbia, her most successful foe in the Second Balkan War. Rumania was friendly neither to Austria-Hungary nor to Russia, for both possessed provinces which she wished to "redeem" from alien rule. 1 Public opinion in Greece, as voiced by Venizelos, the prime minister, favored the Allies. The pro-German King Constantine and the court party managed, nevertheless, to preserve a nominal neutrality. 1 Transylvania, Bukowina, and Bessarabia. The Balkan and Italian Fronts 683 Turkey, largely controlled by Germany and fearful of Rus- sia's designs on Constantinople, soon espoused the cause of the Central Powers. Her entrance Turkey joins did not at first appreciably the Central Powers affect the situation, for she was October, still cut off from her associates 1914 by a neutral Bulgaria and a hostile Serbia. The sultan proclaimed a holy war of ex- termination against the "enemies of Islam." Contrary to German hopes, the Moslems of North Africa, Egypt, and India, instead of revolting, loyally supported France and Great Britain. An attempt in 191 5 by an VlCT0RIA Cross Anglo-French fleet to force the Dardanelles Established in 1856 for and take Constantinople proved disastrous, acts of bravery in battle. , t. T . , , , . It is a bronze Maltese however. No greater success attended the cross with the royal crest heroic efforts of the "Anzacs" (Australians (lion and crown ) ^ the , __ _ , 1 N . center and below it a and New Zealanders) to secure a footing on scroll i nscr ;b e d "For the peninsula of Gallipoli, and the troops Valour." were finally withdrawn from this graveyard of Allied hopes. After long hesitation Bulgaria also threw in her lot with the Central Powers. The situation in the Balkans now changed overnight. Brave little Serbia, Bul „ aria who earlier in the war had joins the twice expelled the Austrians, po"^ rs quickly collapsed under the October, double attack of Austro-Ger- mans from the north and Bulgarians from the east. Montenegro, Serbia's ally, was likewise conquered, together with northern Albania. The triumph of the Central Powers had the important result of opening up railway communication between Berlin and Constantinople. Military operations in the Balkans were not yet over. Influenced by the success of Brusilov's "drive" on the eastern front and the Anglo-French victories at Verdun The Iron Cross 68 4 The World War Allies, August, 1916 and on the Somme in the West, Rumania decided to join the Allies, in order to liberate her "unredeemed" peoples from Rumania anen ru ^ e - Her arrrnes promptly invaded Tran- joins the sylvania. A German-Austrian-Bulgarian counter- stroke drove them out and led to the speedy conquest of two-thirds of their own territory. The Rumanian collapse brought enormous advantages to the Central Powers, who now had access to the grain fields and oil wells of Rumania. It also shortened their battle-front by five hundred miles and facilitated their communications with Bulgaria and Turkey. After the failure of the Dardanelles campaign a large Anglo- French force had been gathered behind the defenses of Salonika in Greece, partly as a threat to Turkey and Bulgaria vJiCCCC joins the Allies, and partly to prevent King Constantme from bnng- June, 1917 j n g Q reece m t the war on the side of the Central Powers. He was finally deposed by the Allies, who placed his second son, Alexander, on the throne. Venizelos, whom Constantine had dis- missed from office, became prime minister once more and immediately took steps to insure the cooperation of his country with the Allies. The Balkan front henceforth extended westward from the iEgean to the Adriatic. Italy declared neutrality in 1 9 14, giving the same reason which she had given in 1913, 1 namely, that the terms of the Triple Alliance did not bind her to assist the Central Powers in an offensive war. But Italy was unable to remain neutral. Union with the Allies meant an opportunity to wrest Italia Irredenta 2 from 1 See page 661. 2 See page 456. Eleutherios Venizelos The Balkan and Italian Fronts 685 the grasp of Austria-Hungary, her traditional foe. Further- more, Great Britain, France, and Russia, by a secret treaty, had promised Italy a considerable portion of Ital 3 . Qins the Dalmatian coast and the adjacent islands, the Allies, besides a share of Turkish territories ; should ay ' the Ottoman Empire be partitioned as a result of the war. While the pressure of national interests thus influenced the de- cision of the Italian government, even more compelling, per- haps, was the conviction on the part of the Italian people that ■ Farthest Italian Advance ■ Battle Line, March, 1918 The Italian Front the Allies were fighting in a just cause for everything that man- kind holds dear. Italy, an ancient home of civilization, would aid her Latin sister France in defending civilization against what seemed a fresh inroad of the Germanic barbarians. The entrance of Italy added another front and almost com- pleted the encirclement of the Central Powers. Italian armies marched against Trieste and the Trentino, but Italian for a long time made slow progress. The Austrians campaigns held the crests of the mountains and the passes ; consequently, 686 The World War the Italians had to force their way upward in the face of the enemy. During the summer of 191 6 they finally crossed the Isonzo River and occupied Gorizia on the way to Trieste. The break-up of Russia after the revolution freed large forces of the Central Powers for service against Italy. An Austro- German attack, late in 191 7, undid all that the Italians had accomplished in more than two years of hard fighting and forced them back as far as the Piave River. There, with some aid from French and British troops, the Italians checked their foes. The military situation in Europe at the end of 191 7 clearly favored the Central Powers. On the western front they held The Allies Luxemburg, nearly all of Belgium, and a broad and the strip of northern France containing: valuable coal Central . Powers an< ^ ^ ron mines - On the eastern front they held 1917 Poland, Lithuania, and Courland, the richest indus- trial districts of the Russian Empire. They had overrun Serbia, Montenegro, and a large part of Rumania. They had taken most of Venetia from the Italians. Their only terri- torial losses to the Allies were in southern Alsace and eastern Galicia. A different picture, however, was presented outside of Europe and on the sea. 184. The War outside of Europe and on the Sea, 1914-1917 The sea-power of the Allies enabled them to capture Ger- many's colonial possessions. The British and French seized Togo and the Cameroons in West Africa. British Capture ° of the troops from the Union of South Africa, assisted by German loyal Boers, took German Southwest Africa, and colonies . . . . ' in cooperation with Belgian forces took German East Africa. The German possessions in the Pacific were conquered by the Australians, the New Zealanders, and the Japanese. Japan promptly entered the war on the side of the Allies. She had not forgotten the kaiser's slighting references to the "Yellow Peril" nor the fact that Germany had been chiefly The War outside of Europe and on the Sea 687 instrumental in depriving her of Port Arthur, after the Chino- Japanese War in 1895. 1 Moreover, Japan had entered into an alliance with Great Britain providing for mutual support were the territorial rights or special inter- Kiauchau, ests of either power in the Far East threatened 1914 by another power. 2 Japan's special contribution to the Allied cause was the capture of Kiauchau, the German naval base and stronghold in the Far East. Germany's ally, Turkey, suffered the loss of her out- lying possessions. ftedng of Great Britain Egypt and proclaimed a pro- AraDia tectorate over Egypt and set up a new ruler, who was to be quite independent of the sul- tan at Constantinople. The British also encouraged a re- volt of the Arabs against Turkey. Arab troops secured Mecca and Medina, the sacred places of Arabia, and estab- lished the kingdom of the Hejaz, which extends along the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Two other countries, long under the heel of the Turk, owed their liberation to Great Britain. An expeditionary force, largely composed of Indian contingents, invaded Mesopotamia by way of the Tigris River and Mestpo-^ entered Bagdad in triumph (March, 1917). An- tamia and other British army, starting from Egypt, invaded Palestine Palestine and took possession of Jerusalem (December, 1917). The Holy City, after nearly seven centuries, was again in Christian hands. 1 See page 558. 2 See page 563. "The Last Crusade" Richard I (looking down on the Holy City) : " My dream comes true." A cartoon which appeared in Punch, Dec. 19, 1917, at the time of the British capture of Jerusalem. 688 The World War The fleets of the Allies quickly swept the merchantmen of the Central Powers from the ocean and compelled their war- Allied ships to keep the shelter of home ports. The few control of German raiders which remained at large after hostilities began were either captured or sunk. Once only did the German "High Seas Fleet" slip out of Kiel Harbor, to be met by the British fleet off the coast of Jutland (May 31, 1916). Both sides suffered heavy losses in the en- gagement which followed. With the approach of darkness, however, the German ships returned to their safe anchorage and did not emerge again during the remainder of the war. Allied control of the sea led to an immediate blockade of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Three results followed. The The Allies were able freely to import food and raw blockade materials from their colonies and neutral states. They kept the ocean lanes safe for the transportation of troops from Africa, India, Australia, and Canada, meanwhile prevent- ing the return of Austro-German reservists from the United States and other countries. Finally, the Allies extinguished the commerce of the Central Powers, who were henceforth hard pressed to find the necessary sinews of war for their armies and food for their civilian population. As the war continued, the Allied blockade became more and more stringent. At first, it prevented the importation into E . Germany only of munitions and other materials of the used for military purposes. In February, 1915, blockade Great Britain also declared foodstuffs contraband, and as such liable to seizure if carried from neutral countries in neutral ships to Germany. The British justified their action on the ground that the German government had already com- mandeered the stocks of grain in private hands to insure the feeding of its armies, in other words, had itself treated food- stuffs as practically indispensable to the conduct of the war. The Central Powers relied on submarines (U-boats) to break Submarine the blockade. During the first months of the war warfare ^ e submarines attacked only enemy warships, but before long they began to destroy without warning The War outside of Europe and on the Sea 689 enemy merchantmen. This was in flagrant defiance of inter- national law, which requires that a cargo or a passenger ship, under either an enemy or a neutral flag, shall be warned before being attacked and every effort made to safeguard human lives. After the British action in making food contraband, Germany went so far as to declare the waters around the British Isles a "war zone," where all enemy merchantmen would be sunk, whether or not passengers and crews could be rescued. Neutral German Barred Zone (February i, 1917) vessels were also warned against trespassing within the zone. It goes without saying that this declaration constituted only a "paper blockade," of the sort that had been already prohibited by international law. The attempt to enforce the blockade by piratical means brought about the entrance of the United States into the World War. 690 The World War 185. Intervention of the United States President Wilson announced the neutrality of the United States immediately upon the outbreak of hostilities. No „,, TT . s other course seemed possible, in view of our tradi- The United , . ' States as tional policy of non-interference in European a neutral affairs and our peaceful temper. The President also asked for neutrality of sentiment on the part of the Ameri- can people, so that the United States, as the one great nation at peace, might in time be able to mediate between the warring countries. While the government did remain neutral, Ameri- can citizens could not avoid taking sides. The Central Powers had many active sympathizers, especially among those of Ger- man birth or parentage. Public opinion, however, favored The " Lusitania ". the Allies; above all, France, to whom we owed our liberty, and Belgium, so innocent and so cruelly wronged. But as yet there was little thought of our active participation in the war. Before long the United States was drawn into diplomatic controversies with the belligerents. President Wilson made repeated and vigorous protests to Great Britain regarding Submarine alleged infringements by that country of our neutral atrocities rights at sea, especially the detention of American ships in British ports to determine whether or not they carried contraband goods. But Germany's proclamation of a "war zone" raised a much more serious issue. President Wilson protested at once, declaring that the United States would hold the German government to a "strict accountability" for American ships destroyed or American citizens killed. Ger- Intervention of the United States 691 many disclaimed all responsibility for "accidents" which might occur. U-boats proceeded to torpedo the great British liner Lusitania, with the loss of over one hundred American men, women, and children (May 7, 1915), 1 and also attacked American ships and those of other neutral nations. A "war of notes" between the United States and Germany finally extorted a German pledge not to sink merchant vessels without warning, unless they attempted to escape or offered resistance (May, 19 1 6). Germany never intended to keep her pledge any longer than convenient, as the frank Bethmann-Hollweg afterwards admitted in a public statement. At the end of January, 191 7, she notified the American government of her purpose to sink at sight all ships, both enemy and neutral, found within certain areas adjoin- ing the British Isles, France, and Italy, and in the eastern Mediter- ranean. Only narrow " safety lanes " to one British port and to Greek waters were left open for a limited amount of neutral traffic inside the barred zone. Germany thus proposed to violate every right to the freedom of the seas for which the United States had ever contended. President Wilson then severed diplomatic relations with the German government. This act did not necessarily mean war, but it prepared the way for war. Submarine atrocities combined with Austro-German intrigues and conspiracies throughout the United States to arouse the warlike temper of the American people. From i ntrigues the very start official and non-official representa- and con- tives of the Central Powers had done all they could spin to destroy munition plants and steel factories supplying the Allies. Funds were sent to the German ambassador for use The German "Lusitania" Medal The obverse, shown here, bears under the legend Keine Bannware (" No Con- traband ") a representation of the sink- ing ship. The designer of the medal has added guns and airplanes which, however, the Lusitania did not carry. 1 In all, 119s persons were drowned. 692 The World War S.j.R eg. .WBL.C RESOLUTlON.^Ng /-^ ,,^ C0NGRES s,) ,;g*T^ ^ida-fift^ Congress of ijje fflnilto States of America; &t th£ prst Session, Begun and held at the Gty of WuUngton on Monday, the second day of April, one thomand nine hundred sad sneoteen. JOINT RESOLUTION Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial German Government and the Government and the people of the United States and making provision to prosecute the samo. Whereas the Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of war against tho Government and the people of the United States of America: Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate, ami House of Representatives of tit* United States of America in Couyress assembled. That the state of war between the United Stdtcs and the Imperial German Government which has thins been thrust upon • the United States in hereby formally declared; and that the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to employ the entile naval and military fiinvs of tlio Vnitcd Stud* and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the lini>erial fiemiun Government; and to bring the conflict to a Mieccwful termination all of the resources of tho country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the I'nited Stales. , sp? Speaker 0/ the Jlonse of Representatives. President of the Senate. , ice f resident of the United States and The United States Declaration of War Intervention of the United States 693 in bribing Congress to declare an embargo on the traffic in munitions. Spies were multiplied throughout the country. Efforts were made to foment ill feeling in the United States against Japan and in Mexico against the United States. When Germany was about to proclaim unrestricted submarine war- fare and believed the intervention of the United States would follow, she even invited Mexico to enter an alliance with her, promising aid in helping that country recover the American Southwest. Such actions convinced our people that Germany and her satellites were running amuck under irresponsible rulers and that national safety, no less than national honor, required us to take the side of the Allies. American intervention soon became an accomplished fact. The President, in an address before a special session of Congress, urged that since Germany had repeatedly com- The United mitted hostile acts against the United States, we States as a should formally accept the status of belligerent belh s erent thus thrust upon us. Congress responded by declaring war on Germany (April 6, 19 17). Similar action was taken as to Austria-Hungary in December of the same year. Diplomatic relations with Turkey and Bulgaria were also broken. America, the President said, had no quarrel with the people of the Central Powers, who had been led blindly into the war. America's quarrel was with their autocratic gov- American ernments. She asked nothing for herself, neither war aims annexations nor indemnities. She fought to put down divine- right monarchy, secret diplomacy, and militarism, to promote among mankind that ordered liberty under law which she had long enjoyed, and to "make the world safe for democracy." In such a cause American citizens were privileged to spend their lives and their fortunes. The United States prepared on a colossal scale for the war. Several battleships were immediately sent to Europe, besides a large number of torpedo boats and destroyers . Am Gric3.ii to fight the German submarines. The American war navy, with some assistance from that of Great P re P arations Britain, also planted more than 70,000 mines in the North 694 The World War Sea for a distance of 240 miles from the Orkney Islands to the coast of Norway. This deadly barrage was laid down in 1918. It effectually shut out German submarines from ingress North Sea Mine Fields into the Atlantic, for the narrow strait of Dover had already been closed by mines and nets. The government adopted conscription as the most rapid and democratic method of raising an army, and two months after the declaration of war over ten million young men were registered for service. Of- ficers' training camps were established, and thirty-two canton- ments — virtual cities, each housing forty thousand men — Intervention of the United States 695 were set up within ninety days to accommodate the private soldiers under training. Congress made huge appropriations for the construction of airplanes, for building cargo ships to re- place those sunk by the enemy, for loans to the Allies, and for the purchase of immense quantities of food, clothing, rifles, machine guns, artil- lery, munitions, and all the other equipment of a mod- ern fighting force. The money was raised partly by increased taxation, partly by borrowing (the Liberty Loans). Other features of the American war program included fuel control, food control, under the efficient direction of Mr. Herbert Hoover, and government operation of railroads, ex- press companies, and tele- graph and telephone lines. At the same time, American engi- neers in France constructed docks, storage depots, barracks, and even entire railways for the reception of America's armies. Several countries which so far had remained neutral fol- lowed the example of the United States during 1917. Cuba, Panama, Brazil, Siam, Liberia, and China all flung down the gauntlet to Germany. Including aga j ns t the Portugal, which joined the Allies during 191 6, Central nineteen sovereign states were now ranged against the four Central Powers. 1 The most important effort from a neutral source to end the war by negotiations came from Pope Benedict XV. On 1 Ten Latin- American countries also broke oS diplomatic relations with Ger- many in 1917. They were Costa Rica, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Santo Domingo, and Uruguay. The first five of these declared war against Germany during 191 8. Salvador declared a benevolent neutrality toward the United States, but did not actually enter the war. Herbert Hoover 6 9 6 The World War The Russian Revolution 697 August 1, 1917, he addressed the belligerent nations, proposing, in the main, a return to conditions which existed before 1914. Occupied territories were to be evacuated by both Peace sides ; indemnities were to be waived ; and the proposals of questions relating to Alsace-Lorraine, the Trentino, Poland, and other regions were to be settled in a conciliatory spirit. The pope further urged a decrease of armaments, the establishment of compulsory arbitration, and, in general, the substitution of the "moral force of right" for the "material force of arms." President Wilson replied to this appeal as spokesman of the Allies, declaring that no peace which would endure could be made with the autocratic and irresponsible German government. On January 8, 19 18, the President in an address to Congress set forth fourteen points of a program for a just and lasting peace. They included: abolition of secret di- The plomacy ; removal of economic barriers between " Fourteen the nations ; reduction of armaments to the lowest Points point consistent with national safety ; freedom of the seas ; im- partial adjustment of colonial claims ; evacuation by Germany of all conquered territory and the restoration of Belgium; readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality ; an independent Poland; self-government for the different peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire; and, finally, the formation of a general association of nations "for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political in- dependence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike." These proposals were generally accepted abroad as a succinct statement of the purposes of the Allies in the World War. 186. The Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution, beginning on the eve of American intervention, revealed the war more clearly than ever as no mere conflict for the preservation of the balance « Dark of power in Europe, but as a world-wide struggle forces " in between democracy and autocracy. Popular up- risings in Russia between 1905 and 1906 had compelled the 698 The World War tsar to grant a national legislature (Duma), without, however, seriously weakening the position of the government. 1 The war disclosed how inefficient, weak, and even corrupt that govern- ment was. Late in 1916 the pro-German party at the court, including the tsar's German wife, secretly began negotiations with the Central Powers for a separate peace. Patriotic Rus- sians in the Duma passed a resolution that "dark forces" in high places were betraying the nation's interest. Neverthe- less, the intrigue went on, and the demoralization of Russia proceeded apace. A severe shortage of food in Petrograd brought matters to a crisis. Rioting broke out, and the troops were ordered to sup- press it with bullet and bayonet in the usual of the tsar pitiless fashion. But the old army, so long the March 15, prop of autocracy, languished in German prison camps 01 lay underground. The new army, mostly recruited from peasants and workingmen since the war, refused to fire on the people. Autocracy found itself helpless. The Duma then induced the tsar to sign the penciled memorandum which ended the Romanov dynasty after three hundred and four years of absolute power. 2 The revolutionists set up a provisional government, headed by the executive committee of the Duma. Nearly all the members belonged to the party of Constitutional the Con- Democrats, representing the middle class, or stitutional bourgeoisie. Many liberal reforms were announced: liberty of speech and of the press; the right of suffrage for both men and women; a general amnesty for all political offenders and Siberian exiles; and a constituent assembly to draw up a constitution for Russia. The United States and the western Allies promptly recognized the new government. Socialists did not rest satisfied with these measures. They planned to give the revolution an economic rather than merely a political character. Throughout Russia they organized Soviets, or councils representing workingmen and soldiers. The 1 See page 520. 2 See page 304. The Russian Revolution 699 most important of these bodies was the Petrograd Council of Workingmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. The socialistic propa- ganda for a general peace on the basis of "no annexations and no indemnities" also made rapid headway with the army at the front. The troops began to elect their own officers, to fraternize with the enemy, and to desert in large numbers. Before long the Petrograd soviet, having won the support of the army, abolished the Duma as a stronghold of the bourgeoisie and replaced the Constitutional Democrats in the provisional government with socialists. The socialist leader was a young lawyer named Alexander Kerensky. His impassioned oratory gave him great influence, and by July, 191 7, he had become practical die- Alexander tator. But Kerensky turned out to be neither a Kerensky Cromwell nor a Napoleon, at a time when Russia required a combination of both for her salvation. A moderate socialist, he did not please the Constitutional Democrats, and he pleased the radical socialists still less. In November, 191 7, a second revolution in Petrograd overthrew him and the provisional government which he headed. The two men who now seized the reins of power were Nicholas Lenin and Leon Trotsky. They belonged to the Bolsheviki, 1 an organization of radical socialists. Lenin was Lenin and born of Russian parents and was brought up Trotsk y in the Orthodox faith. He received an education in economics and law at the University of Petrograd. His socialistic activities soon resulted in a three years' exile to Siberia. After his release he went abroad and became prominent in the revolutionary circles of many European capitals. Trotsky, a Russian Jew, also suffered exile to Siberia as an undesirable agitator, the first time for four years, the second time for life. Having managed to escape, Trotsky went to western Europe and later to the United States. After the Russian Revolution both men returned to their native country and engaged in so- cialistic propaganda, with the results that have been seen. 1 A Russian word meaning "majority men." 700 The World War Lenin became premier and Trotsky foreign minister (subse- quently minister of war) in the new government. The Bolsheviki proposed to conclude an immediate "demo- cratic peace," to confiscate landed estates, to nationalize fac- Boishevist tories and other agencies of production, and to rule transfer all authority to the Soviets. Their flag was the red flag; their ultimate aim, a revolution by the working classes in all countries. Russia, meanwhile, began to dissolve into its separate na- tionalities. Finns, Esthonians, Letts, Lithuanians, Ukrai- Break-up nians, Cossacks, and Siberians declared their in- of Russia dependence and set up governments of their own. To economic disorganization and political chaos were thus added civil wars. It was under these circumstances that Russia made peace with the Central Powers. The Bolsheviki agreed to pay an Treaty of immense indemnity and to recognize the inde- Brest- pendence, under German auspices, of both Finland March 3, an d the Ukraine. Poland, Lithuania, and Cour- 1918 land, conquered by the Germans in 191 5, were surrendered to them, together with Livonia and Esthonia. This humiliating treaty deprived Russia of about a third of her population and a third of her territory, including the rich- est agricultural lands, the chief industrial districts, most of the iron mines and coal mines, and many of the principal railways of the former empire. Had the Brest-Litovsk Treaty endured, Germany would have been the real winner of the World War, whatever might have been the outcome of the conflict elsewhere in Europe. 187. End of the War, 1918 The satisfaction with which the western Allies greeted the overthrow of autocracy in Russia turned to dismay when that country, within a year, embraced radical social- at the ism and withdrew from the war. The Treaty beginning of Brest-Litovsk gave the Central Powers a free hand in the west. Great Britain, France, and Italy recognized this fact and prepared to remain on the de- End of the War 701 fensive until the United States should be able to throw the full weight of its resources into the struggle. The Allies could af- ford to wait. To the Central Powers a prolongation of the war spelled ruin. " Frightfulness " on the ocean had not broken the blockade or starved Great Britain or inter- rupted the stream of transports carrying American troops in ever larger numbers to Eu- rope. Germany realized that her supreme effort for world dominion must be made in 1918, or never. "If the enemy does not want peace," declared the kaiser," then we must bring peace to the world by battering in with the iron fist and shining sword the doors of those who will not have peace." * Having gathered every available man and gun, Field Mar- shal Hindenburg and his associate, General Ludendorff, on March 21, 1918, started a "drive" along the line German from Arras to La Fere. Their plan was obvious : " drives " to split the Anglo-French forces at the point of juncture on the Oise River; to roll each army back, the British upon the Channel, the French upon Paris ; and then to destroy each army separately. The battle which followed surpassed in intensity every previous engagement on the western front. By terrific massed attacks, the Germans regained in a few days all the ground so slowly and painfully won by the Allied of- fensives in 1916 and 191 7. The British were pushed back twenty-five miles, bringing the enemy within artillery range of Amiens and its important railway connections. The critical condition of affairs led the Allies to establish unity of action by 1 Address to the Second German Army in France, December 22, 1917. Eric von Ludendorff 702 The World War putting their forces under the command of General Foch, an admirable strategist who shared with Joffre the glory of the Marne battle. Before this step was taken, General Pershing had already offered the entire American army to be used wher- ever needed by the Allies. The Germans in April launched another "drive" to the north, between Arras and Ypres, against the British guarding the road to the Channel ports. Again the enemy drove a deep wedge into the British line. French reinforcements arrived on the scene in time to check the German advance. A third "drive" at the end of May, between Soissons and Reims, brought the Germans back once more to the Marne at Chateau-Thierry, only forty- three miles from Paris, but French and American troops again halted the advance. Re- newed German efforts in June and July to pierce the Allied line and reach Paris were fruitless. And now the tide turned. General Foch, always an advocate of the offensive in warfare, found himself by midsummer able to put his theories into The turn practice. He now possessed the reinforcements of the tide sent by both Great Britain and Italy to help hold the long line from the sea to Switzerland, together with more than a million American soldiers — "Pershing's crusaders" — whose mettle had been already tested and not found wanting in minor engagements at Cantigny, in the Belleau Woods, and at Chateau-Thierry. July 18, 1918, is a memorable date, for on that day the Allies began the series of rapid counter- strokes, perfectly coordinated, which four months later brought the war on the western front to a victorious conclusion. How the French and Americans pinched the Germans out of the Ferdinand Foch From a portrait bust by the American artist, Jo Davidson End of the War 703 Marne salient ; how the Americans, in their first independent operation, swept the enemy from the St.-Mihiel salient, south of Verdun, and started an advance into German Lorraine which carried them to Sedan; how the British, with French and American assistance, broke the "Hindenburg Line"; how the Belgians, British, and French liberated Flanders — these are only the outstanding events of a period unsurpassed in interest and importance since the dawn of history. With disaster impending on the western front, Germany could no longer support her Armistice confederates in the with other theaters of the September war. Bulgaria was 29, 1918 the first of the Central Powers to collapse. A vigorous offensive, begun during September by Brit- ish, Greek, Serbian, French, and Italian troops in the Balkans, split the Bulgarian armies apart, thus opening the way for an immediate advance upon Sofia. Bulgaria then surrendered unconditionally. Shortly afterwards Tsar Ferdinand abdicated. Turkey, now isolated from Germany and Austria-Hungary, was the second of the Central Powers to collapse. The cam- paign against the Turks during September and Armistice October formed an unbroken succession of vie- with T ur k ey> tories. British forces, keeping close touch with October 30, 1918 their Arab allies, advanced northward from the neighborhood of Jerusalem. They soon took Damascus, the capital of Syria, and entered Aleppo, close to the railway be- tween Constantinople and Bagdad. 1 At the same time, the British in Mesopotamia captured the Turkish army on the Tigris. Nothing remained for Turkey but to sign an armis- 1 See the map on page 658. John J. Pershing 704 The World War tice, which demobilized her troops and opened the road to Constantinople for the Allies. Simultaneously, Austria-Hungary collapsed. What may be called the second battle of the Piave 1 began at the end of Armistice October, when General Diaz, the Italian com- with Austria- man d er struck a sudden blow at the Austrian Hungary, November 3, armies and hurled them back along the whole 1918 front from the Alps to the sea. The battle soon assumed the proportions of a disaster perhaps unequaled in the annals of war. Within a single week the Italians chased the Austrians out of northern Italy, entered Trent and Trieste, and captured three hundred thousand prisoners and five thousand guns. Austria-Hungary then signed an armistice which, as in the cases of Bulgaria and Turkey, amounted to an unconditional surrender. The military overthrow of the Dual Monarchy quickly led to its disintegration. Separate states arose, representing the , . various nationalities formerly subject to the Haps- Revolution J J . c . in Austria- burgs. Emperor Charles I bowed to the mevi- Hungary table and laid down the imperial crown which he had assumed in 191 6 upon the death of Francis Joseph I. 2 Such was the end of the Hapsburg dynasty, rulers of Austria since the latter part of the thirteenth century. The Hohenzollerns also disappeared from the scene. As Germany during that fateful summer and autumn of 191 8 Revolution began to taste the bitterness of defeat, the popular in Germany demand for peace and democratic government became an open summons to the kaiser to abdicate. He long resisted, vainly making one concession after another, until the red flag had been hoisted over the German fleet at Kiel, and Berlin and other cities were in the hands of revolutionists. Then he abdicated, both as emperor and king, and fled to Holland. The other German crowns quickly fell, like overripe fruit. Germany soon found itself a socialist republic, controlled by the Social Democrats. 3 The armistice, which practically ended the war, was con- 1 See page 686. 2 See page 521. 3 See page 619. End of the War 705 eluded by the Allies and the United States with the new Ger- man government. It formed a long document of thirty-five clauses, covering every aspect of the military Armistice situation and making it impossible for Germany with to renew hostilities before the peace settlement. November Germany agreed to return all prisoners of war ; to H. 1918 surrender her submarines, the best part of her fleet, and im- mense numbers of cannon, machine guns, and airplanes; to evacuate Belgium, Luxemburg, France, and Alsace-Lorraine; and to allow the joint occupation by Allied and American troops of the Rhinelands, together with the principal crossings of the Rhine (Mainz, Coblenz, and Cologne) and bridgeheads at these points on the right bank of the river. A neutral zone was reserved between the occupied territory and the rest of Ger- many. 1 The German government carried out these stringent terms under necessity. The sudden termination of hostilities found the greater part of Europe in confusion. The former empires of the Romanovs, Hapsburgs, and Hohenzollerns promised to break up into a large number of independent states, at the with new governments and a new distribution of end of 1918 population. The problems for solution by the peace confer- ence included, therefore, not only the necessary arrangements for indemnities in money and territory to be paid by the Cen- tral Powers and the disposition of Germany's colonial pos- sessions, but also the creation of a dozen or more sovereign countries with boundaries so drawn as to satisfy all legitimate national aspirations. The World War was to be followed by a World Settlement. Studies 1. Define the following: ultimatum, mobilization, reservists, blockade, contra- band of war, and salient. 2. Draw up a list of the countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America which remained entirely neutral during the World War. 3. Compare the World War, as to its epoch-making character, with (a) the Thirty Years' War ; (b) the Seven Years' War; and (c) the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. 4. Show that the assassination of the Austrian crown prince furnished an excuse rather than a reason for war. s- What were the "strategical grounds" for the German 1 See the map, page 677. 706 The World War invasion of Belgium? 6. Why has the possession of Antwerp been called "a pistol pointed at the heart of England"? 7. Is it likely that Great Britain would have become a belligerent if Belgian neutrality had not been violated? 8. What made the capture of Paris seem so vitally important to the Germans at the outset of the war? 9. The battle of the Mame has been called "one more decisive battle of the world." Comment on this statement. 10. How did the Austro-German vic- tories on the eastern and Balkan fronts contribute to the realization of "Middle Europe " ? 11. Did Japan have sufficient reason for declaring war against Germany ? 12. On what grounds did President Wilson adopt a policy of neutrality ? 13. Show that the United States, as a neutral, could not properly place an embargo on the export of arms and munitions to the Allies. 14. Compare the German unrestricted submarine warfare with Napoleon's Continental System. 15. Enumerate the principal reasons for the entrance of the United States 1 in the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. 16. Why did not the United States declare war on Bul- garia and Turkey? 17. How did the revolution in Russia lead to the disintegration of the country ? Contrast its results in this respect with the French Revolution. 18. On an outline map indicate the territory surrendered by Russia according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. 19. Account for the rapid collapse of the Central Powers in the latter part of 191 8. CHAPTER XXI THE WORLD SETTLEMENT, 1919-1921 * 188. The Peace Conference On January 18, 191 9, forty-eight years to a day from the proclamation of the German Empire in the palace of Louis XIV at Versailles, the Peace Conference assembled at Paris. It was a gathering which dwarfed into insignificance the Congress at Vienna or those still earlier congresses of Utrecht and Westphalia. They met to settle the affairs of Europe ; this one met to settle the affairs of the world. The delegates to the conference represented all the Allied and Associated countries (except Montenegro, Costa Rica, and Russia) and those which had severed diplo- matic relations with the Central Powers (except Santo Domingo). Neutral states were admitted to the conference only when matters affecting their particular inter- ests came up for discussion. Enemy states were altogether excluded. Premier Clemenceau of France was unanimously chosen chairman of the conference. The direction of affairs naturally fell to the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. The two ranking delegates from each of these five powers con- The supreme stituted a Supreme Council to discuss and formulate Council the business of the conference. As time went on, the difficulty of reconciling the many diverse interests and of reaching a settlement satisfactory to all made it necessary to reduce the original council of ten members to one of five. Finally, Japan dropped from the inner circle, and the "Big Four," namely, 1 Webster, Historical Source Book, No. 20, "Holy Alliance, 1815"; No. 33, "Covenant of the League of Nations, igig." 707 7o8 The Peace Conference 709 premiers Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Orlando, and Presi- dent Wilson, decided among themselves the most important questions. The drafting of the peace treaty with Germany proceeded steadily. Early in May it was delivered to the German dele- gates, who had been summoned to Versailles for . the occasion. They tried to secure radical modi- the treaty, fication of its terms, but the Supreme Council June 28, 1919 refused to make any important concessions. Germany was given the choice between immediate acceptance of the treaty and renewal of the war. Germany chose to accept it, and her decision brought a relief to tense nerves everywhere. The historic ceremony of signing occurred on June 28 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. The last article of the treaty provided that it should become effective when ratified by Germany on the one hand and by three of the principal Allied and Associated powers on the other hand. Germany ratified it early in ratifications, July, and similar action was taken during the {q™ ary 10 ' following months of 1919 by Great Britain, France, and Italy. The exchange of ratifications took place on Janu- ary 10, 1920, in the Clock Hall of the French Foreign Ministry at Paris. From this day, therefore, the Allied powers and Ger- many were once more at peace. An Associated power still remained technically at war with Germany. The United States had not ratified the treaty ow- ing to opposition in the Senate, which, according to the Constitution, must concur by a two-thirds states and vote in all treaties made by the President. Sena- the treat y torial criticism was especially directed against certain features of the League of Nations, as inserted in the treaty. The chief stumbling-block was Article X of the covenant, which declares that "the members of the league undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the league." Many senators believed that this article, by putting the military and naval forces of the United States at the dis- 710 The World Settlement posal of the league, impaired the constitutional right of Con- gress to declare war, and might also result in foreign entangle- ments, which it has always been the American policy to avoid. When the treaty came to a vote in the Senate, it failed to pass by the necessary two-thirds majority. The rejection of the treaty made the League of Nations in its existing form the chief issue in the presidential campaign of 1920. The Re- publicans opposed the league and the Democrats upheld it. The Republican victory, resulting in the election of Senator Harding, was followed in the summer of 192 1 by the passage of a congressional resolution which declared the war of the United States with Germany at an end. This resolution was promptly signed by the President. Treaties of peace nego- tiated by the administration not only with Germany, but also with Austria and Hungary, were subsequently ratified by the Senate. 189. Peace with Germany The Versailles treaty made the following modifications of Germany's western frontier. First of all, she restored Alsace and Lorraine to France. German misgovern- Germany s , , western ment of these two provinces since 1871 and the frontier evident desire of most of their people to be reunited to France furnish sufficient justification for the action of the Peace Conference. The possession of Alsace-Lorraine, practi- cally uninjured by the ravages of war, also helps to compen- sate France for the destruction wrought in her northern prov- inces. Second, Germany ceded to France absolutely the coal mines in the Saar Basin (north of Lorraine). 1 This area, which was taken from France in 181 5, is to be governed by the League of Nations until a plebiscite is held at the end of fifteen years to determine whether the inhabitants prefer French or Ger- man sovereignty. Thjrd, Germany agreed that northern Schleswig should return to Denmark in case a majority of the inhabitants voted for the change. 2 By this action the Allies 1 See the map on page 465. J The results of the two plebiscites taken in 1920 gave a large part of northern Schleswig to Denmark. 2**Vn -J?* ;».^^^^Ks . 3K ■ .'■''^ 'trails H "* . v * '*£$« . • - ilfm ?O^WP — ifST" fi ■ - . -' 0$3. «^^o ■ ,'- ,« " • ■ . '■'■■".•■' "ISMS ■ •'"'•£. Kit ' " 'tijffN >l^^ V*>¥ ,*^'^K kLs*^* l&^~ % _ — „ ■ -f*'V * ' w § & It: u E 8 s* w 1 I ^ »> 5 Peace with Germany 711 -Tujl .Mimi »r r- MUM «s»tand»J «*«■*<■•»■«* zZjizZ^Zpi*-*- Copyright by International Film Service Signatures on the Peace Treaty with Germany 712 The World Settlement sought to repair the injury done by Prussia to Denmark in 1864. Fourth, Germany relinquished certain small districts on her western frontier to Belgium. The restoration of Poland to a place among the nations necessitated sweeping changes in Germany's eastern frontier. Germany's She gave up much of Posen and West Prussia to eastern the new Polish state. She also renounced all rights over Danzig, which, with its environs, be- comes a free city under the protection of the League of Nations. This action assures to Poland uninterrupted access to the Baltic down the valley of the Vistula. These territorial losses must be borne by Prussia, which, in consequence, will no longer so completely overshadow the other German states. The Peace Conference thus undid much of Frederick the Great's and Bismarck's work for the exaltation of Prussia. Germany's name on a far-flung colonial empire was blotted from the map. All her possessions overseas were taken from her. The German German East Africa went to Great Britain, and colonies German Southwest Africa, to the Union of South Africa. Togo and the Cameroons were divided between France and Great Britain. These territories will henceforth be ad- ministered under mandates from the League of Nations. The mandate for the German Pacific islands north of the equator x is held by Japan, and that for the islands south of the equator, 2 by Australia. New Zealand, however, received the mandate for German Samoa. Germany also renounced, in favor of Japan, all her rights in Kiauchau and the province of Shantung. Responsibility for all damages, both on the land and at sea, was assumed by Germany. After much haggling Germany agreed in 192 1 to pay over a series of years an indemnity of 132,000,000,000 gold marks (about $33,000,000,000), plus the amount of the Belgian debt, to the Allies, but less sums already paid on the reparation account or subsequently to be credited to it. Allied occupation of the Rhinelands will continue until reparation is completed. 1 Pelew, Caroline, Ladrone, and Marshall Islands. * German New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and northern Solomon Islands. Peace with Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey 713 The military, naval, and air clauses of the treaty were in- tended to make Germany innocuous. They include the abolition of conscription, the reduction of her R e d uct i on of army to 100,000 men, and the destruction of the armaments fortifications west of the Rhine, those in a thirty-mile zone on the east bank of the Rhine, those controlling the Baltic, and those on Helgoland. The German fleet was reduced to a few ships without submarines. Airplanes, seaplanes, and dirigible balloons are not to be maintained for purposes of war. The treaty also prohibits the importation, exportation, and nearly all production of war material for the future. These drastic requirements should pave the way for a general limita- tion of armaments by the nations. 190. Peace with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey The treaty with Austria was signed in September, 1919, at St. -Germain, near Paris. The St. -Germain treaty did little more than record an accomplished fact, namely, A ustri9. the disintegration of the Dual Monarchy. Austria ceded territory to Czecho-Slovakia and Jugoslavia and recog- nized their independence. Other parts of the Hapsburg realm were transferred to Italy (the Trentino and Adriatic posses- sions), to Poland (Galicia), and to Rumania (Bukowina). 1 The new Austrian Republic thus became a small inland state, Ger- man in culture and chiefly German in population. The treaty also embodied stringent provisions relating to reparation and disarmament. The treaty with Hungary was signed in June, 1920, at Ver- sailles. It reduced Hungary to another small state inhabited almost entirely by Magyars. Czecho-Slovakia secured that part of northern Hungary contain- ing a predominantly Slovak population; Rumania, the Ru- manian districts of Transylvania; and Jugoslavia, the Slo- venian and Croatian territories of Hungary. The demands 1 Rumania has also acquired Transylvania from Hungary and Bessarabia from Russia, thus becoming the largest of the Balkan states. 714 The World Settlement made upon Hungary for disarmament and reparation were substantially identical with those made upon Austria. The treaty with Bulgaria, as signed in November, 1919, at Neuilly, slightly rectified the western frontier of that state in favor of Jugoslavia. The frontier with Rumania remains as before the war. The most important boundary change is on the south, where Bulgaria relinquished part of Thrace to Greece. Bulgaria thus lost an outlet on the /Egean. She was also obliged to limit her army to 20,000 men, surrender all warships and aircraft, and pay a total in- demnity of $445,000,000. The treaty with Turkey, as signed in August, 1920, at Sevres, restricted Ottoman territory in Europe to Constantinople and European its environs. What remained of European Tur- Turkey k e y was assigned to Greece. The shores of the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles were inter- nationalized, so that the gates of the Black Sea might hence- forth be free to all nations. Anatolia, the first seat of Ottoman power six centuries ago, continues to be under Turkish sovereignty. Greece, how- ever, has received administrative authority over the city of Smyrna and the adjoining region. This part of Asia Minor belonged to ancient Hellas and still contains a large Greek population. The Dodecanese (Sporades) Islands, which Italy occupied during the Turko-Italian War of 1911-1912, have been ceded by that country to Greece, with the exception of Rhodes. Both racially and by historic tradi- tion the inhabitants of these islands are preponderantly Greek. The French hold Syria under a mandate and have announced their intention to remain there permanently. The interests of France in this part of the Levant are chiefly com- mercial, though there is a sentimental tradition dating back to Napoleon and even to the crusades. Great Britain received the mandate for Palestine. The British government is pledged to develop the Holy Land as a national home for the Jews — a people without a country for nearly eighteen hundred years. Trebi ,^^e^-'" AN " s; "4 EUROPE after the Peace Conference at Paris, 1919-1920. Boundaries Settled Boundaries Unsettled ::"::::: ::":::J International Territory [ ...."I l'louiscites Principal Railroads x— . Ship Canals Scale of Miles 1 00 200 3 00 -iOO SQ O THE MATTHEWS HORTHRUP WORKS, BUFFALO, W.T. The New Nations in Central Europe 715 The Arab kingdom of the Hejaz testifies to a new birth of Islam. The Young Turks, in their efforts to "Ottomanize" all the peoples of the Ottoman Empire, only succeeded in alienating the Arabs, who have never ejaz forgotten that from their land came the Prophet, that in it are the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and that Arabic is the sacred language of the Koran. An Arab revolt against Turkey broke out in 1916, under the leadership of Husein, a descendant of Mohammed and official head of Mecca. He was promptly recognized as king of the Hejaz, or western Arabia, by the Entente Powers. Great Britain has also been made the mandatary for Mesopotamia. British administration ought to redeem this region, naturally one of the most favored in the Mesopo- world, from the long blight to which it has been tamia subjected by centuries of Turkish misgovernment. With scientific agriculture and irrigation it would soon become such a granary of the Near East as it was in ancient times. 191. The New Nations in Central Europe It was altogether fitting that one result of the victorious struggle against the Central Powers should be the establishment of many new nations in both central and eastern . ■_ .. J . Submerged Europe. Germany after her unification and nationali- Austria-Hungary and Turkey throughout the nine- ties " teenth century systematically opposed nationalism as a force disruptive of their empires. Russia also upheld the same policy. Each of these countries contained numerous "sub- merged nationalities" governed against their will by those whom they considered aliens. The defeat of the Central Powers and the Russian Revolution offered, therefore, a unique op- portunity to remake the European map in the name and in the interest of all its peoples, great and small. The South Slavs (Jugoslavs) in 19 14 were distributed chiefly in the independent states of Serbia and Montenegro Tuffoslflvifl and in the following provinces of Austria-Hun- gary : Bosnia, and Herzegovina, Dalmatia, Croatia-Slavonia, 716 The World Settlement and Carniola. In order to establish the state of Jugoslavia, (officially known as the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes) both Serbia and Montenegro gave up their separate governments and united with the former Jugoslav provinces of Austria-Hungary. The first ruler of the new kingdom is Alexander I, crown prince of Serbia. Belgrade is the capital. A long and bitter dispute between Jugoslavia and Italy over the ownership of Fiume, an important port on the Adriatic, has finally been settled by erecting Fiume into a free state, with a government of its own. The Albanian principality created by the powers in 1913 disappeared completely soon after the opening of the World War. Albania now has a provisional government. The country is still very backward, lacking good highways, railroads, newspapers, and post offices, while the antipathy between its Christian and Moslem inhabitants makes for dissension. How unwillingly the Czechs and the Slovaks fought for the Dual Monarchy in the war is a matter of common knowledge. The Czecho- More than one hundred thousand Czecho-Slovaks Slovaks surrendered to the Russians, and many of them promptly enlisted in the tsar's armies. After the Russian Revolution it was the Czecho-Slovaks in Siberia who for a time held that vast country against the Bolsheviki. Czecho- slovaks from Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States also volunteered in large numbers for service on the western front. There are few finer episodes in history than this spon- taneous uprising of a whole nation. The collapse of the Dual Monarchy was followed almost im- mediately by the setting-up of a Czecho-Slovak state. It em- Czecho- braces Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia, Slovakia which together formed an independent kingdom until its annexation by Austria in 1526, and also Slovakia. The latter country, once a part of Moravia, has been a Magyar dependency for centuries. Czecho-Slovakia is a republic with a constitution patterned after that of the United States. The first president is T. G. Masaryk, formerly a professor in the The New Nations in Eastern Europe 717 University of Prague. The new republic occupies a central position between the Baltic and the Adriatic. It is rich in natural resources, is advanced in agriculture, trade, and manu- facturing, and is well provided with common schools. Czecho- slovakia has every assurance of a prosperous and happy future. Hard, indeed, was the fate of the Poles during the World War. Those in Russian Poland had to fight against their brothers in Galicia, Posen, and West Prussia. The Poles Much of their country formed a fiercely contested battle-ground, and destruction, famine, and death followed everywhere in the wake of the contending armies. In 19 14 the tsar, Nicholas II, promised autonomy to all the Poles, both those in Russia and those to be liberated from Austrian and German rule. Germany also proposed to set up a Polish state under German tutelage. It was reserved for the Peace Con- ference, however, to create the free and independent Poland of 1919. Restored Poland includes nearly all the territory taken from that country by Austria and Prussia in the partitions of the eighteenth century. The Allies have also given Poland mandatory powers for twenty-five years over eastern Galicia, the population of which is partly Polish and partly Ruthenian. Disputes about the remainder of Poland's eastern boundary led to hard fighting between the Poles and the Bolsheviki during 1920. As the outcome of negotiations with the Soviet government, Poland finally ac- quired considerably more territory than had been allotted to her by the Peace Conference. Like her Czecho-Slovak neighbor, Poland is a republic. She has bound herself by a special treaty with the Allies to maintain free institutions, under the aegis of the League of Nations. 192. The New Nations in Eastern Europe All the various peoples on the western border of the Russian Empire profited by the break-up of the tsar's government to 718 The World Settlement establish independent republics. Their boundaries, except in the case of Finland, have not yet been definitely Republics . it • in western determined. The republics are Finland, Esthonia, Russia Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukrainia. The Swedes conquered Finland in the twelfth century and retained it until 1809. Finland, with the Aland Islands, then entered the Russian Empire as a semi-independent grand duchy. The Finnish parliament in 191 7 declared for complete separation from Russia. For the next two years Finland had to contend with both the Bolsheviki and the Germans, but Germany's collapse restored liberty to the country. It was soon recognized as an independent republic by the principal Allied powers. The provisional government of Russia in 191 7 granted Esthonia a parliament, or Diet, to be elected by universal suffrage. After the triumph of the Bolsheviki in Russia, the Diet proclaimed Esthonian independ- ence. The Germans subsequently occupied the country, but their dream of annexing it went the way of the other Pan- German schemes. Esthonia has signed a peace treaty with the Soviet government, by which Russia abdicates all rights over her former Baltic possession. The Letts, who call themselves Latvis, dwell for the most part in the former Russian provinces of Courland and Livonia, around the Gulf of Riga. They, too, have had to fight for freedom against both German armies and the Bolsheviki, before securing national existence. The grand duchy of Lithuania, which united with Poland in 1569, became a part of the Russian Empire after the partitions of Poland in the eighteenth century. The tsar's government made every effort to "Russify" the inhabitants, extinguish their sense of nationality, and force upon them the Orthodox Church. Such was the situation when the World War broke out. The Germans overran Lithuania during their great offensive of 19 15, only to evacuate it three years later after the signing of the armistice. Lithuania then proclaimed itself an independent republic. Democracy and Socialism 719 The Ukrainians (Little Russians, Ruthenians J ) number about 30,000,000, including many Cossacks. Their country fell under the sway of Poland-Lithuania toward the close of T J Iff Q I Tl j fl the Middle Ages and did not become a part of the tsar's dominions until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. With its broad, fertile plains devoted to agriculture and stock raising and its rich deposits of coal and minerals, Ukrainia bids fair to occupy an important place in Europe. The present Bolshevist government is allied with and subservient to Russia. The student will recall that during the nineteenth century Russia widened her boundaries by the annexation of districts on both sides of the Caucasus Mountains. The _. The Caucasian peoples have set up three republics, Caucasian namely, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. re P ubllcs Nowhere else in the world have so many different tribes, languages, and religions been gathered together. At least fifty different dialects are spoken in this region. Most of the Cau- casian peoples are Mohammedans, but the Georgians belong to the Greek Church and the Armenians have a national Church of their own. Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia are now prac- tically dependencies of Russia and are under Soviet Bolshevist governments. 193. Democracy and Socialism When the World War began, two-thirds of Europe was under autocratic rule. Germany, which refused to accept either the principles or the practice of democracy, found . . tr r r- j j Autocracy natural support in Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, versus and Turkey. Autocratic Russia, it is true, fought democrac y on the side of the Allies, but the Russian Revolution promised to enroll that country among liberal states. The triumph of the Central Powers would not only have dashed the hopes of all the "submerged nationalities" in Europe ; it would have imper- iled the existence of popular government everywhere. Germany and her satellites in 1914 flung down a challenge to the liberties of mankind. 1 The name Ruthenian is sometimes restricted to the Little Russians who were formerly Austrian subjects in Galicia and Bukowina. 720 The World Settlement All know how that challenge was met. Two emperors, those of Germany and Austria ; two tsars, those of Russia and Bul- Sovereigns garia ; six kings, those of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, dethroned Wiirtemberg, Hungary, and Greece, and a crowd of princes, dukes, and grand dukes renounced their hereditary rights and sought refuge either in obscurity or in exile. More than a score of sovereigns dethroned represents part of the balance sheet of the war. With the emperors, kings, princes, dukes, and grand dukes went the whole theory of absolutism and divine right. Mon- archy itself disappeared in most of central and Absolutism • ... _ and divine eastern Europe, only the five Balkan states, Ru- right dis- mania, Bulgaria, Jugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey credited . . , _. retaining a semblance of one-man rule. The war revealed, clearly enough, what ruin might be caused by the vanity, selfishness, and ambition of a few persons. They had long menaced the peace and happiness of the world. At last, the world is done with them. It was quite natural that the socialists should have assumed the leadership of the revolutionary movements in many Euro- The social- pean countries. There are two types of socialism, istic upheaval however. Moderate socialists rely on the ballot to abolish capitalism and introduce state ownership of the means of production : they are democrats in their political thinking and accept the democratic principle of majoiity rule. Radical or extreme socialists advocate violent means of overthrowing the capitalistic middle class, the hated bourgeoisie, in order to set up a dictatorship of the proletariat. The contrast between the two socialistic parties is well marked in Germany, where the principles of Karl Marx and his followers first became popular among workingmen. The Social Democrats before the war were the chief opponents of militarism and autocracy in Germany, and even in 1914 a The German bold minority of them resisted the war fever then Republic sweeping over the country. The events of 19 18 strengthened their hands ; both the army and the navy became saturated with the revolutionary spirit ; and a few days before Democracy and Socialism 721 the signing of the armistice in November the uprising occurred which sent the Hohenzollerns into exile and established a social- istic government, with Friedrich Ebert at its head. The mod- erate socialists in control of affairs immediately encountered the opposition of the radicals, who planned to deprive the bour- geoisie of all power and establish a proletarian regime. There were bitter conflicts between the radicals and the republican troops. Law and order finally triumphed, after much bloodshed. Ebert and his associates gave Germany a permanent govern- ment through a national assembly which met at Weimar in 1919 and drafted a constitution. This was speedily ratified by a popular vote. The new Germany is essentially a federative republic, though still described by the old name _ , x x . « . . . . Constitution Reich, or Empire. Foreign affairs, colonies, im- f the migration and emigration, military organization, p erm ^ coinage, taiiffs, and posts, telegraphs, and tele- phones are reserved to the nation as a whole. The confeder- ated states may legislate on many other matters, subject, how- ever, to the prior right of legislation by the nation. Every state must have a republican form of government, with representatives chosen in secret ballot by all German citizens, both men and women. The constitution retains certain time-honored forms and features of the old government. The Imperial Council (Reichs- rat), which replaces the Bundesrat, consists of delegates from the confederated states. Each state and is to have at least one vote, and in the case of the Reichsta e larger states one vote will be accorded to every million inhabit- ants. No state, however, can have more than two-fifths of all the votes in the Reichsrat. This clause of the constitution should prevent the control of the council by Prussia. Long impotent under the old imperial regime, the Reichstag now be- comes the supreme law-making body. The Reichsrat may, indeed, refuse assent to a measure passed by the Reichstag, but its veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the latter assembly. i 722 The World Settlement The president of Germany is to be elected by the entire people for a term of seven years. He is eligible to reelection. The ., president makes treaties, selects public officials, and commands the military forces, and appoints and chancellor dismisses the chancellor, together with other mem- bers of the ministry. The constitutional provision requir- ing that the chancellor and his associates shall hold office only as long as they retain the confidence of the Reichstag gives to Germany substantially cabinet government. Austria also became a republic. A National Assembly, in which the socialists had the largest representation, met in ioio and framed a liberal constitution. The The i Austrian assembly declared for the union of Austria with Republic Germany. The Allies have not as yet consented to this long-delayed unification of the German-speaking peoples of central Europe. One of the clauses of the St. -Germain treaty makes such action dependent upon the approval of the council of the League of Nations. The Hungarian People's Republic came into existence shortly Th after the signing of the armistice. It lasted only Hungarian a few months and then gave way to a Bolshevist Republic regime, which was equally short-lived. After much confusion, Hungarian socialists of a moderate type succeeded in setting up another republican government at Budapest. This still endures, though many Magyars are partial to a monarchy. The Allies, however, will not permit the restoration of the Hapsburg family in Hungary. The outstanding fact as respects Russia since November, 1917, has been the ability of the Bolsheviki to retain power. Bolshevism Their rule is essentially a class dictatorship, since in Russia t ne urban proletariat forms only about a tenth of Russia's population. The Bolsheviki are perfectly consistent, therefore, in opposing the convocation of a national assembly to frame a constitution acceptable to the great majority of the Russian people. The Bolsheviki, for a time, encountered serious opposition on the part of Russian liberals and reactionaries, who joined Economic Reconstruction 723 forces to overthrow the Soviet government. The anti-Bols e- vist movement found its principal support in South Russia and Siberia. During 1919-1920 the "Red" armies won victories on every front and reconquered most Bolshevism of European Russia, Siberia, and Russian Central in Russia Asia. The Bolshevist triumph seems to be due chiefly to the fact that the anti-Bolshevists repeated the mistake of the emigres during the French Revolution and called in foreign assistance from Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States. This action had the effect of arousing the national sentiment of the Russian people, who were now ready to follow Lenin and Trotsky in repelling the invaders of their country. The western Allies have now withdrawn from both European and Asiatic Russia, though Japan still keeps some forces in Siberia. While adopting a policy of non-inter- The Russian vention in Russian affairs, the Allies refuse to situation recognize the Soviet government until assured that the Bol- sheviki have dropped the methods of barbarism for the methods of civilization. Trading relations, however, may soon be re- established. Russia, whose economic life has been so disrupted by the war and the subsequent activities of the Bolsheviki, requires western capital to revive its drooping industries. The rest of Europe likewise needs to draw upon the rich natural re- sources of Russia for economic reconstruction after the war. 194. Economic Reconstruction The war cast its shadow over almost the entire globe. Noth- ing like it had ever happened before. Twenty-seven nations, with their colonial dependencies, took up arms, A wor i d while five Latin-American countries severed diplo- war ma tic relations with Germany. Only seventeen nations re- mained neutral. 1 Even neutrals, however, could not escape the economic dislocations accompanying a war of such magnitude. No exact statement is possible of the number of lives lost in 1 Spain, Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Albania, Abyssinia, Persia, Afghanistan, Mexico, Salvador, Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina. 724 The World Settlement battle action and as a result of wounds, accidents, or disease. Premier Clemenceau, in one of the Allied notes to Germany before she signed the treaty, declared that "not C* & S M ft 1 1 1 G S less than seven million dead lie buried in Europe, while more than twenty million others carry upon them the evidence of wounds and sufferings." The Allied note to Holland, demanding the surrender of the kaiser as the instigator of the war, estimated the number killed at ten millions, with three times as many more mutilated or shattered in health. These figures do not include either the millions of civilians, young and old, who perished as the result of pestilence and famine in those parts of Europe occupied by the Central Powers, or the slaughtered Armenians. Not more than five million lives were lost in all the wars from the time of the French Revolution to 1914. Any figures for the money cost of the struggle must be re- garded as merely approximate. Experts of the American War Department place the direct expenditure of the Money cost r. . . belligerent nations at $197,000,000,000, an amount which probably exceeds the total wealth of the United States. This estimate leaves out all the devastation wrought on the western front and in other theaters of the war, all property destroyed at sea, the depreciation of capital, and the loss of production due to the employment of the world's workers in military activities. At least $100,000,000,000 must be added for these and other items. The grand total would thus reach about $300,000,000,000, exclusive of the expenditures and losses of neutral nations. All the wars from the time of the French Revolution to 1914 cost not more than $25,000,000,000. The war was financed to some extent by increased taxation, especially in Great Britain and the United States, but chiefly Financing by borrowing. The nations, in the first place, the war have issued vast quantities of paper money. Such forced loans are easily made on the Continent, where the govern- ments control the banks and possess a monopoly of note issue. The enormous sums thus put into circulation are a primary cause of the rise of prices abroad, increasing several times over The League of Nations 725 the cost of labor and commodities as measured in terms of the money unit. One of the financial problems confronting Eu- rope is the speedy withdrawal of a large part of these notes from circulation. In the second place, the nations have sold their bonds, or promises to pay, to all who would buy them. The amounts raised are far greater than had been supposed possible. The people bought the bonds out of their savings, for the war taught lessons of thrift to almost every one and made it a patriotic duty for the citizen to save that his country might have more to spend. The bonds will be mostly funded into long-time obligations running many years before maturity. The burdens which our own and future generations must carry are shown by the gigantic public debts of the principal belligerents. In 1919 Great Britain owed $40,000,- p u bii c 000,000; France, $35,000,000,000; Italy, $ic,ooo,- debts 000,000 ; and the United States, $26,000,000,000. Germany at the end of 1918 owed $40,000,000,000 and Austria-Hungary, $25,000,000,000. What Russia owes and what she intends to repay are alike incalculable at the present time. The general economic situation has been summed up by the Supreme Council in a memorandum as follows: "The process of recovery of Europe must necessarily be a slow one, which cannot be expedited by short cuts of any description. It can be most seriously hampered by the dis- location of production, by strikes, lockouts, and interruption of work of all kinds. The civilization of Europe has indeed been shaken and set back, but it is far from being irretrievably ruined by the tremendous struggle through which she has passed. The restoration of her vitality now depends on the wholehearted cooperation of all her children, who have it in their own power to delay or accelerate the process of recon- struction." 195. The League of Nations The idea of maintaining peace by international agreements is not new. Several great wars have been followed by projects for the prevention of future conflicts. After the religious 726 The World Settlement struggles of the sixteenth century in France came the "Grand Design" of Henry IV. The development of this plan for a Early peace European Confederation or Christian Republic was projects frustrated by the assassination of the French king. Near the close of the seventeenth century, William Penn wrote a prophetic Essay towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe. Penn argued that an international Diet or Parliament, obeying "the same rules of justice and peace by which parents and masters govern their families, magistrates their cities, estates their republics, and princes and kings their principalities and kingdoms," could abolish warfare between the nations. The French revolutionary wars produced Immanuel Kant's Towards Perpetual Peace. In this work the great German philosopher declared that perpetual peace might be secured by an inter- national union of states and that such a union would become feasible when autocracies gave way to democracies. It was the autocrats, however, who made the first attempt at a League of Nations. In 1815, after Europe had been ex- The Holy hausted by the struggle against Napoleon, the Alliance t sar; Alexander I, joined with Francis I of Austria and Frederick William III of Prussia in a so-called Holy Alliance. The three rulers pledged themselves "in the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity" to take for their sole guide hence- forth "the precepts of jiistice, Christian charity, and peace." They further promised to remain united "by the bonds of a true and indivisible fraternity," and "on all occasions and in all places" to lend each other aid and assistance. Most of the other European sovereigns later signed this pledge, conspicuous exceptions being the Pope, the Sultan, and George IV, the British Prince Regent. Though a praiseworthy attempt to apply much-needed principles of morality to international relations, the Holy Alliance never had any real importance. Most statesmen agreed with Metternich's characterization of it as a "loud-sounding nothing." It soon faded into obliv- ion, being replaced by the far more practical Concert of Europe. The five great powers, Great Britain, France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, who formed the Concert, did not keep peace through- The League of Nations 727 out the nineteenth century. Their conflicting interests and especially their nationalistic aspirations more than once led to hostilities between them. Nevertheless, the idea ^. The of a Concert persisted, and from time to time the European great powers imposed their will upon the whole of Concert Europe. They neutralized Switzerland in 181 5 and Belgium in 1839. At the Congress of Paris in 1856, which concluded the Crimean War, they signed the Declaration of Paris providing rules for the conduct of maritime warfare. By the Geneva Convention in 1864 they undertook to ameliorate warfare on land and organized the International Red Cross, with branches in every civilized country. In 1878 the great powers, now in- cluding Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia, met in the Congress of Berlin for the settlement of the Eastern Question. Nor was the Concert confined to Europe. It organized the Congo Free State under international guar- antees, neutralized the Suez Canal, cooperated with Japan and the United States to suppress the Chinese "Boxers," and held the Algeciras Conference to deal with the Moroccan problem. The nations also began to resort increasingly to arbitration as a means of adjusting differences between them. Great Britain and the United States, for instance, international arbitrated the Alabama claims after the Civil War arbitration and in the same way ended a boundary dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela, which threatened for a time to involve the two great English-speaking peoples in fratricidal strife. During the nineteenth century over two hundred awards were made by arbitral courts, and every one was executed. After 1900 many leading countries concluded treaties with each other, pledging themselves to submit to arbitration all controversies except those affecting national honor or vital interests (such as independence). International arbitration received a great impetus at the two Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907. The assembled powers could not agree to limit armaments, but besides The Hague revising the laws of war they set up a permanent conferences court of arbitration, to which the nations might resort. Though 728 The World Settlement international league without authority to enforce its decrees, the Hague Tribunal did settle a number of controversies which in earlier days might have led to war. It thus marked a distinct advance toward international peace. Then came the World War. In her lust for conquest, Ger- many abruptly withdrew from the European Concert, rejected Th W id ever Y proposal for arbitration or mediation, and, War and an after hostilities began, proceeded to violate her treaty obligations and all the recognized usages of warfare, both by land and sea. The Allies, in consequence, became the defenders of international law, as well as the champions of nationality and of democracy. Their enormous sacrifices during the struggle promised to be in vain, unless some means could be found to preserve the sanc- - tity of treaties and prevent future aggressive wars. An international league began to seem, not a Utopian scheme, but rather a practical neces- sity for the peace and security *' of mankind. Such thoughts as these were repeatedly ex- pressed by responsible states- men among the Allies, espe- cially by Mr. Lloyd George and President Wilson. As soon as the Peace Conference opened at Paris, a com- mittee representing the Allied and Associated governments Formation began work on the various proposals which had of the been put forward from time to time for an inter- eague national league. The first draft of a constitution was modified in various respects, as a result of world-wide dis- cussion, and the amended document was then inserted in the peace treaty with Germany. The signing of that treaty by the Allied and Associated governments, and its subsequent ratifica- David Lloyd George The League of Nations 729 tion set up the League of Nations in active operation. The first meeting of the council of the league took place January 16, 1920, at Paris, and the first meeting of the assembly, on Novem- ber 15, 1920, at Geneva. The constitution, or covenant, of the League of Nations, is a short, simple, and dignified document. The objects of the organization are thus stated in the preamble : "The The pre _ High Contracting Parties, in order to promote in- amble ternational cooperation and to achieve international peace and security, by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just, and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the under- standings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the deal- ings of organized peoples with one another, agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations." The League of Nations con- sists of an assembly in which each member has one vote ; a council, made up of representa- tives of the principal Allied powers, together with representatives of four other members of the league ; and a per- covenant of manent secretariat at Geneva, Switzerland. World the league peace is to be promoted by an agreement between the nations to disarm to the lowest point consistent with national safety. The members of the league agree, furthermore, to arbitrate any dispute which cannot be settled satisfactorily by diplomacy and to carry out in good faith any award that may be rendered. Should a member resort to war in disregard of its obligations, it shall, ipso Jacto, be deemed to have committed an act of Woodrow Wilson 730 The World Settlement aggression toward all other members, who thereupon shall pro- ceed to sever trade or financial relations with it and, if neces- sary, to use armed force against it. A World Court, consisting of eleven eminent jurists of different countries and representing diverse races, languages, nationalities, and legal codes, was set up in 192 1 to facilitate the peaceful settlement of international disputes and gradually by its decisions to establish an inter- national system of justice. Forty-one nations 1 were represented by delegates at the first meeting of the assembly of the league in 1920. Six other Membership nations, including Austria and Bulgaria, were ad- of the league m i tte( j to t h e i ea gue at this time, and still other nations (Latvia, Lithuania, and Esthonia), at the second meet- ing of the assembly in 192 1. For the future, any self-govern- ing state, dominion, or colony may be enrolled by a two-thirds vote of the members, provided it promises faithfully to observe international obligations. Germany, Turkey, Russia, Mexico, and the United States are the only important countries remain- ing outside the League of Nations. Studies 1. On the map between pages 718-719, locate the areas occupied by Lithua- nians, Letts, Esthonians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Ruthenians (Little Russians), Slovenians, and Serbo-Croats (Serbs and Croatians). 2. Explain the use in this chapter of the expressions: secret diplomacy, self-determination, plebiscite, man- date, and internationalization. 3. Compare the Peace Conference at Paris with the Congress at Vienna as to membership, purpose, and accomplishment. 4. What did Mr. Lloyd George mean by declaring, "This is a war of nationalities"? 5. Where were plebiscites to determine national allegiance provided for by the Peace Conference? 6. On the map between pages 714-715 indicate what territories have been "redeemed" by Italy and Rumania, respectively. 7. How has Greece profited territorially by her participation in the World War ? 8. How many inde- pendent countries were there in Europe in 1914? How many are there now? 9. Name and locate the capitals of the new European states. 10. What did Presi- dent Wilson mean by saying, "The world must be made safe for democracy"? 11. On the basis of the statements in the text-book, give some account of the origin, character, and extinction of the Hapsburg, Hohenzollern, and Romanov dynasties. 12. Compare the abolition of private warfare toward the close of the Middle Ages with the recent movement to abolish public warfare. 1 Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and India are each represented in the assembly of the league, as well as the United Kingdom. TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES B. C. 776 First recorded celebration of the Olympian games. Greek chronology begins to be precise from this date. 753 (?) Rome founded. Traditional date. 606 Destruction of Nineveh. End of the Assyrian Empire, which had long dominated the Near East. 586-539 Captivity of the Hebrews in Babylonia. 568 (?)-488 (?) Gautama Buddha. 551 (?)-478 Confucius. 509 (?) Roman Republic established. Traditional date. 490 Marathon, 480 Salamis, and 479 Plataea and Mycale. The four battles which preserved Greec«, from Persian domination and European culture from submergence in that of Asia. 451-450 Laws of the Twelve Tables published. The basis of all later Roman law. 390 (?) Rome captured by the Gauls. 338 Battle of Chaeronea. The triumph of the Macedonian Kingdom over the disunited city-states of Greece. 333 Issus and 331 Arbela. The two battles which overthrew the Persian Empire and established Macedonian supremacy throughout the Near East. 214 Great Wall of China begun. 202 Battle of Zama. Ended the Second Punic War and left Rome without a rival in the western Mediterranean. 146 Carthage and Corinth destroyed by the Romans. 58-50 Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar. Opened up much of western Europe to Graeco-Roman civilization. 31 Battle of Actium. Ended civil war between Antony and Octavian, leav- ing the latter supreme in the Roman state. 4 (?) Birth of Christ. 70 a. d. Jerusalem captured and destroyed by the Romans. 73i 732 Table of Events and Dates 135 Dispersion of the Jews. 212 Edict of Caracalla. Extended Roman citizenship to all free-born men in the Roman Empire. 284 Reorganization of the Roman Empire by Diocletian. The imperial system henceforth became an undisguised absolutism of the Oriental type. 313 Edict of Milan. Granted general religious toleration and placed Christianity on a legal equality with the other religions of the Roman world. 325 Council of Nicaea. Framed the Nicene Creed, which is still the ac- cepted summary of Christian doctrine in Roman Catholic, Greek, and most Protestant churches. 330 Constantinople (New Rome) made the capital of the Roman Empire. 451 Battle of Chalons. Saved western Europe from being conquered by the still barbarous Huns. 476 Deposition of Romulus Augustulus. Extinction of the line of Roman emperors in the West. 496 Clovis adopted Catholic Christianity. Paved the way for intimate relations between the Franks and the Papacy. 529 (?) Rule of St. Benedict. Established the form of monasticism which ultimately prevailed everywhere in western Europe. 529-534 Codification of Roman law. The Corpus Juris Civilis formed per- haps the most important contribution of Rome to civilization. 622 The Hegira (Flight) of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. Marks the beginning of the Mohammedan era. 732 Battle of Tours. The victory of the Franks under Charles Martel stemmed the farther advance of the Moslems into western Europe. 800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans. Formation of the so- called Holy Roman Empire. 843 Treaty of Verdun and 870 Treaty of Mersen. Marked important stages in the dissolution of Charlemagne's dominions. 962 Otto I, the Great, crowned Roman Emperor. Revival of the so- called Holy Roman Empire. 982 Greenland discovered by the Northmen. 988 Christianity introduced into Russia. The Russian Slavs henceforth came under the influence of the Greek Church and Byzantine civ- ilization. Table of Events and Dates 733 1054 Final rupture of the Greek and Roman Churches. Destroyed the religious unity of European Christendom. 1066 Battle of Hastings. Resulted in the Norman Conquest of England. 1095 Council of Clermont. Beginning of the crusades. 1 122 Concordat of Worms. A compromise arrangement between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. 1206-1227 Conquests of Jenghiz Khan. Brought a large part of Asia and eastern Europe under Mongol sway. 1215 Magna Carta. Defined the rights of Englishmen and inspired their later struggles for political liberty. 1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo. Polo's narrative of his travels greatly increased the interest of Europeans in the Far East. 1295 "Model Parliament" of Edward I. A regularly elected Parliament which for the first time included representatives of all classes of the English people. 1309-1377 "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy. The removal of the popes to Avignon weakened their political authority. 1348-1349 Black Death in Europe. Hastened the decline of serfdom and the emancipation of the peasantry. 1378-1417 The "Great Schism." Weakened the spiritual supremacy of the popes over western Christendom. 1396 Greek first taught at Florence, Italy. The revival of Greek studies in western Europe formed an important aspect of the Renaissance movement. 1453 Constantinople captured by the Ottoman Turks. End of the Byzan- tine Empire and beginning of the Eastern Question. 1456 First book printed at Gutenberg's press in Mainz, Germany. 1487 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz. The final step in the Portuguese exploration of the western coast of Africa. 1492 Discovery of America by Columbus. 1498 India reached by Vasco da Gama. The Portuguese thus opened up an ocean passage from Europe round Africa to the Far East. 1517 Luther's Ninety-five Theses posted. Beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany. 1519-1522 Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe. 734 Table of Events and Dates 1543 Publication of Copernicus's treatise "On the Revolutions of Celestial Orbits." Resulted in the adoption of an entirely new system of astronomy, by which man's outlook on the universe has been fundamentally changed. 1545 Silver Mines of Potosi in Bolivia discovered. The enormous output of silver from these mines greatly enlarged the supply of money in western Europe, thus stimulating industrial and commercial enterprise. 1545-1563 Council of Trent. An important agency in the Catholic Counter Reformation. 1577-1580 Drake's voyage around the world. 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Gave to England control of the sea and made possible English colonization of North America. 1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV of France. A noteworthy step in the direction of religious toleration. 1607 Settlement of Jamestown. The first permanent English colony in America. 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible published. The translation still in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English-speaking world. 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Ended the religious wars. 1687 Newton's "Principia" published. One of the most important contri- butions ever made to physical science. 1688-1689 The "Glorious Revolution." Completed the work of the Puritan Revolution by overthrowing absolutism and divine right in Eng- land. 1704 Battle of Blenheim. Defeated the attempt of Louis XIV to make France supreme in western Europe. 1762 Rousseau's "Social Contract" published. Its democratic teachings were put into effect by the French revolutionists. 1763 Peace of Paris. Ended the Seven Years' War and gave to England a colonial empire in India and North America at the expense of France. 1768-1779 Voyages of Captain James Cook. Greatly increased geographi- cal knowledge of the Pacific Ocean and its archipelagoes. 1769 Arkwright's "water frame," 1770 Hargreaves's "spinning jenny," 1779 Crompton's "mule," and 1785 Cartwright's power loom. Table of Events and Dates 735 1781-1782 Watt's steam engine patented. The steam engine had previously served only for pumping; henceforth it could be applied to manu- facturing and transportation. 1776 Declaration of Independence. 1783 Peace of Paris and Versailles. Ended the War of the American Revo- lution. 1787 Constitution of the United States framed. 1789 Meeting of the Estates-General in France. The first step toward the French Revolution. 1803 Louisiana Purchase. Made possible a greater United States. 1804 The Code Napoleon promulgated. The most lasting memorial of the Napoleonic era. 1807 Fulton's steamboat, the "Clermont," in successful operation. 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna. Remade the map of Europe after the revolutionary and Napoleonic era. 1815 Battle of Waterloo. Brought about the final overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte. 1823 Monroe Doctrine enunciated. Has prevented European interference in the affairs of the New World. 1825 Stockton and Darlington Railway opened. The first line over which passengers and freight were carried by steam power. 1826 Independence of the Spanish-American colonies recognized by Spain. 1830-183 1 The "July Revolution" in Europe. Overthrew absolutism and divine right in France and created modern Belgium. 1832 Reform Act in Great Britain. The first step in democratizing the British government. 1833 Abolition by Great Britain of slavery in the British West Indies. 1837 Morse's first telegraph instrument exhibited. 1838 The Atlantic Ocean crossed by the "Great Western." The first steamship to make the trip without using sails or recoaling on the way. 1839 Lord Durham's Report. Embodied liberal proposals for colonial self- government, which were subsequently adopted by Great Britain for Canada and other overseas possessions. 1848-1849 The "February Revolution" in Europe. Made France again a republic and led to revolutionary upheavals in Italy, Germany and the Austrian Empire. 736 Table of Events and Dates 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition at London. The first of the great inter- national expositions. 1854 Treaty between Japan and the United States. The first step in break- ing down Japan's traditional isolation. 1858-1861 Russian serfdom abolished by Alexander II. 1859 Darwin's "Origin of Species" published. Presentation of the evolutionary theory, which has so profoundly influenced modern science, philosophy, and religion. 1863 Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. 1864 International Red Cross Society founded. Has become the greatest humanitarian organization in the world. 1866 Atlantic Cable laid. The first of the many cables which now elec- trically bridge all the oceans. 1869 Suez Canal opened. 1870 Rome occupied by Italian troops. Unification of Italy completed. 1871 German Empire proclaimed at Versailles. 1874 International Postal Union established. An important agency in internationalization. 1875 First telephone patented by A. G. Bell. 1899 Meeting of the First Hague Peace Conference. 1900 Trans-Siberian Railway completed from Petrograd to Vladivostok. 1903 S. P. Langley's airplane and 1908 Wright Brothers' airplane. 1909 North Pole reached by Robert E. Peary and 191 1 South Pole reached by R. Amundsen. 1912 China becomes a republic. 1914 Panama Canal opened. 1914-1918 World War. 1917 The Russian Revolution and establishment of Bolshevism in Russia. 1919 Peace Conference at Versailles. 1920 First meeting of the League of Nations. 1921. Disarmament Conference at Washington. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Note. — The pronunciation of most proper names is indicated either by a simplified spelling or by their accentuation and division into syllables. The diacritical marks em- ployed are those found in Webster's New International Dictionary and are the following : a as in ale. a " " senate. a " " care. a " " am. a " " account a " " arm. a " " ask. a " " sofd. e " " eve. * " " event. 6 " " end- e " " recent. e " " maker. i " " Ice. i " " ill. o as in old 6 ' ' " obey. 6 ' " orb. o ' " odd. " soft. ' " connect u. " " use. u ' " unite. u ' " iirn. n ' "up. u ' " circMS. ii ' " menii. 00 ' " food. do ' " foot. ou' " out. oi as in oil. cb " " chair. g u ng" •Hi " " go. " sing. " iqk. " fben. tb " " tbin. tu " " nature. du " " verdure. k for ch as in Ger. icb, acb n as in Fr. bon. y " " yet. zb for z as in azure. Abdul-Hamid (ab-dool-ha-med'), II, 537, 65S and note 1. Abraham, 183. Absentee landlordism in Ireland, 4S6, 487. Absolutism, Oriental, 40, 41; Roman, 153, 154; European, 201, 281, 282, 283, 286, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296, 312, 347, 362, 415, 516, 517, 524, 525, 720. Abyssinia (ab-i-sin'i-«), 541, 546, 547. Acadia. See Nova Scotia. Achaean («-ke'an) League, the, 109, 110. Achilles (ft-kil'ez), 101, 102. Acre (a'ker), 189. A-crop'o-lis of Athens, the, 93. Actium (ak'shi-Min), naval battle of, 138. Act of Settlement, the, 294, 468. Act of .Supremacy, the, 262. Act of Union, the, 479, note 1. Aden (a'd<*n), 492. A-dri-at'ic Sea, 69. jEgean (e-ju'ffn) Sea, 69, 70. xEgeans, the, 71-73. iE-o'li-a, 74. .(E'o-lis, 74. jE-to'li-an League, the, 109, 110. Af-ghan-i-stan', 104, 552, 553. 655. Africa, geography and peoples of, 542; ex- ploration of, 543-546 ; partitioned, 546-550. " Agadir (iig-a-der') incident," the, 657. Ag-a-mem'non, 75. Agriculture, Oriental, 44; Roman, 118,131, 144; medieval, 215, 216; modern, 605, 606. Ah'ri-man, 54. Ahuramazda (a-hoo-ra-maz'da), 54. "Aids," feudal, 171. Airplane, the, 596. Airship, the, 596, 597. Aisne(an) River, 675. Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-pel'), Peace of, 313, 327. Ajaccio (a-yat'cho), 387. Alabama claims, the, 727. Al-a-man'ni, the, 161. Aland Islands, 718. Alaska, 344, 573, 574, 577. Albania, 539, 661, 6S8, 716. Albanians, the, 530. Albert I, king of Belgium, 672, 673. Alberta, 56S. Aleppo, 659, 703. Alexander I, king of Greece, 684. Alexander I, king of Jugoslavia, 716. Alexander I, tsar of Russia, 396, 402, 413, 417, 429, 522, 525, 527, 531, 726; II, 462, 526-52S. Oils; III, 528. Alexander VI, pope, 252. Alexander the Great, 101-105, 126. Al-ex-an'dri-a, 103, 100, 10S, 109, 138, 141, 148, 189, 231, 339, 550. Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, 508. 737 738 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Algeciras (Span. pron. al-M-the'ras) Con- ference, the, 657, 727. Algeria, 503, 504, 547, 657. Al-ham'bra, the, 185. Allah (al'd), 180. Alphabet, the, 25, 26 and note 1, 114, 305, 522. Alpine racial type, the, 67. Alps Mountains, 66. Alsace (al-sas'), 277, 297, 299, 407, 465, 466, 513, 516, 651, 686, 705, 711. See also Lorraine. Amendments to the American Constitution, 341, 342, 631, 633, 638. Am-en-ho'tep IV, Egyptian king, 53, 54. America, the Northmen in, 167 ; discovered by Columbus, 252 ; Spanish explorations in, 254 ; the Spanish colonial empire, 254, 255 ; the Old World and the New, 255-257 ; Dutch settlements in, 323, 324, 328 ; Eng- lish and French colonization of, 328-331 ; rivalry of Prance and England in, 331-334 ; revolt of the Thirteen Colonies, 334-341; formation of the United States, 341, 342 ; British North, 566-568; Latin, 568-573; the United States, 573-576. American Revolution, the, 334-341, 407. Amiens (a-myaN'), Peace of, 391, 395. Am-phic'ty-o-nies, 80. Amsterdam, 255, 298. Amundsen (a'miin-sen), Captain Eoald, 577, note 1, 578. Amur (a'inoor) Valley, 551, 558. A-nam', 552. An-a-tol'i-a, 714. Ancestor worship, Roman, 116, 117 ; Chinese, 557. . Anglicanism, 262, 263, 264, 265, 282, 283, 284, 288, 291, 293, 352, 4S5, 488, 635, 639. Anglo-Russian Convention, the, 552, 655. An v gl°-Sax'ons, the, 160, 168, 238. An-go'la, 547. Animals, domestication of, 14, 44 ; worship of, 52 ; crueltv to, 630, 631. Anne, Queen, 293, 294, 300, 480. Antarctic exploration, 578. Anthony, Susan B., 633. Anthropology, 645. An-tig'o-nids, the, 105, note 2, Antioch (anti-6k), 106, 231. Antiquity of man, 5, 642. Anti-Saloon League, the, 631. Antony, 138. Antwerp, 255, 428. Ap'en-nine Mountains, 112. A-pol'lo, 76, 77, 80, 90. Ap'pi-an Way, the, 123. Aqueducts, Roman, 147. Arabia, physical features of, 180. Arabs, the, 22, 161, 180, 182, 184, 186, 687, 715. Aragon (a-ra-gdn'), 200. Ar-a-mae'ans, the, 34. Ar-be'la, battle of, 103. Arbitration, international, 727, 728, 729. Arc de Triomphe (ark de tre-oNf), the, 422. Arch, the, 60, 114, 232, 233, 243. A rchangel, 306. Archbishop of Canterbury, the, 208. Architecture, Oriental, 56, 57 ; Greek, 93 ; Byzantine, 178 ; Romanesque and Gothic, during the Middle Ages, 231-233 ; Renais- sance, 243, 244, 246 ; modern, 648. Arctic exploration, 577, 578. Argentina, 508, 571. Argonne (ar-gon'), the, 676. Ar'gos, 79, 81. Aristotle (ar'is-totT), 101, 247. Arkwright, Richard, 585, 587, 589. "Armada (ar-ma'dd) Invincible," the, 273 and note 1, 328. "Armed peace," 661. Armenia, 30, 139, 719. Armies, modern, 662, 663. j Armistice with Germany, 704, 705. Arno River, 122. Arras (a-ras'), 701, 702. Art, Palaeolithic, 11; Oriental, 56-58; Mgenn, 72 ; Greek, 93 ; Byzantine, 177, 178; Arab, 186; medieval, 231-233; Ren- aissance, 243, 244, 246; modern, 648, 649. See also Architecture, Painting, Sculpture. Ar-ta-pher'nes, 87. Articles of Confederation, the, 341, 510. Artisans, Oriental, 42 ; Athenian, 92 ; Ro- man, 144; medieval, 226-228; modern, 350, 582, 589, 591, 609-614. Artois (ar-twa'), 297. Artois, Count of, 379 and note 2, 424. Aryan (ar'ydSn) languages, 22, note 1. Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury, Earl of. Asia, divisions of, 29, 30 ; medieval explora- tions in, 248, 249 ; opening up and partition of, 550-553. Asia Minor, 71, 74, 659, 714. Asquith, H. H., 488, 674. Assignais (a-se-nya'), the, 377, 378. Assuan (as-swan') Dam, the, 549. As'sur, 36. As-syr'i-a, 36, 37. I Astrolabe, the, 249. Astrology, Babylonian, 53. Astronomy, Oriental, 59 ; Renaissance, 247 ; eighteenth-century, 356 ; modern, 641, 644. A-the'na, 76, 93. Athens, population of, 79 and note 1 ; polit- ical development of, 81, 82 ; in the Persian wars, 85, 87, 88, 89 ; ascendancy of, 89-93 ; Athenian culture, 93-97 ; rivalry of, with Sparta, 97 ; defeated by Philip II, 99, 100. Athletics, Greek, 77, 78. A'thos, Mount, 86, 88. At-lan'tis, myth of, 251. At'ti-ca, 79, note 1, 89, 92. At'ti-la the Hun, 191, 192. Augsburg (ouks'bdorK), Peace of, 269, 275, 636. Au-gus'tus, Roman emperor, 138, 139, 140, 142, 147. Augustus, the title, 138. Ausgleieh (ous'gliK), the Austro-Hungarian, 519 520 Austerlitz (ous'ter-llts), battle of, 396, 397, 398, 444. Australia, exploration of, 343 ; settlement of, 565, 566 ; the Australian Commonwealth, 566 ; in the World War, 686, 712. Australian ballot, the, 477 and note 1. Australian Commonwealth. See Australia. Austria, under Maria Theresa, 309, 310 ; under Joseph II, 363, 364; wars of, with France, during the revolutionary and Napo- leonic era, 382, 3S5, 388, 389, 390, 391, 396, 398, 401, 403 ; territorial acquisitions of, by the Vienna settlement, 416; under Metter- nich, 419, 423, 427, 430, 431, 435 ; revolt of Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 739 Bohemia and Hungary against, 436, 437 ; at war with Sardinia, 437, 452, 453 ; loss of Lombardy and Venetia by, 453, 456, 462 ; eliminated from German aifairs, 463 ; union of, with Hungary, 519 ; new republic of, 722. See also Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary, government of, 519, 520 ; nationalities in, 520 ; between 1871 and 1914, 536, 651, 652, 653, 659, 660, 661, 667; in the World War, 669-671, 674, 675, 680, 682, 6S3, 6S5, 686, 693, 704, 713. Austrian Succession, War of the, 313, 327, 332 Austro-Prussian War, the, 456, 463, 651. Austro-Sardinian War, the, 452, 453. Automobile, the, 595, 596. Azerbaijan (a-zer-bi-jsin'), 719. Azores ((';-z6rz') Islands, 252, 509. Aztecs, the, 254. Baber (Wber), 325. Bab'y-lon, 30, 34, 103, 104. Bab'y-lo'ni-a, a seat of early civilization, 30 ; city-states of, 33, 34 ; under Nebuchad- nezzar, 37 ; conquered by Persia, 38. Bacon (Lord), 247. Bacteria, 644. Baden (ba'dun), 398. Bagdad (biig-dad'), 186, 187, 231, 659, 687, 703. Baker, Sir Samuel, 544. Balance of power, the, in Europe, 278, 418, 466, 650, 655. Balboa (bal-bo'ti), Vasco Nuflez de, 254. Bal-e-ar'ic Islands, 124. Balkan peninsula, physical features, 529; peoples of, 530. Balkan Wars (1912-1913), the, 537, 660, 661, 6S2. Ballot Act, the, 477. Baltic (Nordic) racial type, the, 66, 67, 73, 114, 15S. Banking, Oriental, 45, 46 ; modern, 602. Bank of France, the, 392, 414. Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 197. Baptism, sacrament of, 203, 204, 265, 352. Baptists, the, 291, 352, 639. " Barbarians," defined, 84 and note 4. Barred zone, German, 689, 691. Basel (ba'zel), Treaty of, 386. Ba-sil'i-cas, Roman, 204. Bastille (bas-tel'), the, capture of, 374, 375. Batavia, 323, 343. Batavian Republic, the, 386, 397. Bavaria, 398, 418, 514. Bayeux (bii-yu') Tapestry, the, 168. Bazaine (ba-zen'), General, 464. Beaconsfield, Lord. See Disraeli, Benjamin. Beauharnais (bo-ar-ne'), Eugene de, 397. Bec-ca-ri'a, Marquis di, 629. Bech-u-an'a-Iand, 549, 550. Bed'ou-ins, the, 180, 182. Beethoven (bii'to-v2. Cambridge, university of, 235. Cam-by'ses, Persian king, 38, 84. Cameroons, the, 547, 6S6, 712. Cam-pa'ni-a, 114, 122. Cam'po For'mi-o, Treaty of, 389, 391, 396, 457. Cam 'pus Mar'ti-us, 117. Canada, French settlement of, 330 ; acquired by England, 333; the "Tories" in, 338. 566; in the War of 1812-1S14, 567; the Dominion of, 567, 568 ; in the "World War, 688. Canal-building, era of, 593. Can'nfe, battle of, 126. Canning, George, 423. Ca-no'va, Antonio, 648. Cantignv, 702. Can -ton', 558. Cape Colony, 416, 546. Cape Town, 323, 548, 549. Cape-to-Cairo Railway, the. 549, 550. Cape of Good Hope, 251, 323, 544, 548. Capet (Fr. pron. ka-pc'), Hugh, 199, 237, 376. Capetian (k^-pe'shan) dynasty, the, 199. Capital punishment, 629. Cap'i-to-line Mount, 121. Cap'u-a, 123. Car-a-cal'la, Roman emperor, 140. Car-bo-na'H, the, 449. Cardinalate, the, 212, 213. Carnegie (kar-neg'i), Andrew, 636. Car-ni-o'la, 716. Carnot (kar-no'), Lazare, 385, 388. Car-pa'thi-an Mountains, 191. Car'thage, a Phtenician colony, 48, 123, 124 ; civilization of, 124 ; wars of, with Borne, 124-127 ; destroyed, 127. Cartier (kar-tyii'), Jacques, 329. Cartwright, Edward, 587, 589. Castes, Hindu, 555. Castile (kas-tel'), kingdom of, 199, 200. Castles, feudal, 172-174. Catacombs, the, at Rome, 150. Ca-thay'. See China. Cathedrals, medieval, 231-233. Catherine of Aragon, 262. Catherine II, tsarina of Russia, 307-309, 317, 318, 362, 363, 522, 525, 531. Catholic Church. See Greek Church, Roman Church. Caucasia, 524, 719. Caucasian Race, the. See White Race. " Cavaliers," the, 286 and note 1, 292. Cave dwellers, the, 10, 11. Cavour (ka-voor'), Camillo di, 451-455, 466, 507, 534. Celebes (sel'e-bez), 323. Celtic languages, 196, 197, 198. Censorship of the press, 272, 353, 368, 394, 408. Central American Federation, the, 572. Ceres (se'rez), 118. Cervantes (ser-van'tez), 246. Ceylon, 249, 253, 254, 416, 493, 555. Chasronea (ker-6-ne'u), battle of, 100. Chalons (sha-lou'). battle of, 192. Chalcidice (kal-sid'i-se), peninsula of, 99. Chamber of Deputies, French, 499, 501, 504, 514. Cham plain (sham-plan'), Samuel de, 330. Chancellor, German, 514. Channel Islands, the, 490. Charity, Roman, 148 ; medieval, 206, 210 ; modern, 631, 632. Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 161-164, 169, 269, 393, 398. Charles I, emperor of Austria, 521, 704. Charles I, king of England, 284-289, 328; II, 291, 292, 328, 329, 601. Charles I, king of Rumania, 159. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 253, 259, 262, 268, 266, 269, 270 ; VI, 310. Charles X, king of France, 424, 425. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 437, 505. Charles the Bald, 164. Chartism, 473, 474. Chateau-Thierry (sha-to'-tye-re'), 702. Chatham (chat'am), Earl of, See William Pitt. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 238. Chemistry, 357, 641, 643. Cherbourg (sher-boor'), 255. Child labor, regulation of, 611, 612, 613. Children, emancipation of, 63. Chile, 571. China, in antiquity, 29 ; visited by the Polos, Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 741 248, 249 ; geography and people of, 555, 556 ; civilization of, 556, 557 ; during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 557- 560, 656, 695, 712. Chino-Japanese War, the, 55S, 562, 687. Chivalry, 175, 176. Christianity, rise and spread of, 149, 150 ; persecuted, 150, 151 ; triumph of, 151 ; in- fluence of, on Roman society, 151, 153 ; adopted by the Germans, 159, 160, 161 ; separation of the Greek and Roman churches, 179 ; in western Europe, during the Middle Ages, 203-213 ; the Reformation, 257-265 ; the Catholic Counter Reforma- tion, 266-269 ; the religious wars, 269-278 ; during the eighteenth century, 351-354 ; modern, 636, 63S-641. See also Greek Church, Protestants, Roman Church. Church and State, separation of, 638, 639. Church of England. See Anglicanism. Cicero (sis'e-ro), Marcus Tullius, 137. Ci-pan'go. See Japan. Circumnavigation of the globe, Magellan's, 252 253 Cisalpine Republic, the, 389, 397. Cities, Greek, 79 ; Hellenistic, 105, 106 ; Ro- man, 141, 142 ; medieval, 221-225. Citizenship, in the Greek city-state, 79 ; at Athens, 92 ; Roman, 122, 129, 134, 135. City-state, the, Oriental, 32, 33, 34; Greek, 79-82 ; Roman, 119-121. Civilization, nature of, 1, 2 ; Oriental, 40-63 ; ^Egean, 71-73; Athenian, 93-97; Hellen- istic, 105-110; Arabian, 1S6 ; medieval, 203- 239 ; modern, 625-649. Claudius, Roman emperor, 139. Clemenceau (klii-maN-so'), Georges, 707, 709, 724. Cle-o-pa'tra, 138. Clergy, medieval, 207, 211 ; in eighteenth- century Europe, 347, 348, 353. Clermont, the, 593. Clive, Robert, 327, 553. Clo-til'da, 161. Clovis, king of the Franks, 161. Coal, 588. Coblenz (ko'blents), 705. Cochin-China (ko'ehin-chl'na), 249, 552. Code Napoleon, the, 391, 414, 448, 634. Creur (kur), Jacques, 223. Coinage, originof, 45. Coligny (ko-len'ye), Admiral de, 329. Cologne (ko-lon f ), 705. Colombia, 569, 570, 576. Colonial policv, Portuguese, 254 ; Spanish, 254, 255, 569 ;' French, 331, 504 ; British, 334, 335, 340, 494, 567 ; Italian, 547 ; American, 564 ; Dutch, 565. Colonies and dependencies, Portuguese, 253, 254, 509, 547; Spanish, 254, 255, 508, 509, 546, 547, 56S-570 ; Dutch, 322-324, 564, 565, 572; British, 32S, 329, 333-341, 492-494, 496, 540, 547-550, 552, 553, 565-568, 572; French, 329-333, 503. 504, 540, 547, 552, 565, 657; Italian, 507, 508, 547; Belgian, 510, 547; German, 547, 565, 656, 686, 687, 712. Colonization, Phoenician, 48 ; Greek, 82-84, 114; European, 253-255, 320-324, 328-331, 540-566. Columbus, Christopher, 251-252. Combination Acts, the, 609. Commerce, Oriental, 46-48; yEgean, Athenian, 93 ; Hellenistic, 106, 108 ; Roman, 142, 143 ; Byzantine, 177 ; influence of the crusades on, 189, 190 ; medieval, 229-231 ; modern, 600. Commercial routes, 46, 47, 143, 231, 255. Committee of Public Safety, French, 385, 386. Common Law, the, 201, 292, 479, 485. Commons, House of, 282, 284, 286, 288, 289, 290, 469-472, 477, 478, 481, 4S2-484, 514, Commonwealth, the, in England, 289, 290. "Communards," the, 499. Commune of Paris, the, 375, 383, 49S, 499. Companies, trading, 321, 322 ; chartered 493. Compass, mariner's, 249. Comte (koNt), Auguste, 645. Concert of Europe, the, 420, 421, 424, 508, 509, 726, 727. Concordat, the French, 392 and note 1, 414, 639. Confederation of the Rhine, 398, 399. Confucius (kon-fu/shl-ws), 557. Congo Free State, See Belgian Congo. Congo River, 546. Congregationalism, 265, note 1, 288 and note 2, 291. Conscription, military, 385, 460, 662, 663, 694. Conservative Party, British, 473, 476, 477, 478, 485, 487, 653. Constantine (kon'stan-tin) the Great, 151, 154. Constantine I, king of Greece, 659, 682, 684. Constantinople, 154, 177-180, 184, 187, 194, 242, 397, 532, 534, 535, 683, 714. Constitutional Democratic Party, Russian, 698, 699. Constitutions : American, 110, 294, 341, 342, 360, 379, 412, 709; French, 378, 379, 380, 383, 387, 390, 407, 412, 414, 424, 434, 499 ; Spanish, 414, 421, 508; German, 430, 513, 721, 722; Prussian, 489, 516; British, 479 ; Italian, 505 ; Portuguese, 509 ; Belgian, 509 ; Swiss, 510 ; Dutch, 511 ; Austro-Hungarian, 519; Turkish, 537; Japanese, 562. Consulate, Napoleon's, 390-393. Consuls, Roman, 119, 120, 121. Continental Congress, First, 337 ; Second, 337, 338, 341. Continental System, Napoleon's, 398-400, 402, 567. Cook, Captain James, 343, 344, 565, 578 Cooperative societies, 610. Co-per'ni-cus, 247. Copper and bronze, introduction of, 15, 71. Cor'do-va, 186. Corinth, 79, 81, 84, 100, 128. Corn Laws, the, repeal of, 604, 605. Cornwallis, Lord, 338. Coronado (Span. pron. ko-ro-na'tho), 254. Coronation Chair, the, 196. Cor'pus Ju'ris Ci-vi'lis, the, 145, 146. Corsica, 124, 125, 367, 387. Cortes (Span. pron. kor-tas'), Hernando, 254. Corvee (kor-va'), the, 351. Cosmopolitanism. See Internationalism Cossacks, the, 305, 403, 700, 719. Costa Rica, 572, 707. Costume, modern, 625, 626. Cotton gin, Whitney's, 5S6, 587. Councils, Church : Nicasa, 151 ; Trent, 267, 268; Vatican, 26S, note 1. Counter Reformation, the Catholic, 266-269. Coitp d'etat (koo-da-ta'), Napoleon Bona- parte's, 390 ; Louis Napoleon's, 444, 445. 742 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Courland, 686, 700, 718. Covenant of the League of Nations, the, 709, 729, 730. Covenanters, Scotch, 285. Cracow (kra'ko), 315. Cranmer, Archbishop, 262, 263. Crassus, 136, 137. Cretans, the, 26, 62, 71-73. Crete, 71, 72, 533. Crimea, the, 308, 531, 534. Crimean War, the, 447, 451, 526, 533, 534, 653, 727. Crises, commercial, 603, 604, 664. Croatia-Slavonia, 519, 715. Cro-Magnon (kro-ma-nyoN'), man, 7. Crompton, Samuel, 585, 586, 589. Cromwell, Oliver, 287-290, 485. Crown colonies, British, 493. Crusades, the, 187-190, 230, 234. Cuba, 50S, 572, 695. Cumse (ku/me), 83. Cu-ne'i-form writing, 25 and note 1, 26. Curie (ku-re'), Pierre and Marie, 643. Cyprus (sl'prtfs), 15, 189, 492, 533, 536. Cy-re-na'i-ca, 508. Cyrene (si-re'ne), 84, 124. Cy'rus the Great, 38, 84. Czecho-Slovakia, 713, 716, 717. Czechs (cheks), the, 716. Dacia (da'shi-a), 139. Daimios (di'myoz), Japanese, 561, 562. Dal-ma'ti-a, 685, 715. Da-mas'cus, 34, 189, 231, 703. Danes, the, 168, 238. Dante Alighieri (dan'tii a-le-gya're), 241. Dantou (daN-tr>N'), Georges Jacques, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 635. Danube River, 85, 535. Danzig (dan'tsiK), 712. Dar-da-nelles', the, 683, 684, 714. Da-ri'us I, the Great, 38, 39, 85, 86, 87, 162 ; III, 102, 103, 104. Darwin, Charles, 642, 643. Das Kapital, Marx's, 619 and note 1 Da'tis, 87. David, Hebrew king, 35. Declaration of Independence, the, 337, 338, 340, 359, 581. Declaration of Paris, the, 727. Declaration of the Eights of Man, the, 378, 379, 638. Deists, the, 358, 359. Delhi (del'e), 553. De'li-an League, the, 90, 92, 93. De'los, 70, 80, 90. Delphi (del'fi), 77, 78, 80. Delphic Amphictyony, the, 80. Delta of the Nile, 31. Demarcation, papal line of, 252 and note 1. Democracy, absence of, in the Orient, 40 ; Greek, 81 ; at Athens, 82, 90-92 ; the Roman Church and, 207 ; the Dutch as pioneers of, 272 ; modern, 410-412 ; disregard of, by the Congress of Vienna, 413, 414, 418 ; between 1815 and 1871, 419, 421, 424, 431, 432, 434, 435, 436, 439 ; between 1871 and 1914, 467, 479, 510, 511, 516, 525, 537; imperialism and, 542 ; the Industrial Revolution and, 581, 582 ; the World War and, 693, 719, 720. De-mos'the-nes, 100, 101. Denmark, 166, 261, 265, 279, 398, 417, 462, 512, 513, 573, 628, 633, 710, 712. Dipartements, French, 377, 391, 503. De Soto, Hernando, 254. Diaz (de'ats), Armando, 704. Diaz (de'ath), Porfirio, 572. Dickens, Charles, 646. Dictator, the Roman, 119. Diocletian (di-o-kle'shan), 153, 154. Dionysus (dI-6-ni's-ra'be), Babylonian king, 84, 41, CO ; code of, 50, 51. Hampden, John, 2S5, 286, 287. Han'ni-bal, 12(3, 127. Hanno, exploring voyage of, 47, 48, 109, note. Han'o-ver, 294, 418, 480, 457 and note 1, 462, 468. Hanoverian dynasty, the, 294, 295 and note 1. Hapsburg (hiips'bde-rK) dynasty, the, 279, 309 and note 1, 521, note 1, 704. Harding, Warren G., 710. Hargreaves, James, 585, 587. Hastings, battle of, 168. Hawaiian (hii-wi'yan) Islands, 344, 565, 574. Haydn (Ger. pron. hi'd'n), Joseph, 647. Hebrews, the, 35, 36. Hegira (he-ji'ra), the, 1S2 and note 2. Heidelberg (hi'del-beric), man, 5, 6. Hejaz (hef-fiz'), the, kingdom of, 687, 715. Helgoland (hel'go-lant), 416, 663, note 2, 713. Hel-le-nis'tic Age, the, 105-110. Henry IV, king of France, 274, 275, 726. Henry VIII, king of England, 262, 265, 276, 282, 283, 485. He'ra, 76. Hercules, constellation, 356. Hermits, early Christian, 208. He-rod'o-tus, 90, 95. Herzegovina (her-tse-go-ve'na), 536, 651, 660, 669, 715. Hesse (hes), 463, note 1. Hesse-Cassel, 463. Hi-er-o-glyph'ic writing, 25 and note 2, 26. Hindenburg (hin'den-bottrK), Paul von, 680, 682, 701. Hindenburg Line, the, 679, 703. Hindus, the, 553, 554. Hiram, king of Tyre, 35. History, definition and scope of, 1 ; begin- nings of, 27 ; subdivisions of, 28 ; modern study of, 645. Hit'tites. the, 62, 63. Ho-hen-lin'den, battle of, 390. Hohenzollern (hoVn-tsol-ern) dynasty, the, 302, 310, 311, 517, 704. Holland, J. P., 597. Holland, separates from Spain, 270-272; inde- pendence of, recognized, 277, 279 ; wars of, with Louis XIV, 298, 299, 300, 324; ac- quires a colonial empire, 322-324 ; at war with Great Britain, 338, 340; during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, 385, 386, 397 ; the Austrian Netherlands united with, 416 ; loses the Austrian Netherlands, 426- 428 ; government of, 511, 512. Holstein (hol'shtln), 457, 45S, 462, 463. See also Schleswig. Holy Alliance, the, 726. Holy Land. See Palestine. Holy Roman Empire, the, 164, 165, 277, 398, 457, 45S. Homage, ceremony of, 172. Homer, 75, 76, 78. Homeric Age, the, 75, 76. Home Rule, Irish, 488-490. Hon-du'ras, 572 and note 1. Hong-kong', 492, 558. Hoover, H. C, 6S0, 695. Hos'pi-tal-ers, the, order of, 189. Hotel des Invalides (6-tel' da-zaN-va-lod'), the, 296. Hottentots, the, 542. Hudson Bay Company, the, 568. Hudson, Henry, 323. Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), the, 274, 275, 329, 353, 636. Hugo, Victor, 646. Humanism, 242 and note 2. Humbert I, 505. Humboldt, Alexander von, 577. Hungarians. See Magyars. Hungary, 191, 192, 308, 431, 436, 437, 519, 520, 521, 713, 714,722. See also Austria- Hungary. Huns, the, 191, 192. Husein (hot>-san'), king of the Hejaz, 715. Huss (hits), John, 258. Hyksos (hik'sos), the, 82. Ice Age, the, 3-5. Iceland, 166, 513. Icelandic language, the, 238 and note 1. Iliad, the, 75, 78, 101. Illiteracy, decrease of, 635, 636. Il-lyr'i-an Provinces, the, 397, 416. Imperial federation movement, the, 496. Imperialism, modern, 492, 540-542, 656. Incas, the, 254. Inclosures in Great Britain, 606, 607. Indemnity, French, 465, 651 ; German, 712. Independents, the, 288 and note 2, 290, 291. " Index of Prohibited Books," the, 268. India, in antiquity, 29, 38, 104; rivalry of France and Fngiand in, 325-328 ; a part of the British Empire, 493, 553; peoples of, 553, 554 ; civilization of, 554, 555. Indians, American, 255. Indies, East, 249, 253, 254, 323; West, 252, 254, 324, 493, 513, 572, 573, 574, 628. Indo-China, 503, 552, 553, 556, 558. Indo-European languages, 22, 23, 73, 113, 114. Indulgences, 258, 259. Industrial Revolution, the, 581-623. Industry, Oriental, 44, 45; at Athens, 92; Roman, 143, 144 ; in medieval cities, 225- 228; the Industrial Revolution, 5S1-592; government regulation of, 610-614. Initiative, the, in Switzerland, 511. Inquisition, the, 268, 269, 270. Institutes of the Christian Religion, Cal- vin's, 261, 282. Instrument of Government, the, 290, 412. Insurance, development of, 601, 613, 621, 622. Internationalism, ancient, 110, 148 ; medieval, 204; modern, 625-627, 650. International law, 277, 278. International Postal Union, the, 599, 627. International Red Cross, the, 627, 632, 727. Invention, significance of, 5S3 ; development of, 5S3, 584. I-o'ni-a, 74, 75, 85, 87, 533. Ionian Islands, the, 416, 531, 583. Ionian Revolt, the, 85, 86. Iran (e-ran'), plateau of, 29, 30, 104. Ireland, conquered by England, 197, 279, 485; the Irish Question, 485-490. Irish Nationalists, the, 485, 488. Iron, introduction of, 15-17 ; use of, in mod- ern industry, 587, 5S8. " Iron Chancellor." See Bismarck. " Ironsides, " Cromwell's, 287. Isabella of Castile, 200, 252, 258, 269. I'sis, 149. 746 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Islam (ls'luni), beliefs and practices of, 182- 184. Isonzo River, 686. Israel (iz'ra-el), kingdom of, 35, 36. Israelites. See Hebrews. Issus, battle of, 102, 103. Italia Irredenta, 456, 684. Italians, ancient, 114,' 115. Italy, geography of, 112, 113 ; early peoples of, 113-115; under Roman rule, 121-123; political condition of, throughout the Mid- dle Ages, 165, 166; the Renaissance in, 240- 245 ; disunion of, 279 ; during the Napo- leonic era, 388, 389, 390, 393, 397, 40S ; after the Vienna settlement, 417, 418 ; revolu- tionary movements of 1830 and 1848 in, 430, 437; unification of, 447^156; between 1871 and 1914, 505, 507, 508, 651, 661 ; in the World War, 670, 684-686, 704 ; acquires Austrian and Turkish territory, 713, 714. Ivan (e-v&n') III, the Great, tsar, 304. Jacobins (jak'6-bins), the, 381, 383, 384, 387, 388. James I, king of England, 283 and note 1, 284, 294, 328, 485; II, 292, 293, 329, 331, 479, 485. Jamestown, settlement of, 328. Jan-i-za'ries, the, 530. Japan, geography and people of, 560, 561 ; civilization of, 561 ; during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 562, 563, 655, 657, 686, 687, 693, 707, 712, 723. Je-ho'vah, 51, 54. Jena (ya'na), battle of, 396, 397. Jenghiz Khan (jen'giz Kan'), 192, 193. Jerusalem, 35, 37, 150, 1S9, 687, 703. Jesuits. See Society of Jesus. Jesus, 149 and note 1, 183. Jews, the, 22, 149, 150, 203, 294, 353, 52S, 640, 714. See also Hebrews. Joffre (zhoif), Joseph, 675, 702. John, king of England, 201. John VI. king of Portugal, 421. Joliet (Fr. pron. zho-lyii'), Louis, 330. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 363, 364. Joseph Bonaparte, 397, 400, 508, 569. Josephine, Empress, 397, note 1, 401. Judah, Hebrew tribe, 35. Ju-de'a, kingdom of, 35, 36, 37. Jugoslavia (yoo'go'slav-i-a), 713, 716. Jugoslavs, the, 179, 530, 669, 715. " July Revolution," the, 424-426. Junkers (yoon'kers), Prussian, 311, 460, 516, 667. Ju'pi-ter, 117. Jus-tin'i-an, 145. "Just price," the, medieval idea of, 228. Jutes, the, 168. Jutland, battle of, 688. Kaaba (ka'ds-ba), the, 180, 181, 182. Kant (kant), Immanuel, 645, 726. Ker'en-sky, Alexander, 699. Khartum (Kar-toom'), 31, 550. Kiauchau (kyou-chou'), 558, note 1, 687,712. Kiel Canal, 663, 668. Kiev (ke'yef), 193, 522. Kitchener, Herbert, 549. "Kitchen middens," 13, 14. Knighthood, 175. Koch (koK), Robert, 644. Koniggratz (kii-nlK-grets'), battle of, 463. Konigsberg (ku'niKS-berk), 645. Koran (ko-ran'), the, 183, 1S4. Korea, 556, 558, 562 and note 2, 563, 577. Kosciuszko (Polish pron. kosh-chyoosh'ko), Tadeusz, 31S. Kossovo (kos'6-vo), battle of, 532. Kossuth (kosh'Oot), Louis, 436, 437, 519. Kremlin, the, 523. Kruger, Paul, 548. Kublai Khan (koo'bli Kan'), 243. Kul-tur', German, 665, 666. Labor legislation, 611-614. Labor movement, the, 609, 610. Lab'ra-dor, 577. Ladrone (la-dro'nii) Islands. See Marianas Islands. Lafayette (la-fa-yef) , Marquis de, 367, 373, 375 425 La Fere (la far'), 701. La.issez-faire (le'sa-far'), doctrine of, 355, 611, 615, 616. Lake dwellings, Swiss, 13. Land Purchase Acts, Irish, 487, 607. Land tenure, ancient, 41, 42, 131, 144; medi- eval, 170, 171 ; modern, 485-487, 606-608. Langley, S. P., 596. Language of man, the, 21-23, 626, 627. Laos (la'os), 552. Laplace (la-pliis'), Marquis de, 356. Lapps, the, IS. La Salle (la sal'), Robert de, 330, 573. Lateran Palace, the, 213, 507. Latin colonies, the, 123, 126, 134. Latin language, the, 146, 147, 236, 237, 245, 626. Latin League, the, 115, 121. Latins, the, 115, 121. Latin War, the, 121. Latium (la'shi-wm), 115, 122. Latvia, 718. Laud, Archbishop, 285. Lavoisier (la-vwa-z^a'), 357. Law, Oriental, 49-52; Roman, 120, 145, 146; modern, 201, 277, 278, 292, 391. League of Nations, the, 709, 710, 712, 717, 722, 728-730. Learned societies, foundation of, 357. Leb'a-non Mountains, the, 84. Legates, papal, 212. Legion of Honor, French, 393. Legitimists, the, in France, 432. Leibniz (Hp'nits), Freiherr von, 356. Leipzig (lip'siK), battle of, 403. Lenin (lii-nen'), Nicholas, 699, 700, 723. Leo XIII, pope, 507. Le6n (la-on'), kingdom of, 199, 200. Leon, Ponce de, 254. Leonardo da Vinci (la-6-nar'do da ven'che), 244. Le-on'i-das, Spartan king, 88. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, 428. Leopold II, kinsr of Belgium, 510. Lepanto (la-pan'to), battle of, 308. Lesseps (le-seps'), Ferdinand de. 550, 576. Lettres de cachet (let'r de ka-she'), 369, 374. Letts, the, 700, 718. Lewis and Clark, explorations of, 577. Lhasa (las'a) , 552. Liberal Party, British, 473, 476, 477, 478, 4S5, 674. Liberation, war of, 403, 457, 663. Liberia, 546, 695. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 747 "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," 361, 397, 407, 408. Lib'y-a, 508, 547/ Liein'i-us, 151. Liege (le-iizh'), 675. Ligny (len-ye'), battle of, 404. Ligurian Republic, the, 3S9, 397. Lim'burg, 42S and note 1. Lin-naVus, 357. Liquor traffic, the, abolition of, 631. Lisbon, 251, 254, 255, 322, 400. Literature, Oriental, 55. 56; Greek, 75, 94- 96; Renaissance, 241, 242, 245, 246; modern, 644-646. Lithuania, 279, 315, 6S6, 700, 718. Lith-u-a'ni-ans, the, 311, 315. Liverpool, 255. Livingstone, David, 545, 546. Livonia, 700, 718. Locke, John, 358, 359, 367. Locomotive, the, 594, 595. Lom'bards, the, 159, 160, 162. Lom'bar-dy, 416, 417, 437, 452, 453. London, 224, 226, 255. Long Parliament, the, 286, 287. Lords, House of, 2S2, 469, 4S0, 482. Lorraine (16-ran'), 277, 297, 299, 367, 407, 465, 466, 513, 516, 651, 667 and note 1, 705, 711. See also Alsace. Lothair (lo-thar'), 164. Louis XIV, king of France, 295-302, 324, 325, 330, 331, 349, 350, 353, 359, 394, 395, 403, 547, 673, 674 ; XV, 302, note 1, 318, 331, 350, 367, 36S; XVI, 369, 370,372,373,375, 376, 378, 3S0, 381, 382, 384, 386; XVIII, 404 and note 1, 414, 420, 424. Louis Bonaparte, 442. Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. Louis Philippe (loS-e' fe-lep'), king of France, 425, 426, 430, 432, 434, 540. Louis the German, 164. Louisiana, 330, 333, 573. Lou vain (loo-vaN'), 679. Louvre (loO'vr'), the, palace of, 246, 247. Loyola (lo-yo'la), St. Ignatius, 266, 267. Lubeck (lu'bek), 222, 255. Lublin, Union of, 315. Lucca, 279, 417, 453, note 1. Lu-cerne', the Lion of, 383. Lu'den-dorff, Eric von, 701. Lu-si-ta'ni-a, the, 690, 691. Luther, Martin, 258-260. Lutheranism, 261, 264, 265, 269, 270, 275, 276, 352, 636. Lux'em-burg, 428 and note 1, 458, 672, 675, 686, 705. Luxury, Grfeco-Macedonian, 108 ; Roman, 130. Lyd'i-a, 38, 45, 63, 84. Lyell (li'el), Sir Charles, 642. Ma-ca'o, 558. Macedonia (mas-e-do'n-i-ir), conquered by Persia, 85, S6 ; inhabitants of, 97, 98 ; under Philip II, 98-100; under Alexander the Great, 101 ; after Alexander, 105; conquered by Rome, 128; during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 533, 536, 537, 531), 661. Machinerv, introduction of, 584-588, 5S9, 591, 623. MacMahon (mak-ma-oN'), Marshal, 464, 499. Madagascar, 503, 540, 547. Madeleine (mad-lin'), La, 433. Ma-dras', 325, 327. Ma-gel'lan, Ferdinand, 253, 254, note 1, 343, 564. Madeira Islands, 509. Magenta (raa-jen't(i), battle of, 452. Magic, Babylonian, 52, 53. Mag'na Car'ta, 201, 284, 291, 292, 293. Mag'na Gra»'ci-a, 83, 122, 132. Magyars (mod'yors), the, IS, 68, 192, 519, 520, 722. Main (Ger. pron. min) River, 463. Mainz (mints), 243, 705. Ma-lac'ca, 253. Malay Archipelago, 254. Malay Peninsula, 254. Man-i-to'ba, 568. Malta, 416, 492. Mancha dynasty, the, 559. Man-chu'ri-a, 556, 558, 562, 563. Manhattan Island, 324. Manor, the medieval, 214, 219. Manufacturing, inventions in, 584-587. Mar'a-thon, battle of, 87. Mar-co'ni, Guglielmo, 59S, 600. Mar-do'ni-us, S6, 89. Ma-ren'go, battle of, 390. Marianas Islands, 253. Maria Louisa, 401. Maria Theresa (te-re's«), 310, 312, 313, 314, 317, 318, 863. Marie Antoinette (aN-twa-nef), 370, 380, 382 386 Ma'ri-us,*Gai'us, 134, 135, 137. Markets, medieval, 228. Marlborough, Duke of, 300. Mar'mo-ra, Sea of, 714. Marne (marn), the, battle of, 675, 676, 702. Marquette (mar-kef), Pierre, 330. Marriage, 146, 147, 205, 353, 633, 634. Mars, 117, 118. Marseillaise (mar-se-yaz'), the, 385 and note 1, 441. Marseilles (mar-salz'), 84. Martyrs, Christian, 151. Marx, Karl, 618, 619, 720. Mary (wife of William III), 293 and note 2. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, 283, note 1. Marv Tudor, queen of England, 262, 263. Ma'sa-ryk, T. G., 716. Massachusetts, 328, 337. Mathematics, Oriental, 58, 59 ; medieval, 233 ; modern, 355, 356. Mauritius (mo-rish'I-ws), 492. Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 520, 574. Mazurian Lakes, the, battle of, 680. Mazzini (mat-se'ne), Giuseppe, 437, 449, 450, 505. Mecca, ISO, 181, 1S2, 183, 659, 687, 715. Me'di-a, 37. Medicine and surgery, 60, 109, 17S, 186, 236, 247, 643, 644. Medina (ma-de'na), 182, 659, 6S7, 715. Mediterranean basin, the, 68-71. Mediterranean, racial type, the, 67, 71, 114. Melanesia, 563. Memphis (mrm'fis), 32, 102. Menes (me'nez), 32. Menhirs, 13. Mercantile system, the, 320, 321, 354. Mercurv, Roman deity, 118. Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, 659, 687, 703, 715. Mes-si'ah, the, 150. "Mestizos," the, 569. 748 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Metals, introduction and use of, 15-17. Methodists, the, 352, 639. Metternich (met'er-niK), Prince, 413, 418, 419, 421, 423, 424, 426, 429, 430, 431, 435, 439, 521, 525, 527, 532, 574, 726. Metternichismus, 419, 423, 431. Metz, 277, 297, 464, 465. Meuse (muz) River, 322. Mexico, 254, 255, 572, 574, 638, 693, 730. Michael Romanov, 304. Michelangelo (Ital. pron. me-kel-an'ja-16), 244. Micronesia, 563. Middle Ages, the, 157, 158. Middle class, the. See Bourgeoisie, Third Estate "Middle Europe," 655, 659, 661. Mikado (mi-ka'do), Japanese, 561, 562. Milan (mil-an), 240, 279, 302, 437, 452. Milan Decree, the, 399. Militarism, modern, 661-665. Mil-ti'a-des, 87. Mine fields, North Sea, 693, 694. Mi-nor'ca, 302, 340. Mir, the Russian, 608. Mirabeau (me-ra-bo'), Count, 371, 373, 377. 378, 380, 3S1. Missions and missionaries, Christian, 267, 330, 546, 640, 641. Mississippi River, 330. Mitb/ra, 149. Modena (mo'da-nii), 279, 417, 430, 437, 453. Mo-guls', the, 325. Mo-ham'med, prophet, 180, 1S2, 183. Mohammed II, sultan, 193, 194. Mohammedanism. See Islam. Moldavia, 535. Moltke, Helmuth von, 460, 461, 463, 464. Mo-luc'oas. See Spice Islands. Monarchists, the, in France, 502. Monasticism, medieval, 208-210. Money, Oriental, 45 ; Roman, 118 ; increased supply of, after the discovery of America, 256. Mongolia, 192, 557. Mongolian race, the. See Yellow race. Mongols, the, conquests of, 192, 193. Monotheism, Oriental, 53, 54. Monroe Doctrine, the, 423, 424, 574, 575, 657. Mons (moNs), 675. Montaigne (mon-tan'), 246. Montcalm (moN-kalm'), Marquis de, 333, Mon'te Cas-si'no, 208. Mon-te-ne'gro, 308, 531, 532, 536, 537, 539. 660, 661, 6S2, 6S3, 686, 707, 715, 716. Montesquieu (moN-tes-ke-u'), 359, 360, 361. 362, 367. Montgolfier (moN-gol-fyi') Brothers, the, 356, 357. Montreal, 330, 333. Moors, the, 199 and note 1. Moralitv, Oriental, 49-52. Mo-ra'vi-a, 519, 716. Mo-re'a, the, 529, 532. Moreau (mo-nV), General, 390. Morocco, 503, 547, 657. Morse, Samuel F. B., 597. Mosaic code, the, 51, 52. Moscow (mos'ko), 193,402,522. Moses, Hebrew lawgiver, 51, 183. Moslem, the name, 182 and note 1. Mosul (mo-sool'), 189. Mo-zam-bique', 547. Mozart (mo'tsart), W. A., 647. Mummification, Egyptian practice of, 55. Mus'co-vy, principality of,-522. Museum, Alexandrian, 108, 109. Music, Renaissance, 244, 245: modern, 646- 648. Mut-su-hi'to, emperor of Japan, 562 and note 1. Myc'a-le, battle of, 89. Mycenae (ml-se'ne), 71, note 1, 75. Namur (na-mur'), 405, 675. Nancy (naN-se'), 676. Nan sen, Fridtjof, 577, 578. Nantes (naNt), Edict of, 275, 353, 636. Naples, 83, 302, 397, 421, 423. Napoleon I, Bonaparte, 387-40S, 441, 442, 448, 451, 569, 573, 628, 663, 673, 674, 714, 726; III, 435, 437, 442, 444-447, 452, 453, 455, 456, 462, 464, 466, 499, 520, 534, 574. Napoleonic dynasty, the, 401, note 1. Napoleonic legend, the, 405, 435. Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, 287. ' Nassau, 463. Na-tal', 548. National Assembly, French, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 383, 609. National Convention, French, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 391, 392. National Guard, French, 375. National Woman Suffrage Association, the, 633. Nationalism, spirit of, 201 ; disregard of, by the Congress of Vienna, 415, 418 ; between 1815 and 1S4S, 426, 430, 431, 436, 437; modern, 440-442 ; between 1848 and 1871, 447^150, 452, 456-459, 466, 467, 650 ; in the Balkans, 531, 537 ; imperialism and, 541, 656 ; the Industrial Revolution and, 582. Nature worship, 52. Nau'cra-tis, 84. Na-va-ri'no, battle of, 532. Navarre (n«-var'), kingdom of, 199. Navies, modern, 654, 663, 664. Navigation Acts, the, 334, 335, 605. Neanderthal (na-an'der-tal) man, 6, 7. Ne-ar'chus, voyage of, 104. Neb-u-chad-nez'zar, 37, 41. Nebular hypothesis, the, 356. Negative confession, the, 50. Negro race, the. See Black race. Nelson, Horatio, 389, 396. Neolithic Act. See New Stone Age. Neptune, planet, 641. Netherlands, Spanish, 270, 279, 298, 302; Austrian, 302, 3S4, 389, 416. Neuilly (nu-ye'), Treaty of, 714. Neutrality, Swiss, 417, 727 ; Belgian, 428, 672, 673, 727. Neva River, 306. New Brunswick, 567, 568. New Amsterdam, 324. New Caledonia, 503, 504. New England, 329, 354, 634, 685 Newfoundland, 331, 333, 567, 568. New France, 330, 333. New Guinea, 564, S78. New Jersey, 329. New Mexico, 254. " New Model," the, 287, 288. New Netherland, 324, 328. New Orleans, 330 and note 1. New South Wales, 566. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 749 New Stone Age, the, 12-14. New Testament, the. See Bible. New York, 328. New Zealand, 343, 565, 566, 712. Newspapers, 599, 600. Newton, Sir Isaac, 356. Nica?a (nl-se'd), Council of, 151. Nicaragua, 572. Nice (nes), 3SS, 415, 452, 453. Nicene Creed, the, 151. Nicholas, Grand Duke, 680. Nicholas I, tsar of Russia, 430, 437, 526, 532, 533 ; II, 52S, 529, 664, 698, 717. Nieuport, 676. Niger (ni'jer) River, 544, Nigeria, 493. Nightingale, Florence, 534. Nihilism, Russian, 528. Nile (nil) River, 31, 544. Ninety-five Theses, Luther's, 259. Nineveh (nin'e-ve), 36, 37, 103. Nip-pon', 560. Nobilitv, Oriental, 41, 42 ; feudal, 169-176, 200. 201, 34S; British, 34S ; French, 348, 349. Nonconformists. See Dissenters. Nor'man-dy, 16S, 199. Normans, the, 168 and note 1, 188, 238. North, Lord, 468 North German Confederation, the, 463, 466. Northmen, the, inroads of, 166 ; in Iceland, Greenland, and North America, 166, 167 ; in Sweden and Russia, 167 ; in France, England, Italy, and Sicily, 167-169. North Pole, the, discovery of, 577, 578. North Sea barrage, the, 693, 694. Northwest Passage, the, 577 and note 1. Norway, 166, 261, 265, 279, 398, 417, 512, 513, 631. Notre Dame (no'tr datn'), Cathedral of, at Paris, 393, 500. Novara (no-va'ra), battle of, 437. Nova Scotia, 331, 567, 568. Novgorod (nov'go-rot), 304. Nuncios (nun'shi-oz), papal, 212. Obregon, Alvaro, 572. Oceania, opening up and partition of, 563- 565. O'Connell, Daniel, 488. Oc-ta'vi-an, 138. See also Augustus. Octroi (ok-trwa'), 228. Oddfellowship, 639. Odysseus (o-dis'us), 75. Odyssey (od'i-si), the, 75, 78. Oise (waz) River, 701. Old Regime, the, 346-364. Old Stone Age, the, 8-12. Old Testament, the. See Bible. O-lym'pi-a, 77, 78. Olympian games, the, 77, 78, 151. O-lym'pus, Mount, 76. Ontario, 567, 568. " Open field " system, the, 215, 216, 605. Ophir (6'fer), 47. Oracles, Greek, 77, 151. Orange, House of, 416, 511. Orange Free State, the, 548. Orders in Council, British, 399, 567. Oregon, 573. Orlando, Vittorio, 709. Orleans (or-la-iiN'), 199, 236 ; Duke of, 386. Or'muz, 253. Orthodox (Russian) Church, the, 307, 362, 522, 528, 639, 718. Os'tro-goths, the, 159, 160, 161, 162. Oth'man, 193. Otto I, the Great, 164, 165, 192, 398. Ottoman Empire, the, extent of, in 1648, 279 280 ; between 1648 and 1815, 308, 309, 531 between 1815 and 19H, 531-539, 658-661 in the World War, 683, 684, 687, 693, 703, 704 ; territorial losses of, by Treaty of Sevres, 714, 715. Ot'to-man Turks, the, 18, 193, 194, 200, 530. Ottomanization, policy of, 537, 715. Owen, Robert, 617. Oxford, university of, 235. Pacific Ocean, discovery and exploration of, 253, 254, 342-344 ; partition of, 565, 712. Paganism, decline of, 149 ; prohibition of, 151. Painting, Palaeolithic, 11 ; Oriental, 57, 58 ; Renaissance, 244, 246 ; modern, 649. Pa-he-o-lith'ic Age. See Old Stone Age. Pal'a-tine Mount, 115. Pale, the, in Ireland, 197. Palestine, 35, 102, 136, 150, 687, 714. Palestrina (pa-las-tre'na), 244, 245. Panama, 576, 695. Panama Canal, the 492, 576. Pan-Americanism, 575, 576. Pan-American Union, the, 576. Pan-Germanism, 665-668. Pan-German League, the, 667. Pan-Hellenism, 533. Pantheon (p6n-ta-ON')» the, at Paris, 502. Papacy. See Roman Church. Papal Guarantees, Law of, 507. Papal infallibility, dogma of, 268, note 1. Papal States. See States of the Church. Paper, 26, 243. Papyrus, 26, 108, 131. Parchment, 108, 131. Paris, 199, 234, 236, 373, 375, 392, 465, 676. Paris, Peace of (1763), 314, 328, 333, 367 ; (1783), 338, 339 ; (1856), 447, 452, 534, 535, 727; (189S), 508. Park, Mungo, 544. Parliament, British, during the Middle Ages, 201, 411 ; under the Tudors and the Stuarts, 282-294 ; reform of, during the nineteenth century, 469-479. Parliament Act of 1911, the, 482. Parma, 279, 417, 430, 437, 453. Parnell, C. S.,488. Par'the-non, the, 93. Par'thi-ans, the, 139, 153. Pasteur (pas-tur'), Louis, 644. Patricians (pcV-trish'ctns), the, at Rome, 119, 120. Paul III, pope, 266, 267. Pax Britannica, the, 492. Peace Conference, the, 707,709, 710. Peace movement, the, 664, 665, 725-728. Peace, the Roman, 140, 141. Peary, Robert E., 577, 578. Peasants. Oriental, 42; Athenian, 92; Ro- man, 118, 131, 144; medieval, 216, 217, 219, 220; modern, 350, 351, 607, 608, Peel, Sir Robert, 604. Peking (po-king'), 248, 559. Peloponnesian War, the, 97. Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, the, 81, 529. Penal code, the, reform of, 628-630. 750 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Peninsular War, the, 401. Penn, William, 638, 726. Pennsylvania, 638. Per'i-cles, 96. Perry, Commodore M. 0., 561. Persecution, religious, 150, 151, 203, 257, 263, 265, 268, 269, 270, 274, 275, 277, 285, 291, 294, 352, 353, 636, 638. Per-sep'o-lis, 103, 104. Pershing-, General J. ,T., 702, 703. Persia, empire of, 37-39 ; wars of, with the Greeks, 84-89 ; conquered by Alexander the Great, 102-104; conflicts of, with Rome, 153, 154 ; modern, 552, 553, 655. Peru, 254, 255, 569, 570. Peter I, king of Serbia, 660. Peter the Great, tsar of Russia, 304-307, 344, 347. " Peter's Pence," 213. Petition of Right, the, 284, 285, 291, 293, 468. Petrarch (pe'trark), 241, 242. Petrine supremacy, the, doctrine of, 211, 268. Petrograd (pye-tro-graf), 699. Petroleum, 588. Phalanx, Macedonian, 98. Pharaoh (fa/ro), the, 32. Pharos (ftVros), lighthouse of, 106. Phid'i-as, 93. Philip II, king of Macedonia, 98-100. Philip II, king of Spain, 263, 269, 270, 272, 274, 322, 395. Phi-Hp'pi, 98. Philippine Islands, 253, 254, note 1, 508, 541, 564, 574. Philistines (fi-lis'tins), the, 35. Philosophy, Athenian, 96 ; modern, 644, 645. Phocis (fo'sis), 77. Phoenicia (fe-nish'I-a), 34. Phoenicians, the, 25, 34, 35, 47, 48, 62. Physics, 356, 357. 641, 643. Physiocrats, the, 354, 355, 369. Piave (pyii'vii) River, battles of the, 686, 704. Piedmont, 415, 423, 450 and note 1. Pilgrimages, Moslem, 183 ; Christian, 187, 1SS. Piltdown man, 6. Piracy, 46, 76, 229, 604. Piraeus (pi-re'ws), 79, note 1, 93. Pisa (pe'sa), 232, 240. Pitt, William (Earl of Chatham), 336, 398. Pitt, William (the Younger), 396 and note 1, 468, 604. Pius IX, pope, 437, 450, 507 ; X, 507. Pizarro (Span. pron. pe-thar'6), Francisco, 254. Plassey, battle of, 327. Pla-tse'a, battle of, 89. Pla'to, 96, 251. Plebeians (ple-be'yans), the, at Rome, 119, 120. Plebiscites, 293, 407, 445, 456, 512, 710, note 2. Plevna, 535. Plymouth, settlement of, 328. Pnyx (niks), hill, at Athens, 91. Po, river, 112, 113, 121, 122, 125. " Pocket" boroughs, 470, 471, 472. Poetry, modern, 646. Poland, union of, with Lithuania, 279, 315 ; condition of, in the eighteenth centurv, 315, 316; partitioned, 317, 318; the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 398, 399, 417 ; after the Vienna settlement, 417 ; revolts in, 429, 430 ; in the World War, 682, 686, 700, 717; republic of, 712, 713, 717. Poles, the, 314, 315. Political parties, British, 485 ; French, 501, 502 ; Italian, 505, 507. Polo, Marco, 248, 249, 3i3. Polynesia, 563. Pom-e-ra'ni-a, 277, 416, 417, 457. Pompeii (pom-pa/ye), 142. Pompey (pom'pi) 135, 136, 137. Pon-di-cher'ry, 325. Pope, the, as the successor of St. Peter, 211 ; as the head of western Christendom, 212, 213. Popular sovereignty, doctrine of, 282, 359, 367, 407. Population, statistics of, 620, 621. Port Arthur, 551, 558, 563, 687. Porto Rico, 509, 573, 574. Portsmouth, Treaty of, 563. Portugal, 253, 254, 274 and note 1, 279, 300, 322, 323, 400, 401, 421, 509, 695. Poseidon (po-sT'don), 76. Posen, 416, 429, 516, 712, 717. Postal service, the, 599. Potato Famine, the, in Ireland, 487. Potosi (po-to-se'), silver mines of, 255. Poverty, modern, 622, 623. Power loom, Cartwright's, 586. Pragmatic Sanction, the, 310. Prague (prag), Treaty of, 463. Prehistoric times, 1-28. Presbyterianism, 265, note 1, 288, 291, 352. Pretoria, 548. " Pride's Purge," 288. Priesthood, Oriental, 42. Primogeniture, 348. Prince Edward Island, 568. Printing, invention of, 242, 243. Prison reform , 629, 630. Privileged classes, the, in eighteenth-century Europe, 347-349. Proletariat, the, 350 and note 1, 381, 383, 385, 431, 445, 618, 619, 722. Pro-py-lae'a of the Acropolis, 93. Protective system, the, 605. Protectorate, the, in England, 290. Protestantism, characteristics of, 263 ; sects of, 264, 265, 352, 639. Protocol of Troppau, the, 421, 525, 526. Provencal (pro-vaN-saK) speech, 237. Provence (pro-vaKs'), Count of, 379 and note 1 Provincial system, Persian, 39 ; Roman, 129, 130, 134, 140. Prussia, East, 279, 311, 814, 315, 516, 680; West, 311, 318, 516, 712, 717. Prussia, rise of, 311, 312; under Frederick the Great, 312-314, 318; wars of, with France, during the revolutionary and Napo- leonic era, 382, 385, 386, 396, 398, 403, 404, 405 ; territprial acquisitions of, by the Vienna settlement, 416, 417 ; revolutionary movement of 1S48 in, 438, 439 ; as the uni- fier of Germany, 458, 459 ; under William I, 459-461 ; wars of, with Denmark and Aus- tria, 462, 463 ; forms North German Con- federation, 463 ; at war with France, 464- 466; heads new German Empire, 466, 513, 515; govermnent of, 516. Ptolemies (tol'e-miz), the, 105, note 2, 130. Ptolemy, Greek scientist, 109, note, 247, 251, 343. Public debts, statistics of, 725. Public lands, Roman, 133. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 751 Public ownership, 014, G15. Public school system, the, 272, 353, 354, 363, 684-686. Pu'nic Wars: First, 124, 125; Second, 126. 127 ; Third, 127. Puritan Revolution, the. 286-290, 366, 407. Puritans, the, 283, 284, 285, 2S8. Pygmies, the, 542. Pym, John, 286, 287. Pyth'e-as, exploring voyage of, 109, note. Quakers, the, 291, 352, 639. Quebec, city, 329, 330, 333 ; province, 568. Queensland, 566. Races of man, the, 17-21. Racial types, European, 66, 67. "Rack-renting" in Ireland, 487. Radium, 643. Railroads, development of, 594, 595 ; owner- ship of, 615. Raleigh (ro'li), Sir "Walter, 273, 328. Ram-a-dan', 183. Rameses(rmn'e-sez) II, king of Egypt, 33, 41. Raphael (raPa-el), 244. Rationalism in the eighteenth century, 357- 359 Rebus, the, 24. Referendum, the, in Switzerland, 511. Reform Acts: First, 471, 472; Second, 477, 635 ; Third, 477, 478. Reformation, the, 257-265. Reichsrat (riKs'rat), the, 721, Reichstag (rliis'taK), the, 514, 515, 721, 722. Reign of Terror, the, 386, 387, 471, 499. Reims (remz), 679, 702. " Reinsurance compact," the, 652. "Reliefs," feudal, 171. Religion, Pala?olithic, 11 ; Oriental, 52-55 ; Greek, 76-78; Roman, 116-118; in India, China, and Japan, 554, 555, 557, 561 ; sta- tistics of world religions, 639, 640. See also Christianity, Islam. Renaissance (re-na'sdns), the, 240-248. Representative system, absence of, at Athens and Rome, 92, 130; development of, 411 ; reform of, in Great Britain, during the nineteenth century, 469-479. Revolutionary War, American, 334-341, 367, 370. Rhinelands, the, 297, 299, 705, 712. Rhine River, 297, 386. Rhode Island, 638. Rhodes (rodz), city, 106; island, 189, 714. Rhodes, Cecil, 493,' 548, 549, 550. Rhodesia, 493, 549, 550. Richelieu (re-she-lyu'). Cardinal, 276. Risorgimevto (re-z6r-je-m<5n't6), the, 448. Roads, 39, 123, 140, Wl, 592, 593. Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar), 381, 382, 384, 3S5, 386, 3S7. Rockefeller, John T>., 636. Rocket, the, 594, 595. Rodin (ro-daN'), Auguste, 648. Rollo, 167. 168. Romagna (i-o-man'yii), 453 and note 2. Romance (ru-mans') languages, the, 146, 147, 237. Roman Chureb, the, characteristics of, 203, 204 ; doctrines and worship of, 204, 205 ; jurisdiction of, 205, 206; social and eco- nomic aspects of, 206, 207 ; the clergy, 207-211; the medieval Papacy. 211-213; the Protestant Reformation, 257-263; the Catholic Counter Reformation, 266-269; during the eighteenth century, 351 ; in France, during the revolutionary and Napo- leonic era, 377, 380, 392 ; loss of temporal power by, 507 ; disestablishment of, in Europe, "639. Romanesque architecture, 231, 232. Romanization of western Europe, 123, 127, 128, 137, 139, 145. Romanov (ro-ma'nof) dynasty, the, 304, 307, 698. Roman Republic, Mazzini's, 437, 450, 454. Romans, the, early culture of, 116-119; their city-state, 119-121 ; rule of, over Italy, 122, 123 ; provincial system under the republic, 129, 130 ; effects of foreign conquests on, 130-132 ; the world under Roman rule, 144- 148 ; converted to Christianity, 149-151 ; influence of Christianity on, 151, 153. Rome, founding of, 115; early history of, 116; contest between plebeians and patri- cians, 119, 120; burned by the Gauls, 121 ; becomes supreme in Italy, 121, 122; be- comes supreme in the Mediterranean, 123- 129; the Gracchi, 133, 134; Marius and Sulla, 134-135 ; Pompey and Csesar, 135- 138; Antony and Octavian, 138; the Early Empire, 138-144 ; the Later Empire, 153-156; as the capital of the Papacy, 213 ; becomes the Italian capital, 456. Rom'u-lus, first king of Rome, 116. Romulus Augustulus, 154, 155, 163, 176. Rontgen (runt'gen), W. K., 643. Roon, Albrecht von, 460, 461, 463, 464. Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt), Theodore, 563, 656. " Rotten " boroughs, 470, 471, 472. Rotterdam, 245. " Roundheads," the, 2S6 and note 1, 292. Rousseau (rGo-so'), J. J., 360, 361, 367, 378, 388. Royal Road, Persian, 39. Royal Society, the, 357. Ru'bi-con River, 137. Rudolf of Hapsburg, Count, 309. Rumania, 535, 536, 537, 538, 651, 682, 684, 686, 713, 714. Rumanians, the, 179, 530. Rump Parliament, the, 288, 289, 290. Ruric, 167, 304. Russia, the Northmen in, 167 ; Mongol con- quest of, 193 ; under Peter the Great, 302- 307; under Catherine II, 307-309; in the Seven Years' War, 313, 314 ; during the Napoleonic period, 389, 390, 396, 397, 402. 403, 404 ; territorial acquisitions of, by the Vienna settlement, 417 ; between 1815 and 1914, 429, 430, 437, 447, 452, 462, 523-529, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 651, 652, 653, 655, 660; in the World War, 670, 671, 680, 681, 717, 718; expansion of, in Asia, 551, 552. 558, 562, 563 ; the Russian Revolution, 682, 697-700, 722, 723. Russian Revolution, the, 6S2, 697-700, 722, 723. Kussians, the, 179, 302-304, 521, 522. Russification, policy of, 528, 537, 718. Russo-Japanese War, the, 562, 563. Russo-Turkish War, the, 535, 660. Ru-the'ni-ans, the, 717, 719 and note 1. Saar (zi'ir) Basin, 710. Sabbath, Hebrew, 51. 752 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Sacraments, the, 204. Sadowa (sa'do-va). See Koniggratz. St. Benedict, 208. St. Brandan, islaDd of, 251. St. Dom'i-nic, 210. St. Francis, 210. St.-G-audens (g-o'd^nz), Augustus, 648. St. -Germain (zhar-maN'), treaty of, 713, 722. St. Helena, Napoleon at, 405. St. Lawrence River, 330. St.-Mihiel (me-ycl'), 703. St. Paul, 149, 150 ; cathedral of, 495. St. Peter, 211 ; church of, at Rome, 163, 213, 244. St. Petersburg, 306 and note 1. See also Petrograd. Sa-kha-lin' Island, 563. Sal'a-mis, naval battle of, 89. Salisbury (solz'ber-I), Lord, 653 and note 1. Sa-lo-ni'ka, 684. Sal'va-dor, 572, 695, note 1. Salvation Army, the, 631, 632. Sa-ma'ri-a, 35. Sam'nites, the, 115, 122. Samoa, 565, 574, 712. Samson, 35. Samuel, 35. San Marino (ma-re'no), 222. Sans'krit, 23. San Stefan o (sta'fa-no), treaty of, 535, 536. Santo Domingo, 572, 707. Sar'a-cens, the, 182, note 1. Sarajevo (sa'ra-ya-vo), 669. Sard'inia, 122, 124, 125, 302. 385, 388, 415, 417, 437, 450, 451, 452, 453, 455, 526, 534. Sardis, 39, 85, 88. Sargon I, 34. Saskatchewan, 568. Saturn, planet, 356. Saul, Hebrew king, 35. Saul of Tarsus. See St. Paul. Savagery and barbarism, 2. Savoy (sct-voi'), 302, 388, 415, 450, 452, 453. Saxons, the, 162. Saxony, 398, 417, 418, 430, 463. Scandinavia, 166, 512. Scarab, Egyptian, 52. Scheldt (skelt) River, 322. Schleswig (shlaz'viK), 462, 463, 516, 710 and note 2. See also Holstein. Science, Oriental, 58-62 ; Hellenistic, 109 ; Renaissance, 246-24S ; development of, dur- ing the eighteenth century, 355-357 ; mod- ern, 641-644. Scip'i-o, Pub'li-us, 126, 127. Scotland, 139, 197, 261, 263, 279, 283, 285. Scott, Captain R. P., 578. Scott, Sir Walter, 645. Scribes, Oriental, 60. Sculpture, Palaeolithic, 11 ; Oriental, 57 ; Renaissance, 244, 246 ; modern, 648. Scu'ta-ri, 660. Scythians (sith'i-«ns), the, 85. Sea-power, British, 273, 274, 327, 328, 332, 396, 398, 399, 490, 492. Secret societies, 639. Sects, Protestant, 264, 265, 352, 639. Secularization of Church property, 377, 392. Sedan (se-daN'), 464, 498, 703. Seine (san) River, 163. Seleucia (se-lu'shl-iV), 106. Se-leu'cids, the, 105, note 2, 110. Seljuk (sel-jook'), Turks, the, 187, 188, 193. Semitic languages, 22. Senate, Roman, 119, 120, 121, 129, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 145. Sennacherib (se-nak'er-ib), 37, 41, 45. Separatists. See Independents. Sepoy Mutiny, the, 553. " Sepoys," the, 327, 553. " September massacres," the, 3S3. Serbia, 532, 536, 537, 539, 660, 661, 667, 669, 670, 671, 682, 683, 686, 715, 716. Serfdom, medieval, 206, 207, 219, 221; sur- vival of, in the eighteenth century, 350 ; abolition of, in the nineteenth century, 403, 526, 562, 608. Ser'i-ca, 29. Sevastopol, siege of, 534. Seven Hills of Rome, the, 115, 456. " Seven liberal arts," the, 236. " Seven Weeks' War." See Austro-Prussian War. Seven Tears' War, the, 313, 314, 327, 328, 332, 333, 335, 363, 367, 553, 583. Sevres (sa'vr'), treaty of, 714. Seychelles (sa-shel'), 492. Shackelton, Sir Ernest, 578. Shaftesbury, Earl of, 611, 612. Shakespeare, William, 246, 247. Shantung (shiin'tdong'), 716. Sinn Fein (shin fan), the, 485, 489. Sistine Chapel, the, 244. She'al, Hebrew underworld, 55, 76. Shi'nar, 30, 33, 57. "Ship-money," 285, 286. Ships, 48, 83, 143, 167, 178, 262, 273, 395, 593, 690 Shogun (sho'goon), Japanese, 561, 562. Siam (si-am'), 249, 552, 553, 695. Siberia, 541, 550, 551, 716, 723. Sicily, colonized by the Greeks, 84; the Carthaginians in, 84, 122,124; annexed by Rome, 125 ; Romanized, 127 ; the Normans in, 168, 169 ; acquired by Savoy, 302 ; joined to the kingdom of Italy, 455. Sidney, 566. Si'don, 34. Sienkiewicz (Polish pron. sh<5n-kya'vich), Henryk, 646. Si-er'ra Le-o'ne, 493. Sieyes (sya-yeV), the Abbe, 371, 372, 390. Si-le'si-a, Prussian, 313, 314; Austrian, 716. Sinai (si'ni), peninsula of, 15. Sing-a-pore', 492. Sinkiang (sin-kyang'), 556. Six Points, Chartist, 474. Slavery, Oriental, 43 ; Greek, 92 ; Roman, 130, 131, 143, 144, 147, 148 ; medieval, 206, 207, 219 ; abolition of, in the nineteenth century, 628. Slave trade, the, abolition of, 628 Slavs, the, 521, 530. Slo-va'ki-a, 716. Smith, Adam, 355, 581, 604. Smyrna (smur'na), 714. Sobieski (Polish pron. so-byes'ke), John, 308. Social betterment, modern, 628-632. Social Contract, Rousseau's, 361, 619. Social Democratic Party, German, 619, 620, 704, 720, 721. Socialism, 616-620, 69S-700, 704, 720, 721, 722, 723. Society of Jesus, the, 266, 267. Sociology, 645. Soc'ra-tes, 96. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 753 Sofia (s6f§-ya), 708. Soissons (swii-sos'), 702. Solferino (sol-fe-re'no), battle of, 452. Solomon, 35, 86, 37, 41, 47. So-ma'li-laml, French, 503, 547 ; Italian, 507, 547. Somme (som) River, the, battle of, 678, 679. Sophia, eleetress of Hanover, 294. South African War, the, 490, 548, 654. South Australia, 566. South Company of Sweden, 329. South Pole, the, discovery of, 57S. South Slavs. See Jugoslavs. Soviets (so-vyets'), Russian, 09S, 699, 700. Spain, Phoenicians in, 47, 4S, 124, 125; an- nexed by Kouie, 127 ; Romanized, 128, 199 ; conquered by the Visigoths and Moors, 199 ; unification of, during the Middle Ages, 200 ; colonial empire of, 254, 255 ; under Charles V and Philip II, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274 and note 1 ; in the War of the Spanish Succession, 299, 300, 302 ; at war with England, 338, 339, 340; during the Napoleonic period, 385, 3S6, 39S, 400, 401 ; the Bourbon restoration in, 414, 415, 423, 508; modern, 50S, 509. Spanish-American War, the, 50S, 572. Spanish Succession, the War of, 299, 300. Sparta, 79, 81, 82, S5, 87; 88, 89, 97, 99, 100, 110. Speke, Captain J. H., 544. Spencer, Herbert, 645. Spice Islands, 253, 323. Spinning, improvements in, 584-586. Spinning wheel, the, 584. Spitzbergen Archipelago, 512, note 2. Stagecoach, the, 592. Stamp Act, the, 335, 336. Stanlev, Sir Henry M ., 546. States of the Church, the, 213, 279, 415, 417, 430. 437, 447, 453, note 2, 455, 456, 507. Steamboat, the, 593, 594. Steam engine, Watt's, 587. Stein (stln), Baron von, 413, 418, 458. Stephenson, George, 594, 595. Straits Settlements, 552. Strasbourg, 161, 299, 444, 465. Stuart dynasty, the, 283, 284, 291, 293, 294, 295, notel. Submarine boat, the, 597. Submarine cable, the, 598. "Submerged nationalities," 415, 516, 582, 715. Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian, 549. Suez Canal, 550, 659, 727. Suffrage, manhood, 434, 435, 444, 474, 478, 508, 511 ; woman, 478, 511, 632, 633. Suigrave Manor. 214. Sul'la, Lu'ci-us Cor-ne'li-us, 135, 137. Su-me'ri-ans, the, 33, 34. Supreme Council, the, 707, 70S. 725. Supreme Court, the, of the United States, 342. Su'sa. Persian capital, 39, 103. Svllabaries, 25. Swas'ti-ka, the, 75. Sweden. 166, 261, 265, 276, 277, 279, 29S, 306, 307,396. 416,417, 512, 633. Swiss Confederation. See Switzerland. Switzerland, 196, 261, 277. 279, 289, note 1, 397, 398, 417, 510, 511, 727. Taille (ta'y'),the. 351. Talleyrand '(ta-lc-r:i.N'), 413, 414. Tanganyika (tan-gan-ye'ka); Lake, 546. Tan nen berg (tan'nSn-bih'K), battle of, 680. Ta-ran'to, Gulf of, 114. Tarsus, 149. Tasman, Abel, 343. Tasmania, 343, 566. Ta'tars, the, 68, 304, 522. " Taxation without representation," 335, 336. Telegraph, the, 597, 598. Telephone, the, 598. Templars, the order of, 189. Temples, Oriental, 56, 57, 61 ; Greek, 93. Temporal power of the Papacy, the, 213, 447, 507. Ten Commandments, the, 50, 52. Ten-Hour Act, the, 612. " Tennis Court Oath," the, 373, 378. Tertiarv (tur'shl-a-ri) epoch, the, 3. Tes-tu'do, the, 136. Teutonic Knights, the, 311. Teutonic languages, the, 158, 237, 238. Teutonic peoples. See Germans, Northmen. Texas, 573. Thackeray, W. M., 646. Thebes (thebz), in Egvpt, 32. Thebes, in Greece, 79, 81, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101. The-mis'to-cles, 88, S9. Ther-mop'y-lae, battle of, 88. Thes'sa-ly, 76, SO, S9, 99, 533. Thiers (tyar), L. A., 434, 498, 499. Third Estate, the, in eighteenth-century Europe, 349-351. Third Section, Kussian, 526, 528. Thirteen Colonies, the, settlement of, 324, 328 ; revolt of, 324-341. Thirty Tears' War, the, 276, 277, 278, 436, 456. Thorwaldsen (tor'wold-sen), Bertel, 648. Thrace (thras), 85, S6, 98, 101, 533, 714. Ti'ber Uiver, 115. Tibet (ti-b8tf), 249, 552, 553, 556, 577, 655. Tilsit (til'zit), Peace of, 396, 397, 399, 400. Tim-buk'tn, 544. Timor (te-mor'), 564. Tirvns (ti'rins), 71, notel. Tithes, church, 351. Titian (tish'an), 244. Togo, 547, 686, 712. Toleration, religious, 265, 269, 272, 275, 352, 353, 358, 361, 362, 363, 636, 638, 639. Toleration Act, the, 294, 353, 638. Tolstoy (tol-stoiO, Count, L. N., 646. Ton-kin', 552. " Tories," the, 338, 566. Tory Party, the, 292, 468, 471, 472, 473. See also Conservative Party. Toul (tfjol), 277, 297, 671. Toulon (too-loNO, 3S5, 38S, 389. Tours (toor), battle of, 184, 187. " Tower of Babel," the, 57. Tower of London, the, 173. Townshend Acts, the, 335, 336. Trade unions, 609, 610. Trade Union Act of 1S75, the, 610. Tra'jan, Roman emperor, 139. Transportation, inventions in. 592-597. Trans-Siberian Railway, the, 551, 653. Transvaal (trans-val'), the, 54S. Tran-syl-va'ni-a, 684, 718, Trent,' Council of, 267, 26S. Trentino (tren-tc'nf>). the, 456, 6S5, 697, 713. Tribunes, Roman, 120, 133, 134. 754 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Tricolor, the, 375, 425. Trieste (tre-es'ta), 456, 685, 6S6, 704. Triple Alliance, the, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 661, 684. Triple Entente, the, 655, 670. Tri-po-li-ta'ni-a, 508. Tri'reme, the, 83. Troppau (trop'ou), 421, 526. Trotsky, Leon, 699, 700, 723. Troy, 71, note 1, 75, 102. "Truce of God," the. 206. Tudor dynasty, the, 262, 282, 283. Tuileries (twel-re'), the palace of, 380, 383, 387, 393, 443, 446. Tunis, 503, 504, 547, 651. Turgot (tiir-go'), 369, 370, 376. Turin (tu'rin), 455. Tur-ke-stan', 104, 551, 556. Turko-ltalian War, the, 508, 547, 714. Turkey. See Ottoman Empire. Turks. See Ottoman Turks, Seljuk Turks. Tus'ca-ny, 113, 279, 417, 437, 453. Twelve Tables, the, laws of, 120, 145. Two Sicilies, kingdom of the, 16S, 169, 279, 415, 418, 423, 437, 455. Tyrannies, Greek, 81. Tyre (tir), 34, 48, 102, 103. Tyrrhenian (ti-re'nl-an) Sea, 69. Tze-hsi (tse-she'), empress-dowager of China, 559. U-boat warfare, German, 688, 689, 690, 691, 693, 694, 701. Ukraine (u'kran), the, 304 and note 1, 700, 719. Ulm (oolm),39G, 397. Ulster, 485, 4S9. Um'bri-ans, the, 115. Union Jack, the, 469. Union of South Africa, the, 548, 686, 712. Unitarians, the, 294, 352, 353. United Kingdom, the, 479, note 1. United Netherlands. See Holland. United States, the, 341, 342, 423, 508, 541, 564, 565, 567, 570, 573-576, 690-697, 709, 710. Universities, medieval, 234-236. U'ra-nus, planet, 356, 641, note 1. Usury, 205. Utrecht (u'trekt), union of, 270, 272. 412; peace of, 300, 302, 331, 416, 707. Valmy (val-me'), battle of, 384. Vandals, the, 159, 160, 161. Van Diemen's Land. See Tasmania. Varennes (va-ren'), 380. Vassalage, 170, 171. Vat'i-can, the, palace, 213, 244, 506, 507; council, 267, note 1. Vendee (vaN-dsV), La, 385. Ve-ne'ti-a, 416, 417, 452, 453, 456, 462, 463, 686. Venezuela, 569, 570, 727. Venice. 231, 24., 243. 255, 279. 389, 397, 437. Venizelos (va-ne-za'los), Eleutherios, 533, 682, 684. Verdun ( ver-d Tin') , bishopric, 277, 297 ; city, 671. 673, 675. 678. 683, 703. Verdun, treaty of, 164. Versailles (ver-sii'y'), 297, 370, 372, 466, 707, 708, 709. Versailles, treaty of (1783), 339, 340 ; treaties of (1919), 706, 709, 710, 712, 713. 714. Vesta, 118. Victor Emmanuel II, king of Italy, 437, 450, 451, 453, 455, 505, 534 ; III, 505. Victoria, queen of England, 457, note 1, 473, note 1, 480, 496, 517, 553, 654. Victoria, colony of, 566. Victoria Cross, the, 683. Vienna, SOS, 309, 3S8, 396. Vienna, Congress of, 413-418, 420, 426, 427, 429, 431, 442, 447, 458, 510, 511, 650, 707. Vikings (vi'kings), the, 166, note 1, 512. Vil-la-fran'ca, armistice of, 453. Villages, medieval, 216, 217. Virginia, 328, 329. Virgin Islands, 513, 574. Vis'i-goths, the, 159, 160, 161, 191, 199. Vis'tu-la Kiver, 15S. Vla-di-vos-tok', 551. Volapiik (vo-la-pi'ik'), 626. Volta, 356. Voltaire (vol-tar'), 360, 362, 363, 369. Vries (vres), Hugo de, 643. Wagner (viig'ner), Eichard, 648. Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 401. Wales, 197, 263, 639. Wallachia (wo-la'ki-d), 535. Walloons, the, 426, 509. Warfare, ancient Oriental, 39, 40; feudal, 174, 175 ; attitude of the Church toward, 206; modern, 661-665, 727, 728. War of 1812-1814, the, 567. Warsaw, 315. Wartburg (vart'bcSorK), the, 260. Washington, George, 337, 341. Waterloo, battle of, 404, 405. Watt, James, 587. Wavre (vav'r'), 405. Wealth, increase and diffusion of, 621, 622. Wealth of Nations, Smith's, 305, 581, 619. Weaving, improvements in, 5S4-5S6. Weekdays, the names of, 53 and note 1. Weihaiwei (wa'hi-wa'), 492, 558, note 1. Weimar (vi'mar), 721. Wellesley (welz'li), Sir Arthur. See Welling- ton, Duke of. Wellington, Duke of, 401, 404, 405, 413, 471, 472, 474. Wesley, John, 352. Western Australia, 566. West Goths. See Visigoths. West India Company, Dutch, 324. West-pha'li-a, Peace of, 276, 277, 278, 297, 416, 417, 448, 707. Whig Party, the, 292. 468, 471, 472, 473. White Eace, 17, 20-21. Whitney, Eli, 5S6. Wilberforce, William, 628. Wilhelmina, Queen, 511. Willard, Frances E., 631. William I. king of Prussia and German em- peror. 459, 460, 463, 464, 516, 517, 663, 666; II, 517. 51 S, 519, 652, 654, 656, 657, 658, 660, 667, 671, 673, 701, 704, 724. William III, king of England. 293, 294, 299 and note 1, 300, 331, 4S5 ; IV, 472, note 1, 473, note 1. William, Prince of Orange. See William III. William the Conqueror, 168, 197. William the Silent, 272. Williams, Roger, 638. Wilson, Woodrow, 673, 690, 691, 693, 697, 709, 728. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 755 Windsor (win'zer) Castle, 475. Windsor dynasty, 295. Wireless telegraphy and telephony, 598, 599. "Witchcraft, European, 205. Wittenberg (viWn-berK), 258, 259, 260. Wolfe, Jauies, 333. Woman, position of, 49, 76, 116, 175, 176, 305, 632-634. Women's Christian Temperance Union, the, 631. Workshops, national, in France, 618. World congresses, 627. World Court, the, 730. World War, the, 669-705, 723-725. Worms (vormz), Diet of, 259, 260. Wright Brothers, the, 596. Writing, development of, 23-27 ; Cretan, 73. Wurtemberg (viir'tem-berK), 398, 418. Wycliffe (wlk'lif), John, 258. X-rays, the, 643. Xerxes (zurk'zez), king of Persia, 87, 88, 89. Yellow Eace, the, 17, 20-21, 190-194. Yorktown, 338. " Young Italy," 449, 450. Young Men's Christian Association, the, 632. Young Turks, the, 537, 660, 715. Ypres (e'pr'), battles of, 676, 678, 702. Yser (e'zr') Eiver, 676. Za'ma, battle of, 127. Zam'be-si Eiver, 545. Zeppelin (tsep-^-len'), Count, 596. Zeus (ziis), 76, 77. Zodiac, the, 59 and note 1. Zollverein (ts61'f<*r-In), the, 458, 461. Zo-ro-as'ter, 54. Zoroastrianism, 54, 184. Zurich (zoS'rik), 261. Zwingli (Ger. pron. tsving'le), Huidreich 261. .■■ ' i-IE?"" . : - m . ■ " . ■' ■.■■■ ■-/*'$««*. 1 ,'• *%/, %«%^V /$&& ^t&n^t-ekts ~ > ^jffla«?