o»o
ooco"^a>cot^ioi^os-)COf-(.^-G0t^05O00(MCfl-r
odaic>o6oi'^iooi«-Hio
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OOOCOC^JOOOOOiOi-H
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005(MCO»0.— lOKNCOi— I
' played a most important part. The
leading man in these two subjects was called the institute conductor. It was
his work to organize the subject matter of the general reviews and to formulate
the principles of teaching, and then to extend such work into the county insti-
tutes. These reviews and the pedagogy then appeared in the classroom work of
the public schools and in the county superintendents' examinations for teachers.
Hence the early normal school centered in reviews and pedagogy and psychology
on a practical basis.
2. Some time prior to 1900 a new movement began in the normal schools of "Wis-
consin. An increasing number of teachers, direct or nearly direct, from the
colleges and universities began to be employed in the normal schools. Most of
these were well qualified to offer broad general courses in their chosen subjects,
like the courses in the very best high schools. Many were well qualified and
wished to offer intensive courses like those given in a college or a university.
These teachers brought scholarship and breadth of view in the normal schools.
But they transformed the normal school more and more into a high school with
some college work. The colleges and universities in the decade from 1900 to
1910 have served as huge magnets to deflect the normal school from its own
special field of service. Under these combined influences the normal school be-
came partly the old-time normal school, partly the modern high school, and
partly the college or university.
3. The new type of normal school is emerging. It is based on the principle
that the normal school is a vocational school ; that it is the best instrument for
training kindergarten teachers, primary teachers, and grammar-grade teachers ;
that it may be used to train certain high-school teachers and special teachers;
that its course of study and classroom instruction should be differentiated for
special lines of service.
Desire for college credit should not eliminate valuable courses. —
One of the factors that interfere with normal-school courses being
limited to instruction that is specifically helpful to prospective
teachers of certain grades is the desire to secure college or university
credit elsewhere for all of the work that a student has taken in the
normal school. Since universities may hesitate to give credit for
such courses as " handwork for the primary grades," or, " arithmetic
for the upper grades," normal-school students who are ambitious for
college credits may neglect to take these courses, although they may be
important in their future teaching. In Wisconsin, Avhere academic
COURSES OF STUDY FOB HIGH-SCHOOL GRADUATES. 83
junior college courses have been organized in the normal schools, this
danger is appreciated and is commented upon in the following quota-
tion from the 1914^15 catalogue of the Milwaukee State Normal
School :
All the courses in the normal school (with the exception of the college course
and certain courses in the school of fine and applied arts) are designed to fit
teachers for the schools of Wisconsin. The school is essentially a vocational
.school. The studies in the normal courses are selected for the value they are
believed to have for prospective teachers, rather than for their quality of pleas-
ing students or enabling the students at some futui-e time to obtain credit at
college for them. Incidentally, the work done at the normal school may, most,
if not all of it, be made to count on a future college course for those students,
and it is hoped there may be many who wish to continue their studies ; but it is
believed that normal students are serious-minded young people who know the
purpose of a normal course and are willing to do what will best fit them for the
work they propose to undertake.
Departmental courses differentiated for primary grades and upper
grades.— When one compares the differentiated courses of study for
primary teachers and upper-grade teachers, it may be found that
they are very much alike in the general statement of the amount
of work required in each department, but that the departmental
courses are differentiated for the teachers of different grades. The
latter differentiation is well illustrated in the catalogue of the Platte-
ville (Wis.) State Normal School for 1914-15. For example, in
the English department appears " Juvenile literature required of
all who are preparing to teach in the primary grades," and "Ameri-
can literature required of all students who are preparing to teach
in the upper grades." Another course is " Geography for lower-grade
teachers," and " Geography for upper-grade teachers " ; there are also
similarly differentiated courses in history, manual arts, mathematics,
psychology, and education.
Electives should be restricted to courses specifically preparatory
to grade of teaching elected. — If it is true that two years beyond
high-school graduation is a short time in which to train a prospec-
tive primary teacher well, and three years is probably necessary for
training an upper-grade teacher, as postulated earlier in this chap-
ter, the question arises whether any electives should be permitted in
such courses. It is quite obvious that the question at issue concern-
ing electives in such highly differentiated and specifically vocational
courses as those described above is quite different from the question
at issue in the organization of general courses of study in high
schools and colleges. Confusion of these two types of situations
has often led to the allowing of a considerable range of election in
normal-school courses where there is no good reason to justify it.
In general, when a student is specifically preparing himself for
teaching in certain grades of the elementary schools, and is per-
mitted to elect some of his courses, the following restrictions should
84 STANDAEDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
prevail: It should be assured (1) that he is neglecting no phase of
the elementary-school course of study for which he needs training;
(2) that all of the courses which he elects do give specific training
for the grade of teaching that he expects to undertake; (3) that
his elections have the approval of a competent faculty adviser who
is free from departmental prejudices and bias.
Lack of common units makes statistical statements unreliable. —
It was originally intended in this chapter to make a strong feature of
a statistical table showing the percentages of the time devoted to the
various subjects in the general two-year courses for high-school grad-
uates in a large number of normal schools. Upon a careful study of
normal-school catalogues, however, it became evident that an extensive
and reliable study of this sort would be difficult to make from the
available data. In the first place, some normal schools print no tabu-
lated statement of their requirements for graduation. Others print a
statement of the number of hours per week, but do not distinguish be-
tween laboratory or shop work on the one hand and " prepared " work
on the other. In some such cases, if the item " Drawing * * * 3
hours," appears, it may mean any one of the following: {a) Three
hours of studio work with outside preparation; or {Ij) three hours of
studio work with no outside preparation; or (c) three double periods
of studio work with outside preparation; or {d) three double periods
of studio work with no outside preparation.
In some cases the catalogues state the requirements for graduation
in terms of "units" or "credits." In such instances a reader may
feel reasonably sure that the recitation and laboratory or shop hours
have been reduced to a common basis for credit.
The point under discussion is especially important in connection
with the requirements in the fine and industrial arts and in music.
The large variation shown in the percentages of such work required
in different institutions and printed in the table on page 85 is prob-
ably due to the fact that in many of the higher cases the time hours
were not reduced to credit hours in preparing the statements pub-
lished in the catalogues, and in the lower cases they were. Hence,
the calculations are probably reliable only in cases where the cata-
logues give the requirements in terms of units or credits, as at Ypsi-
lanti, Mich., and Terre Haute, Ind.
A suggestive table of time distributions is provided. — After con-
siderable unsuccessful endeavor to secure extensive, reliable calcu-
lations in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, it was decided to
attempt such calculations in the cases of only a few schools and to
submit the results as a sample of what is possible under present
conditions. These results are shown in the tables on page 85. The
experience in making them suggests the desirability of each State
normal school formulating its units of credit and requirements for
COURSES OF STUDY FOR HIGH-SCHOOL GRADUATES.
85
graduation in well-defined, unequivocal terms, such as the high-
school unit, or the quarterly credit hour, or the semester credit hour.
Percentages of graduation requirements from the ttvo-yeor courses for high-
school graduates in certain State normal schools.
Based
on gross data showTi in
table.)
i
i-j
o
1
OS
"a
(B
3
Subjects.
"3
V
1
s
1
J3
1
o
2
£
■a
1
p.
w
a
O
1
03
o
§
CO
a
s
1
.1^
^
B
^;
o
H
fi
i^
a
w
w
w
w
Education
10
14
15
22
16
16
17
29
34
19
12
28
22
Practice
10
27
26
14
8
15
8
15
13
6
23
4
12
History
6
4
5
6
8
6
4
8
2
g
8
3
17
Geography
5
10
5
14
5
13
6
14
8
20
3
14
4
13
4
3
6
6
5
10
10
English
Science
11
5
12
5
8
13
4
13
13
11
9
Mathematics
6
5
5
6
8
11
4
U
4
13
5
6
Unilistributed spe-
cial methods
9
4
4
Manual and fine arts.
16
16
U
3
12
5
8
6
5
19
8
10
Music
7
4
5
5
3
5
3
4
4
5
5
3
5
3
4
8
2
g
Physical education . .
6
Electives
20
4
S
38
29
19
1
52
Requirements for graduation {percentages) from the ttvo-year courses for high-
school graduates in certain State normal schools.
[Gross data as derived from catalogues reduced to percentages in table.]
Subjects.
i
"3
n
.2«
S -:,
c
.c
^ c
t:;
oT
i
w
OJ
a
Q
J3
ft
t»
a
•5
03
to
.s
p.
i
w
fa
"a
0"
Q
g
1
C8
1
1
Education, total percentages
14
16
17.5
14
4
21
4
38
41
12
10
34
35
Distribution:
Psychology
6
5
8
3
2
12
2
5
10
8
Pedagogy
History of education
4
5
2
5
2
3
1
9
10
5
3
5
5
9
Schoolnianagement
4
4
5
Child study
4
5
Principles "of teaching
2.5
3
10
8
....
3
5
Principles of education
3
Educational psj-chology
5
5
4
5
5
8
8
General method
Administ.rfit.inn a"d org^inizatini
3
3
Logic
4
Ethics
5
3
Educational sociology
2
9
Practice, etc., total percentages
23
30
30
2
20
2
20
15
4
19
5
19
Distribution:
Teaching
23
28.5
1.5
6
3
2
20
2
20
15
15
16
Obseryation
Conferences
4
"5'
3
Obsers- ation and practice
30
4
nr
7
History and social sciences, total percentages.
8
5.5
4
2
8
10
2
13
> Periods per week per term.
2 Periods per week per semester.
8 Requires some additional work in rhetoricals and essays, time not specified.
* Computed for course for teachers in upper grades, as giyen on page 53 of the normal-school bulletin
issued by the State department of public instruction,
s Unit of credit based on completion of term's work in subject.
5 Requires additional work in school management from students expecting to become principals.
' Additional requirements in music, penmanship, and physical training, time not specified.
" A requirement in physical culture, time not specified.
' Computed for course for teachers in upper grades.
1" Education (page 24 of catalogue) is assumed to include 4 hours of required practice (page 30).
86
STANDAEDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
Requirements for graduation {percentages) from the two-year courses for high-
school graduates in certain State normal schools — Continued.
Subjects.
i
c
o
.a
W
Distribution:
4
4
4
5.5
4
2
8
1
3
5
Contemporary history
3
1
2
Civics
3
4
5
1
fi
7
14
5
15
6
14.5
4
9
2
5^
4
18
1
3
5
9
3
7
4
4
8
12
5
?fi
Distribution:
}^
f 3.5
\3
2
2
6
1
5
{'
6
Spelling
7
....
2
1
4
4
1
1
5
4
Composition
3
5
.5
Language
in
5
5
1
4
in
Rhetoric
8
6
2.5
4
4
Undistributed
16
5
13.5
3
2
17
1
17
8
9
14
Distribution:
Nature and elementary science
12
5
1.5
2
2
5
5
3
2
4
q
}7
2
f
1
5
/
Biology
{-
12
5
\
3
Physics
Chemistry
4
Applied science
3
9
6
5.5
4
2
14
1
14
5
8
4
10
Distribution:
9
}«
f 5.5
4
2
4
5
5
1
5
5
4
in
Geometry
4
5
Undistributed:
Special methods, total percentages
12
5
5
___
Manual and fine arts, total percentages
22
18
12.5
2
3
6
2
8
6
12
7
....
15
Distribution:
12
8
2
8
2
2.5
8
2
1
1
6
2
3
2
3
6
5
r,
Penmanship
6
/
2
ft
Domestic science
1
4
Art appreciation
3
Music, total percentages
10
6
6
6
4
6
2
13
1
1
1
6
6
10
9
4
6
35
2
12
3
7
6
2
62
q
Electives, total percentages
10
Total requirements, percentages
141
111
115
64
26
130
24
130
120
62
84
120
156
Chapter X.
THE ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICE TEACHING.
Further discussion of practice teaching facilities. — As intimated a
number of times in this bulletin, the organization of practice teach-
ing probably constitutes the most important single phase of the
actual training of teachers by normal schools. In view of the
importance of the work, Chapter V was entirely devoted to the
discussion of the facilities for practice teaching in any given com-
munity as a factor in determining and limiting the extent to which
a normal school established there could serve the State by training
teachers. This involved an elaborate analysis of the amount of
practice teaching to be required, the conditions under which it should
be carried on, and standards for measuring the amount which a
given number of children might afford. The essential points were
(1) that a large part of the practice teaching should be done under
regular school conditions and (2) that every prospective teacher
should do from a minimum of 100 hours to a maximum of 90 half
days of actual teaching. Again, in the chapter on normal-school
faculties, the number and salaries of the critic teachers were discussed
with emphasis on the very great importance of the latter in really
improving the efficiency of prospective teachers.
Four factors to be considered in this chapter. — The present chapter
will take up a consideration of the actual organization and conduct
of practice teaching. The most important factors in this organi-
zation are (1) the director of the training school and his staff of
critic teachers, (2) the detailed printed course of study of the train-
ing school, (3) the practical and differentiated character of the dcr
partmental courses in the normal school in relation to the course of
study of the training school, and (4) a carefully standardized routine
(described in mimeographed or printed form) for guiding the ad-
ministration of the practice teaching.
1. THE DIRECTOR AND STAFF OF THE TRAINING SCHOOLS.
Director should be a master of elementary- and normal-school
problems. — The director of the training school is the most important
officer in a normal school excepting the president. He should possess
87
88 STANDAEDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
many of the same qualifications as were described for the president
on page 42. He should be thoroughly informed concerning all phases
of elementary school work — ^that is, he should be able to make a good
detailed course of study for all subjects in all grades and should have
good critical judgment in the choice of methods. He should have
broad training in education and be qualified to teach most of the
courses in the department of education. He should have unusual ad-
ministrative ability, including both force and tact, in order that he
might ably assist the president in securing efficient cooperation by
all members of the faculty in training prospective teachers for the
real concrete detailed tasks which they will undertake when they
begin to teach.
Director should have full charge of training school and depart-
ment of education. — If he is such a competent person as here de-
scribed, he should be given full charge of the training school and of
the department of education (including psychology), subject only to
supervision by the president. In view of the importance of his posi-
tion, if he is thoroughly competent every effort should be made to
keep him for many years of service.
Director''s salary should he larger than any other instructor'' s.^—
Hence his salary may justly be 50 per cent larger than that of any
other instructor in the faculty, since the loss of a competent depart-
mental teacher is not one-tenth as serious in the continuous efficient
conduct of the training of teachers in the normal school as the loss of
a competent director of the training school. In the chapter on salaries
we noted one example of the recognition of the superior value and
services of such a director of the training department, namely, in the
State normal school at De Kalb, 111., where his salary was $4,500,
compared with $5,000 for the president, $3,450 for the professor of
pedagogy, and $2,530 for most heads of departments. The undoubted
superiority of the organization of the practice situation at De Kalb
certainly justifies this large salary. Some of the details of this or-
ganization will be discussed in later sections of this chapter.
Competent critics needed; each should supervise only eight prac-
tice teachers at one time. — The importance of the immediate assist-
ants of the director of the training department, namely, the critic
teachers, was emphasized on page 73 and the number needed in a
typical faculty was discussed on page 69. It was estimated that
under the best conditions for the children one critic teacher could
supervise only 12 graduates a year if these did all of their teaching
(100 hours) under one critic (see pages 68 to 73). This would mean
4 practice teachers a term for each critic. If each practice teacher
taught only half of her 100 hours under one critic (5 hours a week
for 10 weeks) and did the remainder under another critic, each critic
THE OEGANIZATION OF PEACTICE TEACHING. 89
could supervise during 1 week 4 practice teachers for each of the 2
groups of 20 pupils under her charge, making a total of 8 practice
teachers per critic teacher. In normal schools, where the importance
of practice teaching is recognized, critic teachers are not assigned
more than 8 practice teachers at one time and in some places not more
than 4. On the other hand, printed reports of some schools show as
many as 15 to 20 practice teachers under the direction of 1 critic
teacher at one time, and oral reports are occasionally given of critic
teachers having charge of 25 to 30 practice teachers at one time.
Obviously this is absurd, when one takes into consideration the
needs of the children and of the practice teachers and the available
energy of a critic teacher. The teaching of the children under these
conditions must be far inferior to that in the best public schools and
the supervision far inferior to that which a beginning teacher would
receive under a good building principal in a good public-school
system.
Competent supervision and criticism require unusual skill. — The
greatest art in teaching is the skilled supervision of teaching. Hence
competent critic teachers must be unusually well-qualified persons.
They must be good teachers themselves, must be able to analyze teach-
ing so as to describe it and discuss it with practice teachers, and must
be able to direct young teachers under conditions of unusual nervous
strain which call for the exercise of great tact and discretion.
Needless to say, the personal factor is such a large element in the
matters discussed in this section of the chapter that examples from
normal schools must be omitted. In the next section, on course of
study, however, matters are so objective that examples can be safely
given.
2. CX)TJRSE OF STUDY OF THE TRAINING SCHOOL.
Good printed course more necessary even than in city schools. —
The second factor in determining the efficiency of the practice .teach-
ing in a normal school is the existence of a detailed printed course of
study of the training school. The importance of such a course of
study in improving the efficiency of State and city school systems is
generally recognized. In such systems the teachings of a single
group of children in the regular subjects is usually done by one
f cache?' for a year. If a detailed printed course of study is important
in such cases, it is obviously of much greater importance in a training
school where a single group of children may have anywhere from 4
to 50 different teachers in the regular subjects dunng a year. Apart
from the efficiency of the training of the practice teachers, the welfare
of the children demands some such definite guide for practice.
Welfare of the children emphasized in New Hampshire training
schools. — This phase of the subject is well presented in the report of
90 STANDAEDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
State Supt. Morrison, of New Hampshire, for 1911-12 (p. 153). In
discussing the model and practice schools at the Plymouth and Keene
State Normal Schools he says :
It should be understood that the State has an obligation to the people of
Plymouth and Keene in connection with these schools which ought to be observed
to the utmost. The normal schools proper are the State's own affair, but the
school districts of Plymouth and Keene entrust their children to the agents of
the State in order that the State may train teachers for service all over the
State.
In the last report of this office the criticism was made that while the schooling
which the children received tended to make them mentally alert, it left them far
from capable in any of the specific arts of the schoolroom. No course of study
was followed and nobody could tell at any given time whether the schools
were making good their expectations or not.
In connection with tlie reorganization which the trustees adopted, it was
aimed to correct this defect. The model and practice schools, viewed simply
as public schools, are in better condition to-day than at any time in recent years,
at least so far as the arts fundamental to all education are concerned. They
will average well with the best class of schools of the State, but they can not be
said to be the best of their class.
State or city course of study should be followed. — The course of
study adopted by the trustees of the New Hampshire normal schools
was the State course of study, and it was made the basis of the work
not only in the model and practice schools, but also in the normal
departmental classes. It is clear that this is a desirable basis for
procedure in States where there is an efficient central State depart-
ment of education and a well-standardized course of study. The
next best step in adopting a standard course of study for a training
school is to follow the main outlines of the course in operation in the
city in which the normal school is located, if the city schools are to
be used at all for practice teaching purposes, as is necessary in most
places. Such modifications as are necessary can be made by the
director of training.
Close coordination with city schools at De KaTb^ III. — Perhaps the
best example of the practice just described is the course of study for
the training department of the State normal school at De Kalb, 111.
This was prepared under the direction of C. A. McMurry, director
of the training department there until 1915, who is largely responsi-
ble for making this one of the best training departments in the coun-
try. The relation of the course of study to the city schools, as well
as certain other important aspects of the training situation at De
Kalb, are brought out in the following quotation from the introduc-
tory statement by Prof. McMurry (p. 3 of Course of Study) :
The training department of the Northern Illinois State Normal School is pro-
vided for in two houses, one a complete and well-equipped building on the
campus and the other the Glidden School, on South First Street, in De Kalb.
Each of these schools serves as a regular ward school for the city and has the
THE ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICE TEACHING. 91
same supervision as the otlier ward scliools of the city. About 600 children are
provided for in these schools.
As a rule every regular schoolroom is provided with a critic, who closely
directs and supervises the work of the student teachers who instruct the chil-
dren in her room. The principals of buildings, besides the duties of general
management, reinforce this careful supervision of class instruction. The lessons
are so carefully planned and organized beforehand that student teachers are
generally able to find their way quiclvly into effective teaching.
Two terms of teaching, on half-day time, are the regular requirements for
student teachers before graduation. Room charge, or the general management
of all classes in a room, is required for one of these terms. Each student in
training is required also to attend " critique lessons," that is, illustrative exer-
cises with regular classes given by the room critics or by other experienced
teachers. Later these lessons are fully discussed by students and critics.
The heads of departments and other regular teachers in the normal school
participate freely in the training-school work, either by advice or direction of
students in special departments, such as music, drawing, manual arts, litera-
ture, history, nature study, arithmetic, etc., and also by presenting and dis-
cussing critique lessons.
The following course of study has been carefully worked out by the superin-
tendent and teachers, aided by the normal-school instructors in their special
departments. Many of the more important topics or units of study have been
elaborately worked out and the material thus brought into shape has been re-
duced to printed or typewritten form for the ready use of teachers in all the
schools of the city. The same course of study is followed in all the schools of
De Kalb, and the training schools thus approximate closely, in material and
methods, the usual work of schools.
The De Kalh course of study. — The De Kalb course of study is a
pamphlet of 83 pages and consists of very brief concise statements
concerning the general character of the work in each subject, followed
by detailed descriptions of the topics taken up in each grade. The
outlines of some of the more unorganized or newer subjects, such as
nature study, are especially full and detailed.
Ready-made outlines assist fractice teacher to concentrate on
technique of teaching. — The second sentence in the last paragraph
quoted above described one unique phase of the work at De Kalb
which is especially valuable, namely, the accumulation of outlines,
references, illustrative and other materials thai the practice teacher
can make ready use of in getting her subject matter in shape for
teaching. The assumption at the basis of this plan is that the prac-
tice teacher should be in a position to concentrate most of her time,
energy, and attention on the technique of teaching. The practice-
teaching period of a student's education is certainly not the time when
she should be mastering the subject that she is to teach. This should
be definitely provided for in the departmental courses which should
precede the assignment to teaching.
The general plan of organizing the material of practice-teaching
units referred to above was described at length by Prof. McMurry in
a paper read at the meeting of the normal school section of the
92 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
National Education Association in Cincinnati in 1915 and which is
printed in the proceedings of the association.
Sample courses of study of training schools. — ^Among other courses
of study for training schools are those from the State normal schools
at Salem, Mass., Harrisonburg, Va. (1912), Carbondale, 111. (1914),
Winona, Minn. (1909),Warrensburg,Mo. (1910), Normal, 111. (1912),
and Chico, Cal. (1914).
Winona course of study prepares for real Minnesota conditions. —
The course of study from Winona, Minn., was published in 1909 as
a revision of earlier editions of 1903 and 1907. The endeavor to re-
late the course of study to real school conditions in Minnesota is
expressed in the following quotation from the preface (p. 4) :
la assisting to modernize the course of study for elementary schools we realize
that a normal school must not go too far from the commonly accepted course of
study, lest student teachers be handicapped by being tlirown into situations too
strange, when, after graduation, they begin their independent teaching. Conse-
quently, this course of study is not so much an expression of what we might like
to do as it is a statement of what seems practicable in the schools of Minnesota.
That is to say, we try to have in our elementary school for the observation of our
student teachers, not a course that is theoretically ideal (if there could be such),
but one that is usable in any graded school in the State.
Chico {Cal.) course of study. — In the foreword of the Chico (Cal.)
course of study (1914) it is stated that this is the first printed course
of study that the training school as such has had, and that its pur-
pose is to serve as a suggestive working manual for the use of super-
visors and student teachers and to develop more coordination and
correlation between the normal school and the training school.
Detailed courses of study for geography at Chico. — Other signifi-
cant publications from Chico are two bulletins dealing with the teach-
ing of geogi:aphy, by C. K. Studley, supervisor of geography. The
first has two parts entitled "Map Geography and Journey Geog-
raphy for Beginners." The second bulletin is entitled " Geography
for the Fifth and Sixth Grades." These were published in 1912 and
1913 and include about 150 pages of detailed directions and outlines
for teaching geography. In the preface it is stated that these courses
of study are all the outgrowth of the work in the elementary depart-
ment of the Chico State Normal School and are intended to serve
as a labor-saving device for teachers.
The last sentence suggests the main issue in this section of the
chapter, namely, the development of very definite detailed courses of
study as the second important factor in the effective and economical
administration of practice teaching.
3. PRACTICAL DIPFERENTIATED DEPARTMENTAL COURSES.
Differentiated departmental courses should prepare directly
for practice teaching. — The third factor in developing an effective
THE ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICE TEACHING. 93
practice teaching situation is the organization of practical and dif-
ferentiated departmental courses which are focused directly on the
subject matter and methods of the part of the elementary school in
which the prospective teacher expects to teach. The general im-
portance of giving this type of instruction was emphasized in the
preceding chapter on course of study. Its relation to the practice
teaching is even more obvious and important. There may be some
chance that the student who has been given a certain type of course
in primary geography will not have an opportunity to teach such
work in the school system in which she is employed ; but if the normal-
school courses and the training-school courses are correlated, as they
should be, the practice work in geography would certainly be along
the same lines as the normal-school courses in geography.
Correlation may he secured hy having instructors teach in hoth
schools. — The simplest administrative method of securing this corre-
lation is to require instructors to teach in both places, namely, in the
normal school and in the training school. This arrangement is not
uncommon in the normal schools of the North Atlantic States. For
example, in the catalogue of the Salem (Mass.) State Normal School,
Me find the following paragraph in a discussion of the training
schools (p. 16) :
In planning the instruction in these schools the aim is to connect it as closely
as possible with the work in the normal school, to the end that the methods of
teaching here may exemplify the theory which the normal-school students are
taught. In the training school a large part of the instruction is either super-
vised or actually given by normal-school instructors, and instruction in the
normal school is largely based on directed observation in the training department
in particular subjects as well as in the theory of education.
President should insist on correlation of work of normal and train-
ing schools. — In general, it is the task of the president of the normal
school to make sure that the course of study of the training school
does correspond roughly to average courees of study of the district
that the normal school serves, and to make equally sure that all
normal-school courses prepare definitely and thoroughly for the
successful teaching of this course of study.
Normal-school instructor must patiently master details of his
subject. — The greatest difficulty is found in the fact that so many
normal-school instructors feel that they are too big for the detailed
work required in such a scheme. As a matter of fact, the positions
are too big for the instructors. Definitely and thoroughly to organize
the material of any elementary-school subject is a big achievement.
But it is a big achievement that requires patient mastery of many
details. Hence, a normal-school instructor who is not energetic and
persistent is likely to spend his time telling how it should be done,
instead of organizing materials so as to help teachers to do it.
94 STANDAKDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
i
Possibilities in normal-school positions illustrated by achieve-
ments of Charles McMurry. — The possibilities of a normal-school
instructor achieving big results by careful, persistent detailed work
are well illustrated in the many practical publications of the former
director of the training school at De Kalb, 111., namely. Prof. Charles
McMurry, who has done more in formulating the material of instruc-
tion in several subjects than most departmental normal-school instruc-
tors have done in their own special subjects.
If the departmental courses give students a body of organized mate-
rial and methods which are of practical value, the third factor in the
effective organization of practice teaching will be provided for.
4. STANDARDIZED ROUTINE FOR ASSIGNMENTS AND SUPERVISION.
Saves time and confusion in a complicated social situation. — The
fourth factor in the effective conduct of practice teaching is the
organization of a standardized routine for assignments, preparation
of material, supervision, and reports. This routine should be con-
cisely described in a mimeographed or printed handbook for practice
teaching. A practice-teaching organization is a very complicated
social situation into which new members are being introduced con-
stantly. In order to save confusion and to economize time, if for no
other reasons, such a handbook should be proAdded. It saves much
reiteration of directions orally and eliminates many possibilities of
misunderstanding. It is of great help not only to new practice
teachers, but also to new critic teachers.
Content and value of handbook for practice teaching. — Such a
handbook should contain the fundamental regulations governing
practice teaching, information concerning the routine of the elemen-
tary school, directions for lesson plans, and a concise formulation of
the fundamental j)oints in the technique of teaching to which practice
teachers and critic teachers should give attention. Such an outline
of the points in technique is especially helpful to new critic teachers,
who are often at great loss to know how to analyze and discuss with
practice teachers the teaching which the latter do.
Best handhooTc published hy McMurry. — Again in this field we
find the best production to be one from the De Kalb Normal School,
namely, the Handbook of Practice for Teachers, by Charles McMurry,
published in 1914. (The Macmillan Co.) In view of the fact that
anyone can easily purchase this book, it need not be described.
Other handbooks for practice teaching are published by the State
normal schools at Platteville, Wis. (1901 and 1907) ; Peru, Nebr.
(1905 and 1909) ; and Chadron, Nebr. (1913).
Progressive reforms need efficient management to succeed. — In
general, normal-school instructors are likely to be carried away with
THE ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICE TEACHING. 95
enthusiasm for progressive reforms in education which they have
vaguely conceived, and fail to realize that the success of progressive
reforms depends upon the efficiency with which reformers apply prin-
ciples of business management in organizing and standardizing their
instruction. A well-organized handbook describing such an organi-
zation for practice teaching is the fourth factor in securing effective
conduct of this most imi)ortant phase of normal-school work.
Some descriptions of practice-teaching organizations. — In order
to put the reader in touch with a few exanii)les of practice-teaching
situations, this chapter will conclude with two quotations from typi-
cal normal-school publications or reports. Attention is called to the
examples already described in the chapter on practice-teaching facili-
ties, namely, those in the normal schools at Mayville, N. Dak.;
Plymouth and Keene, N. H.; De Kalb, 111.; and Providence, R. I.
(p. 49).
Practice teachinj at Charleston^ III. — The following quotations are
from the 1913-14 catalogue of the State normal school at Charleston,
111., which ranks high among American normal schools. It main-
tains its own training school. The catalogue states that :
At present the school has oi.trht critic teachers, one for grades 1 and 2, one
for each of the other six grades, and a special teacher for the work in history
(p. 16).
The critic teachers do the greater part of the teaching, then, because it is
believed that experience in teaciiing is valuable only when based on sound edu-
cational principles, which are illustrated by a teacher of marked ability directing
a well-trained class. Observation of the expert, followed by practice, and this
again by observation should be the rule (p. 17).
A considerable part of the teaching is done by the student teachers. All
students graduating from the normal school are required in their senior year to
take throughout the year a course in practice teaching. For this purpose the
school year is divided into four quarters. Each quarter the list of student
teachers is divided into as many groups as there are critic teachers, and one
group Is assigned to each critic for the quarter. By the critic teacher the stu-
dent is assigned to teach a particular subject in her grade. Each quarter the
student is assigned to a different grade, usually two grades in advance of his
previous assignment, and to a different subject, until the fourth quarter, when
the student's preference for grad(> and subject is considered.
In the beginning of the first quarter the student makes plans for teaching the
lessons in his assigned subject after discussing the subject matter witli the critic
teacher, but for about two weeks the teaching is done by the critic teacher, the
student observing. Gradually the teaching is turned over to the student, the
critic teacher observing, and discussing the lessons and lesson plans before and
after the student teaches the lesson. Each critic teacher holds one general
meeting each week with her group of students, besides special conferences witli
individuals. She also does as much of the teaching throughout the quarter as
seems to her necessary to keep the class up to standard and to furnish the stu-
dent opportunity to observe expert teaching (pp. 34 ami 35).
15607"— 16 7
96 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Practice teaching at Emporia, Kans. — The following quotation
from a typewritten report kindly furnished by President Butcher, of I
the State Normal School at Emporia, Kans., in the fall of 1914, shows
how a scheme somewhat similar to that described above works in a
large, well-organized normal school with a small training school,
containing approximately 180 children, divided for practice-teaching
purposes into 15 groups of about 12 pupils each. The report reads,
in part, as follows :
Student teachers. — Our group of student teachers this semester consists of the
following numbers : Kindergarten, 5 ; primary, 26 ; first intermediate, 19 ; sec-
ond intermediate, 22 ; grammar grades, 25 ; athletic coaching, 3 ; high school,
15 ; a total of 115. Considering this work from primary to the grammar course,
inclusive, we find that the number of groups of children permits only an average
of 3^ hours per week of actual instruction for each student teacher. This stu-
dent teaching continues for a period of 18 weeks, making thus an average of 63
hours of actual instruction in the training school for the life certificate. This
student teaching is supplemented by systematic observation under the direction
of the critic teachers in certain types of work other than that taught by the stu-
dent teacher. Except in the case of teachers of unusual skill the student teacher
continues with the same teaching throughout his term of 18 weeks. Exception
is made to this rule if for any reason inappropriate assignment of teaching has
to be made at the beginning of the term. Of course, in the majority of cases
this assignment for the 18 weeks comprises throughout the entire time more than
one type of work. For example, teachers may be teaching drawing and arith-
metic or physical training and language.
Chapter XI.
THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS.
Two recent bulletins of the Bureau of Education devoted to this
topic. — The training of teachers for rural schools constitutes an
important part of the work of State normal schools in certain sections
of the country where from 50 per cent to 75 per cent of the students in
the normal school become rural teachers. In view of this fact it would
be quite appropriate to devote a special chapter to a discussion of the
courses of study for such teachers were it not for the fact that the
Bureau of Education has issued recently two special bulletins which
contain a thorough review and discussion of the whole problem of the
training of rural teachers. These bulletins are No. 2 for 1913 and No,
49 for 1914. The former is entitled "Training Courses for Kural
Teachers," and was prepared by A. C. Monahan, of the Bureau of
Education, and R. H. Wright, of the State Normal School at Green-
ville, N. C. The second bulletin is entitled " Efficiency and Prepara-
tion of Rural School Teachers," and was prepared by H. W. Foght,
specialist in rural-school practice of the Bureau of Education.
Some State normal schools intensely interested in training rural
teachers. — The general interest manifested by the normal schools in
the training of rural teachers is described in the following paragraph
from page 36 of Mr. Foght's study :
The normal schools shouUI, theoretically at least, be able to prepare teachers
for all kinds of schools. Practically, however, they have not always been able
to do so. The demand for trainetl teachers in the city and village schools has
in most sections of the country been so great as to absorb all the energies of the
schools, leaving little or no time to consider the neetls of rural communities.
Certain geographical sections of the country, notably the North Atlantic division,
have now little genuine agricultural life. Here, naturally enough, the normal
schools do not devote much of their time to rural teachers. In such agricultural
sections as the North Central and South Central divisions, on the other hand,
rural teachers are in the majority. Now that educational ideals are undergoing
great changes in these sections of the country, it is reasonable to expect that
the normal schools will be prompt to respond to the new needs. These schools
have always been ready to adapt themselves to prevailing conditions. In a
sense they are so near to public thought all the time as to be " more nearly
to-day an actual exponent of public sentiment than any other public institution
of equivalent magnitude." The best evidence of this is that the normal schools
situated in the agricultural sections of the country are at this time straining
every energy to be of greatest assistance in rural-teacher preparation.
97
98
STANDABDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Normal-school efforts supplemented by teacher-training courses
in high schools and county normal schools. — Obviously, the training
of teachers for all of the rural schools of a given district of the State
is entirely too large a problem for the normal school which serves this
district. This fact has been keenly realized in recent years in a num-
ber of States, and arrangements have been made to organize teacher-
training courses in local high schools or county normal schools. A
complete description of these courses is found in the bulletin by Mon-
ahan and Wright, mentioned above, which also contains (on pp. 11
to 35) a description and summary of the courses for rural teachers
offered in the State normal schools. In the bulletin by Mr. Foght,
the discussion of the work of State normal schools in this line is
brought down to a later date. Owing to the ease with which these
bulletins may be secured and the fact that they are now quite gen-
erally known to persons interested in the training of rural teachers,
no further discussion of the organization of such training by State
normal schools will be provided in this bulletin.
Chapter XII.
TRAINING OF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS AND CONFER-
RING OF DEGREES.
Constitutes a small part of the work of a few State normal
schools. — The training of high-school teachers is a problem in which
a few normal schools have manifested intense interest. For the most
part, however, State normal schools are training relatively few high-
school teachers as compared with the number of elementary teachers
which they train. Hence a discussion of the present activities of
normal schools in training high-school teachers is relatively unim-
portant.
Rapid increase of high schools may necessitate training of such
teachers in normal schools. — The enormous increase in the number
of high schools during the last two decades, however, makes the train-
ing of teachers for them a very serious problem, and it is quite pos-
sible that in some States the careful development of special facilities
for training high-school teachers by the normal schools will be a part
of the solution. The phrase "careful development of special facili-
ties " in the last sentence should be emphasized, because the adequate
training of high-school teachers by normal schools demands just as
careful and thorough an organization of specialized, differentiated
courses as was described for elementary teachers in the preceding
chapter.
Would necessitate new advanced academic and professional courses
in normal schools, — Some normal-school authorities, in their enthusi-
asm for additional students and additional courses, and without re-
gard to efficient specific training and real per capita costs, maintain
that the training of high-school teachers by normal schools would
involve no additional expense to the State, since the normal schools
already have organized the departments necessary to give such in-
struction. This naive assumption overlooks entirely the necessity of
organizing specific advanced courses in all high-school subjects, as
well as specific professional courses in the historical, psychological,
administrative, and methodological aspects of education. Unless
such advanced academic courses are organized, the prospective high-
school teachers will not be adequately trained in subject matter, and
unless specific courses are organized in the history of secondary edu-
99
100 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
cation, in the psychology of high-school instruction, in methods of!
teaching in high schools, and in high-school administration the time j
spent in professional study by the prospective high-school teacher
will be largely wasted as far as improving his efficiency as a high-
school teacher is concerned.
Academic high-school departments in normal schools tend to ex-
pand. — Some of the State normal schools that seem to be the most
concerned about becoming colleges for training high-school teachers
have themselves barely graduated from the rank of high schools ; that
is, approximately 50 per cent of their students are still of high-school
rank. Moreover, some of the same schools have been least successful
in developing the type of training courses for elementary teachers
which are generally admitted to be of first importance, namely, care-
fully differentiated courses with extensive provision for carefully
supervised practice teaching. Probably the fact that they have been
largely high schools, providing a large amount of purely academic
instruction, explains the fact that they want to become colleges doing
the same type of work. If they ceased to be high schools (as they
must when local high schools develop), and became strictly effective
normal schools for training elementary teachers, they would have to
abolish their departments of Latin, German, chemistry, physics, and
probably certain other departments. Obviously, the teachers in these
departments, many of whom have been connected with the school
for years (giving courses of high-school grade), do not desire to seek
high-school positions elsewhere ; they would prefer to become college
professors. Needless to say, the necessity of transferring these teach-
ers to other positions in the State should not be permitted to interfere
for a moment with the abolishing of their department if this process
seemed best to unprejudiced expert central State authorities who werie
making plans to have the State institutions serve the State most
economically and effectively.
Should investigate per capita costs before establishing new ad-
vanced academic courses. — Moreover, in any State where the prob-
lem of establishing in State normal schools new departments of foreign
languages, advanced mathematics, physics, and chemistry was being
considered, the central State authorities would do well to look into
the probable registration and consequent per capita costs in such
departments.
The above argument is not intended to show that normal schools
should not undertake the training of high-school teachers. To do so
may be part of the best plan to supply the State with such teachers.
It is merely intended to point out that it involves just as special an
assumption of new, extra, specific tasks by the normal school as is in-
volved in the establishing of new courses in any higher educational
institution.
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS — DEGREES. 101
Examples of discussions by State authorities of training high-
school teachers. — In keeping with the discussion up to this point,
reference will be made to three States in which the problem of train-
ing high-school teachers is being given serious consideration, namely,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Minnesota,
Massachusetts: Most high-school teachers are college graduates
without professional training. — Massachusetts has been a leader in
educational development generally, and has certainly taken high rank
in the matter of training elementary teachers. It would not be pre-
sumptuous to infer that it will do equally well eventually in providing
professional training for high-school teachers. The whole problem
is discussed at length by Commissioner Snedden in his report for
1912-13 (pp. 36—41). A few quotations will present certain aspects
of the situation. Concerning the present staflP of high-school teachers
of the State he says (p. 37) :
In the main, the high schools of the Commonwealth find their teachers among
the graduates of the private and endowed colleges, of which there are nearly a
score in the State. These graduates vary greatly as to the kind and degree of
their professional preparation for the work of teaching. The fact that high
schools now rarely employ as teachers persons not possessing an academic degree
insures that these teachers have a fair general education. In perhaps a majority
of cases they have had considerable college instruction in subjects closely related
to those which they are expected to teach in the high schools. A minority of
them have had, in addition, college courses in such subjects as the theory and
practice of teaching, the history of education, educational psychology, and prin-
ciples of method given by the departments of education which, within compara-
tively recent years, have been established in various higher institutions of
learning.
It must, however, be said that, in spite of the equipment described above, almost
all college graduates employed as teachers in high schools are, in relation to the
work they are expected to do, deficient in professional training. Even though
they have had courses in the subjects which they intend to teach, and also some
theoretical courses in education, they necessarily approach their work as learn-
ers, as apprentices, to whom practical means and methods of effectively teaching
boys and girls are as yet almost wholly unknown.
Continue to rely on colleges for high-school teachers. — Concern-
ing the desirability of the State organizing special facilities for
training secondary teachers, Mr. Snedden says (p. 39) :
In Massachusetts, however, it seems inexpedient for the State to enter upon
such work until existing institutions shall have had full opportunity to demon-
strate their capacity to deal with this problem. They have heretofore trainetl
substantially all such teachers, and have met the demands of the State and
local communities in so far as these have been expressed in law or through
such formal requirements as certification standards.
Stimulate professioTial training hy certif cation requirements. —
In order to make sure that graduates of existing institutions shall
have adequate professional training, Mr. Snedden recommends the
development of a scheme of certification of teachers which will
102 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
1
necessitate the organization of adequate professional courses in these
institutions.
8upt. Morrison would not train high-school teachers in Twrmal
schools. — The general issues discussed earlier in this chapter are
clearly expressed by State Supt. Morrison, of New Hampshire, in
connection with the problem of training high-school teachers for that
State. In his report for 1913-14 he writes as follows (p. 163) :
The question will perhaps naturally suggest itself, Why not train high-
school teachers in the State normal schools? There are several good reasons
why this is not practicable.
In the first place, the normal schools have enough and more than enough to
do in the training of teachers for the elementry schools.
Secondly, teachers in the secondary schools need four years of academic
as well as professional preparation, and they need the ripening process which
comes out of four years of study. The normal-school program calls for two
years of strictly professional training. To provide for the academic training
of high-school teachers would necessitate the duplication of every existing
normal school faculty with an academic faculty.
Finally, even were this done, the normal schools thus enlarged could not hope
to offer the general advantages of the larger institutions, and the result would
necessarily be an inadequate enrollment of inferior material.
Minnesota: Cooperation of State authorities postponed training
of high-school teachers in normal schools. — In Minnesota we find an
excellent example of the various educational forces of the State
working together on the problem of giving degree courses in the
normal schools as well as the matter of training high-school teachers.
The State Normal School Board of Minnesota, of which the State
superintendent is ex officio president, seems to cooperate with the
presidents of the several State normal schools so as to develop effi-
ciently the general normal-school situation. Moreover, the present
president of the State university is an unusually broad-minded effi-
cient educational and administrative expert. This situation makes
it almost certain that any development in the training of teachers
will be for the best interests of the State.
Attitude of the president of the Winona State Norrnal School. — As
regards the training of high-school teachers, President Maxwell, of
the State normal school at Winona, states that the Minnesota normal
schools have no ambitions in this direction. The following para-
graphs, quoted from his report for 1910-12, contain his statement
(p. 105) :
There is no ambition on the part of the Minnesota normal schools to direct
their efforts toward the preparation of high-school teachers. Our field is
the elementary school. The elementary school alone, with increased salaries,
with demands for better-prepared teachers in all grades, teachers of depart-
mental work, and trained specialists and supervisors sufficiently justifies the
enlarged facilities. The 80 or 90 high-school normal-training departments are
seeking their teachers from among the number of experienced normal-school
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS — DEGREES. 103
graduates and have already created a demand which normal schools are unable
to supj)ly. Indeed, there is no field where the service of scholarship is more needed
than in elementary education, rural and graded, none where the problems will
continue to grow more as years go by, none whose solution will more fully min-
ister to the welfare of the State. The normal school should regard these i)rob-
lems of elementary education as distinctly and quite exclusively its own and
attack them with the enthusiasm and energy inspired by a great mission.
Four-year degree courses for elementary teachers considered. — A
part of the history of the movement to develop four-year courses for
elementary-school teachers and supervisors by the Minnesota State
normal schools, and a description of the cooperative manner in which
the problem was attacked are given in the following paragraphs
quoted from the report of the president of the State normal school
board for 1911-12 : ^
The harmonious relations between the normal schools and the State University
and the unity which is characteristic of the State's educational institutions is
evidenced by the arrangement made between the normal schools and the imiver-
sity, whereby advanced normal graduates receive credit for two years of study
upon entering the college of education. Through this arrangement, by two
j'ears' additional work in the college of education, the advanced graduate may
earn the degree of that college. It is thought that this will have the effect of
encouraging a larger number of yoxing men to enter the normal schools, teach
for a period, and at the same time afford an opportunity for both men and
women who complete the advanced normal course to apply their training toward
the earning of a college degree.
At the last session of the legislature a bill was introduced which had the
approval of this board aiming to extend the present normal-school course by
two years, thus making it possible to give the normal students a more thorough
and complete training, and to train principals for graded schools, teachers for
the training departments in high schools, and make the normal schools more
effective agencies in the leadership and direction of public-school work.
This act failed to pass largely because of the fear that it would make possible,
in time, the conversion of the several normal schools into normal colleges. At
its meeting in August of the present year the normal board and the presidents,
after a full discussion of this subject, decided to renew the request. In this
connection a conference was held between the normal board and the presidents,
with representatives of the State university, the private colleges, the members
of the high-school board, and its inspectors. This conference developed a very
friendly spirit and cooperative interest on the part of the educational institutions
of the State and resulted in the normal board, upon the recommendation of the
normal-school presidents, postponing for the present further activity in the
effort to secure a law necessary to make the proposed extended course of study
attractive to the students desiring to obtain the degree of bachelor of education.
Normal schools may soon give four-year degree courses for ele-
mentary teachers. — These quotations from the Minnesota reports
illustrate the fact that (a) the training of high-school teachers and
(b) the conferring of degrees by State normal schools may be sepa-
rate problems. Several normal schools now give three-year courses
1 Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction for Minnesota, 1912, p. 95.
104 STANDAEDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
for high-school graduates who expect to teach in elementary schools,
and it is quite conceivable that similar four-year courses will even-
tually prove necessary or desirable, and that bachelor's degrees should
be conferred on the completion of such courses. These degrees should
not be given for three-year courses, however.
Three-year degree courses discredit normal schools. — It is very
unfortunate for normal schools that some of them have given or are
giving bachelor's degrees for the completion of three years of work
beyond high school. The fundamental reason for giving such degrees
is not easy to ascertain, but the practice is probably related to the
fact that it is difficult to get many students to attend most normal
schools beyond the third year of collegiate work. They prefer to go
to the State university. Even to get them to do three years of col-
legiate work in the normal school the degree must be offered as a
special inducement. This has had the very bad effect of discrediting
normal-school work in the estimation of many persons. They assume
that since normal schools give a " cheap " degree, therefore all of the
work of the normal schools is " cheap," unthorough, and incomplete.
As a matter of fact, a normal school giving a bachelor's degree for
three years of collegiate work may be superior to many standard
colleges in the strength of its faculty and of its individual courses.
Chapter XIII.
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
Disproportionately large discussion of a small function. — The
training of special teachers constitutes a small part of the work of
State normal schools. Such training, however, excites an amount of
discussion and planning that is proportionately much greater than the
total amount of normal-school energy devoted to it. To read the re-
quests of normal-school authorities for funds for new buildings and
special equipments for the training of special teachers, and to survey
the elaborate courses of study found in many of the catalogues, one
w^ould infer that these courses were intended to train a great many
teachers. When the statistics showing the number of new special
teachers employed in public schools, as compared with the number of
general ones, are examined, and the number of graduates in the spe-
cial normal courses compared with the number in the general courses,
a better i^erspective view of the situation is obtained.
Only 8 per cent of new teachers are in special and vocational
subjects. — The relative number of new general and special teachers
employed during a year in a representative Eastern State may be seen
from the following statistics, taken from the report of State School
Commissioner Kendall, of New Jersey, for the years ending June 30,
1912, and June 30, 1913 (p. 130) :
Total number of new teachers : in 1912. In ms.
In rural schools 1, 006 1, 055
In city schools 721 763
Total 1, 727 1, 818
This number was divided as follows :
In high schools 217 300
In elementary schools 1,510 1,518
Total 1, 727 1, 818
Of this total, teachers of vocational subjects, such as manual train-
ing, domestic science, etc., and of special subjects, such as music,
drawing, etc., were as follows:
Teachers of vocational subjects : in I9i2. in ms.
In rural schools 14 24
In city schools 46 51
Total 60 75
105
106 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Teachers of special subjects : /« 1912. in i9is.
In rural schools 23 55
In city schools 42 18
Total 65 73
Number of vocational and special teachers combined 125 148
Thus the number of new vocational and special teachers needed in
New Jersey in a year constitutes only about 8 per cent of the total
number of new teachers needed.
A new special subject creates temporary demand for teachers. —
A further item that must be kept in mind in determining the relative
number of special and general teachers needed is the fact that when
special courses are being rapidly introduced, there is created an in-
creased temporary demand for such teachers, which will decrease
after most of the new positions have been filled. Such a situation
has developed during the last few years in the preparation of teach-
ers for home economics. The large temporary demand for teachers
in this subject will probably soon decline to the proportions of the
demands for teachers of music, drawing, and manual training.
Very small number of graduates in special courses in normal
schools. — The relative number of graduates in the general and the
special courses of the normal schools gives us evidence concerning the
proportion of normal-school energy consumed in . the training of
special teachers.
Perhaps the most pessimistic account of the number of students
graduating in the special courses is the following paragraph from
the 1912 report of the president of the Mayville (N. Dak.) Normal
School, which was opened in 1890. After stating that students do
not take the advanced course for high-school graduates, the president
says (p. 217) :
Nor have any students graduated as yet from any of the special two-year
courses for high-school graduates. The foremost reasons are (1) the sensible
unwillingness of students to specialize at an age when the need of general edu-
cation is so great, and (2) the relatively small demand for teachers of special
subjects, especially in the smaller communities, where nearly all graduates at
first go. There are, however, a great many students who take, as parts of gen-
eral courses which they may be pursuing, from one to three terms' work in the
special subjects and who are thus fairly well qualified to give elementary in-
struction in the subjects studied.
The following statistics from the Winthrop (S. C.) Normal and In-
dustrial College throw light on the relative number of general and
special positions secured by its graduates. The board of trustees in
their report for 1913 (p. 16) state that from May to December the
school had received 301 applications for teachers and had placed
graduates as follows :
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS,
107
Positions secured by Winthrop graduates.
General positions:
In high-school grades
In grammar grades
In elementary grades
In kindergarten grades
In rural schools
In mill schools
Supernumerary in Charle;s.-
ton schools
16
29
32
2
38
6
Total.
124
Special positions:
In domestic science and re-
lated subjects
Dietitian in Iiospital
In music and manual train-
ing
Expression in college
Total
Further evidence concerning tlie number of special and general
graduates may be obtained from the following statistics of graduation
reported for the Mount Pleasant (Mich.) Normal School in the re-
port of the State board of education for 1912 (p. 29) :
Graduates frotn Mount Pleasant (Mich.) Normal School, July 1, 1911, to July
1, 1912.
In the general courses (life certificate, kindergarten-primary, graded school,
advanced, and elementary rural-scliool courses) 22G
In courses for special teacliers :
Public-school music course 2
Drawing and manual-arts course 6
Music and drawing course 4
Manual-arts course 3
Special drawing course 1
16
Total graduates 242
In this school the graduates in the courses for special teachers con-
stituted only 7 per cent of the total number of graduates. Moreover,
the number in any special subject veas so small that the maintenance
of adequate special courses to give this number special training must
have been relatively quite expensive. As we shall notice below, the
Michigan State Board of Education adopted a plan to go into effect
in 1913 that corrected this situation.
A slightly greater proportion of special graduates is shown in the
following statistics of graduation from the Northern Illinois Normal
School, at De Kalb, based on the quarterly announcement for August,
1914:
Seniors of 191.'f in Northern Illinois Normal School.
In courses for general teachers (1, 2, 3, and 5 year courses) 118
In courses for special teachers ;
2-year course in vocal music j. 3
2-year course for teachers of drawing -__j 5
2-year course for teachers of manual training ----■■ ^
2-year course for teachers of domestic science 16
28
Total number of seniors 146
108 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
er, 1
fit, I
iq1 1
Apart from the prospective teachers of domestic science, however
the situation at De Kalb is practically the same as at Mount Pleasant
Mich. ; that is, the seniors specializing in music, drawing, and manual
training constitute only 8 per cent of the senior class, and in no one
of these subjects is there a sufficient number of seniors to compose a
class large enough so that the teaching of it would not be relatively
expensive.
Finally the statistics from one of the largest normal schools in the
country, namely, the California State Normal School, at Los Angeles,
should be noted. Only graduates of four-year high schools are ad-
mitted to this school, and the annual number of graduates is over
500. Students may graduate in December, March, and June, but to
simplify the calculations from the data given in the announcement
for 1914-15, the number of candidates for graduation in June, 1914,
will be used, as given below :
Candidates for graduation in general course, including kindergartners 325
Candidates for graduation in special courses :
In the department of art 23
In the department of home economics 40
In the department of manual ai-ts 16
In the department of music 13
92
Total candidates; for graduation in June, 1914 417
In this large institution the candidates for graduation in art, the
manual arts, and music constitute 12 per cent of the total candidates
for graduation, a slightly larger proportion than was found in the
cases of the Michigan and Illinois normal schools. Moreover, the
number of graduates specializing in each of these subjects is suffi-
cient to make a large enough class to be taught at the average expense
of normal-school instruction.
Three methods of organizing special training courses within a
State. — Methods of meeting the definite but restricted needs for
trained special teachers vary with different States. The following
types of provision may be distinguished :
1. The establishment of separate normal schools for the training of
special teachers. The Boston Normal Art School and the State
Manual Training Normal School at Pittsburg, Kans., are examples.
2. The development of adequate facilities for the training of spe-
cial teachers in certain of the existing general normal schools of a
State, with definite restriction of the development of similar facilities
in other schools of the same State. The arrangements in the States
of New York and Michigan are examples.
3. The permitting of any normal school in the State to develop
facilities for any special courses that it cares to give. Many of the
States present examples of this arrangement.
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 109
Concentration of facilities versus duplication. — In general, the
economical concentration of adequate facilities for training special
teachers is likely to prevail where there is centralized expert control
of the normal schools of a State, based on an objective study of the
needs of the State. The development of uneconomical, inadequate
facilities in a number of schools of the same State is likely to prevail
where each State school is free to multiply courses according to its
own ambitions. AVe shall take up the discussion of each of the three
types of organization with typical examples.
1. SEPARATE NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL TEACHERS.
Massachusetts Normal Art School earliest example. — The most
striking example of the establishment of a separate State normal
school for the training of special teachers is the organization of the
Massachusetts Normal Art School in Boston. An excellent account
of the history, work, and possibilities of this school is given by David
Snedden, commissioner of education, in the seventy- seventh annual
report of the Massachusetts Board of Education (January, 1914).
The opening paragraph reads as follows:
The Massachusetts Normal Art School, unlike the other State normal schools,
trains teachers only for special departments, namely, drawing and manual train-
ing. It was organized in 1873, primarily because there existed no other agency
in the State capable of training special teachers of these subjects; and sec-
ondarily to make possible the artistic training of artisans. Since 1873 the school
has grown steadily, until at present its attendance is in the neighborhood of 325.
It has gradually added in a variety of ways to its original functions, especially
in the direction of offering courses in industrial and applied arts for prospective
industrial workers (page 45).
Organized to meet definite industrial needs in Massachusetts. — The
definite relation of the organization of this school to the economic
needs of the State as these were reflected in the introduction of a new
subject into the elementary curriculum is shown in the following
quotation :
About 1870, various persons in Massachusetts, a number of them identified
with the larger commercial enterprises of the State, became convinced that if
local industries were to be further developed, more attention must be given to
instruction in drawing. In 1869, a petition was presented to the legislature,
asking that provision be made by State law for instruction in industrial art.
The petition contained this statement :
Every branch of manufacture in which the citizens of Massachusetts are
engaged requires, in details of the processes connected with it, some knowledge
of drawing and other arts of design on the part of skilled workmen engaged.
The legislature of 1870 made drawing a required study in the public schools of
the Commonwealth, and also provided for the opening of evening industrial
drawing schools. After a considerable campaign, provision was made for the
establishment of the Normal Art School in 1873. From the discussion that took
place at this time it was evident that several objects were in view on the part
110 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
of those who favored the founding of this school. First, it was essential that
special teachers and supervisors of drawing be provided to make possible the
teaching of drawing in the schools, as required by State law. Second, it was
expected that young persons preparing for work in the trades should, in some
cases in this school and in some cases in the evening drawing schools in the large
cities, receive that special equipment in drawing and other phases of industrial
art which the industries of the Commonwealth seemed to require (page 46).
The Massachusetts Normal Art School was the first institution of its kind in
the country. Since 1873 it has graduated a large number of students, many of
whom have figured prominently in the artistic and educational activities of the
Commonwealth. Some of its distinguished graduates have become heads of simi-
lar or larger institutions in other States, as New York, New Jersej', Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio, and Illinois. Some of these schools now greatly surpass the parent
institution in Massachusetts in extent and in variety of work carried on
(page 47).
The most important function of the Normal Art School, namely, to train spe-
cial teachers and supervisors of drawing for the public schools of the Common-
wealth, is now well defined. During the 40 years of its history the school has
graduated a large number of students who have followed teaching as a career.
The results of their influence are apparent in all tlie public schools of Massa-
chusetts. The course of study for prospective teachers is four years in length.
It is probable that special courses, occupying an additional year, will soon be
added, by means of which experienced teachers of drawing who wish to become
supervisors of this subject in public school systems can obtain the required
special equipment. The details of the program of instruction for the training
of teachers and supervisors of drawing have been worked out and tested on the
basis of experience. In selecting a new principal for the school the board has
arranged that he should also serve the State as director of art education, so that
the Normal Art School would have a direct relation to the supervision of draw-
ing and of manual arts in the schools of the Commonwealth (page 50).
State Manual Training Normal School of Kansas. — A second
example of a normal school established for the training of special
teachers is the State Manual Training Normal School established at
Pittsburg, Kans., in 1903. While this school makes very special pro-
vision for the training of teachers of technical subjects, it maintains
at the same time the courses for general teachers found in most normal
schools. The relative amount of energy consumed in these two lines
of activity may be estimated from the following statistics concerning
members of the faculty as outlined in the catalogue of the school for
June, 1914:
Faculty of the Kansas State Manual Training Normal School.
Teachers of technical subjects related to manual training :
Of manual training 4
Of home economics 4
Of graphic and plastic art 5
13
Teachers of other special subjects in which certificates are given :
Commerce 2
Agriculture 1
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS. HI
Teachers of other subjects generally found in normal schools (education,
English, history, mathematics, science, physical education, music, lan-
guages) 19
Critic teachers 4
President 1
Not stated 1
Total 41
The number of graduates of the Kansas State Manual Training
Normal School in June, 1914, is shown in the following table :
Courses.
Graduates of the technical courses related to manual training and leading to a
bachelor's degree:
Of the industrial arts course
Of the home economics course
Graduates of other special courses:
Of the special language course
Of the commerce course
Of the agriculture course
Of the industrial physics course
Of the drawing supervisor's course
Graduates of the general course:
Of the general course for the bachelor's degree
Of the kindergarten teacher's course
Of the primary teacher's course
Of the grade teacher's course
Num-
ber
of de-
grees.
I'rr
cent.
9.8
41.1
8.0
41.1
Total number of graduates.
51 100.0
Life
di-
plo-
mas.
I'er
cent.
10. H
26.9
2.3
1.5
1.5
.0
46.2
.4
6.2
3.3
212 100.0
Provides also alarge amount of general training. — These data make
it possible to calculate roughly the proportion of normal-school energy
that goes into the lines implied in the name " Manual Training Nor-
mal School." Using the number of teachers as the basis, we may say
that 31 per cent of the teaching energy is devoted to technical subjects
related to manual training. Using the number of graduates as the
basis, though the issue is somewhat obscured by the different forms of
graduates, we may say that only a minority of the graduates are pre-
pared to teach technical subjects related to manual training. In
contrast with this number a very appreciable part of the whole body
of graduates go into general teaching.
Excellent mechanic arts building and equipment. — The thorough-
ness of the equipment for technical work in manual training and
related lines in the Kansas State Manual Training Normal School
is suggested by the accompanjang picture of the Mechanic Arts Build-
ing, which cost $62,000 to erect. Its equipment cost $20,000. The
work in wood, iron, clay, and in drawing is done in this building.
Classes in domestic science and domestic art are housed in the general
academic building, and there is a large separate power plant. These
points are worth noting, since so-called manual training buildings are
sometimes erected at normal schools, but are used extensively for gen-
eral classroom purposes, administrative offices, etc. This is due to the
15607°— 16 8
112 STANDARDIZING' STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
fact that it is easy to get money from a legislature for buildings for
the " practical " arts ; but there is seldom any special agency to see
that the building is used exclusively for the purpose for which it. was
constructed.
North Dakota State Normal and Industrial School. — In North
Dakota, in the EUendale State Normal and Industrial School, we
find another example of a normal school established especially to
train manual-training teachers. Under the heading "Purpose and
scope of the school," the catalogue for June, 1914, states that the
school —
was established by legislative enactment in 1893, in accordance with a section
of the State constitution i^roviding for its creation. The revised law of 1907
relating to this school reads as follows (p. 10 of catalogue) :
That the institution located at EUendale, Dickey County, N. Dak., be designated
the State Normal and Industrial School, the object of such school being to pro-
vide instruction in a comprehensive way in wood and iron work and the various
other branches of domestic economy as a coordinate branch of education, together
with mathematics, drawing, and the other school studies, and to prepare teachers
in the science of education and the art of teaching in the public schools with
special reference to manual training.
The accompanying pictures show the Mechanic Arts Building and
a class in farm engineering.
Trains as many general teachers as special teachers. — The extent to
which the school trains teachers of the special type for which it was
especially established, as compared with the extent to which it pro-
vides training for general teachers, may be seen from the following
statistics of the senior class given in the catalogue for June, 1914:
Seniors in the special courses :
In the normal manual training and the mechanic arts courses 8
In the normal home economics and the home economics course;S 8
Total special seniors 16
Seniors in the general normal course 20
Total number of seniors in above courses 36
Thus we see that only 44 per cent of these seniors are specializing
in the subjects which were emphasized in the official statement of the
purpose of the school.
Exclusive manual training normal schools not justified. — In each
of the two special manual training normal schools that have been dis-
cussed (namely, the one at Pittsburg, Kans., and the one at EUendale,
N. Dak.), it has been seen that a large part of the teaching energy,
perhaps the major part, goes into the training of general teachers.
This fact might suggest that there is not sufficient demand within a
single State for teachers of manual training and related subjects to
justify the State in maintaining a separate specialized normal school
to train such teachers.
Normal and industrial schools train few industrial teachers. — A
few States maintain normal schools which have names similar to the
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OP SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 113
one at Ellendale, N. Dak., namely, "the State Normal and Industrial
School." Some of these are for white students and several are for
Negroes. In none of the schools for whites does the training of
special industrial teachers play a very large part. Examples of such
schools are those at Harrisonburg, Va., Ellendale, N. Dak., Aberdeen,
S. Dak., and the " Winthrop Normal and Industrial College," in
South Carolina. Statistics showing positions secured by graduates
from the latter were given above on page 107. At Harrisonburg, Va.,
in June, 1913, the graduating class was divided as follows (catalogue,
1914):
Candidates for the general and the kindergarten diplomas 40
Candidates for the household arts diplomas 2
Candidates for the industrial arts diplomas 5
Similarly the senior class at Aberdeen, S. Dak., for 1913-14 was
divided as follows (catalogue, 1914) :
Seniors in the advanced general normal course.. 39
Seniors in the household arts course 5
Seniors in the industrial normal course .^ . 1
Thus we see that relatively few students of these schools complete
the special courses for "industrial " teachers in the " State normal
and industrial schools " for white students.
State normal and industrial schools for negroes. — Among the
State normal and industrial schools for negroes are those at Frank-
fort, Ky. ; Nashville, Tenn. ; and Prairie View, Tex. Similar insti-
tutions are found in nearly all of the Southern States. Judging from
the alumni lists, most of the graduates of these schools go into gen-
eral teaching in elementary schools for colored children; but the
industrial courses play a much larger part in the training of these
graduates and of other students who do not graduate than is the case
in the corresponding schools for whites. The amount of teaching
energy devoted ta industrial subjects in such an institution may be
inferred from the following classification of members of the faculty
at the Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College in Texas
(catalogue 1913-14) :
Teachers of special industrial subjects :
Industrial economics 1
Agriculture 4
Mechanics 2
Cooking 3
Sewing 3
Tailoring 1
Shoemaking 1
Plumbing 1
Carpentry 1
Blacksmithing 1
Broom and mattress making 1
Total teachers of special industrial subjects 19
Teachers of other general subjects commonly found in normal schools 15
114 STANDAKDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
These schools are reproducing on a small scale the excellent work
for improving the Negroes that is carried on so extensively at
Hampton and Tuskegee.
Stout Institute, highly specialized and successful. — Perhaps the
most influential of the State normal schools which are organized
especially to train teachers of special subjects is the Stout Institute, at
Menominee, Wis. This school was organized in 1903.
For a long time it has ranked, with Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn,
N. Y., and Bradley Polytechnic Institute, of Peoria, 111., among the
best schools for providing superior tAvo-year courses for high-school
graduates who are preparing to teach manual training and related
subjects in public schools. Later Stout Institute was acquired by
the State of Wisconsin and is now governed by a board of trustees,
including as ex officio members the State superintendent of public
instruction of AVisconsin, the secretary of the board of trustees, and
the dean of the college of engineering of the University of Wisconsin.
The board also includes three employers of labor and three skilled
employees.
The highly specialized nature of the training offered at Stout Insti-
tute is suggested by the following statistics concerning its faculty
(announcement, 1914-15) :
Distribution of teachers' time in Stout Institute.
Teachers of woodwork 5i
Teachers of ironwork 2
Teacher of bricklaying 1
Teacher of plumbing and gas fitting 1
Teachers of printing and primary handwork li
Teachers of sewing, etc 6
Teachers of cooking 7
Teachers of home and social economics 2
Teachers of drawing, design, etc 5i
General teachers (education, science, English, physical education) 7J
Critic teacher 1
Total 40
It is evident from the above table that the teaching energy of the
faculty of Stout Institute is directed almost exclusively to the giving
of specialized courses for training teachers of manual training, draw-
ing, cooking, sewing, and trades. About 80 per cent of the teaching
energy goes into these technical subjects. The same impression is
gained from the following list of courses of instruction offered :
GENERAL COURSES.
Psychology and pedagogy.
Observation and practice teaching.
English.
Physical training.
Applied science.
Physiology and hygiene.
General chemistry.
Microbiology.
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
115
TECHNICAL COURSES.
Manual training department :
Organization of manual training.
History and literature of manual
training.
Industrial economics.
Elementary mechanical drawing.
Projection drawing.
Machine drafting.
Elementary architectural draw-
ing.
Advanced architectural drawing.
Manual training design.
Freehand drawing.
Elementary woodwork.
Upper grade woodwork.
Joinery.
Pattern making.
Elementary carpentry.
Advanced carpentry.
Millwork.
Cabinet making.
Elementary wood turning.
Advanced wood turning.
Elementary wood finishing.
Advanced wood finishing.
Saw filing.
Elementary forging.
Advanced forging.
Elementary machine shopwork.
Advanced machine shopwork.
Millwrighting.
Foundry practice.
Cement work.
Elementary bricklaying.
Manual training department — Con-
tinued.
Advanced bricklaying.
Elementary plumbing.
Advanced plumbing.
Special shopwork.
Primary handwork.
Elementary printing.
Advanced printing.
Home economics department :
Food study.
Elementary cookery.
Dietetics.
Advanced cookery.
Food chemistry.
Chemistry of nutrition.
Plain sewing.
Model sewing.
Dressmaking.
Art needlework.
Textiles.
Trade dressmaking.
Home economics department — Con-
tinued.
Millinery.
Drawing and art work.
Mechanical drawing.
Drawing and design.
Interior decoration and furnish-
ing.
General organization and manage-
ment.
Emergencies and home nursing.
Household management.
Not merely a local Wisconsin institution. — The Stout Institute
should not be regarded as merely a local institution of the State in
which it is located, as most State normal schools may be regarded.
Its students come from many States, and the catalogue for 1914-15
states that its graduates are teaching or doing supervisory work in
27 States and in Canada.
2. SPECIAL COURSES AUTHORIZED IN CERTAIN SCHOOLS.
The second policy in organizing training for special teachers is to
provide for the development of adequate facilities in certain of the
existing general normal schools of a State, with definite restriction
of the development of similar facilities in other schools of the same
State. Inasmuch as a normal school that restricts itself to the train-
ing of general teachers for elementary schools needs for this purpose
116 STANDAEDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
teachers of music, drawing, and handwork, the necessary development
of small departments for this purpose is permitted in all of the normal
schools of the State.
This policy favored in New Jersey. — A general expression of this
type of policy is found in the 1913 report of State Commissioner
Kendall, of New Jersey. It reads as follows :
The State should utilize its normal schools for the special training of teachers
for various kinds of special activities, Tlie normal scliool at Montclair, for ex-
ample, could train teachers for mentally defective children. The State board
of education and the principal of the school are maturing plans for this purpose.
The State normal school at Newark might be utilized for the training of
teachers for State-aided vocational schools and also for the training of teachers
for manual training. The training of the former class of teachers should per-
haps be mainly carried on in evening classes for men and women engaged during
the day in the industries. Upon such men and women we must depend for
teachers in these State-aided vocational schools.
The normal school at Trenton is already training teachers for domestic science
and commercial branches, and the school which it is hoped will be established
in the southern part of the State should have a course for the adequate training
of teachers in agricultural activities.
The above is not so much the statement of a definite program as related to
each particular school as it is the declaration of two principles : First, that the
State, by means of its normal schools, should train, and train adequately, for the
special activities in w'hich the State needs teachers ; and, second, that there should
not be a duplication of training in two or more schools. Such duplication is not
only wasteful, but liable to impair the quality of the instruction. Moreover, so
many teachers might be trained in a given field that the demand for such teach-
ers would be exceeded (pp. 134-135).
Authorization of special courses in certain New York schools. —
The policy advocated by Commissioner Kendall is being carried out in
New York and Michigan. In the bulletin of the New York State de-
partment of education of October 15, 1911, the latest issued dealing
with normal schools), the following statement is found (p. 25) :
SPECIAL NOEMAX-TBAINING COUBSES.
To provide normal training for teachers of special courses in the public schools
special professional courses have been authorized in the State normal schools.
It is not the policy of the State to give all special courses in each of the State
normal schools, but to assign to each school the special work for which it is best
adapted by reason of its location, organization, and equipment. Such special
courses have been authorized as follows :
Biiffalo. — Mechanical drawing; machine-shop practice; printing, pattern
making ; joinery and cabinet work ; cookery ; sewing and millinery.
Cortland. — Agriculture course.
Fredonia. — Music and drawing.
Qeneseo. — Teacher-librarian's course.
Oswego. — Manual arts.
Plattsiurg. — Commercial course.
Potsdam. — Music and drawing.
The graduates of these courses will receive a diploma which will be a license
to teach in the public schools of the State the subject completed.
i
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 117
The detailed content of each of the special courses listed above is
outlined by the State department of education.
The amount of teaching energy devoted to the organization of
these special courses may be inferred from the data given below.
In the Buffalo normal school, which is designated as the one to
develop vocational courses, the faculty contains for this purpose the
following instructors : ^
One man. principal of the vocational department.
One man, teacher of drawing and penmanship.
One woman, teacher of drawing.
Three women, teachers of domestic sciences and arts.
At Oswego, where special courses in manual arts are authorized,
the faculty includes : ^
One man for director of manual arts, criticism, drawing, and shop administra-
tion.
One man for woodworking, art metal work, molding.
Qne man for printing and supervision of printing and commercial lettering.
One-third of a man's time for " form and drawing methods."
One woman for domestic science.
One-third of a woman's time for " sewing, basketry, weaving."
At Plattsburg, which is especially authorized to give commercial
courses, two teachers are employed for this purpose, but one of
them is also principal of the high school. However, this faculty
also includes two teachers of manual training, one of drawing, and
one of domestic science and art — almost as large a staff in these
lines for which it is not authorized to train special teachers as is
found at Buffalo and Oswego.
Michigan assignment of special courses to different schools. — The
Michigan plan for assigning to different normal schools the function
of training special teachers for certain subjects is described in the
report of the State board of education for 1912, as follows (p. 7) :
A new plan for the training of teachers for special subjects has been formu-
lated. As at present arranged, each of the normal schools maintains depart-
ments in the special subjects. Beginning with the fall of 1913. the State
Normal College at Ypsilanti will prepare teachers in the household arts; the
Central Michigan Normal School, at Mount Pleasant, will prepare teachers of
agriculture ; and the Western State Normal School, at Kalamazoo, will train
teachers in the manual arts and trades. The normal .school so designated for
each subject is the only one empowered to issue diplomas or teacljers' certifi-
cates in the given subject. This will not curtail the usefulness of the depart-
ments already organized in other than the given subject, since it will continue
to be desirable to provide all the special subjects as electlves. The new ruling
will insure, by means of this concentration of effort, greater uniformity and
thorough technical training for the special teachers.
The faculty of the Ypsilanti normal school, as given in the year-
book for 1913-14, contains about 85 teachers, excluding the faculty of
1 Circular of information, 1914-15. " Catalogue for 1914-15.
118 STANDARDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
the training school. This inchides about 20 professors, 5 associate
professors, 10 assistant professors, 20 instructors, and 30 assistants.
In the department of household arts, which is assigned to Ypsilanti as
a special department, there are five teachers. One of these is listed
as head of the department (rank not stated), 2 are instructors, and 2
assistants. This number of teachers is sufficient to provide strong
courses in home economics and household arts in an institution where
there are strong related departments in the natural sciences and the
fine arts, as is the case at Ypsilanti. As regards material equipment,
the yearbook states that in the near future a household-arts building
will be erected. When this occurs, the number of instructors in this
special department will probably be increased, since so large an insti-
tution would probably develop an enormous registration in the house-
hold-arts department.
3. DUPLICATION OP SPECIAL COURSES IN SE^^:RAL SCHOOLS.
The third type of policy in the organization of training for special
teachers within a given State is to permit any normal school in the
State to develop facilities for any special courses that it cares to give.
This is the policy followed in most States, and, under it, most normal
schools are likely to develop special two-year courses for teachers of
music, drawing and manual training, and home economics.
Sometimes done to use time of special teachers. — In the large
schools where two or more college teachers are employed in any one
of these subjects, a. fairly adequate course can be given. In the
smaller schools where only one college teacher of each subject is
employed, the special two-year course which he can offer is not likely
to be strong. Unless such a special teacher is also employed in the
practice school or the normal high-school, however, he is likely to have
to offer a course for special teachers of his subject in order to employ
his time; for in a small normal school the amount of instruction
required in music, drawing, manual training, and home economics,
for students in the general courses, is very slight. The general stu-
dents seldom take more than two periods a week of music through two
years, or two periods of drawing through one year, or two periods of
manual training or home economics through part of one year. Yet so
extensive is the discussion of these subjects that every school feels it
must have a special teacher of each. This sometimes results in a
rather anomalous situation in a small normal school, where there will
be four special teachers for these special subjects, and only as many
more teachers for the general subjects of education, English, history,
sciences, and mathematics, which necessarily consume much more
teaching energy in the preparation of general elementary teachers.
For example, according to the 1914 catalogue of one of the New Eng-
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 119
land normal schools, there are on the faculty four teachers of the
general subjects (pedagogy, science, English, and sociology) and four
teachers of the special subjects, one teacher each for art, domestic
arts, music, and manual training. No doubt these teachers also teach
the children in the practice school ; yet they find time to offer " a three
years' curriculum to prepare for teaching and supervising music,
drawing, and domestic arts."
Specifically authorized in some States: Minnesota. — In some
States each normal school is independent of any central control in
organizing such special courses as it pleases to give. In other States,
however, the State normal school board may specifically authorize all
of the normal schools to offer all of the specialized courses. For
example, in the case of Minnesota, we find the following action
recorded in report of the State normal school board for 1911-12 : ^
The normal schools have responded to the demand, which has become very
evident in the State, for teachers of specialized training. Upon the recom-
mendations of the presidents (of the normal schools), the normal-school board
has authorized the establishment of special courses for the training of super-
visors of music and drawing, of special primary teachers, and teachers in
home economics and manual training.
The normal schools of Minnesota are large enough, on the average,
so that slightly more than the time of one instructor is employed in
the four standard specialized subjects, namely, music, drawing, man-
ual training, and household arts or home economics. Consequently,
instead of only four teachers for these subjects combined, from five
to seven are employed.
Examples of duplication in large normal schools of Missouri. — •
Among the normal schools maintaining larger special departments
under the third type of policy which we are discussing are those of
Missouri. At Warrensburg the catalogue distinguishes the academic
and the special or technical departments as follows:
ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT.
Agriculture, physiography, and
geography.
Biology.
Chemistry, physiology, and hy-
giene.
Economics.
Education.
English language and literature.
French and German.
History.
Latin and Greek.
Mathematics.
Physics.
Training school.
Commerce.
Drawing.
Household arts.
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL SXTB.TECTS.
Manual training.
Music.
Physical education.
1 Sevontoenth Blen. Kept, of Snpt. of Pub. Instr. of Minnesota, p. 95.
120 STANDARDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
The number of teachers at Warrensburg, excluding those in the
practice school, is about 40. In this number are included 2 teachers of
drawing, 2 of manual training, 2 of home economics, and 4 of music.
(Bulletin for 1914-15.)
The number of teachers at the Kirksville (Mo.) Normal School is
also about 40 (excluding teachers in the practice school and " teaching
scholars"). In this number are included 1 full-time teacher and 1
part-time teacher of manual arts, 2 of drawing, etc., 2 of home
economics, and 3 of music. (Bulletin, 1914.)
Somewhat similar data are found in the faculty of the normal
school at Cape Girardeau, Mo. Thus each of three of the large
normal schools of one State devotes approximately one-fourth of
its teaching energy to these four special subjects. In the Warrens-
burg and Cape Girardeau catalogues there are outlined full three-
year courses for high-school graduates who plan to prepare to teach
each of these special subjects. The number of graduates of each of
these courses is not indicated, however.
Second policy better than first or third. — Of the three types of
policies in organizing courses for the training of special teachers in
the normal schools of a State, it should be said that the first policy,
namely, to establish a separate normal school for this purpose is
probably not necessary in any State. This is shown by the fact that
some schools that have been established in this way have become
largely schools for training general teachers. The fact that all of
the new special and vocational teachers in a State may constitute less
than 10 per cent of the total number of new teachers shows that most
States can ill afford to establish a special normal school for some
part or all of this 10 per cent.
The third type of policy, namely, permitting any normal school
in the State to establish any special courses, is not bad where the
normal schools concerned are so large that two or more teachers
are employed in the special subject in which special training is to
be given. In the smaller schools, however, it is likely to be inade-
quate, owing to the lack of sufficient equipment and teaching staff.
In any case, it is likely to prove expensive, through the unnecessary
duplication of equipment and teaching staff in the several normal
schools of the State. One of the most favorite bases for requests by
normal school presidents to the legislature for additional funds is
the plea for special buildings and equipment for these special courses.
Yet the statistics show that relatively few graduates are produced
even when the faculties are provided.
Obviously, in most States, the best policy is the second one, namely,
to develop adequate facilities for the training of teachers of a given
special subject in one of the regular normal schools of the State.
This avoids the waste entailed in establishing a special school, which
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 121
prevails under the first policy, and the waste from duplication under
the third policy. At the same time it may assure as thorough
training as does the first policy, and avoid the inadequate training
which may result from the third policy.
SAMPLE COURSES OF STUDY FOR SPECIAL TEACHERS.
The principal subjects in which normal schools provide training
courses for special teachers are music, drawing, manual training,
home economics and household arts, and commercial subjects. Prac-
tically all normal schools have courses for general teachers in the first
four subjects mentioned, and most of them announce training courses
for special teachers in each subject. The organization of training
courses for special teachers of commercial subjects is not so coimnon,
but the courses are found in a number of normal schools.
Difficult to analyze and classify courses. — To attempt to classify
and describe the special courses provided in all these subjects would
be a difficult task and would not be worth while from the standpoint
of this bulletin. Certain general characteristics may be noted, how-
ever, and a few sample courses in manual training, home economics,
and commercial subjects presented.
Two opposite types of curricula. 1. Much general work in-
cluded. — In general, the courses organized for the training of special
teachers fall into two main types. The first type of course is con-
structed by slightly modifying the regular course for general teach-
ers. This modification usually consists in permitting a prospective
special teacher to elect about one-fourth of his work in the special
subject in which he is interested. The remainder of his course will
consist of the usual courses in education, psychology, geography,
mathematics, physical training, etc., taken by the students in the gen-
eral course. This type of course is common in the normal schools
where there is only one teacher for the special subject in question.
Needless to say, the graduates of such special courses have had very
meager training for their specialties.
A modification of the above type of course is to provide an addi-
tional year of more or less special training for students who have
completed one of the regular courses for general teachers. This addi-
tional year, however, often contains further work in general subjects,
such as the history of education or sociology, and may not provide
any more thorough special training than the shorter course described
above.
2. Two or three years of highly specialized work. — The opposite
type of course consists of two or three years of work devoted almost
entirely to the special subject that the student is preparing to teach,
122
STANDAEDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
with such courses in other subjects as are definitely and specifically
helpful in the special subject. A few hours in education and prac-
tice teaching are usually included in such a program. When one
becomes familiar with the large amount of special and related sub-
ject matter that it is necessary to master in order to be well prepared
to teach any one of the special subjects imder consideration, there
remains no doubt that these more highly specialized courses are
necessary in order to give adequate training.
Samfle irmnual training course^ Oxford^ Ohio. — As a sample
manual training course, there is outlined below the work required in
the two-year course for high-school graduates at the State Normal
School at Oxford, Ohio. There are about 5 teachers to give the
special instruction included in this course, and there were 6 gradu-
ates from it in 1915. It is of the last general type described above,
namely, almost entirely special in content.
Course for special teachers of manual arts.
FIRST YEAU.
Hours.
Object drawing and sketching 2
Elementary mechanical drawing — 4
Elementary design 2
Psychology, principles of teaching- 6
Rhetoric and composition 6
Handworli in wood 6
Sanitation and hetilth :
a. Hygiene; first aid 1
ft. Physical education 2
Elective 3
SECOND YEAR.
Hours.
Advanced mechanical drawing 4
Constructive design 2
Modern educational tendencies 3
Organization and special method of
the manual arts 4
Cabinetmaking 6
Trigonometry ; analytics ; shop
mathematics 6
School organization and manage-
ment 3
Teaching manual arts 4
Credits required for first year 32 Credits required second year 32
All students are strongly iirged to complete the full four-year course (see
p. 117) and receive the degree of bachelor of science in education, thereby
placing themselves in line for the better teaching positions. However, those
who must teach before completing the four-year course may take the course
above and receive a State diploma and State teaching certificate. All electives
In the course must be manual arts subjects.
Sample home economics courses. Valley City, N. Dak. — The course
in home economics (domestic science) in the State Normal School at
Valley City, N. Dak., is a good example of a two-year course for high-
school graduates which contains a large amount of general work.
There were either three or four teachers in the special department
(three in the faculty list, but four in the departmental description)
and 23 graduates from the course in June, 1914.^ The course of study
is outlined below.
1 Catalogue, 1914, p. 21.
TBAINING OF TEACHERS OP SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
123
Domestic science course at Valley, City, N. Dak.
FIBST YEAB.
Fall.
Winter.
Spring.
Psychology.
General inethods and
penmanship methods
(each 6 weeks).
Physiology.
Chemistry.
Domestic science.
Psychology.
Reading inethods and sing-
ing methods (each 6
weeks).
Arithmetic.
Chemistry.
Domestic science.
Psychologj'.
History.
Household chemistry.
Domestic science.
Home nursing and textiles
(each 6 weeks).
SECOND YFAR.
Fall.
Winter.
Spring.
History of education.
Grammar.
Teaching.
Economic biology.
Domestic science.
Philosophy of education.
Geography.
Teaching.
Economic biology.
Domestic science.
School management.
Teaching.
Economic biology.
Domestic science.
Millinery and art needle-
work.
Los Angeles, Cal. — A much more specialized course in home eco-
nomics is the one in the State normal school at Los Angeles, Cal. The
department of home economics in this institution had 2 teachers in
1914-15, with 2 student assistants, and a third teacher for part of the
year. The number of candidates for graduation in the home eco-
nomics course in June, 1914, numbered 40. (Announcement, 1914r-15.)
The department offered a two-3'ear course for high-school graduates
and a one-year course for normal-school graduates. Only the two-
year course is outlined below :
Home economics course at Los Angeles, Cal.
First year.
First term.
Psychology
Cookery
Sewing
Art
Textiles
Total
Second term.
Cookery
Sewing
Art
Food production and manufacture
Home management
Supplemental
Total
Third term.
Psychology
Cookery
Sewing
Food chemistry
Costume design
Nursing
Total
Units.
Second year.
First term.
Education
Teaching and observation
Cookery
Millinery ,
Home economics education
Total
Second term.
Teaching and observation
Cookery
Dressmaking
Supplemental
Total
Third term.
Teaching and observation
Dietetics
House fumLshing and decoration
History of home economics
Bacteriology
Supplemental
Total
Units.
18
124
STANDAEDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
Sample course for commercial teachers: Salem, Mass. — As a final
sample of courses for the training of special teachers, we shall pre-
sent a course for prospective teachers of commercial subjects, which
is offered in the State normal school at Salem, Mass. In this school
the time of about four teachers is devoted to instruction in commercial
subjects, and there were 15 graduates from the department in June,
1913. The fundamental course covers three years of work for high-
school graduates. In a note in the catalogue for 1913-14 it is stated
that the State board of education had under consideration the length-
ening of the course to four years, which would include one year of
business experience under the supervision of the school. The three-
year course is largely specialized, but includes a certain amount of
work in closely related subjects. It is outlined below.^
Course for commercial teachers at Salem, Mass,
First year.
Hours
per
week.
Second year.
Hours
per
week.
Third year.
Hours
per
week.
English
2
4
5
2
2
2
3
1
1
1
English
2
1
3
3
3
2
2
3
1
3
1
Literature
4
Shorthand
Commercial correspond-
ence
Shorthand
3
3
General history
Typewriting
Commercial law
2
American history and
civics
History of commerce,
economics, half year
each
Commercial geography..
Commercial arittunetic.
3
Physiography
Industrial geography
2
Industrial physics and
chemistry
3
Penmanship
Penmanship
1
Physiology
Psychology
Pedagogy
2
Music
Music
1
Total
Total
Total
23
24
24
Observation and practice teaching, 9 weeks.
A carefully elaborated announcement of normal-school courses for
the training of commercial teachers is the third annual commercial
catalogue of the State normal school at Whitewater, Wis. In 1913
the board of regents established a special department &.t this school
for training commercial teachers, and very thoroughly organized
courses are offered.
Courses for teachers of trades. — Special courses for teachers of
trades and related vocational courses are not discussed here, because
the normal schools have not generally undertaken the task of training
such teachers and are probably not fitted to do so in most cases.
According to Commissioner Snedden, of Massachusetts, the best plan
for training such teachers is to organize evening courses in the State-
aided industrial schools in certain of the larger cities. These courses
would give the necessary general and professional training to intelli-
gent skilled workmen who are engaged during the day in the trade.
After completing the evening course they would be prepared for
1 Catalogue, 1913-14, p. 39.
TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
125
teaching. Graduation from an industrial school and experience in
the trade should precede the professional training. For further
discussion, see the annual report of the Massachusetts Board of Edu-
cation for 1912-13, pages 62-G8.
Of the existing State normal schools, Stout Institute in Wisconsin
is the one that is most adequately equipped to train teachers of trades.
Tuskegee Institute, in Alabama, receives a small amount of State aid
and to that extent may be considered a State school. Needless to
state, it provides the most thorough and efficient courses for training
teachers of trades, many of its graduates being engaged in similar
smaller schools for negroes. Likewise, Hampton Institute in Vir-
ginia provides excellent training for teachers of trades. If day
schools for this purpose are to be established for white teachers in the
North, they might profit by a study of the methods pursued at Tuske-
gee and Hampton.
Courses for special teachers of agriculture. — A few normal schools
maintain well-organized special courses for teachers of agriculture.
A good example is the three-year course for high-school graduates in
the State Normal School at Cape Girardeau, Mo. The department of
agriculture in this school employs three men as teachers. Hence, it
is well-staffed to give the special courses to prepare teachers of this
subject in high schools. The three-year course is of the highly
specialized type. It is outlined below.
Course for special teachers of agriculture at Cape Girardeau, Mo.
FIRST YEAR.
Fall term.
Hours.
Winter term.
Hours.
Spring term.
Hours.
Chemistry
4
4
3
Chemistry
4
3
4
15i
Agricultural chemistry .
Dairying
Livestock
Live stock
Manual training . . .
Manual training..
li
Education
Education
Education
Cotton
15i
17i
SECOND YEAR.
Plant physiology or
zoology
Physical practice
Soils
Education
Do
Forge
Morphology or zoology
Physical practice ".
Horticultiu-e
Education
Do
Forge
Plant ecology or zoology
Physical practice
Farm management
Education
Do
Forge
THIRD YEAR.
Agricultural physics
4
3
4
4
Agricultural physics
4
2
4
4
3
Agricultural physics
Poultry
4
2
Econoinic entomology
Principles of breeding. . .
Bacteriology
4
Farm accounts
2
Do
Education, elective
3
15
3
17
18
Chapter XIV.
PROGRAM FOR DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL
STANDARDS.
Reiteration of the demand for standardization. — All the studies
reported in the preceding chapters of this monograph make it clear
that there is great need of a movement to standardize normal schools.
Again it may be said, as in an earlier paragraph, that this demand
for standardization is not to be confused with the demand that all
normal schools be made alike. The organizations and entrance re-
quirements of various normal schools may vary in accordance with
the local demands and spheres of operation of the different institu-
tions. In each case, however, the characteristics of the school should
be defined. The student body will then find that other higher insti-
tutions can deal equitably with their claims; the legislature will
know more definitely the purposes for which it is appropriating
funds; superintendents throughout the State will know more fully
what kind of products they are to look for; and the community
will understand and respect the normal school more fully than
ever in the past.
Standardization should be from within. — The question arises at
once, Who is to do the work ? Outside agancies are not likely to suc-
ceed, because wherever these agencies criticize an institution they
stir up antagonisms rather than bring about reforms. Furthermore,
if outside agencies compel reform through the arousal of public
sentiment or through legislative action, there is likely to be a half-
hearted or even unfriendly attitude on the part of normal-school
faculties. Even a State superintendent or commissioner finds him-
self unable to change normal schools as a result of his investigations
without a long struggle, during which he has to bring the officers of
the normal schools to take his point of view.
This is equivalent to the demand that in all respects normal schools
hecome scientific. — There can be no question whatever that normal
schools ought to standardize themselves. These institutions would
gain many indirect advantages, as well as direct advantages, from
an effort to understand and define themselves. The normal school
ought to be a center of vigorous study of all kinds of educational
126
DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 127
institutions. Teachers who are going out into rural schools ought to
learn during their normal courses to understand rural schools.
Teachers who are going into urban schools should have these institu-
tions clearly defined during their period of training. Teachers in
service ought to be given courses in normal schools which will improve
them in professional equipment. This task of defining other institu-
tions will be most intelligently undertaken by that normal faculty
which has made a serious effort to understand and define their own
work. "When an officer of any educational institution begins to study
his own functions, he develops an attitude and a method which carry
him out to deal with all the problems of all educational institutions.
There is nothing that will cultivate in normal-school teachers and
presidents the attitude of scientific study of education more quickly
or more completely than the study of the functions of their own
institution.
The indirect advantages above referred to would furnish sufficient
justification for the urgent plea that normal schools study their own
functions. The direct advantages need hardly be enumerated again
in the concluding chapter of this study. It remains only to outline
the methods which may be followed.
Reports on organization and operations needed. — It is suggested
that normal schools add to their publications a president's report.
This report could be made a part of the annual catalogue, or it could
be published separately, after the manner of most university presi-
dents' reports. In some cases it might be desirable for the presidents
of the normal schools in a given State to unite and issue a single
joint report.
Characteristics of the student body. — This president's report
should give full information about the student body. A table should
be given reporting explicitly the amount of training of each student
at the time of his or her admission to the normal school. There
should be explanatory statements indicating how these facts are
ascertained at the time of admission, how far irregularities are toler-
ated, and how these irregularities are administered. In short, the
whole problem of admissions should be exposed to the light of unxe-
lenting publicity. There can be very little doubt that one of the most
serious difficulties in transferring students from normal schools to
colleges or universities arises directly out of the irregularity of
admissions. It is not here argued that admission requirements should
be of one sort or the other, but it is argued that they should be clearly
defined.
Geographical studies should einphasize academic matters. — Further
information about the student body which is valuable, although not
so valuable as that relating to admissions, is the information regard-
ing geographical distribution. This is important as showing the
15607°— 16 9
128 STANDAEDIZIXG STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
lange of influence of the institution. This study of geographical
distribution can be made academically the more productive if a
study is made of the high schools and other institutions with which
the normal school comes into contact. Thus, if a normal school
draws its students from a region liberally supplied with standard
high schools, its attitude toward secondary courses within the walls
of the normal school should be very different from that of an institu-
tion drawing its students from a region in which there are no standard
high schools. The whole problem of standardizing high schools is
thus seen to be one with which the normal schools should concern
themselves. Up to this time normal schools have been satisfied to
leave the high schools to the supervision of colleges. In no less degree
is it important that normal schools should study neighboring col-
leges. The time is rapidly passing when communities will support
rival institutions of higher education. Economy dictates that there
be clearness of definition in dealing with colleges. It is not surprising
that up to this time normal schools have been out of contact with col-
leges, for the normal schools have been different in organization and
support from the colleges. In recent years, however, the differen-
tiating characteristics have been more and more eclipsed by those
common purposes and modes of operation which have grown up in
all higher institutions. Normal schools in some quarters are demand-
ing admission. to organizations to which they have not up to this
time been admitted. The normal schools undoubtedly have a fair
case, but they can be fully recognized only when they define them-
selves. Like all late comers, they will have to make their case; no
one is going to do the work for them. It is urgently recommended,
accordingly, that a geographical study be made, emphasizing the
academic relations which the geographical surroundings impose on
the school.
Other tables showing the ages, sex, and rate of progress through
the normal-school classes would be most illuminating.
Studies of faculty should be detailed and explicit. — A second
general line of information which should be supplied relates to the
faculty. The faculty should be described in detail with reference to
its training, experience, present activities, and literary or scientific
productivity. In earlier chapters comment has been made on the
relatively small number of faculty members with academic degrees,
when normal schools are contrasted with universities and colleges.
There are doubtless other compensating facts in many cases, but at
present these facts are inaccessible. Furthermore, there is a wide-
spread skepticism on the part of colleges and universities with regard
to the qualifications of normal faculties. Normal schools can not
afford to ignore this skepticism or remain silent with regard to the
requirements that are set up when new members of the faculties are
DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 129
being chosen. The facts should be brought out. Either each member
of the faculty should be fully described or tables should be presented
showing training and experience.
What does the faculty do besides teaching? — Productivity is one
of the surest signs of intellectual vitality and strength. This pro-
ductivity takes the form at times of scientific or literary output. At
other times productivity means work on committees or lectures in
extension courses or at teachers' meetings. There is on the part of
many practical school people a fine scorn for research, it being held
by them to be a mark of undue absorption in abstractions when a man
carries on investigations. The answer to those who criticize research
is that research is at present one of the best-defined evidences of in-
tellectual vigor. Doubtless there is great intellectual vigor exhibited
in other w^ays. It is legitimate to ask that the normal school bring out
this fact in defining the activities of its faculty. If the best members
of each normal school faculty could be defined in such a way that the
educational profession at large could know what activities are legiti-
mate and demanded, there would perhaps arise a new professional
class superior to the research professor now so eagerly sought in
higher institutions of learning. In the meantime one notes that the
undefined class of normal-school teachers does not produce so much
useful general intellectual material as ought to be expected. One
would naturally expect textbooks and courses of study and new
methods and carefully evaluated descriptions of school work issuing
from normal schools. The fact is that very little material of this
type comes from such sources. Furthermore, what does come is not
clearly exhibited, so as to become a professional ideal. It is recom-
mended that lists of outside activities be published.
Studies of faculty activities icill lead to better conditions for pro-
ductice icoj'l-. — It was pointed out in an earlier chapter that the
teaching programs of members of normal-school faculties are longer
than the programs of faculties in other higher institutions. The
policy of each normal school in this matter of hours of work should
be clearly set forth. The comnmnit}'- has of late been much interested
in criticisms passed upon higher institutions because of the supposed
delinquency of university professors. There can be no doubt that the
normal school ought as a pul)lic institution to concern itself in this
problem of defining the duties of an academic servant of the com-
munity. The failure of the public and of higher institutions to define
clearly the legitimate demands in this matter affects the intellectual
life of all grades of schools. No one knows how to frame demands
which may be properly imposed on faculty members. Often a nor-
mal-school president does not know how much professional study
goes with any of the positions to which he appoints. Members of
130 STANDARDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
the faculty have no adequate professional standards. In public
schools attention is being given to such matters in rapidly increasing
degree. Normal schools should assume leadership.
The course of study more in need of standardization than any
other aspect of normal-school organization, — The third general
problem which should be taken up in the report is the problem of the
course of study. For purposes of this discussion a sharp distinc-
tion may be made between the courses in education and the other
courses which deal with the subject matter to be taught in schools.
The education courses in American normal schools have traditionally
consisted of the history of education and a course or series of courses
in psychology, with some courses possibly in general methods. It is
the general consensus of opinion m most school systems that the nor-
mal-school work given in the history of education is very barren of
results. Hardly less common are the criticisms which are made of
the kinds of psychology usually taught. It would seem in the pres-
ence of these criticisms that it is altogether desirable that the various
normal schools describe to each other clearly what they are under-
taking in their courses in education. The name of the textbook used
is very frequently helpful in determining what has been accomplished.
The American Psychological Association, through one of its com-
mittees, made an elaborate report some years ago showing what is un-
dertaken in psychology in normal schools. There can be no doubt at
all that the normal schools are very vitally interested in a definition
of the subject matter of these courses, and yet it is quite impossible
to gather from any of the reports that are at hand any clear state-
ment of what is undertaken.
New courses in education needed. — It is probably true that the
courses in education should be of a somewhat different type, and there
is a large demand at the present moment for the drafting by expe-
rienced normal-school teachers of outlines which may be used in
training immature students. Most of these students fresh from
the high school do not realize at all the problems that are to con-
front the teacher. They should probably be given an introductory
course in which educational problems and methods are defined.
There should be a very great emphasis upon the empirical material
which is now at hand in superintendents' reports and in the special
studies which have been made of such matters as retardation and
elimination. Problems of industrial education, the problems of the
modification of the course of study, are all vital problems which the
teacher ought to understand. And yet, the ordinary normal school
gives very little attention to these great reform movements which
are going forward in the schools, and the professional courses deal
with the remoter periods of the history of education and with the
reformers that are so far back in time and in spirit that the normal
DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 131
school student has no contact through these remote studies with the
community and the classroom problems with which he or she will
come in contact immediately on graduation. Whether psychology
shall be taught as a separate subject or in the modified form as an
examination of the mental processes Avhich appear in school children
during school processes can, of course, be discussed as an academic
issue, or it can be discussed as a very vital problem of the course of
study. xV comparative statement of what is undertaken now in
various normal schools would be very helpful in bringing about a
rapid modification and an enlargement of this type of work.
Suhject-TYiatter courses should he organized so as to stimulate fro-
gressive thinking in inature students. — Even more chaotic conditions
are found in the subject-matter courses in arithmetic and grammar and
geography. There are some normal schools in which the subject is
frankly review^ed, on the theory that the student has forgotten since
his elementary course everything which he knew about the subject
matter itself. In other normal schools there is relatively very little
review, or such reviewing as is undertaken is recommended to the
student as the subject of private stud}'. In these normal schools it
is the method which is for the most part discussed. Sometimes this
method consists in the exploitation of some pa-rticular scheme of
presentation which is the hobby of the normal-school teachers. In
other cases the discussion of method is on a somewhat broader basis,
and a comparative study is made of the different methods of pre-
senting the different distributions of time in different school systems,
etc. Here again there ought to be a full discussion of principles.
Each year a report from the normal school ought to be made of the
fundamental principles which are recognized in organizing these
courses in subject matter. It is perfectl}' evident that a course in
arithmetic is not a suitable subject on which to exercise the growing
intelligence of a student who has graduated from high school. He
ought presumably to have a very large part of the equipment that is
necessary for the course in arithmetic. On the other hand, there can
be no doubt at all that a study of arithmetic can be formulated in
such a way as to give the student some knowledge of the principles
of number as well as an experience that will be of very great value
to him in his teaching and the organization of this material. "We
have no adequate series of textbooks dealing Avith this problem. The
ingenuity of normal-school teachers should be turned in the direc-
tion of formulating this material, and one of the most stimulating
methods of turning attention in this direction would be a discussion
by able leaders in normal-school education of the problems and
methods of this type of course.
The prohlem of " culture " courses or " general " courses not
solved. — Finally, in dealing with the normal-school course of study
132 STANDAEDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
the question always arises, How miicli academic matter should be
introduced? It has been indicated in an earlier report that some
normal schools give a good deal of academic matter. Courses in Latin
are not uncommon in these normal schools, even when it is not ex-
pected that the students who take the courses will ever teach the
subject. The relation of this academic material to the problem of the
training of secondary-school teachers is also an important question
which certainly in many normal schools needs very much more com-
plete discussion than it has at the present time. There should be a
report of the distinctions between academic courses and professional
courses. When the North Central Association of Colleges and Sec-
ondary Schools asked the normal schools reporting to it to define
clearly their courses, distinguishing between those that were academic
in character and those that were professional, a very unsatisfactory
set of replies was received. Evidently the distinction had never been
drawn in the minds of some of the normal-school i)residents who
made the reports to the association. This distinction should be made
the subject of discussion and definition, so that ultimately it will be
perfectly clear what is needed for the professional and what is needed
for the academic training of students.
Practice teaching as a central factor in the course of study. — Great
emphasis was laid in an earlier chapter on the problem of practice
teaching and its organization in the practice school. What the labora-
tory is to the course in science, what the shop is to the course in en-
gineering, the practice school is to the normal school. And yet it is
very difficult indeed from the reports of many normal schools to ex-
tract satisfactory information with regard to the actual conduct of
practice work. In an article entitled Practice Teaching in Model
Schools, published by Mr. E. E. Lewis, of the State Normal School
of Charleston, 111., in the Elementary School Teacher of May, 1913
(pp. 434-444) , it is brought out clearly that there is the widest diver-
gence among the model schools connected with normal schools
throughout the country. For example, Mr. Lewis makes one sum-
mary, as follows, on page 438 of the Elementary School Teacher :
To summarize, 53 per cent of the State normal schools replying require the
equivalent of three terms, or one full year, of practice teaching; 34 per cent,
the equivalent of two terms ; 8 per cent, the equivalent of one term ; and 5 per
cent, less than one term. There are possibly two institutions which require
more than one year of practice teaching. The median institution requires three
terms or one year.
Mr. Lewis also goes further in his article to show that the distribu-
tion of this practice teaching with reference to the methods courses is
very different in different institutions : " The two prevailing tenden-
cies are, first, to have practice teaching taken simultaneously with
methods, and, second, to have practice teaching follow immediately
DEVELOPMENT OF NOEMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 133
the course in methods. The second plan is more common." Further
details of the article need not be repeated here. Enough to say the
practices of different normal schools differ Avidel,v, as indicated also
in the earlier chapters of this report. Why should there not be in
accessible form for every normal school a definition of its laboratory
and of the way in which it requires students to attend the exercises
of this laboratory? Furthermore, a definition of the policy of the
institution and its relation to schools would be of very great value.
It is noted in an earlier chapter that some schools do give a defini-
tion of this sort, but it is very desirable that all the normal schools
should make a clear statement of their relations to public institutions
with regard to their practice work.
Especially has it been shown in this report that there should be
clear and explicit tables setting forth the number of children accessi-
ble for practice work and the number of practice teachers who are
supervised by a single critic teacher or normal instructor. There
should also be a clear and explicit statement of the way in which this
supervisory work is related to the other engagements of the normal-
school teacher. If critic work is conjoined with instruction in the
subject matter given in the normal school, this should be set forth in
such a way that the policy of the school will be perfectly clear. In
short, a definite statistical statement, together with a descriptive
justification of the practices of the school, should be made a part of
the regular report of each normal school, and it is recommended that
this material be worked out in such fashion that a general comparison
shall easily be possible.
Studenfs prograTn is closely related to the type of work tohich he
can do. — There is another body of information with regard to the
administration of the course of study which should be brought out
in these normal-school reports. A statement should be made of the
amount of work which a student is expected to do in a year of work.
There can be no doubt at all that in many normal schools the
faculty, relying on the maturity of the students, administers a very
heavy course of study. In all probability, it would be found that
more hours are taken each week by normal-school students than are
commonly taken by college students. It may be entirely legitimate
to call upon normal-school students who are taking a professional
course to exert themselves more strenuously than college students do.
On the other hand, there can be no doubt at all that the student who
would take advantage of leisure for reading and for general prepara-
tion of himself along the lines of his own selection is deprived of
this opportunity by the heavy course which he is required to take in
regular routine. Some definition of the policy of institutions in this
matter would help greatly in adjusting the relation of normal courses
to college courses. Very frequently a student who presents himself
134 STAISTDAEDIZING STATE NOEMAL SCHOOLS.
for advanced standing in the university brings from the normal
school a prodigious number of courses. This immediately arouses
the skepticism of the university faculty, because they recognize
the impossibility of taking so large a number of courses without
curtailing the work in each. A definition, therefore, with regard to
the amount of work of the student should parallel the definition that
is called for above on the amount of work that is required of mem-
bers of the faculty. An explicit tabular statement of the number of
students who are taking four hours, five hours, six hours, etc., each
day, would give a definite body of information which is not now at
hand. That such information is not supplied by the colleges should
not furnish justification for its omission from this report. The
appearance of this type of material in normal-school reports would
imdoubtedly stimulate a discussion of the same problem in high
schools and in universities, and anyone who makes a study of these
institutions realizes that it will very shortly be necessary to canvass
the whole problem of the amount of work that a student can prop-
erly be called upon to do each day. The relation of this discussion
to outside activities is also clear. A definition of the social life of
the students can hardly be given with clearness unless some atten-
tion is given to the amount of work which is required in the courses
of the institution itself. By initiating this studj', the normal schools
can become leaders in an important general educational study.
Another general educational jirohlem is that of the elective
course. — A further item of information with regard to the students
and their places in various courses is especially profitable when one
considers the contrast between a normal school and the ordinary col-
lege course. In recent years the college course has come to be more
and more an elective course. On the other hand, the professional
schools have all required a much more rigid adherence to a prescribed
series of studies. In the normal schools the conflict between academic
and professional courses has frequently expressed itself in the fact
that certain courses are required, while others are made elective, and
the difference in equipment between different normal schools may fre-
quently consist in the larger number of elective courses which are of-
fered. These elective courses open the way for a wide differentiation
of the course of study pursued by individual students and undoubt-
edly constitute the phase of normal-school organization which has
brought these institutions most into competition with neighboring
colleges. Furthermore, elective courses always bring with them the
problem of the distribution of students of different degrees of ma-
turity. Wlien an elective course is open to students who have for some
time been pursuing work in a given institution and at the same time
to students who have just entered, there is likely to be so great a dif-
ference in the maturity of the student body that the administration of
w
DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 135
the course is serioiisl}' complicated. Tables showing the kind of
students admitted to certain courses, the emphasis which is laid in the
natural course of election upon certain parts of the work in the nor-
mal school, and a clear statement of the registration in all of the re-
quired work would give a view of the distribution of the student
body which it is very desirable to have.
Courses for mature students. — Furthermore, it is also important in
estimating the work of the normal school to draw a sharp distinction
between those students who are preparing to teach for the first time
and those who are preparing in a larger way to increase their profes-
sional usefulness. In general it may be said that the summer school,
or the summer quarter of the normal school, is very different in its
character from the regular quarters, and throughout the year there
are students who are taking courses of an advanced type because they
wish to become supervisors rather than because they wish to enter the
2:)rofession for the first time. A distribution of students throughout
the year and a distribution of the students with reference to the ends
which they wish to achieve through graduation should be made in
such a way that one who examines the registration of a normal school
shall distinguish between these different types of students and their
length of residence during the year.
Problem of costs. — The period during which a student remains in
the normal school is very important in determining the cost of normal-
school instruction. It is desirable that every communit}'' should know
what it costs per capita to educate students in any public institution.
At the present time it is almost impossible, as indicated in an earlier
chapter, to determine from the statistics of registration how many
students are present in a normal school at an}^ given time. The
average attendance or the attendance for each month should be given
in such a clear-cut way that it will be possible to determine what the
actual instructorial activities of the institution are. A large summer
quarter does not legitimately represent the actual work of an institu-
tion. On the other hand, there can be no doubt at all that the con-
stituency which comes to normal schools during tlie summer is very
important in determining the character of work that is done in the
schools around that normal school.
Clearness in these matters is all that should be required. It is not
necessary to lay down any rule, and there should be no effort to
restrict the activit}^ of a normal school in dealing with the different
types of students which come to it. But it is desirable that these
different types should be clearly defined.
Distribution of graduates. — Finally, a normal school should in-
form itself, and should inform the State which it serves, definitely
with regard to the distribution of its gi'aduates. The first question
which here arises is the question of distribution to elementary or sec-
136 STANDARDIZING STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
ondary schools. In the second place, the question immediately arises
whether these normal-school graduates go into city schools or into
rural schools. A clear statement on these matters would do much to
determine the policy of the State with regard to appropriations and
Avith regard to the maintenance of normal schools. There can be no
doubt at all that in the majority of cases graduates of normal schools
go to those city systems which are much better qualified to provide
themselves with experienced teachers than are rural districts; and
there can be no doubt at all that the number of graduates of normal
schools who go into high schools constitutes a ver}^ genuine problem
of public policy. In some quarters there are small high schools which
can not draw their staff from the neighboring State universities. The
normal schools are here called upon to perform a very genuine service
to the community. To what extent this service is demanded we do
not at the present time know, and we shall not know imtil definite
statements can be made of the actual disposition of graduates of our
normal schools.
The problem of the relation of normal schools to high-school
training classes appears also at this point, for if the normal school
can not supply the teachers necessary for rural districts, other means
will have to be devised for the training of teachers. The whole
problem of an adequate supply for the State, therefore, connects
itself with this investigation of the disposition of the graduates.
Some diagrams of geographical distribution ought to be given, but
here, as in an earlier instance, it is important to keep in mind the fact
that an academic distribution is of more significance than the merely:
geographical distribution. What kind of schools these graduates
serve is a much more important question to raise and answer than the
mere question of the geographical distribution in terms of miles away
from the institution that trains them. Tables of this sort should be
clearly presented in the reports of the normal school.
Standardization is an elaborate process and may be slow. — The
recommendations which have been made in the foregoing paragraphs
call for a number of elaborate studies, and it will doubtless be objected
by those who are in charge of the normal schools that it is not easily
possible to supply the information which is here demanded. It will
especially be objected that to supply all of this information in a single
report would require a devotion on the part of the president and
faculty of a normal school to investigation which is altogether out of
proportion to their leisure and to the demands which are made upon
them for routine work. It must be admitted immediately that an
effort on the part of any given normal school to answer all of these
questions in one year would entail a great amount of labor. It is the
meaning of the authors of this monograph that the labor would be
amply repaid in the establishment of general confidence in the admin-
DEVELOPMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STANDARDS. 137
istration of the school and in the classification that would come as a
result of all of these investigations of all of the relations of the insti-
tution and of the student body. But if the recommendations can not
all of them be acted upon at once, it is still urged that a gradual accu-
mulation of all of these types of information is certainly possible.
If one or tAvo of the tables above recommended could be prepared in a
given year and could be inserted in the catalogue of the normal school,
and if the practice of collecting such information became general,
comparison would immediately arise which would stimulate further
investigations and would help to secure the necessary appropriations
from legislatiu-es to carry on these investigations on a larger scale.
The experience of every State has, in recent 3'ears, made it clear that
there is public demand for a clearer definition of these institutions.
The necessity of maintaining relationships with other institutions has
been dwelt upon again and again in this report, and the desirability
of supph'ing a larger body of teachers is becoming one of the impres-
sive problems of modern educational life.
Lack of uniformity is advantageous if this is supplemented by
careful scientific studies. — The United States does less to train its
teachers than any other great civilized nation, and there is less uni-
formity in the treatment of requirements for the schools than in
any other nation. To be sure, these variations in organization and
this lack of system bring certain advantages and give the school
sj'stem of the United States a certain flexibility which other sys-
tems do not exhibit, but there is no reason why with the advan-
tages of flexibility there should not come a clear definition of
purposes and a clear account of the actual achievements of such
system as we have. The recommendations made in this chapter are
made with a view to securing this type of information. Flexibility
which is of a thoroughly self-conscious type is greatly to be desired.
Flexibility which is controlled by accidents and by chance require-
ments in particular localities and is not understood and is not clearly
defined in any general Avay is a disadvantage rather than an advan-
tage,' and all of the recommendations which have been made in these
paragraphs aim to eliminate so far as possible the purely accidental
character of normal-school organization.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION
DEALING WITH THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN.
[Note. — With the exceptions indicated, tlie documents named below will be sent free of
charge upon application to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Those
marked with an asterisk (*) are no longer available for free distribution, but may be had
of the Supei'intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, upon
payment of the price stated. Remittances should be made in coin, currency, or money
order. Stamps are not accepted.]
*A teachers' professional library. Classified list of 100 titles. 5 cts. (Bulletin, 1909,
no. 8.)
*A course of study for the preparation of rural school-teachers. F. Mutchler and W. J,
Craig. 5 cts. (Bulletin, 1912, no. 1.)
^Training courses for rural teachers. A. C. Monahan and R. II. Wright. 5 cts. (Bulle-
tin, 1913, no. 2.)
*The training of teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany. C. H. Judd. 10 cts.
(Bulletin, 1914, no. 35. )
City training .schools for teachers. F. A. Manny. (Bulletin, 1914, no. 47.)
Efficiency and preparation of rural school-teachers. H. W. Foght. (Bulletin, 1914,
no. 49.)
The training of elementary school-teachers in mathematics. I. L. Kandel. (Bulletin,
1915, no. 39.)
Normal schools. (Statistics.) Annual Report, 1914, vol. 2, chap. G. (Available as a
separate publication. )
The training of teachers. S. C. Parker. Annual Report, 1915, vol. 1, chap. 7. (Available
as a separate publication.)
138
INDEX.
Academic high-school departments, tendency to expand, 100.
Administrative control, 32-46.
Agricultiire, course for special teachers, 125.
Boards of control (State), 34-36; appointment, tenure and size, 34-35; qualifications
of members, 35-36; value of types, 36-40.
Bohannon, E. W., on best type of normal control, 38.
California State Normal, Los Angeles, statistics of graduation, 108.
Cape Girardeau, Mo., course in agriculture, 125.
Carnegie Foundation, and teacher-training, 10-12.
Charleston, 111., practice teaclung, 95.
Chico, Cal., covurse of study, 92.
Claxton, P. P., letter of transmittal, 5.
College credit, 82-83.
Colleges and normal schools, comparison of students, 13-14; statistical comparison,
16-21.
Colleges and universities, effect of parallel development of departments of educa-
tion, 8-9.
Commercial education, 124.
Community practice facilities, 52-55.
Costs, normal school, 75-78.
Courses of study, agriculture, 125; commercial education, 124; high-school graduates,
79-86; home economics, 122-123; manual training, 122; Missouri, 119; New York,
116-117; Stout Institute, Wis., 114-115; trades, 124-125; training school, 89-94.
See also Standardization.
Critic teachers, 88-89.
Degree courses, tliree-year, discredit normal schools, 104; fovur-year for elementary
teachers, 103-104.
Degrees, advanced, held by members of faculties of normal schools, 17.
De Kalb, 111., course of study, 90-91; practice teaching, 49; salaries of principal
officers, 72.
Departments of education, colleges and imiversities, effect of parallel develop-
ment, 8-9.
Directors, salaries, 88.
Domestic education, 122-123.
Efficiency, general demand for, 9.
Electives, 83-84, 134-135.
Emporia, practice teaching, 96.
Endowment, productive, 19-20.
Faculties, 17-18, 65-74.
Felmley, David, on best type of normal control, 38-39.
Finegan, T. E., on local control, 34.
Foght, H. W., on training of riu-al teachers, 97.
Gemmill, W. H., on best type of normal-school control, 37.
Graduates, distribution, 135-136.
Graduates and students, 56-64.
Green, J. M., on best tj'pe of normal-school control, 36.
139
140 INDEX.
Henry, D. R., A study of State normal-school control, 32^1.
High-school graduates, general coiu-ses of study, 79-86; percentages of graduation
requirements, 85-86.
High-school students, elimination, 59-64.
High-school teachers, training and conferring of degrees, 99-104.
Home economies, 122-123.
Idaho, improvement in normal-school work, 59-60; teachers' salaries, 71.
Illinois, eliminating high-school students, 62-63.
Indiana, survey of normal schools, 10-12.
Indiana State Nonnal School, students, 27.
Industrial training, 112-115.
Kansas, normal-school system changed by State administrative board, 44-46.
Keene Normal School, N. H., location, 24.
Keith, J. H., on best type of normal control, 37.
Kendall, C. N., on normal schools, 27.
Kirk, J. R., on best type of normal control, 39-40.
Lewis, E. E., on practice teaching, 132.
Location of normal schools, 22-24.
Los Angeles, faculties in normal schools, 66-67; normal school, home economics
coiu-se, 123.
Louisiana, requirements of admission, 60.
McKenny, Charles, on best type of normal control, 37.
McMurry, C. A., on relation of coiu-se of study to city schools, 90-91.
Manual training, 122.
Massachusetts, coiu-se of study, 81; eliminating high-school students, 60-61; high-
school teacl\ers, 101; instructors employed in normal schools, 66; normal-school
costs, 75-77; normal schools, 28-29; status of normal schools, 43^4; survey of
normal schools, 12-13; teachers' salaries, 71.
Massachusetts Normal Art School, organization and activities, 109-110.
Maxwell, G. E., on best type of normal control, 37.
Mayville, N. Dak., number of teachers of special subjects, 106; practice teaching in
public schools, 49.
Michigan, special training of teachers, 117-118; teachers' salaries, 71-72.
Mileage and car fares, paid to students, 30.
Minnesota, foiu-year coiuses for elementary teachers, 103.
Missouri, normal-school statistics, 56-58; normal schools controlled by local board,
39^0; special training of teachers, 119-120; svirvey of normal schools, 10-12.
Morrison, State Supt., on normal schools, 22.
Mount Pleasant (Mich.) Normal School, graduates, 107.
Negroes, normal and industrial training, 113-114.
New Hampshii'e, course of study, 80-90; practice-teacliing facilities, 47-49; status of
normal schools, 43; siu-vey of normal schools, 12.
New Jersey, teachers in special and vocational subjects, 105-106, 116.
New York, special normal-training courses, 116-117; State-local type of control, 34.
Normal-school standards, program, 126-137.
Normal schools, maintenance parallels, general education policy, 31; three types, 82.
North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, number of State normal
schools reporting to, 16.
North Dakota, eliminating high-school students, 63-64.
North Dakota State Normal and Industrial School, statistics, 112.
Northern Illinois Normal School, statistics of graduation, 107.
Organization, determined by accidental, 7-8.
Oshkosh, Wis., course of study, 81.
Oxford (Ohio) Normal School, course for special teachers of manual arts, 122.
INDEX. 141
Pennsylvania, sun^ey of normal schools, 9.
Plymouth Normal School, location, 23-24; finances, 43.
Practice teaching, 47-55; organization, 87-96; standard for measuring facilities, of a
community, 52-55.
Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College, Tex., statistics, 113-114.
President, most dominant influence in many systems, 42.
Providence, R. I., practice teacliing, 49-52.
Public schools, practice teaching, 49.
Purpose, number, and geographical distribution of services, 22-31.
Eaihoad fares, paid to students, 30.
Rhode Island, eliminating liigh-school students, 61-62.
Roberts, H. H., criticism of unit control, 38.
Salaries, teachers. See Teachers' salaries.
Salem (Mass.) Normal School, coiuse for commercial teachers, 124.
Secondary school, eastern normal school as, 14.
Snedden, David, critical study of Massachusetts normal schools, 43^4; on best type
of normal control, 38; on normal schools, 22, 28-29; on training of secondary teach-
ers, 101-103.
Standardization, external causes stimulating movement, 8; meaning of term, 14; pro-
gram for development, 126-137.
State Manual Training Normal School, statistics, 110-112.
State normal schools, faculties, 65-74; number in each State, 28.
Stout Institute, Wis., statistics, 114-115.
Students and graduates, 56-64.
Supcr\-ision, standardized routine, 94.
Sui"veys of normal schools, Indiana, 10-12; Massachusetts, 12-13; Missouri, 10-12, 13;
Pennsylvania, 9; Vermont, 12; Wisconsin, 9-10.
Teacher-training, liigh schools, 99-104; rural schools, 97-98; special siibject'=!, 105-125;
statement by Carnegie Foundation, 10-12.
Teachers, critic, importance of securing, 73-74; need of competent, 65-66; public-
school experience, 69-70. See also Faculties.
Teachers' salaries, 70-73.
Terre Haute (Ind.) State Normal School, distribution of students, 25-26.
Time distributions, course of study, 84-85.
Trades, coiuses for teachers, 124-125.
Trenton, N. J., coiu'se of study, 81.
Unit control, 38.
Universities, relation of western normal schools to, 14.
Valley City (N. Dak.) Normal School, coiu"se in home economies, 122-123.
Vermont, survey of normal schools, 12.
Virginia, improvement in rural schools, 60.
Winona, Minn., coiuse of study, 92.
Wintlirop (S. C.) Normal and Industrial College, number of positions secured for grad-
uates, 106-107.
Wisconsin, Mstory of development of differentiated courses, 81-82; history of normal
system, 10; survey of normal schools, 9-10.
Ypsilanti, Mich., faculty of normal school, 67.
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