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THE HISTORICAL 
 REFERENCE BOOK 
 
 COMPRISING A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY; A CHRONOLOGICAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY; 
 
 A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 WITH GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 
 
 E OF STUDENT 
 AND READERS 
 
 FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS, TEACHERS 
 
 ^ *, AW flr.t.. 
 
 BY 
 
 LOUIS HEILPRIN 
 
 REVISED TO iSq8 
 FIFTH EDITION, WITH A SUPPLEMENT 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1898 
 

 THE LIBRARY 
 OF CONGRESS 
 
 WASHINGTON i 
 
 KU99 
 
 Copyright, 1884, 1892, 1808, 
 
 By d. appleton and company. 
 
PRE FA O E . 
 
 REMARKS CONCERNING TEE PLAN OF TEE WORK. 
 
 In the Chronological Table of Universal History the 
 plan adopted has been to deal separately with the events of dif- 
 ferent countries. The events in any one year are not arranged 
 all in chronological order, but each state is introduced indepen- 
 dently. Several countries are, of course, grouped together in 
 one division whenever the connection of events demands. In 
 the history of the Middle Ages, and of modern times down to 
 the American Revolution, the first place, as a rule, is accorded 
 to the British Isles. France follows, and next in order come the 
 countries of central Europe and Italy and Spain, after which 
 the remaining states of Europe are introduced. The political 
 history of the whole of the Old World is given before that 
 of the New. From the time of the American Revolution the 
 first place is assigned to the United States, the order other- 
 wise remaining in the main as before. It has been deemed 
 proper to present the history of Europe in the year 1848 in a 
 connected sketch. Events not political are always left to the 
 end. The names in the obituary lines are arranged in chrono- 
 logical order. 
 
 In the Chronological Dictionary of Universal History 
 the statements are expressed with extreme brevity, this portion 
 of the book being supplemented by Part I., the method of refer- 
 ence to which is self-evident. Frequently nothing but a mere 
 date will be found appended to the subject title ; as, for exam- 
 ple, in the case of Ostend Manifesto (1854), Sicilian Vespers 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 (1282), Wilmot Proviso (1846), Perusian War (41-40 b. a). 
 The reader who seeks for other than simply chronological infor- 
 mation will turn to the respective dates in Paet I. The infor- 
 mation given under the title-heads which represent the names of 
 the more important countries will in the main be confined to the 
 mention of territorial changes and the enumeration of dynasties 
 and sovereigns. As a general thing the days and months of 
 dates are not repeated in Paet II. A great deal of matter has 
 been introduced into this chronological dictionary which is not 
 given in Paet I. 
 
 Great pains have been taken in the selection of titles in the 
 Biographical Dictionary. It is impossible to prepare a table 
 of this kind of limited range so that readers shall not find fault 
 with it on the score of omission, criticism being exercised accord- 
 ing to individual and arbitrary standards. The names of some 
 men who have been prominent in the eyes of our public in our 
 own day will be found wanting, but the author has deliberately 
 permitted himself these apparent defects of omission so as not to 
 encumber the pages with notices of persons who, historically in- 
 significant and without any substantial claim to distinction, have 
 achieved a fleeting notoriety. 
 
 CHRONOL GIGAL A GCUBA GY. 
 
 A comparison of the dates in this book with those in any 
 ordinary work of reference will reveal a great amount of dis- 
 crepancy. It is little understood to what an extent encyclopedic 
 publications contradict each other in the matter of dates. A 
 vast amount of confusion prevails even with regard to events of 
 ordinary history, although here it is generally possible to avoid 
 error by constant reference to standard authorities and special 
 works embodying the results of the most recent research. Uni- 
 form accuracy is seldom achieved, owing to the amount of labor 
 involved and the readiness to accept dates on the part of com- 
 pilers, who are little apt to be on their guard where no special 
 reason for doubt is present. Very frequently, too, the dates 
 given in standard histories have been superseded through the 
 agency of new investigations, the results of which are sometimes 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 very slow in making their way into current literature. Even 
 able and conscientious historians will often slip into chrono- 
 logical errors. It will frequently happen that where the con- 
 current statements in several reference-books appear to leave 
 no doubt whatever concerning the date of a particular his- 
 torical event, a grave error will result from relying on the tes- 
 timony. 
 
 An experience of many years in the editorial department of 
 the " American Cyclopaedia " charged with the verification of 
 historical and biographical dates, has taught the compiler of the 
 present work the lesson of mistrust and caution. A few exam- 
 ples mav serve to give the reader an idea of the singular pitfalls 
 which beset the path of the chronologist, and of the confusion 
 and contradiction which he constantly encounters. 
 
 The date of the capture of Prague by the forces of France 
 and her allies in the War of the Austrian Succession is Nov. 
 26, 1741. In the compendious " Encyclopaedia of Chronol- 
 ogy " of Woodward and Cates (London, 1872), under Prague, 
 we are informed that the event took place Oct. 26, 1742, 
 and we meet with the same date in the article on that city 
 in the fourth edition of "Pierer's Universal-Lexikon."* In 
 this latter work, in the article Osterreichischer Erbfolge- 
 krieg, the event is mentioned in the account of the operations 
 of 1741, but we still find Oct. 26 instead of Nov. 26, and, 
 to remove all doubt from the mind of the perplexed student, 
 there immediately follows the statement that on Oct. 27 the 
 elector of Bavaria entered the captured city.f In William 
 Coxe's standard " History of the House of Austria " (1807) the 
 event is likewise placed a month too early. In " Oesterreich 
 unter Maria Theresia," &c. (Berlin 1882-4), forming part of 
 Wilhelm Oncken's great historical collection, " Allgemeine Ge- 
 schichte in Einzeldarstellungen," the city is stated to have 
 fallen in the night of Dec. 5-6. Oncken's own work in the 
 same collection, " Das Zeitalter Friedrich's des Grossen," gives 
 
 * The correct date is given in the last (sixth) edition. 
 
 f The dates do not occur in the corresponding article (greatly condensed) in 
 the last edition of the " Universal-Lexikon." 
 
v i PREFACE. 
 
 the correct date. Under the head of Belleisle in the "Ency- 
 clopaedia of Chronology" both month and year are correctly 
 stated. 
 
 In 1800 a conspiracy was formed against the life of Bona- 
 parte by Ceracchi, Arena, and others. The First Consul was to 
 be assassinated Oct. 10. The plot was betrayed, and on that 
 day the conspirators were seized, and they were executed Jan. 
 30, 1801. The "Encyclopaedia of Chronology," under the 
 head of Ceracchi, gives as the respective dates Oct. 10, 1801, 
 and Feb. 10, 1802. In the voluminous " Dictionnaire en- 
 cyclopedique de l'histoire de France," edited by Le Bas, the 
 article on Arena informs us that he engaged in the plot of 
 Oct. 10, 1801, and that he was executed Jan. 30, 1802. Dr. 
 Thomas, in his excellent "Dictionary of Biography," both in 
 the notice of Ceracchi and in that of Arena, has likewise slipped 
 into the error of stating that they met their death in 1802. We 
 also find 1802 in the article on Arena in the fourth edition of the 
 " Universal-Lexikon." * 
 
 Garibaldi's victory over the Neapolitan forces at Velletri was 
 achieved May 19, 1849. Instead of May 19 we find March 19 
 (in each case under the head of Velletri) in the " Encyclopae- 
 dia of Chronology," in the twelfth edition of " Brockhaus' Con- 
 versations-Lexikon " (1879), and in "Beeck's Handlexikon der 
 Geschichte und Biographie" (Berlin, 1881), a chronological man- 
 ual remarkable for accuracy. This case is a curious instance of 
 false concurrent testimony with regard to the date of an event 
 near to our own time. 
 
 The capture of Jefferson Davis took place on the morning 
 of May 10, 1865. May 11 is the date given in Greeley's 
 "American Conflict," in Lossing's "History of the Civil War," 
 in " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates " (under the head of United 
 States), and in " Unsere Zeit " (a supplement to " Brockhaus' 
 Conversations - Lexikon "). In Oscar Jiiger's supplement to 
 Schlosser's " Weltgeschichte " we have May 13, and we find the 
 same error in the notice of Davis in the thirteenth edition of 
 "Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " (1883). 
 
 * The error does not occur in the last edition. 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 The utmost confusion prevails in books respecting dates in 
 the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, re- 
 sulting from the circumstance that the Gregorian calendar was 
 adopted at different times by different countries.* It has been 
 customary with historians down to our own time to retain the 
 Old Style in treating the history of a Protestant country in the 
 period before the adoption of the New Style in that country, but 
 thei'e is no uniformity in this respect, the New Style being very 
 frequently used. The dates of events of an international charac- 
 ter (battles, treaties), events belonging at once to the history of 
 a Protestant and a Catholic country, are given according to the 
 Old Style by one writer and by another according to the New. 
 In treating of the wars between the English and the French in 
 the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, the 
 French historians will follow the Gregorian calendar, the English 
 to a great extent the Julian. The same writer will not unfre- 
 quently use the Old Style in one place and the New in another. 
 The case grows worse when we come to encyclopedic publica- 
 tions, in whose preparation different authorities are consulted at 
 every step. The individual statements in any one work will fre- 
 quently be found to contradict each other. Let us take some of 
 the principal events in the Thirty Years' War, and examine the 
 
 * The reformation of the calendar instituted by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 
 consists in amending the Julian calendar by reducing the number of leap years in 
 400 years from 100 to 97, the centurial years being made ordinary years except 
 those whose numbers are divisible by 400 (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc., being 
 ordinary years, and 1600, 2000, 2400, etc., leap years). The reckoning, according 
 to the Julian calendar, or Old Style, thus drops back 3 days in 400 years behind 
 the New Style. Gregory XIII. directed that ten days be dropped out of the year 
 1582 (Oct. 5 was made Oct. 15), so as to bring back the vernal equinox to where 
 it had been at the time of the council of Nice (325), it having retrograded to 
 March 11. The difference between Old and New Style remained 10 days down to 
 1700 (1600 having been retained as a leap year); from 1700 to 1800 it was 11 
 days ; since 1800 it has been 12 days ; from 1900 to 2100 it will be 13 days. The 
 Gregorian calendar was at once or soon adopted by the Catholic countries, but the 
 Protestant states continued long to adhere to the Julian calendar. In the Prot- 
 estant states of Germany, in Denmark, and in the greater part of Holland, the 
 change from Old to New Style was made in 1700; in Great Britain, in 1752; in 
 Sweden, in 1753. Russia has retained the Old Style to the present day. 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 chronological statements in various works. The date of the 
 storming of Magdeburg in the " Encyclopaedia of Chronology " is 
 given (under the head of Magdeburg) according to the New 
 Style, May 20, 1631; in "Haydn's Dictionary of Dates," ac- 
 cording to the Old, May 10. The battle of Leipsic (under the 
 head of Leipsic) is given in both according to the Old Style, 
 Sept. 7, 1631, and each gives the battle of Ltitzen (under the 
 head of Lutzen) according to the New, Nov. 16, 1632. In the 
 notice of General Pappenheim the "Encyclopaedia of Chronolo- 
 gy" gives Nov. 6 as the date of the latter battle. In the "En- 
 cyclopaedia of Chronology " the battle of Wittstock is stated to 
 have been fought Oct. 4, 1636 (the date according to the New 
 Style) under the head of Wittstock, and Sept. 24 under the 
 head of Bannier (Baner). The writer of the article Austria 
 in the last edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " gives the 
 capture of Magdeburg and the battles of Lutzen and Wittstock 
 according to the New Style, but the battle of Leipsic according 
 to the Old. In Weber's universal history we have the Old 
 Style for the battles of Leipsic and Lutzen, and the New for the 
 battle of Nurdlingen (Aug. 27-Sept. 6, 1634) and that of Witt- 
 stock. It will occasionally happen that writers who use the New 
 Style will fall into the ludicrous error of adding 10 (11) days to 
 a date already converted to the New Style. In the article on 
 the Thirty Years' War in the very valuable " Encyklopadie der 
 neueren Geschichte" (Gotha, 1880-'84) the writer, who uses the 
 New Style, gives March 16, 1629, as the date of publication 
 of the Edict of Restitution, which, however, was dated March 
 6 according to the Gregorian calendar, and in like manner he 
 states that the battle of Wittstock was fought Oct. 14, 1636, 
 when in reality the true date is Oct. 4, New Style (Old Style, 
 Sept. 24), which date is given in the same work in the article 
 Baner. 
 
 Another source of perplexity to the chronologist, more espe- 
 cially in dealing with biographical dates, arises from the circum- 
 stance that the time of the beginning of the Christian year has 
 been variously placed at different periods and in different coun- 
 tries, so that it frequently happens that an event described as 
 having taken place in a particular year by a contemporary writer 
 
PREFACE. i x 
 
 actually falls in a different year according to modern chrono- 
 logical reckoning.* 
 
 Two cases will here be presented in which there is a bewil- 
 dering confusion in books due to the cause here indicated. The 
 first is the date of the accession of the house of Stuart to the 
 throne of Scotland in the person of Robert II., who was pro- 
 claimed king Feb. 22, 1371 (according to the old mode of reck- 
 oning, 1370), on the death of David Bruce. Let us first open 
 the " Encyclopaedia of Chronology." Under the head of Scot- 
 land and under Robert II. we find the date correctly stated. 
 In the notice of David Bruce, however, that monarch is stated 
 to have died Feb. 22, 1370. In Margaret Macarthur's " History 
 of Scotland," which forms part of Freeman's " Historical Series," 
 we likewise find 1370. The same error appears three times in 
 Hermann's "Lexikon der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte" (1882), 
 under Bruce, Schottlastd, and Stuart, and twice in " Brock- 
 haus' Conversations-Lexikon " (twelfth edition), in the articles 
 Schottland and Stuart. " Pierer's Universal-Lexikon " (last 
 edition) gives 1371 in the article Schottland and 1370 under 
 Stuart. The second case is the date of the institution of the Or- 
 der of the Golden Fleece by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 
 on the occasion of his nuptials with Isabella of Portugal. The 
 event took place in the town of Bruges Jan. 10, 1430, or, accord- 
 ing to the old mode of reckoning, 1429, the year having to run on 
 till Easter. We find the wrong year 1429 in Beeck's " Handlexi- 
 kon der Geschichte und Biographie," in " Haydn's Dictionary of 
 Dates," in Hermann's " Lexikon der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte " 
 (in the notice of Philip the Good), and in the last edition of 
 " Pierer's Universal-Lexikon " (in the article on the Golden 
 Fleece and in that on Philip the Good). The " Encyclopaedia of 
 
 * In England the year formerly began with the 25th of March. It was not 
 until 1Y52 that the first of January was made the beginning of the legal year. In 
 parts of Italy, likewise, the first day of the year was the 25th of March down to 
 the close of the last century, and the Pisan reckoning was a year ahead of the 
 Florentine. In the Venetian Republic it was the first day of March. In France 
 during the period of the Capetian a.id Valois dynasties the year began with 
 Easter. The duchy of Burgundy and portions of the Netherlands had the same 
 reckoning. 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 Chronology" gives Jan. 10, 1429 (citing an authority) under the 
 head of Golden Fleece, and in the notice of Philip his mar- 
 riage is stated to have taken place on that day, but under the 
 head of Bruges we are correctly informed that the Order of the 
 Golden Fleece was instituted in 1430. 
 
 As encyclopedists are continually contradicting each other 
 with regard to historical chronology, where sufficient pains and 
 easy access to standard sources of information ought to make it 
 possible to insure accuracy, it is natural that we should find a 
 vast amount of discrepancy with regard to biographical dates. 
 In the preparation of a great mass of biographical notices in a 
 cyclopaedia the available sources of information must of neces- 
 sity be in a great measure restricted to the articles in other en- 
 cyclopedic publications. In a comparatively small proportion of 
 cases only is it practicable to have recourse to works of author- 
 ity in order to verify statements. The compiler is perplexed at 
 every step, and very frequently it is impossible to arrive at more 
 than an approximation to the truth. Biographical chronology is 
 continually shifting. One has only to take one of the early 
 editions of " Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " and compare a 
 number of biographical dates with the statements contained in 
 the last edition to appreciate this fact. In every new edition of 
 such a publication the chronology has to be amended afresh. 
 Biographical literature is constantly bringing new alterations, 
 and in every country old documents, registers, and memorials 
 are being brought to light which refute more or less of what has 
 hitherto been passing for truth. Readers are little aware of the 
 amount of confusion which prevails respecting the dates of birth 
 and death of eminent personages even of our own age. In a not 
 inconsiderable proportion of cases the year of birth is not actu- 
 ally established until after the individual's death. The bio- 
 graphical notice in a cyclopaedia of a person lately deceased will 
 therefore very frequently be found to give a different date for 
 the birth from that contained in the preceding edition of the 
 work. The date of Buckle's birth is Nov. 24, 1821 * We find 
 the same month and day, but the year 1822 in the last edition 
 
 * See " The Life and Writings of Henry Thomas Buckle," by A. H. Huth. 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 of "Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " (1882), in Bornmiil- 
 ler's " Schrif tsteller-Lexikon der Gegenwart" (1882), in Beeck's 
 " Handlexicon der Geschichte und Biographie," and in the necro- 
 logical list appended to the last edition of " Men of the Time " 
 (1884). The year 1822 (without mention of month or day) is also 
 given in Thomas's " Dictionary of Biography " and in the index 
 to the last edition of " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates." Du Chaillu 
 was born July 31, 1835. In the twelfth edition of " Brockhaus' 
 Conversations-Lexikon" he is stated to have been born about 
 1805 ; in the fourth edition of Vapereau's "Dictionnaire des con- 
 temporains," toward the first years of the century ; in Embacher's 
 "Lexikon der Reisen und Entdeckungen " (1882), at the begin- 
 ning of the century. The error has been eliminated in the last 
 edition of the first two works, and the correct date is also to be 
 found in the " Schrif tsteller-Lexikon der Gegenwart," published 
 a few months before Embacher's work. The eminent Belgian 
 sculptor Willem Geefs, who died in 1883, is frequently stated to 
 have ended his days in 1860. His biography is omitted from 
 the fourth edition of the " Dictionnaire des contemporains " (in 
 which the false entry of his death occurs), but he is resuscitated 
 with a full notice in the last edition (1880). It was a brother of 
 Willem Geefs who died in 1860. Another of the celebrities 
 whose career closed in 1883, Abd-el-Kader, had his death more 
 than once prematurely chronicled. 
 
 Chronological inaccuracy in books is in no small measure 
 merely the evidence of faulty printing. In the present work the 
 proof-reading has been so carefully done that the author feels 
 assured that this source of error has been completely eliminated. 
 
 Summit, N. J., September, 1884- 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 The record of the world's history contained in the present 
 volume is brought down to the year 1898. The "Biographical 
 Dictionary" has been revised, and numerous changes have been 
 made in accordance with the data furnished by recent publica- 
 tions. The " Supplement " has been considerably enlarged. 
 
 Summit, N. J., February, 1S98. 
 
PAET I. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL 
 HISTORY. 
 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4400 (about; Brugsch).* Foundation of the first dynasty in Egypt. 
 
 3700 (about; Brugsch). Erection of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh. 
 
 2500 (about; Duncker). Rise of the kingdom of Elam. 
 
 2200-1700 (about; Brugsch). Dominion of the Hyksos in Egypt. 
 
 1700 (1600)-\2b0 (about). Period of the greatest power and splen- 
 dor of the New Empire in Egypt. Aahmes, Thothmes III., 
 Rameses II., Rameses III. (Meneptah, about 1320, general- 
 ly considered by Egyptologists the Phai'aoh of the Exodus.) 
 
 1500 (about; f). Babylonia is united into a single powerful mon- 
 archy. 
 
 1450-1300 (about; Duncker). Period of the greatest power of the 
 Hittite realm in Syria. 
 
 1300 (about). Reign of Shalmaneser I. in Assyria: 
 
 1250 (about ; Duncker). The Phoenicians enter upon their career as 
 a great colonizing people. 
 
 1100 (about). Dorian migration into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 1055 (about, Duncker; about 1095 or 10S0, common chronology).^ 
 Establishment of monarchy by the Hebrews ; Saul king. 
 
 1033 (about, Duncker; 1058, Oppert). The Philistines overwhelm 
 Saul at Gilboa. David proclaims himself king in Judah. 
 993 (about, Duncker; 1017, Oppert). Accession of Solomon. 
 953 (about, Duncker; 977, Oppert). Revolt of the Ten Tribes 
 under Jeroboam from Rehoboain ; Israel and Judah f.epa- 
 rate kingdoms. 
 949 (about, Duncker; 973, Oppert). Sheshonk (Shishak), king of 
 
 Egypt, takes Jerusalem. 
 929 (about, Duncker; 958, Oppert). Accession of Asa in Judah. 
 899 (about, Duncker; 931, Oppert). Accession of Omri in Israel. 
 873 (about, Duncker; 917, Oppert). Accession of Jehoshaphat in 
 Judah. 
 
 * The views of other authorities will be found stated in Part II. 
 + See Hebrews in Part II. 
 
2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 853 (about, Duncker; 900, Oppert.) Ahab, king- of Israel, is de- 
 feated and slain by tbe Syrians at Ramoth-Gilead. 
 
 850 (about). Colonization of Carthage by the Tyrians. 
 Legislation of Lycurgus in Sparta. 
 
 843 (about, Duncker; 887, Oppert). Jehu usurps the throne of 
 Israel. 
 
 792 (about, Duncker; 811, Oppert). Accession of Uzziah in Judah. 
 
 790 (about, Duncker; 825, Oppert). Accession of Jeroboam II. in 
 Israel. 
 
 776. Beginning of the Olympiads. 
 
 753 (common chronology). Foundation of Rome. 
 
 750 (about). Foundation of Syracuse by the Corinthians. 
 
 748 (about, Duncker; 772, Oppert). End of the dynasty of Jehu in 
 Israel. 
 
 743-724 (common chronology). First great war of Sparta against 
 Messenia, which is reduced to subjection. 
 
 734-732 (about). Tiglath-pileser II. of Assyria subjects Syria. 
 
 728 (727). Accession of Hezekiah in Judah. 
 
 731 (about). Chaldsea becomes subject to Tiglath-pileser II. 
 
 722 (721). The Assyrian king Sargon takes Samaria, and puts an 
 end to the kingdom of Israel. 
 
 701 (700). Expedition of Sennacherib into Syria. Siege of Jeru- 
 salem. Sennacherib encounters the forces of Egypt and 
 Ethiopia. His expedition fails. 
 
 697 (698). Accession of Manasseh in Judah. 
 
 650 (about). All Egypt united under Psammetichus. 
 
 645-628 (685-668).* Unsuccessful attempt of the Messenians to free 
 themselves from the Spartan yoke. 
 
 640 (about). Media shakes off her dependence on Assyria, and ap- 
 pears as a single united kingdom. 
 
 625 (about). Great irruption of the Scythians into Media, Assyria, 
 and Syria. 
 
 622 (about). Reformation of Josiah in Judah. 
 
 609 (about). Necho, king of Egypt, crushes the power of Judah 
 at Megiddo ; Josiah is slain. 
 
 607 (606). f The Medes and Babylonians take Nineveh, and over- 
 whelm the Assyrian monarchy. 
 
 605„ Victory of Nebuchadnezzar over Necho at Carchemish. 
 
 597 (598). Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and carries away the 
 principal inhabitants. (See 586.) 
 
 * See Messenia in Part II. \ Some authorities place the fall of Nineveh in 625. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 3 
 
 594. Legislation of Solon in Athens. 
 
 586 {587). Nebuchadnezzar takes and destroys Jerusalem, and 
 puts an end to the kingdom of Judah. Babylonish cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 570 (about). Nebuchadnezzar attacks Egypt, dethrones Hophra 
 (Apries), and places Amasis on the throne. 
 
 660. Pisistratus usurps the government of Athens. 
 
 550 (about).* The Persians, under the lead of Cyrus, destroy the 
 Median monarchy. 
 
 546 (about). Cyrus overthrows Croesus, king of Lydia. 
 
 538. Cyrus conquers Babylon. 
 
 529. Cambyses succeeds Cyrus as king of Persia. 
 
 527. Hippias and Hipparchus succeed their father, Pisistratus, in 
 the government of Athens. 
 
 527 (525). Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 
 
 522. Usurpation of Pseudo-Smerdis in Persia. Death of Cam- 
 byses. 
 
 521. Darius Hystaspis ascends the throne of Persia. 
 
 521-516 (about). Rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 514. Murder of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 
 510. Expulsion of Hippias from Athens. Clisthenes heads the 
 democratic party. 
 Destruction of Sybaris by the Crotonians. 
 
 510 (about). The Romans abolish royalty and establish a republic. 
 Institution of the Consulship. 
 
 508-506 (about). Darius engages in a disastrous expedition against 
 the Scythians. The Persians extend their dominion over 
 Thrace, and receive the submission of Macedonia. 
 
 501 (Rawlinson, Clinton; 502, Grote; 500, Hertzberg). Aristagoras 
 excites a revolt of the Ionian cities from Persia. 
 
 500 (Rawl. ; 499, Clinton, Hertzberg). Expedition of the Ionians 
 against Sardis. They enter the city, and then retreat. 
 
 497 (about). The Romans defeat the Latins at Lake Regillus. 
 
 494. Defeat of the Asiatic Greeks by the Persians in the naval 
 battle of Lade. Fall of Miletus. 
 
 494 (Smith's Dictionary, Hertzberg ; 492, Rawl.). First secession 
 of the Plebeians from Rome. Institution of the office of 
 Tribunes of the People. 
 
 493 (Smith's Diet., Hertzberg; 491, Rawl.). The Latins are com- 
 
 * According to the common chronology 558. An inscription has recently been 
 discovered of the Babylonian king Nabonidus, according to which, if the decipher- 
 ment be correct, the overthrow of the Median king Astyages occurred in 550. 
 2 
 
4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 pelled to enter into a league with Rome, which is threatened 
 
 by the power of the ^Equi and Volsci. 
 492. First Persian expedition against Greece under Mardonius. 
 490. Invasion of Greece by the army of Darius. It is vanquished 
 
 by the Athenians, under Miltiades, at Marathon. 
 489 (Smith's Diet., Hertzberg). Miltiades unsuccessfully attacks 
 
 Paros. He is thrown into prison by the Athenians. 
 486 (Justi).* Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius Hystaspis. 
 486 (about). League of the Hernici with Rome. 
 483 (Clinton, Hertzberg). Ostracism of Aristides. 
 480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. Defense of Thermopylae by 
 
 Leonidas. Naval battle of Artemisium. Burning of Athens. 
 
 The Greeks, led by Themistocles and Eurybiades, vanquish 
 
 the Persian fleet at Salamis. Flight of Xerxes. 
 The Carthaginians attempt to conquer the Greek cities of 
 
 Sicily. Their army is overwhelmed by Gelon, tyrant of 
 
 Syracuse, at Himera. 
 479. The Persian army under Mardonius is crushed by the Greeks, 
 
 under the command of Pausanias, in the battle of Plataea. 
 
 Simultaneous victory of the Greeks, under Leotychides and 
 
 Xanthippus, over the Persian naval forces at Mycale. 
 477. The hegemony in Greece passes from Sparta to Athens. 
 471 (probably). Fall of Themistocles. 
 471 (Smith's Diet., Hertzberg; Ifiu, Raid). Passage of the Publi- 
 
 lian Law in Rome ; the right is accorded to the Plebeians 
 
 of initiating legislation in their assemblies. 
 468 (about). Triumph of democracy in the cities of Sicily. 
 466. Victories of Cimon over the Persians at the Eurymedon. 
 465. Murder of Xerxes by Artabanus. Accession of Artaxerxes 
 
 Longimanus, his son. 
 464. Destruction of Sparta by an earthquake. 
 464-455. Rising of the Messenian helots against the Spartans. 
 463 (about). -f The Argives reduce Mycenae, and enslave or drive 
 
 away its inhabitants. 
 45 8 (about) . Return of Jews from Babylonia to Jerusalem under Ezra. 
 457. Battle of Tanagra between the Spartans and Athenians. 
 456. The Athenians vanquish the Boeotians at CEnophyta, and ob- 
 tain their submission, with that of Phocis and Locris. 
 456 (about). Completion of the Long Walls connecting Athens 
 
 with the Piraeus. Athens subdues JEgina. 
 
 * Some authorities place the death of Darius in 485. 
 
 t See note in Grote's " History of Greece," vol. v., p. 320 (Amer. edition). 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 5 
 
 450 (about). Institution of the Decemvirate in Rome. Publication 
 of the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 
 
 448. Sacred War between the Phocians and Delphians. 
 
 448 (about). Abolition of the Decemvirate. 
 
 447. Defeat of the Athenians at Coronea, by which they lose their 
 hold on Bceotia, Phocis, and Locris. 
 
 445 (about). Nehemiah undertakes the rebuilding of the walls of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 444. Pericles assumes the sole direction of affairs in Athens. 
 
 444 (about). Institution of the military tribunes at Rome, who 
 might take the place of the consuls.* 
 
 436. Beginning of the dispute between Corinth and Corcyra regard- 
 ing Epidamnus. 
 
 435. Naval victory of the Corcyraeans over the Corinthians near 
 Actium. 
 
 432. Athens joins Corcyra against Corinth. Corinth incites Poti- 
 drca to revolt from Athens. 
 
 431. Sparta espouses the cause of Corinth, and makes war on Athens. 
 Beginning of the Pelopoimesian War. 
 
 431-425. The Spartans invade Attica five times : 431, 430, 428, 427, 
 425. 
 
 429. The Athenians reduce Potidaea. Pericles dies of the plague. 
 
 428. Revolt of Lesbos from the Athenian confederacy. 
 
 427. Tiie Athenians reduce Mytilene, and become masters of Les- 
 bos. Plata?a, the ally of Athens, surrenders to the Pelopon- 
 nesians. 
 
 425. The Athenian commander Cleon takes Sphacteria. 
 
 Death of Artaxerxes I. Reigns of Xerxes II. and Sogdianus. 
 
 424. The Spartan general Brasidas takes Amphipolis. Victory of 
 the Boeotians over the Athenians at Delium. 
 Accession of Darius II., Nothus, in Persia, f 
 
 423. Banishment of Thucydides from Athens. 
 
 422. Cleon, sent by the Athenians to recover Amphipolis, is de- 
 feated and slain by the army of Brasidas, who also falls in 
 the battle. 
 
 421. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta. 
 
 419. Alcibiades leads an Athenian expedition into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 415. The Athenians undertake an expedition against Syracuse. 
 
 * The Consulship, was by no means done away with ; it alternated irregularly 
 with the office of the military tribunes till the passage of the Licinian Rogations, 
 when it was restored as a permanent annual magistracy. See 3G7. 
 
 + Some authorities place this event in 425. 
 
6 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 414. The Athenians, under Nicias, invest Syracuse. The Spartan 
 commander Gylippus, with a fleet of Corinthian ships, comes 
 to the aid of the city. 
 
 413. The Spartans, at the instance of Alcibiades, take up a fortified 
 position at Decelea, in Attica. The Athenian commander 
 Demosthenes is sent to the assistance of Nicias. Complete 
 rain of the expedition against Syracuse. 
 
 412. Alcibiades undertakes a mission to the Persian satrap Tissa- 
 phernes, and induces him to enter into treaties with Sparta. 
 
 411. Reign of the Four Hundred in Athens (4 months). Alcibiades 
 is reinstated in the Athenian service. 
 
 410. Naval victory of Alcibiades over the Spartans at Cyzicus. 
 
 407. The Spartan admiral Lysander defeats the Athenian fleet at 
 Notium. 
 
 406. The Spartan fleet, under Callicratidas, is vanquished by the 
 Athenians off the Arginusae. 
 Dionysius the Elder establishes his power in Syracuse. 
 
 405. The Spartans, under Lysander, annihilate the naval power 
 of Athens at iEgospotami. 
 Artaxerxes II. succeeds Darius II. in Persia.* 
 
 405 (JfOJf?). Persia loses her dominion over Egypt. (The country 
 resubjected about 340.) 
 
 404. Surrender of Athens to Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian 
 War ; Sparta all-powerful in Greece. Establishment of the 
 Thirty Tyrants in Athens. About the close of the year f 
 they are overthrown by Thrasybulus. 
 
 403. Thrasybulus restores democracy in Athens. 
 
 401. Expedition of the younger Cyrus against his brother, Arta- 
 xerxes II. He is slain in the battle of Cunaxa. 
 
 401-400. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus, the Ten Thousand, effect 
 their retreat to the sea under the lead of Xenophon. 
 
 399. Sparta engages in a war with Persia. 
 Condemnation and death of Socrates. 
 
 396. The Spartan general Agesilaus enters upon his victorious cam- 
 paigns against the Persians. 
 
 396 (Smith's Diet., Hertzberg ; 392, Bawl.). The Romans, under 
 Cam ill us, take Veii. 
 
 395. Thebes, Corinth, Argos, and Athens enter into a league against 
 Sparta. The Thebaus defeat the Spartans at Haliartus ; 
 death of Lysauder. 
 
 * This event is placed by Justi in 404. 
 
 t According to German authorities tit the bejrinn'mu' of 403. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 7 
 
 394. The Persian fleet, under the Athenian admiral Conon, over- 
 whelms that of the Spartans, under Pisander, off Cnidus. 
 Victory of the Spartans, under Agesilaus, over the forces of 
 the confedei'ate Greeks at Coronea. 
 
 393. The Athenians, under the guidance -of Conon, undertake the 
 restoration of their fortifications. 
 
 388 (Hertzberg ; 387, Rawl.).* The Gauls, under Brennus, vanquish 
 the Romans on the Allia, and burn Rome. 
 
 387. Sparta, through the mediation of Persia, forces the Greek 
 states to accept the Peace of Antalcidas. 
 
 382. Sparta engages in a war against Olynthus. The Spartans seize 
 the citadel of Thebes. 
 
 379. The Spartans force the Olynthians into submission. Pelopi- 
 das and his associates deliver Thebes from the Spartans. 
 
 378. Athens joins Thebes against Sparta. 
 
 376. Naval victory of the Athenians, under Chabrias, over the 
 Spartans off Naxos. 
 
 371. The Thebans, under Epaminondas, vanquish the Spartans, 
 under Cleombrotus, at Leuctra. Thebes becomes the domi- 
 nant power in Greece. 
 
 370. Foundation of the Arcadian confederacy. 
 
 370-369. Epaminondas undertakes his first expedition into the 
 Peloponnesus. He threatens Sparta, which is preserved 
 by Agesilaus. 
 
 369. Foundation of Megalopolis as the centre of the Arcadian con- 
 federacy. Rise of a new Messenian state under the auspices 
 of Epaminondas. Foundation of the city of Messene. 
 
 369 or 368. Pelopidas is sent by the Thebans on his first expedition 
 against Alexander of Pherae. 
 
 367 (Smith? s Diet., Hertzberg; 364, Rawl.). Adoption of the Licinian 
 Rogations in Rome ; acts for the relief of Plebeian debtors 
 and the limitation of the rights of the Patricians to the pub- 
 lic domain ; restoration of the Consulship as a permanent 
 annual magistracy, the office of military tribunes with con- 
 sular power being abolished ; one of the two consuls to be 
 henceforth a Plebeian ; institution of the Praetorship. 
 
 364 or 363. Death of Pelopidas in a battle with Alexander of Phera?. 
 
 362. Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans and their allies at 
 Mantinea ; he falls in the battle. 
 
 361 or 359. Artaxeirxes III. (Ochus) succeeds Artaxerxes II. in Persia, 
 
 * According to the chronological reckoning formerly followed, the burning of 
 Rome occurred in 390. 
 
8 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 OS, 
 
 358.* Athens becomes involved in the Social War with Cos, Chios, 
 Rhodes, and Byzantium. 
 Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis. 
 
 357. Outbreak of the Sacred War excited by Thebes against Phocis. 
 
 356. Dion liberates Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. (See 346.) 
 Burning of the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 355. End of the Social War. 
 
 352 or 351. The progress of Philip of Macedon evokes the first 
 Philippic of Demosthenes. 
 
 347. Philip of Macedon takes and destroys Olynthus. 
 
 346. The Sacred War is brought to a close by the occupation of 
 Phocis by Philip of Macedon. 
 Dionysius the Younger recovers his pow°r in Syracuse. 
 
 343. Timoleon delivers Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. 
 
 343 (Smith's Diet. ; 3^0, Rawl.). Rome engages in the first Sam- 
 uite War. 
 
 341 (Smith's Diet. ; 338, Rawl.). Close of the first Samnite War. 
 
 340-338 (Smith's Diet.; 337-335, Rmcl). War of the Romans 
 against the Latins, ending in the subjugation of the latter. 
 
 338. Philip of Macedon passes Thermopylae, and seizes Elatea. 
 Athens and Thebes form a league to resist hiin. Philip 
 overwhelms their forces at Chaeronea, and establishes the 
 dominion of Macedon over Greece. 
 Arses succeeds Artaxerxes III. in Persia. 
 
 336. Philip of Macedon is murdered while preparing to invade 
 Persia. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander the Great. 
 Darius III., Codomannus, succeeds Arses in Persia. 
 
 335. Thebes rebels against the authority of Macedon, and is de- 
 stroyed by Alexander. 
 
 334. Alexander the Great enters upon the conquest of Persia. He 
 is victorious at the Granicus. 
 
 333. Victory of Alexander over Darius at Issus. 
 
 332. Alexander reduces Tyre, takes Gaza, and occupies Egypt, 
 and (about the close of the year) lays out the city of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 331. Alexander conquers Darius in the battle of Arbela (or of 
 Gaugamela), and overthrows the Persian empire. 
 
 330. f The Spartans, under Agis III., take up arms against Macedon. 
 
 * Tin; years 358-355 for the Social War are those given by Grote and Rawlinson. 
 The chronology of this period is not perfectly settled. 
 
 t The year 330 for the revolt of Sparta is the date given by Grote ; according 
 to Clinton the event occurred in the preceding year. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 9 
 
 They and their allies are defeated by the regent Antipater 
 at Megalopolis. Agis is slain. 
 Murder of Darius Codomannus by Bessus. 
 
 330-327. Conquest of the eastern provinces of the Persian empire 
 by Alexander. 
 
 326. Alexander marches into India, and defeats Porus. 
 
 326 (Smith's Diet. ; 323, Bawl.). Rome enters upon the second 
 Samnite War. 
 
 325-324. Alexander effects his return march from the Indus to 
 Persepolis, while his fleet is conducted to the Euphrates by 
 Nearchus. 
 
 323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. Partition of power among 
 his generals Perdiccas, Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, Eu- 
 menes, Ptolemy Lagi, Lysimachus, and others. The Greeks 
 attempt to throw off the yoke of Macedon. Their army 
 besieges Antipater in Lamia. 
 
 322. Victory of Antipater over the confederate Greeks at Crannon. 
 End of the Lamian War. Demosthenes, pursued by the 
 vengeance of the Macedonians, puts an end to his life. 
 
 321. Beginning of the wars between the successors of Alexander; 
 Perdiccas and Eumenes opposed to Antipater, Craterus, 
 Antigonus, and Ptolemy. Perdiccas marches into Egypt 
 against Ptolemy. Eumenes, in Asia Minor, triumphs over 
 Craterus, who is slain. Death of Perdiccas in a mutiny. 
 
 321 (Smith's Diet. ; 319, Rawl.). Victory of the Samnites over the 
 Romans at the Caudiue Forks. 
 
 320-319. Antigonus blockades Eumenes in Nora. 
 
 319. Antipater dies after appointing Polysperchon to succeed him 
 as regent for Philip Arrhidreus and Alexander ^Egus, the 
 half-brother and the son of Alexander the Great. Poly- 
 sperchon succeeds to Antipater's power in Macedonia and 
 Greece. His elevation is followed by a league against him 
 between Antipater's son Cassander, Antigonus, and Ptolemy. 
 Polysperchon is supported by Eumenes. 
 
 318-317. Cassander prevails over Polysperchon in the contest for 
 the possession of power in Greece and Macedonia. He places 
 Athens under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus. About the 
 close of 317 Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, sup- 
 ported by Polysperchon and the Epirotes, seizes Macedonia. 
 
 316. Olympias falls into the power of Cassander, who puts her to 
 death. Eumenes is betrayed to Antigonus, and is put to 
 death; the power of Antigonus supreme in Asia. 
 
10 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 315. Cassander undertakes the rebuilding of Thebes. 
 
 314 (Rawl.). Beginning of the great struggle waged against Anti- 
 gonus by Cassander, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. 
 
 312. Establishment of the realm of the Seleucidre by Seleucus Nica- 
 tor ; its seat in the beginning at Babylon. 
 
 310. The Syracusan ruler Agathocles enters upon a brilliant career 
 against Carthage on her African territory. 
 
 307. Successful expedition of Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Anti- 
 gonus, against Athens. End of the rule of Demetrius 
 Phalereus. 
 
 306. Demetrius Poliorcetes annihilates the fleet of Ptolemy at Sa- 
 lamis (Cyprus). Antigonus assumes the title of king of 
 Asia. His example is followed by Ptolemy Lagi, Lysima- 
 chus, and Seleucus, rulers, respectively, of Egypt, of Thrace, 
 and of the portion of Alexander's empire lying east of the 
 Euphrates. Cassander of Macedon is saluted with the royal 
 title by his subjects. 
 
 305-304. Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 304 (Smith's Diet. ; 303, Raivl.). The Romans bring the second 
 Samnite War to a triumphant close. 
 
 300 (301?).* Battle of Ipsus ; the army of Antigonus and his son, 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, is overwhelmed by Seleucus and Ly- 
 simachus ; Antigonus is slain. The conquerors divide the 
 dominions of Antigonus. Lysimachus appropriates a great 
 part of Asia Minor ; Seleucus, Upper Syria, Cappadocia, and 
 other territories. 
 
 300 (about). Seleucus Nicator founds Antioch as the seat of govern- 
 ment of his kingdom. 
 
 298. Rome becomes engaged in the third Samnite War. 
 
 295. The Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians united in a 
 common effort against Rome. The forces of Q. Fabius Rul- 
 lianus and P. Decius Mus vanquish the Samnites and Gauls 
 at Sentinum. 
 
 294. Demetrius Poliorcetes (after restoring his fortunes in Greece) 
 seizes the Macedonian throne. 
 
 290. End of the third Samnite War ; submission of the Samnites. 
 
 287. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Lysimachus wrest Macedonia 
 from Demetrius Poliorcetes. f 
 
 285 (about). Completion of the Septuagint. 
 
 * The date usually given for the battle of Ipsus is 301. Clinton places it in that 
 year, but Grote asserts that in all probability the event occurred in the year 300. 
 t Pyrrhus was immediately after expelled from Macedonia by Lysimachus. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. H 
 
 283. Death of Ptolemy Lagi (Ptolemy Soter). He is succeeded by 
 
 his son, Ptolemy Philadelphia (associated with his father in 
 
 the government since 285). 
 280. Pyrrhus espouses the cause of Tarentum against Rome, and 
 
 makes war on the republic. He defeats Laevinus. 
 280 (about). Rise of the Achaean League. 
 279. Victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans at Asculum. 
 
 The Gauls overwhelm Ptolemy Ceraunus, king of Macedonia.* 
 278 (Bawl., Hertzberg). Invasion of Greece by the Gauls under 
 
 Brennus. Their army meets with disaster at Delphi. 
 277 (about). A body of Gauls take possession of northern Phrygia. 
 275. Total defeat of Pyrrhus by M. Curius Dentatus at Beneven- 
 
 tum. 
 272. Death of Pyrrhus in an attack upon Argos. 
 
 Surrender of Tarentum to the Romans. Lucania and Bruttium 
 
 submit to them. 
 265. The Romans take and destroy Volsinii ; Rome mistress of 
 
 all Italy. 
 264. Outbreak of the first war between Rome and Carthage (first 
 
 Punic War). The Romans enter upon a successful career 
 
 in Sicily. 
 263. The Romans force Hiero, king of Syracuse, to abandon the 
 
 cause of Carthage. 
 260. Naval victory of Duilius over the Carthaginians at Myla^ ; 
 
 first appearance of Rome as a naval power. 
 259. The Romans begin the conquest of Corsica. 
 256-255. The Romans, under Regulus, fight Carthage on her Afri- 
 can territory, where they are finally vanquished. 
 251. Sicyon, restored to freedom by Aratus, joins the Achaean 
 
 League, which becomes a powerful body. 
 250. The Romans begin the siege of Lilybaeum.f 
 249. Naval victory of the Carthaginians at Drepanum. 
 248 (about). Parthia becomes an independent kingdom undei 
 
 Arsaces. 
 247. Ptolemy Philadelphus is succeeded by Ptolemy Euergetes. 
 243. Corinth is delivered from the sway of Macedon by Aratus 
 
 and joins the Achaean League. 
 
 * The year 279 for the invasion of Macedonia is the date adopted by Kawlinsc n 
 and Hertzberg. According to Clinton and Am<klee Thierry the event occurred in 
 280. 
 
 t The town was successfully defended by the Carthaginians till the close of the 
 war. 
 
12 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISrORY. 
 
 243-241 (Hertzberg). Attempt of Agis IV. to reform the Spartan 
 
 state. 
 241. The Romans, under Lutatius Catulus, vanquish the Cartha- 
 ginians in a great naval battle off the iEgates. Close of the 
 
 first Punic War. Carthage relinquishes Sicily to Rome. 
 240-237 (about). Revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries in Africa; 
 
 suppressed by Hamilcar Barca. 
 237. Carthage is forced to relinquish Sardinia to Rome. 
 236 (or 235)-221. Reign of Cleomenes III. of Sparta, distinguished 
 
 by his great political reforms, and by his struggle with the 
 
 Achaean League. 
 236-220 (about). The Carthaginians, under Hamilcar Barca and 
 
 his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, conquer a large portion of Spain 
 229. The Romans wage a successful war against the Greek king- 
 dom of Illyria, extending their power across the Adriatic. 
 225-222. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans. 
 221. Antigonus Doson, ruler of Macedon, crushes Cleomenes III. at 
 
 Sellasia ; the power of Sparta completely broken. 
 220. The iEtolian League makes war on the Achaean League 
 
 (Social War). 
 219. Hannibal begins the second Punic War by laying siege to 
 
 Saguntum ; fall of the city.* 
 219-217. Victorious campaigns of Philip V. of Macedon against the 
 
 ^Etolian League. 
 218. March of Hannibal into Italy. He defeats the Romans on the 
 
 Ticinus and Trebia. 
 217- Hannibal destroys the army of Flaminius at Lake Thrasy- 
 
 menus. The Romans appoint Fabius Maximus dictator to 
 
 oppose the Carthaginians. 
 216. Hannibal annihilates the Roman army, under Varro and L. 
 
 ^Emilius Paulus, in the battle of Cannae. Capua joins the 
 
 cause of Hannibal, who makes the city his headquarters. 
 214. Rome becomes involved in her first conflict with Macedon. 
 
 Philip V., having allied himself with Hannibal, begins the 
 
 war. 
 213. Aratus is poisoned by Philip V. of Macedon. 
 212. The Romans, under Marcellus, take Syracuse after a siege of 
 
 two years. 
 211. Hannibal threatens Rome. He loses Capua. The iEtolian 
 
 League and its allies join Rome against Macedon. 
 
 * The beginning of the second Punic War is often reckoned from 218, the year of 
 Hannibal's invasion of Italy. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 13 
 
 208. Hasdrubal, son of Hamilcar, suspending- his operations against 
 Scipio,* in Spain, sets out for Italy to relieve his brother 
 Hannibal. 
 
 207. Hasdrubal is overwhelmed and slain on the Metaurus. 
 
 Philopcemen, the general of the Achaean League (in alliance 
 with Macedon), achieves a signal victory over the Spartans 
 at Mantinea. 
 
 206. Scipio completes the destruction of the Carthaginian power in 
 Spain. 
 
 205. Peace between Rome and Macedon. 
 
 204. Scipio carries the war against Carthage into Africa. 
 
 202. Scipio Africanus conquers Hannibal at Zama, and completely 
 breaks the Carthaginian power. 
 
 201. End of the second Punic War. Rome enters upon a war for 
 the resubjugation of the Boii and Insubres of Cisalpine Gaul, 
 set free by the Carthaginian invasion. 
 
 200. Outbreak of the second war between Rome and Macedon. 
 
 198. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, conquers Ccele-Syria and 
 Palestine from Egypt. 
 
 197. The Romans, under Flamininus, overwhelm Philip V. of Mace- 
 don at Cynoscephalae, and force him to a humiliating peace. 
 
 196. Flamininus proclaims the freedom of Greece. 
 
 192. Antiochus the Great, in alliance with the iEtolians, takes up 
 arms against Rome. 
 
 191. Defeat of Antiochus by the Romans, under Acilius Glabrio, 
 at Thermopylae. Rome completes the resubjugation of Cis- 
 alpine Gaul. 
 The Achaean League attains its greatest extension, embracing 
 the whole of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 190. The Romans, under Scipio, t vanquish Antiochus the Great at 
 Magnesia (at the "oot of Mt. Sipylus), and force him to 
 relinquish the greater part of Asia Minor. (Nearly all of 
 the conquered territory is annexed to the kingdom of Per- 
 gamus.) 
 
 183. Philopcemen, having marched against the Messenians, falls 
 into their hands, and is forced to put an end to his life. 
 
 171. Perseus, king of Macedon, begins his struggle with Rome. 
 
 168. Complete defeat of Perseus by the Romans, under L. iEmilius 
 Paulus, at Pydna. End of the Macedonian kingdom. 
 
 167. Deportation of a thousand of the principal Achaeans by the 
 Romans. 
 * The future Scipio Africanus. t Sc'rpio Asiaticus. 
 
14 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 167. The Asmoneans take up arms against Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 king of Syria. 
 
 165 (Hitzig, Schiirer, Wellhausen). Judas Maccabaeus enters Jeru- 
 salem, and purifies the Temple. 
 
 160. Judas Maccabaeus falls in battle. 
 
 149. Beginning of the third Punic War. 
 
 147 (about). The Lusitanian leader Viriathus achieves his first great 
 victory over the Romans. 
 
 146. Destruction of Carthage by the younger Scipio Africanus. 
 
 The Achaean League succumbs to the Roman arms. Destruc- 
 tion of Corinth by the consul Mummius. End of Greek 
 independence. 
 
 141 (Schiirer). Simon Maccabaeus conquers the citadel of Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 140. Simon Maccabaeus is proclaimed hereditary prince of the Jews ; 
 the office of high priest to be permanently united with the 
 princely dignity. 
 
 140 or 139. The war of Rome against Viriathus is ended by the 
 assassination of the Lusitanian leader. 
 
 135. Assassination of Simon Maccabaeus. He is succeeded by his 
 son, John Hyrcanus. 
 
 134-133. Siege of Jerusalem by Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria. 
 
 134-132. Servile War in Sicily. 
 
 133. Numantia succumbs to the younger Scipio Africanus. 
 
 Attalus III. of Pergamus bequeaths his kingdom, embracing a 
 
 great part of Asia Minor, to the Romans. 
 Tiberius Gracchus attempts his agrarian reforms in Rome. 
 
 125-121. The Romans conquer the S. E. portion of Transalpine 
 Gaul. 
 
 123-121. Political and agrarian agitations of Caius Gracchus. 
 
 113. The advancing hordes of the Cimbri and Teutones begin to 
 menace the Roman dominions. 
 
 111. Beginning of the war of Rome against Jugurtha, king of 
 Numidia. 
 
 109. Metellus takes command of the Roman forces against Jugurtha. 
 
 109 (about). John Hyrcanus takes and destroys the city of Samaria. 
 
 109-105. The Cimbri and their allies completely overthrow the Ro- 
 man arms in Gaul. 
 
 106. Marius successfully terminates the Jugurthine War. 
 
 105 (Munk, Schiirer, Wellhausen). John Hyrcanus is succeeded by 
 his son, Aristobulus, who assumes the title of king of Judea. 
 
 104. Aristobulus is succeeded by his brother, Alexander Jannaeus. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 15 
 
 102. Marius overwhelms the Teutones and Ambrones at Aquaa 
 
 Sextiae. 
 102-99. Second Servile War in Sicily. 
 101. Marius annihilates the Cimbri on the Raudian Fields. 
 
 90-88. Marsic or Social War, a struggle of the Italian peoples 
 against Rome. 
 
 88. Mithridates, king of Pontus, takes up arms against Rome, and 
 overruns Asia Minor. 
 Beginning of the war between Sulla and Marius. 
 
 87. Sulla passes over into Greece to conduct the war against Mi- 
 thridates. Bloody proscriptions by Marius and China. 
 
 86. Death of Marius. Sulla takes the revolted city of Athens, and 
 defeats the forces of Mithridates at Chaaronea. 
 
 85. Successes of the Romans against Mithridates in Asia. 
 
 84. Close of the first Mithridatic War. 
 
 83. Sulla engages in a war with the Marian party in Italy. Be- 
 ginning of the second Mithridatic War. 
 
 82. Sulla crushes the Marian party, and becomes dictator. Close 
 of the second Mithridatic War. 
 
 80 (close of 81 f). The Marian leader Sertorius sets up an inde- 
 pendent state in Spain. 
 
 79. Sulla lays down his dictatorship. 
 
 74. Beginning of the third Mithridatic War ; the Romans give 
 the command of their forces to Lucullus. 
 
 73. Rising of the gladiators under Spartacus (third Servile War). 
 
 72. Murder of Sertorius. Pompey restores order in Spain. 
 
 Lucullus drives Mithridates from his dominions. The king 
 takes refuge with Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
 
 71. Spartacus is defeated and slain by the forces of Crassus. 
 
 69. Victory of Lucullus over Tigranes at Tigranocerta ; fall of 
 that city. 
 
 67. Victorious advance of Mithridates. 
 Pompey subdues the pirates of Cilicia. 
 
 66. Pompey completely vanquishes Mithridates. 
 
 65. Close of the third Mithridatic War. 
 
 Pompey deposes Antiochus XIII., putting an end to the king- 
 dom of the Seleucida^ (kingdom of Syria). 
 
 64. Pompey takes possession of Syria. 
 
 63. Pompey, having intervened in the contest between the brothers 
 John Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II., and decided in favor 
 of Hyrcanus, besieges Aristobulus in Jerusalem, takes the 
 city, and makes Judea tributary to Rome. 
 
16 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 63. Mithridates puts an end to his life. 
 
 Conspiracy of Catiline ; frustrated by Cicero. 
 62. Defeat and death of Catiline. 
 60. Formation of the first Triumvirate by Pompey, Caesar, and 
 
 Crass us. 
 58. Caesar enters upon his Gallic wars. The Helvetii, having 
 
 migrated into Gaul, are defeated by him. He defeats the 
 
 German chief Ariovistus. 
 57. Caesar conquers the Belgae. 
 55. Caesar invades Britain. 
 54. Second expedition of Caesar into Britain. 
 
 53. Defeat and death of Crassus in the war against the Parthians. 
 52. Rising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. He is besieged by 
 
 Caesar in his stronghold Alesia, which is forced to surrender. 
 51. Caesar completes the subjugation of Gaul. 
 49. Outbreak of the war between Caesar and Pompey. 
 48. Caesar triumphs over Pompey at Pharsalia. Pompey flees to 
 
 Egypt, where he is murdered. 
 48-47. War of Caesar in Egypt (Alexandrine War). 
 47. Caesar vanquishes Phamaces, king of Bosporus. 
 46. The Pompeians in Africa are overwhelmed by Caesar in the 
 
 battle of Thapsus. Juba, king of Numidia, and Cato put 
 
 an end to their lives. 
 Reformation of the calendar by Caesar. 
 45. Caesar crushes the Pompeians in Spain in the battle of Munda. 
 
 He is made dictator for life. 
 44. Murder of Caesar by Brutus, Cassius, and other conspirators. 
 
 Contest for power between Antony and Octavius. Cicero's 
 
 eloquence secures the triumph of Octavius in Rome. 
 44-43. Antony takes up arms against the government, and be- 
 sieges Decius Brutus in Mutina (Mutinensian War). His 
 
 forces are overthrown by those of the Senate. 
 43. Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus form the second Triumvirate. 
 
 Proscriptions of the Triumvirs ; Cicero put to death. 
 42. Octavius and Antony overwhelm Cassius and Brutus in the 
 
 two battles of Philippi. 
 41-40. War in Italy between Octavius and the party of Antony 
 
 (Perusian War). 
 40.* Antony and Octavius proclaim Herod I. (founder of the Idu- 
 
 maean dynasty) king of Judea. 
 
 * See Schilrer, " Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte," p. 184, note. 
 Herod was in Rome at the time, and landed in Syria in 39. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 17 
 
 38-36. Naval war between Octavius and Sextus Pompeius, who is 
 
 completely defeated. 
 37. Conquest of Jerusalem by Herod ; fall of the Asmonean house. 
 
 36. Fall of Lepidus. 
 
 31. War between Octavius and Antony. Naval victory of Octa- 
 vius off Actium. He becomes master of the Roman world. 
 Flight of Antony with Cleopatra to Egypt. 
 
 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra ; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty. 
 
 Egypt is annexed to the Roman dominions. 
 27. Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 
 24. Unsuccessful expedition of ^Elius Gallus into Arabia. 
 19. Agrippa effects the final subjugation of the Cantabri ; Rome 
 
 mistress of the whole Spanish peninsula. 
 15. Drusus and Tiberius subdue the RhcBtians and Vindelicians. 
 12-9. Victorious campaigns of Drusus against the Germans. 
 9. Tiberius completes the subjugation of Pannonia. 
 4. Death of Herod the Great. 
 A. D. 
 9. Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci, annihilates the army of 
 
 Quintilius Varus in the Teutoburg Forest. 
 14. Death of Augustus. He is succeeded by Tiberius. 
 14-16. Germanicus repeatedly invades Germany, and finally tri- 
 umphs over Arminius. 
 26. Tiberius quits Rome, leaving the conduct of affairs to Sejanus. 
 29-33. Date of the Crucifixion variously placed by theologians 
 witbin this period. 
 
 31. Fall and execution of Sejanus. 
 
 37. Caligula succeeds Tiberius as emperor. 
 
 41. Murder of Caligula. Accession of Claudius. 
 
 41-44. All Palestine united under Herod Agrippa I. 
 
 43. The Romans begin the conquest of Britain. 
 
 50-51. Caractacus, king of the Silures in Britain, is betrayed to the 
 Romans, and brought a prisoner to Rome. 
 
 54. Claudius is poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Accession of her 
 son Nero. 
 
 61. Revolt in Britain under Boadicea. She is vanquished by Sue- 
 tonius Paulinus. 
 
 64. Great fire in Rome. First persecution of the Christians. 
 
 65. Piso's conspiracy against Nero. The emperor orders the death 
 
 of Seneca and Lucan. 
 
 66. Rising of the Jews against the Roman rule. 
 
 67-68. Victorious campaigns of Vespasian against the Jews. 
 
18 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 68. Vindex, Galba, Otho, and other commanders rebel against 
 
 Nero. March of Galba upon Rome. Death of Nero. Ac- 
 cession of Galba. 
 
 69. Otho puts an end to the reign of Galba, and becomes emperor. 
 
 He succumbs to the arms of Vitellius, who mounts the 
 throne. Vitellius is overthrown and succeeded by Vespasian. 
 69-70. Insurrection of the Batavi under Claudius Civilis. 
 
 70. Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 
 78-79. Agricola extends the Roman dominion in Britain to the 
 Tyne. 
 
 79. Tikis succeeds his father Vespasian. 
 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii are overwhelmed by an eruption of 
 Vesuvius. 
 
 80. Titus dedicates the Colosseum, the work of Vespasian. 
 80-81. Agricola advances the Roman frontiers in Britain to the 
 
 Frith of Forth. 
 
 81. Titus is succeeded by his brother Domitian. 
 
 83-84. Victorious campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians. 
 86-90. The Dacians, under Decebalus, wage a successful war 
 
 against the Romans. 
 96. Murder of Domitian. The Roman Senate raises Nerva to the 
 
 throne. 
 98. Nerva is succeeded by Trajan. 
 
 101-106. Wars of Trajan with Decebalus, ending in the conquest 
 of Daeia. 
 
 115. Trajan, in a war against Parthia, adds Armenia and Mesopota- 
 mia to the Roman dominions. The Roman Empire attains 
 its greatest extension. (See 117.) 
 
 117. Hadrian succeeds Trajan. He relinquishes the conquests made 
 by Trajan in the Parthian War. 
 
 132-135 or 136. Insurrection of the Jews under Bar Cocheba. (Fol- 
 lowed by the complete dispersion of the people.) 
 
 138. Hadrian is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. 
 
 161. Death of Antoninus. Accession of Marcus Aurelius, who makes 
 Lucius Verus his associate in the empire. (Death of Verus, 
 about beginning of 169. 
 
 161-166. War between Parthia and Rome. 
 
 166 {about)-lQO. War between the Romans and the Germanic tribes 
 of the Marcomanni and Quadi. 
 
 177. Persecution of the Christians in Gaul. 
 
 180. Marcus Aurelius is succeeded by his son Commodus. Begin^ 
 ning of the period of Rome's rapid decline. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 19 
 
 192. Murder of Commodus. 
 
 193. Reign of Pertinax, who is slain by the praetorians. Didius 
 
 Julianus purchases the imperial dignity. Albinus, Septi- 
 niius Severus, and Niger are invested with the purple by 
 their legions. Fall of Didius Julianus and accession of 
 Severus. 
 
 194. Severus triumphs in the East over his rival Niger. Byzantium 
 
 holds out against Severus. 
 
 196. Fall of Byzantium. 
 
 197. Severus crushes Albinus in Gaul. 
 
 198. Victorious advance of Septimius Severus against the Parthians. 
 208-209. Septimius Severus overruns Caledonia. 
 
 211. Death of Septimius Severus. He is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Caracalla (Caracallus) and Geta. 
 
 212. Murder of Geta by Caracalla. 
 
 213. First campaign of the Eomans against the Alemanni. 
 
 217. Murder of Caracalla. Macrinus is proclaimed emperor. 
 
 218. Elagabalus overthrows Macrinus, and succeeds him. 
 222. Murder of Elagabalus. Accession of Alexander Severus. 
 226. Overthrow of the Parthian kingdom by Ardeshir (Artaxerxes), 
 
 who founds the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanida?. 
 
 231-233. War of Alexander Severus against the Persians. 
 
 235. Murder of Alexander Seveims. Accession of Maximin. 
 
 238. Rebellion against Maximin in the province of Africa ; the pro- 
 consul Gordian and his son are raised to the imperial dignity ; 
 they are overthrown. The Senate proclaims Pupienus Maxi- 
 mus and Balbinus joint emperors. Advance of Maximin 
 into Italy. The third Gordian is associated with Pupienus 
 Maximus and Balbinus in the empire. Murder of Maximin 
 before Aquileia. Murder of Pupienus Maximus and Balbi- 
 nus. Gordian becomes ruler of the Roman world. 
 
 241. Victorious advance of the Persian king Sapor I. against the 
 
 Roman dominions. 
 
 242. Gordian defeats the Persians. 
 
 244. Murder of Gordian. Accession of Philip the Arabian. 
 
 249. Overthrow of Philip. Accession of Deeius. 
 
 250. Persecution of the Christians by order of Deeius. 
 
 The Goths penetrate into the Roman dominions as far as 
 Thrace, and take Philippopolis. 
 
 251. Defeat and death of Deeius in the war against the Goths. Ac- 
 
 cession of Gallus. 
 253. ^Emilianus assumes the purple. 
 3 
 
20 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 254. Murder of Gallus. Valerian marches against JEmilianus. 
 Death of iEmilianus. 
 
 254-268. Reigns of Valerian and his son Gallienus, marked by the 
 invasions of the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, and the Persian 
 king Sapor, and by numerous rebellions in the empire. 
 (Gallienus associate of his father in the government. Vale- 
 rian prisoner of the Persians from about 260.) 
 
 268. Accession of Claudius II. 
 
 269. Claudius II. is victorious over the Goths at Naissus, in Mcesia. 
 
 270. Aurelian succeeds Claudius II. He successfully opposes the 
 
 Goths in Pannonia. The Alemanni invade Italy. 
 
 271. The Alemanni in Italy are overwhelmed by Aurelian. 
 272-273. Aurelian vanquishes Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 
 
 275. Assassination of Aurelian. Accession of Tacitus. 
 
 276. Death of the emperor Tacitus. Reign of Florian. 
 
 276-282. Reign of Probus ; he defeats the Germans, Sarmatians, 
 and other enemies. 
 
 282. Accession of Cams. 
 
 283. Victorious campaign of Carus against Persia. Death of Carus ; 
 
 his sons, Carinus (the associate of his father in the govern- 
 ment) and Numerian, joint emperors. 
 
 284. Murder of Numerian. Diocletian is proclaimed emperor. 
 
 285. Murder of Carinus. 
 
 286. Diocletian makes Maximian his colleague in the empire. 
 
 292. Galerius and Constantius Chlorus are appointed ' ' Caesars " by 
 Diocletian and Maximian (the "Augusti"). Partition of 
 the empire between the four. 
 
 303. Persecution of the Christians by Diocletian. 
 
 305. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Galerius and Con- 
 
 stantius Chlorus become ' ' Augusti. " Maximin and Severus 
 are appointed "Caesars." 
 
 306. Death of Constantius Chlorus. His son, Constantine the Great, 
 
 becomes " Caesar." Severus is raised to the rank of "Augus- 
 tus." Maxentius, son of Maximian, assumes the purple. 
 Maximian resumes the title of "Augustus." 
 
 307. Fall of Severus. Licinius is made "Augustus." 
 
 308. Constantine and Maximin are proclaimed "Augusti." 
 
 310. Maximian suffers death by order of Constantine. 
 
 311. Death of Galerius. 
 
 312. Constantine marches into Italy, vanquishes Maxentius, and 
 
 becomes sole ruler of the western half of the Roman world. 
 
 313. Constantine and Licinius proclaim toleration for the Christian 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 21 
 
 religion. Licinius overthrows Maximin and unites the east- 
 ern half of the Roman Empire under his sceptre. 
 
 314. First war between Constantine and Licinius. 
 
 323. Constantine overwhelms Licinius and becomes sole master of 
 the Roman world. 
 
 325. Council of Nice, the first general council ; condemnation of 
 Arius by the followers of Athanasius. 
 
 330. Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine 
 from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople). 
 
 337. Death of Constantine. Partition of the Roman Empire be- 
 tween his sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius. 
 
 340. Constantine II. makes war on Constans, and is slain. Con- 
 stans becomes lord of the principal portion of the Roman 
 Empire, Constantius ruling in the East. 
 
 341 (about). Ulfllas becomes bishop of the Goths. 
 
 350. Magnentius proclaims himself emperor, and overthrows Con- 
 stans. 
 
 351- Magnentius is defeated by Constantius in the battle of Mursa. 
 
 353- Magnentius succumbs to the arms of Constantius, who becomes 
 sole emperor. Constantius convokes the synod of Aries for 
 the condemnation of Athanasius. 
 
 355 Council of Milan ; condemnation of Athanasius by the Arians. 
 
 356- 359. Victorious career of Julian against the Alemanni and 
 Pranks. 
 
 360 Julian is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. 
 
 361. Death of Constantius. 
 
 363- Campaign of Julian against Sapor II. of Persia. The emperor 
 is slain. He is succeeded by Jovian, who purchases peace 
 of Sapor by sacrificing the Roman frontiers. 
 
 364. Jovian is succeeded by Valentinian I. , who appoints his brother, 
 Valens, his associate in the empire, assigning to him the 
 East. 
 
 374. The Huns advance westward across the Volga and overpower 
 
 the Alani. ' 
 
 Ambrose is elected bishop of Milan. 
 
 375. Death of Valentinian I. He is succeeded by his son, Gratian 
 
 (appointed "Augustus" in 367), who is forced to acknowl 
 edge his brother, Valentinian II. (4 or 5 years of age), his 
 associate in the empire. 
 375-376. The Huns force the Ostrogoths into submission, and oblige 
 the Visigoths to seek shelter in the Roman dominions south 
 of the Danube. 
 
22 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 378. The Goths overwhelm the army of Valens near Adrianople • 
 
 death of the emperor. 
 
 379. Gratian assigns the sovereignty of the East to Theodosius the 
 
 Great. 
 
 381. Council of Constantinople (second general council). 
 383. Gratian is overthrown hy Maximus. (Valentinian II. retains 
 the sovereignly of Italy, Africa, and Western Illyricum.) 
 
 387. Maximus expels Valentinian II. from Italy. 
 
 388. Theodosius the Great overthrows Maximus. Valentinian II. 
 
 becomes sole ruler of the West. 
 392. Murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogast, who places Eugenius 
 on the throne of the West. 
 
 394. Theodosius the Great vanquishes Eugenius and Arbogast, and 
 
 unites the whole Eoman Empire under his sway. 
 
 395. Death of Theodosius the Great. He is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Arcadius and Honorius, the former as emperor of the East' 
 and the latter of the West; final division of the Roman Em- 
 pire into the Byzantine and Western Empires. 
 Augustine is elected bishop of Hippo. 
 
 401. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, invades Italy. 
 
 402.* Alaric encounters Stilicho, the general of Honorius, at Pol- 
 lentia. The Visigothic king withdraws from Italy. ' 
 
 405. Rhadagaisus, at the head of a host of Ostrogoths, Vandals, 
 
 Suevi, Burgundians, and other barbarians, invades Italy] 
 He is vanquished by Stilicho. 
 405 (about). Jerome completes his Latin version of the Bible. 
 
 406. The Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and Burgundians cross the Rhine 
 
 and invade Gaul. 
 
 408. Theodosius II. succeeds Arcadius in the Byzantine Empire. 
 Stilicho is put to death by Honorius. 
 
 409. The Vandals, Suevi, and Alani enter Spain. 
 
 410. The Visigoths, under Alaric, pillage Rome. 
 412. The Visigoths enter Gaul. 
 
 415 (a&oi^)-418. The Visigoths lay the foundations of their domin- 
 ion in Spain. 
 
 418. The Visigoths obtain possession of a large portion of Aqui- 
 
 tania. 
 423. Death of Honorius. Usurpation of Joannes. 
 
 Felix Dahn, " Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker," 1881. 
 The chronology of this period is very obscure. The date commonly assigned for the 
 battle ot Pollentia is 403. Hertzberg, in his " Gesdiichte des rdmischen Kaiser- 
 reichs," agrees with Dahn. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 23 
 
 425. Fall of Joannes. Valentinian III. ascends the throne of the 
 
 West under the regency of his mother Placidia. 
 429. The Vandals, under Genseric, invade Africa. 
 430-431. Bonifacius unsuccessfully opposes the Vandals in Africa. 
 
 431. Council of Ephesus (third general council). 
 
 432. Bonifacius perishes in the struggle with his rival Aetius. 
 439. Genseric becomes master of Carthage. 
 
 441. The Huns, under Attila, pass the Danube and invade Illyricum. 
 
 449. Landing of the Jutish band of Hengist and Horsa in Britain. 
 Council of Ephesus ("robbers' synod "). 
 
 450. Death of Theodosius II. 
 
 451. The Bomans, under Aetius, and the Visigoths, successfully en- 
 
 counter Attila on the field of Chalons. Retreat of Attila 
 from Gaul. 
 Council of Chalcedon (fourth general council). 
 
 452. Attila ravages Italy ; Rome is saved by its bishop, Leo the Great. 
 
 455. Petronius Maximus murders Valentinian III. and usurps the 
 
 throne of the West. Fall of Maximus. The Vandals, under 
 Genseric, pillage Rome. Avitus is proclaimed emperor of 
 the West. 
 
 456. Avitus is deposed by Ricimer. 
 
 457. Ricimer places Majorian on the throne of the West. 
 
 461. Ricimer deposes Majorian, and makes Libius Severus nominal 
 emperor. 
 
 465. Death of Libius Severus. Ricimer continues to wield the su- 
 preme power. 
 
 467. Anthemius is made emperor of the West. 
 
 468. The Byzantine emperor, Leo I., supported by the Western 
 
 Empire, makes a great but unsuccessful effort against the 
 
 Vandals. 
 472. Fall of Anthemius. Reign of Olybrius. 
 473-474. Glycerius emperor of the West. 
 474-475. Julius Nepos emperor of the West. 
 
 475. Romulus Augustulus is made emperor of the West. 
 
 476. Odoacer, a chief of German mercenaries, dethrones Romulus 
 
 Augustulus, and puts an end to the Western Empire. Odo- 
 acer assumes the title of king of Italy. 
 
 486. Victory of Clovis, king of the Franks, over Syagrius at Sois- 
 sons, which puts an end to the Roman dominion in Gaul. 
 
 489. Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, invades Italy. 
 
 490-493. Odoacer is besieged by Theodoric in Ravenna, and forced 
 to surrender. Theodoric king of Italy. Murder of Odoacer. 
 
24 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 496. Clovis vanquishes the Alemanni. Baptism of Clovis. 
 
 507-508. Clovis defeats the Visigoths near Poitiers, and makes him- 
 self master of nearly all Aquitania. 
 
 511. Death of Clovis ; partition of the Prankish possessions between 
 his sons. 
 
 526 (about). Boethius is put to death by order of Theodoric. 
 
 526. Death of Theodoric. 
 
 Destruction of Antioch by an earthquake. 
 
 527. Justinian ascends the Byzantine throne. 
 529. Publication of the Code of Justinian. 
 
 530 (about). Foundation of the order of Benedictines. 
 
 533. Belisarius, the general of Justinian, destroys the Vandal king- 
 
 dom in Africa. 
 
 534. The Franks overthrow the Burgundian kingdom. 
 
 535. Belisarius is sent by Justinian to recover Italy from the Ostro- 
 
 goths. He conquers Sicily. 
 
 536. Belisarius enters Rome. 
 
 537-538. Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths, unsuccessfully besieges 
 
 Belisarius in Rome. 
 540 (about beginning of). Belisarius obtains possession of Ravenna, 
 
 the stronghold of Vitiges. 
 540. Chosroes I., king of Persia, invades Syria. 
 541-542. Belisarius successfully opposes Chosroes. 
 
 552. Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, is defeated and slain by the 
 
 forces of Narses, the successor of Belisarius. 
 
 553. Narses puts an end to the Ostrogothic power in Italy, which is 
 
 annexed to the Byzantine Empire. 
 Council of Constantinople (fifth general council). 
 
 554. Italy is overrun by the Alemanni and Franks ; destruction of 
 
 their forces. 
 
 558-561. The Frankish empire reunited under Clotaire I. ; again 
 divided on his death. 
 
 565. Justinian is succeeded by Justin II. 
 
 566 (about). The Lombards, under Alboin, with the aid of the 
 Avars, destroy the kingdom of the Gepidas in Pannonia. 
 
 568. Establishment of the exarchate of Ravenna by the Byzan- 
 tines. 
 
 568-572. Alboin establishes the Lombard kingdom in Italy. 
 
 582-602. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Mauritius ; wars with the 
 Persians and Aval's. 
 
 597. Augustin, dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great, begins the 
 conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 25 
 
 611-616. Chosroes II., king 1 of Persia, conquers Syria, Egypt, and 
 Asia Minor from the Byzantines. (See 622, 627.) 
 
 613. Clotaire II. reunites the whole Prankish empire. (The realm 
 again divided during his reign.) 
 
 622. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius enters uj)on his victorious 
 career against the Persians. 
 Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina — the Hegira. 
 
 627. The forces of Chosroes II. are overthrown hy those of Heraclius 
 
 at Nineveh. 
 
 628. Fall of Chosroes II. 
 
 629. Mecca submits to Mohammed. He invades Palestine. 
 
 631. The Frankish empire is reunited under Dagobert I. (Again 
 
 divided on his death, 638.) 
 
 632. Death of Mohammed. Accession of Abubekr, the first caliph. 
 
 His forces advance to the conquest of Syria. 
 
 634. Death of Abubekr. Accession of Omar. 
 
 635. The Saracens break the power of the Persian monarchy in the 
 
 battle of Cadesia. 
 
 636 (about close of). The Saracens complete the conquest of Syria 
 and Palestine. 
 
 639-641. Amrn, the general of Omar, conquers Egypt from the 
 Byzantines. 
 
 642. Victory of the Saracens at Nehavend, which places Persia in 
 their power. (Death of the last king of the Sassanidas, 651.) 
 
 644. Assassination of Omar. Accession of Othman. 
 
 656. Assassination of Othman. Accession of Ali. 
 
 661. Moawiyah founds the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs. (Damas- 
 cus made the seat of the caliphate.) 
 
 680 (about). The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia.* 
 
 680-681. Council of Constantinople (sixth general council). 
 
 687. Pepin of Heristal extends his sway over the whole Frankish 
 empire. 
 
 697. Establishment of the dogate in Venice. 
 
 711. The Saracens, under the lead of Tarik, pass into Spain, and 
 overwhelm Roderic, king of the Visigoths, at Xerez de la 
 Frontera. (The conquest of the peninsula completed within 
 three years.) 
 
 719. The Saracens take Narbonne. 
 
 726. First edict of the Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian respect- 
 ing images. 
 
 * Modem Bulgaria. 
 
26 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 730. Prohibition of image worship in the Byzantine dominions. 
 732. Battle of Poitiers ; Charles Martel overwhelms the Saracens, 
 and saves the Frankish empire. 
 
 750. Overthrow of the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs by the Abbas- 
 
 sides. 
 
 751. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, deposes Childeric III., 
 
 the last of the Merovingians, and assumes the title of king 
 of the Franks, founding the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 
 752. The Lombards, under Astolphus, put an end to the exarchate 
 
 of Ravenna. 
 
 755. Pepin the Short vanquishes Astolphus, and invests Pope 
 
 Stephen II. with Ravenna, the Pentapolis, and other places 
 wrested from the Lombards; creation of the Papal States. 
 
 756. Foundation of the Ommiyade kingdom (afterward caliphate) 
 
 of Cordova by Abderrahman. 
 
 762 (about). Foundation of Bagdad by Al-Mansour. (The city soon 
 after made the seat of the caliphate.) 
 
 768. Pepin the Short is succeeded by his sons, Charles (Charle- 
 magne) and Carloman. 
 
 771. Death of Carloman; Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. 
 
 772. Charlemagne enters upon his wars against the Saxons. 
 
 774. Charlemagne vanquishes Desiderius, and puts an end to the 
 Lombard kingdom. He is crowned king of Italy. 
 
 778. Charlemagne invades Spain. Disaster of Roncesvalles. 
 
 780. Irene assumes the government of the Byzantine Empire in the 
 name of her son, Constantine VI. (Constantine dethroned 
 797.) 
 
 785. Wittikind, the leader of the Saxons, submits to Charlemagne. 
 
 786. Accession of the caliph Haroun al-Rashid. 
 
 787. Second council of Nice (seventh general council) ; condemna- 
 
 tion of the Iconoclasts. 
 
 788. Charlemagne brings Bavaria completely under the Frankish 
 
 sway. 
 
 789 (about). First recorded inroad of the Northmen into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 791-796. Charlemagne destroys the power of the Avails. 
 
 800. Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the West by Pope 
 Leo III. 
 
 813. The Bulgarian khan Krumn menaces Constantinople. 
 Accession of the caliph Al-Mamoun. 
 
 814. Death of Charlemagne ; he is succeeded by his son, Louis 
 
 le Debonnaire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 27 
 
 826 (about). Ansgar enters upon his missionary labors among the 
 
 Northmen. 
 827. Egbert, king of Wessex, establishes his overlordship over the 
 
 states of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. 
 The Saracens begin the conquest of Sicily from the Byzantines. 
 833. Louis le Debonnaire in the power of his rebellious sons. 
 
 840. Death of Louis le Debonnaire ; he is succeeded by his sons, 
 
 Lothaire (emperor), Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. 
 
 841. Defeat of Lothaire by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the 
 
 battle of Fontenailles (Fontenay). 
 
 842. The council of Constantinople gives a final sanction to image 
 
 worship. 
 
 843. Partition of the Frankish empire by the treaty of Verdun be- 
 
 tween the sons of Louis le Debonnaire : Italy and a region 
 west of the Rhine and the Alps allotted to Lothaire ; Ger- 
 many, to Louis the German ; France, to Charles the Bald. 
 
 845. The Northmen pillage Paris. 
 
 846. The Saracens appear before Rome. 
 
 851. Victory of Ethelwulf over the Northmen at Ockley. 
 
 862. The Varangian chief Rurik lays the foundations of the Rus- 
 
 sian Empire at Novgorod. 
 
 863. Cyril and Methodius undertake the conversion of the Mora- 
 
 vians. 
 863 (864 ?). Bogoris, khan of the Bulgarians, embraces Christianity. 
 
 865. First naval expedition of the Varangians against Constan- 
 
 tinople. 
 
 866. Accession of Alfonso the Great of Asturias. 
 
 867. Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, convenes a synod which 
 
 excommunicates the pope. Basil I. inaugurates the Mace- 
 donian dynasty in the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 869-870. Eighth general council, held at Constantinople. 
 
 870-894. Reign of Svatopluk in Moravia. 
 
 871. Accession of Alfred the Great. 
 
 874. The Northmen settle in Iceland. 
 
 878. Victory of Alfred the Great over the Danes at Edington ; bap- 
 
 tism of Guthrum. 
 The Saracens take Syracuse, and become masters of Sicily. 
 
 879. Foundation of the kingdom of Cisjurane Burgundy. 
 
 884 {about the close o/)-887. Reunion of the empire of Charlemagne 
 
 under Charles the Fat. 
 885-886. Siege of Paris by the Northmen. 
 887. Deposition of Charles the Fat. 
 
28 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 888. Complete and final disruption of the Carlovingian empire. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy. 
 891. Arnulf , king of Germany, defeats the Northmen at Louvain. 
 894 (about). The Magyars (Hungarians) cross the Carpathians, and 
 
 occupy the basin of the Theiss. 
 901. Death of Alfred the Great ; he is succeeded by his son, Edward 
 
 the Elder. 
 909. Establishment of the Fatimite caliphate in Africa. 
 911. End of the Carlovingian dynasty in Germany. The Germans 
 
 elect Conrad, duke of Franconia, their king-. 
 Charles the Simple, king of France, grants Normandy as a 
 
 duchy to the Northman Hollo. 
 912-961. Reign of Abderrahman III. of Cordova; the Arab realm 
 
 in Spain at the height of its splendor. 
 
 918. Death of Conrad, king of Germany. 
 
 919. Henry the Fowler is elected king of Germany, inaugurating 
 
 the Saxon dynasty. 
 925. Athelstan succeeds his father, Edward the Elder, in England. 
 933. Victory of Henry the Fowler over the Hungarians at Merse- 
 
 burg. 
 The kingdoms of Cisjurane and Transjurane Burgundy are 
 
 united into one realm, the kingdom of Aries. 
 
 936. Accession of Otho the Great in Germany and of Louis <T0u- 
 
 tremer in France. 
 
 937. Athelstan defeats the Danes and Scots at Brunanburh. 
 
 951. Otho the Great dethrones Berenger II., king of Italy. 
 
 952. Otho I. reinstates Berenger II. as his feudatory. 
 955. Otho I. vanquishes the Hungarians on the Lech. 
 
 961. Final dethronement of Berenger II. by Otho I. ; the crown of 
 
 Italy passes from the descendants of Charlemagne to the 
 sovereigns of Germany. 
 
 962. Coronation of Otho the Great as emperor of the Romans by 
 
 Pope John XII. ; establishment of the Holy Roman Empire 
 
 of the German nation. 
 963-969. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas, 
 
 marked by victorious campaigns, conducted by himself and 
 
 his general John Zimisces, against the Saracens in Asia. 
 
 John Zimisces murders the emperor, and takes possession 
 
 of the throne. 
 966. Miecislas, ruler of Poland, embraces Christianity. 
 969. Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimites. 
 973. Otho II. succeeds bis father, Otho I., in the German Empire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 29 
 
 978. Victorious advance of Otho II. into France. 
 
 981-982. War of Otho II. against the Saracens and Greeks in South 
 
 Italy. His army is finally overthrown. 
 983. Otho II. of Germany is succeeded by his infant son, Otho III. 
 
 987. End of the Carlovingian line of kings in France. Hugh 
 
 Capet inaugurates the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 988. Vladimir the Great of Russia embraces Christianity. 
 991. Ethelred II. of England pays tribute to the Danes. 
 
 997. Death of Gejza, the first Christian monarch of Hungary. 
 The doge of Venice assumes the title of duke of Dalmatia. 
 
 998. Crescentius, having usurped power in Rome, is overcome and 
 
 put to death by Otho III. 
 
 1000. Meeting between Otho III. and Boleslas the Valiant, ruler of 
 
 Poland, at Gnesen. Otho founds the archbishopric of 
 Gnesen. 
 Stephen, ruler of Hungary, receives the royal dignity from 
 Pope Sylvester II. 
 
 1001. First invasion of India by Mahmoud of Ghuzni. 
 
 1002. Henry II. succeeds Otho III. in the German Empire. 
 Massacre of the Danes in England. 
 
 1013. Sweyn, king of Denmark, becomes master of England. 
 
 1014. Death of Sweyn ; restoration of Ethelred II. 
 
 1016. Death of Ethelred II. Contest for the possession of England 
 
 between his son, Edmund Ironside, and Canute, son of 
 Sweyn. Death of Edmund. 
 
 1017. Canute becomes king of all England (having succeeded to the 
 
 throne of Denmark in 1016). 
 
 1018. The Byzantine emperor Basil II. completes the destruction of 
 
 the Bulgarian realm. (See 1186.) 
 
 1019-1054. Reign of Yaroslav in Russia. (The country on his 
 death partitioned into various principalities.) 
 
 1020. Death of the Persian poet Firdusi. 
 
 1024. Death of Henry II., emperor of Germany. Conrad II. in- 
 augurates the Franconian dynasty. 
 
 1027. Conrad II. formally cedes Schleswig to the Danes. 
 
 1028. Invasion of Norway by Canute. 
 
 1031. End of the Ommiyade caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 1032. Extinction of the line of Arletan kings. 
 
 1033. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre, having acquired Castile 
 
 (1028), erects it into an independent kingdom. 
 1033-1034. Conrad II. establishes his dominion over the Arletan 
 territories. 
 
30 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1035. Death of Canute ; his sons, Harold Harefoot and Hardica- 
 nute, lords of England. 
 Aragon is separated from Navarre and made an independent 
 kingdom. 
 1036 or 1037. Death of the Arabian physician and philosopher Avi- 
 
 cenna. 
 1037. Harold becomes sole ruler of England. 
 
 1037-1050 (about). The Seljuks, under Togrul Beg, establish their 
 dominion in Persia. 
 
 1039. Henry III. succeeds his father, Conrad II., in Germany. 
 Macbeth kills Duncan, and becomes king of the Scots. 
 
 1040. Hardicanute becomes king of England. 
 
 1041. The Normans conquer most of Apulia from the Byzantines. 
 
 1042. Death of Hardicanute ; end of the Danish rule in England. 
 
 Edward the Confessor succeeds to the throne. 
 1046. The emperor Henry III. holds a council at Sutri, puts aside 
 the rival claimants to the pontificate, and himself appoints 
 a new pope, Clement II. 
 
 1054. Complete separation of the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 
 1055. Togrul Beg, sultan of the Seljuks, establishes his authority 
 
 in the dominions of the caliph of Bagdad, who retains the 
 nominal exercise of power. 
 
 1056. Henry IV. succeeds his father, Henry III., in Germany under 
 
 the regency of his mother, Agnes. 
 
 1057. The first of the Comneni ascends the Byzantine throne. 
 
 1059. Nicholas II. decrees that the election of the pope be hence- 
 forth vested in the college of cardinals. The pope confirms 
 Robert Guiscard in the title of duke of Apulia and Calabria. 
 
 1061. The Normans, under Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, 
 
 engage in the conquest of Sicily from the Saracens. 
 
 1062. Anno, archbishop of Cologne, seizes the person of the young 
 
 emperor Henry IV. and the reins of government. 
 1066. Harold II. succeeds Edward the Confessor. The Norwegians 
 invade England, and are defeated by Harold. William, 
 duke of Normandy, invades - England, overthrows Harold 
 in the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, and conquers the king- 
 dom. 
 
 1071. The Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, defeats and takes prisoner the 
 
 Byzantins emperor, Romanus Diogenes. 
 
 1072. Roger Guiscard takes Palermo from the Saracens, and estab- 
 
 lishes his power in Sicily. 
 Malek Shah becomes sultan of the Seljuks. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 31 
 
 1073. Election of Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). 
 
 1074. Gregory VII. holds a council for the prohibition of simony 
 
 and the marriage of the clergy. 
 1074-1084 (about). The Seljuks conquer Asia Minor and Syria. Rise 
 of the sultanate of Roum. 
 
 1075. Gregory VII. holds a council which prohibits lay investiture. 
 
 Beginning of the war between the emperor Henry IV. and 
 the pope respecting investiture. 
 
 1076. Henry IV. holds a council at Worms which deposes Gregory 
 
 VII. The pope, in union with the German princes, de- 
 poses the emperor. 
 
 1077. Henry IV. humbles himself before Gregory VII. at Canossa, 
 
 and receives absolution. Election of a rival emperor in 
 Germany, Rudolph of Swabia. 
 
 1080. Henry IV. holds a council which deposes Gregory VII., and 
 
 elects Guibert (Antipope Clement III.) in his place. The 
 war between Henry and Rudolph of Swabia is terminated 
 by the death of the latter. 
 
 1081. Henry IV. is foiled in an expedition against Rome. Her- 
 
 mann of Luxemburg is set up as emperor in opposition to 
 Henry. 
 Alexis Comnenus takes Constantinople, and places himself on 
 the Byzantine throne. Robert Guiscard makes war on 
 Alexis, and defeats his forces at Durazzo. 
 
 1084. Henry IV. besieges Gregory VII. in the castle of Sant' Angelo. 
 
 Robert Guiscard advances and delivers the pope. 
 
 1085. Conquest of Toledo from the Moors by Alfonso the Valiant 
 
 of Castile and Leon. 
 Death of Gregory VII. and Robert Guiscard. 
 
 1086. Completion of the Domesday Book under William the Con- 
 
 queror. 
 
 1087. William the Conqueror is succeeded by his son William 
 
 Rufus in England, and by his son Robert in Normandy. 
 
 1090-1102. The Almoravides of Morocco conquer most of Moham- 
 medan Spain. 
 
 1092. Death of Malek Shah, followed by the complete disruption of 
 the empire of the Seljuks. 
 
 1095. Pope Urban II. holds the councils of Piacenza and Clermont. 
 Proclamation of a crusade for the recovery of the holy 
 sepulchre. 
 
 1095 (about). Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon erects Por- 
 tugal into a county for Henry of Burgundy. 
 
32 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1096. Peter the Hermit, Walter the Penniless, and others lead 
 hordes of undisciplined crusaders to destruction. Godfrey 
 of Bouillon and his associates conduct their forces toward 
 the Holy Land. 
 1097 The crusaders take Nicaea. They defeat the sultan of Icomum 
 at Dorylaeum. Baldwin of Flanders founds the principal- 
 ity of Edessa. 
 
 1093. The crusaders take Antioch, where they are unsuccessfully 
 besieged by the Mussulmans. 
 
 1099. Bohemond establishes himself as prince of Antioch. Suc- 
 cessful termination of the first crusade. btormmg of 
 Jerusalem, July 15. Godfrey of Bouillon is appointed 
 ruler of the conquered city. Victory of the crusaders over 
 the ruler of Egypt at Ascalon. 
 
 1100 Henry I. succeeds his brother, William Bufus, in England. 
 
 1101. Robert, duke of Normandy, makes war on his brother, Henry 
 I., and invades England. 
 
 1106 Henry I. overthrows Robert, and secures Normandy. 
 ' Accession of Henry V. to the throne of Germany. 
 
 1108. Louis VI. succeeds his father, Philip L, in France. 
 
 1111 Henry V. arrests Pope Paschal II., and extorts his consent to 
 the imperial right of investiture. Coronation of Henry by 
 
 the pope. 
 
 1112. Paschal II. revokes his concessions to Henry V., wno is ex- 
 communicated by the council of Vienne. 
 
 1115. Death of Matilda, countess of Tuscany. (Her dominions, 
 originally destined by her for the church, are taken posses- 
 sion of by the emperor of Germany in 1116.) 
 Foundation of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux by St. 
 Bernard. 
 
 1118 (about). Foundation of the order of Knights Templars. 
 
 1122 Henry V. concludes with Pope Calixtus II. the Concordat 
 
 of Worms, which settles the contest respecting investi- 
 ture, the emperor agreeing to the free election of bishops. 
 
 1123 First council of the Lateran (ninth general council). 
 
 1125. Death of the emperor Henry V. ; end of the Franconian 
 dynasty. Lothaire II., duke of Saxony, is elected his suc- 
 cessor. Lothaire declares war to the house of Hohen- 
 staufen. ,. 
 
 1127. Roger II., count of Sicily, is recognized as duke aT Apulia 
 and Calabria, uniting the Norman conquests m Italy with 
 Sicily. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 33 
 
 1128. Conrad, duke of Franconia, of the house of Hohenstaufen, 
 
 has himself crowned king of the Lombards in opposition to 
 
 Lothaire II. 
 1132-1133. Expedition of Lothaire II. to Rome in support of Pope 
 
 Innocent II. against the antipope Anacletus II. 
 1135. Death of Henry I. of England ; he is succeeded by his 
 
 nephew, Stephen. 
 Lothaire forces the house of Hohenstaufen into submission. 
 1136-1137. Successful expedition of Lothaire against the Italian 
 
 cities and Roger II. of Sicily. Death of the emperor. 
 
 1137. Louis VII. succeeds his father, Louis VI., in France. 
 
 1138. David I. of Scotland, having invaded England, is defeated in 
 
 the battle of the Standard. 
 Accession of Conrad III., the first of the Hohenstaufen em- 
 perors of Germany. 
 1138-1139. War between Conrad III. and Henry the Haughty, duke 
 of Bavaria and Saxony, of the house of Guelph. Conrad 
 gives Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold 
 IV. of Austria. Henry, after defeating Albert the Bear, 
 dies, and leaves as his heir his son, Henry the Lion, a minor. 
 
 1139. Matilda (Maud), daughter of Henry I., and wife of Geoffrey 
 
 Plantagenet, count of Anjou, engages in a war with Stephen 
 for the crown of England. 
 
 Alfonso (Alfonso) Henriquez of Portugal gains a great victory 
 over the Moors at Ourique. He assumes the royal dignity. 
 
 Second council of the Lateran (tenth general council) ; con- 
 demnation of Arnold of Brescia. 
 
 1140. Guelph (Welf) VI., uncle of Henry the Lion, attempting to 
 
 secure possession of Bavaria, is defeated by the forces of 
 Conrad III. at Weinsberg. 
 
 1141. King Stephen is taken prisoner by the party of Matilda. 
 
 1142. Conrad III. invests Henry the Lion with the duchy of Saxony. 
 Death of Abelard. 
 
 1143-1180. Reign of Manuel Comnenus in the Byzantine Empire ; 
 wars with the Seljuks, Normans, and Hungarians. 
 
 1144. The sultan of Aleppo takes Edessa. 
 
 1145. Disruption of the Almoravide realm in Spain. 
 
 1145 (about)-U55. Career of Arnold of Brescia at Rome ; anti-papal 
 democratic movement. (See 1155.) 
 
 1146. St. Bernard preaches a crusade for the protection of the Holy 
 
 Land against Noureddin, the new sultan of Aleppo. 
 Roger, king of Sicily, ravages the Byzantine dominions. 
 
34 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1146-about 1171. The Almohades of Morocco extend their sway over 
 Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 1147. The emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. of France engage 
 
 in the second crusade. 
 
 1148. The crusaders unsuccessfully besiege Damascus. 
 
 1149. Return of the crusaders from the Holy Land. 
 
 1151. Union of Aragon and Catalonia. 
 
 1152. Marriage of Henry Plantagenet, son of Matilda, with Eleanor 
 
 of Aquitaine. 
 Frederick I., Barbarossa, succeeds Conrad III. in Germany. 
 
 1153. Treaty between Stephen and Henry Plantagenet terminating 
 
 the contest for the English throne; Henry to succeed on 
 the death of Stephen. 
 
 1154. Death of King Stephen. Henry II. inaugurates the Planta- 
 
 genet dynasty ; a large portion of France united with the 
 crown of England. 
 Frederick Barbarossa enters upon his first Italian expedition. 
 
 1155. Frederick I. re-establishes the papal authority in Rome. Pope 
 
 Adrian IV. has Arnold of Brescia executed. 
 
 1156. Bavaria is restored to the house of Guelph, Henry the Lion 
 
 being placed in possession. 
 Erection of Austria into a duchy. 
 
 1157. Frederick I. forces Poland to pay him homage. 
 
 1158. Frederick I. besieges and takes Milan. 
 
 1159. Death of Pope Adrian IV. Election of Alexander III. Fred- 
 
 erick Barbarossa creates an antipope, Victor IV. (The first 
 of several antipopes set up by the emperor against Alex- 
 ander III.) 
 1159-1160. Siege and reduction of Crema by Frederick. 
 
 1160. Excommunication of Frederick by Alexander III. 
 1161-1162. Siege and destruction of Milan by Frederick. 
 
 1164. Enactment of the constitutions of Clarendon, directed against 
 the power of the English clergy. 
 
 1167. Formation of the league of the Lombard cities against Fred- 
 erick Barbarossa. 
 
 1169. The English begin the conquest of Ireland. 
 
 1170. Murder of Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 1171. End of the Fatimite dynasty of caliphs in Egypt ; Saladin 
 
 takes possession of the countiy (nominally for Noureddin). 
 1174. William the Lion, king of Scotland, falls into the hands of 
 the English, and is forced to acknowledge himself the vas- 
 sal of Henry II. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 35 
 
 1174-1183. Saladin, sultan of Egypt, conquers Syria and most of 
 Mesopotamia from the successors of Noureddin. 
 
 1176. Frederick Barbarossa is vanquished by the forces of the Lom- 
 
 bard League at Legnano. 
 
 1177. Frederick and Pope Alexander III. meet at Venice, and 
 
 terminate their contest. 
 
 1179. Third council of the Lateran (eleventh general council) ; one 
 of its canons condemns the Albigenses. 
 
 1130. Philip Augustus succeeds his father, Louis VII., in France. 
 Henry the Lion is placed under the ban of the empire. His 
 Bavarian territories are assigned to the house of Wittels- 
 bach. His Saxon dominions are partitioned. 
 
 1181. Fall of Henry the Lion. 
 
 1183. Peace of Constance between the emperor Frederick Barbaros- 
 sa and the cities of the Lombard League, which secures 
 their liberties. 
 
 1185. End of the dynasty of the Comneni in Constantinople. 
 
 1186. Marriage of Henry, son of Frederick Barbarossa, with Con- 
 
 stance, heiress of the Two Sicilies. 
 The Bulgarians throw off the Byzantine yoke. 
 
 1187. Saladin vanquishes the Christians at Tiberias, and overthrows 
 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 
 1189. Frederick Barbarossa sets out on the third crusade. Guy of 
 
 Lusignan, the dispossessed king of Jerusalem, lays siege to 
 Acre; he is joined by bodies of crusaders from various 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Fresh troubles in Germany with Henry the Lion. 
 
 Richard Cceur-de-Lion succeeds his father, Henry II. 
 
 1190. Foundation of the order of Teutonic Knights. 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa, after defeating the forces of the sultan 
 of Iconium, is drowned in the river Calycadnus. His son, 
 Henry VI. , becomes emperor of Germany. Richard Cceur- 
 de-Lion and Philip Augustus engage in the crusade. 
 
 1191. Philip Augustus and Richard join in the siege of Acre, which 
 
 falls. 
 
 1192. Richard concludes a trace with Saladin ; on his return jour- 
 
 ney he is arrested in Austria. 
 
 1193. John Lackland, brother of Richard, attempts to usurp the 
 
 crown of England. 
 
 1194. Richard, after having been prisonor of the emperor Henry 
 
 VI. for more than a year, is ransomed by his subjects. 
 He defeats Philip Augustus. 
 
36 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1194. Henry VI. puts an end to the Norman rule in the Two Sicilies, 
 
 and establishes the Hohenstaufen dynasty there. 
 
 1195. Defeat of Alfonso the Noble, king of Castile, by the Moors at 
 
 Alarcos. 
 
 1197. Death of Henry VI. of Germany; he leaves as heir an infant 
 
 son, Frederick (II.). 
 
 1198. Philip of Swabia, brother of Henry VI., and Otho of Bruns- 
 
 wick, son of Henry the Lion, are elected to the imperial 
 throne of Germany by the Ghibellines and Guelphs respec- 
 tively, and engage in a contest for the crown. 
 
 Pope Innocent III. summons Europe to a new crusade ; 
 preachings of Foulques de Neuilly. 
 
 Death of the Moorish philosopher Averroes. 
 
 1199. Richard Cceur-de-Lion is killed in a contest with one of his 
 
 French vassals ; he is succeeded by John Lackland. 
 
 1201. Baldwin of Flanders, Boniface of Montferrat, Simon de Mont- 
 
 fort, and other princes engage in the fourth crusade. 
 
 1202. Venice, having agreed to transport the crusaders to the Holy 
 
 Land, secures their services, in lieu of a portion of the 
 
 payment, for the conquest of the rebellious city of Zara. 
 1202-1205. Philip Augustus wrests Normandy, Maine, Poitou, An- 
 
 jou, and Touraine from King John of England. 
 1202-1206. Genghis Khan lays the foundations of a great Mongol 
 
 empire. 
 
 1203. The Venetians and crusaders, under the command of the doge 
 
 Enrico Dandolo, take Constantinople, and restore the de- 
 posed emperor Isaac Angelus. 
 
 1204. Revolution in Constantinople. The Venetians and crusaders 
 
 take and pillage the city. Partition of the Byzantine ter- 
 ritories. Foundation of the Latin Empire of the East, 
 Baldwin of Flanders being raised to the throne. Alexis 
 Comnenus founds the Greek realm of Trebizond. 
 Death of the Jewish theologian and philosopher Maimonides. 
 1206. Foundation of the Greek empire of Niceea by Theodore Las- 
 
 caris. 
 1203. Innocent III. proclaims a crusade against the Albigenses. 
 He lays England under an interdict. 
 Assassination of Philip of Swabia, emperor of Germany, by 
 Otho of Wittelsbach. Otho (IV.) of Brunswick is recog 
 nized as emperor. 
 1209. Massacre of the Albigenses by the crusaders at Beziers. 
 Foundation of the order of Franciscans. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 37 
 
 1210-1211. The emperor Otho IV. attempts the conquest of the 
 Two Sicilies from Frederick (II.) of Hohenstaufeu. 
 
 1212. Frederick of Hohenstaufen, supported by Innocent III., en- 
 
 gages in a contest for the crown of Germany with Otho. 
 The kings of Castile, Navarre, and Aragon overwhelm the 
 
 Moors in the battle of Navas de Tolosa, and break the 
 
 Almohade power in Spain. 
 The Children's Crusade. 
 
 1213. Philip Augustus takes up arms for the dethronement of King 
 
 John of England. John becomes a vassal of the pope. 
 Simon de Montfort, the leader of the crusade against the Al- 
 bigenses, vanquishes Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse and 
 the Aragonese at Muret. 
 
 1214. Victory of Philip Augustus over Otho IV. at Bovines. 
 
 1215. King John signs the Magna Charta. 
 
 Coronation of the emperor Frederick II. in Germany. 
 Fourth council of the Lateran (twelfth general council). 
 
 Formal establishment of the inquisition. 
 Foundation of the order of Dominicans. 
 Capture of Yenking (Peking) by Genghis Khan. 
 
 1216. Henry III. succeeds his father, John, in England ; the earl of 
 
 Pembroke protector. 
 Pope Honorius III. succeeds Innocent III. 
 
 1217. Andrew II., king of Hungary, and other princes undertake 
 
 a fifth crusade. 
 1217-1218. Simon de Montfort besieges Toulouse, and is killed in 
 the enterprise. 
 
 1218. Death of Otho IV. of Germany. 
 
 Andrew II. withdraws from the crusade, which is prosecuted 
 by William I. , count of Holland, and John of Brienne. 
 
 1219. The crusaders reduce Damietta. 
 
 1219-1220. The Mongols overrun Tui'kestan, take Bokhara and 
 Samarkand, and break the power of the Kharesmians. 
 
 1221. The crusaders in Egypt are forced to agree to disastrous terms 
 
 of peace. 
 
 1222. Andrew II. signs the Golden Bull, the Magna Charta of 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 1223. Louis VIII. succeeds his father, Philip Augustus, in France. 
 
 1224. Victory of the Mongols over the Russians on the Kalka. 
 1226. Louis IX. succeeds his father, Louis VIII., in France, under 
 
 the regency of his mother, Blanche of Castile. 
 The Lombard League is renewed against Frederick II. 
 
38 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1227. Pope Gregory IX. succeeds Honorius III. 
 
 Frederick II. embarks on a crusade; his first expedition mis- 
 carries. 
 
 1228. Frederick II. l'esumes his expedition for the recovery of the 
 
 Holy Land ; Gregory IX. attempts to deprive the emperor 
 of his dominions. 
 
 1229. Frederick II. terminates his crusade by a truce with the sultan 
 
 of Egypt, by which Jerusalem is placed in the hands of the 
 Christians. 
 Raymond VII. of Toulouse submits to terms fatal to the 
 Albigenses. 
 1231. The Teutonic Knights, summoned to the aid of the Poles 
 against the heathen Prussians, lay the foundations of their 
 dominion in the Baltic regions. 
 
 1236. Frederick II. makes war on the Lombard League in conjunc- 
 
 tion with the Ghibelline leader Ezzelino da Romano. 
 Conquest of Cordova from the Moors by St. Ferdinand of 
 Castile and Leon. 
 
 1237. Victory of Frederick II. over the forces of the Lombard League 
 
 at Cortenuova. 
 Union of the order of Knights Swordbearers with that of the 
 Teutonic Knights. 
 1239-1241. Crusade of the French and English nobles and knights, 
 headed by Thibaud, count of Champagne and king of 
 Navarre, and Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry 
 III. 
 
 1240. Frederick II. advances against Gregory IX., and threatens 
 
 Rome. 
 The Mongols of the Golden Horde, under Batu Khan, after 
 
 overrunning and devastating Russia, force the princes of 
 
 the country to do homage. 
 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, achieves a great victory over 
 
 the Swedes on the Neva. 
 
 1241. Advance of the Mongols into central Europe. They vanquish 
 
 the Silesians, Poles, and Teutonic Knights on the field of 
 
 the Wahlstatt, near Liegnitz, April 9. They overwhelm 
 
 the Hungarians on the Sajo. 
 Death of Gregory IX. 
 Hamburg and Liibeck form an alliance for the protection of 
 
 their commerce, laying the foundations of the Hanseatic 
 
 League. 
 
 1242. The Mongols invade Asia Minor. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 39 
 
 1242. Alexander Nevski vanquishes the Knights Swordbearers on 
 Lake Peipus. 
 
 1244. The Kharesmians storm Jerusalem. 
 
 1245. The council of Lyons (thirteenth general council), convened 
 
 by Pope Innocent IV., proclaims the deposition of the em- 
 peror Frederick II. Proclamation of a new crusade. 
 
 1246. The Babenberg dynasty in Austria terminates with the death 
 
 of Duke Frederick the Warlike. 
 
 1248. Louis IX. of France embarks on his first crusade. 
 
 St. Ferdinand of Castile and Leon wrests Seville from the 
 
 Moors. 
 The erection of the cathedral of Cologne is begun. 
 
 1249. The crusadei's take Damietta. 
 
 Foundation of University College at Oxford; the university 
 at this time at the height of its fame. 
 
 1250. The army of Louis IX. is overwhelmed by the Egyptians. 
 
 The king is captured, but soon released. The Mamelukes 
 usurp the supreme power in Egypt. 
 The emperor Frederick II. dies, leaving his son, Conrad IV., 
 his successor in his hereditary dominions and in the Ger- 
 man Empire. William II., count of Holland, contests the 
 imperial dignity. 
 
 1251. Ottocar, son of Wenceslas I. of Bohemia, acquires Austria. 
 1253 {about). Foundation of the Sorbonne. 
 
 1254. Death of Conrad IV., the last of the Hohenstaufen emperors; 
 his infant son, Conradin, his heir ; William of Holland rec- 
 ognized in Germany, Pope Innocent IV., having attempted 
 to wrest the Two Sicilies from the Hohenstaufen, is defeated 
 by the regent Manfred, uncle of Conradin. Death of the 
 pope, who is succeeded by Alexander IV. 
 
 1256. William of Holland is killed in a war with the Frisians. 
 
 1257. Alfonso the Wise of Castile and Richard of Cornwall are 
 
 elected to the imperial throne of Germany. 
 
 1258. Enactment of the Provisions of Oxford by the "Mad Parlia- 
 
 ment"; Henry III. is forced to submit to a Council of 
 
 State, with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, at its head. 
 Manfred has himself crowned king of Sicily. 
 Venice and Genoa engage in their first great struggle. 
 Hulaku Khan, the Mongol ruler, puts an end to the caliphate 
 
 of Bagdad. 
 1260. Ottocar II. of Bohemia vanquishes Bela IV. of Hungary, and 
 
 secures the possession of Styria. 
 
40 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1261. Michael Paloeologus, emperor of Nicaea, with the aid of the 
 Genoese, overthrows the Latin Empire of the East, and 
 places the dynasty of the Pala3ologi on the Byzantine 
 throne. 
 
 1263. Alexander III. of Scotland repels the last invasion of the 
 
 Norwegians, under King Hako. 
 
 1264. Simon de Montfort, at the head of the English harons, defeats 
 
 Henry III. and his brother, Richard of Cornwall, at Lewes, 
 and takes them prisoners. 
 
 1265. Simon de Montfort grants representation to the commons in 
 
 Parliament. He is defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Evesham. 
 Birth of Dante. 
 
 1266. Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, undertakes 
 
 the conquest of the Two Sicilies, and overwhelms Manfred 
 in a battle near Benevento. 
 
 1267. The Guelphs triumph over the Ghibellines * in Florence. 
 
 1268. Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, attempts to recover 
 
 the Two Sicilies from Charles of Anjou, but is defeated and 
 captured at Tagliacozzo, and executed. 
 Conquest of the Christian principality of Antioch by Bibars, 
 sultan of Egypt and Syria. 
 
 1270. Louis IX. of France engages in a new crusade, in which he 
 
 is joined by Edward, son of Henry IH. of England, and 
 dies in an expedition against Tunis. He is succeeded by 
 his son, Philip III. 
 
 1271. Marco Polo sets out on his travels. 
 
 1272. Prince Edward abandons the Holy Land ; end of the crusades. 
 
 Edward (I.) succeeds his father, Henry III., on the throne 
 of England. 
 
 1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg is elected emperor of Germany. 
 
 1274. Second council of Lyons (fourteenth general council), pre- 
 
 sided over by Gregory X. 
 Death of Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 * The name of Ghibellines was given in Italy to the party which favored the 
 overlordship of the emperors of Germany. Their opponents, the Guelphs, con- 
 tended for the more complete autonomy of the city republics, supported the papacy, 
 and were in a measure a national and democratic party. These appellations came 
 into use among the Italians in the first half of the thirteenth century, or at a time 
 when little was left of imperial rule in northern Italy ; but, after the emperors had 
 completely lost their hold on the peninsula, the names Guelphs and Ghibellines long 
 continued the designations of fiercely contending parties. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 41 
 
 1276. Rudolph of Hapsburg vanquishes Ottocar II. of Bohemia, and 
 forces him to give up Austria, Styria, Carinthia, etc. 
 
 1277-1283. Conquest of Wales by Edward I. of England. 
 
 1278. Ottocar II., having renewed the war with Rudolph, is de- 
 feated and slain on the Marchfeld. 
 
 1280. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis 
 Khan, complete the conquest of China. 
 
 1282. Rudolph of Hapsburg invests his sons, Albert and Rudolph, 
 
 with the duchies of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia. (Ca- 
 rinthia relinquished by them in favor of Meinhard of Tyrol.) 
 
 Massacre of the French in Palermo (Sicilian Vespers). Sicily 
 throws off the yoke of Charles of Anjou, and places herself 
 under the rule of Pedro III. of Aragon. 
 
 Formation of the Zuyder Zee by an inundation of the sea. 
 
 1283. The Teutonic Knights, after a struggle of fifty years, com- 
 
 plete the subjugation of the Prussians. 
 
 1284. The Genoese break the power of the Pisans in the naval bat- 
 
 tle of Meloria. 
 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair, succeeds his father, Philip III., in France. 
 1288-1326. Othman lays the foundations of the Turkish Empire in 
 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 1290. Death of Margaret of Norway, the young queen of Scotland ; 
 
 the succession disputed by John Balliol, Robert Bruce, and 
 others. 
 Expulsion of the Jews from England. 
 
 1291. Death of Rudolph of Hapsburg. The people of Uri, Schwytz, 
 
 and Unterwalden enter into a defensive alliance, directed 
 
 mainly against his son, Albert. 
 Conquest of Acre from the Christians by Malek el-Ashref, 
 
 ruler of Egypt and Syria ; final loss of the Holy Land. 
 Death of the Persian poet Saadi. 
 
 1292. Edward I. of England adjudges the crown of Scotland to 
 
 John Balliol. 
 Adolphus of Nassau is elected to the throne of Germany. 
 
 1295. Philip the Fair and John Balliol make war on England. 
 
 1296. Edward I. dethrones Balliol. 
 
 Bull of Boniface VIII. (Clericis laicos) against the taxation 
 of ecclesiastical property without the consent of the Holy 
 See. Philip the Fair refuses to submit to it. 
 
 1297. Victory of the Scots, under Wallace, over the English at 
 
 Stirling. 
 Successful invasion of Flanders by the French. 
 
42 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1298. Edward I. defeats Wallace at Falkirk. 
 
 Albert of Austria, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, takes up 
 
 arms for the dethronement of the German emperor, Adol- 
 
 phus of Nassau, who falls in battle, and is succeeded by his 
 
 rival. 
 Naval victory of the Genoese over the Venetians at Curzola. 
 Boniface VIII. wages a successful war against the Colon- 
 
 nas. 
 
 1300. First great jubilee of the Catholic church; Boniface VIII. 
 
 grants indulgence to all visiting Rome within the year. 
 
 1301. End of the Arpad dynasty ha Hungary; the crown becomes 
 
 elective. 
 
 1302. First convocation of the States General in France; repre- 
 
 sentatives of the burghers (Third Estate) are summoned to 
 the assembly of the nation in addition to the nobility and 
 clergy. 
 Rising in Flanders against the French. Victory of the Flem- 
 ings at Courtrai. 
 
 1303. Arrest of Boniface VIII. at Anagni by order of Philip the 
 
 Fair. Rescue and death of the pope. 
 The Byzantine emperor Andronicus Palaeologus takes the 
 Catalan Grand Company into his service to aid him against 
 the Turks. 
 1303-1304. Edward I. advances into Scotland, and completes the 
 conquest of the kingdom. 
 
 1305. Execution of Wallace. 
 
 1306. Revolt of Scotland under Robert Bruce (grandson of Robert 
 
 Bruce, the rival of John Balliol), who is crowned king. 
 Extinction of the dynasty of Premysl (Przemysl) in Bohemia. 
 
 1307. Edward II. succeeds his father, Edward I. 
 Arrest of the Knights Templars by Philip the Fair. 
 
 1308. The Swiss forcibly resist the tyrannous encroachments of the 
 
 emperor Albert of Hapsburg.* Albert is assassinated by 
 John of Austria. Henry VII., of the house of Luxemburg, 
 is elected emperor of Germany. 
 
 1309. Removal of the papal court, under Clement V., from Rome 
 
 to Avignon. 
 The Knights of St. John conquer Rhodes from the Turks. 
 
 * According to the common, tradition, the representatives of Uri, Schwytz, and 
 Unterwalden met in 1307 on the meadow of Grutli, and there concluded an alliance, 
 which was the basis of the Swiss Confederacy. These cantons, however, had already 
 entered into a formal union in 1291, the articles of which have been preserved. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 43 
 
 1310. Henry VII. of Germany undertakes an expedition into Italy 
 to restore the imperial authority. John, son of Henry, 
 inaugurates the Luxemburg dynasty in Bohemia. 
 
 1311-1312. Council of Vienne (fifteenth general council) ; condem- 
 nation of the Knights Templars and Beghards. 
 
 1312. Henry VII. unsuccessfully attacks Florence. 
 
 1313. Henry VII. dies in Italy while preparing to subdue Robert 
 
 the Wise of Naples, the champion of the Guelphs. 
 
 1314. Robert Bruce overwhelms the army of Edward II. at Ban- 
 
 nockburn, June 24. 
 Burning of Molay, the last grand-master of the Knights 
 Templars, with other dignitaries of the order, at Paris. 
 Louis X. succeeds his father, Philip IV. 
 1314-1322. Contest for the crown of Germany between Louis the 
 Bavarian and Frederick the Handsome of Austria. 
 
 1315. The Swiss achieve a great victory over Leopold, brother of 
 
 Frederick the Handsome, at Morgarten, Nov. 
 
 1316. Accession of Philip V. in France. 
 
 1321. Death of Dante. 
 
 1322. Charles IV. succeeds his brother, Philip V., in France. 
 Louis the Bavarian triumphs over his rival, Frederick of Aus- 
 tria, taking him prisoner in the battle of Muhldorf (or of 
 Arnpfing). 
 
 1324. Pope John XXII. excommunicates Louis the Bavarian. 
 
 1326. Isabella, queen of Edward II., and Roger Mortimer invade 
 
 England to dethrone the king, who becomes a prisoner. 
 
 1327. Edward II. is deposed by Parliament, and succeeded by his 
 
 son, Edward III. Murder of Edward II. - 
 1327-1323. Louis the Bavarian marches into Italy, enters Rome, 
 and proclaims the deposition of John XXII. , but is forced 
 to retreat. 
 
 1328. Edward III. recognizes the independence of Scotland. 
 Death of Charles IV. of France ; end of the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 Philip VI. inaugurates the dynasty of Valois. 
 1330. Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, takes Nicaea. 
 
 1332. Edward Balliol invades Scotland to dethrone the young king, 
 
 David Bruce. 
 
 1333. Edward III. invades Scotland, and overthrows the forces of 
 
 Archibald Douglas, regent for David Bruce, in the battle 
 of Halidon Hill. 
 Accession of Casimir the Great in Poland. 
 1335. Carinthia becomes a possession of the house of Austria. 
 
44 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1338. Jacob van Artevelde, the leader of the burghers of Ghent, 
 
 becomes governor of Flanders, its people refusing allegi- 
 ance to their ruler, Count Louis I. 
 Beginning of the wars of Edward III. against France; the 
 king strengthened by alliances in the Low Countries and 
 Germany. 
 
 1339. Edward III. makes an unsuccessful campaign against the 
 
 French in Flanders. He assumes the title of king of 
 France. 
 Simone Boccanera becomes first doge of Genoa. 
 
 1340. Naval victory of the English over the French at Sluys. 
 
 1341. Death of John III. of Brittany. The succession is contested 
 
 by his brother, John of Montfort, and his niece, Jeanne de 
 Penthievre, wife of Charles of Blois, the former being sup- 
 ported by England, the latter by France. 
 
 1342. Campaign of Edward III. in Brittany. 
 
 1346. Charles of Luxemburg (Charles IV.), son of King John of 
 
 Bohemia, at the instance of Pope Clement VI., is elected 
 emperor of Germany in opposition to Louis the Bava- 
 rian. 
 
 Victory of Edward III. over Philip VI. of France at Crecy, 
 Aug. 26; death of King John of Bohemia; cannon used 
 by the English. David Bruce invades England, and is 
 vanquished and captured at Neville's Cross. 
 
 Stephen Dushan, ruler of Servia, assumes the imperial title; 
 Servia at the height of her power. 
 
 1347. Edward III. takes Calais. 
 
 Death of Louis the Bavarian, who is succeeded by Charles 
 IV. (The authority of Charles disputed till 1349.) 
 
 Louis the Great of Hungary invades the dominions of Queen 
 Joanna I. of Naples to avenge the murder, supposed to 
 have been committed by her order, of her husband Andrew, 
 brother of Louis. 
 
 Pdenzi's revolution in Rome. 
 
 1348. Joanna I. of Naples sells Avignon to the pope. 
 
 Charles IV. founds the University of Prague, the first in 
 
 Germany. 
 1348-1351. The "black death " ravages Europe. 
 1350. John the Good succeeds his father, Philip VI., in France. 
 1352. Naval engagement between the Genoese, under Paganino 
 
 Doria, and the Venetians, Catalans, and Byzantines, under 
 
 Niccolo Pisani, near Constantinople. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 45 
 
 1353. Victory of the Venetians over the Genoese off Sardinia. 
 
 1354. Tyranny of Rienzi in Rome; his fall and death. 
 Paganino Doria overwhelms the Venetian fleet in the Gulf of 
 
 Sapienza. 
 A Turkish force seizes Gallipoli ; first beginnings of Turkish 
 dominion in Europe. 
 
 1355. Conspiracy of Marino Falieri in Venice. 
 
 1356. The English, under Edward the Black Prince, overwhelm 
 
 John the Good of France and make him prisoner in the 
 battle of Poitiers, September 19. 
 Charles IV. of Germany issues the Golden Bull, defining the 
 rights and duties of the imperial electors, the manner of 
 electing the emperor, &c. 
 1358. Insurrection of the peasantry, known as the Jacquerie, in 
 France. 
 
 1360. Treaty of Bretigny between England and France ; King John 
 
 is set at liberty. 
 
 1361. Extinction of the first ducal house of Burgundy. 
 Sultan Amurath I. conquers Adrianople. 
 
 1363. John the Good, king of France, confers the duchy of Bur- 
 
 gundy upon his son, Philip the Bold. 
 Acquisition of Tyrol by the house of Austria. 
 
 1364. Charles V. succeeds his father, John the Good, in France. 
 
 His general Du Guesclin defeats the English and the 
 forces of Charles the Bad of Navarre at Cocherel. The 
 English, under Sir John Chandos, vanquish the army of 
 Charles of Blois and Du Guesclin at Auray ; Charles of 
 Blois slain, Du Guesclin made prisoner; Brittany secured 
 to the house of Montfort (the succession having been dis- 
 puted since 1341). 
 
 1365. Du Guesclin takes up arms for Henry of Trastamare against 
 
 his brother, Pedro the Cruel of Castile. 
 Foundation of the University of Vienna. 
 
 1366. Pedro the Cruel is driven from his throne. 
 
 1366-1369. Tamerlane, the reviver of the great Mongol empire, in- 
 augurates his conquests by vanquishing the khan of North- 
 ern Khorasan, and taking Balkh. 
 
 1367. Edward the Black Prince, having espoused the cause of 
 
 Pedro the Cruel, dethrones Henry of Trastamare. 
 
 1368. The Ming dynasty in China succeeds the Mongol dynasty. 
 
 1369. Pedro the Cruel falls in battle by the hand of his brother, 
 
 Henry of Trastamare. 
 
46 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1370. Death of Casimir the Great of Poland ; end of the Piast 
 
 dynasty. He is succeeded hy Louis the Great, king- of 
 Hungary. 
 
 1371. Death of David Bruce. The Stuart dynasty ascends the 
 
 throne of Scotland in the person of Robert II.* 
 
 1374. Death of Petrarch. 
 
 1375. Death of Boccaccio. 
 
 1376. Death of Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 Avignon is given up as the papal residence by Gregory XI. 
 
 1377. Rome again the seat of the papacy. Gregory XI. orders 
 
 proceedings against Wycliffe. 
 Richard II. succeeds his grandfather, Edward III. 
 
 1378. Wenceslas succeeds his father, Charles IV., as emperor of 
 
 Germany. 
 Pope Urban VI. succeeds Gregory XI. Election of the anti- 
 pope Clement VII. ; beginning of the Great Schism. 
 
 1379. The Genoese vanquish the Venetian fleet off Pola, and, under 
 
 the command of Pietro Doria, take Chioggia, and threaten 
 Venice. 
 
 1380. Surrender of the Genoese forces at Chioggia. 
 Charles VI. succeeds his father, Charles V. , in France. 
 
 1381. Wat Tyler's Rebellion in England. 
 
 Charles of Durazzo (Charles the Little; overthrows Joanna I. 
 of Naples. (The queen put to death, 1382.) 
 
 1382. The people of Ghent, led by Philip van Artevelde, triumph 
 
 in a struggle with their ruler, Count Louis II. They take 
 and plunder Bruges (its burghers having sided with the 
 count). Philip van Artevelde is recognized as governor by 
 nearly all the communes of Flanders. A French army 
 advances to restore Louis, and overwhelms the forces of 
 Artevelde, who is slain. 
 Death of Louis the Great, king of Hungary and Poland. 
 
 1382-1384. Contest for the throne of Naples between Charles of 
 Durazzo and Louis I. of Anjou, terminated by the death 
 of the latter. 
 
 1384. Philip the Bold of Burgundy acquires Flanders, Artois, and 
 Franche Comte. 
 Death of Wycliffe. 
 
 * The accession of the Stuart dynasty is often erroneously placed in the year 
 1370. Robert II. was proclaimed king in the month of February, 1371, or before the 
 expiration of 1370 according to the old method of reckoning the beginning of the 
 year from March 25. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 47 
 
 1385. Invasion of Scotland by Richard II. 
 
 Accession of John the Great in Portugal. He defeats the 
 Castilians at Aljubarota. 
 
 1386. Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at Sempach, July 9. 
 Jagellon, grand-prince of Lithuania, by his marriage with 
 
 Hedvig, daughter of Louis the Great of Hungary and 
 Poland, becomes king of Poland, founding the Jagellonian 
 dynasty. (As sovereign of Polaiid styled Ladislas II.) 
 Foundation of the University of Heidelberg. 
 1386-1389. The regency of the duke of Gloucester is imposed upon 
 Richard II. 
 
 1387. Sigismund, brother of the emperor Wenceslas, becomes king 
 
 of Hungary. (His queen, Mary, joint ruler till 1395.) 
 
 1388. Battle of Otterburn between the Scots and English ; the earl 
 
 of Douglas slain; Henry Percy taken prisoner by the 
 Scots. 
 
 1389. The army of Sultan Amurath I. breaks the power of Servia 
 
 in the battle of Kosovo. Amurath is slain on the field of 
 battle, and is succeeded by his son, Bajazet I. 
 Pope Boniface IX. succeeds Urban VI. 
 
 1390. Accession of Robert III. in Scotland. 
 
 1394. Death of Clement VII., antipope, at Avignon. Antipope 
 
 Benedict XIII. is elected to succeed him. 
 
 1395. The emperor Wenceslas erects Milan into a hereditary duchy 
 
 for Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti. 
 
 1396. Victory of Bajazet I. over Sigismund, king of Hungary, at 
 
 Nicopolis, Sept. 28. 
 
 1397. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, under the rule of Queen 
 
 Margaret, enter into the Union of Calmar, the crowns of 
 the three kingdoms to remain united under one sovereign. 
 
 1399. Deposition of Richard II. Henry IV. inaugurates the line 
 
 of Lancaster. 
 A long contest for the possession of Naples between Ladislas, 
 son of Charles of Durazzo, and Louis II. of Anjou ends in 
 the triumph of Ladislas. 
 
 1400. Owen Glendower heads a great revolt of the Welsh. 
 Deposition of the emperor Wenceslas. Rupert of the Pala- 
 tinate is elected to the German throne. 
 
 Death of Chaucer. 
 
 1401. The burning of Lollards is ordained by Parliament. 
 
 1402. Victory of the Percys over the Scots at Homildon Hill. 
 Defeat and capture of Bajazet by Tamerlane at Angora. 
 
48 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1403. Henry IV. vanquishes the Percys, allies of Owen Glendower, 
 
 at Shrewsbury, July ; death of Henry Hotspur. 
 
 1404. Pope Innocent VII. succeeds Boniface IX. 
 
 1405. Prince James Stuart, heir to the throne of Scotland, becomes 
 
 a prisoner of the English. 
 Conquest of Verona and Padua by Venice. 
 
 1406. Death of Robert III. of Scotland; the duke of Albany re- 
 
 gent. 
 Pisa is forced to submit to Florence. 
 Pope Gregory XII. succeeds Innocent VII. 
 
 1407. Assassination of Louis, duke of Orleans, by John the Fear- 
 
 less, duke of Burgundy. 
 
 1409. Council of Pisa ; deposition of Gregory XII. and Benedict 
 
 XIII. ; accession of Pope Alexander V. 
 Foundation of the University of Leipsic. 
 
 1410. Death of the German emperor Rupert of the Palatinate. 
 Jagellon (Ladislas II.), king of Poland, defeats the Teutonic 
 
 Knights near Tannenberg. 
 Pope John XXIII. succeeds Alexander V. 
 
 1411. Sigismund is elected emperor of Germany. 
 Foundation of the University of St. Andrews. 
 
 1413. Henry V. succeeds his father, Henry IV., in England. 
 Ladislas of Naples takes Rome. 
 
 1414. Opening of the council of Constance. 
 Joanna II. succeeds Ladislas in Naples. 
 
 1415. Victory of Henry V. over the French at Agincourt, Oct. 25. 
 Deposition of John XXIII. by the council of Constance. 
 
 Burning of John Huss. 
 The house of Hohenzollern acquires Brandenburg. 
 John the Great of Portugal conquers Ceuta. 
 
 1416. Burning of Jerome of Prague. 
 
 1417. Burning of Oldcastle as a heretic. 
 
 Martin V. is elected pope by the council of Constance. 
 
 1418. Closing of the council of Constance. 
 
 Massacre in Paris of the adherents of the faction of the 
 Armagnacs by the partisans of John the Fearless of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 1419. Murder of John the Fearless by the dauphin Charles. 
 Beginning of the Hussite wars with the storming of the town- 
 hall of Prague by the Hussites. Death of Wenceslas. 
 
 The Portuguese, sailing under the auspices of Henry the 
 Navigator, reach Madeira. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 49 
 
 1420. Treaty of Troyes, securing to Henry V. the succession to the 
 French throne. Henry enters Paris. 
 
 Crusade against the Hussites, who are victorious under John 
 Ziska. 
 
 Louis III. of Anjou attacks Joanna II. of Naples, who sum- 
 mons Alfonso V. of Aragon to her aid. 
 
 1422. Death of Henry V. of England and Charles VI. of France. 
 
 Henry is succeeded hy his infant son, Henry VI., who is 
 proclaimed king of France ; his uncles, the dukes of Glou- 
 cester and Bedford, regents, respectively, in England and 
 France. The French proclaim Charles VII. , son of Charles 
 VI. , their king. 
 Siege of Constantinople by Amurath II. 
 
 1423. The house of Wettin is invested with the electorate of Saxony 
 
 in the person of Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Misnia. 
 
 1424. James I. , released by the English, assumes the government 
 
 of Scotland. 
 Procopius the Great succeeds Ziska as leader of the section of 
 
 the Hussites called Taborites. 
 Election of the antipope Clement VIII. 
 
 1425. Accession of the Byzantine emperor John Palaiologus II. 
 
 1426. Victory of the Hussites at Aussig. 
 
 1427. Victory of the Hussites at Mies. 
 
 1428. The English besiege Orleans. 
 
 1429. Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans, May. Coronation of 
 
 Charles VII. at Eheims. 
 The abdication of Clement VIII. terminates the Great Schism. 
 1429-1430. The Hussites ravage Saxony, Franconia, and Bavaria. 
 
 1431. Burning of Joan of Arc, May. Henry VI. is crowned in 
 
 Paris, Dec. 
 
 Pope Eugenius IV. succeeds Martin V. Opening of the coun- 
 cil of Basel. 
 
 Victory of the Hussites at Taus. 
 
 1432. The Portuguese take possession of the Azores. 
 
 1433. The council of Basel makes a compromise with the section of 
 
 the Hussites called Calixtines (compact ata of Prague). 
 
 1434. The Taborites are vanquished by the Calixtines at Bohmisch- 
 
 Brod ; Procopius the Great and Procopius the Small slain. 
 Triumph of the party of Cosmo de' Medici in Florence. 
 
 1435. Treaty of Arras between France and Burgundy. Death of 
 
 Bedford. 
 
 1436. The French recover Paris. 
 
50 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1436. Treaty of Iglau ; settlement effected between the Hussites and 
 
 Sigismund, who is recognized as king of Bohemia. 
 
 1437. Death of Sigismund ; end of the Luxemburg dynasty in the 
 
 German Empire and Bohemia. 
 
 Murder of James I. of Scotland; his son, James II., suc- 
 ceeds. 
 
 Eugenius IV. orders the dissolution of the council of Basel. 
 
 1438. Election of the Emperor Albert II. , of the house of Haps- 
 
 burg. 
 Council of Ferrara. 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., securing the liberties of 
 
 the Gallican Church. 
 1438 (about). Gutenberg begins to practice printing with movable 
 
 type. 
 
 1439. Death of Albert II. 
 
 The council of Florence decrees the union of the Greek and 
 Latin churches. The schismatic council of Basel proclaims 
 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy pope, as Felix V., in place of 
 Eugenius IV. 
 
 The States General of France vote a standing army. 
 
 1440. Election of the emperor Frederick III. of Germany. 
 
 1442. Alfonso V. of Aragon becomes master of the kingdom of 
 
 Naples, dispossessing his rival, Rene the Good of Anjou. 
 
 1443. Scanderbeg heads a rising of the Albanians against the Turks. 
 
 1444. Sultan Amurath II. overwhelms the Hungarian army, com- 
 
 manded by King Ladislas (also king of Poland) and John 
 Hunyady, at Varna; death of Ladislas. 
 The Portuguese engage in the African slave-trade. 
 
 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou, daughter of 
 
 Rene the Good. 
 1447. Pope Nicholas V. succeeds Eugenius IV. 
 
 End of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. 
 1449-1450. Reconquest of Normandy by the French. 
 
 1450. Jack Cade's insurrection in England. 
 
 Establishment of the ducal house of Sforza in Milan by Fran- 
 cesco Sforza. 
 
 1451. The French conquer Guienne from the English. 
 
 1452. Murder of the insubordinate earl of Douglas by James II. 
 
 1453. Conquest of Constantinople by Mohammed II., May 29; 
 
 death of Constantine XIII., and end of the Eastern Em- 
 pire. 
 Victory of the French over the English at Castillon ; end of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 51 
 
 the so-called Hundred Years 1 War between the two nations ; 
 the English conquests lost, all but Calais. 
 
 1454. The duke of York is named protector of England. 
 
 1455. Beginning of the contest for the throne of England between 
 
 the houses of York and Lancaster known as the Wars of 
 the Roses. Victory of the Yorkists at St. Albans, May. 
 Pope Calixtus III. succeeds Nicholas V. 
 
 1456. Victory of Hunyady over the Turks at Belgrade. Conquest 
 
 of Athens by the Turks. 
 1458. Matthias Corvinus becomes king of Hungary ; George Podie- 
 brad, of Bohemia. 
 
 Pope Pius II. .(iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini) succeeds Calix- 
 tus III. 
 
 Death of Alfonso V. of Aragon; his brother John II., king of 
 Navarre, succeeds in Aragon and Sicily ; his illegitimate 
 son Ferdinand I., in Naples. 
 
 1460. James II. of Scotland, having taken up arms against the 
 
 English, is accidentally killed before Roxburgh ; accession 
 of his son, James III. Battle of Wakefield, Dec. 31 ; the 
 duke of York overthrown by the army of Queen Margaret. 
 The Turks masters of nearly the whole of Greece. 
 
 1461. Defeat of the Yorkists in the second battle of St. Albans, 
 
 Feb. 17. Edward IV. is proclaimed king in London, 
 March. Victory of the Yorkists at Towton, March 29. 
 
 Louis XL succeeds his father, diaries VII., in France. 
 
 The Turks put an end to the empire of Trebizond. 
 
 1462. Accession of Ivan the Great in Russia. 
 
 1464. Queen Margaret invades England. Her adherents are de- 
 
 feated at Hexham, May 15. 
 Pius II. endeavors to organize a crusade against the Turks; 
 he dies at Ancona ; election of Paul II. 
 
 1465. Henry VI. of England is thrown into the Tower. 
 
 War between Louis XL and the League of the Public Good. 
 Treaty o! Conflans. 
 
 1466. Treaty of Thorn between Casimir IV. of Poland and the 
 
 Teutonic Knights, who cede West Prussia, and retain East 
 Prussia as a lief of Poland. 
 
 1467. Charles the Bold succeeds his father, Philip the Good, as 
 
 duke of Burgundy. 
 
 1468. Conference of Louis XL and Charles the Bold at Peronne. 
 
 1469. Marriage of Prince Ferdinand of Aragon with Princess Isa- 
 
 bella of Castile. 
 
52 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1469. Lorenzo the Magnificent becomes the head of the Florentine 
 
 state. 
 
 1470. Henry VI. is restored by the earl of Warwick. 
 
 1471. Edward IV. re-enters England. Defeat of the Lancastrians 
 
 at Barnet, April 14 ; Warwick slain. The Lancastrians are 
 vanquished at Tewkesbury, May 4. Death of Henry VI. 
 
 Charles the Bold makes war on France ; truce. 
 
 Pope Sixtus IV. succeeds Paul II. 
 
 1472. Charles the Bold ravages Normandy. 
 
 1473-1477. Successes of Louis XL in his war on the feudal princes. 
 Ruin of the house of Armagnae and other noble houses. 
 
 1474. Isabella and Ferdinand ascend the throne of Castile. 
 
 1475. Expedition of Edward IV. against France ; he concludes 
 
 peace. Charles the Bold occupies Lorraine. 
 The Crimea is made subject to the Turks. 
 
 1476. Charles the Bold attacks the Swiss, and is vanquisbed at 
 
 Granson, March 3, and at Morat, June 22. 
 
 1477. Charles the Bold is overwhelmed by Rene of Lorraine and 
 
 his Swiss mercenaries at Nancy, and falls in the battle, 
 Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy is seized by Louis XL 
 The Netherlands and Franche Comte remain in possession 
 of Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. Mar- 
 riage of Mary with Maximilian of Austria. Successes of 
 the French in Picardy, Artois, Hainaut, and Flanders. 
 
 1478. Edward IV. puts to death his brother, the duke of Clarence. 
 Conspiracy of the Pazzi against the life of Lorenzo de' Me- 
 dici. 
 
 Mohammed II. completes the subjugation of Albania. 
 
 1479. Maximilian defeats the French at Guinegate, Aug. 
 Accession of Ferdinand the Catholic in Aragon ; union of 
 
 Castile and Aragon. 
 
 1480. Death of Rene the Good of Anjou; Louis XL annexes the 
 
 duchy to France. 
 Establishment of the Inquisition in Spain. 
 Mohammed II. unsuccessfully attacks Rhodes. The Turks 
 
 storm Otranto. 
 Emancipation of Russia from Mongol overlordship. 
 
 1481. Provence is annexed to France. 
 
 Sultan Bajazet II. succeeds Mohammed II. Otranto is re- 
 taken from the Turks. 
 
 1482. Ferdinand and Isabella enter upon a war for the conquest of 
 
 the kingdom of Granada. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 53 
 
 1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy. Treaty of Arras between Maxi- 
 
 milian and Louis XI. 
 
 1483. Death of Edward IV. of England. His brother, Richard III., 
 
 takes possession of the throne. 
 Charles VIII. succeeds his father, Louis XL, in France. 
 
 1484. Pope Innocent VIII. succeeds Sixtus IV. 
 
 1485. Richard III. is vanquished at Bos worth by the earl of Rich- 
 
 mond (Henry VII.), Aug. 22, and is slain in the battle; 
 end of the Wars of the Roses and of the Plantagenet dy- 
 nasty ; Henry VII. inaugurates the Tudor dynasty. 
 Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, takes Vienna. 
 
 1486. Marriage of Henry VII. with Elizabeth of York, daughter of 
 
 Edward IV. ; union of the houses of York and Lancaster. 
 1486-1487. Voyage of Bartholomeu Dias to the southern extremity 
 of Africa ; he discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1487. Attempt of the pretender Lambert Simnel to gain the Eng- 
 
 lish throne. 
 
 1488. The regent Anne de Beaujeu, sister of Charles VIII. , van- 
 
 quishes the supporters of Louis, duke of Orleans, who is 
 captured and imprisoned. 
 James III. of Scotland is defeated and killed in the struggle 
 with the nobles ; accession of his son, James IV. 
 
 1491. Union of Brittany with France by the marriage of Charles 
 
 VIII. with the duchess Anne. 
 
 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella enter Granada, Jan. ; end of the 
 
 Moorish dominion in Spain. Expulsion of the Jews from 
 
 the Spanish dominions. 
 Columbus lands in America, Oct. 12. Discovery of Cuba and 
 
 Hayti (HLspaniola). 
 Henry VII. invades France. Treaty of Etaples. 
 Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 
 Pope Alexander VI. succeeds Innocent VIII. 
 
 1493. Treaty of Senlis between Chai'les VIII. and Maximilian. 
 Death of Frederick III. of Germany ; accession of his son, 
 
 Maximilian I. 
 Columbus returns to Spain, leaving a garrison in Hispaniola. 
 He sails on his second voyage. Discovery of Porto Rico. 
 
 1494. Charles VIII. of France marches into Italy to conquer the 
 
 kingdom of Naples. Expulsion of the Medici from Flor- 
 ence ; popular government restored by Savonarola ; Pisa 
 independent of Florence. 
 Discoverv of Jamaica. 
 
54 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1495. Conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. A league is formed 
 
 against him by: Pope Alexander VI., Venice, Maximilian, 
 Ferdinand of Aragon, and Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan. 
 Retreat of Charles VIII. to France. Ferdinand II. of 
 Naples recovers his throne. 
 Establishment of the Imperial Chamber by Maximilian. 
 
 1496. Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian, with Joan, daughter 
 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 1497. Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England, raises an 
 
 army in Cornwall. He is made prisoner. (Executed, 1499.) 
 John Cabot discovers the mainland of America. 
 Pinzon and Vespucci discover Central America. 
 Vasco da Grama doubles the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1498. Louis XII. (duke of Orleans) succeeds Charles VIII. in 
 
 France. 
 Savonarola is put to death by the people of Florence. 
 Third voyage of Columbus; he reaches the mainland of South 
 
 America. 
 Sebastian Cabot undertakes a voyage in search of a northwest 
 
 passage to China. 
 Vasco da Gama lands in India. 
 
 1499. The French conquer the duchy of Milan. 
 
 Maximilian is unsuccessful in a war against the Swiss, who 
 
 become virtually independent of the German Empire. 
 Ojeda and Vespucci sail along the coast of South America. 
 
 1500. Ludovico Sforza recovers Milan. He is betrayed to the 
 
 French. 
 Vicente Yanez Pinzon discovers the coast of Brazil. Cabral 
 lands there, and takes possession of the country for Por- 
 tugal. 
 1500-1501. Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI., makes him- 
 self master of Pesaro, Rimini, and Faenza, and is named 
 duke of Romagna. 
 
 1501. Conquest of Naples by Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon. 
 Establishment of the Aulic Council by Maximilian I. 
 Columbus is sent in chains to Spain by the governor of His- 
 
 paniola. 
 
 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy. 
 Bloody excesses of Cesare Borgia at Sinigaglia. 
 Columbus sets out on his fourth voyage. 
 
 Foundation of the University of Wittenberg by Frederick the 
 Wise, elector of Saxony. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 55 
 
 1503. Marriage of James IV. of Scotland with Margaret Tudor, 
 
 daughter of Henry VII. 
 Gonsalvo de Cordova defeats the army of the duke of Nemours 
 
 at Cerignola, April 28. Defeat of the French in the battle 
 
 of the Garigliano, Dec. ; the Spaniards masters of the 
 
 kingdom of Naples. 
 Death of Pope Alexander VI. Cesare Borgia is driven from 
 
 Rome. Election of Pius III. He is succeeded by Julius II. 
 
 1504. The Lordship of the Isles is broken up by James IV. 
 Death of Queen Isabella of Castile, Nov. 26. 
 
 Baber becomes master of Cabool. 
 
 1505. Basil (Vasili) IV. succeeds his father, Ivan the Great, in 
 
 Russia. 
 
 1506. Death of Philip I. of Castile, which is governed by Ferdinand 
 
 as regent for Joan the Mad. 
 
 The Portuguese discover Madagascar. 
 
 The rebuilding of St. Peter's is begun by Julius II. 
 
 Death of Columbus. 
 1508. League of Cambrai against Venice, formed by Maximil- 
 ian I., Julius II., Louis XII., and Ferdinand of Aragon, 
 Dec. 
 
 Michel Angelo undertakes the task of decorating the Sistine 
 chapel. 
 3.509. Henry VIII. succeeds his father, Henry VII., in England, 
 April. He marries Catharine of Aragon, daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella. 
 
 Victory of the French over the forces of the Venetians at 
 Agnadello, May. 
 
 The Florentines regain Pisa. 
 
 Taking of Oran by the Spaniards, under Cardinal Ximenes 
 and Navarro. 
 
 Subjugation of Porto Rico by Ponce de Leon. 
 
 1510. Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of the Indies, takes 
 
 Goa. 
 
 1511. Julius II. forms the Holy League against France with Spain 
 
 and Venice. Accession of Henry VIII. to the league. 
 The Spaniards, under Velasquez, subdue Cuba. 
 The Portuguese take Malacca. 
 
 1512. Victory of the French at Ravenna, April 11 ; death of their 
 
 general, Gaston de Foix. The French evacuate Lombardy ; 
 the Sforza dynasty restored in Milan. 
 Conquest of Spanish Navarre by Ferdinand of Aragon. 
 
56 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1512. Restoration of the Medici in Florence. 
 
 Julius II. opens the fifth council of the Lateran. 
 Sultan Selim I. succeeds Bajazet II. 
 
 1513. Henry VIII., in alliance with the emperor Maximilian, in- 
 
 vades France. Defeat of the French at Guinegate ("Battle 
 of the Spurs"), Aug. 16. The English take Terouanne and 
 Tournai. 
 
 James IV. of Scotland undertakes an invasion of England ; 
 the Scots are overwhelmed by the English at Flodden 
 Field, Sept. 9 ; the king slain. Accession of his son, James 
 V., under the regency of Queen Margaret. 
 
 Death of Pope Julius II., Feb. Leo X. is elected his suc- 
 cessor, March. The French, under La Tremouille, are de- 
 feated by the Swiss at No vara, June 6, and driven from the 
 field in Italy. 
 
 Christian II. of Denmark succeeds his father, John. 
 
 Ponce de Leon lands in Florida. 
 
 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean from the Isthmus of 
 Panama. 
 
 1514. Truce between France and Spain. 
 
 Henry VIII. concludes peace with France and Scotland. 
 
 1515. Wolsey is appointed chancellor by Henry VIII., Dec. 
 
 The duke of Albany assumes the regency in Scotland. 
 
 Francis I. succeeds Louis XII. in France, Jan. 1. He in- 
 vades Italy. Battle of Marignano, Sept. 13, 14; Francis, 
 with the aid of the Venetians, overwhelms the Swiss al- 
 lies of the duke of Milan. The French become masters 
 of Lombardy. 
 
 1516. Death of Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, Jan. 23 ; his grand- 
 
 son, Charles of Hapsburg, his successor. Treaty of Noyon 
 
 between Charles and Francis I. 
 Concordat between Francis I. and Leo X. Conclusion of the 
 
 agreement known as the ' ' Perpetual Peace " between France 
 
 and the Swiss. 
 The corsair Barbarossa (Horuk) becomes master of Algiers. 
 Publication of Ariosto's " Orlando furioso." 
 
 1517. Closing of the fifth council of the Lateran. Leo X. author- 
 
 izes the sale of indulgences. 
 
 Luther publishes his Theses at Wittenberg, Oct. 31; begin- 
 ning of the Reformation. 
 
 Selim I. overthrows the sovereignty of the Mamelukes, and 
 annexes Egypt to the Ottoman Empire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 57 
 
 1518. Luther appeals to a general council. Zwingli begins the Swiss 
 
 Reformation. 
 Barbarossa (Horuk) is slain by the Spaniards. 
 
 1519. Death of the emperor Maximilian I. His grandson, Charles 
 
 I. of Spain — his successor, jointly with Ferdinand, brother 
 of Charles, in his hereditary dominions — is elected em- 
 peror, as Charles V., June 28. The German Empire, Spain, 
 the Netherlands, the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the Span- 
 ish Indies united under one sovereignty. 
 
 Deposition of Ulrich, duke of Wurtemberg, by the Swabian 
 League. 
 
 First entry of Cortes into the city of Mexico. 
 
 Death of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 1520. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. on the Field of the 
 
 Cloth of Gold (near Guines, France). 
 Insurrection of the Castilian cities under Padilla. 
 Bull of Leo X. against Luther, who burns it. 
 Successful invasion of Sweden by Christian II. of Denmark. 
 
 The Swedish administrator, Sten Sture, is mortally wounded 
 
 at Bogesund. Christian is acknowledged king. Execution 
 
 of nobles at Stockholm. 
 Sultan Solyman the Magnificent succeeds Selim I. 
 Magellan sails through the straits separating Patagonia from 
 
 Tierra del Fuego. 
 Death of Raphael. 
 
 1521. Beginning of the wars between Francis I. and Charles V. The 
 
 French unsuccessfully invade Navarre. Invasion of France 
 
 from the north. The French lose Milan. 
 Treaty of Bruges between Henry VIII. and Charles V. 
 Overthrow and execution of Padilla. 
 Charles V. relinquishes to his brother, Ferdinand, the sole 
 
 sovereignty over the principal portion of the hereditary 
 
 Austrian states. (The remainder added in 1522.) 
 Luther before the Diet of Worms. He is secreted in the 
 
 Wartburg. 
 Anabaptist gathering at Zwickau. 
 Rising of the Swedes against Denmark under Gustavus Vasa, 
 
 who is appointed administrator by the states. 
 Death of Pope Leo X. , Dec. 
 Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade. 
 Conquest of Mexico by Cortes, who reduces the capital after a 
 
 long siege. 
 
58 CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1521. Magellan reaches the Ladrones and Philippines ; he is slain 
 
 on an island of the latter group. 
 
 1522. The forces of Charles V., under Prospero Colonna, defeat the 
 
 French, under Lautrec, at La Bicocca, April. The English 
 
 invade France. 
 Election of Pope Adrian VI. 
 Conquest of Rhodes hy Solyman the Magnificent from the 
 
 Knights of St. John. 
 One of Magellan's ships completes the circumnavigation of 
 
 the globe. 
 
 1523. Invasion of France by the forces of Charles V. and Henry 
 
 VIII. The French invade Italy. 
 
 Invasion of Scotland by the English, under the earl of Surrey. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden. 
 
 Christian II. of Denmark is driven from his throne by his sub- 
 jects. He is succeeded by Frederick I. (duke of Schleswig- 
 Holstein). 
 
 Pope Clement VII. succeeds Adrian VI. 
 
 1524. The chevalier Bayard falls in the battle of the Sesia. Inva- 
 
 sion of Provence by the Imperialist general, the consta- 
 ble de Bourbon (previously in the service of Francis I.). 
 Francis I. invades Italy, occupies Milan, and besieges 
 Pavia. 
 Outbreak of the Peasants 1 War in Germany. 
 
 1525. Francis I. is defeated by the Imperialists at Pavia and made 
 
 prisoner, Feb. 24 ; his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent in 
 France. Treaty of alliance between France and England. 
 
 The army of Thomas Miinzer is annihilated at Frankenhau- 
 sen, May 15 ; end of the Peasants' War. 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand -master of the Teutonic Knights, 
 converts their realm of East Prussia into a hereditary prin- 
 cipality (Protestant), the duchy of Prussia, for which he 
 does homage to Sigismund I., king of Poland. 
 
 1526. Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., Jan. 14. 
 
 Francis is liberated, and prepares to renew the struggle. 
 The Hungarians are overwhelmed at Mohacs by Solyman the 
 Magnificent, Aug. 29 ; death of Louis II. The Turks oc- 
 cupy Buda. Withdrawal of their forces. Ferdinand of 
 Hapsburg, brother of the emperor Charles V., is chosen 
 successor to Louis in Bohemia. John Zapolya, waywode 
 of Transylvania, is elected king of Hungary by the national 
 party. A part of the nobles elect Ferdinand of Hapsburg. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 59 
 
 1526. Baber conquers Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi at Paniput, and founds 
 
 the Mogul dynasty of India. 
 
 1527. Storming and pillage of Rome by the troops of the constable 
 
 de Bourbon, May ; Bourbon killed in the assault. Captivity 
 
 of Clement VII. 
 Expulsion of the Medici from Florence. 
 Death of Machiavelli. 
 
 1528. Francis I. and Henry VIII. declare war against Charles V. 
 
 Andrea Doria delivers Genoa from the yoke of the French. 
 
 The earl of Angus, after tyrannizing over Scotland for two 
 years, is driven from the kingdom ; overthrow of the Doug- 
 lases. 
 
 Death of Albert Durer. 
 
 1529. Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 The German Reformers present their Protest at the Diet of 
 Spire, April 19. 
 
 Peace of Cambrai between Francis I. and Charles V., Aug. 
 5. Francis abandons Italy to the emperor, and renounces 
 all claims to suzerainty over Flanders and Artois; he is 
 recognized in the possession of the duchy of Burgundy. 
 
 Charles V. and Clement VII. unite to restore the rule of the 
 Medici in Florence. The city is besieged. 
 
 Buda (occupied by Ferdinand of Hapsburg in 1527) again falls 
 into the hands of the Turks. Solyman unsuccessfully be- 
 sieges Vienna. He establishes the authority of Zapolya in 
 Hungary. 
 
 Establishment of Lutheranism as the state church of Sweden 
 by the Diet of Orebro. 
 
 Conference of Marburg between the followers of Luther and 
 Zwingli. 
 
 1530. Charles V. is crowned by Pope Clement VII. at Bologna as 
 
 king of Lombardy and emperor of the Romans. (The last 
 coronation of a German emperor by the pope. ) 
 
 The Protestants present their Confession at the Diet of Augs- 
 burg. 
 
 Fall of Florence ; restoration of the Medici. 
 
 The Knights of St. John receive Malta from Charles V. 
 
 1531. League of Smalcald between the Protestant states of Ger- 
 
 many. 
 Defeat of the army of Zurich by the Swiss Catholics at Kap- 
 
 pel, Oct. 11; Zwingli slain. 
 The deposed king Christian II. makes a descent on Norway. 
 
60 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1531-1533. Conquest of Peru by PLzarro. 
 
 1532. The Turks threaten Vienna. Charles V. is forced to grant 
 
 the religious peace of Nuremberg. 
 Alessandro de' Medici (Alessandro il Moro) is made duke of 
 
 Florence. 
 Christian II. becomes a prisoner of his former Danish subjects. 
 
 1533. The marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Aragon is 
 
 declared null and void by Cranmer. Coronation of Anne 
 Boleyn. 
 
 Henry, son of Francis I., marries Catharine de' Medici. 
 
 Calvin is forced to flee from Paris. 
 
 Dissolution of the Great Swabian League. 
 
 Death of Frederick I. of Denmark. 
 
 Ivan IV., the Terrible, succeeds his father, Basil IV., in Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 1534. England throws off the papal authority ; passage of the Act 
 
 of Supremacy. 
 
 Pope Paul III. succeeds Clement VII. 
 
 The Anabaptists, led by John of Leyden and others, establish 
 their disorderly reign in Minister. 
 
 Ulrich, the deposed duke of Wurtemberg, recovers his throne. 
 
 The duke of Savoy and the bishop of Geneva make an un- 
 successful attempt to re-establish their authority over that 
 city, which, from having been semi-independent, is hence- 
 forth free. 
 
 Luther completes his translation of the Bible. 
 
 Death of Corr-eggio. 
 
 1535. Henry VIII. assumes the title of Supreme Head of the Church. 
 
 Execution of Sir Thomas More. 
 
 Francis I. occupies the dominions of the duke of Savoy, the 
 ally of Charles V. 
 
 Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. He defeats Barba- 
 rossa (Khair-ed-Din), and makes himself, master of the city. 
 
 End of the Sforza dynasty in Milan ; the duchy taken pos- 
 session of by Charles V. 
 
 Fall of the Anabaptists at Minister. 
 
 Foundation of Lima and Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Jacques Cartier ascends the river St. Lawrence. 
 
 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII. marries Jane Sey- 
 
 mour. Incorporation of Wales with England. Dissolu- 
 tion of the lesser monasteries in England. 
 Charles V. invades Provence. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 61 
 
 1536. The Bernese widest the Pays de Vaud from Savoy. 
 Christian III. takes Copenhagen, and becomes master of Den- 
 mark. He abolishes the Catholic church in his dominions. 
 
 Calvin publishes his " Institutes of the Christian Religion." 
 
 He makes his appearance in Geneva. 
 Death of Erasmus. 
 
 1537. Death of Jane Seymour. 
 
 Murder of Alessandro de' Medici, duke of Florence. 
 
 1538. Truce of Nice between Francis I. and Charles V. ; the duke 
 
 of Savoy left stripped of nearly all his dominions. 
 Expulsion of Calvin from Geneva. 
 Marriage of James V. of Scotland with Mary of Guise. 
 
 1539. Dissolution of the greater monasteries in England. Parlia- 
 
 ment passes the Statute of the Six Articles for the regulation 
 of the church. 
 
 1540. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves. He divorces her, and 
 
 marries Catharine Howard. Execution of Thomas Crom- 
 well. 
 
 Charles V. reduces the rebellious city of Ghent, and destroys 
 its liberties. 
 
 Bull of Paul III. sanctioning the order of Jesuits, founded by 
 Loyola. 
 
 Death of John Zapolya. 
 
 1541. Unsuccessful expedition of Charles V. against Algiers. 
 Solyman the Magnificent overruns Hungary. 
 Return of Calvin to Geneva. 
 
 The expedition of De Soto reaches the Mississippi River. 
 
 1542. Henry VIII. assumes the title of king of Ireland. Execution 
 
 of Catharine Howard. The English invade Scotland, and 
 are victorious at Sol way Moss, Nov. Death of James V., 
 Dec. Accession of his infant daughter, Mary, under the 
 regency of the earl of Arran. 
 Renewal of the struggle between Francis I. and Charles V. 
 
 1543. Henry VIII. enters into an alliance with Charles V. against 
 
 France. Marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine Parr. 
 Death of Copernicus and of Holbein. 
 
 1544. The English, under the earl of Hertford, invade Scotland, 
 
 and burn Edinburgh. 
 Victory of the French over the Imperialists at Ceresole, April. 
 Charles V. advances into Champagne. The English invade 
 France, and take Boulogne. Treaty of Crespy between 
 Francis I. and Charles V. 
 
62 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1544. Albert, duke of Prussia, founds the University of Konigs- 
 
 berg. 
 
 1545. Opening of the council of Trent. 
 
 Erection of Parma and Piacenza into duchies by Pope Paul 
 
 III. for his son, Pier Luigi Parnese. 
 Massacre of the Vaudois in France. 
 Discovery of the silver mines of Potosi by the Spaniards. 
 
 1546. George Wishart is burned as a heretic by order of Cardinal 
 
 Beaton, primate of Scotland. Assassination of Beaton. 
 Death of Luther. 
 Beginning of the War of the Smalcald League between 
 
 Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany. 
 Death of Giulio Romano. 
 
 1547. Edward VI. succeeds his father, Henry VIII., in England, 
 
 Jan. 28 ; the duke of Somerset (earl of Hertford) protector 
 of the realm. Victory of the protector over the Scots at 
 Pinkie, Sept. 10. 
 
 Henry II. succeeds his father, Francis I., in France, March 31. 
 
 The War of the Smalcald League ends in the victory of Charles 
 V. over the Protestants at Muhlberg, April 24 ; John Fred- 
 eric, elector of Saxony, is made prisoner ; the principal 
 part of his electorate passes to Maurice, duke of Saxony, of 
 the Albertine line. Imprisonment of Philip, landgrave of 
 Hesse. 
 
 Conspiracy of Fiesco at Genoa against Andrea Doria ; acci- 
 dental death of Fiesco. 
 
 1548. Publication of the Augsburg Interim, fixing the degree of 
 
 toleration in Germany, pending the decision of the coun- 
 cil of Trent. 
 Marriage of Jeanne dAlbret, daughter of Henry II. of Na- 
 varre, with Antoine de Bourbon. 
 
 1549. The Act of Uniformity, regulating public worship, is passed 
 
 in England; adoption of the Book of Common Prayer. 
 Henry II. attempts to retake Boulogne from the English. 
 Charles V. formally unites the Netherlands with the Spanish 
 
 crown. 
 Death of Pope Paul III. 
 
 1550. England concludes peace with France and Scotland; Bou- 
 
 logne is restored to the French. 
 The Inquisition in the Netherlands. 
 Election of Pope Julius III. 
 
 1551. Maurice of Saxony takes Magdeburg after a long siege. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 63 
 
 1552. Execution of the duke of Somerset, Jan. Adoption of the 
 
 Forty-two Articles of the Church of England. (Subse- 
 quently reduced to the Thirty-nine Articles.) 
 
 Maurice of Saxony, having allied himself with France, makes 
 war on Charles V. in behalf of the Protestants. The em- 
 peror is forced to. the peace of Passau, Aug. 2, which estab- 
 lishes the liberties of the Lutherans. 
 
 Henry II. of France seizes the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and 
 Verdun. 
 
 Ivan the Terrible of Russia subjugates the Tartars of Kazan. 
 
 1553. Death of Edward VI. of England, July 6; he is succeeded 
 
 by his sister, Mary. 
 
 Tbe duke of Northumberland unsuccessfully attempts to 
 place, his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, upon the 
 throne. 
 
 Charles V. is forced to raise the siege of Metz after a gallant 
 defence by Francis, duke of Guise. 
 
 Maurice of Saxony defeats Albert (Albert Alcibiades) of Bran- 
 denburg at Sievershausen, and is mortally wounded in the 
 battle. 
 
 Burning of Serve tus at Geneva, with the sanction of Calvin. 
 
 Death of Rabelais. 
 
 1554. Wyatt's rebellion in England. Execution of Lady Jane Grey, 
 
 Feb. 12. Queen Mary marries Philip of Spain, just invested 
 by his father, Charles V., with the sovereignty of Naples 
 and Sicily. 
 
 The earl of Arran resigns the regency of Scotland, and is suc- 
 ceeded by Mary of Guise, mother of Mary Stuart. 
 
 Conquest of Astrakhan by Ivan the Terrible. 
 
 1555. Burning of Ridley and Latimer. 
 
 Religious peace of Augsburg between the Catholic and Lu- 
 theran parties in Germany ; the individual members of the 
 Germanic body to enjoy the right of prescribing the form 
 of worship within their limits; the Calvinists not included 
 in the peace.* 
 
 Charles V. resigns the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his 
 son, Philip II. 
 
 Death of Pope Julius III. Election of Paul IV. 
 
 1556. Burning of Cranmer. 
 
 * The peace of Augsburg only secured the liberties of the Lutheran church as 
 against the Catholics, but did not provide for toleration. 
 
64 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1556. Charles V. resigns Spain and the rest of her dependencies to 
 
 his son, Philip II., ah^eady invested with the Netherlands, 
 
 Naples, Sicily, and Milan. 
 Charles V. abdicates the imperial crown of Germany in favor 
 
 of his brother, Ferdinand I. 
 Accession of the Mogul emperor Akbar. 
 
 1557. Victory of the forces of Philip II., under Emanuel Philibert, 
 
 duke of Savoy, over the French, under the constable de 
 Montmorency, at St. Quentin, Aug. 10. 
 
 1558. Taking of Calais by the duke of Guise, Jam ; the English lose 
 
 their last foothold in France. Queen Elizabeth succeeds her 
 
 sister, Mary, Nov. 17. 
 Marriage of Mary Stuart with Francis, dauphin of France, 
 
 April 24. 
 Victory of the Spaniards, under Egmont, over the French at 
 
 Gravelines, July 13. Death of Charles V., Sept. 21. 
 Ivan the Terrible makes war on the Knights Swordbearers. 
 
 1559. Passage of a new Act of Supremacy in England; Protestant- 
 
 ism firmly established. 
 
 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis between France, Spain, and Eng- 
 land ; by its terms Emanuel Philibert of Savoy recovers a 
 great portion of the dominions of his house. 
 
 Francis II. succeeds his father, Henry II., in France, July 10. 
 
 The preachings of Knox excite Iconoclastic outbreaks in Scot- 
 land. The Scottish Reformers take up arms against the 
 queen regent, Mary of Guise. 
 
 Philip II. appoints his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent 
 of the Netherlands ; Granvelle her chief councillor. 
 
 Death of Pope Paul IV. Election of Pius IV. 
 
 1560. The Scottish Reformers conclude a treaty of alliance with 
 
 Queen Elizabeth at Berwick. They are joined by the Eng- 
 lish forces. Death of the queen regent, Mary of Guise. 
 Mary Stuart and her husband, Francis II., conclude the 
 treaty of Edinburgh with Elizabeth and the Reformers. The 
 French forces in the service of the Scottish court return 
 home. The Scottish Parliament passes the Statutes of Ref- 
 ormation. 
 
 Conspiracy of Amboise, formed by the Huguenots, for the 
 overthrow of the Guises. Arrest of Conde. Charles IX. 
 succeeds his brother, Francis II. ; his mother, Catharine de 1 
 Medici, regent. 
 
 Eric XIV. succeeds his father, Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. G5 
 
 1560. Death of Melanchthon. 
 
 1561. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. 
 
 Shane O'Neill heads a rebellion in Ireland. 
 
 Colloquy of Poissy between the French theologians. 
 
 The power of the Knights Swordbearers broken ; their last 
 grand-master, Gotthard Ketteler, cedes Livonia to Sigis- 
 mund Augustus of Poland and Lithuania, and becomes his 
 vassal as hereditary duke of Courland. Esthonia submits 
 to Sweden. 
 
 1562. Edict of St. Germain granting partial toleration to the Hu- 
 
 guenots. Massacre of the Huguenots at Vassy and other 
 cities. Beginning of the Huguenot wars. Defeat of the 
 Huguenots, under Conde and Coligni, at Dreux, Dec. 19. 
 The Huguenots attempt a settlement on the coast of South 
 Carolina. 
 
 1563. Publication of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of Eng- 
 
 land. (See 1552.) 
 
 Assassination of Francis, duke of Guise, Feb. Edict of paci- 
 fication of Amboise. 
 
 Publication of the Heidelberg Catechism by the Calvinists. 
 
 Closing of the council of Trent. 
 
 Philip II. begins the construction of the Escurial. 
 
 1564. Maximilian II. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in the Ger- 
 
 man Emph'e, the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, and Bo- 
 hemia. 
 
 Margaret of Parma is forced to dismiss Granvelle. 
 
 St. Philip Neri founds the Congregation of the Oratory. 
 
 Huguenot settlement on the St. John's River, Florida. 
 
 Death of Michel Angelo and of Calvin. 
 
 1565. Marriage of Mary Stuart with Darnley. 
 
 Successful defence of Malta by La Valette against the Turks, 
 
 led by Mustapha Pasha. 
 The Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, kill the Huguenot 
 
 settlers in Florida, together with the forces under Ribault. 
 
 Foundation of St. Augustine by the Spaniards. 
 Death of Pope Pius IV. 
 
 1566. Murder of Rkzio by Darnley. 
 
 The nobles of the Netherlands, having formed a league among 
 themselves, present a petition of rights to the regent, Mar- 
 garet of Parma. The members of the league assume the 
 name of Gueux (beggars). Iconoclastic outbreaks in the 
 country. 
 
66 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1566. Election of Pope Pius V. 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent invades Hungary. He dies in the 
 camp before Sziget, which falls after a heroic defence by 
 Nicholas Zrinyi. Accession of Selim II. 
 
 1567. Murder of Darnley. Mary Stuart marries Bothwell. She is 
 
 imprisoned, and forced to resign the crown in favor of her 
 
 son, James VI. ; Murray regent. 
 Defeat and assassination of Shane O'Neill. 
 Renewal of the Huguenot wars. Indecisive battle of St. 
 
 Denis, Nov. 10. 
 Arrival of the duke of Alva in the Netherlands as governor 
 
 with a Spanish army. He organizes the "Council of 
 
 Blood." * 
 
 Foundation of the Rugby Grammar School. 
 
 1568. Defeat of Mary Stuart by Murray at Langside, May 13. She 
 
 takes refuge in England, and is imprisoned by Elizabeth. 
 Peace of Longjumeau with the Huguenots. The Protestant 
 
 leaders assemble at La Rochelle. The Huguenot struggle 
 
 is renewed. 
 Execution of Egmont and Horn at Brussels, June 5. Louis 
 
 of Nassau and his brother, William of Orange, in arms 
 
 against the Spaniards. 
 Rising of the Moriscos in Spain, Dec. 
 Eric XIV., king of Sweden, is deposed, and succeeded by his 
 
 brother, John. 
 
 1569. Catholic insurrection in England, headed by the earls of West- 
 
 moreland and Northumberland. 
 
 Defeat of the Huguenots at Jarnac, March 13; Conde cap- 
 tured and shot. Defeat of Coligni at Moncontour, Oct. 3. 
 
 The Florentine dominions are erected into the grand-duchy of 
 Tuscany under Cosmo de' Medici (Cosmo the Great). 
 
 The Diet of Lublin proclaims the union of Poland and Lithu- 
 ania into one commonwealth (to be governed by an elective 
 king). 
 
 1570. Assassination of Murray, regent of Scotland. The kingdom 
 
 is invaded by the English. The earl of Lennox assumes 
 the regency. 
 
 Peace of St. Germain between the Catholics and Hugue- 
 nots. 
 
 Don John of Austria crushes the insurrection of the Moriscos 
 in Spain. 
 
 The Turks complete the conquest of Yemen. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 67 
 
 1571. Dumbarton, the principal stronghold of the adherents of Mary 
 
 Stuart, falls into the hands of the earl of Lennox. The re- 
 gent is mortally wounded at Stirling. The earl of Mar suc- 
 ceeds him. 
 
 Formation of the Holy League against the Turks by Spain, 
 Venice, and the pope. Its fleet, under Don John of Austria, 
 wins a great victory at Lepanto, Oct. 7. 
 
 The Turks wrest Cyprus from the Venetians. 
 
 1572. The duke of Norfolk, having entered into negotiations with 
 
 Mary Stuart, is executed. The earl of Morton becomes re- 
 gent of Scotland. 
 
 Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, is succeeded by her son, 
 Henry. He marries Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles 
 IX. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24 ; Coligni slain. 
 Fresh rising of the Huguenots. 
 
 Great rising of the Dutch against their Spanish oppressors. 
 The patriots recognize the authority of William of Orange. 
 
 Death of Sigismund Augustus of Poland, the last of the Ja- 
 gellonian dynasty ; the crown becomes elective. 
 
 Pope Gregory XIII. succeeds Pius V. 
 
 Publication of the "Lusiad" of Camoens. 
 
 1573. Successful defence of La Rochelle by the Huguenots. The 
 
 treaty of La Rochelle grants them toleration. 
 The Spaniards reduce Haarlem, and besiege Leyden; recall 
 of Alva ; Requesens his successor. 
 
 1574. Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., is crowned 
 
 king of Poland. He becomes king of France on the death 
 of Charles, as Henry III., and abandons Poland. 
 The Spaniards are compelled to raise the siege of Leyden. 
 
 1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania, is elected king of 
 
 Poland through the influence of Zamojski. 
 Foundation of the University of Leyden. 
 
 1576. Henry, duke of Guise, organizes the Catholic League against 
 
 the Huguenots. 
 
 Rudolph II. succeeds his father, Maximilian II., in the Ger- 
 man Empire, the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, and 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Pacification of Ghent, an engagement entered into by the 
 revolted provinces of the Netherlands for their deliverance, 
 Nov. 8. Don John of Austria is appointed governor of the 
 Netherlands by his half-brother, Philip II. 
 
 Plague at Milan. 
 6 
 
68 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1576. First voyage of Frobisher in search of a northwest pas- 
 
 sage. 
 Death of Titian. 
 
 1577. Peace of Bergerac between Henry III. and the Huguenots. 
 Fruitless attempt to pacify the Netherlands through the so- 
 called "Perpetual Edict." 
 
 1578. Treaty of alliance between the Dutch and English. 
 
 Don John of Austria wins a great victory at Gembloux, Jan. 
 31. Alessandro Farnese, duke of Parma, succeeds as gov- 
 ernor of the Netherlands on the death of Don John. 
 
 King Sebastian of Portugal invades Morocco, and is over- 
 whelmed and slain at Alcazarquivir. 
 
 1579. Foundation of the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht. 
 
 The duke of Parma takes Maestricht, June. A Spanish 
 force invades Ireland. 
 Faustus Socinus joins the anti-Trinitarians in Poland. 
 
 1580. The revolted Netherlands appoint the duke of Anjou, brother 
 
 of Henry III., their stadtholder. 
 Conquest of Portugal by Philip II. 
 Publication of the Formula of Concord by the German 
 
 Lutherans. 
 Death of Camoens and of Palladio. 
 
 1581. Execution of the earl of Morton, regent of Scotland. 
 Declaration of independence by the Dutch. The duke of 
 
 Anjou relieves Cambrai. 
 Publication of Tasso's " Gerusalemme liberata." 
 1581-1582. Conquest of Siberia (the western portion of the region 
 now called by that name) by the Cossacks under Yermak 
 Timofeyeff. 
 
 1582. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII. (It is 
 
 directed that Oct. 5 of this year be made Oct. 15.) 
 
 1583. The duke of Anjou renounces the governorship of the Nether- 
 
 lands. 
 Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of Newfoundland for 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1584. Assassination of William of Orange, July 10. The duke of 
 
 Parma lays siege to Antwerp. 
 Treaty of alliance between the Catholic League and Philip 
 
 II., Dec. 
 The archbishop of Cologne, having embraced Protestantism, 
 
 is driven from his territories. 
 Fedor I. succeeds his father, Ivan the Terrible, in Russia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 69 
 
 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh's men visit North Carolina. The name 
 
 Virginia is given to the region hy Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1585. The Catholic League in arms against Henry III. Treaty of 
 
 Nemours between the court and the League. Renewal of 
 the war against the Huguenots. 
 
 Fall of Antwerp, Aug. Elizabeth sends an army, under 
 Leicester, to aid the Dutch. 
 
 Expedition of Drake against the Spanish possessions in 
 America. 
 
 Pope Sixtus V. succeeds Gregory XIII. 
 
 A party sent out by Raleigh makes an unsuccessful settle- 
 ment on Roanoke Island. 
 1585-1587. Expeditions of Davis in search of a northwest passage. 
 
 1586. Conspiracy of Babington against Elizabeth. 
 The earl of Leicester at the head of the Dutch. 
 Death of Stephen Bathori, king of Poland. 
 
 1587. Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, Feb. 8. Drake destroys 
 
 the Spanish ships of war at Cadiz. 
 Henry of Navarre defeats the forces of Henry III. at Cou- 
 
 tras. 
 End of Leicester's rule in the Netherlands. 
 Sigismund Vasa is elected king of Poland. 
 
 1588. The Invincible Armada of Philip II., under the duke of 
 
 Medina Sidonia, is dispersed by the English, under Howard 
 and Drake, Aug. 
 
 Henry of Guise makes his entry into Paris against the prohi- 
 bition of Henry III. The Parisians take up arms against 
 the king, May 12 ("Day of the Barricades ") ; Henry III. is 
 forced to flee. The king convokes the States General at 
 Blois. The duke of Guise is assassinated by his order, Dec. 
 23. Assassination of the cardmal of Guise, Dec. 24. 
 
 Death of Paul Veronese. 
 }9. Unsuccessful English expedition, under Drake and Norris, 
 for the liberation of Portugal from the yoke of Spain. 
 
 Death of Catharine de' Medici, Jan. 5. Henry III. is declared 
 deposed by the Sorbonne and the Parliament of Paris ; his 
 kingdom in arms against him. The duke of Mayenne, head 
 of the Catholic League, enters Paris, and is proclaimed 
 lieutenant general of the kingdom. Henry III. joins Henry 
 of Navarre and the Huguenots, and with them marches 
 against Paris. The king is stabbed by Jacques Clement 
 at St. Cloud, Aug. 1, and dies Aug. 2; end of the Valois 
 
70 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 dynasty. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.) inaugurates the 
 Bourbon dynasty. Henry, forced back into Normandy, is 
 victorious over the duke of Mayenne at Arques, Sept. , and 
 reappears before Paris. 
 
 1590. Victory of Henry IV. over Mayenne at Ivry, March 14. A 
 
 Spanish army, under the duke of Pai'ma, assists the League, 
 and raises the siege of Paris. 
 
 Pope Urban VII. succeeds Sixtus V. He is succeeded by 
 Gregory XIV. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau, governor of the Netherlands, makes him- 
 self master of Breda. 
 
 1591. Pope Innocent X. succeeds Gregory XIV. He dies. 
 
 1592. The Parliament of Scotland abolishes Episcopacy, and estab- 
 
 lishes the Presbyterian government in the church. 
 Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland, succeeds his father, John, 
 
 as king of Sweden. 
 Election of Pope Clement VIII. 
 Death of Montaigne. 
 
 1593. Severe enactments against recusants in England. 
 Henry IV. abjures Protestantism. 
 
 1594. Henry IV. is crowned at Chartres, Feb. 27. Paris opens its 
 
 gates to him, March 22. 
 Death of Tintoretto. 
 
 1595. Henry IV. declares war against Spain. 
 
 1595-1597. First voyage of the Dutch around the Cape of Good 
 Hope to the East Indies. 
 
 1596. Submission of the duke of Mayenne; end of the Catholic 
 
 League. 
 Capture of Cadiz by Howard and Essex. 
 
 1597. Maurice of Nassau, with the aid of English auxiliaries, defeats 
 
 the Spaniards at Turnhout, Jan. 
 Henry IV. of France intrusts the direction of the finances to 
 Rosny (the future duke of Sully). 
 
 1598. Henry IV. issues the Edict of Nantes, granting toleration to 
 
 the Huguenots, April 13. Treaty of Vervins between France 
 
 and Spain. 
 Philip III. succeeds his father, Philip II., in Spain, Sept. 13. 
 Death of Fedor I. of Russia; end of the line of Rurik. Boris 
 
 Godunoff succeeds to the throne. 
 
 1599. Elizabeth sends Essex to Ireland to put down the insurrection 
 
 under the earl of Tyrone. He enters into negotiations with 
 the rebel leader. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 71 
 
 Sigismund Vasa, having attempted to establish Catholicism, 
 in Sweden, loses the crown of that kingdom. 
 
 Death of Spenser. 
 
 The French invade and occupy Savoy. Marriage of Henry 
 IV. with Maria de' Medici. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau defeats the archduke Albert of Austria, 
 governor of the Spanish Netherlands, at Nieuport. 
 
 Burning of Giordano Bruno in Rome. 
 
 The English East India Company is chartered. 
 
 Execution of Essex. Lord Mountjoy breaks the power of Ty- 
 rone. (The insurgent leader surrenders to the English about 
 the beginning of 1603.) 
 
 Peace between France and Savoy. 
 
 The archduke Albert of Austria begins the siege of Ostend. 
 
 The Portuguese discover Australia (first discovery ?). 
 
 Death of Tycho Brahe. 
 
 Bartholomew Gosnold attempts a settlement on the coast of 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Death of Queen Elizabeth, March 24 ; end of the Tudor dy- 
 nasty. James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, ascends 
 the English throne as James I. Sir Walter Raleigh is com- 
 mitted to the Tower on a charge of conspiring to place 
 Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne. 
 
 Conferences of Hampton Court between the English prelates 
 and the Puritans. 
 
 Surrender of Ostend to the Spanish general, Spinola. 
 
 The emperor Rudolph II. provokes a rising of the Hungarians 
 under Bocskay. 
 
 The regent of Sweden, Charles, uncle of the deposed Sigis- 
 mund Vasa, formally ascends the throne as Charles IX. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot to destroy the English king and Parliament ; 
 Guy Fawkes seized, Nov. 5. 
 
 Death of Boris Godunoff, czar of Russia. His son, Fedor, is 
 dethroned and succeeded by the first Pseudo-Demetrius (an 
 impostor pretending to be Demetrius, a son of Ivan IV. put 
 to death by Boris Godunolf in 1591), helped on to his enter- 
 prise by Polish nobles. 
 
 Pope Leo XL succeeds Clement VIII. Paul V. succeeds 
 Leo XL 
 
 Abbas the Great, of Persia, defeats the Turks at Bassorah. 
 
 Cervantes publishes the first portion of "Don Quixote." 
 
 Death of Beza. 
 
72 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1606. The archduke Matthias rebels against his brother, Rudolph II. 
 The first Pseudo-Demetrius is dethroned and killed. Shuiski 
 
 succeeds him as Basil V. 
 James I. grants a patent to the London and Plymouth Com- 
 panies. 
 
 1607. The Protestant city of Donauworth is deprived of its liberties. 
 Naval victory of the Dutch over the Spaniards at Gibraltar. 
 Foundation of Jamestown by the London Company. 
 
 1608. Formation of the Evangelical Union by the Protestant states 
 
 of Germany. Rudolph II. is forced to cede the archduchy 
 of Austria, Moravia, and Hungary to Matthias. 
 
 Marie Jacqueline Angelique Arnauld undertakes the reform 
 of Port Royal. 
 
 Foundation of Quebec by the French. 
 
 1609. Beginning of the contest for the possession of Julich. For- 
 
 mation of the Catholic League in Germany. Rudolph II. 
 is compelled to grant the "Majestatsbrief," an edict of tol- 
 eration, to the Bohemians. 
 
 Truce for twelve years between the Netherlands and Spain. 
 
 Philip III. expels the Moriscos from Spain. 
 
 The London Company is reorganized; Lord Delaware gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain. 
 
 Henry Hudson ascends the Hudson River. 
 
 Foundation of the Bank of Amsterdam. 
 1609-1610. Another Pseudo-Demetrius, by means of the Polish arms, 
 conquers the throne of Russia. The usurper is killed. 
 
 1610. Assassination of Henry IV. by Ravaillac May 14. His son. 
 
 Louis XIH., succeeds under the regency of Maria de 1 Medici. 
 Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay. 
 Discovery of the satellites of Jupiter by Galileo (the telescope 
 
 having been invented a short time previously^. 
 
 1611. Rudolph II. loses the crown of Bohemia, which is transferred 
 
 to his brother, Matthias. 
 Gustavus Adolphus succeeds his father, Charles IX.. on the 
 
 throne of Sweden. 
 Completion of King James's Bible. 
 
 1612. Death of Rudolph II. Matthias becomes emperor. 
 
 The Russians, under the lead of Minin and Pozharski, liberate 
 their country from its Polish invaders. 
 
 1613. Michael Romanoff becomes czar of Russia, the first of the Ro" 
 
 manoff dynasty. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 73 
 
 1614. Last convocation of the States General in France previous to 
 
 the Revolution. 
 The Dutch erect a fort on Manhattan Island. 
 Napier publishes his invention of logarithms. 
 
 1615. Louis XIII. marries Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. 
 
 of Spain. 
 
 1616. Death of Shakespeare and Cervantes. 
 
 1616 (about). Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood. 
 
 1617. Murder of Marshal d'Ancre (Concini), the favorite of Maria 
 
 de' Medici. Maria is exiled to Blois. 
 Peace of Stolbova between Russia and Sweden ; Karelia and 
 Ingria ceded to Sweden. 
 
 1618. Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War ; the Protestants of Bo- 
 hemia rise under Count Thurn. Spain lends her support 
 to the emperor Matthias. 
 Union of the duchy of Prussia with Brandenburg. 
 1618-1619. Synod of Dort; Arminianism condemned. 
 
 1619. Death of the emperor Matthias, March. His cousin, Ferdi- 
 
 nand, succeeds him as head of the house of Austria. He is 
 besieged in Vienna by Thurn, but is relieved by Dampierre. 
 He is elected emperor as Ferdinand II., Aug. Gabriel 
 Bethlen, prince of Transylvania, invades Hungary. Fred- 
 erick V., elector palatine, son-in-law of James I. of Eng- 
 land, is crowned king by the Bohemians. 
 
 Execution of Barneveldt by Maurice of Nassau. 
 
 A colonial assembly is convened at Jamestown, the first rep- 
 resentative body of British colonists in America. Negro 
 slavery is introduced into Virginia. 
 
 Batavia is founded by the Dutch as the seat of government of 
 their East Indian possessions. 
 
 1620. The Catholic League, headed by Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, 
 
 in arms for Ferdinand II. The Protestants are overthrown 
 in the battle of the White Mountain (battle of Prague), 
 Nov. ; flight of Frederick from Bohemia. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in the Valtellina (at this time be- 
 longing to Grisons). The territory is occujned by a Span- 
 ish force. 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth, Dec. 11 (new 
 style, Dec. 21).* 
 
 * Tho celebration of " Forefathers' Day " is held on Dec. 22. 
 
74 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1620. Publication of Francis Bacon's "Novum Organum." 
 
 1621. Fall of Lord Chancellor Bacon. 
 
 Dissolution of the Evangelical Union. Mansfeld continues 
 the war for the elector Frederick V. 
 
 Philip IV. succeeds his father, Philip III., in Spain; Olivarez 
 his minister. The struggle between Spain and the Nether- 
 lands is renewed. 
 
 Pope Gregory XV. succeeds Paul V. 
 
 The Virginia Colony secures a representative government. 
 
 The cotton culture is introduced in Virginia. 
 1621-1622. War between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots, led by 
 
 Rohan and Soubise. 
 1621-1629. Victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus against the Poles. 
 
 1622. Peace of Nikolsburg between Ferdinand II. and Gabriel 
 
 Bethlen. Tilly, the general of the Catholic League, defeats 
 
 the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen, and Christian 
 
 of Brunswick at Hochst. 
 Pope Gregory XV. founds the Propaganda. 
 The Dutch West India Company takes possession of New 
 
 Netherland. Indian massacre in Virginia. 
 
 1623. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, receives the dignity of elector, 
 
 forfeited by the elector palatine Frederick V. 
 Pope Urban VIII. succeeds Gregory XV. 
 Settlement of New Hampshire at Dover. The Dutch build 
 
 Fort Orange (on the present site of Albany). 
 
 1624. Richelieu enters the council of Louis XIII. 
 
 The French expel the Spaniards from the Valtellina. 
 Dissolution of the London Company ; Virginia placed under 
 the crown. 
 
 1625. Charles I. succeeds his father, James I., March 27. He mar- 
 
 ries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. He dissolves his 
 first Parliament. 
 
 The Huguenots renew their struggle. 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark takes up arms for the German Prot- 
 estants. 
 
 Frederick Henry succeeds his brother, Maurice of Nassau, in 
 the Netherlands. The Spanish general Spinola takes Breda. 
 
 1626. Impeachment of BucKingham. Charles I. dissolves his sec- 
 
 ond Parliament. 
 Peace between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots. Treaty of 
 Moncon between France and Spain, recognizing the sov- 
 ereignty of Grisons over the Valtellina. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 75 
 
 1626. Wallenstein, having- raised an anny for Ferdinand II., defeats 
 
 Mansfeld at Dessau, April. Tilly vanquishes Christian IV. 
 of Denmark at Lutter, Aug. 
 The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island from the Indians. 
 
 1627. War is renewed against the Huguenots, who receive English 
 
 aid. La Rochelle, the Protestant stronghold is besieged. 
 Unsuccessful expedition of Buckingham to the Isle of Re. 
 Wallenstein invades Denmark. 
 
 1628. Charles I. is forced to assent to the Petition of Right, directed 
 
 against the abuse of royal authority, June. Assassination 
 of Buckingham. 
 
 Fall of La Rochelle, Oct. 
 
 Wallenstein unsuccessfully besieges Stralsund. 
 
 War in Italy for the possession of Mantua and Montferrat. 
 France supports the claim of Charles, duke of Nevers (re- 
 lated to the late reigning house o! Gonzaga), and is opposed 
 by Spain and Austria. 
 
 Settlement of Salem by the Massachusetts Bay Company. 
 
 1629. Charles I. dissolves his third Parliament. 
 
 End of the Huguenot wars. Richelieu becomes the prime- 
 minister of Louis XIII. 
 
 Ferdinand II. publishes the Edict of Restitution, demanding 
 of the Protestants the surrender to the Catholic church of 
 numerous sees in their possession, as well as of secularized 
 property, March. The emperor concludes peace with Den- 
 mark at Liibeck, May. 
 
 The English take Quebec. 
 
 1630. Dismissal of Wallenstein by Ferdinand II. Gustavus Adol- 
 
 phus of Sweden enters Germany, and wages war for the 
 
 Protestants. 
 The Imperialists take Mantua. Treaty of Ratisbon between 
 
 Louis XIII. and Ferdinand II. , who recognizes Charles of 
 
 Nevers as duke of Mantua. 
 John Winthrop assumes the government of the Massachusetts 
 
 Bay Company. Foundation of Boston. 
 Death of Kepler. 
 
 1631. Imprisonment of Maria de' Medici for intrigues against Riche- 
 
 lieu. She escapes from France. 
 Subsidiary treaty between France and Sweden, signed at Bar- 
 walde. Storming of Magdeburg by Tilly and Pappenheim, 
 May 10 (new style, 20). Gustavus Adolphus overwhelms 
 Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, Sept. 7 (new style, 17). 
 
76 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1631. Advance of Gustavus Adolphus to the Rhine. Occupation 
 of Prague by the forces of John George, elector of Saxony. 
 
 William Clayborne makes a settlement on Kent Island, Mary- 
 land. 
 
 1632. Gustavus Adolphus forces the passage of the Lech, April ; 
 
 Tilly mortally wounded. The Swedes enter Munich. Wal- 
 lenstein, placed in command of the Imperial forces, in- 
 trenches himself before Nuremberg, which is held by Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, who vainly attempts to dislodge him. 
 Victory of the Swedes over Wallenstein at Lutzen, Nov. 6 
 (new style, 16) ; Gustavus Adolphus killed. His daughter, 
 Christina, succeeds him under the regency of Oxenstiern. 
 Death of the elector palatine Frederick V. 
 
 Ladislas IV. succeeds Sigismund Vasa in Poland. 
 
 Cecil ius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, receives a charter 
 for a colony in Maryland. 
 
 Canada is restored to France by England. 
 
 1633. Laud is made archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Union of Heilbronn between the German Protestant states and 
 the Swedes ; Oxenstiern intrusted with the conduct of the 
 war against the emperor and the Catholic states. 
 
 Death of Coke. 
 
 1634. Writ of Ship-Money issued by Charles I. 
 
 Assassination of Wallenstein at Eger, Feb. 15 (new style, 25). 
 The army of the German Protestants and Swedes, under 
 Bernhard of Weimar and Horn, is annihilated at Nord- 
 lingen by the forces of Ferdinand, son of the emperor of 
 Germany, and Gallas,Aug. 27 (new style, Sept. 6). 
 
 Settlement of St. Mary's, Maryland, by Leonard Calvert. 
 1634-1636. Settlement of Connecticut by the English. 
 
 1635. Peace of Prague between Ferdinand II. and Saxony. 
 France, under the guidance of Richelieu, engages in an active 
 
 contest against the power of Austria and Spain. 
 Foundation of the French Academy. 
 Death of Lope de Vega. 
 
 1636. Invasion of France by the Spaniards, Imperialists, and Charles 
 
 of Lorraine. Victory of the Swedish general Baner over 
 the Imperialists at Wittstock, Sept. 24 (new style, Oct. 4). 
 Roger Williams makes a settlement at Providence. 
 First performance of Corneille's " Cid." 
 1636-1638. John Hampden resists the payment of Ship-Money ; the 
 case is decided against him by the Court of Exchequer. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 77 
 
 1637. Burton, Bastwick, and Prynne (Prynne for a second time) are 
 
 condemned by the Star Chamber. The Scots resist the in- 
 troduction of the English liturgy. 
 
 Ferdinand II. is succeeded in all his dominions by his son, 
 Ferdinand III., Feb. 
 
 Subjugation of the Pequots by the New England colonists. 
 
 1638. The Scots publish the National Covenant, and declare Epis- 
 
 copacy abolished. 
 
 Victory of Bernhard of Weimar over the Imperialists at 
 Pvheinfelden. He reduces Breisach. 
 
 William Coddington makes a settlement on the island of 
 Aquidneck, (Rhode Island). Foundation of Harvard Col- 
 lege. Establishment of the colony of New Haven. Swedes 
 and Finns settle in Delaware. 
 
 1639. The Scots take up arms for the Covenant. Pacification of 
 
 Berwick. 
 Naval victory of the Dutch, under M. H. Tromp, over the 
 
 Spaniards in the Downs. 
 The people of Connecticut adopt a constitution. 
 The transit of Venus is first observed by Horrox. 
 
 1640. Session of the Short Parliament, April-May. The Scots in- 
 
 vade England. Meeting of the Long Parliament, Nov. 
 
 Impeachment of Strafford. 
 Accession of Frederick William, the "great elector," in 
 
 Brandenburg. 
 Revolt of Catalonia from Spain. 
 Portugal recovers her independence ; John, duke of Braganca, 
 
 is proclaimed king as John IV. 
 Death of Rubens. 
 
 1641. Archbishop Laud is sent to the Tower. Execution of Straf- 
 
 ford, May. Abolition of the Star Chamber and Court of 
 High Commission. Insurrection in Ireland. 
 
 Publication of Descartes's " Meditationes de Prima Philo- 
 sophia. " 
 
 Death of Vandyke. 
 
 1642. War between Charles I. and Parliament. Indecisive battle 
 
 of Edgehill, Oct. 23. 
 Conspiracy of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII. , 
 the duke of Bouillon, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou against 
 Richelieu. Execution of Cinq-Mars and De Thou. The 
 French conquer Roussillon from Spain. Death of Riche- 
 lieu, Dec. 
 
78 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL IIISTORY. 
 
 1642. Torstenson, the Swedish commander-in-chief, is victorious at 
 
 Breitenfeld. 
 
 Urban VIII. condemns Jansen's work on the doctrine of 
 Augustine. 
 
 Discovery of Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) and New Zea- 
 land by the Dutch navigator Tasman. 
 
 Hobbes publishes his " Elementa Philosophica de Cive." 
 
 Death of Galileo. 
 
 1643. The Westminster assembly of divines convenes. Bristol sur- 
 
 renders to Prince Rupert. First battle of Newbury, Sept. 
 20. Parliament, to secure the close alliance of the Scots, 
 subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant, a bond be- 
 tween the English and Scots to uphold Presbyterianism in 
 Scotland, and establish it in place of Episcopacy in Eng- 
 land and Ireland. 
 
 Louis XIV. succeeds his father, Louis XIII. , May 14; his 
 mother, Anne of Austria, regent ; Mazarin prime-minister. 
 
 Victory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) over the Spaniards 
 at Rocroy. Defeat of the French by the Imperialists at 
 Tuttlingen. 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark makes war on Sweden. 
 
 The New England colonies establish a confederacy. 
 
 Invention of the barometer by Torricelli. 
 
 1644. The Scottish forces enter England. Battle of Marston Moor, 
 
 July 2 ; the Parliamentarians and Scots, commanded by 
 Fairfax, the eaid of Manchester, and the earl of Leven, de- 
 feat the Royalists, under Prince Rupert. The marquis of 
 Montrose defeats the Covenanters at Tippermuir, Sept. 1. 
 Second battle of Newbury, Oct. 27. 
 
 Torstenson overruns Denmark. Battle between the French 
 and Germans at Freiburg. Torstenson defeats Gallas at 
 Jiiterbock. 
 
 Christina assumes the reins of government in Sweden. 
 
 Pope Innocent X. succeeds Urban VIII. 
 
 The Mantchoos establish their dynasty in China on the ruins 
 of the Ming dynasty. 
 
 Roger Williams obtains a patent from Parliament for the 
 united government of the Rhode Island settlements. 
 
 1645. Execution of Laud, Jan. 10. Battle of Naseby, June 14 ; the 
 
 Royalists defeated by Fairfax, seconded by Cromwell and 
 Ireton. Surrender of Bristol to the Parliamentarians. 
 Victory of Torstenson at Jankau, Feb. 24 (new style, March 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 79 
 
 1645. 6) ; the Imperialist general Hatzfeld taken prisoner. Vic- 
 tory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) and Turenne near 
 Nordlingen. 
 
 Peace of Bromsebro between Sweden and Denmark. 
 Alexis succeeds his father, Michael, as czar of Russia. 
 Death of Grotius. 
 
 1646. Charles I. delivers himself up to the Scots, May. Capitula- 
 
 tion of the marquis of Montrose. 
 
 1647. Charles I. is handed over to Parliament by the Scots, Jan. 
 
 30. He is imprisoned. 
 
 Turenne and the Swedish commander Wrangel force Maxi- 
 milian of Bavaria to an armistice. 
 
 Masaniello's insurrection at Naples. 
 
 George Fox, founder of the sect of Quakers, begins his 
 preachings. 
 
 1648. Rcyalist risings in England. The Scots take up arms for 
 
 Charles I., and are defeated by Cromwell. Parliament 
 adopts the Westminster Confession of Faith. Cromwell 
 "purges" the Long Parliament. 
 
 Spain recognizes the independence of Holland, Jan. 
 
 The Swedish general Konigsmark occupies a portion of 
 Prague. Close of the Thirty Years' War; treaties signed 
 at Osnabriick and Minister ; signing of a general treaty at 
 Miinster, the Peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24 (new style). 
 Holland and Switzerland are declared independent of the 
 German Empire; Alsace is annexed to France, which is 
 confirmed in the possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun; 
 Sweden receives Hither Pomerania (west of the Oder), 
 Stettin, the island of Riigen, Wismar, the bishoprics of 
 Bremen * and Verden, etc., and is admitted to representa- 
 tion in the German Diet; Brandenburg secures Further 
 Pomerania, Halberstadt, Minden, and Kammin, and the 
 succession to the see of Magdeburg; Lusatia Is confirmed 
 to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate to Bavaria; a new 
 electorate (the eighth) is created for the Rhenish Palatinate 
 (see 1623) ; the equality of the Catholic, Lutheran, and Re- 
 formed creeds in Germany is established. 
 Beginning of the war of the Fronde in France. Insurrection 
 in Paris against prime-minister Mazarin (" day of the bar- 
 ricades ") Aug. 27. 
 
 * The city of Bremen retained its independence. 
 
80 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1648. John Casimir succeeds his brother, Ladislas IV., in Poland. 
 The Turks begin the blockade of the fortress of Candia. 
 
 1649. Execution of Charles I., Jan. 30. His son Charles is pro- 
 
 claimed king at Edinburgh. England is declared a Com- 
 monwealth. Cromwell storms Drogheda and Wexford; 
 Ireland almost completely subdued. 
 Siege of Paris by the forces of the Court ; an accommoda- 
 tion effected. 
 
 1650. Fatal expedition of the marquis of Montrose in support of 
 
 Charles II. Charles II. in Scotland. Victory of Crom- 
 well over the Scots, under Leslie, at Dunbar, Sept. 3. 
 
 The princes of Conde and Conti and the Duke of Longueville 
 are seized and imprisoned by order of Mazarin. 
 
 Death of Descartes. 
 1650 (about). Invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke. 
 
 1651. Cromwell overwhelms the army of Charles II. at Worcester, 
 
 Sept. 3. Charles escapes to the continent. Passage of the 
 Navigation Act. 
 
 1652. The Irish rebellion completely suppressed. War between 
 
 England and Holland. Victory of Maarten Tromp over 
 Blake near the Goodwin Sands, Nov. 
 Campaign of Conde, the principal leader of the Fronde, who 
 is opposed by Turenne. Collapse of the Fronde. Conde 
 passes over to the Spaniards. 
 
 1653. Victory of Blake over the Dutch, commanded by Maarten 
 
 Tromp, off Portland Island, Feb. Expulsion of the Rump 
 Parliament by Cromwell. Barebones's Parliament assem- 
 bles. Naval victory of the English over the Dutch off the 
 coast of Holland, July 31 (new style, Aug. 10) ; Maarten 
 Tromp killed. Cromwell is made Protector, Dec. 16. 
 Johan de Witt, head of the anti-Orange party in the Nether- 
 lands, is made grand-pensionary of Holland. 
 
 1654. Peace between England and Holland. 
 
 Queen Christina of Sweden abdicates in favor of her cousin, 
 Charles (X.) Gustavus. 
 
 Chmielnicki, the leader of the Cossacks in their revolt 
 against Poland, places himself under the sovereignty of 
 Russia. War between Russia and Poland. 
 
 1655. Conquest of Jamaica from the Spaniards by the English. 
 Charles X. of Sweden overruns Poland. 
 
 Pope Alexander VII. succeeds Innocent X. 
 
 Peter Stuyvesant, director general of New Netherland, dis- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 81 
 
 possesses the Swedish settlers near the mouth of the Dela- 
 ware. 
 
 1656. Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, joins Charles X. 
 
 against the Poles, to whom the Cossacks resume allegiance. 
 
 Victories of the Poles under Czarnecki. Overthrow of the 
 
 Poles in the battle of Warsaw, July 28-30. 
 The Dutch put an end to the Portuguese power in Ceylon. 
 Publication of Pascal's " Lettres provinciales. " 
 
 1657. Oliver Cromwell declines the title of king. 
 
 Austria enters into an alliance with Poland against Sweden. 
 
 Death of the emperor Ferdinand III., April 2. His son Leo- 
 pold succeeds in Austoia, Hungary, and Bohemia. 
 
 Denmark makes war on Sweden. The elector of Branden- 
 burg gives up the Swedish alliance and joins Poland, which 
 renounces her suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia in the 
 treaty of Wehlau. 
 
 1658. Defeat of the Spaniards by the French and English forces 
 
 in the battle of the Dunes. Dunkirk is taken from the 
 Spaniards by the French, and secured to England. 
 
 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept. 3. His son Richard is named 
 Protector. 
 
 Leopold I. is elected emperor of Germany after a year's inter- 
 regnum, July 18. 
 
 Treaty of Roskilde between Denmark and Sweden. War is 
 renewed between the two kingdoms. Charles X. lays siege 
 to Copenhagen. The Dutch, in alliance with Denmark, de- 
 feat the Swedish fleet. 
 
 Aurungzebe succeeds his father, Shah Jehan, as Mogul em- 
 peror (Shah Jehan being kept in prison). 
 
 1659. Resignation of Richard Cromwell, May 25. 
 
 Conventions of the Hague between England, France, and the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain ; an impor- 
 tant part of the Spanish Netherlands as well as Roussillon 
 secured to France; Catalonia to continue a province of 
 Spain. 
 
 The siege of Copenhagen is abandoned by the Swedes. Fred- 
 erick William of Brandenburg defeats the Swedes in Pom- 
 erania. 
 
 First performance of Moliei'e's "Precieuses ridicules." 
 
 1660. March of General Monk upon London. End of the Puritan 
 
 regime. Restoration of the Stuarts; Charles II. is pro- 
 
82 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1660. claimed king in London, May 8. Entry of Charles into 
 London, May 29. Act of Indemnity passed. 
 
 Marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, daughter of 
 Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Charles XL (born 1655) succeeds his father, Charles X., in 
 Sweden. 
 
 Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, and 
 the emperor of Germany; Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden, 
 and also relinquishes Esthonia to her. Treaty of Copen- 
 hagen between Sweden and Denmark; Denmark gives up 
 her possessions in the Swedish portion of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. 
 
 Foundation of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 1661. Execution of the marquis of Argyll. Episcopacy is restored 
 
 in Scotland. 
 Death of Mazarin. Colbert becomes the chief minister of 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 1662. The Act of Uniformity is passed by Parliament requiring 
 
 from all clergymen a strict adhesion to the Episcopal 
 church. Marriage of Charles II. with Catharine of Bra- 
 ganca (Braganza). Execution of Sir Henry Vane. Ejec- 
 tion of the Nonconformist clergy from their livings. Dun- 
 kirk is sold to France. 
 The Connecticut and New Haven colonies receive a charter 
 from Charles II. 
 
 1663. The Turks, under Koprili, overrun Hungary. 
 Foundation of the French Academy of Inscriptions. 
 
 1663-1665. Formation of the colony of Carolina. 
 
 1664. The first Conventicle Act (directed against the Dissenters) 
 
 is passed by Parliament. 
 
 Victory of Montecuculi, general of Leopold I., over the Turks 
 at St. Gotthard, in Hungary, Aug. 1. 
 
 Charles II. grants the region between the Connecticut and 
 Delaware rivers to his brother James, duke of York. The 
 English occupy New Amsterdam, and take possession of 
 New Netherland ; the name New York is given to the city 
 and province. A portion of his territory is disposed of by 
 James, to which the name of New Jersey is given. 
 
 Foundation of the French East India Company. 
 
 1665. War between England and Holland. The great plague in 
 
 London. 
 Charles II. (born 1661) succeeds his father, Philip IV., in Spain. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 83 
 
 1665. The union of the Connecticut and New Haven colonies is com- 
 
 pleted. 
 Death of Poussin. 
 
 1666. Naval hattle in the Downs between the English and Dutch. 
 
 The great fire in London. The Scotch Covenanters take 
 
 up arms, and are defeated. 
 France declares war against England. 
 Foundation of the French Academy of Sciences. 
 
 1667. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV. The 
 
 Dutch admiral De Ruyter entei's the estuary of the Thames, 
 and sails up the Medway, burning a number of English 
 ships ; he afterward sails up the Thames. Treaty of Breda 
 between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Charles 
 II. dismisses his chief adviser, Clarendon, whose impeach- 
 ment follows. 
 
 Treaty of Andrusovo between Poland and Russia ; the Ukraine 
 east of the Dnieper secured to Russia. 
 
 The king of Denmark acquires Oldenburg. 
 
 Pope Clement IX. succeeds Alexander VII. 
 
 Publication of Milton's "Paradise Lost." First performance 
 of Racine's " Andromaque." 
 
 1668. Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden 
 
 against France. Louis XIV. invades and occupies Franche- 
 Comte. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; France restores Franche- 
 Comte to Spain, which makes some cessions on the side of 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 Spain, after a protracted war, recognizes the independence of 
 Portugal in the treaty of Lisbon. 
 
 Abdication of John Casimir of Poland. 
 
 The island of Bombay (conveyed to England by Portugal in 
 the dowry of Catharine of Braganca) is granted to the Eng- 
 lish East India Company by Charles II. 
 
 Father Marquette founds the mission of Sault Ste. Marie. 
 
 1669. Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki is elected king of Poland. 
 The Turks conquer the fortress of Candia from the Venetians. 
 Death of Pope Clement IX. 
 
 Locke draws up the Fundamental Constitution for Carolina. 
 Discovery of phosphorus by Brandt. 
 Death of Rembrandt. 
 
 1670. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XIV, 
 Louis XIV. occupies Lorraine. 
 
 Election of Pope Clement X. 
 
 r 
 
84 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. > 
 
 1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. 
 
 1671. Tyrannical measures of Leopold I. for the subversion of the 
 
 liberties of Hungary. Execution of Frangepan, Zrinyi, 
 and Nadasdy. 
 
 1672. France and England declare war against Holland. Treaty 
 
 of Stockholm between France and Sweden. Louis XIV. 
 invades Holland. The Dutch confer the supreme power 
 on William (HI.) of Orange. Massacre of the brothers De 
 Witt by the people. 
 Acquisition of Pondicherry by the French East India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 1673. Frederick William of Brandenburg, having marched to the 
 
 aid of the Dutch (together with Montecuculi, the Austrian 
 general), is compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality with 
 France. The French take Maestricht and Treves. Will- 
 iam of Orange and Montecuculi take Bonn. The French 
 are baffled in Holland. Spain joins in the struggle against 
 , France. 
 
 Passage by Parliament of the Test Act, excluding Papists and 
 Non-conformists from all offices under the government. 
 (Parliamentary test imposed in 1678.) 
 
 Rising in Hungary against the Austrians. 
 
 Death of Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki, king of Poland. 
 
 John Sobieski defeats the Turks at Khotin. 
 
 The Dutch occupy New York and New Jersey. 
 
 Death of Moliere and of Salvator Rosa. 
 
 1674. Peace between England and Holland. The French conquer 
 
 Franche-Comte from Spain. The German Empire in arms 
 against France. Battle of Senef between Conde and Will- 
 iam of Orange, Aug. 11. Turenne lays waste the Palati- 
 nate, and defeats the Imperialists. Messina rises against 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 John Sobieski is elected king of Poland. 
 
 New York and New Jersey are restored to the English. 
 
 Death of Milton. 
 
 1675. The Swedes, having invaded Brandenburg, are vanquished 
 
 by Frederick William at Fehrbellin, June 18. Death of 
 Turenne at Sasshach, July 27. Conde is victorious against 
 Montecuculi. 
 
 Commencement of King Philip's War. 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral is begun by Christopher Wren. 
 
 Roemer ascertains the velocity of light. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 85 
 
 1676. The French, under Duquesne, defeat the Dutch admiral De 
 
 Ruyter off the coast of Sicily, April ; De Ruyter mortally 
 
 wounded. 
 Fedor II. (III.) succeeds his father, Alexis, in Russia. 
 Pope Innocent XI. succeeds Clement X. 
 End of King - Philip's War. Bacon's rebellion in Virginia 
 
 against the government of Sir William Berkeley. 
 Flamsteed begins observations in the Greenwich Observatory. 
 
 1677. Defeat of William of Orange by the French at Cassel, in 
 
 Flanders, April. Freiburg is taken by the French. 
 Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, daughter of the 
 
 duke of York (James II.). 
 Death of Spinoza. 
 
 1678. Titus Oates invents the Popish Plot. 
 
 France makes peace with Holland and Spain at Nimeguen ; 
 she secures Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders from the 
 latter. 
 
 Tokolyi leads the Hungarians in their struggle against Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 1679. Murder of Sharp, primate of Scotland. The Covenanters take 
 
 up arms, and are defeated by the duke of Monmouth at 
 Bothwell Bridge, June. Passage of the Habeas Corpus 
 Act by Parliament. 
 Peace of Nimeguen between France and the German Empire. 
 Treaties of peace between France, Brandenburg, Sweden, 
 and Denmark. 
 
 1680. Execution of Viscount Stafford for participation in the alleged 
 
 Popish Plot. 
 Death of La Rochefoucauld. 
 
 1681. Louis XIV. occupies Strasburg. 
 
 William Penn obtains his patent from the crown. 
 Death of Calderon. 
 
 1682. Louis XIV. attempts to seize Luxemburg. Declaration of the 
 
 French clergy, drawn up by Bossuet, setting forth the lib- 
 erties of the Gallican Church. 
 
 The Turks take up the cause of Tokolyi. 
 
 Ivan V. and Peter the Great succeed their brother, Fedor II. 
 (III.) in Russia; their sister, Sophia, regent. 
 
 Bombardment of Algiers by the French. 
 
 Purchase of East Jersey by William Penn. He takes posses- 
 sion of New Castle (Delaware) and the surrounding terri- 
 tory. He founds the colony of Pennsylvania. 
 
86 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1682. La Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth. 
 Death of Murillo and of Claude Lorraine. 
 
 1683. Execution of William Russell, July 21, and of Algernon 
 
 Sidney, Dec. 7, for alleged complicity in the Rye House 
 Plot. 
 
 Louis XIV. attacks the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 The Turks, under Kara Mustapha, lay siege to Vienna, July. 
 Defense of the city by Starhemberg. The Turks are utterly 
 defeated before that place by the combined forces of John 
 Sobieski, king of Poland, Charles, duke of Lorraine, and 
 the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, Sept. 12. 
 
 Death of Colbert. The French again bombard Algiers. 
 
 1684. Bombardment of Genoa by the French. Louis XIV. becomes 
 
 master of Luxemburg. 
 Venice joins in the war against the Turks. 
 Arrival in France of an embassy from Siam. 
 The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company is declared 
 
 forfeited. 
 Leibnitz publishes his invention of the differential calculus. 
 
 (Newton's method of fluxions invented about 1665.) 
 Death of Corneille. 
 
 1685. James II. succeeds his brother, Charles II., Feb. 6. The king 
 
 celebrates mass. Insurrection of the earl of Argyll and the 
 duke of Monmouth. Execution of Argyll. Defeat of Mon- 
 mouth at Sedgemoor. Execution of Monmouth. "Bloody 
 assizes " of Jeffreys. 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., Oct. 22 
 (accompanied by terrible persecutions of the Huguenots, 
 known as dragonnades). 
 
 The buccaneers pillage the coast of Peru. 
 
 1686. James II. proceeds to restore Romanism in his dominions. 
 
 He establishes a camp at Hounslow Heath. 
 Louis XIV. and Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy wage a bloody 
 
 crusade against the Waldenses in Piedmont. 
 Buda is taken from the Turks. Successes of the Venetians in 
 
 the Morea. 
 Sir Edmund Andros is made governor of New England. 
 
 1687. James II. appoints Tyrconnel, a Catholic, lord deputy of Ire- 
 
 land. The king issues declarations for liberty of conscience. 
 Caraffa's " bloody tribunal " in Hungary. Leopold I. forces 
 the Hungarians to make their kingdom hereditary in the 
 Hapsburg family. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 87 
 
 1687. The duke of Lorraine defeats the Turks at Mohacs. Taking 
 
 of Athens by the Venetians. 
 Publication of Newton's "Principia," enunciating the law of 
 gravitation. 
 
 1688. James II. issues a fresh Declaration of Indulgence. Arrest of 
 
 the seven bishops for petitioning against it. The English 
 Revolution. William of Orange, invited by the malcon- 
 tents, lands with an army in England, Nov. 5, and pro- 
 ceeds to make himself master of the government. Flight 
 of James II. to France. 
 
 Louis XIV. makes war on Germany. The French take Phil- 
 ippsburg. Louis declares war against Holland. 
 
 Frederick III. succeeds his father, Frederick William, in 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 1689. William (III.) and Mary accept the Declaration of Rights, 
 
 and are proclaimed king and queen of England, Feb. 13. 
 Ireland rises for James II., who lands there. William and 
 Mary are proclaimed in Scotland, April 11. James II. un- 
 successfully besieges Londonderry. England declares war 
 against France. Passage of the Toleration Act by Par- 
 liament ; Catholics not included. Victory of the Scottish 
 Jacobites at Killiecrankie ; their leader, Viscount Dundee, 
 killed. Parliament passes the Bill of Rights. 
 
 The French, at the instance of Louvois, lay waste the Pala- 
 tinate. Formation at Vienna of the Grand Alliance against 
 Louis XIV. Successes of the Germans on the Rhine. 
 
 Peter the Great baffles a conspiracy of the Strelitzes, excited 
 by his sister, Sophia, and takes the reins of power entirely 
 into his own hands. 
 
 Pope Alexander VIII. succeeds Innocent XL 
 
 Overthrow of Andros in New England. Beginning of King 
 William's War in America (terminated by the treaty of 
 Ryswick in 1697). Jacob Leisler's revolution in New 
 York. 
 
 1690. Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy joins the league against France. 
 
 Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over the allies at Fleurus. 
 The fleet of William III. is defeated off Beachy Head by 
 the French, under Tourville. The Orangemen win the bat- 
 tle of the Boyne, July 1 (new style, 11).* Successful cam- 
 paign of Catinat against Savoy. 
 
 * The anniversary of this event is celebrated July 12. 
 
88 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1690. Re-establishment of Presbyterianism as the national church 
 
 system in Scotland. 
 
 Destruction of Schenectady by the French and Indians. Un- 
 successful expedition of Sir William Phips against Canada. 
 
 Publication of Locke's ' ' Essay on the Human Understanding 1 ." 
 
 1691. The Jacobites overcome in Scotland. Defeat of the Irish at 
 
 Aghrim. Surrender of Limerick, the last stronghold of 
 
 James II. in Ireland. 
 Victory of Louis of Baden over the Turks at Salankamen. 
 Pope Innocent XII. succeeds Alexander VIII. 
 Execution of Jacob Leisler. 
 
 1692. Massacre of the MacDonalds at Glencoe, Feb. 13. 
 
 The French fleet, under Tourville, is destroyed by the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch off La Hogue, May 19 (new style, 29). 
 Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over William III. at 
 Steenkerk, July 24 (new style, Aug. 3). 
 
 Erection of the dominions of the duke of Brunswick-Lune- 
 burg into the electorate of Hanover (the ninth electorate). 
 
 Union of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies. Witch- 
 craft delusion at Salem. 
 
 1693. The French admiral Tourville defeats the English fleet off 
 
 Cape St. Vincent. Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over 
 William III. at Neerwinden, July 19 (new style, 29). Cati- 
 nat defeats the army of Savoy at Marsaglia, Oct. 
 
 1694. Successes of the duke de Noailles in Spain. The English at- 
 
 tack the French coast. 
 
 Death of Queen Mary. The censorship of the press in Eng- 
 land ceases. Establishment of the Bank of England. 
 
 Death of Malpighi. 
 
 1695. Campaign of Villeroi against William III. in the Netherlands. 
 Death of La Fontaine and of Huygens. 
 
 1696. Savoy makes peace with France. 
 Death of John Sobieski, king of Poland. 
 Peter the Great takes Azov from the Turks. 
 
 1697. Taking of Barcelona by the French. France makes peace at 
 
 Ryswick with Holland, Spain, and England, Sept. 21 (old 
 style, 11),* and with the German Empire, Oct. 30; the 
 recent French conquests surrendered; Charles IV., duke 
 of Lorraine, placed in possession of his dominions. 
 
 * The date that has passed into' history is Sept. 20 (10). The plenipotentiaries 
 met on that day, but it was after midnight when the first of the treaties was signed. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 89 
 
 1697. Charles XII. succeeds his father, Charles XL, in Sweden. 
 Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is elected king of Poland 
 
 as Augustus II. 
 The forces of Leopold L, under Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
 annihilate the Turkish army at Zenta, Sept. 11. 
 
 1698. Treaty between Louis XIV. and William III. for the partition 
 
 of Spain on the death of Charles II. 
 Revolt of the Strelitzes in Russia. Russia and Turkey sign a 
 
 truce at Carlo witz, Dec. 
 Scottish colony of Darieu founded. (Abandoned in 1700.) 
 
 1699. Peace of Carlowitz between the Turks and Austria, Poland, 
 
 and Venice ; Hungary between the Danube and Theiss 
 given up by the Turks ; Transylvania secured to Leopold 
 I. ; a large part of the Ukraine, lost by Poland in 1672, 
 restored to that kingdom ; the Morea ceded to Venice. 
 
 The French begin the settlement of Louisiana. 
 
 Death of Racine. 
 
 1700. Second Partition Treaty between Louis XIV. and William 
 
 III. 
 
 Charles II., the last of the Hapsburg dynasty in Spain, dies, 
 Nov. 1, after appointing as his successor Philip of Anjou, 
 grandson of Louis XIV., who is proclaimed at Fontaine- 
 bleau and Madrid as Philip V. (Bourbon dynasty in Spain). 
 The throne is claimed by the archduke Charles of Austria, 
 second son of Leopold I. 
 
 Russia, Poland, and Denmark enter into a joint war against 
 Sweden. Charles XII. attacks Copenhagen, and forces the 
 Danes to the peace of Travendal. He overwhelms the 
 army of Peter the Great at Narva, Nov. 30. 
 
 Pope Clement XL succeeds Innocent XII. 
 
 Foundation of the institution afterward named Yale College. 
 
 Death of Dryden. 
 
 1701. Passage of the Act of Settlement in England ; the crown to 
 
 pass, on the death without issue of William III.'s suc- 
 cessor, Anne (daughter of James II.), to Sophia, grand- 
 daughter of James I., electress dowager of Hanover. 
 Philip V. enters Madrid. Beginning of the War of the 
 Spanish Succession. Brilliant campaign of the Austrian 
 general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, in Italy. He defeats 
 Villeroi at Chiari, Sept. The emperor Leopold I. and 
 William III. of England and Holland form the Grand 
 Alliance against Louis XIV. and Philip V., who are sup- 
 
90 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1701. ported by Savoy, some of the German states, and other 
 allies. 
 
 Death of James II. His son, James Edward (the first Pre- 
 tender), is recognized as his successor by Louis XIV. 
 
 Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, crowns himself king 
 of Prussia as Frederick I., Jan. 18. 
 
 Charles XII. defeats the Poles and Saxons. 
 
 1702. Death of William III., March 8 (new style, 19); accession 
 
 of Queen Anne, daughter of James II. ; the grand-pension- 
 ary Heinsius conducts the affairs of the Netherlands ; the 
 succession to the possessions of the House of Orange dis- 
 puted. 
 
 Prince Eugene takes Villeroi prisoner at Cremona. He is 
 checked by Vendome. Successful campaign of Churchill 
 (Marlborough) in the Netherlands. Battle of Friedlingen 
 between Villars and Louis of Baden. Naval triumph of 
 the English and Dutch over the Spaniards and French at 
 Vigo. 
 
 Insurrection of the Camisards, or Protestant inhabitants of 
 the Cevennes. 
 
 Charles XII. enters Warsaw. He defeats the army of Augus- 
 tus II. at Kliszow. He enters Cracow. 
 
 Queen Anne's War in America (terminated by the treaty of 
 Utrecht in 1713). The French found a settlement on the 
 Mobile River, Alabama (transferred to the present site of 
 Mobile in 1711). 
 
 1703. The Dutch military engineer Coehorn reduces Bonn. Villars 
 
 crosses the Rhine, and unites with the army of Maximilian 
 
 Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. The Bavarians invade Tyrol. 
 
 The French general Tallard is victorious on the Rhine. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II. in the alliance against France. 
 Francis Rakoczy excites an insurrection in Hungary against 
 
 Leopold I. 
 Charles XII. defeats the army of Augustus II. at Pultusk. 
 Foundation of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great. 
 
 1704. The Hungarian insurgent forces advance to the neighborhood 
 
 of Vienna. 
 
 Conquest of Gibraltar by the English. Victory of Marlborough 
 and Prince Eugene over the French general Tallard and the 
 elector of Bavaria at Hochstadt (battle of Blenheim), Aug. 13 
 (new style). Villars subdues the Camisards. 
 
 Charles XII. deprives Augustus II. of the crown of Poland, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 91 
 
 1704. and brings about the election of Stanislas LeszczynskL 
 Peter the Great takes Dorpat and Narva. 
 
 Massacre at Deerfield, Massachusetts. 
 Death of Locke. 
 1704-1705. The French and Spaniards fail in an attempt to recon- 
 quer Gibraltar. 
 
 1705. Invasion of Spain by the earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudes- 
 
 ley Shovel. Battle of Cassano between Prince Eugene 
 and Vendome. Surrender of Barcelona to the English. 
 Joseph I. succeeds his father, Leopold L, in Germany and the 
 Austrian possessions, May 5. 
 
 1706. Barcelona is unsuccessfully besieged by the French and Span- 
 
 iards. Victory of Marlborough over the French, under 
 Villeroi, and the Bavarians at Eamillies, May 23 (new 
 style). Madrid is occupied for the archduke Charles, who 
 proclaims himself king there, but is soon forced to with- 
 draw. Victory of Prince Eugene at Turin. He occupies 
 Milan. 
 Charles XII. defeats the forces of Augustus II. at Fraustadt. 
 He occupies Saxony, and dictates the peace of Altran- 
 stadt. 
 
 1707. Legislative union of England and Scotland. 
 
 Victory of the French general Berwick at Almanza, April 
 25 (old style, 14). Unsuccessful attack on Toulon by the 
 allies. Conquest of the kingdom of Naples by the Impe- 
 rialists. 
 
 Death of Vauban. 
 
 1708. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Oudenarde over 
 
 the dukes of Burgundy and Vendome, July 11 (new style). 
 Sir John Leake takes possession of Sardinia. Gallant de- 
 fense of Lille by Bouflers. Fall of that city. 
 Charles XII. invades Russia. 
 
 1709. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over Villars at 
 
 Malplaquet, Sept. 11 (new style). 
 
 Peter the Great annihilates the army of Charles XII. at Pol- 
 tava, July 8. Flight of Charles into Turkish territory. 
 Augustus II. recovers Poland. The Danes invade Swe- 
 den. 
 
 Suppression of the convent of Port Royal des Champs. 
 
 1710. Fall of Godolphin and the Whig ministry; Harley and Bo- 
 
 lingbroke come into power. 
 Victory of Starhemberg at Saragossa, Aug. The archduke 
 
92 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1710. Charles enters Madrid. He is forced to abandon the city, 
 which is re-entered by Philip. Battle of Villaviciosa be- 
 tween Vendome and Starhemberg, Dec. 10. 
 
 Stenbock expels the Danes from Sweden. 
 
 1711. Harley (earl of Oxford) is made lord high treasurer of Great 
 
 Britain. Marlborough, after further successes in Flanders, 
 is removed from his command. 
 
 Death of the emperor Joseph I., April 17 ; his brother, Charles, 
 his successor in the Austrian possessions. Treaty of Szatmar 
 with the Hungarian insurgents. Charles is elected em- 
 peror of Germany (Charles VI.), Oct. 12; his rival, Philip 
 V. , firmly established on the throne of Spain. 
 
 The Turks, having taken up arms for Charles XII., almost 
 achieve the ruin of Peter the Great, who is hemmed in at 
 the river Pruth. They make peace, and recover Azov and 
 other places. 
 
 Unsuccessful expedition of the English and New England 
 forces, under Walker, against Canada. 
 
 Addison publishes the "Spectator" (finally discontinued in 
 1714). 
 
 Publication of Pope's "Essay on Criticism." 
 
 Death of Boileau. 
 
 1712. Armistice between France and England. Campaign of Prince 
 
 Eugene in French Flanders. 
 War of Toggenburg (second Toggenburg War) between the 
 Catholic and Reformed cantons of Switzerland. 
 
 1713. The treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11, or, according to old 
 
 style, March 31 (acceded to by Spain some months later), 
 virtually terminates the War of the Spanish Succession. 
 France, Spain, England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and 
 Portugal make peace. (The struggle continued for a time 
 by France against Austria and the German Empire.) Philip 
 V. recognized as king of Spain ; the Spanish Netherlands, 
 Naples, the Milanese, and Sardinia awarded to Austria (see 
 1714) ; Acadia (Nova Scotia, &c.) ceded to England by 
 France (which also restores the Hudson Bay region) ; the 
 sole sovereignty over Newfoundland secured to England ; 
 Gibraltar and Minorca ceded to England by Spain ; Sicily 
 ceded by Spain to Savoy ; Neufchatel secured to Prussia. 
 
 Frederick William I. succeeds his father, Frederick L, in 
 Prussia, Feb. 25. 
 
 Charles VI. issues the Pragmatic Sanction to secure the sue- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 93 
 
 1713. cession in his hereditary dominions to the female line in 
 default of male issue. 
 
 The Swedish general Stenbock surrenders at Tonningen to 
 
 the Danish, Saxon, and Russian forces. 
 Condemnation of Jansenism by Clement XI. 
 The power of the Tuscaroras is broken by the Carolinians. 
 
 1714. George I., elector of Hanover, succeeds Queen Anne in Great 
 
 Britain, Aug. 1. 
 
 Treaty of Rastadt between Austria and France, March, fol- 
 lowed by the treaty of Baden (in Aargau) between the Ger- 
 man Empire and France; the Spanish Netherlands, Na- 
 ples, the Milanese, and Sardinia secured to Austria, which 
 recovers Freiburg and Breisach; Landau retroceded to 
 France. 
 
 The French and Spanish forces take Barcelona, which is de- 
 prived of its liberties. Marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth 
 Farnese. 
 
 Charles XII. returns to his kingdom. 
 
 1715. Impeachment of Oxford and Bolingbroke. Rebellion in 
 
 Scotland and the north of England in favor of James 
 Edward Stuart. Formation of the Walpole ministry. 
 Overthrow of the Jacobites. 
 
 Louis XV. succeeds his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., Sept. 
 1 ; the duke of Orleans regent. 
 
 Barrier Treaty between Austria, Holland, and England, giv- 
 ing the Dutch the right to garrison certain places in the 
 Austrian Netherlands. 
 
 Frederick William I. declares war against Sweden. He takes 
 Stralsund, Dec. 
 
 The Turks reconquer the Morea from the Venetians. 
 
 Death of Fenelon. 
 
 1716. Passage of the Septennial Act by Parliament, fixing the limit 
 
 of the duration of a Parliament at seven years. 
 John Law establishes his bank in Paris. 
 Charles XII. unsuccessfully invades Norway. 
 Austria makes war on Turkey. Victory of Prince Eugene 
 
 at Peter wardein, Aug. 5. 
 Death of Leibnitz. 
 
 1717. Triple alliance between France, Great Britain, and Holland. 
 Dismissal of Walpole. 
 
 Philip V. of Spain, at the instigation of Alberoni, occupies 
 Sardinia. 
 
94 CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1717. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Belgrade, Aug. 16, and 
 
 enters that city, Aug. 18. 
 
 1718. The Spaniards invade Sicily. Quadruple alliance between 
 
 Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland against Spain. 
 Defeat of the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. 
 
 Peace of Passarowitz between Turkey, Austria, and Venice, 
 July 21 ; Turkey cedes the Banat, part of Servia, with Bel- 
 grade, and parts of Bosnia and Wallachia to Charles VI. ; 
 she retains the Morea. 
 
 Charles XII. attempts the conquest of Norway, and is killed 
 while besieging Frederikshald, Dec. 11. His sister, Ulrica 
 Eleonora, is declared his successor. 
 
 French settlement at New Orleans. 
 
 1719. The French forces, under Berwick, attack Spain. Philip V. 
 
 dismisses his minister Alberoni. 
 Execution of the Swedish prime-minister Gortz. Treaty be- 
 tween Sweden and George I. ; the duchies of Bremen and 
 Verden ceded to Hanover (having been already a few 
 years in her possession). 
 
 1720. The South Sea Company assumes the discharge of the British 
 
 national debt. Bursting of the South Sea Bubble. 
 
 Failure of Law's Mississippi Scheme in France. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy cedes Sicily to Austria in ex- 
 change for Sardinia. The dominions of Savoy become the 
 kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 Treaty of Stockholm between Sweden and Prussia; Sweden 
 cedes a great part of Hither Pomerania. Ulrica Eleonora 
 gives over the government of Sweden to her husband, 
 Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 1721. Walpole again prime-minister. 
 Financial bankruptcy in France. 
 
 Treaty of Nystad between Sweden and Russia ; Livonia, Es- 
 
 thonia, Ingria, and Karelia secured to Russia. 
 Pope Innocent XIII. succeeds Clement XL 
 
 1722. Discovery of a Jacobite plot against George I. 
 Peter the Great makes war on Persia. 
 
 Establishment of the Moravian settlement at Herrnhut under 
 the auspices of Count Zinzendorf . 
 
 1723. Death of the regent Orleans. 
 
 Peter the Great secures large territories from Persia. 
 
 1724. Formal publication of the Pragmatic Sanction by Charles 
 
 VI. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 95 
 
 1724. Philip V. resigns the government of Spain in favor of his 
 
 son, Luis, but resumes it on the latter's death. 
 Pope Benedict XIII. succeeds Innocent XIII. 
 
 1725. Signing of a treaty of alliance at Vienna between Austria 
 
 and Spain. England, France, and Prussia form a counter 
 alliance in the Hanover Treaty. 
 Peter the Great is succeeded by his wife, Catharine I. 
 
 1726. Fleury assumes the conduct of affaire in France. 
 Accession of Russia to the Vienna alliance. Treaty of Wus- 
 
 terhausen between Prussia and Austria. 
 
 1727. Gibraltar is unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. 
 George II. succeeds his father, George I., June 11 (new style, 
 
 22). 
 Death of Catharine I. of Russia. Accession of Peter II., 
 
 grandson of Peter the Great. 
 Death of Isaac Newton. 
 
 1728. A congress of the Great Powers assembles at Soissons. 
 Behring discovers the strait connecting the Arctic with the 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 1729. Treaty of Seville between Spain, Great Britain, and France. 
 Corsica rebels against Genoa. 
 
 Carolina is purchased by the crown. (Two royal provinces 
 constituted, North and South Carolina.*) 
 
 1730. Peter II. of Russia is succeeded by Anne, niece of Peter I. 
 Pope Clement XII. succeeds Benedict XIII. 
 
 Laying out of Baltimore. 
 
 1731. Parma and Piacenza, on the extinction of the male line of 
 
 the Farnese family, are conferred upon Don Carlos, son of 
 Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese. 
 Death of Defoe. 
 1731-1732. Expulsion of the Protestants from Salzburg. 
 
 1732. Oglethorpe embarks from England with a party of colonists 
 
 to found a settlement in Georgia. 
 
 1733. Death of Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, 
 
 Feb. 1. His son, Frederick Augustus II. , succeeds in Saxony. 
 The Poles elect (Sept.) their former king, Stanislas Lesz- 
 czynski, who is supported by his son-in-law, Louis XV. of 
 France, seconded by Spain and Sardinia. A fraction of 
 the Polish nobility, backed by a Russian army, and sup- 
 ported also by Austria, elects Frederick Augustus II. of 
 
 * Under the proprietorship there had been two separate governments for the region. 
 
96 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1733. Saxony (as king of Poland Augustus III.), Oct. Stanislas 
 is expelled. Beginning of the so-called War of the Polish 
 Succession. The French occupy Lorraine, and take Kehl. 
 Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia and the French invade 
 Lomhardy. Occupation of Milan. 
 
 Oglethorpe founds Savannah. 
 
 1734. Campaign of the Austrians against France and Sardinia in 
 
 northern Italy. Don Carlos, son of Philip V., undertakes 
 the conquest of the Two Sicilies. He enters Naples, and 
 proclaims himself king. The Austrian army is vanquished 
 at Bitonto, May 25. Fall of Capua, Nov. 
 The French forces, under Berwick, lay siege to Philippshurg ; 
 Berwick is killed. Fall of that fortress. 
 
 1735. Don Carlos completes the conquest of Sicily, and is crowned 
 
 king of the Two Sicilies as Charles III. (Bourhon dynasty). 
 
 Preliminary treaty of Vienna ; Augustus III. acknowledged 
 king of Poland; Stanislas Leszczynski to succeed Francis 
 Stephen * in the duchy of Lorraine on the extinction of the 
 Medici line in Tuscany, that grand-duchy to he allotted in 
 exchange to Francis Stephen; Lorraine to fall to France 
 on the death of Stanislas ; Charles III. to retain the Two 
 Sicilies ; Parma and Piacenza. to he ceded to Austria. 
 
 Publication of the "Systema Natural " of Linnaeus. 
 
 1736. The Russians make war on Turkey, and take Azov. 
 
 End of the Suffavean (Sofi) dynasty in Persia ; Nadir Shah 
 (Kuli Khan) placed on the throne. 
 
 1737. Stanislas Leszczynski succeeds Francis Stephen in Lorraine. 
 Extinction of the Medici dynasty in Tuscany ; Francis Stephen 
 
 grand-duke. 
 Charles VI. makes war on Turkey. 
 Opening of the University of Gottingen, founded by George 
 
 II. 
 
 1738. Definitive treaty of Vienna between Charles VI. and France, 
 
 Nov. (Acceded to by Sardinia and Spain in 1739.) 
 Nadir Shah conquers Afghanistan. 
 Death of Boerhaave. 
 
 1739. England declares war against Spain. Taking of Poi'to Bello 
 
 by Admiral Vernon. 
 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and the Turks, who re- 
 cover Belgrade and adjoining Servian territories, &c. 
 
 * Afterward emperor of Germany as Francis I. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 97 
 
 1739. The Russian^, after a victorious advance under Miinnichj, 
 
 make peace with Turkey. 
 Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, overthrows the power of the 
 
 Great Mogul, and enters Delhi. He replaces the Great 
 
 Mogul on his throne. 
 Publication of Hume's " Treatise of Human Nature." 
 
 1740. Frederick II., the Great, succeeds his father, Frederick Will- 
 
 iam I., May 31. 
 
 Death of Charles VI., Oct. 20. His daughter, Maria Theresa, 
 succeeds in his hereditary dominions. The succession is 
 disputed by Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, and Au- 
 gustus III. of Poland and Saxony. Spain claims a part of 
 the Austrian dominions. Frederick the Great demands the 
 cession of Silesia, and invades that province, Dec. Begin- 
 ning of the War of the Austrian Succession. 
 
 Death of the empress Anne of Russia. Her grand-nephew, 
 the infant Ivan VI., succeeds under the regency of Biron. 
 
 Pope Benedict XIV. succeeds Clement XII. 
 
 Nadir Shah conquers the rulers of Bokhara and Khiva. 
 
 1741. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at Moll- 
 
 witz, April 10. France takes up arms for the elector 
 Charles Albert, and concludes an alliance with him and 
 Spain at Nymphenburg, May. Alliance between England 
 and Austria. Charles Albert invades the Austrian do- 
 minions. Maria Theresa appeals to the Hungarian Diet at 
 Presburg. Bohemia overrun by the Bavarian, French, and 
 Saxon armies. Fall of Prague, Nov. 26. 
 
 War between Sweden and Russia. 
 
 Deposition of the infant czar, Ivan VI. Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Peter the Great, is proclaimed his successor. 
 
 Vernon unsuccessfully attacks Cartagena, New Granada. 
 
 New Hampshire is finally separated from Massachusetts. 
 
 1742. Fall of the Walpole ministry, Feb. Formation of the Wil- 
 
 mington ministry. 
 
 Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, is chosen emperor of Ger- 
 many (Charles VII.), Jan. 24. Invasion of Bavaria by the 
 Austrians. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Aus- 
 trians at Chotusitz, May 17. Treaty of Breslau; Austria 
 cedes most of Silesia to Prussia. Retreat of the French, 
 under Belleisle, from Prague. 
 
 Dupleix is made governor of the French possessions in India. 
 
 1743. Death of Cardinal Fleury. 
 
98 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1743. The Austrians occupy Bavaria. The English, under George 
 
 II., defeat the French, under Noailles, at Dettingen, June 
 27 (old style, 16). The Wilmington ministry is succeeded 
 by that under Pelham. Saxony and Sardinia join the Aus- 
 trian alliance. 
 Treaty of Abo between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 1744. Defeat of the English fleet before Toulon. Successes of the 
 
 French in the Austrian Netherlands. Charles III. of 
 Naples, after having been forced into neutrality by the 
 English in 1742, again takes up arms against Austria, and 
 is victorious at Velletri. Frederick II. invades Bohemia 
 (Second Silesian War). Victory of the French and Span- 
 iards over Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia near Coni. 
 
 Beginning of King George's War in America (terminated by 
 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748). 
 
 Death of Pope. 
 
 1745. Scotland rises for the Young Pretender, Charles Edward. He 
 
 is victorious at Prestonpans, Sept. 21, and advances into 
 the heart of England, but is forced to retreat. 
 
 Death of the emperor Charles VII., Jan. 20. His successor 
 in Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, makes peace with Maria 
 Theresa. Victory of the French, under Marshal Saxe, over 
 the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, under 
 the duke of Cumberland, at Fontenoy, May 11 (old style, 
 April 30). Victory of Frederick the Great at Hohenfried- 
 berg, June 4. Francis Stephen, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 husband of Maria Theresa, is elected emperor of Germany 
 (Francis I.), Sept. 13. The Prussians, under Leopold of 
 Dessau, defeat the Saxons at Kesselsdorf, Dec. 15. Treaty 
 of Dresden between Austria, Saxony, and Prussia; end of 
 the Second Silesian War. 
 
 The Italian possessions of Austria occupied by her enemies. 
 
 The British colonists of America, under Sir William Pepperell, 
 seconded by a British fleet under Warren, reduce Louis- 
 bui'g, June 17. (The place restored to France in 1748.) 
 
 Death of Swift. 
 1745 (about). Rise of the sect of the Wahabees. 
 
 1746. Victory of Charles Edward at Falkirk, Jan. He is over- 
 
 thrown at Culloden by the duke of Cumberland, April 16 
 (new style, 27). 
 Successful campaign of the Austrians in Italy. They occupy 
 Genoa, the republic having joined the anti-Austrian 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 99 
 
 1746. league, but are soon expelled. Marshal Saxe, after reducing 
 the principal towns of the Austrian Netherlands, defeats 
 the allied army, under Charles of Lorraine, in the battle of 
 Eaucoux, Oct. 11. 
 
 Ferdinand VI. succeeds his father, Philip V., in Spain, 
 
 July 9. 
 Labourdonnais takes Madras. 
 
 1747. Genoa is unsuccessfully invested by the Austrians and Sar- 
 
 dinians. Naval victory of the English, under Admiral An- 
 son, over the French off Cape Finisteri'e. Marshal Saxe 
 defeats the duke of Cumberland at Lawfeld, JuJy 2 (new 
 style). The French take Bergen-op-Zoom. Admiral Hawke 
 defeats the French fleet off Belle-Isle. The Empress Eliza- 
 beth of Russia sets an army on foot for the support of 
 Maria Theresa. 
 
 Briihl becomes prime minister in Saxony. 
 
 Death of Le Sage. 
 
 1748. Maestricht is taken by Marshal Saxe. The peace of Aix-la- 
 
 Chapelle, Oct. 18 (old style, 7), terminates the War of the 
 Austrian Succession ; the basis of settlement being the 
 mutual restitution of conquests, but not in regard to Aus- 
 tria, which, besides confirming Silesia to Frederick the 
 Great, cedes Parma and Piacenza, as well as Guastalla 
 (taken possession of by Austria on the extinction of the 
 
 1 ducal line in 1746), to Don Philip, brother of Ferdinand 
 VI. of Spam. 
 
 Successful defence of Pondicherry by Dupleix against Bos- 
 cawen and Lawrence. 
 
 Publication of Montesquieu's " Esprit des lois." 
 
 Death of Thomson. 
 
 1749. The Ohio Company receives its gi*ant from George II. 
 Publication of Fielding's " Tom Jones " and of the first part 
 
 of Buffon's "Histoire naturelle." 
 
 1750. Death of Muratori and of J. S. Bach. 
 
 1751. Adolphus Frederick, of the house of Holstein-Eutin, succeeds 
 
 Frederick in Sweden. 
 Clive takes Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. 
 The publication of the Encyclopedie is begun by Diderot and 
 
 D'Alembert. 
 
 1752. The reform of the calendar goes into effect in Great Britain. 
 The identity of lightning with electricity is fully demon- 
 strated by Franklin. 
 
100 CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1753. Kaunitz is appointed chancellor by Maria Theresa. 
 Foundation of the British Museum. 
 Death of Berkeley. 
 
 1754. Death of Sir Henry Pelham, March. Formation of the New- 
 
 castle ministry. 
 Beginning of the French and Indian War in America. 
 Death of Fielding. 
 
 1755. Great earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. 1. 
 Unsuccessful British expedition against Fort Duquesne. Brad- 
 dock is overwhelmed on the banks of the Monongahela, 
 Jjily 9. Washington conducts the retreat. Abortive ex- 
 pedition against the French forts of Niagara and Frontenac. 
 Expedition of William Johnson against Crown Point. En- 
 gagement between his forces and those of Dieskau on the 
 shores of Lake George, Sept. 8; repulse of the French. 
 Johnson abandons the attempt to reduce Crown Point. 
 — Dispersion of the French colonists of Acadia. 
 
 Death of Montesquieu. 
 
 1756. Defensive treaty between England and Prussia. — The French 
 
 attack Minorca ; Admiral Byng is defeated off that island, 
 May ; it surrenders, June. — Treaty of alliance between 
 France and Austria against Frederick the Great, con- 
 cluded at Versailles, May. Beginning of the Seven Years' 
 War between Austria, the German Empire, France (joined 
 toward the close of the contest by Spain), Saxony, Russia, 
 and Sweden, on the one side, and Prussia, England, Han- 
 over, and a few of the smaller German states (also Portu- 
 gal at the close of the contest), on the other. Frederick 
 the Great invades Saxony, Aug. He enters Bohemia, and 
 defeats the Austrians, under Browne, at Lowositz, Oct. 1. 
 Surrender of the Saxon army, Oct. 
 
 Resignation of the British premier, the duke of Newcastle, 
 Nov. William Pitt is appointed secretary of state, Dec. 
 
 Surajah Dowlah, the subahdar of Bengal, takes Calcutta, and 
 throws the English prisoners into the Black Hole. 
 
 The forces of Montcalm take Fort Oswego. 
 
 Publication of Voltaire's ' ' Essai sur les mceurs et r esprit des 
 nations." 
 
 1757. The German Diet levies an army against Frederick the Great. 
 
 France and Sweden declare war against Prussia. Fred- 
 erick defeats the Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine and 
 Browne, at Prague, May 6. He besieges that city. His 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 101 
 
 1757. army is overwhelmed by the Austrians, under Daun, at 
 Kolin, June 18. East Prussia is overrun by a Russian 
 army.' Victory of the French, under D'Estrees, at Hastem- 
 beck, July 26, over the duke of Cumberland, who, in Sept., 
 is forced to conclude the convention of Kloster Zeven. 
 The Russians, under Apraxin, defeat the Prussian general 
 Lehwald at Grossjagerndorf, Aug. 30. Victory of Fred- 
 erick over the French and Imperialists, under Soubise, at 
 Rossbach, Nov. 5. The Austrians, after occupying. Silesia, 
 are defeated at Leuthen, Dec. 5. 
 Resignation of Pitt, April. Formation of the Newcastle and 
 Pitt ministry, June ; Pitt at the head of the administra- 
 tion as secretary of state. 
 Clive retakes Calcutta and defeats Surajah Dowlah at Plas- 
 
 sey, June 23. 
 Montcalm takes Fort William Henry. 
 1758 Ferdinand of Brunswick expels the French from Hanover, 
 and defeats them at Crefeld, June 23. Frederick the Great 
 defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug. 25. He is defeated 
 by Daun at Hochkirchen, Oct. 14. 
 Pope Clement XIII. succeeds Benedict XIV. 
 The French, under Lally, take Arcot, and lay siege to Mad- 
 ras. (The siege raised in 1759.) 
 Victory of Montcalm over Abercrombie at Ticonderoga, July 
 8. Amherst and Boscawen reduce Louisburg ; it Is occupied, 
 July 27. The French lose Forts Frontenac and Duquesne. 
 Death of Jonathan Edwards. 
 1759. Victory of Ferdinand of Brunswick over the French at Mm- 
 den Aug. 1. The Russians and Austrians, under Soltikoff 
 and' Laudon, annihilate the army of Frederick the Great 
 at Kunersdorf, Aug. 12. Naval victory of the English, 
 under Boscawen, over the French in the Bay of Lagos, 
 Aug Admiral Hawke defeats Conflans in the Bay of 
 Quiberon, Nov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrenders 
 at Maxen, Nov. 21. . o • 
 
 Charles III. succeeds his brother, Ferdinand VI., m Spam. 
 Ferdinand IV., son of Charles III., becomes king of the 
 Two ^icili6S 
 King Joseph of Portugal, under the guidance of his minister 
 
 Pombal, expels the Jesuits. 
 The English take Guadeloupe from the French. (It is re- 
 stored in 1763.) 
 
102 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1759. The French abandon Ticonderoga and Crown Point. They 
 
 lose Fort Niagara. Successful invasion of Canada by 
 Wolfe. Battle on the Plains of Abraham, Sept. 13 ; Wolfe 
 and Montcalm fall. Surrender of Quebec. 
 Death of Handel. 
 
 1760. Victory of Marshal Broglie at Corbach, July. Frederick the 
 
 Great defeats Laudon at Liegnitz, Aug. Occupation of 
 Berlin (for a few days) by the Russians and Austrians, Oct. 
 Frederick is victorious over Daun at Torgau, Nov. 3. 
 
 George III. succeeds his grandfather, George II., Oct. 25. 
 
 Fall of Montreal ; the British masters of Canada. • 
 
 1761. The English take the island of Belle-Isle. The Family Com- 
 
 pact, an alliance of the Bourbon crowns, is negotiated by 
 Choiseul, Aug. Frederick the Great confronts the Rus- 
 sians, under Buturlin, and the Austrians, under Laudon, 
 in his fortified camp at Bunzelwitz, Aug. -Sept. Storming 
 of Schweidnitz by Laudon, Oct. 1. Surrender of Kolberg 
 to the Russians, Dec. 
 
 Surrender of Pondicherry to the English, Jan. (The place 
 restored to the French in the peace of 1763.) 
 
 Pitt resigns the office of secretary of state, Oct. 
 
 The Mahrattas are overwhelmed by the Afghans, under 
 Ahmed Shah, at Paniput, Jan. 
 
 Death of Richardson. 
 
 1762. England declares war against Spain, Jan. Death of the 
 
 Empress Elizabeth of Russia, Jan. 5. She is succeeded by 
 Peter III., of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, who goes over 
 to the side of Frederick the Great. The English conquer 
 Martinique from the French. (It is restored in 1763.) The 
 Spaniards invade Portugal. Sweden withdraws from the 
 war against Frederick. Peter III. is deposed by his wife, 
 Catharine II., who usurns the throne, July 9. Peter is 
 strangled, July 17. Victory of Frederick at Burkersdorf, 
 July 21. The English reduce Havana, Aug. Henry, 
 brother of Frederick, is victorious at Freiberg, Oct. Pre- 
 liminaries of peace between England, France, Spain, and 
 Portugal are signed at Fontainebleau, Nov. 3. 
 
 Newcastle is succeeded by Bute as head of the English min- 
 istry, May. 
 
 Publication of Rousseau's " Contrat social." 
 
 1763. Peace of Paris between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 
 gal, Feb. 10 : Canada, together with Prince Edward Island 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 103 
 
 1763. and Cape Breton, the region east of the Mississippi hitherto 
 claimed by France, and the islands of Dominica, St. Vin- 
 cent, and Tobago (the last previously neutral territory), 
 ceded by France to England ; Florida ceded to England 
 by Spain, which receives Louisiana from France ; Minorca 
 restored to England ; Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Pon- 
 dicherry restored to France, which receives Santa Lucia ; 
 the French settlements on the Senegal ceded to England ; 
 Goree restored to France. 
 
 Peace of Hubertsburg between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, 
 Feb. 15; Silesia finally confirmed to Frederick the Great; 
 end of the Seven Years' War. 
 
 The Bute administration is succeeded by that of Grenville. 
 Beginning of the persecutions of John Wilkes by the Gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Death of Augustus III. of Poland and Saxony. 
 
 Pontiac's War ; the Indians unsuccessfully besiege the Eng- 
 lish fort at Detroit. 
 
 1764. Louis XV., under the guidance of Choiseul, suppresses the 
 
 order of Jesuits in France. Death of Madame de Pompa- 
 dour. 
 
 Catharine II. of Russia secures the election of Stanislas 
 Poniatowski as king of Poland. 
 
 Publication of Beccaria's "Trattato dei delitti e delle pene." 
 
 Settlement of St. Louis by the French. 
 
 Death of Hogarth. 
 
 1765. Passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament. The Rockingham 
 
 ministry succeeds that of Grenville. 
 
 The first colonial congress is held at New York. 
 
 Joseph II. succeeds his father, Francis I., as emperor of Ger- 
 many, Aug. 18. 
 
 The Mogul emperor formally cedes Bengal, Behar, and Orissa 
 to the English East India Company. 
 
 Death of Edward Young. 
 
 1766. Repeal of the Stamp Act. Fall of the Rockingham ministry ; 
 
 Pitt premier. 
 Death of Stanislas Leszczynski ; Lorraine is united with 
 
 France. 
 Publication of Lessing's " Laocoon" and of Goldsmith's "Vicar 
 
 of Wakefield." 
 
 1767. The British Parliament imposes duties on paper, glass, tea, 
 
 etc. , imported into America. 
 
104 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1767. Charles III. of Spain, with the advice of his minister Aranda, 
 
 orders the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
 First war between the English and Hyder Ali, rajah of 
 
 Mysore. (Peace made in 1769.) 
 Hargreaves invents the spinning- jenny. 
 
 1768. Riots on the occasion of the imprisonment of John Wilkes. 
 
 Retirement of Pitt from the British administration ; Graf- 
 ton at the head of the ministry. 
 
 The British station a military force in Boston. 
 
 The Polish patriots form the Confederation of Bar to resist the 
 designs of Russia. Turkey declares war against Russia. 
 
 Revolt of Ali Bey against the Porte in Egypt. 
 
 Corsica is made over to France by Genoa. 
 
 Cook sails on his first voyage around the world. (He returns 
 in 1771.) 
 
 James Bruce sets out on his travels for the discovery of the 
 sources of the Nile. 
 
 Death of Sterne and of Winckelmann. 
 
 1769. Appearance of the Letters of Junius. 
 
 Defeat of Paoli and subjection of Corsica by the French. 
 A r ictorious advance of the Russians tlumigh Moldavia. 
 Pope Clement XIV. succeeds Clement XIII. 
 Watt obtains his first patent for an improvement in the 
 
 steam engine. 
 Arkwright patents his spinning frame. 
 Death of Gellert. 
 
 1770. The Grafton ministry is succeeded by that of Lord North, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 The Boston massacre, March 5. 
 
 Successes of the Russians in Wallachia. The Russian fleet, 
 under Orloff and Elphinstone, defeats the Turkish fleet at 
 Scio. Elphinstone burns the Turkish fleet at Tchesme, 
 July. The Russian general Rumiantzeff defeats the Tar- 
 tar khan of the Crimea, the vassal of the Porte, on the 
 Pruth. He defeats the Turks on the Kagul. The Rus- 
 sians, under Panin, storm Bender, Sept. 
 
 Christian VII. of Denmark dismisses his minister Bernstorff. 
 Struensee succeeds to his power. 
 
 1771. The Russian general Dolgoruki storms the lines of Perekop, 
 
 and occupies the Crimea. 
 Gustavus III. succeeds his father, Adolphus Frederick, in 
 Sweden. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 105 
 
 1771. Death of Gray and of Smollett. 
 
 1772. First partition of Poland, between Catharine II., Maria The- 
 
 resa, and Frederick the Great. Russia appropriates a con- 
 siderable region on the Diina and the upper Dnieper ; Prus- 
 sia takes Polish or regal Prussia* (Thorn and Dantzic 
 excepted) and adjoining territories; an extensive region 
 bordering on Hungary is annexed to the Austrian domin- 
 ions and constituted into the kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- 
 meria. Stanislas Poniatowski remains king of the remainder 
 of Poland, including Warsaw. 
 
 Struensee, after virtually ruling Denmark, dies on the scaffold. 
 
 Warren Hastings is appointed president of the supreme coun- 
 cil of Bengal. 
 
 Death of Swedenborg. 
 
 1773. Tea thrown overboard at Boston, Dec. 16. 
 
 Clement XIV. pronounces the dissolution of the Jesuit order. 
 
 Advance of the Russians through Bulgaria. They fail before 
 Silistria and Varna. The Cossack Pugatcheff (a pseudo 
 Peter III.) raises a rebellion against Catharine II. 
 
 Fall of Ali Bey. 
 
 Oldenburg is given over by Denmark to the house of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. 
 
 1774. Parliament passes the Boston Poi't Bill, closing the port of 
 
 that city. The first Continental Congress meets at Phila- 
 delphia, Sept. 5. 
 
 Louis XVI. succeeds his grandfather, Louis XV., May 10; 
 Maurepas his minister of state, Turgot minister of finance. 
 
 Siege of Shumla by the Russians. They conclude peace with 
 Turkey at Kutchuk-Kainarji ; Turkey renounces her suzer- 
 ainty over the Crimea and other Tartar territories. 
 
 Death of Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 Warren Hastings becomes the first governor-general of India. 
 
 Discovery of oxygen by Priestley. 
 
 Death of Goldsmith. 
 
 1775. Beginning of the American Revolution. Battle of Lexington, 
 
 April 19. The second Continental Congress assembles at 
 Philadelphia, May 10. Ethan Allen seizes Ticonderoga, 
 May 10. Occupation of Crown Point, May 12. Mecklen- 
 burg (N. C.) declaration of independence, May. Washing- 
 ton is appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental 
 
 * Now included in West Prussia and Ermeland. 
 
106 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1775. forces, June 15. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. Wash- 
 ington conducts the siege of Boston. The Americans take 
 Montreal, Nov. Unsuccessful assault on Quebec, Dec. 31 ; 
 Montgomery killed.— Settlement of Kentucky by Daniel 
 Boone and others. 
 
 Execution of Pugatcheff. 
 Election of Pope Pius VI. 
 
 1776. General Howe evacuates Boston, March 17. Colonel Moultrie 
 
 repulses the British at Charleston, June 28. The Conti- 
 nental Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence 
 July 4. The British, under Howe and Clinton, defeat the 
 Americans, under Putnam and Sullivan, in the battle of 
 Long Island, Aug. 27. The British occupy New York, 
 Sept. 15. The forces of Howe defeat the Americans at 
 White Plains, Oct. 28. The British take Fort Washing- 
 ton, Nov. 16. Washington surprises the Hessians at Tren- 
 ton, Dec. 26. 
 
 Publication of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" and of 
 the first volume of Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
 man Empire." 
 
 Death of Hume. 
 
 1777. Victory of Washington at Princeton, Jan. 3. The British 
 
 general Tryon burns Danbury, April. Burgoyne takes 
 Ticonderoga, July. Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 
 16. Defeat of Washington by Howe in the battle of Bran- 
 dywine, Sept. 11 ; Lafayette wounded. Battle of Stillwater 
 between Burgoyne and Gates, Sept. 19. The British enter 
 Philadelphia, Sept. 26. Repulse of Wasbington at German- 
 town, Oct. 4. Battle of Saratoga (second battle of Still- 
 water) between Burgoyne and Gates, Oct. 7. Surrender of 
 Burgoyne at Saratoga, Oct. 17. Congress adopts the Arti- 
 cles of Confederation, Nov. 15. Washington establishes his 
 winter-quarters at Valley Forge, Dec. 
 
 Louis XVI. appoints Necker minister of finance. 
 
 Annexation of Bukowina to Austria. 
 
 Death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, without direct 
 heirs, Dec. 
 
 1778. France recognizes the independence of the United States, Jan. 
 
 She concludes a treaty of amity and commerce with their 
 commissioners, Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, Feb. 
 6. Death of Pitt, May 11. The British evacuate Philadel- 
 phia, June. Engagement between Washington and Clinton 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 107 
 
 1778. at Monmouth, June 28. The French fleet, under D'Estaing, 
 enters Delaware Bay, July. France declares war against 
 England, July 10. Massacre of Wyoming, July. Battle 
 of Rhode Island between Sullivan and Pigot, Aug. 29. The 
 British enter Savannah, Dec. 29. 
 
 Beginning of the contest known as the War of the Bavarian 
 Succession. Austria attempts to enforce her pretensions to 
 a portion of the Bavarian territories, while upholding the 
 lawful claimant to the throne, Charles Theodore, elector 
 palatine, and is opposed by Prussia. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are rediscovered by Cook. 
 
 Death of Linnseus, of Voltaire, and of Rousseau. 
 
 1779. Victory of the British, under Prevost, at Brier Creek, March 
 
 3. The Americans, under Wayne, storm Stony Point, July 
 16. Victory of Paul Jones off Flamborough Head, Sept. 23. 
 The British repulse an assault on Savannah, Oct. 9. 
 
 Spain declares war against England, June 16. The Spanish 
 and French fleets undertake the blockade of Gibraltar. 
 
 The treaty of Teschen closes the War of the Bavarian Succes- 
 sion ; Charles Theodore recognized as ruler ; the Palatinate 
 of the Rhine united with Bavaria. 
 
 Death of Garrick. 
 
 1780. Surrender of Lincoln at Charleston to Clinton, May 12. De- 
 
 feat of Gates by Cornwallis in the first battle of Camden, 
 Aug. 16. Arnold makes an agreement to deliver West 
 Point to the British, Sept. Execution of Major Andre, 
 Oct. 2. Defeat of the British at King's Mountain, Oct. 7. 
 
 Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Jan. 
 
 Gordon (''no popery") riots in London, June. 
 
 England declares war against Holland, Dec. 
 
 Death of Maria Theresa, Nov. 29. Her son, the emperor 
 Joseph II. , succeeds in her hereditary dominions. He un- 
 dertakes a complete reform in his states. 
 
 Outbreak of a new war between Hyder Ali and the English. 
 
 1781. Victory of the Americans, under Morgan, over the British, 
 
 under Tarleton, at Cowpens, Jan. 17. The ratification of 
 the Articles of Confederation by the states of the Union 
 completed, March 1. Defeat of Greene by Cornwallis at 
 Guilford Court House, March 15. Rawdon is victorious 
 over Greene at Hobkirk's Hill (second battle of Camden), 
 April 25. Arnold takes New London and Fort Griswold, 
 and burns New London, Sept. Battle of Eutaw Springs be- 
 
108 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1781. tween Greene and Stuart, Sept. 8. Washington and Ro- 
 chambeau, aided by a fleet under De Grasse, besiege Corn- 
 wallis in Yorktown, Oct. Surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 19. 
 
 Bombardment of Gibraltar by the Spanish vessels, April- 
 Nov. Naval action between the English and Dutch off 
 Doggerbank, Aug. 5. 
 
 Resignation of Necker, May. 
 
 Joseph II. issues an edict of toleration. 
 
 Discovery of Uranus by Herschel. 
 
 Publication of Kant's " Kritik der reinen Vernunft" and of 
 the first of Schiller's dramas, " Die Rauber." 
 
 Death of Lessing. 
 
 1782. Fall of the North ministry, March. The second Rockingham 
 
 administration follows, succeeded, in July, by the Shelburne 
 ministry. Victory of Admiral Rodney over De Grasse in 
 the Antilles, April 12. The British evacuate Savannah, 
 July. Great cannonade of Gibraltar by the French and 
 Spanish batteries, Sept. 13 ; successful resistance of Eliott. 
 
 John Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens sign a preliminary 
 treaty of peace with Great Britain, Nov. 30. The British 
 evacuate Charleston, Dec. 14. 
 
 Grattan and his followers secure the independence of the Irish 
 Parliament. 
 
 Tippoo Saib succeeds his father, Hyder Ali, in Mysore. 
 
 1783. End of the Shelburne administration, Feb. Formation of the 
 
 " Coalition Ministry " of Portland, Fox, and North, April. 
 Peace of Paris between Great Britain and the United States 
 and peace of Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
 Spain, Sept. 3. Great Britain recognizes the independence 
 of the United States ; she restores Florida and Minorca to 
 Spain, and cedes Tobago to France. Evacuation of New 
 York by the British, Nov. 25. Dismissal of the " Coalition 
 Ministry," Dec. The younger Pitt becomes prime minister. 
 
 Louis XVI. appoints Calonne minister of finance. 
 
 Incorporation of the Crimea with the Russian Empire. 
 
 Successful introduction of the balloon by the brothers Mont- 
 golfier. 
 
 Death of Euler and of D'Alembert. 
 
 1784. England concludes peace with Holland. Creation of the 
 
 Board of Control for the affairs of India. 
 Frederick (VI.) becomes regent of Denmark for his father, 
 Christian VII. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 109 
 
 1784. Tippoo Saib makes peace with the English. 
 Death of Diderot and of Johnson. 
 
 1785. La Perouse sails on his great voyage of exploration to the 
 
 Pacific. 
 
 1786. Outbreak of Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts. 
 Impeachment of Warren Hastings ; the articles of impeach- 
 ment presented by Burke. 
 
 Frederick William II. succeeds his uncle, Frederick the Great, 
 
 Aug. 17. 
 Death of Moses Mendelssohn. 
 
 1787. Suppression of Shays's rebellion. Framing of the constitution 
 
 of the United States by the convention assembled at Phila^ 
 delphia. Congress undertakes the government of the North- 
 west Territory. 
 
 The Assembly of Notables meets at Versailles, Feb. Dismissal 
 of Calonne; Lomenie de Brienne made minister of finance. 
 Dissolution of the Assembly of Notables. Lomenie de Bri- 
 enne is appointed to the office of chief minister. 
 
 Turkey declares war against Russia. Joseph II. begins a war 
 against Turkey by an unsuccessful attempt to seize Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 The anti-Orange party in Holland is crushed by a Prussian 
 army. 
 
 Death of Gluck. 
 
 1788. The Constitution of the United States ratified in eleven of the 
 
 States. (Rhode Island the last to ratify, 1790.) — Founda- 
 tion of Cincinnati. 
 
 The trial of Warren Hastings begins, Feb. (He is acquitted 
 in 1795.) George III. becomes insane, Nov. (Temporary 
 recovery, 1789.) 
 
 Dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne by Louis XVI. ; Necker 
 chief minister. New Assembly of Notables, Nov.-Dec. 
 
 Death of Charles III. of Spain, Dec. 13. He is succeeded by 
 his son, Charles IV. 
 
 Sweden declares war against Russia. 
 
 The Russians, under Potemkin, storm Otchakov, Dec. 
 
 The English establish a penal settlement in Australia. 
 
 Death of Buffon. 
 
 1789. Washington is elected president of the United States. The 
 
 Continental Congress is superseded by the first Congress 
 under the Constitution. Inauguration of Washington in 
 New York, April 30. 
 
110 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. Opening session of the 
 
 States General at Versailles, May 5. The commons (Third 
 Estate), on the motion of Sieves, constitute themselves the 
 National Assembly (Constituent Assembly), June 17. Many 
 deputies from the clergy and nobility unite within a few 
 days with the commons. The Assembly, under the lead of 
 Mirabeau, refuses to obey the king's command to withdraw 
 from its position, June 23. On the demand of Louis XVI. , 
 the two upper orders join the Third Estate, June 27. The 
 king dismisses Necker, July 11. Formation of the National 
 Guard, July 13. Storming of the Bastille by the populace, 
 July 14, followed by its destruction. Lafayette is appointed 
 commander of the National Guard, July 15. The emigra- 
 tion of the nobles begins. Necker is recalled to office, July 
 28. The Constituent Assembly abolishes feudal rights and 
 privileges, Aug. 4. Declaration of the Rights of Man 
 adopted, Aug. The Assembly decrees that the legislative 
 power be vested in a single Chamber of Deputies, Sept. 
 Louis XVI. accepts the decrees of the Assembly, Oct. March 
 of the Parisian populace to Versailles, and tumult there, 
 Oct. 5, 6. The king and Assembly remove to Paris. The 
 Assembly decrees the transfer of the ecclesiastical property 
 to the state, Nov. 2. 
 
 Revolt of the Austrian (Belgian) Netherlands. 
 
 The Austrians and Russians, under the prince of Coburg and 
 Suvaroff , defeat the Turks at Fokshani. The Austrians take 
 Belgrade, the Russians Bender. 
 
 Alexander Mackenzie discovers and explores the Mackenzie 
 River. 
 
 1790. The seat of government of the United States is removed from 
 
 New York to Philadelphia. (See 1800.) Unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition of Harmar against the Indians of the Northwest 
 Territory. 
 
 Division of France (including Corsica) into departments, Jan. 
 The Constituent Assembly abolishes the succession by pri- 
 mogeniture, Feb. Suppression of titles of nobility, June. 
 The civil constitution of the clergy is decreed, July 12. 
 Federation Fete on the Champ de Mars, July 14. Necker 
 is again dismissed, Sept. Suppression of the parliaments, 
 Sept. First issue of assignats, Sept. 
 
 Joseph II. revokes his arbitrary enactments respecting Hun- 
 gary. Death of the emperor, Feb. 20. His brother, Leo- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. HI 
 
 pold, succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected 
 emperor of Germany as Leopold II., Sept. 30. The Aus- 
 trians reoccupy Brussels, Dec. ; the Belgian insurgents sub- 
 dued. 
 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden achieves a great naval victory over 
 the Russians in the Gulf of Finland, July. He concludes 
 peace, Aug. 
 
 Suvaroff* storms Ismail, Dec. 22. 
 
 War between the English and Tippoo Saib. 
 
 Fitch introduces steam navigation on the Delaware. (Soon 
 abandoned.) 
 
 Publication of Goethe's "Faust" (in an incomplete form). 
 
 Death of Franklin and of Adam Smith. 
 
 Admission of Vermont into the Union. Congress charters the 
 Bank of the United States (at Philadelphia). Defeat of St. 
 Clair by the Miamis, Nov. 4. 
 
 Death of Mirabeau, April 2. The royal family attempt a se- 
 cret flight from France, June 20. They are turned back at 
 Varennes, June 21. Leopold II. and Frederick William II. 
 hold a convention at Pillnitz, and issue a declaration prom- 
 ising support to the SmigrSs against the revolution, Aug. 27. 
 The French Assembly completes the constitution, Sept. 3. 
 Louis XVI. takes the oath to it, Sept. 14. The incorpora- 
 tion of Avignon and Venaissin with France is decreed, 
 Sept. Last session of the Constituent Assembly, Sept. 30. 
 Opening of the Legislative Assembly, Oct. 1. 
 
 A new sanction is given to the constitutional liberties of Hun- 
 gary by Leopold II. The Protestants secure their rights. 
 
 Austria concludes peace with Turkey at Sistova, Aug. 
 
 A liberal constitution is promulgated in Poland. 
 
 Division of Canada into Upper and Lower Canada. 
 
 Outbreak of the insurrection of the blacks in the French por- 
 tion of Hayti. The mulattoes take up arms against the 
 whites. 
 
 Galvani publishes his discoveries in animal electricity. 
 
 Appearance of Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man." 
 
 Death of Wesley and of Mozart. 
 
 Admission of Kentucky into the Union. Establishment of 
 the national mint at Philadelphia. 
 
 Confiscation of the property of the French emigres, Feb. 
 Louis XVI. forms a Girondist ministry, March. Adoption 
 of the guillotine, March. The king is forced to declare war 
 
112 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1792. against Austria, April 20. Campaign of the French and 
 Austrians in Flanders. Victor Amadous III. of Sardinia 
 joins the coalition of Austria, Prussia, and other German 
 states against France, July. Famous manifesto issued from 
 the camp of the duke of Brunswick, July 25. The members 
 of the municipal government of Paris establish themselves 
 as the Insurrectionary Commune, Aug. 10. The Parisian 
 populate attack the Tuileries, and massacre the Swiss 
 guards, Aug. 10. The royal family are imprisoned in the 
 Temple, Aug. 13. Establishment of the first Revolution- 
 ary Tribunal by the Jacobins, Aug. 17. The duke of 
 Brunswick invades France at the head of a combined 
 Prussian and Austrian army, Aug. Royalist rising in the 
 west of France, Aug. The "September massacres" in 
 Paris begin, Sept. 2. The French, under the elder Kel- 
 lermann, obtain an advantage over the duke of Brunswick 
 at Valmy, Sept. 20. The National Convention takes the 
 place of the Legislative Assembly, and declares France a 
 republic, Sept. 21.* The French occupy Chambery and 
 Nice, Sept. Victorious advance of Custine into Germany, 
 Sept. -Oct. Victory of Dumouriez over the Austrians at 
 Jemmapes, Nov. 6, folloAved by the occupation of Belgium. 
 Annexation of Savoy to France, Nov. Beginning of the 
 trial of Louis XVI., Dec. 11. 
 
 Death of the emperor Leopold II., March 1. His son, Francis, 
 succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected emperor 
 of Germany as Francis II., July 5. 
 
 Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, Jan. ; Russia ac- 
 quires Otchakov, and extends her territory to the Dniester. 
 
 The opponents of the new constitution in Poland, at the insti- 
 gation of Catharine II. of Russia, form the Confederation of 
 Targovitza. A Russian army invades the country. 
 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden is shot by Anckarstroem, night of 
 March 15, 16. He dies March 29, and is succeeded by his 
 son, Gustavus IV. Adolphus. 
 
 Tippoo Saib is forced to cede a large portion of Mysore to 
 the English. 
 
 Death of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 1793. Beginning of Washington's second administration, March 4. 
 Execution of Louis XVI., Jan. 21. Grand coalition against 
 
 * September 22 was made the beginning of the republican era. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 113 
 
 France, formed by England, Austria, Prussia, the German 
 Empire, Holland, Spain, Naples, and other states. Forma- 
 tion of the new Revolutionary Tribunal in France, March. 
 Danton, Marat, and Robespierre inaugurate the Reign of 
 Terror. Outbreak of a great royalist insurrection in the 
 Vendee, March. Dumouriez is defeated by the Austri- 
 ans, under the prince of Coburg, at Neerwinden, March 
 18, and soon after passes over to the enemy, by whom 
 Belgium is recovered. Institution of the Committee of 
 Public Safety, April 6. The Spanish forces invade Rous- 
 sillon, April. Beginning of the revolt in Corsica against 
 the Convention, May. Fall of the Girondists, June 2. 
 Victory of the Vendeans at Saumur, June 9-10. Cathe- 
 lineau, the Vendean leader, is mortally wounded before 
 Nantes, June 29. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte 
 Corday, July 13. Mentz (taken by Custine in Oct., 1792) 
 surrenders to the Prussians, July 23. Toulon is deliv- 
 ered to the English, Aug. 27. The duke of York, the 
 British commander-in-chief in Flanders, is defeated near 
 Dunkirk, Sept. The Convention passes a law against the 
 "suspected," Sept. 17. Introduction of the revolutionary 
 calendar, Oct. 5. (Era reckoned from Sept. 22, 1792.) 
 Great massacres at Lyons by the troops of the Convention, 
 Oct. The German allies force the lines of Weissenburg, 
 Oct. (They are recovered by the French, Dec.) Jourdan 
 defeats the Austrians in the battle of Wattignies, Oct. 
 15, 16. Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16. La Roche- 
 jaquelein becomes the leader of the Vendeans, Oct. Exe- 
 cution of the Girondists, Oct. 31. Execution of Philippe 
 Egalite, Nov. 6. The "Worship of Reason " is decreed by 
 the Convention, Nov. 10. Defeat of the Vendeans at Le 
 Mans, Dec. Toulon is retaken from the English, Bonaparte 
 commanding the French artillery, Dec. 19. The Vendeans 
 are overthrown at Savenay. Atrocities of CaiTier at Nantes 
 (noyades). 
 
 Second partition of Poland; Prussia appropriates the western- 
 most portion of the kingdom, also taking possession of 
 Dantzic (made a free city in 1772) ; Russia takes a great part 
 of the Lithuanian territories, half of Volhynia, Podolia, and 
 all of the Ukraine held by Poland. 
 
 The commissioners of the French Convention proclaim the 
 freedom of the blacks in Hayti. 
 
114 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1794. Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. Wayne breaks the 
 
 power of the Miamis in a battle at Maumee Rapids, Aug. 20. 
 Jay's toeaty with Great Britain. 
 
 Execution of the Hebertists, March 24. Execution of Danton 
 and his followers, including Camille Desmoulins, April 5. 
 Naval victory of the English, under Howe, over the French, 
 June 1. Fete de VEtre Supreme, June 8. Victory of Jour- 
 dan at Fleurus over the Austrians, under the prince of Co- 
 burg, June 26, followed by the conquest of Belgium. Pall 
 of Robespierre, July 27 (9th Thermidor) ; end of the Reign 
 of Terror. Execution of Robespierre and his supporters, 
 July 28. The French take the Spanish town of Fuen- 
 terrabia, Aug. 1. The English complete the liberation of 
 Corsica from the French, Aug. Victorious campaign of 
 Jourdan on the Rhine, Sept. -Oct. Pichegru invades Hol- 
 land. 
 
 Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and others for high treason. 
 
 Kosciuszko heads a great rising of the Polish people, which is 
 met by the combined arms of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 
 He succumbs to the Russians, under Suvaroff and Fersen, at 
 Maciejowice, Oct. 10, and is made prisoner. Storming of 
 Praga and massacre by the Russians, uuder Suvaroff, Nov. 4. 
 Capitulation of Warsaw, Nov. 8. 
 
 Death of Gibbon and of Lavoisier (guillotined). 
 
 1795. The French complete the conquest of Holland, Jan. Procla- 
 
 mation of the Batavian Republic. Insurrection in Paris 
 against the Convention, April 1. Peace of Basel between 
 France and Prussia, April 5 ; the Prussian territories west 
 of the Rhine left to the French. Fresh rising against the 
 Convention in Paris, May 20. A body of emigres land at 
 Quiberon to join the royalist insurgents called Chouans, 
 June. Failure of the expedition, July. Treaty of Basel 
 between France and Spain, negotiated by Godoy, July. 
 Adoption of the constitution of the year III., Aug. 22. 
 The French armies, under Jourdan and Pichegru, invade 
 Germany, Sept. Annexation of Belgium and other con- 
 quered territories to the French Republic, Oct. 1. Bona- 
 parte successfully defends the Convention against a rising 
 of the royalists, Oct. 5 (13th Vendemiaire). The Austrians, 
 under Clerfayt and Wurmser, force back Jourdan and 
 Pichegru, Oct. Last session of the Convention, Oct. 2G. 
 First session of the Council of Ancients and the Council of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 115 
 
 1795. Five Hundred, Oct. 28. Installation of the Directory 
 (executive of five), Nov. 1. 
 
 The third partition of Poland, between Prussia, Russia, and 
 Austria, terminates the existence of that country as an in- 
 dependent kingdom. The capital, Warsaw, becomes the 
 possession of Prussia. Stanislas Poniatowski resigns his 
 crown. Courland submits to Russia. 
 
 The English take the Cape of Good Hope colony. 
 
 Mungo Park sets out on his first journey to the region of the 
 Niger. 
 
 Foundation of the Institute of France. 
 
 1796. Admission of Tennessee into the Union. John Adams and 
 
 Thomas Jefferson are elected president and vice-president of 
 the United States. 
 
 Bonaparte is placed in command of the "army of Italy." 
 The Vendean leader Charette is made prisoner and shot, 
 March. Victories of Bonaparte over the Austrians and 
 Sardinians at Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, and Mondovi, 
 April. He defeats the Austrians at Lodi, May 10. His 
 forces enter Milan, May. Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia 
 makes peace, relinquishing Savoy and Nice to the French, 
 May. The armies of the Sambre and Meuse and of the 
 Rhine and Moselle, respectively under the command of 
 Jourdan and of Moreau, enter upon a campaign against 
 Austria and Germany. The German states outside of Aus- 
 tria withdraw from the struggle, July-Sept. Bonaparte 
 defeats the forces of Wurmser at Lonato, Aug. 3, and at 
 Castiglione, Aug. 5. General Hoche pacifies the Vendee, 
 Aug. The archduke Charles defeats Jourdan at Wiirzburg, 
 Sept. 3. Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at Ro- 
 veredo, Sept. 3, 4. Wurmser is defeated by Bonaparte at 
 Bassano, Sept. 8, and throws himself into Mantua, which is 
 closely invested by the French. Spain declares war against 
 England, Oct. Ferdinand IV. of Naples makes peace with 
 France, Oct. Moreau effects a masterly retreat to the Rhine, 
 Oct. The French dominion is re-established in Corsica, 
 Oct. Bonaparte defeats the Austrians, under Alvinczy, at 
 Arcole, Nov. 15-17. French expedition to Ireland, Dec. 
 
 Paul succeeds his mother, Catharine II., in Russia, Nov. 17. 
 
 The English dispossess the Dutch in Ceylon. 
 
 Jenner shows the efficacy of vaccination as a preventive 
 against small-pox. 
 9 
 
116 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1796. Death of Burns. 
 
 1797. Beginning of John Adams's administration. Difficulties be- 
 
 tween the United States and France. (Settled by a treaty 
 in 1800.) 
 
 Bonaparte vanquishes the Austrians, under Alvinczy, at Rivoli, 
 Jan. 14. Mantua surrenders to the French, Feb. Bona- 
 parte invades the dominions of Pius VI., Feb. The British 
 admiral Jervis defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vin- 
 cent, Feb. 14. The pope is forced to sign the peace of To- 
 lentino, Feb. 19. Bonaparte invades Austria, March, forces 
 back the archduke Charles, and compels the signature of the 
 preliminaries of Leoben, April 18. Fall of the Venetian 
 Republic, the French forces occupy Venice, May. The 
 Genoese dominions are constituted into the Ligurian Re- 
 public, June. Establishment of the Cisalpine Republic by 
 Bonaparte, June. The majority of the Directory execute a 
 coup-d'etat against the royalist reaction, Sept. 4 (18th 
 Fructidor). Admiral Duncan defeats the Dutch fleet off 
 Camperdown(Camperduin), Oct. 11. Peace of Campo For- 
 mio between France and Austria, Oct. 17; Austria cedes 
 her former Belgian possessions and Lombardy, and receives 
 most of the territories of the extinguished republic of Ven- 
 ice (including Venetian Istria and Dalmatia) ; the Ionian 
 Islands (held by Venice since the Middle Ages) are secured 
 to the French. Return of Bonaparte to Paris, Dec. Open- 
 ing of the congress of Rastadt. Insurrection in Rome. 
 
 Frederick William III. succeeds his father, Frederick William 
 II., in Prussia, Nov. 16. 
 
 1798. Passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws in the United States. 
 The French occupy Rome, and proclaim the Roman Repub- 
 lic, Feb. The French, after revolutionizing Switzerland, 
 proclaim the Helvetic Republic, April. Annexation of 
 Geneva and other portions of Switzerland to France. Bona- 
 parte embarks on his expedition to Egypt, May. He takes 
 possession of Malta, dispossessing the Knights of St. Jobn, 
 June. He enters Alexandria, July. The Mamelukes are 
 vanquished by him in the battle of the Pyramids, July 2\. 
 Nelson destroys the French fleet at Aboukir (battle of the 
 Nile), Aug. 1, 2. The Porte declares war against France, 
 Sept. Ferdinand IV. of Naples, urged by Queen Caro- 
 line, takes up arms against the French, Nov. Alliance 
 between England and Russia, Dec. Charles Emanuel IV. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 117 
 
 of Sardinia is forced by the French to give up Pied- 
 mont. — Hostilities between France and the United States. 
 (Peace made in 1800.) 
 
 The Great Rebellion in Ireland. 
 
 Death of Washington, Dec. 14. 
 
 The French enter Naples, and proclaim the Parthenopean Re- 
 public, Jan. The fortress of Corfu surrenders to the Rus- 
 sians and Turks, March. France declares war against Aus- 
 tria, March. Defeat of Jourdan by the archduke Charles 
 at Stockach, March. Dissolution of the congress of Rastadt, 
 April. Suvaroff, the commander-in-chief of the Russian 
 and Austrian armies in Italy, defeats Moreau at Cassano, 
 April 27. Three members of the Directory are expelled by 
 the Councils, and replaced by others, June 18 (30th Prairial). 
 Macdonald, after a contest of three days, June 17-19, is de- 
 feated by Suvaroff on the Trebbia. End of the Partheno- 
 pean Republic, June; Ferdinand IV. restored to the Nea- 
 politan throne. The Neapolitan forces enter Rome, July. 
 Suvaroff defeats the forces of Joubert and Moreau at Novi, 
 Aug. 15; Joubert killed. Tbe Dutch fleet is delivered to 
 the English, Aug. Victory of Massena over the Russian 
 general Korsakoff at Zurich, Sept, 25, 26. Suvaroff, after 
 marching into Switzerland, executes a retreat through that 
 country, Oct. Failure of the Anglo-Russian expedition to 
 the Nethei*lands, Oct. 
 
 Bonaparte enters upon his Syrian campaign, Feb. Fall of 
 Gaza, Feb. 25. Storming of Jaffa, March 7. Bonaparte 
 begins the siege of Acre, March. He raises the siege, May 
 20, after a gallant defense by the Turks and Sir Sidney 
 Smith, and retreats toward Egypt. Victory of Bonaparte 
 over the Turks at Aboukir, July 25. He embarks for 
 France, leaving Kleber in command in Egypt, Aug. 22. 
 
 Bonaparte undertakes a coup-d'etat against the Directorial 
 government, Nov. 9 (18th Brumaire). The Council of Five 
 Hundred is forcibly dispersed, Nov. 10. Bonaparte, Sieyes, 
 and Ducos are appointed provisional consuls, Nov. 11. 
 Proclamation of the Consulate, Dec. 24; Bonaparte, Cam- 
 baceres, and Lebrun consuls for ten years, Bonaparte first- 
 consul. 
 Death of Pius VI., Aug. 29. 
 
 Storming of Seringapatam by the English, May 4; Tippoo 
 Saib killed. 
 
118 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1799. Invention of the Voltaic pile. 
 
 1800. Removal of the seat of government of the United States from 
 
 Philadelphia to Washington. Presidential election in the 
 United States. Jefferson and Burr receive the largest 
 number of electoral votes, an equal number being cast for 
 both. Other candidates, John Adams and C. C. Pinckney * 
 
 Final submission of the Chouans. The army of Moreau is 
 victorious over the Austrians at Moskirch and Biberach, 
 May. Bonaparte leads his army over the Great St. Ber- 
 nard, May. Genoa, after a desperate defense of nearly 
 two months by Massena, surrenders to the Austrians, June. 
 Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians, under Melas. 
 at Marengo, June 14. The English take Malta, Sept- 
 Victory of Moreau over the Austrians, under the archduke 
 John, at Hohenlinden, Dec. 3. Attempt to assassinate 
 Bonaparte by means of the Infernal Machine, Dec. 24. 
 
 Assassination of Kleber at Cairo, June 14. 
 
 Retrocession of Louisiana to France by Spain. 
 
 Act for the legislative union of Ireland and Great Britain. 
 (To take effect Jan. 1, 1801.) 
 
 Election of Pope Pius VII., March 14. 
 1C01. Jefferson is elected president of the United States by the 
 House of Representatives. Burr becomes vice-president. 
 Outbreak of war between Tripoli and the United States. 
 
 Austria and Germany conclude peace with France at Lune- 
 ville, Feb. 9 ; the stipulations of the peace of Campo For- 
 mio are confirmed ; all of Germany west of the Rhine is re- 
 linquished to France ; the hereditary princes of Germany 
 agree to indemnify themselves for their losses by appropri- 
 ating the territories of the ecclesiastical states as well as 
 the free imperial cities. 
 
 Defeat of the French at Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
 who is mortally wounded, March 21. Treaty of Madrid be- 
 tween France and Spain, March 21, providing for the ces- 
 sion of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the French on 
 the death of the reigning duke, Ferdinand, in exchange 
 for which, Tuscany (occupied by France in 1799) is trans- 
 ferred as the kingdom of Etruria to the duke's son, Don 
 Luis. (Death of Ferdinand, 1802.) Peace between France 
 
 * The last election in which the electors did not specify which candidate was 
 voted tor as president and which as vice-jiresident. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. H9 
 
 1801. and Naples, March. Denmark having entered into an 
 armed neutrality with the northern powers with respect to 
 England, her fleet is attacked at Copenhagen by Nelson, 
 and defeated, April 2. Bonaparte concludes his Concordat 
 with Pius VII., July 15. The French are forced to evacu- 
 ate Egypt. Preliminary treaty of peace between France 
 and England, Oct. Peace between France and Kussia, Oct. 
 
 Resignation of Pitt, March. The Addington ministry suc- 
 ceeds. 
 
 Annexation of Grusia (Georgia) to the Russian Empire. Con- 
 spiracy against Czar Paul, who is murdered, night of March 
 23-24. Accession of his son, Alexander I. 
 
 Bonaparte dispatches an expedition, under Leclerc, against 
 Toussaint TOuverture, the Negro governor of Hayti. 
 
 Piazzi discovers the first asteroid, Ceres. 
 
 1802. The Cisalpine Republic is reconstituted as the Italian Republic, 
 
 with Bonaparte as president, Jan. Peace of Amiens be- 
 tween France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic on one 
 side and Great Britain on the other, March 27. Great 
 Britain recognizes the changes made by France in Europe. 
 She agrees to give up the recent conquests with the excep- 
 tion of Ceylon (conquered from the Dutch in 179G) and 
 Trinidad (conquered from the Spaniards in 1797). (The 
 provision respecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights 
 of St. John not carried out.) Definitive treaty of peace be- 
 tween France and Turkey, June. Bonaparte is declared 
 consul for life, Aug. 2. Rebellion in Switzerland against 
 the established order. Union of Piedmont with France, 
 Sept. The French forces restore order in Switzerland. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia resigns, and is succeeded by 
 his brother, Victor Emanuel I. 
 
 Operations of Leclerc against the blacks of Hayti. Their 
 leader, Toussaint TOuverture, is treacherously seized and 
 conveyed to France. 
 
 Institution of the French Legion of Honor. 
 
 Foundation of the "Edinburgh Review." 
 1C03. Admission of Ohio into the Union. 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States. 
 Lewis and Clarke are appointed to conduct an exploring 
 expedition through the western portion of the territory of 
 the United States. (Advance beyond the Mississippi under- 
 taken in 1801 ; the expedition returns in 1806.) 
 
120 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1803. "Act of Mediation" by which Bonaparte reorganizes the 
 Swiss confederacy, Feb. 19 ; restoration of the former can- 
 tonal system. 
 The imperial delegation (Reichsdeputation) charged with the 
 settlement of the changes in the Germanic body provided 
 for in the treaty of Luneville publishes its conclusions 
 (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss), Feb. 25. 
 England declares war against France, May. The French 
 
 occupy Hanover, June. 
 Emmet's attempted rebellion in Ireland. 
 Brilliant achievements of the English under Wellesley, Lake, 
 
 and others against the Mahrattas. 
 The blacks of Hayti are successful against the French, who 
 
 are expelled from the island. 
 Death of Klopstock, Alfieri, and Herder. 
 1804. Duel between Hamilton and Burr, July 11. (Death of Ham- 
 ilton, July 12.)— The United States frigate " Philadelphia," 
 having fallen into the hands of the Tripolitans in 1803, is 
 retaken and burned by Decatur. Commodore Preble makes 
 repeated attacks upon the Tripolitan fleet in front of Trip- 
 oli, Aug. -Sept.— Thomas Jefferson is re-elected president; 
 George Clinton is chosen vice-president. 
 Arrest of Moreau, Pichegru, and Cadoudal on a charge of 
 conspiracy, Feb. -March. Publication of the Code Civil 
 des Frangais (afterward called Code Napoleon), March 
 21. The duke d'Enghien is shot at Vincennes by order 
 of Bonaparte, March 21. The French fleet, assembled at 
 Boulogne for the invasion of England, is unsuccessfully 
 attacked by the British, April (again in October). Napo- 
 leon I. is declared emperor of France, May 18. Execution 
 of Cadoudal and others, June. Coronation of Napoleon 
 and Josephine in Paris by Pius VII., Dec. 2. Spain de- 
 clares war against England, Dec. 12. 
 Fall of the Addington ministry, May; Pitt again premier. 
 Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of Austria as Francis 
 
 L, Aug. 11. 
 Eising of the Servians against Turkish rule. Czerny George 
 
 (Kara George) becomes their leader. 
 War between the English and the Mahratta ruler Jesewunt 
 
 Eow Holkar. (The war concluded in Dec, 1805.) 
 Dessalines (at first appointed governor) assumes the title of 
 emperor of Hayti as Jean Jacques I. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 121 
 
 1804. Death of Kant. 
 
 1805. Beginning of the second administration of Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 Peace between the United States and Tripoli. 
 Napoleon assumes the title of king of Italy, March. Coalition 
 against France between England, Russia, Austria, and Swe- 
 den. (The South German states side with France.) Union 
 of the Ligurian Republic with France, June. Eugene Beau- 
 harnais is appointed viceroy of Italy, June. The Austrian 
 army invades Bavaria, Sept. The French forces cross the 
 Rhine, Sept. Surrender of the Austrian general Mack with 
 his ariny at Ulm, Oct. 20. A 7 ictory of Nelson over the 
 French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, Oct. 21 ; death of 
 Nelson. The archduke Charles is successful against Massena 
 at Caldiero, Oct. ; the engagement is followed by the retreat 
 of the Austrians. Murat occupies Vienna, Nov. 13. Vic- 
 tory of Napoleon at Austerlitz over the combined Austrian 
 and Russian armies, commanded by the emperors Francis 
 and Alexander, Dec. 2. Convention between France and 
 Prussia, by which Prussia cedes Anspach, Baireuth, Cleves, 
 and Neufchatel, Hanover being given up to her in ex- 
 change, Dec. 15. Peace of Presburg between France and 
 Austria, Dec. 26 ; * Austria cedes her Venetian dominions 
 (including Dalmatia, etc.) to the Italian kingdom, and 
 Tyrol to Bavaria ; Breisgau f and the other old possessions 
 of the house of Austria in Swabia are annexed to Baden, 
 Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria ; Salzburg J is given to Austria ; 
 the imperial city of Augsburg is incorporated with Bava- 
 ria ; Bavaria and Wiirtemberg are erected into kingdoms. 
 (Proclamation of their new titles by the kings of Bavaria 
 and Wiirtemberg, Maximilian I. Joseph and Frederick I., 
 Jan. 1, 1806.) 
 
 * According to a statement in Metternich's correspondence, the treaty was ac- 
 tually signed Dec. 27. 
 
 + Breisgau had already been separated from Austria in pursuance of the stipula- 
 tions of the treaty of Luneville, having been assigned to Ercoleof Este, the dispos- 
 sessed duke of Modena. This prince died in 1803, and Breisgau passed to his son- 
 in-law, the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, uncle of the emperor Francis. On the 
 downfall of Napoleon, Ferdinand's son, Francis IV. , became reigning duke of Modena. 
 
 X Iii the changes which followed the treaty of Luneville, the archbishopric of Salz- 
 burg had been secularized and given to Ferdinand III., the dispossessed grand-duke 
 of Tuscany (brother of the emperor Francis), who was created an imperial elector. 
 In exchange for Salzburg, Ferdinand received the former sec of Wurzburg. On the 
 downfall of Napoleon, he was reinstated in Tuscany. 
 
122 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1805. Publication of Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel." 
 Death of Schiller. 
 
 1806. Death of Pitt, Jan. 23. Formation of the Grenville ministry, 
 
 Feb. ; Fox secretary for foreign affairs. The French forces 
 enter Naples, Feb. Murat is created grand-duke of Cleves 
 and Berg, March. Joseph Bonaparte is proclaimed king of 
 Naples and Sicily, March (the island of Sicily, however, 
 continuing under the dominion of Ferdinand IV.). Louis 
 Bonaparte is proclaimed king of Holland, June. For- 
 mation of the Confederation of the Rhine, July. The em- 
 peror Francis II. renounces the German crown, Aug. 6; 
 end of the Holy Roman Empire. Death of Fox, Sept. 
 13. New coalition against France. Prussia declares war, 
 Oct. Napoleon and Davout overwhelm the Prussians in 
 the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Oct. 14. Napoleon 
 enters Berlin, Oct. 27. The French storm Liibeck, Nov. 6. 
 Bliicher capitulates at Ratkow, Nov. 7. The French oc- 
 cupy Hamburg, Nov. Napoleon issues nis Berlin Decree, 
 declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade and pro- 
 hibiting all commercial intercourse with them, Nov. 21. 
 The French enter Warsaw, Nov. Treaty between France 
 and Saxony, whose elector, Frederick Augustus III., as- 
 sumes the title of king as Frederick Augustus I., Dec. Bat- 
 tle of Pultusk between the French and Russians, Dec. 26. 
 
 The English retake possession of Cape Colony. 
 
 Outbreak of war between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Assassination of Dessalines, emperor of Hayti. Christophe is 
 made president for life. 
 
 1807. Act of Congress abolishing the slave-trade (from Jan. 1, 1808). 
 
 Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. The British man-of-war 
 "Leopard" attacks the frigate "Chesapeake." Congress 
 lays an embargo on shipping destined for foreign ports. 
 Indecisive battle of Eylau between the French and the allied 
 Russians and Prussians, Feb. 7, 8. The French take Daut- 
 zic, May. Victory of Napoleon over the Russians at Fried- 
 land, June 14. Conference between Napoleon and Alex- 
 ander I. on a raft on the Niemen, June. France concludes 
 the treaties of Tilsit with Russia (July 7) and Prussia (July 
 9) ; Prussia gives up her possessions west of the Elbe and 
 the Polish dominions acquired in 1793 and 1795. Out of 
 the latter Napoleon creates the duchy of Warsaw for Fred- 
 erick Augustus of Saxony, Aug. Out of the former and 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 123 
 
 1807. the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbiittel, etc., he creates the kingdom of Westphalia 
 for his brother Jerome, Aug. Napoleon conquers the Swe- 
 dish possessions in Germany, Aug. -Sept. Bombardment of 
 Copenhagen by the British, Sept. 2-5. The French, under 
 Junot, invade Portugal, Nov. The royal family embarks 
 for Brazil. Junot occupies Lisbon. Napoleon takes pos- 
 session of the kingdom of Etruria, Dec. Napoleon's Milan 
 Decree against British commerce. 
 
 Sir John Duckworth forces the passage of the Dardanelles, 
 Feb. Abolition of the slave-trade in the British Empire. 
 Resignation of the Grenville ministry, March. Formation 
 of the Portland ministry, April. 
 
 Inauguration of great political refomis in Prussia, chiefly 
 under the direction of Stein. 
 
 Triumph of the Servian insurgents. (See 1813.) 
 
 Successful introduction of steam navigation ; Fulton's steam- 
 boat, the "Clermont," begins her trips on the Hudson. 
 
 Publication of Hegel's " Phanomenologie des Geistes." 
 1803. James Madison is elected president of the United States; 
 George Clinton is re-elected vice-president. 
 
 The French forces enter Rome, Feb. Charles IV. of Spain is 
 forced by a popular rising to abdicate in favor of his son, 
 Ferdinand VII. , March 19. Murat enters Madrid, March 23. 
 Napoleon annexes a large portion of the Papal States to the 
 kingdom of Italy, April. Ferdinand VII. and Charles IV. 
 meet Napoleon at Bayonne, and are forced to renounce the 
 Spanish crown, April-May. Outbreak of the insurrection 
 against the French in Spain, May. Napoleon makes his 
 brother Joseph king of Spain, June 6. Portugal rises 
 against the French, June. Surrender of the French gen- 
 eral Dupont to the Spaniards at Baylen, July. Napo- 
 leon proclaims his brother-in-law Murat king of Naples, 
 Aug. 1. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, be- 
 gin operations against the French in Portugal, Aug. The 
 French are forced to raise the siege of Saragossa, Aug. 
 Victory of Wellesley over Junot at Vimeiro, Aug. 21. 
 Junot signs the convention of Cintra for the evacuation of 
 Portugal by the French, Aug. 30. Conference of Erfurt 
 between Napoleon, Alexander L, and other princes, Sept.- 
 Oct. Surrender of Madrid to Napoleon, Dec. 
 
 Napoleon forces the king of Prussia to dismiss Stein. 
 
124 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1808. Russia conquers Finland from Sweden. (See 1809.) 
 Frederick VI. succeeds his father, Christian VII., in Denmark. 
 
 (See 1784.) 
 Accession of Mahmoud II. in Turkey. 
 
 1809. Beginning of James Madison's first administration. 
 
 Sir John Moore, after retreating before the French to Corunna. 
 is killed in an engagement before that place, Jan. 16. The 
 French storm Saragossa, Jan. Its citadel falls, Feb. The 
 French, under Soult, take Oporto, March. It is recovered 
 by Beresford, May. Wellesley gains the battle of Talavera 
 de la Reina, July 27, 28. 
 
 Austria renews the struggle against Napoleon. Her armies 
 invade Bavaria and the duchy of Warsaw, April. Andreas 
 Hofer heads an insurrection of the Tyrolese against Bavaria, 
 April. Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Abensberg, Lands- 
 hut, and Eckmuhl, April. Russia declares war against 
 Austria, May 3. Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13. Battle 
 of Aspern and Essling, May 21, 22 ; defeat of Napoleon by 
 the archduke Charles. Eugene Beauharnais defeats the 
 Austrians at Raab, June 14. Napoleon vanquishes the Aus- 
 trians, under the archduke Charles, at Wagram, July 6. 
 Signing of an armistice at Znaim, July 12. Peace of Schon- 
 brunn between France and Austria, Oct. 14. (Ratified in 
 Vienna.) Austria gives up Salzburg, part of the provinces 
 of Upper Austria and Carinthia, Carniola, most of Croatia, 
 the coast-land of the Adriatic, large portions of her Polish 
 territories, etc. Napoleon creates the dominion of the Illy- 
 rian Provinces. 
 
 Decree of Napoleon annexing the territories of the pope to 
 the French Empire, May. Pius VII. excommunicates Na- 
 poleon, June. Arrest of the pope, July, followed by his 
 removal to France. 
 
 Disastrous English expedition to the island of Walcheren. 
 
 Divorce of the empress Josephine, Dec. 
 
 The Portland ministry is succeeded by that of Perceval, 
 Oct. 
 
 Gustavus IV. Adolphus of Sweden is forced to abdicate. His 
 uncle, Charles XIII., succeeds. Cession of Finland to 
 Russia. 
 
 Death of Haydn. 
 
 1810. Andreas Hofer is betrayed to the French and executed, Feb. 
 
 Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa, daughter of the 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 125 
 
 1810. emperor Francis I., April. Annexation of Holland to the 
 French Empire, July. 
 
 The French take Ciudad Rodrigo, July. Wellington (Welles- 
 ley) repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27. Wellington re- 
 tires behind the lines of Torres Vedras, Oct. 
 
 Bremen, Hamburg, Liibeck, and extensive territories in North 
 Germany are united to the French Empire, Dec. 
 
 George III. hopelessly insane. 
 
 Hardenberg is placed at the head of affairs in Prussia. 
 
 Bernadotte is made crown-prince of Sweden. 
 
 Campaign of the Russians, under Kamenskoi, in Bulgaria. 
 Fall of Silistria. The Russians fail before Shumla. Sur- 
 render of Rustchuk. 
 
 The English wrest Mauritius from the French. 
 
 The Mexican war of independence is begun by Hidalgo. 
 
 Beginning of the struggle for independence in Venezuela, 
 New Granada, and Buenos Ayres. Insurrection in Quito. 
 Revolutionary movement in Chili. 
 
 Opening of the University of Berlin. 
 
 Death of Cavendish. 
 
 1811. Battle of Tippecanoe, Nov. 7; General Harrison defeats the 
 
 Indians, under the Prophet, brother of Tecumseh. 
 Retreat of Massena from Portugal, March. Surrender of 
 
 Badajoz to the French, March. Wellington repulses Mas- 
 sena at Fuentes de Onoro, May. Beresford defeats Soult at 
 
 Albuera, May 16. 
 George, Prince of Wales, is appointed regent of Great Britain, 
 
 Feb. 
 Financial bankruptcy of the Austrian government. 
 Campaign of the Russians, under Kutuzoff, against the Turks 
 
 on the Danube. 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo by Mehemet Ali. 
 The English make themselves masters of Java. 
 Hidalgo falls into the hands of the Spaniards, and is executed. 
 
 Morelos continues the war for Mexican independence. 
 
 (Made prisoner by the Spaniards, and executed, 1815.) 
 New Granada and Venezuela declare themselves independent 
 
 of Spain. Revolutionary struggle in Paraguay. 
 Publication of the first volume of Niebuhr's ' ' Romische Ge- 
 
 schichfe." 
 
 1812. Admission of the state of Louisiana into the Union. (The ter- 
 
 ritory of Louisiana becomes the territory of Missouri. ) The 
 
126 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1812. United States declare war against Great Britain, June 18. 
 The Americans, under General Hull, invade Canada, July. 
 Surrender of Hull to Brock at Detroit, Aug. 16. The Ameri- 
 can frigate " Constitution," commanded by Isaac Hull, cap- 
 tures the "Guerriere," Aug. 19. The Americans cross the 
 Niagara, and take Queenstown, which is soon recovered by 
 the enemy, Oct. The American sloop-of-war "Wasp," 
 Capt. Jones, captures the " Frolic," Oct. 18. Jones is forced 
 to surrender on the same day to the " Poictiers." The 
 American frigate "United States," Capt. Decatur, captures 
 the "Macedonian," Oct. 25. The "Constitution," now 
 commanded by Captain Bainbridge, takes the "Java," 
 Dec. 29. — James Madison is re-elected president, and El- 
 bridge Gerry is chosen vice-president; defeated candidate 
 for the presidency, De Witt Clinton. 
 
 Suchet takes Valencia, Jan. Wellington storms Ciudad Rod- 
 rigo, Jan. Promulgation of a liberal constitution by the 
 Spanish Cortes, March 18. Wellington storms Badajoz, 
 April. Victory of Wellington over Marmont near Sala- 
 manca, July 22. The British enter Madrid, Aug. Wel- 
 lington unsuccessfully besieges Burgos, Sept. -Oct. 
 
 Napoleon declares war against Russia, June 22. The Grand 
 Army begins the invasion of Russia, June. The French 
 defeat the Russians at Smolensk, which is burned, Aug. 
 Victory of Napoleon over Kutuzoff at Borodino, on the 
 Moskva, Sept. 7. The French, under Murat, enter Moscow, 
 Sept. 14. Entry of Napoleon into the city, Sept. 15. Mos- 
 cow is set on fire by the Russians, Sept. 15-16. The French 
 army begins its retreat, Oct. Passage of the Berezina by 
 the French, Nov. 26-28. Napoleon arrives in Paris, Dec. 
 
 Assassination of Perceval, May. Formation of the Liverpool 
 ministry, June. 
 
 Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, May 28 ; the 
 Pruth made the boundary between the two empires. 
 
 Great earthquake at Caracas, March 26. Temporary triumph 
 of the Spanish authority in Venezuela. The patriot leader 
 Miranda is sent a prisoner to Spain. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Byron's " Childe Harold." 
 
 1813. Victory of the British, under Proctor, over the Americans at 
 
 French town, Jan. 22. Capture of the British brig "Pea- 
 cock" by the "Hornet," Capt. Lawrence, Feb. 24. Begin- 
 ning of Madison's second administration. The Americans 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 127 
 
 1813. take York (Toronto), April 27; their leader, General Pike, 
 killed. Successful expedition of the Americans against 
 Fort George, May. Repulse of the British at Sackett's 
 Harbor, May. Capture of the " Chesapeake," Capt. Law- 
 rence, by the "Shannon," June 1. The British brig 
 "Boxer" is taken by the "Enterprise," Sept. 5. Victory 
 of the Americans, under Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, 
 Sept. 10. General Harrison defeats Proctor in the battle 
 of the Thames, Oct. 5 ; death of Tecumseh.— War with the 
 Creek Indians. 
 
 Rising of the German people against France. Russia and 
 Prussia conclude an alliance at Kalisz, Feb. Bernadotte, 
 at the head of a Swedish army, joins in the campaign 
 against France. Napoleon is victorious over the Russians 
 and Prussians at Liitzen, May 2. He wins the battle at 
 Bautzen, May 20, 21. Austria declares war against France, 
 Aug. 12. Oudinot is defeated by the army of Bernadotte 
 (by Billow's division) at Grossbeeren, Aug. 23. Bliicher 
 defeats Macdonald on the Katzbach, Aug. 26. Napoleon 
 wins the battle of Dresden against Prince Schwa rzenberg, 
 Aug. 26, 27. Battle of Culm, Aug. 29, 30; the French gen- 
 eral Vandamme is forced to surrender. Billow defeats 
 Ney at Dennewitz, Sept. 6. Battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, 
 19 ; Napoleon overthrown by the forces of Schwarzenberg, 
 commander-in-chief of the allies, Bliicher, Bernadotte, and 
 Bennigsen; the king of Saxony, Napoleon's ally, taken 
 prisoner. Dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine 
 and of the kingdom of Westphalia. Retreat of Napoleon 
 to the Rhine. Expulsion of the French from Holland. 
 William, son of William V., is placed by the Dutch at 
 the head of the government. 
 
 Wellington defeats the French at Vitoria June 21. He is 
 victorious over Soult in the Pyrenees, July. He passes 
 the Bidassoa, Oct., and pursues Soult into France. 
 
 Re-establishment of Turkish authority in Servia. (See 1815.) 
 
 Russia compels Persia, in the peace of Gulistan, to cede Da- 
 ghestan, Shirvan, Baku, and other territories. (The treaty 
 ratified at Tiflis in 1814.) 
 
 Successful advance of Bolivar through New Granada and 
 Venezuela. He enters Caracas, and receives the title of 
 Libertador. 
 
 Death of Wieland, Lagrange, Delille, Korner. 
 
128 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1814. General Jackson breaks the power of the Creeks. The Ameri- 
 can frigate "Essex," Commodore Porter, surrenders to the 
 ' ' Phoebe " and ' ' Cherub, " March 28. Capture of the Brit- 
 ish brig " Epervier " by the " Peacock," April 29. Victory 
 of the Americans at Chippewa, July 5. The Americans, 
 under Scott and Brown, are victorious at Lundy's Lane (bat- 
 tle of Bridge water), July 25. The forces of General Ross, 
 after dispersing the American militia at Bladensburg, enter 
 Washington, Aug. 24. They retire, Aug. 25. The Ameri- 
 cans, under Commodore McDonough, achieve a great vic- 
 tory on Lake Champlain, Sept. 11. The British unsuccess- 
 fully attack Baltimore, Sept. 12, 13. General Jackson seizes 
 Pensacola, Nov. The people of New England hold a con- 
 vention at Hartford to protest against the continuance of 
 the war with Great Britain, Dec. Treaty of Ghent between 
 the United States and Great Britain, Dec. 24. 
 
 Invasion of France by the allies. Murat deserts Napoleon, 
 and joins the allies, Jan. 
 
 Denmark is forced to conclude the treaty of Kiel with Sweden 
 and England, Jan. 14 ; she cedes Norway to Sweden, receiv- 
 ing Swedish Pomerania in exchange, and Heligoland to 
 England. (The island held by the British since 1807.) 
 
 Pius VII. is permitted to leave Fontainebleau, Jan. The Con- 
 gress of Chatillon between France and the allies opens, Feb. 
 (Closes in March.) Napoleon is victorious over the army of 
 Blucher at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, and 
 Vauchamps, and achieves a success against Schwarzenberg 
 at Montereau, Feb. Wellington defeats Soult at Orthez, 
 Feb. 27. Blucher repulses the French at Laon, March 9. 
 The French evacuate the Papal States, March. Napoleon 
 releases Ferdinand VII., March. Schwarzenberg is vic- 
 torious at Arcis-sur-Aube, March 20, 21. Battle before Paris, 
 the allies storm Montmartre, March 30. Entry of the allies 
 into Paris, March 31. The French Senate, under the lead 
 of Talleyrand, establishes a provisional government, April 
 
 I. Soult unsuccessfully opposes Wellington at Toulouse, 
 April 10. Abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, April 
 
 II. Eugene Beauharnais, after opposing the Austrians 
 in Italy, signs a convention with them, April 1G. Louis 
 XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., having been placed on the 
 French throne by the Senate and the allies, makes his sol- 
 emn entry into Paris, May 3 ; First Restoration. Napoleon 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ]?9 
 
 1814. lands at Elba, May 4. Peace of Paris, May 30. Louis 
 XVIII. promulgates the " Charte constitutionelle," June 4. 
 A general congress of the European powers, great and small, 
 is assembled at Vienna for the purpose of reorganizing the 
 political system of the continent; opening of the congress, 
 Sept. Austria is represented by Metternich; Prussia, by 
 Hardenberg; Russia, by Nesselrode; England and Han- 
 over, by Castlereagh and Munster; France, by Talleyrand. 
 Ferdinand VII., after abrogating the constitution of 1S12, en- 
 ters Madrid, May. 
 Pius VII. re-establishes the order of Jesuits, Aug. 
 Defeat of Bolivar and Marino by the Spanish general Boves 
 at La Puerta, Venezuela. Bolivar passes over into New 
 Granada, where he is appointed commander-in-chief. 
 Francia becomes dictator of Paraguay. 
 Introduction of gas for general illumination in London. 
 Death of Fichte and of Count Rumford. 
 1815. General Jackson repulses the British attack on New Orleans, 
 Jan. 8. Commodore Decatur imposes terms upon the Dey 
 of Algiers, and exacts reparation from Tunis and Tripoli. 
 Escape of Napoleon from Elba, Feb. 26. He lands in France, 
 March 1. Ney passes over to him with his army, March 13. 
 Louis XVIII. quits Paris, March 20 ; Napoleon enters it on 
 the same day, beginning of the "Hundred Days." Re- 
 newal of the alliance of the Great Powers against France, 
 March. Murat takes up arms on the side of Napoleon, 
 March. He is defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino, 
 May 2, 3 ; the kingdom of Naples recovered by Ferdinand 
 IV. Vendean insurrection under the younger La Roche- 
 jacquelin, May-June. Signing of the acts of the Congress 
 of Vienna relating to the reconstitution of the Germanic 
 federation, June 8. Signing of the general acts of the con- 
 gress, June 9. 
 
 REORGANIZATION OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF EUROPE 
 BY THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 
 
 Franco is permitted to retain the limits existing at the outbreak 
 of the Revolution. 
 
 Austria is reinstated in the possession of all the territories be- 
 longing to her at the outbreak of the French Revolution, with the 
 exception of Belgium (conquered by the French in 1794) ami of 
 Breisgau and other territories annexed to the South German states; 
 
130 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 her dominion being re-established in Lombardy (given up to the 
 French in 1797), in Tyrol (transferred to Bavaria in 1805), and in 
 the territories constituted by Napoleon into the Illyrian Provinces 
 in 1809. Venetia, Venetian Istria, and Dalmatia (all acquired in 
 1797, and lost in 180o) are restored to her, as is also Salzburg (ac- 
 quired in 1805, and annexed to Bavaria in 1810). West Galicia 
 (taken in the third partition of Poland, 1795, and united with the 
 duchy of Warsaw after the war of 1809) remains severed from 
 Austria. 
 
 Prussia resumes possession of the territories west of the Rhine 
 ceded to France in 1795 and of the German territories lost in 
 1806-'7 (not reckoning Hanover, acquired in 1805), excepting East 
 Friesland and Ilildesheim, given to Hanover in exchange for Lau- 
 enburg. Of the Polish territories taken from her to form the duchy 
 of Warsaw (created in 1807), she recovers the western portion, which 
 is constituted the grand-duchy of Posen. Dantzic (held by the 
 French from 1807 to the beginning of 1814) is also reunited with 
 Prussia. Of the territories ceded in exchange for Hanover in 1805, 
 viz., Anspach, Baireuth, Cleves, and Neufclnltel, she recovers Cleves 
 and Neufchatel. Bavaria retaining Anspach and Baireuth. She re- 
 ceives as new possessions half of Saxony, most of the former archbish- 
 oprics of Treves and Cologne, the territories of the grand-duchy of 
 Berg and of the duchy of Jiilich, and also Swedish Pomerania (with 
 Riigen), given to Denmark in compensation for the loss of Norway, 
 and made over by that power to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. 
 
 The bulk of the duchy of Warsaw is erected into the new king- 
 dom of Poland, placed under the sceptre of Russia. The republic 
 of Cracow is created and placed under the protection of the Great 
 Powers. 
 
 Russia retains Finland (conquered from Sweden in 1808-'9). 
 
 The king of Sweden is confirmed in the possession of Norway. 
 
 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, and Oldenburg resume their 
 position as independent states. Hanover being erected into a king- 
 dom. The order of things introduced in Germany after the treaty 
 of Luneville — that is, the incorporation of the ecclesiastical states 
 and free cities with the larger members of the federal body — remains 
 perpetuated. Hamburg, Bremen, Liibeck, and Frankfort, alone of 
 all the free cities, reappear as autonomous political units. Of the 
 territory of the Lower Palatinate west of the Rhine (ceded to France 
 in 1801), the greater portion is reunited with Bavaria. Baden re- 
 tains Heidelberg and Mannheim (formerly included in the Palati- 
 nate), acquired in 1803. The former see of Wiirzburg is united with 
 Bavaria. 
 
 The members of the former German Empire enter into a new 
 union, the German Confederation. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 131 
 
 Holland and Belgium are united, and erected into the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands for the house of Orange. Luxemburg (pre- 
 viously part of the Austrian Netherlands) is erected into a grand- 
 duchy for the king of the Netherlands (to be included, as formerly, 
 in the Germanic body). 
 
 The house of Savoy is reinstated in the possession of the conti- 
 nental dominions of the kingdom of Sardinia (Savoy and Nice, lost 
 in 1792, and Piedmont, lost in 1798), and is invested with the do- 
 minions of the former republic of Genoa. 
 
 Ferdinand III. (brother of the emperor Francis) is restored to 
 the throne of Tuscany. 
 
 Francis IV., grandson of Ercole III. of Este (and cousin of the 
 emperor Francis), is placed on the throne of Modena. 
 
 Ferdinand IV. of Naples and Sicily is reinstated in his conti- 
 nental possessions (given to Joseph Bonaparte in 1806, and to Murat 
 in 1808). 
 
 The States of the Church are restored in nearly their former ex- 
 tent, France retaining Avignon and Venaissin. 
 
 Parma is given to the ex-empress Maria Louisa. 
 
 Lucca is given to the Spanish infanta jVIaria Louisa (widow of 
 Louis, son of the last duke of Parma, and ex-queen of Etruria) and 
 her son, Charles Louis.* 
 
 The Austrian dominions in Italy are erected into the Lombardo- 
 Venetian Kingdom. 
 
 Spain is secured to the dispossessed Bourbon dynasty. 
 
 The Swiss Confederacy is reconstituted with 22 cantons. 
 
 Of the colonial possessions taken by England from the Dutch 
 and French, she retains Cape Colony, Ceylon, a large portion of the 
 Dutch possessions in Guiana, Mauritius, Tobago, and Santa Lucia. 
 She is secured in the possession of Malta and Heligoland. 
 
 1815. Napoleon defeats Bliicher at Ligny, June 16. Repulse of Ney 
 at Quatre-Bras, June 16. Napoleon is overwhelmed at 
 Waterloo by Wellington and Bliicher, June 18. Second 
 abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, June 22. Entry 
 of the allies into Paris, July 7. Louis XVIII. re-enters 
 the capital, July 8 ; Second Restoration. Napoleon gives 
 himself up to the captain of the "Bellerophon," July 15. 
 (He lands at St. Helena, Oct. 16.) Formation of the 
 Richelieu ministry by Louis XVIII. , Sept. 
 Formation of the Holy Alliance between the sovereigns of 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 
 
 * In a subsequent treaty, the reversion of Parma, ou the death of the ex-empress 
 Maria Louisa, was secured to Charles Louis. 
 10 
 
132 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1815. Expedition of Murat to Calabria for the recovery of the king- 
 
 dom of Naples, Oct. He is shot by order of court-martial, 
 
 night of Oct. 13-14. 
 Treaty constituting the Ionian Islands a republic under 
 
 British protection, Nov. 
 Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20. 
 Execution of Ney, Dec. 7. 
 Milosh Obrenovitch heads a new insurrection of the Servian 
 
 people. 
 The Spaniards, under Morillo, overrun New Granada. 
 
 1816. Congress charters a second Bank of the United States for 
 
 twenty years. James Monroe is elected president of the 
 United States ; Daniel D. Tompkins, vice-president. Ad- 
 mission of Indiana into the Union. 
 
 Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, grants a 
 representative government to his subjects. Opening of 
 the Diet (Bundestag)* of the German Confederation, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 Ferdinand IV.- unites the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily into 
 the single kingdom of the Two Sicilies, assuming the title 
 of Ferdinand I., Dec. 
 
 Death of Maria I. of Portugal. Her son, John VI., pre- 
 viously regent, succeeds as king of Portugal and of Brazil. 
 
 Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, Aug. 
 
 The congress of Tucuman proclaims the independence of the 
 Plata provinces, July 9. 
 
 1817. Beginning of James Monroe's first administration. Admis- 
 
 sion of Mississippi into the Union. 
 
 Formation of the United Evangelical Church in Prussia out 
 of a union of the Lutheran and Calvinist churches. Wart- 
 burg Festival of the German Burschenschaft (patriotic 
 association of students), Oct. 18. 
 
 Milosh Obrenovitch is elected prince of Servia. 
 
 The Mahrattas engage in a war with the English, who break 
 their power. 
 
 Bolivar establishes a Supreme Council in Venezuela, and as- 
 sumes the chief power. . 
 
 Publication of Cuvier's ''Regne animal." 
 
 1818. Campaign of Jackson against the Seminoles. He occupies 
 
 Pensacola. Admission of Illinois into the Union. 
 
 * Composed of delegates appointed by the sovereigns of the several states. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 133 
 
 1818. Congress of the Great Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle. With- 
 
 drawal of the foreign armies from France. Dismissal of 
 the Richelieu ministry, Dec. ; Louis XVIII. intrusts the 
 administration of affairs to Decazes. 
 
 Bernadotte succeeds Charles XIII. in Sweden and Norway as 
 Charles XIV. John, Feb. 5. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, takes El-Derayeh, the 
 capital of the Wahabees, and completes their subjugation. 
 
 Mulhar Row Holkar, the Mahratta ruler of Indore, cedes a 
 large part of his territories to the English, and becomes 
 their vassal. The English subdue the Pindarees. 
 
 The Chilians gain the battle of Maypu, and achieve their lib- 
 eration from Spain. 
 
 Foundation of the new University of Bonn. 
 
 1819. Treaty between the United States and Spain for the cession 
 
 of Florida to the United States. (Formal possession given 
 to the United States in 1821.) Admission of Alabama into 
 the Union. 
 
 Dispersal of a great Radical reform meeting in Manchester, 
 followed by a " massacre," Aug. 
 
 Assassination of Kotzebue by Karl Sand at Mannheim, March 
 23. Congress of Carlsbad, held by the members of the 
 German Confederation. Adoption of the Carlsbad resolu- 
 tions, directed against the freedom of the universities and 
 the press. First beginnings of the German Zollverein. 
 
 Victorious entry of Bolivar into Bogota. Union of New 
 Granada and Venezuela to form the republic of Colombia, 
 with Bolivar as president, Dec. 
 
 Publication of Scott's ' ' Ivanhoe. " 
 
 1820. Maine is detached from Massachusetts, and admitted into the 
 
 Union. Adoption of the "Missouri Compromise," pro- 
 hibiting slavery in the territory acquired from France 
 north of latitude 36° 30', except within the limits of the 
 state of Missouri, about to be admitted into the Union. 
 Re-election of James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins. 
 
 George IV. succeeds his father, George III., Jan. 29. Trial 
 of Queen Caroline. 
 
 Assassination of the duke of Berry, second son of the future 
 Charles X., Feb. 13. (Death of the duke, Feb. 14.) Dis- 
 missal of Decazes, Feb. ; Richelieu again premier. 
 
 Riego heads an insurrection in Spain against Ferdinand VII., 
 who is forced to restore the constitution of 1812. 
 
134 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1820. Successful rising of the Carbonari (secret revolutionary asso- 
 
 ciation) against Ferdinand I. of Naples. Insurrection in 
 
 Sicily. Congress of the Great Powers at Troppau for the 
 
 support of absolutism. 
 Successful revolution in Portugal. 
 Revolt of Ali Pasha of Janina. 
 Insurrection in Hayti against Christophe, who puts an end 
 
 to his life. 
 Oersted announces his discoveries in electro-magnetism. 
 
 1821. Beginning of Monroe's second administration. Admission of 
 
 Missouri into the Union. 
 
 Congress of the Great Powers at Laybach. An Austrian 
 force advances into the Neapolitan dominions, and restores 
 the absolute authority of Ferdinand I. 
 
 Revolution in Piedmont. Victor Emanuel I. resigns, March. 
 Charles Albert, of the line of Savoy-Carignan, assumes the 
 regency, and proclaims a liberal constitution. Intervention 
 of Austria. Charles Felix, brother of Victor Emanuel, is 
 placed on the Sardinian throne, April. The constitution is 
 annulled. 
 
 End of the Richelieu ministry, Dec. 
 
 John VI. returns from Brazil to Portugal, leaving his son, 
 Dom Pedro, regent of Brazil. 
 
 Outbreak of the Greek Revolution. Alexander Ypsilanti raises 
 the standard of revolt at Jassy, Moldavia, March. He is 
 overthrown by the Turks, June. Heroic death of Georgakis 
 and his followers. Suppression of the revolt in the north. 
 
 Revolt in the Morea, March. Victorious efforts of the Greeks 
 under Germanos, Colocotronis, Mavromichalis, Demetrius 
 Ypsilanti, Mavrocordatos, Botzaris, Odysseus, and others. 
 Successful rising in the Archipelago. Storming of Tripo- 
 litza by the patriots, Oct. 
 
 A new revolution in Mexico, headed by Iturbide, secures the 
 independence of the country. 
 
 The colonies of Central America declare themselves independ- 
 ent of Spain. 
 
 Victory of Bolivar and Paez at Carabobo, June 24, which puts 
 an end to Spanish power in Colombia. 
 
 San Martin enters Lima, and proclaims the independence of 
 Peru. 
 
 Appearance of Saint-Simon's " Systeme industriel." 
 
 Death of Napoleon, May 5. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 135 
 
 1822. Appointment of Canning as secretary of state for foreign af- 
 
 fairs in the Liverpool ministry. 
 
 Villele is made president of the new ministry in France 
 (formed Dec, 1821). 
 
 The struggle between the Constitutionalists and Royalists in 
 Spain ends in the triumph of the former. The Great 
 Powers, at a congress held at Verona, resolve to put down 
 the Constitutionalists. 
 
 Proclamation of Greek independence by the national assem- 
 bly at Epidaurus, Jan. Fall of Ali Pasha of Janina, Feb. 
 Massacres on the island of Scio by the Turks. The Greeks 
 force the Acropolis of Athens to surrender, June. Defeat 
 of the patriots at Peta, July. Disastrous campaign of 
 the Turks in the Morea. Naval exploits of Miaulis and 
 Canaris. 
 
 Iturbide is proclaimed emperor of Mexico, May. Santa Anna 
 and others proclaim the republic, Dec. 
 
 Brazil proclaims her separation from Portugal. Dom Pedro 
 is declared constitutional emperor, Oct. 12. 
 
 The battle of Pichincha, May, secures the liberation of the 
 province of Quito from Spain. 
 
 Union of the whole island of Hayti under Boyer. 
 
 Establishment of the colony of Liberia by the American Colo- 
 nization Society. 
 
 Death of Shelley, Herschel, Canova. 
 
 1823. Foundation of the British Anti-Slavery Society by Wilber- 
 
 force and others. 
 
 A French army, under the duke of Angouleme, invades Spain 
 to restore the authority of Ferdinand VII. It enters Madrid, 
 May. The Cortes retire to Cadiz, and defend the place. 
 Storming of the Trocadero by the French, Aug. ; the Con- 
 stitutionalists are crushed. 
 
 The Suliote leader Marco Botzaris attacks the Turkish camp 
 at Karpenisi, and falls, Aug. 
 
 Pope Leo XII. succeeds Pius VII. 
 
 Resignation of Iturbide, March. 
 
 Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa 
 Rica constitute themselves the federal republic of Central 
 America. 
 
 Entry of Bolivar into Lima. 
 
 The African expedition of Denham and Clapperton reaches 
 Lake Tchad. 
 
136 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1824. Presidential election in the United States. Candidates for 
 
 the presidency : Andrew Jackson, J. Q. Adams, W. H. 
 
 Crawford, Henry Clay. None of the candidates receives a 
 
 majority of the electoral votes. J. C. Calhoun is elected 
 
 vice-president. 
 Death of Louis XVIII.., Sept. 16. Accession of his brother, 
 
 Charles X. 
 Death of Byron at Missolonghi, April 19. Ibrahim Pasha 
 
 sails with an Egyptian force to restore the Turkish author- 
 ity in Greece, but is baffled by Miaulis. 
 Outbreak of a war between the English and Burmah. 
 The Congress of Mexico constitutes the country a federal 
 
 republic. 
 Bolivar is made dictator of Peru. General Sucre overwhelms 
 
 the Spaniards at Ayacucho, Dec. 9 ; the Spanish power in 
 
 South America completely destroyed. 
 
 1825. John Quincy Adams is chosen president of the United States 
 
 by the House of Representatives, Feb. 
 The French government grants an indemnity of 1,000,000,000 
 
 francs to the emigres. 
 Death of Alexander I. of Russia, Dec. 1. Accession of his 
 
 brother Nicholas I. Unsuccessful military insurrection in 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 Louis I. succeeds his father, Maximilian I., in Bavaria. 
 Francis I. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in Naples. 
 Portugal recognizes the independence of Brazil. 
 Ibrahim Pasha makes himself master of the Morea. 
 Bolivar resigns his dictatorship in Peru. Creation of the 
 
 republic of Bolivia. 
 France recognizes the independence of Hayti. 
 Opening of the Erie Canal. 
 
 Introduction of gas for general illumination in New York. 
 Death of Saint-Simon, Lacepede, Richter (Jean Paul). 
 1326. Death of John VI. of Portugal. His son, Pedro I. of Brazil. 
 
 resigns the Portuguese throne to his young daughter Maria 
 
 da Gloria. 
 Fall of Missolonghi after a desperate defense by the Greeks, 
 
 April. The Turks occupy Athens, and besiege the Acropo- 
 lis, Aug. The Greek government retires to iEgina. 
 Massacre of the janizaries by Mahmoud II. ; the organization 
 
 abolished. Treaty of Akerman between Russia and Turkey. 
 Feth Ali, shah of Persia, makes war on Russia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 137 
 
 1826. End of the first Burmese war; the British acquire Aracan, 
 
 Tenasserim, and Assam. 
 
 The Spaniards evacuate Callao, their last post in Peru. 
 
 Foundation of the University of London. (Incorporated as 
 University College in 1836, on the creation of the new Uni- 
 versity of London.) 
 
 Death of Jefferson (July 4) and of John Adams (July 4). 
 
 1827. Canning succeeds the earl of Liverpool as prime-minister, 
 
 April. Death of Canning, Aug. Goderich is appointed 
 
 prime-minister. 
 Charles X. dissolves the National Guard and the Chamber of 
 
 Deputies. 
 Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is succeeded by his brother, 
 
 Anthony. 
 The Greek garrison in the Acropolis of Athens is forced to 
 
 surrender, June. Treaty of London between Great Britain, 
 
 France, and Russia for the pacification of Greece, July 6. 
 
 The allied fleets destroy the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at 
 
 Navarino, Oct. 20. 
 Brilliant campaign of the Russian general Paskevitch against 
 
 the Persians. He takes Erivan and enters Tabriz. 
 Parry's Arctic expedition reaches lat. 82° 45'. 
 Death of Laplace and of Beethoven. 
 
 1828. Andrew Jackson is elected president of the United States ; de- 
 
 feated candidate, John Quincy Adams. Calhoun is re- 
 elected vice-president. 
 
 Resignation of Goderich, Jan. Wellington forms a new min- 
 istry. Repeal of the Test Act. 
 
 The Martignac ministry in France succeeds that of Villele, 
 Jan. 
 
 Dom Miguel, having been appointed regent of Portugal by his 
 brother, Dom Pedro, usurps the throne. 
 
 Capo dTstria, having been elected president in 1827, assumes 
 the government of Greece. A French army lands in the 
 Morea, which Ibrahim Pasha is forced to evacuate. 
 
 Russia begins a war against Turkey, April. The Russian 
 forces, under Wittgenstein, cross the Danube, June. Pas- 
 kevitch takes Kars, July. Fall of Varna, Oct. 
 
 Peace of Turkmantchai between Russia and Persia, Feb. ; 
 Persian Armenia ceded to Russia. 
 
 Guerrero heads a successful insurrection against the govern- 
 ment in Mexico. 
 
138 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1828. Uruguay is recognized as an independent republic. 
 
 1829. Beginning of Andrew Jackson's first administration. 
 Passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act in England, April. 
 
 O'Connell takes his seat in Parliament. 
 
 End of the Martignac ministry in France, Aug. Formation 
 of the Polignac ministry. 
 
 End of the Greek Revolution. 
 
 The Russian general Diebitsch takes Silistria. Paskevitch 
 takes Erzerum. Diebitsch passes the Balkans, and enters 
 Adrianople. Peace of Adrianople, Sept. 14; Turkey relin- 
 quishes to Russia the northeastern coast-land of the Black 
 Sea, and transfers to her the suzerainty over the tribes of 
 the Caucasus ; she also cedes to her the district of Akhal- 
 tzik; she accords to Russia a protectorate over Moldavia 
 and Wallachia, and agrees to recognize the independence 
 of Greece. 
 
 Death of Pope Leo XII., Feb. Election of Pius VIII. , March. 
 
 Spain makes a fruitless attempt to recover Mexico. Busta- 
 mante heads a revolt against Guerrero, proclaiming the 
 Plan of Jalapa. 
 
 Separation of Venezuela from Colombia. 
 
 Rosas, the leader of the Federalists against the Unitarios, at- 
 tains to the supreme power in the Argentine Republic. 
 
 The first great cholera epidemic in Europe begins to spread in 
 Russia. 
 
 Death of Friedrich von Schlegel, Thomas Young, Davy, La- 
 marck. 
 
 1830. Famous debate in Congress between Webster and Hayne, 
 
 Jan. Organization of the church of the Mormons at Man- 
 chester, N. Y., by Joseph Smith. 
 
 The London Protocol of the Great Powers declares Greece an 
 independent kingdom, Feb. The Porte recognizes the Pro- 
 tocol. 
 
 Death of George IV., June 26. Accession of his brother 
 William IV. The Grey ministry succeeds that of Welling- 
 ton, Nov. 
 
 The French begin the conquest of Algeria. General Bour- 
 mont takes Algiers, July. 
 
 Charles X. publishes his unconstitutional "ordinances," July 
 26 (signed the day previous). Revolution in Paris, July 
 27-29 ; overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty. Abdication of 
 Charles X., Aug. 2, followed by his flight from France. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 139 
 
 1830. Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, is declared king by the 
 chambers, Aug. 7. He is formally installed, Aug. 9. For- 
 mation of the Laffitte ministry. 
 
 Outbreak of the Belgian insurrection, Aug. 25. A Dutch 
 army, after entering Brussels, is forced to retreat, Sept. 
 Belgium declares her independence, Oct. 4. The revolu- 
 tionists enter Antwerp, Oct. The Dutch garrison in the 
 citadel, under General Chasse, bombards the city. Opening 
 of a national congress, Nov. A conference of the Great 
 Powers hi London recognizes the independence of Belgium, 
 Dec. 
 
 Charles, duke of Brunswick, is expelled by his subjects, Sept. 
 Revolutionary movements in Saxony and Hesse-Cassel, 
 Sept. -Oct. 
 
 Outbreak of a revolution in Poland, Nov. 29. The Russian 
 forces, under the grand-duke Constantine, retire from War- 
 saw. The Poles appoint Chlopicki dictator, Dec. 
 
 Ferdinand II. succeeds his father, Francis I., in Naples. 
 
 Death of Pope Pius VIII. , Nov. 30. 
 
 Bustamante assumes the executive power in Mexico. 
 
 End of the presidency of Bolivar in Colombia. Foundation 
 of the republic of Ecuador (previously part of Colombia). 
 Death of Bolivar. 
 
 Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ; success- 
 ful inauguration of the modern system of passenger trans- 
 portation on steam railways. 
 
 The brothers Lander establish the identity of the Quorra and 
 Niger rivers. 
 
 1831. William Lloyd Garrison begins the publication of the "Lib- 
 
 erator " in Boston. 
 
 Lord John Russell introduces the Reform Bill in Parliament, 
 March 1. 
 
 Casimir Perier is made prime-minister by Louis Philippe, 
 March. Insurrectionary riots of the silk weavers in Lyons, 
 Nov. Abolition of the hereditary peerage in France. 
 
 The Belgians elect Leopold of Saxe-Coburg their king, June 4. 
 He ascends the throne, July 21. The Dutch forces defeat 
 the Belgians, Aug., but are arrested by the advance of a 
 French army, under Marshal Gerard. 
 
 William II., elector of Hesse-Cassel, is forced to grant a new 
 constitution to his subjects. Saxony receives a new consti- 
 tutional government. 
 
140 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1831. Resignation of the Polish dictator Chlopicki, Jan. The na- 
 
 tional government, under the lead of Adam Czartoryski, 
 declares the independence of Poland, Jan. 25. A Russian 
 army, under Diebitsch, invades the country. Battles near 
 Warsaw, Feb. -March. The Poles, under Skrzynecki, are 
 unsuccessful at Ostrolenka, May 26. A Polish army, sent 
 to revolutionize Lithuania, is forced to lay down its arms in 
 Prussia, July. Masterly retreat of Dembinski from Lithu- 
 ania. Capitulation of Warsaw, Sept. 8. Complete subjec- 
 tion of Poland. 
 
 Revolutions in Modena and the Papal States, which are sup- 
 pressed by Austrian intervention. Charles Albert succeeds 
 Charles Felix as king of Sardinia, April. 
 
 Election of Pope Gregory XVI. , Feb. 
 
 Assassination of Capo dTstria at Nauplia, Oct. 9. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, sends an army under Ibrahim 
 Pasha to occupy Syria. 
 
 Abdication of Pedro I. of Brazil in favor of his son, Pedro II., 
 April. Establishment of a regency. 
 
 Ravages of the cholera in central Europe. 
 
 Captain John Ross determines the position of the true mag- 
 netic pole (Boothia Felix). 
 
 Death of Niebuhr, Monroe (July 4), Hegel. 
 
 1832. Black Hawk's War ; defeat of the Sacs and Foxes. Nullifica- 
 
 tion movement in South Carolina; John C. Calhoun the 
 champion of state rights. Andrew Jackson is re-elected 
 president ; principal defeated candidate, Henry Clay. Mar- 
 tin Van Buren is elected vice-president. 
 
 Final passage of the Reform Bill by Parliament, June. 
 
 Death of Casimir Perier, May. Disturbances in Paris, June. 
 Soult forms a coalition ministry, including Thiers and 
 Guizot, Oct. (Soult president of the counci 'l' 'till 1834.) The 
 duchess of Berry, having attempted a revolution in favor 
 of her son, the duke cle Bordeaux (afterward count de 
 Chambord), is arrested, Nov. 
 
 Abd-el Kader takes the lead in the struggle against the French 
 in Algeria. 
 
 Marshal Gerard lays siege to the citadel of Antwerp, Nov. Its 
 commander, General Chasse, surrenders, Dec. 23 ; liberation 
 of Belgium. 
 
 Great German Liberal meeting at Hambach (Hambach Fes- 
 tival). 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 141 
 
 1832. The Austrians occupy Bologna, the French the citadel of 
 
 Ancona. (The occupation of hoth lasts till 1838.) 
 
 Poland is declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. 
 
 Dom Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil, leads an expeditionary force 
 collected by the opponents of the usurper Dom Miguel at 
 the island of Terceira, for the dethronement of his brother. 
 He enters Oporto, July. 
 
 Separation of Basel into two half-cantons, Basel City and 
 Basel Country. 
 
 Otho, the second son of Louis I. of Bavaria, is placed on the 
 throne of Greece by the Great Powers. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha storms Acre, May. He defeats the Turks at 
 Horns, July. He wins a great victory at Konieh, Dec. 20. 
 
 Overthrow of the government of Bustamante. 
 
 The cholera spreads over western Europe, and ravages Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 Death of J. P. Champollion, Goethe, Cuvier, Bentham, Scott. 
 
 1833. Henry Clay's tariff compromise. President Jackson removes 
 
 the public funds from the Bank of the United States. For- 
 mation of the American Anti-Slavery Society. 
 
 Act abolishing slavery in the British West Indies, Aug. (To 
 take effect Aug. 1, 1834.) 
 
 Revolutionary attempt at Frankfort, April, followed by in- 
 creased reactionary measures on the part of the German 
 governments. A liberal constitution is granted in Han- 
 over by the viceroy, the duke of Cambridge. 
 
 Death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Sept. 29. His infant 
 daughter, Isabella II., succeeds under the regency of her 
 mother, Maria Chi'istina. Don Carlos, uncle of Isabella, 
 proclaims himself the lawful sovereign. Outbreak of the 
 Carlist insurrection. 
 
 The fleet of Dom Pedro, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, 
 vanquishes that of Dom Miguel off Cape St. Vincent, July 5. 
 Dom Pedro enters Lisbon, July, and declares himself regent 
 for his daughter, Dona Maria. 
 
 Arrival of King Otho in Greece. 
 
 A Russian force prepares to aid Mahmoud II. against Mehemet 
 Ali, who makes peace, receiving Syria and other territories 
 from the sultan. Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi between Russia 
 and the Porte. 
 
 Beginning of the first presidency of Santa Anna in Mexico. 
 
 1834. Act of Congress for the formation of an Indian Territory. 
 
142 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1834. Lord Melbourne succeeds Grey as premier, July. Fall of the 
 
 Melbourne ministry, Nov. Peel becomes premier, Dec. 
 
 Peace between the French and Abd-el-Kader, who is recog- 
 nized as emir of Mascara, Feb. Insurrection in Lyons and 
 riot in Paris, April. 
 
 Quadruple treaty between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal, directed against Dom Miguel and Don Carlos, April. 
 Submission of Dom Miguel, May. Maria da Gloria is de- 
 clared of age, Sept. Death of Dom Pedro, Sept. 
 
 Death of Feth Ali, shah of Persia. He is succeeded by his 
 grandson, Mohammed Shah. 
 
 Death of Schleiermacher, Lafayette, Coleridge, Lamb. 
 
 1835. Outbreak of the second war with the Seminoles. 
 Reorganization of the Mexican Republic into a centralized 
 
 state. Revolution in Texas against the Mexican authority. 
 Resignation of Peel, April ; Lord Melbourne again premier. 
 
 Passage of the Municipal Corporations Act for England. 
 Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis Philippe, July 28. 
 The French attack Abd-el-Kader. Clausel burns Mascara. 
 Ferdinand I. succeeds his father, Francis I., in Austria, 
 
 March 2. 
 Otho, king of Greece, attains his majority. 
 The migration of the Boers from Cape Colony begins. 
 Great fire in New York, Dec. 
 
 1836. Admission of Arkansas into the Union. Martin Van Buren 
 
 is elected president of the United States CR. M. Johnson 
 elected vice-president by the senate in 1837) ; principal de- 
 feated candidate for the presidency, William H. Harrison. 
 
 Storming of the Alamo, near San Antonio, by Santa, Anna, 
 March. Houston defeats the Mexicans on the San Jacinto, 
 and captures Santa Anna, April 21, 22. Inauguration of 
 Houston as president of Texas. 
 
 Formation of a Thiers cabinet in France, Feb. Thiers re- 
 signs, Aug. Mole is appointed premier, Sept. Attempt of 
 Louis Napoleon at Strasburg to excite a revolution in his 
 favor, Oct. 
 
 The French, under Clausel, take Tlemcen, Jan. Abd-el-Kader 
 achieves a victory near that place, April. Bugeaud defeats 
 him on the Sikkak, July. Unsuccessful expedition of Clau- 
 sel against Constantine. 
 
 Revolutionary movement against the queen-regent of Spain, 
 Maria Christina, at the palace of La Granja, Aug. She 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 143 
 
 1836. swears to the constitution of 1812. Espartero is victorious 
 over the Carlists at Luchana, Dec. , and, aided by a British 
 fleet, forces them to raise the siege of Bilbao. 
 
 Establishment of the new University of London. 
 Appearance of Dickens's "Pickwick Papers." 
 Death of Madison and of A. L. de Jussieu. 
 
 1837. Admission of Michigan into the Union. Beginning of Martin 
 
 Van Buren's administration. Financial panic in the United 
 States. Incorporation of Chicago as a city. 
 
 Death of William IV., June 20. Accession of his niece, Vic- 
 toria. Separation of Hanover from England in virtue of 
 the Salic law. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, bro- 
 ther of William IV., succeeds in that kingdom. He abro- 
 gates the constitution of 1833, and dismisses seven of the 
 principal professors at Gottingen on account of their protest. 
 
 Treaty of the Tafna between the French and Abd-el-Kader, 
 May. The French, under General Valee, storm Constan- 
 tine, Oct. 
 
 The Carlist forces appear before Madrid. They retreat before 
 General Espartero. 
 
 The Caucasian chieftain Shamyl defeats the Russian general 
 Ivelitch. 
 
 The Persians lay siege to Herat. 
 
 Insurrections in Canada. 
 
 Bustamante becomes for a second time president of Mexico. 
 
 Publication of Carlyle's "French Revolution." 
 
 Death of Pushkin. 
 
 1838. Victorious campaign of Espartero against the Carlists. 
 The Persians are forced to raise the siege of Herat. 
 
 The India government declares war against Dost Mohammed, 
 
 ameer of Cabool. 
 Order restored in Canada. 
 
 The invention of photography perfected by Daguerre. 
 Inauguration of trans- Atlantic steam navigation. 
 
 1839. Formation of the Anti-Corn-Law League; agitation of Cob- 
 
 den and others. The Chartists present a petition to Par- 
 liament, demanding universal suffrage and other reforms. 
 Chartist riot at Newport, in Monmouthshire. 
 
 Fall of the Mole ministry, March. Soult forms a new cabi- 
 net, May. 
 
 Renewal of the struggle between Abd-el-Kader and the French. 
 Successes of Abd-el-Kader. 
 
144 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1839. Espartero concludes the convention of Vergara with the 
 
 Carlist general Maroto, Aug. 31 ; the power of Don Carlos 
 completely hroken. 
 
 Holland and Belgium make a final settlement ; Luxemburg 
 and Limburg divided between the two kingdoms. 
 
 Christian VIII. succeeds Frederick VI. in Denmark. 
 
 Sultan Mahmoud II. makes war on Mehemet Ali, viceroy of 
 Egypt. The Turkish forces, under Hafiz Pasha, are com- 
 pletely defeated by Ibrahim Pasha at Nizib, June 24. Death 
 of Mahmoud II., July 1. Accession of Abdul-Medjid. The 
 Turkish fleet is treacherously surrendered to the Egyptians, 
 July. Abdul-Medjid, acting under the guidance of Reshid 
 Pasha, begins the constitutional reform of The Turkish 
 Empire by the promulgation of the Hatti-Sherif of Gul- 
 hane, Nov. 3. 
 
 The Russians, under General Grabbe, make a victorious ad- 
 vance against the Caucasians, and take Akulgo. 
 
 Russian expedition, under Perovski, against Khiva. (Ends in 
 total disaster, 1840.) 
 
 The British forces traverse the Bolan pass, and invade Afghan- 
 istan. They enter Candahar, April, take Ghuzni, July 22, 
 and occupy Cabool, Aug. Shah Shujah is placed nominally 
 on the throne. 
 
 Death of the Sikh ruler Runjeet Singh. 
 
 The British take possession of Aden. 
 
 Dissolution of the confederacy of Central America. 
 
 1840. William H. Harrison is elected president of the United States, 
 
 and John Tyler vice-president ; defeated candidate for the 
 presidency, Martin Van Buren. 
 
 Marriage of Queen Victoria with Prince Albert of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, Feb. 10. 
 
 Formation of a new Thiers ministry, March. Attempt of 
 Louis Napoleon at Boulogne to raise an insurrection in his 
 favor, Aug. He is arrested and imprisoned. 
 
 Frederick William IV. succeeds his father Frederick William 
 III. in Prussia, June 7. 
 
 End of the Carlist insurrection. Revolutionary movements 
 against Maria Christina. She quits Spain, leaving Espar- 
 tero at the bead of affairs, Oct. 
 
 Abdication of William I. of Holland in favor of his son 
 William II., Oct. 
 
 London Treaty of the Great Powers (France not included) 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. H5 
 
 1840. directed against Mehemet Ali, July 15. British and Aus- 
 trian expedition to Syria. Beyrout is bombarded and taken, 
 Sept. Capture of Acre, Nov. Sir Charles Napier appears 
 before Alexandria, Nov. Mehemet Ali sues for peace. 
 
 Resignation of Thiers, Oct. Formation of a ministry under 
 Soult, with Guizot as minister of foreign affairs. The re- 
 mains of Napoleon I. are brought to Paris. 
 
 The Circassians successfully attack the Russian forts on the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 Dost Mohammed delivers himself up to the English, Nov. 
 
 Outbreak of the Opium War between England and China. 
 
 The Mormons found the city of Nauvoo, in Illinois. 
 
 Introduction of Rowland Hill's cheap postage system in 
 England. 
 
 1841. Inauguration of William H. Harrison, March 4. He dies, 
 
 April 4, and is succeeded by John Tyler. 
 
 Mehemet Ali makes peace with the sultan. He renounces 
 Syria and other territories, and is recognized as hereditary, 
 though tributary, ruler of Egypt. Treaty between Turkey 
 and the Great Powers ; closing of the Dardanelles against 
 foreign vessels of war. 
 
 Resignation of the Melbourne ministry, Aug. Peel becomes 
 prime-minister, Sept. 
 
 Louis Philippe begins the vast fortifications of Paris. 
 
 The French take Mascara. 
 
 Espartero is appointed regent by the Spanish Cortes. 
 
 Successful insurrection of the Afghan chiefs in Cabool, Nov. ; 
 massacre of Sir Alexander Burnes and others. Assassina- 
 tion of Sir William McNaghten, Dec. 
 
 The British reduce the Bogue forts, guarding the Canton 
 River, and the forts commanding Canton, and compel the 
 surrender of the city. They take Amoy. 
 
 Santa Anna becomes virtual dictator of Mexico. 
 
 Death of Lermontoff. 
 
 1842. Final termination of the war with the Seminoles. The 
 
 United States and Great Britain conclude the Ashburton 
 Treaty for the settlement of the northeastern boundary of 
 the United States. Fremont undertakes the exploration 
 of the Rocky Mountain region. (Explorations continued 
 during several years.) 
 The duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, is killed 
 by an accident, July 13. 
 
146 . CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1842. Successful campaign of the French in Algeria. 
 Unsuccessful campaign of the Russians, under General 
 
 Grahhe, in the Caucasus. 
 
 The British army, having agreed to evacuate Afghanistan, 
 begins its fatal retreat from Cabool. It is overwhelmed in 
 the Kurd-Cabool Pass, Jan. Successful defense of Jella- 
 labad by General Sale and of Candahar by General Nott. 
 General Pollock, after forcing the Khyber Pass, relieves 
 General Sale, April. Entry of Pollock into Cabool, Sept. 
 The British withdraw from Afghanistan, and release Dost 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The British occupy Shanghai, June, take Chinkiang, July, and 
 advance to Nanking. Treaty of Nanking, Aug. ; the ports 
 of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to be 
 thrown open to British commerce ; Hong-kong ceded to 
 England. (Treaty ratified in 1843.) 
 
 The British take possession of the Boer republic in Natal. 
 
 Completion of the Walhalla. 
 
 Great fire in Hamburg, May. 
 
 Death of Sismondi. 
 
 1843. OConnell, the leader in the movement for the repeal of the 
 
 union of Ireland with Great Britain, organizes a monster 
 meeting on the Hill of Tara, Aug. He is arrested, Oct. 
 
 Formation of the Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 A revolution in Spain, headed by Narvaez, puts an end to 
 the regency of Espartero. Isabella II. is declared of age. 
 
 A bloodless rising in Athens compels King Otho to promise 
 a constitution. (See 1844.) 
 
 Annexation of Sinde to British India after a brilliant cam- 
 paign under Sir Charles Napier. 
 
 The Thames tunnel is opened to the public. 
 
 Death of Southey and of Delavigne. 
 
 1844. James K. Polk is elected president of the United States, and 
 
 George M. Dallas vice-president ; defeated candidate for 
 the presidency, Henry Clay. 
 
 Remodelling of the Bank of England by Peel's Bank Charter 
 Act. 
 
 Defeat of Abd-el-Kader by the French. His ally, i^bderrah- 
 man, emperor of Morocco, is overwhelmed by Bugeaud on 
 the river Isly, Aug. 14. Bombardment of Mogadore by the 
 prince de Joinville, Aug. 15. The emperor makes peace. 
 
 The exhibition of the ' ' holy coat " at Treves attracts vast pil- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 147 
 
 1844. grimages. Johann Ronge inaugurates the German Catholic 
 movement. 
 
 The bi'others Bancliera attempt an insurrection in Southern 
 Italy. They are executed. 
 
 Oscar I. succeeds his father, Charles XIV. John, in Sweden, 
 March. 
 
 Establishment of constitutional government in Greece. 
 
 China concludes treaties with the United States and France. 
 
 Restoration of constitutional govei'nment in Mexico. 
 
 The eastern portion of the island of Hayti is formed into the 
 republic of Santo Domingo. 
 
 Beginning of the dictatorship of Carlos Antonio Lopez in 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Successful inauguration of the telegraphic line between Balti- 
 more and Washington constructed by Morse. 
 
 Death of Thorwaldsen and of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. 
 
 Appearance of Eugene Sue's "Wandering Jew." 
 
 1845. Admission of Florida into the Union. Beginning of James 
 
 K. Polk's administration. Texas joins the Union as a state. 
 
 The French general Pelissier suffocates a multitude of Kabyles 
 in a cave at Dahra. 
 
 Vorontzoff leads a powerful expedition against the tribes of 
 the Caucasus. 
 
 England and France make war on Rosas, dictator of the Ar- 
 gentine Republic. 
 
 Outbreak of the first Sikh War. Victories of the British gen- 
 eral Sir Hugh Gough at Moodkee and Ferozeshah, Dec. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Humboldt's "Kosmos." 
 
 Sir John Franklin sails on his last voyage in search of a 
 northwest passage. 
 
 Death of Sydney Smith, Hood, A. W. Schlegel, Andrew 
 Jackson. 
 
 1846. Admission of Iowa into the Union. War between the United 
 
 States and Mexico. General Taylor defeats the Mexicans 
 at Palo Alto, May 8, and at Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 
 and forces Monterey to surrender, Sept. 24. Occupation of 
 California and New Mexico by American forces. — Repre- 
 sentative Wilmot introduces his "Proviso" (not adopted 
 by the Senate) for the exclusion of slavery from all terri- 
 tory to be acquired from Mexico. — Treaty between the 
 United States and Great Britain for the settlement of the 
 northwestern boundary of the United States. 
 11 
 
148 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1846. A great famine visits Ireland. Repeal of the English Corn 
 
 Laws by act of June 26. Resignation of Peel, June 29. 
 Lord John Russell becomes premier, July 6. 
 
 Escape of Louis Napoleon from Ham, May. 
 
 Marriage of Isabella II. of Spain with Francisco de Asis, and 
 of her sister, Louisa, with the duke de Montpensier, young- 
 est son of Louis Philippe. 
 
 Revolutionary movement in Portugal ; Costa-Cabral driven 
 from power. 
 
 Unsuccessful rising of the Poles, Feb. Mieroslawski, while 
 preparing to head the insurrection in Posen, is arrested 
 by the Prussians. Massacre of the Polish nobles in Galicia 
 by the peasantry. The republic of Cracow is suppressed, 
 the city and territory being annexed to Austria. 
 
 Death of Pope Gregory XVI., June 1. Election of Pius IX., 
 June 16. The pope inaugurates great reforms in his states. 
 
 Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at Aliwal, Jan., and at 
 Sobraon, Feb. The Sikhs conclude peace at Lahore, and 
 cede a great portion of their territory to the East India 
 Company. 
 
 Discovery of the planet Neptune. 
 
 Dr. Morton publicly introduces the use of anaesthetics in Bos- 
 ton. 
 
 Elias Howe patents his sewing machine. 
 
 1847. General Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Vista, Feb. 23. 
 
 General Scott reduces Vera Cruz ; his forces occupy the 
 city, March 29. He is victorious over Santa Anna at Cerro 
 Gordo, April 18. The Americans take Puebla, May 15. 
 Successes of the Americans at Contreras and Churubusco, 
 Aug. 20. Storming of Molino del Rey by General Worth, 
 Sept. 8. Storming of Chapultepec, Sept. 13. Entry of 
 Scott into the city of Mexico, Sept. 14. 
 
 The great famine continues in Ireland ; vast increase of emi- 
 gration. 
 
 Resignation of Soult as prime-minister, Sept. Guizot, the vir- 
 tual head of Soult's cabinet, succeeds to his place. Abd-el- 
 Kader gives himself up to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 
 
 Meeting of the so-called United Landtag in Prussia. 
 
 Pius IX. continues his liberal reforms. His policy excites the 
 armed opposition of Austria. 
 
 The Swiss Federal Diet decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
 The resistance of the seven cantons of the Sonderbund 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 149 
 
 1847. (formed in 1843), Lucerne, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, 
 Fribourg, and Valais, results in civil war. Overthrow of the 
 Sonderbund by the Federal forces, under General Dufour. 
 
 Revolutionary outbreaks in the Two Sicilies. 
 Death of O'Connell and of Mendelssohn-Barthokly. 
 
 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo between the United States and 
 
 Mexico, Feb. 2. Admission of Wisconsin into the Union. 
 Act for the organization of Oregon Territory. Migration of 
 the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake. Formation of the 
 Free Soil party. Zachary Taylor is elected president, and 
 Millard Fillmore vice-president; principal defeated candi- 
 date for the presidency, Lewis Cass. 
 Disturbances in Lombardy, Jan. Sicily rises against Ferdi- 
 nand II., Jan. Frederick VII. succeeds his father, Chris- 
 tian VIII. , in Denmark, Jan. Ferdinand II. of Naples and 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia are forced to accord a represen- 
 tative constitution to their subjects, Jan.-Feb. (Sicily con- 
 tinues in rebellion.) Disturbances in Paris, Feb. 22. Strug- 
 gle in Paris between the troops and the people, Feb. 23. 
 Louis Philippe dismisses Guizot, Feb. 23 ; Thiers is charged 
 with the formation of a new ministry. Triumph of the 
 revolution in France, Feb. 24 ; abdication of Louis Philippe. 
 Formation of a provisional government, including Dupont 
 de l'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Etienne Arago, Cre- 
 mieux, Garnier-Pages«> and others, Feb. 24. Formal proc- 
 lamation of the republic in France, Feb. 27. Opening of a 
 workingmen's convention in Paris under the superintend- 
 ence of Louis Blanc, March. Outbreak of a revolution in 
 Vienna, March 13; fall of Metternich. Promulgation of a 
 representative constitution by Pius IX., March 14. Revo- 
 lutionary movement in Pesth, March 15. Appointment of 
 an independent Hungarian ministry, the Batthyanyi-Kos- 
 suth ministry, March 17. Outbreak of an insurrection 
 against Austrian rule in Milan, March 18. Rising in Berlin 
 against the government of Frederick William IV. , March 
 
 18. The king yields to the demands of the people, March 
 
 19. Revolution in Parma, March. Louis I. of Bavaria, in 
 consequence of revolutionary movements, abdicates in favor 
 of his son, Maximilian II., March 20. The people of Venice 
 take up arms against the Austrians, March 22. They estab- 
 lish a republic, with Man in at its head, March 23. Radetzky 
 is forced to withdraw his army from Milan, March 23. The 
 
150 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1848. duke of Modena is forced by revolutionary movements to 
 quit his dominions, March. Charles Albert of Sardinia be- 
 gins a war against Austria for the liberation of Italy, March. 
 Outbreak of the first Schleswig-Holstein War ; the people of 
 the duchies rise in insurrection against the king of Denmark, 
 March. Meeting of the German Vorparlament at Frank- 
 fort, March 31. The Prussians take up the cause of Schles- 
 wig-Holstein, and begin a campaign against the Danes, 
 April. Great Chartist demonstration in London, April 
 10. Closing of the last Diet of Presburg, April 11. Un- 
 successful republican insurrection in Baden under Hecker 
 and Struve, April. Rising of the Poles in Posen under 
 Mieroslawski, April. Decree abolishing slavery in the 
 French colonies, April 27. Opening of the Constituent 
 Assembly in France, May 4. Arrest of the Irish revolu- 
 tionist John Mitchel, May. Collapse of the insurrection 
 in Posen, May. Red Republican disturbances in Paris, 
 May 15. Bloody conflict at Naples, which is bombarded by 
 Ferdinand II., May 15; re-establishment of absolutism. 
 Movement against the government in Vienna, May 15. 
 Flight of the emperor Ferdinand from Vienna, May 17. 
 Opening of the Frankfort Parliament, May 18. Meeting of 
 the Prussian Constituent Assembly, May 22. Opening of a 
 Pan-Slavic congress in Prague, June 2. Surrender of the pa- 
 pal forces at Vicenza to the Austrians, June 11. Insurrection 
 in Prague, quelled by Windischgratz, June. Tbe people 
 storm the arsenal of Berlin, June 14. Bloody conflict be- 
 tween the Parisian populace and the government, June 23-26 ; 
 General Cavaignac suppresses the insurrection. Cavaignac 
 is appointed chief of the executive power in France, June. 
 The Frankfort Parliament elects the archduke John of 
 Austria vicar of Germany, June 29. Opening of the Hun- 
 garian National Assembly, July 5. Meeting of an Austrian 
 Parliament, July 22. The Austrian forces, under Radetzky, 
 defeat Charles Albert at Custozza, July 25. O'Brien at- 
 tempts an insurrection in Ireland, July. (He is made pris- 
 oner, Aug. 5.) General Radetzky re-enters Milan, Aug. 6. 
 Armistice between Charles Albert and the Austrians, Aug. 
 9. The Hungarian forces are repulsed by Serb insurgents, 
 Aug. Prussia and Denmark conclude the armistice of 
 Malmo for the suspension of the Schleswig-Holstein contest, 
 Aug. 26. The forces of Ferdinand II., under Filangieri, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 151 
 
 1848. recover Messina, Sept. 7. Jellachich, ban of Croatia, enters 
 upon a campaign against the Hungarians, Sept. Insurrec- 
 tion of the Radicals in Frankfort, Sept. 18. Formation of 
 a Hungarian Committee of Defense, with Kossuth at its 
 head, Sept. Struve fails in a new revolutionary attempt in 
 Baden, Sept. Count Lamberg, having been sent by the 
 emperor Ferdinand to dissolve the Hungarian National As- 
 sembly, is murdered at Buda-Pesth, Sept. 28. Jellachich, 
 after menacing Buda, is defeated by the Hungarians, Sept. 
 29. Vienna rises in insurrection, Oct. 6. Second flight of 
 the emperor Ferdinand from his capital, Oct. 7. The Hun- 
 garian forces, after advancing almost to the gates of Vienna, 
 are routed, Oct. 30. Storming of Vienna by Windischgratz, 
 Oct. 31. Adoption of a republican constitution in France, 
 Nov. 4. Assassination of Count Rossi, prime-minister of 
 Pius IX., Nov. 15. Rising in Rome against the pope, Nov. 
 16. Formation of the Schwarzenberg ministry in Austria, 
 Nov. 21. Pius IX. escapes from Rome, Nov. 24, and takes 
 refuge in Gaeta. Abdication of the emperor Ferdinand of 
 Austria in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, Dec. 2. 
 The king of Prussia dissolves the Constituent Assembly, and 
 publishes a constitution of his own, Dec. 5. Louis Napo- 
 leon is elected president of France, Dec. 10. The Austrians, 
 under Schlick, enter Kaschau, Dec. Establishment of a 
 provisional government in Rome, Dec. 11. Louis Napoleon 
 enters upon his presidency, Dec. 20. Victories of the Hun- 
 garians, under Bern, over the insurgent Wallachs and Im- 
 perialists in Transylvania, Dec. Retreat of the Hungarian 
 general Gorgey before the forces of Windischgratz, Dec. 
 The Hungarians, under Perczel, are defeated at Moor, 
 Dec. 29. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha succeeds Mehemet Ali as viceroy of Egypt. 
 He dies, and is succeeded by Abbas Pasha. 
 
 Outbreak of the second Sikh War in India. 
 
 Nasr-ed-Din succeeds Mohammed Shah in Persia. 
 
 The governor of Cape Colony attacks the Boers, and occupies 
 the Orange River Sovereignty. (See 1854.) A portion of 
 the Boers migrate beyond the Vaal, where they establish the 
 Trans- Vaal Republic. 
 
 Discovery of gold in California. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Macaulay's "History of 
 England." 
 
152 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1848. Death of John Quincy Adams, Donizetti, Chateaubriand, 
 
 Berzelius, George Stephenson. 
 
 1849. Beginning; of Zachary Taylor's administration. 
 Dissolution of the French Constituent Assembly and meeting 
 
 of the Legislative Assembly, May. Revolutionary attempts 
 of tbe Badicals in Paris, June 13. Louis Napoleon ap- 
 points a Bonapartist ministry, Oct. 31. 
 
 Meeting of the new Prussian chambers, Feb. 26. The Frank- 
 fort Parliament, having framed a constitution for Germany, 
 decrees the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., March 
 28. It is declined by the king, April 3. The Danes, having 
 renewed the contest with Schleswig-Holstein, make a dis- 
 astrous attempt on Eckernforde, April 5. The German 
 forces sent to aid Schleswig-Holstein storm the lines of 
 Diippel, April 13. The Schleswig-Holstein forces take 
 Kolding, in Jutland, April 20. Frederick William IV. dis- 
 solves the Lower House of the Prussian chambers, April 27. 
 Republican rising in the Palatinate, May. Insurrection in 
 Dresden, suppressed by the aid of Prussia, May. Revolu- 
 tion in Baden, May. Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, and other 
 < rerman states form a confederation (Dreikonigsbund) , May 
 26. The remaining members of the Frankfort Parliament 
 adjourn, May 30, and renew their sessions in Stuttgart 
 (Rump Parliament), June 6. The assembly is dissolved, 
 June 18. The revolutionists in the Palatinate and Baden 
 are overthrown by the Prussian arms, June. A portion of 
 members of the late Frankfort Parliament, the party of 
 Gagern and Dahlmann, hold an assembly at Gotha, June. 
 The Schleswig-Holstein army is repulsed before Fridericia, 
 July 5, 6. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark, July 
 10. Surrender of the fortress of Rastadt, July 23 ; end of 
 the struggle of the revolutionists in Baden. The Prussian 
 chambers (with a newly elected Lower House) are reopened, 
 Aug. 7. 
 
 General Schlick disperses the forces of the Hungarian general 
 Meszaros at Kaschau, Jan. 4. The Hungarians abandon 
 Buda-Pesth, Jan. 5. Successes of Klapka against Schlick, 
 Jan. A Russian force enters Transylvania to assist the 
 Austrians, Feb. The forces of Gorgey are victorious over 
 those of Schlick at Mount Branyiszko, Feb. 5. Dembinski, 
 the commander-in-chief of the Hungarians, loses the battle 
 of Kapolna, Feb. 26, 27. Francis Joseph issxies a constitu- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 153 
 
 1849. tion for the Austrian Empire, which abrogates the national 
 autonomy of Hungary, March 4. Victory of the Hungarians 
 at Szolnok, March 5. Bern overcomes the Russians and Im- 
 perialists in Transylvania, March. Gorgey executes a vic- 
 torious advance against the Austrians, April. The Diet at 
 Debreczin proclaims the independence of Hungary, April 
 14 ; the country is declared a republic, with Kossuth as gov- 
 ernor. Gorgey, after a victory at Nagy-Sarlo, relieves Co- 
 morn, April. Storming of Buda by the Hungarians, May 21. 
 The Russian general Paskevitch invades Hungary, June. 
 Gorgey unsuccessfully opposes the Austrians on the Waag, 
 and loses Raab, June. Battle of Szony, July 2. The Aus- 
 trians re-enter Pesth, July 12. Battle of Waitzen between 
 Gorgey and Paskevitch, July 15. Bern is vanquished by 
 the Russians at Schassburg, July 31. Brilliant sortie of 
 Klapka from Comorn, Aug. 3. Victory of the Austrians, 
 under Haynau, at Temesvar, Aug. 9. Kossuth resigns the 
 civil and military power into the hands of Gorgey, Aug. 
 11. Gorgey surrenders the Hungarian army to the Russian 
 general Riidiger at Vilagos, Aug. 13. Comorn capitulates 
 to the Austrians, Sept. 28. Resubjection of Hungary to 
 the Hapsburgs. Bloody tribunals at Pesth and Arad, Oct. 
 Meeting of a Constituent Assembly in Rome and proclamation 
 of the Roman Republic, Feb. Revolution in Tuscany, Feb. 
 Suspension of the armistice between Sardinia and Austria, 
 March 12. King Charles Albert is overwhelmed by the 
 Austrians, under Radetzky, at Novara, March 23. He re- 
 signs on the same day in favor of his son Victor Emanuel, 
 who concludes an armistice with the Austrians. (The ex- 
 king dies at Oporto, July 28.) Creation of a Roman Tri- 
 umvirate — Mazzini, Saffi, Armellini — March. A French 
 expedition, under General Oudinot, sent to restore Pius 
 IX., lands at Civita Vecchia, April 25. The forces of 
 Ferdinand II. enter Palermo, May; end of the revolu- 
 tion in Sicily. The Austrians take Bologna, May. The 
 Neapolitan forces sent to assist the papal cause are de- 
 feated by Garibaldi at Velletri, May 19. The French 
 begin the siege of Rome, June 3. Surrender of Ancona 
 to the Austrians, June. Fall of Rome, July 2. Restora- 
 tion of the temporal power of the pope. Treaty of Milan 
 between Sardinia and Austria, Aug. 6. Venice, after a 
 long siege, is forced to surrender to Radetzky, Aug. 
 
154 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1849. William III. succeeds his father William II. in Holland. 
 Repeal of the Navigation Laws in England. 
 
 Battle between Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs at Chillian- 
 
 wallah, Jan. 13. He is victorious at Gujerat, Feb. 21. 
 
 Submission of the Sikhs ; annexation of the Punjaub to 
 
 British India. 
 President Soulouque assumes the title of emperor of Hayti as 
 
 Faustin I. 
 Discovery of Lake Ngami by Livingstone. 
 Death of Polk and of Petofi. 
 
 1850. The United States and Great Britain conclude the Clayton- 
 
 Bulwer Treaty, respecting the proposed water communica- 
 tion through Central America. Death of President Taylor, 
 July 9. He is succeeded by Millard Fillmore. Adoption 
 of the "compromise measures" of Henry Clay, providing 
 for : The admission of California into the Union as a free 
 state ; the organization of New Mexico and Utah into terri- 
 tories ; the settlement of the boundary of Texas ; the aboli- 
 tion of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and 
 the rendition of fugitive slaves. 
 
 A British fleet appears before Athens, and forces the Greek 
 government to grant indemnity for losses sustained by 
 British subjects (Don Pacifico claims). 
 
 Establishment of a Catholic hierarchy in England. 
 
 Uni on sparl anient of North Germany at Erfurt, March-April. 
 Prussia concludes a treaty with Denmark, definitively aban- 
 doning the cause of Schleswig-Holstein, July 2. Battle of 
 Idstedt, July 24, 25 ; the Danes defeat the Schleswig-Hol- 
 steiners. Austria and the states allied with her in opposi- 
 tion to Prussia revive the Bundestag or Federal Diet of 
 Germany, which opens its sessions at Frankfort, Sept. 2. 
 The arbitrary measures of Hassenpflug provoke revolu- 
 tionary troubles in Hesse-Cassel, Sept. The Schleswig- 
 Holsteiners are repulsed in an attack on Friedrichstadt, 
 Oct. 4. Conference of the sovereigns of Austria, Bavaria, 
 and Wurtemberg at Bregenz, Oct. Prussia prepares to 
 resist the restoration of the German Bund, and opposes 
 her forces to those of Austria and Bavaria in Hesse-Cassel, 
 Nov. Prussia, in a conference at Olmiitz, yields to the 
 demands of Austria, Nov. 29. 
 
 Insurrection in Bosnia. 
 
 Outbreak of the Taiping Rebellion in China. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 155 
 
 1850. Expedition of Richardson, Barth, and Overweg to the country 
 
 around Lake Tchad. (Death of Richardson, 1851 ; death of 
 Overweg, 1852; return of Barth, 1855.) 
 Death of Oehlenschlager, Wordsworth, Peel, Balzac. 
 
 1851. Fatal expedition of the filibuster Narciso Lopez to Cuba. 
 Arrival of Louis Kossuth in the United States, Dec. 
 
 Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, Dec. 2 ; he dissolves the Leg- 
 islative Assembly, and makes himself master of France. 
 He is elected president for 10 years by a plebiscite, Dec. 
 20, 21. 
 
 Austro-Prussian intervention in the affairs of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein. The people of the duchies lay down their arms, Jan. 
 Complete restoration of the German Bund, May. 
 
 A revolutionary movement in Portugal, headed by Saldan- 
 ha, forces Maria II. to dismiss her minister Costa-Calmil 
 (reinstated in power in 1849) ; Saldanha at the head of 
 affairs. 
 
 Omer Pasha quells the Bosnian insurrection. 
 
 Burmah provokes the British to hostilities. 
 
 World's Fair in the Crystal Palace, at Hyde Park, London. 
 
 Discovery of great deposits of gold in Australia. 
 
 Invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz. 
 
 Death of Audubon, Oersted, J. F. Cooper, Turner. 
 
 1852. Franklin Pierce is elected president of the United States, and 
 
 William R. King vice-president * ; defeated candidate for 
 the presidency, Winfield Scott. 
 
 The Russell administration is succeeded by the first Derby 
 ministry, Feb. Lord Derby resigns, and is succeeded by 
 the earl of Aberdeen, Dec. 
 
 Confiscation of the property of the Orleans family, Jan. Ple- 
 biscite respecting the establishment of the empire in France, 
 Nov. 21, 22. Louis Napoleon is proclaimed emperor as Na- 
 poleon III., Dec. 2. 
 
 Death of the Austrian premier, Prince Schwarzenberg ; Count 
 Buol-Schauenstein is appointed his successor. 
 
 London Protocol of the Great Powers respecting the succes- 
 sion in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein, May 8. 
 
 The Montenegrins take up arms against the Turks. 
 
 Victorious campaign of the British in Burmah ; they acquire 
 Pegu. (Peace restored in 1853.) 
 
 * W. R. Kinnr, who was president of the Senate under Fillmore, died April, 1853. 
 
156 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1852. The Argentine dictator Rosas is overthrown by the party of 
 
 Urquiza. Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- 
 federation. 
 Death of Moore, Clay, Wellington, Daniel Webster, Gioberti. 
 
 1853. Act for the organization of Washington Territory. Begin- 
 
 ning of Franklin Pierce's administration. 
 
 Marriage of Napoleon III. with Eugenie de Montijo, Jan. 29. 
 
 Campaign of Omer Pasha against the Montenegrins. The 
 Turks suspend hostilities, Feb. Russia demands a protect- 
 orate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, March. Eng- 
 land and France prepare to sustain the Sultan against Rus- 
 sia. The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay, 
 June. The Russian forces advance into the Danubian Prin- 
 cipalities, July. The English and French fleets pass through 
 the Dardanelles, Oct. A Turkish force, under Omer Pasha, 
 crosses the Danube at Viddin, Oct. Beginning of the East- 
 ern War. Repulse of the Russians at Oltenitza, Nov." 4. 
 The Russian admiral Nakhimoff destroys a Turkish squad- 
 ron at Sinope, Nov. 30. Vienna Protocol of the Great Pow- 
 ers, directed against Russia, Dec. 
 
 Pedro V. succeeds his mother, Maria II., in Portugal. 
 
 Nanking and other cities fall into the hands of the Taipings. 
 
 Occupation of New Caledonia by the French. 
 
 Expedition of Dr. Kane in search of Sir John Franklin's 
 party. (Return of the expedition, 1855.) 
 
 Opening of the Crystal Palace in New York. 
 
 1854. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the passage of the 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Conclusion of a treaty for commer- 
 cial reciprocity between the United States and Canada. 
 (Abrogated in 1866.) Drawing up of the Ostend Manifesto 
 by Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, recommending the pur- 
 chase of Cuba by the United States. 
 The English and French fleets enter the Black Sea, Jan. The 
 English Baltic fleet sails under Sir Charles Napier, March. 
 The Russian forces, under the command of Prince Michael 
 Gortchakoff , pass the Danube, March. France and England 
 declare war against Russia, March. (The Crimean War.) 
 Landing of the French and English forces in Turkey, March 
 and April. The French Baltic fleet sails, April. Bombard- 
 ment of Odessa by the allies, April. The Russians, under 
 Paskevitch, lay siege to Silistria, May. They are compelled 
 to abandon the siege, June. Surrender of Bomarsund to 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 157 
 
 1854. the allies, Aug. 16. The Russians, on the demand of Aus- 
 tria, evacuate the Danubian Principalities, which are occu- 
 pied by the Austrian forces, Aug. -Sept. The English and 
 French forces, under Raglan and Saint-Arnaud, land in 
 the Crimea, Sept. 14. The Russians, under Menshikoff , are 
 defeated by the allies in the battle of the Alma, Sept. 20. 
 Death of Saint-Arnaud, Sept. ; Canrobert his successor. The 
 allied army lays siege to Sebastopol, Oct. ; Todleben directs 
 the defense. Battle of Balaklava, charge of the "light 
 brigade," Oct. 25. Defeat of the Russians at Inkerman, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 O'Donnell excites a revolution in Spain, June-July. Ap- 
 pointment of Espartero as prime-minister and of O'Don- 
 nell as secretary of war. 
 
 Promulgation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. 
 
 Said Pasha succeeds Abbas Pasha in Egypt. 
 
 An expedition under Gen. Perovski forces the khan of Khiva 
 to a treaty highly advantageous to Russia. 
 
 Commodore Perry, on the part of the United States, concludes 
 a treaty with Japan. Treaty between Japan and Great 
 Britain. The Japanese government inaugurates a new 
 policy of commercial intercourse with the world. 
 
 The British consent to the establishment of the Orange River 
 Republic. 
 
 Commander McClure arrives in England, after accomplishing 
 the northwest passage, having entered the Polar seas 
 through Behring Strait in 1850 and been imprisoned in 
 the ice for three years. 
 
 1855. A pro-slavery legislature organizes in Kansas. A free-state 
 
 convention draws up the Topeka Constitution. 
 
 William Walker, with a force of filibusters, invades Nica- 
 ragua. 
 
 Victor Emanuel joins in the war against Russia, Jan. Fall 
 of the Aberdeen ministry, Jan. Palmerston becomes pre- 
 mier, Feb. Death of the emperor Nicholas, March 2. He 
 is succeeded by his son, Alexander II. Gortchakoff takes 
 command of the Russian forces in the Crimea, March. 
 Prolonged bombardment of Sebastopol, April. Arrival of 
 the Sardinian forces in the Crimea, May. Pelissier suc- 
 ceeds Canrobert in the command of the French army, May. 
 The allies destroy the Russian stores at Kertch, May. Un- 
 successful attempt to storm the MalakhofP, June 18. Death 
 
158 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1855. of Raglan, June 28. The Russians, advancing to the relief 
 of Sebastopol, are defeated in the battle of the Tchernaya, 
 Aug. 16. The French forces storm the Malakhoff, the Brit- 
 ish attack the Redan, Sept. 8 ; fall of Sebastopol. Unsuc- 
 cessful assault of Muravieff upon Kars, Sept. 29. The allies 
 take Kinburn, Oct. 17. Surrender of Kars to Muravieff, 
 Nov. 27-28. 
 
 Concordat between the court of Austria and Pius IX. 
 
 Final overthrow of Santa Anna in Mexico by the party of 
 
 Alvarez and Comonfort. Government of Alvarez. He re- 
 
 sig:is in favor of Comonfort. 
 Livingstone discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. 
 International Exhibition in Paris. 
 Completion of the Niagara railway suspension bridge. 
 Opening of the railway across the Isthmus of Panama. 
 Death of Mickiewicz. 
 
 1856. Civil war in Kansas. James Buchanan is elected president of 
 
 the United States, and John C. Breckenridge vice-president ; 
 defeated candidates for the presidency, John C. Fremont 
 and Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Arbitrary rule of Walker in Nicaragua. 
 
 Sultan Abdul-Medjid promulgates a liberal statute, the Hatti- 
 Hamayun, Feb. 18. Treaty of Paris, terminating the 
 Crimean War, March 30; neutralization of the Black Sea; 
 cession by Russia of a portion of Bessarabia, which is an- 
 nexed to Moldavia ; Russia renounces the protectorate over 
 the Danubian Principalities; institution of an interna- 
 tional Danubian Commission. 
 
 Insurrections in Madrid and Barcelona. Dictatorial measures 
 of Isabella's minister O'Donnell. 
 
 Annexation of Oude to British India. 
 
 Outbreak of a second war between Great Britain and China. 
 British attack upon Canton. 
 
 The Persians occupy Herat, and become involved in a war 
 with the government of India. 
 
 Death of Heine, Sir W. Hamilton (the philosopher), Dela- 
 roche. 
 
 1857. Beginning of James Buchanan's administration. Victory of 
 
 the free-state party at the polls in Kansas. A pro-slavery 
 convention draws up the Lecompton Constitution. — Re- 
 bellion of the Mormons in Utah. (Order restored in 1858.) 
 — Financial panic in the United States and Europe. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 159 
 
 1857. Treaty between Denmark and the Powers for the abolition of 
 
 the Sound Dues. 
 
 The British bring the war with Persia to a successful close. 
 
 Outbreak of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India. The blood- 
 shed begins at Barrackpoor, March. Rising at Meerut, 
 May. The mutineers masters of Delhi, May. Mutiny at 
 Lucknow, May ; at Benares, June. Nana Sahib heads the 
 insurrection in Cawnpore, June. Massacre of Europeans 
 at Cawnpore by his orders, July 15. Havelock drives the 
 mutineers from the city, July. The British recover Delhi, 
 Sept. Havelock, after a brilliant campaign, relieves the 
 garrison at Lucknow, Sept. Sir Colin Campbell rescues 
 Havelock and Outram at Lucknow, Nov. He is victorious 
 at Cawnpore, Dec. 
 
 Bombardment and occupation of Canton by the British and 
 French, Dec. 
 
 Publication of the first portion of Buckle's "History of Civili- 
 zation in England. 11 
 
 Death of A. de Musset, Be ranger, Sue, Comte, Ranch. 
 
 1858. Admission of Minnesota into the Union. The people of Kan- 
 
 sas reject the Lecompton Constitution. 
 
 Attempt of Orsini upon the life of Napoleon III., Jan. 14. 
 
 End of the first Palmerston administration, Feb. ; formation 
 of the second Derby ministry. Act removing the disabili- 
 ties of the Jews in Great Britain. 
 
 Interview between Napoleon III. and Cavour at Plombieres, 
 July. 
 
 Prince William of Prussia is appointed regent for his brother, 
 Frederick William IV. 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell recaptures Lucknow, March. Sir Hugh 
 Rose takes Gwalior, June. Virtual suppression of the 
 Sepoy Mutiny. The government of British India is trans- 
 ferred by act of Parliament from the East India Company 
 to the crown. 
 
 Capture of the forts at the mouth of the Peiho by the British 
 and French. China concludes treaties at Tientsin with 
 Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. Ces- 
 sion of the Amoor Country to Russia. 
 
 France, in co-operation with Spain, engages in a war with 
 Anam. 
 
 Fall of Comonfort, president of Mexico. Zuloaga is recog- 
 nized as his successor by the clerical and reactionary party. 
 
1G0 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1858. Juarez is declared lawful president by the Liberals. Suc- 
 cessful campaign of Miramon, the general of the reactionary 
 party. 
 
 Momentary establishment of transatlantic telegraphic com- 
 munication. The cable fails after a few messages. 
 
 Discovery of lakes Tanganyika and Victoria N'yanza by Bur- 
 ton and Speke. 
 
 1859. Admission of Oregon into the Union. Adoption of the Wyan- 
 
 dotte Constitution, prohibiting slavery, in Kansas. Attempt 
 of John Brown to excite an insurrection of the slaves in the 
 South. He seizes the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, night of 
 Oct. 16-17 ; he is overpowered and captured, Oct. 17 ; he is 
 executed, Dec. 2. 
 
 The second Derby administration is succeeded by a new 
 Palmerston ministry, June. 
 
 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia, in alliance with France, enters 
 upon a war against Austria, April. The Austrian forces 
 cross the Ticino, April. Victor Emanuel takes charge of 
 the government of Tuscany, May (the grand-duke, Leopold 
 II., having a few days before quitted his territories). Vic- 
 tory of Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel over the Aus- 
 trians, under Gyulai, at Magenta, June 4. Parma and 
 Modena emancipate themselves from their reigning houses, 
 June ; the Romagna throws off the papal rule. The sover- 
 eigns of France and Sardinia overwhelm the Austrian army 
 at Solferino, June 24. Preliminary treaty of Villafranca 
 between France and Austria, July 11. Treaty of Zurich 
 between Avistria, France, and Sardinia, Nov. 10 ; Victor 
 Emanuel acquires Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua 
 and Peschiera). 
 
 Francis II. succeeds his father, Ferdinand II., in Naples, May. 
 
 Spain undertakes a war against Morocco. 
 
 Surrender of Shamyl at Ghunib, Sept. G; the dominion of 
 Russia over the tribes of the Caucasus virtually secured. 
 
 Oscar I. of Sweden is succeeded by his son, Charles XV. 
 (regent since 1857), July. 
 
 Capture of Saigon, in Cochin China, by the French. 
 
 Difficulties between the Chinese government and Great Britain 
 and France. 
 
 Miramon assumes the chief power in Mexico. The supporters 
 of Juarez threaten the capital. They are defeated by the 
 forces of Miramon at Tacubaya. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 161 
 
 1859. Buenos Ayres is forced to rejoin the Argentine confederation. 
 The sinking of petroleum wells is begun in the United States. 
 The Arctic expedition of McClintock ascertains the fate of Sir 
 
 John Franklin, the true discoverer (in 1S46) of the north- 
 west passage. 
 Publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species." 
 Death of Hallam, Prescott, De Tocqueville, Humboldt, Met- 
 ternich, Ritter, Irving, De Quincey, Macaulay. 
 
 1860. Abraham Lincoln is elected president of the United States, 
 
 and Hannibal Hamlin vice-president, Nov. 6 ; defeated can- 
 didates for the presidency, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. 
 Breckenridge, and John Bell. Secession of South Carolina, 
 Dec. 20. 
 
 Annexation of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Romagna 
 to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, who cedes Savoy and 
 Nice to France, March. Rising in Palermo against Francis 
 II., April. Landing of Garibaldi in Sicily, at Marsala, May. 
 "f he revolutionists assault Palermo, May. The Neapolitan 
 forces evacuate the city, June. Victory of Garibaldi over 
 the Neapolitans at Milazzo, July 20. Garibaldi, having 
 achieved the liberation of Sicily, invades the Neapolitan 
 mainland, Aug. He enters Naples, and proclaims the reign 
 of Victor Emanuel, Sept. The Sardinian forces advance 
 into the Marches and Umbria, which are in a state of revolt 
 against Pius IX., Sept. Cialdini defeats the papal army, 
 commanded by Lamoriciere, at Castelfidardo, Sept. 18. La- 
 moriciere, having thrown himself into Ancona, is forced to 
 surrender, Sept. 29. Garibaldi defeats the troops of Francis 
 II. on the Volturno, Oct. The Sardinian forces advance 
 into the Neapolitan territories, Oct. They lay siege to 
 Gaeta, which Is defended by Francis II., Nov. Annexation 
 of the Two Sicilies, the Marches, and Umbria to the domin- 
 ions of Victor Emanuel. 
 
 Napoleon III. accords increased privileges to the French legis- 
 lature. 
 
 Attempted reorganization of the Austrian Empire on a fed- 
 eralists basis by the Imperial Diploma of Oct. 20. (See 
 1861.) 
 
 Massacres of the Maronites by the Druses in the Lebanon. 
 Massacre of Christians at Damascus. Intervention of the 
 Western Powers. A French force occupies Syria. 
 
 Surrender of Tetuan to the Spaniards. They successfully end 
 
1G2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1860. the war against Morocco. Unsuccessful Carlist insurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 An English-French expedition marches on Peking, occupies 
 the city, Oct., and forces the Chinese emperor to comply 
 with the terms of the previous treaties. 
 
 Miramon makes an unsuccessful attempt to take Vera Cruz, the 
 seat of government of Juarez. His forces are overthrown 
 by those of Juarez in the battle of Calpulalpam, Dec. 22. 
 
 Introduction of spectrum analysis by Kirchhotf and Bunsen. 
 
 Death of Schopenhauer. 
 
 1861. Secession of Mississippi, Jan. 9; of Florida, Jan. 10; of Ala- 
 
 bama, Jan. 11; of Georgia, Jan. 19; of Louisiana, Jan. 26. 
 Admission of Kansas into the Union as a free state, Jan. 
 Secession of Texas, Feb. 1. Assembling of a congress of the 
 seceding states at Montgomery, Feb. 4. The congress elects 
 Jefferson Davis president of the Confederate States of Amer- 
 ica, Feb. 9. He is inaugurated, Feb. 18. General Twiggs 
 surrenders his forces to the Texans. Feb. 18. Inauguration 
 of President Lincoln, March 4. Adoption of the permanent 
 constitution of the Confederate States, March 11. Bom- 
 bardment of Fort Sumter by the Confederates, April 12, 13. 
 Major Anderson evacuates Fort Sumter, April 14. Procla- 
 mation of Lincoln calling for 75,000 militia, April 15. Se- 
 cession of Virginia, April 17. The Confederates seize the 
 arsenal at Harper's Ferry, April 18. The Massachusetts 
 militia is attacked in Baltimore, April 19. Lincoln pro- 
 claims the blockade of the Southern ports, April. The 
 navy-yard at Gosport, near Norfolk, is abandoned by the 
 Federals, April 21. The Congress of the Confederate States 
 assembles at Montgomery, April 29. Secession of Tennessee 
 and Arkansas, May 6 ; of North Carolina, May 20. Formal 
 secession of western Virginia from Virginia, June. The 
 Confederates are repeatedly defeated in western Virginia by 
 General McClellan's troops, July. Richmond becomes the 
 seat of the Confederate Congress, July 20. Battle of Bull 
 Run, July 21 ; the Confederates, under Beauregard, repulse 
 McDowell. Battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield (Mo.), 
 Aug. 10 ; death of General Lyon. Capture of forts Hatteras 
 and Clark by the Federals, Aug. 29. The Confederate 
 general Price takes Lexington (Mo.), Sept. 20. Repulse of 
 the Federals at Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, Oct. 21. Mc- 
 Clellan is appointed general-in-chief of the armies of the 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 163 
 
 1861. United States (succeeding Winfleld Scott), Nov. 1. The 
 Federals gain possession of the harbor of Port Royal, Nov. 
 7. Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Eng- 
 land and France, are intercepted on the "Trent," Nov. 8. 
 
 William I. succeeds his brother, Frederick William IV., in 
 Prussia, Jan. 2. 
 
 Imperial Patent of Francis Joseph providing for the reorgani- 
 zation of Austria on a constitutional basis and a system of 
 consolidation, Feb. 2Q. Schmerling directs the new policy. 
 
 Czar Alexander II. proclaims the emancipation of the serfs, 
 March 3. 
 
 Surrender of Gaeta to the forces of Victor Emanuel, Feb. 13* 
 Meeting of the Parliament of Italy, Feb. 18. It confers the 
 title of King of Italy on Victor Emanuel, Feb. 26. He 
 assumes the title, March 17. Death of Cavour, June 6. 
 
 Louis I. succeeds his bi'other, Pedro V., in Portugal. 
 
 Rising in Herzegovina ; the Montenegrins support the insur- 
 gents. Sultan Abdul- Aziz succeeds Abdul-Medjid, June. 
 
 Appointment of a Christian governor of the Lebanon. 
 
 Death of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, Dec. 14. 
 
 Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) proclaims the union of Mol- 
 davia and Wallachia under the name of Principality of 
 Roumania, Dec. 
 
 Entry of Juarez into the city of Mexico, Jan. ; his authority 
 firmly established. Convention of London between France, 
 England, and Spain for joint action in the enforcement of 
 their Mexican claims. The three powers dispatch fleets to 
 Mexico. A Spanish force takes possession of Vera Cruz, 
 Dec. 
 
 The government of the republic of Santo Domingo is trans- 
 ferred to Spain by Santana. 
 
 Death of Scribe and of l-'chlosser. 
 1862 The British government having demanded the release of Mason 
 and Slidell, they are given up by the United States, Jan. 
 General Thomas defeats the Confederates at Mill Spring 
 (Ky.), Jan. 19. The Federals, under Commodore Foote, 
 reduce Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, Feb. 6. Cap- 
 ture of Roanoke Island by the expedition of General Bum- 
 side and Commodore Goldsborough, Feb. 8. Surrender of 
 Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, to General Grant, 
 Feb. 16. Battle of Pea Ridge (Ark.), March 7, 8; victory 
 of the Federals. Engagement between the "Virginia" 
 12 
 
164 'CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1862. ("Merrimac") and the "Monitor" in Hampton Roads, 
 March 9. The army of McClellan begins the siege of 
 Yorktown, April 5. Battle of Shiloh (Term.), or of Pitts- 
 burgh Landing, between Grant and the Confederate gen- 
 erals A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, April 6, 7 (Johnston 
 killed April 6). Capture of Island No. Ten, in the Missis- 
 sippi River, by General Pope, April 7. Act of Congress 
 abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, April 16. 
 The fleet of Captain Farragut begins the bombardment of 
 forts Jackson and St. Philip, on the Mississippi, April 18. 
 Farragut passes the Mississippi forts, April 24. He appears 
 before New Orleans, April 25. Surrender of the Mississippi 
 forts, April 28. General Butler takes formal possession of 
 New Orleans, May 1. General J. E. Johnston abandons 
 Yorktown, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg (Va.), May 5. 
 Occupation of Norfolk by the Federals, May 10. Engage- 
 ment at Hanover Court-House (Va.), May 27. Evacuation 
 of Corinth (Miss.) by the Confederates, May 29. Battle of 
 Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (Va.) between the forces of 
 McClellan and those of J. E. Johnston, May 31, June 1. 
 Battle of Cross Keys (Va.) between Fremont and a detach- 
 ment of Jackson's forces, June 8. Act of Congress abolish- 
 ing slavery in the territories, June 9. " Seven days' battle " 
 between the armies of McClellan and Lee before Richmond, 
 June 26-July 1 ; McClellan retires from the Chickahominy 
 to a position on the James : Battle of Mechanicsville, or of 
 Beaver Dam Creek, June 26 ; battle of Cold Harbor, or of 
 Gaines's Mill, June 27; battle of Savage's Station, June 29; 
 battle of Frazier's Farm, June 30 ; repulse of the Confeder- 
 ates at Malvern Hill, July 1. Halleck is appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, July. 
 Battle of Cedar Mountain (Va.), the Confederates success- 
 ful, Aug. 9. Second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 30 ; Jack- 
 son and Longstreet, of Lee's army, successful against Pope. 
 Victory of the Confederates, under Kirby Smith, at Rich- 
 mond (Ky.), Aug. 30. Lee invades Maryland, Sept. Battle 
 of South Mountain (Md.), Sept. 14. Surrender of a Union 
 force at Harper's Ferry to Jackson, Sept. 15. Battle of 
 Antietam Creek (Md.) between McClellan and Lee, Sept. 16, 
 17 ; Lee recrosses the Potomac. Proclamation of President 
 Lincoln decreeing the emancipation on Jan. 1, 1863, of all 
 slaves in the states which should till then continue in a state 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1G5 
 
 1862. of rebellion, Sept. 22. Attack of the Confederates upon Cor- 
 inth, Oct. 3, 4 ; they are repulsed by Rosecrans. Battle of 
 Perryville (Ky.) between a portion of Buell's army and the 
 forces of Bragg, Oct. 8. Burnside is appointed commander 
 of the army of the Potomac (superseding McClellan), Nov. 
 7. Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13; Lee unsuccessfully 
 attacked by Burnside. The forces of Rosecrans engage with 
 those of Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), Dec. 20-31 
 (severe battle Dec. 31, followed by another, Jan. 2). 
 
 Bismarck assumes the administration of affairs in Prussia. 
 
 Garibaldi organizes an expedition in Sicily against Rome. 
 He is defeated and captured by the forces of Victor Emanuel 
 at Aspromonte, Aug. 
 
 The Montenegrins are vanquished by Omer Pasha, and sub- 
 mit to a disadvantageous peace. 
 
 Bloody conflict between the Servians and Turks in Belgrade. 
 
 Revolution in Greece, Oct. ; deposition of King Otho. 
 
 France declares war against Mexico. The Mexicans having 
 agreed to an accommodation, England and Spain with- 
 draw their forces. 
 
 Francisco Solano Lopez succeeds Carlos Antonio Lopez in the 
 government of Paraguay. 
 
 Cession of Lower Cochin China by Anam to France. 
 
 Discovery of the Victoria Nile by Speke and Grant. 
 
 International exhibition in London. 
 
 1863. Proclamation of President Lincoln definitely abolishing slav- 
 
 ery in the rebellious states, Jan. 1. Bragg unsuccessfully 
 attacks the forces of Rosecrans at Murfreesboro (Stone 
 River), Jan. 2. The Confederates abandon Murfreesboro, 
 Jan. 3, 4. The Federals reduce Fort Hindman (Ark.), Jan. 
 11. Hooker is appointed to the command of the army of 
 the Potomac, Jan. 26. The Federals unsuccessfully attack 
 the fortifications in Charleston harbor, April 7. Proclama- 
 tion of President Lincoln declaring West Virginia admitted 
 into the Union, April 20. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 
 2-4 ; Lee victorious over Hooker ; ' ' Stonewall " Jackson 
 mortally wounded. Grant, having crossed the Mississippi, 
 repels Johnston at Jackson (Miss.), defeats Pemberton on 
 the Black River, and invests Vicksburg, May. Lee occupies 
 Winchester, June 15. He crosses the Potomac, June 24, 25, 
 and enters Pennsylvania. Meade assumes command of the 
 army of the Potomac, June 28. Battle of Gettysburg, July 
 
[08 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1863. 1-3 ; defeat of Lee by Meade. Pemberton surrenders Vicks- 
 burg to General Grant, July 4. Surrender of Port Hudson 
 (La.) to Banks, July 8. Conscription riots in New York, 
 July. Unsuccessful assault upon Fort Wagner, Charleston 
 harbor, July 18. Abandonment of Fort Wagner, Sept. 7. 
 Rosecrans occupies Chattanooga, Sept. 9. Battle of Chicka- 
 mauga, Sept. 19, 20 ; defeat of Rosecrans by Bragg. Burn- 
 side is besieged by Longstreet in Knoxville, Nov. Battle 
 of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25 ; Bragg is driven from Chatta- 
 nooga ; the operations of the Fedei^als conducted by Grant. 
 (Nov. 24, battle of Lookout Mountain; Nov. 25, battle of 
 Missionary Ridge.) First presidential proclamation re- 
 specting reconstruction, Dec. 8. 
 
 Rising of the Poles against Russia. The central revolutionary 
 committee at Warsaw summon the people to arms, Jan. 
 Langiewicz takes the principal command among the pa- 
 triots. Fruitless combats with the Russian forces. 
 
 The Greeks confer the royal crown on William, son of Prince 
 Christian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, March. (He assumes 
 the name of George I.) 
 
 Great Britain announces her renunciation of the protectorate 
 over the Ionian Islands. 
 
 Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark, Nov. 15. Prince Chris- 
 tian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg succeeds him as Christian 
 IX. Holstein refuses allegiance. Occupation of Holstein 
 and Lauenburg by order of the German Diet, Dec. 
 
 Ismail P^sha succeeds Said Pasha in Egypt. 
 
 Conquest of Herat by Dost Mohammed. Death of Dost 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The French forces, under General Forey, besiege and reduce 
 Puebla. They enter the city of Mexico, June 10. An 
 assembly of notables, convened under French auspices, de- 
 clares in favor of an imperial government for Mexico, the 
 crown to be offered to the archduke Maximilian of Austria, 
 July 10. Juarez, withdrawing northward, continues the 
 struggle with the French. 
 
 Death of Horace Vernet, Jakob Grimm, Thackeray. 
 
 1864. General Banks, assisted by General A. J. Smith and Admiral 
 
 Porter, enters upon the Red River expedition, March. 
 Grant is invested with the chief command of the armies 
 of the United States (superseding Halleck), March. Vic- 
 tory of Kirby Smith and Dick Taylor at Sabine Cross 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 167 
 
 1864. Roads, April 8 ; failure of the Red River expedition. Storm- 
 ing of Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, by the Confederates, 
 April 12. Sherman begins his march on Atlanta, May 5 ; 
 he is opposed by Johnston. Battle of the Wilderness be- 
 tween Grant and Lee, May 5, 6. Battles at Spottsylvania 
 Court-House, May. Escape of Porter's fleet at Alexandria, 
 on the Red River, May. Sherman repeatedly flanks John- 
 ston, forcing him to fall back, May-June. Second battle 
 of Cold Harbor, June 3 ; Lee repulses Grant's assault. Vic- 
 tory of the Federals, under Hunter, at Piedmont (Va.), 
 June 5. Unsuccessful attack upon Petersburg by Grant's 
 army, June 15, 16. The regular siege of Petersburg is be- 
 gun, June 19. Sinking of the Confederate cruiser "Ala- 
 bama " by the ' ' Kearsarge, " June 19. General Early makes 
 a raid into Maryland and Pennsylvania, July; he is vic- 
 torious on the Monocacy, July 9, and threatens Washington ; 
 burning of Chambersburg, July 30. The forces of Grant 
 make an unsuccessful assault upon Cemetery Hill, at Pe- 
 tersburg, July 30. Hood, Johnston's successor hi com- 
 mand, after disastrous attacks on Sherman, July 20, 22, 
 28, is besieged in Atlanta. Farragut passes forts Gaines 
 and Morgan, and destroys or captures the Confederate fleet 
 in Mobile Bay, Aug. Atlanta, evacuated by Hood, is 
 occupied by Sherman's army, Sept. 2. Victory of Sheri- 
 dan over Early on Opequan Creek, near Winchester, Sept. 
 19. Sheridan defeats Early at Fisher's Hill, near Win- 
 chester, Sept. 22. Early surprises the Federal forces at 
 Cedar Creek, Oct. 19 ; he is routed by Sheridan. Re-elec- 
 tion of Lincoln, Nov. 8; defeated candidate for the presi- 
 dency, George B. McClellan. Andrew Johnson is elected 
 vice-president. Defeat of Hood before Nashville by Thomas, 
 Dec. 15, 16. Sherman occupies Savannah, Dec. 21. — Ad- 
 mission of Nevada into the Union. 
 Second Schleswig-Holstein War. An Austro-Prussian army 
 invades Schleswig, Feb. 1. The Danes abandon the Dan- 
 nevirke, Feb. 5. Occupation of Schleswig and invasion of 
 Jutland. The Prussians storm the lines of Diippel, April 
 18. The London conference for the settlement of the 
 Schleswig-Holstein question assembles, April. It dissolves 
 after fruitless negotiations, June. The Austrian and Prus- 
 sian forces, after a truce, resume hostilities, June. Pre- 
 liminary peace between Denmark and the allies, Aug. 1. 
 
1G8 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1864. Treaty of Vienna, Oct. 30 ; Christian IX. of Denmark re- 
 nounces Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 Complete suppression of the insurrection in Poland. 
 
 Final conquest of the Circassians by the Russians. 
 
 Napoleon III. concludes a convention with Victor Emanuel 
 
 agreeing to withdraw the French forces from the papal 
 
 territory in two years, Sept. 15. 
 Organization of the International Association of workingmen. 
 The emperor of China recovers Nanking ; end of the Taiping 
 
 Rebellion. 
 Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. 
 
 Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, enters upon a war with Brazil. 
 Peru becomes involved in difficulties with Spain. 
 Discovery of Lake Albert N'yanza by Baker. 
 Death of Meyerbeer, Hawthorne, Lantlor. 
 
 1865. The Federals take Fort Fisher (N. C), Jan. 15. Occupation 
 
 of Charleston by Sherman's army, Feb. 18. Act of Con- 
 gress organizing the Freechnen's Bureau, March 3. Lin- 
 coln's second inauguration, March 4. General Johnston 
 makes an unsuccessful effort to check Sherman's advance 
 at Bentonville (N. C), March 19. Lee attacks Grant's forces 
 before Petersburg, March 25 ; he takes and loses Fort Stead- 
 man. Battle of the Five Forks, March 31, April 1; rout 
 of Lee's troops, who are pursued by Sheridan. Capture of 
 Selma (Ala.) by Wilson, April 2. Occupation of Peters- 
 burg and Richmond by the Federals, April 3. Surrender 
 of Lee at Appomattox Court-House, April 9. The Federal 
 forces occupy Mobile, April 12. Assassination of Lincoln, 
 April 14 ; death of the president, April 15 ; Johnson suc- 
 ceeds him. Occupation of Columbus (Ga.) by Wilson, 
 April 16. Johnston surrenders his army to Sherman at 
 Durham's Station (N. C), April 26. Surrender of Dick 
 Taylor to Canby, May 4. Capture of Jefferson Davis near 
 Irwinville (Ga.), May 10. Surrender of Kirby Smith in 
 Texas, May 26 ; end of the civil war. President Johnson 
 issues a proclamation of amnesty, May 29. (The amnesty 
 made universal, Dec. 25, 1868.) The Thirteenth Amend- 
 ment, abolishing slavery in the United States, becomes a 
 part of the Constitution, Dec. 18. 
 The British authorities take measures to suppress the Fenian 
 movement in Ireland. Death of Palmerston, Oct. 18 ; Earl 
 Russell becomes premier for a second time. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1G9 
 
 1865. Convention of Gastein between the sovereigns of Prussia and 
 Austria, Aug. Schleswig to be temporarily governed by 
 Prussia, Holstein by Austria ; Prussia to possess Lauenburg, 
 Austria receiving an equivalent in money. 
 
 Transfer of the seat of government of Italy from Turin to 
 Florence, May. 
 
 Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. , in Belgium, Dec. 10. 
 
 Lopez makes war on the Argentine Republic. Alliance be- 
 tween Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay against 
 Paraguay. 
 1856. Passage of the Civil Rights Bill over President Johnson's veto, 
 April 9. Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in Con- 
 gress, June ; the colored natives of the United States de- 
 clared to be citizens thereof and of the individual States ; 
 any State withholding the right of suffrage from any por- 
 tion of its citizens to have the basis of representation in 
 Congress proportionately reduced. (See 1868.) 
 
 Wholesale arrest of Fenians in Ireland. The Fenians attempt 
 an invasion of Canada. Resignation of Earl Russell, June ; 
 formation of the third Derby ministry. 
 
 Prussia and Italy form an alliance against Austria. Mobili- 
 zation of the Prussian army, May. Austria refers the set- 
 tlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question to the German 
 Diet, June 1. Prussia occupies Holstein, June. The Ger- 
 man Diet, at the instance of Austria, orders the mobilization 
 of the Federal forces, June 14. The Prussian troops occupy 
 Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel, June. War of Prussia 
 and Italy against Austria and her German allies. Victory 
 of the Austrians, under the archduke Albert, over the Ital- 
 ians under Lamarmora at Custozza, June 24. Capitulation 
 of the Hanoverian army to the Prussians at Langensalza, 
 June 28. Battle of Sadowa (or of Koniggratz), July 3; the 
 Prussian forces, under the crown-prince, Frederick William, 
 and Prince Frederick Charles, overwhelm the Austrian 
 army, under Benedek. Austria cedes Venetia to Napoleon 
 III. , July 4, the province to be made over to Italy. The 
 Prussians enter Prague, July 8. Successful campaign of the 
 Prussians in the valley of the Main against the forces of the 
 South German states, July. Occupation of Frankfort by 
 the Prussians, July. Naval victory of the Austrians, under 
 Tegetthoff, over the Italians, under Persano, at Lissa, July 
 20. Truce between the Italians and Austrians, July 25. 
 
170 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1866. Preliminaries of Nikolsburg between Prussia and Austria, 
 July 26. Prussia concludes treaties with Wiirtemberg, Ba- 
 den, and Bavaria, Aug. Peace of Prague between Prussia 
 and Austria, Aug. 23. Dissolution of the German Confed- 
 eration. Annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
 Frankfort to Prussia. Hesse-Darmstadt cedes Hesse-Hom- 
 burg to Prussia, Sept. Formation of the North German 
 Confederation under the lead of Prussia. Peace of Vienna 
 between Austria and Italy, Oct. 3. Annexation of Venetia 
 to Italy. Beust is appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 
 Austria (superseding Mensdorff), Oct. 30. Withdrawal of 
 the French troops from the Papal territories, Dec. Tbe 
 Prussian Landtag decrees the incorporation of Schleswig- 
 Holstein with Prussia, Dec. 
 
 Revolutionary risings in Spain. 
 
 Attempt of Karakozoff upon the life of Alexander II. , April 16. 
 
 Fall of Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) of Roumania. Charles 
 of Hohenzollern is elected his successor. 
 
 Outbreak of the Cretan insurrection. 
 
 First congress of the Internationals at Geneva; adoption of 
 the rules drawn up by Karl Marx. 
 
 Juarez is successful against the French invaders in Mexico. 
 
 Chili having entered into an alliance with Peru against Spain, 
 the Spaniards bombard Valparaiso, March 31. Bombard- 
 ment of Callao. Spain withdraws from the contest. 
 
 Successful establishment of telegraphic communication be- 
 tween Europe and America. 
 
 1867. Act of Congress, passed over President Johnson's veto, con- 
 
 ferring the suffrage on the colored citizens in the District 
 of Columbia and the territories, Jan. Admission of Ne- 
 braska into the Union, Feb. The Tenure of Office Act 
 and a reconstruction act, providing for a military govern- 
 ment in the Southern States, are passed by Congress over 
 the president's veto, March 2. Purchase of Alaska from 
 Russia by the United States. 
 
 Fenian insurrection in Ireland. Canada, New Brunswick, 
 and Nova Scotia are constituted the Dominion of Canada. 
 Passage of a new Parliamentary Reform Act for England, 
 Aug. (See 1868.) Outbreak of a war between England and 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Meeting of the North German Constituent Reichstag. Adop- 
 tion of the federal constitution. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 171 
 
 1867. Negotiations of Napoleon III. for the purchase of Luxemburg 
 
 from the king of Holland. Threatened interference of the 
 North German Confederation. Neutralization of Luxem- 
 burg by the treaty of London, May 11. 
 
 Agreement between the North and South German States for 
 the reorganization of the Zollverein. 
 
 Francis Joseph appoints Beust his prime-minister, Feb. 7. Re- 
 construction of the Austrian Empire on the duaiistic basis 
 proposed by Francis Deak. Restoration of the Hungarian 
 constitution. Formation of a national Hungarian ministry, 
 with Andrassy at its head. Coronation of Francis Joseph 
 as constitutional king of Hungary, June 8. 
 
 Garibaldi undertakes an expedition against Rome, Oct. He 
 captures Monte Rotondo, Oct. 26. Landing of a French 
 force at Civita Vecchia, Oct. 28. The French and papal 
 forces defeat Garibaldi at Mentana, Nov. 3. 
 
 Withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons from Servia. 
 
 Withdrawal of Bazaine's forces from the territory of Mexico. 
 Maximilian is besieged in Queretaro by the forces of Juarez. 
 He is made prisoner, May 15, and executed, together with 
 Miramon and Mejia, June 19. Entry of Juarez into the city 
 of Mexico, July. 
 
 Extension of French dominion in Cochin China. 
 
 Abolition of the shogunate in Japan. (The supreme author- 
 ity previously shared by the shogun and the mikado.) 
 
 International exhibition in Paris. 
 
 Death of Cousin and of Faraday. 
 
 1868. Impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson, Feb.-May; the 
 
 impeachment fails. The Fourteenth Amendment is pro- 
 claimed part of the Constitution, July 28. Ulysses S. Grant 
 is elected president of the United States, and Schuyler Col- 
 fax vice-president ; defeated candidate for the presidency, 
 Horatio Seymour. 
 
 Resignation of Lord Derby, Feb. ; Disraeli forms a new minis- 
 try. Storming of Magdala by the forces of Sir Robert Napier, 
 April 13 ; death of King Theodore ; end of the Abyssinian 
 war. New Reform Act for Scotland and Ireland, July. 
 Resignation of Disraeli, Dec. ; Gladstone prime-minister. 
 
 Anti-clerical legislation in Austria. The Czech members of 
 the Bohemian and Moravian diets resign their seats, and 
 draw up ' ' declarations " setting forth their demands for na- 
 tional autonomy. 
 
172 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1868. Revolution in Spain, headed by Prim and Serrano, Sept. Ser- 
 
 rano vanquishes the forces of Queen Isabella at Alcolea, 
 Sept. 28. Isabella quits Spain, Sept. 30. Entry of Serrano 
 into Madrid, Oct. 3. Formation of a provisional ministry 
 under the presidency of Serrano, Oct. 8. Outbreak of the 
 Cuban insurrection. 
 
 Assassination of Michael Obrenovitch, prince of Servia, June 
 10. Milan Obrenovitch is elected his successor. 
 
 Success of the Turkish arms in Crete. 
 
 Conquest of Samarkand by the Russians. 
 
 The last shogun of Japan unsuccessfully attempts to regain 
 power by force of arms. 
 
 The allied arms of Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uru- 
 guay successfully assail Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, 
 who is driven from Asuncion and Humaita. 
 
 Death of Brougham and of Rossini. 
 
 1869. Adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in Congress, prohibit- 
 
 ing the States from denying the right to vote to any citizen 
 of the United States on account of race or color, Feb. (See 
 1870.) Beginning of Grant's first administration. Treaty 
 between President Grant and President Baez for the an- 
 nexation of Santo Domingo to the United States. (The 
 scheme fails 1871.) 
 
 Act for the disestablishment of the Irish Church, July 26 (to 
 take effect Jan. 1, 1871). 
 
 Constitutional reforms in France. 
 
 The Poles of Galicia petition the Austrian government for au- 
 tonomy. Insurrection in the district of Cattaro in Dalmatia. 
 
 The Constituent Cortes in Spain decide in favor of a mo- 
 narchical government. Serrano is appointed regent of the 
 kingdom, June. Suppression of Republican insurrections. 
 
 Opening of the Vatican Council (twentieth oecumenical coun- 
 cil), Dec. 8. 
 
 Completion of the Pacific Railway and of the Suez Canal. 
 
 Death of Lamartine, Franklin Pierce, Sainte-Beuve. 
 
 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is proclaimed part of the Constitu- 
 
 tion, March 30. Completion of reconstruction in the South- 
 ern States. 
 Appointment of the Ollivier ministry in France, Jan. 2. 
 Murder of the journalist Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte, 
 Jan. 10. Trial of Pierre Bonaparte, March. Napoleon III. 
 submits new fundamental laws to France ; plebiscite, May 8. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 173 
 
 Appointment of the duke de Gramont as minister of foreign 
 affairs, May 15. The council of ministers in Spain decide 
 to offer the royal crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollem, 
 July 2. Declaration of the duke de Gramont against the 
 candidature in the corps legislatif, July 6. Withdrawal of 
 Prince Leopold, July 12. Benedetti's interview with Will- 
 iam I. at Ems, resulting in an open rupture between Prus- 
 sia and France, July 13. France formally declares war, 
 July 19. Engagement at Saarbriick, Aug. 2. Victory of 
 the Germans at Weissenburg, Aug. 4. Frederick William, 
 crown-prince of Prussia, defeats the army of MacMahon at 
 Worth, Aug. 6. Defeat of the French general Frossard at 
 Spichern, Aug. 6. Resignation of Ollivier, Aug. 9. Palikao 
 forms a new ministry, Aug. 10. First battle before Metz, 
 at Courcelles, Aug. 14. Battle of Mars-la-Tour (or of Vion- 
 ville) between the forces of Prince Frederick Charles and 
 those of Bazaine, Aug. 16. The armies of Steinmetz and 
 Prince Frederick Charles, commanded by King William 
 in person, defeat Bazaine at Gravelotte, Aug. 18. Defeat 
 of a part of MacMahon's forces at Beaumont, Aug. 30. Bat- 
 tle of Sedan, Sept. 1; defeat of MacMahon by Frederick 
 William and the crown-prince of Saxony. Surrender of 
 MacMahon's army at Sedan, Sept. 2 ; Napoleon III. a pris- 
 oner. Proclamation of the republic in Paris, formation of 
 a government of national defense, Sept. 4. Paris invested 
 on all sides, Sept. 19. Surrender of Toul, Sept. 23. Sur- 
 render of Strasburg, Sept. 27-28. Sortie of Gen. Vinoy 
 from Paris, Sept. 30. Gambetta escapes from Paris and 
 issues a proclamation from Tours, Oct. 7-9. Victory of 
 Von der Tann at Orleans, occupation of the city, Oct. 11. 
 Fall of Metz, Bazaine surrenders to Frederick Charles, Oct. 
 27. The defenders of Paris occupy Le Bourget, Oct. 28. 
 They are driven out of it, Oct. 30. Revolutionary rising in 
 Paris, Oct. 31. Battle of Coulmiers near Orleans, Nov. 9 ; 
 Aurelle de Paladines forces Von der Tann to retreat. The 
 French re-enter Orleans, Nov. 10. Repulse of Aurelle de 
 Paladines at Beaune-la-Rolande, Nov. 28. Attempt of 
 Ducrot to break through the German lines before Paris at 
 Brie and Champigny, Nov. 30-Dec. 3. Aurelle de Pala- 
 dines is defeated before Orleans by the grand-duke of 
 Mecklenburg and Prince Frederick Charles, Dec. 2-4. The 
 Germans reoccupy the city, Dec. 4-5. Entry of the Ger- 
 
174 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1870. mans into Rouen, Dec. 6. Engagements on the Loire be- 
 tween Chanzy and the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, Dec. 
 7-10. Removal of the members of the government of 
 national defense from Tours to Bordeaux, Dec. 9-10. The 
 North German Diet decrees the restoration of the German 
 Empire (the unification of Germany having been secured 
 by treaties with the South German states, concluded Nov.), 
 Dec. 10. Fall of Pfalzburg, Dec. 12. Defeat of Faidherbe 
 at Pont-Noyelles, Dec. 23. The Germans open a bombard- 
 ment on Mont Avron (Paris), Dec. 27. The advance of 
 Bourbaki forces Von Werder to evacuate Dijon, Dec. 27. 
 The Germans occupy Mont Avron, Dec. 29. 
 
 Amadeus, duke of Aosta, son of Victor Emanuel, is elected 
 king by the Cortes of Spain, Nov. 16. He accepts the 
 crown, Dec. 4. Assassination of Prim, Dec. 28 (death, Dec. 
 30). Landing of Amadeus in Spain, Dec. 30. 
 
 The Vatican Council adopts the dogma of Papal Infallibility, 
 July 18. Dollinger and his associates reject the decrees of 
 the council. 
 
 The Italian forces occupy Rome, Sept. 20 (the French forces 
 having left the papal territory in August). Annexation 
 of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 9. 
 
 Irish Land Act, Aug. 1. Elementary Education Act for Eng- 
 land and Wales, Aug. 9. 
 
 Increased difficulties of the Austrian government in its rela- 
 tions with the Slavs; the Slavic element almost entirely 
 unrepresented in the Reichsrath. Abrogation of the Con- 
 cordat between Austria and Rome. 
 
 Russia announces her refusal to be bound by the terms of the 
 treaty of Paris respecting the Black Sea, Oct. 31. 
 
 The Paraguayan war ends with the death of Lopez at Aqui- 
 daban, March. 
 
 Sir Samuel Baker leads an expedition up the Nile to establish 
 the sway of Egypt in the upper basin of the river. 
 
 Death of Dickens, Farragut, Lee, A. Dumas. 
 
 1871. Treaty of Washington for the settlement of the "Alabama" 
 
 question, May 8. 
 Faidhei'be unsuccessfully attacks the German forces at Ba- 
 paume, Jan. 3. Chanzy's army is completely defeated by 
 Frederick Charles at Le Mans, Jan. 10-12. Bourbaki at- 
 tacks Von Werder at Hericourt before Belfort, and is re- 
 pulsed, Jan. 15-17. William I. is proclaimed emperor of 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 175 
 
 Germany at Versailles, Jan. 18. Sortie from Mont Vale- 
 rien under Trochu, Jan. 19. The army of Faidherbe is 
 crushed by Von Goehen at St. Quentin, Jan. 19. Capitula- 
 tion of Paris, signing of a partial armistice, Jan. 28. The 
 remains of Bourbaki's army retire into Switzerland, Feb. 
 1. Election of a National Assembly in France, Feb. 8. 
 The Assembly meets at Bordeaux, Feb. 12. Capitulation 
 of Belfort, Feb. 16. The Assembly elects Thiers chief of 
 the executive, Feb. 17. Preliminary treaty of Versailles 
 between France and Germany, Feb. 2Q (ratified by the As- 
 sembly March 1) ; cession of Alsace, German Lorraine, 
 and Metz. Triumphal entry of the Germans into Paris, 
 March 1. Outbreak of the war of the Commune, March 
 18. The National Assembly meets at Versailles, March 
 20. Elections to the Commune, March 26. The Com- 
 munists attempt an advance upon Versailles, but are 
 driven back, April 2. They repeat the attempt in great 
 force and are completely routed, April 3. MacMahon is 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the nation- 
 al government, April 3. The army of Versailles begins 
 active offensive operations against Paris, April 6. Fort 
 Issy is occupied, May 9. Signing of a definitive treaty of 
 peace between France and Germany at Frankfort, May 
 10. The government forces obtain possession of Fort Van- 
 ves, May 14. They secure a foothold in Paris, May 21. 
 Montmartre is taken, May 23. The Communists set fire to 
 the public buildings, May 24. Massacre of Archbishop 
 Darboy and other hostages, May 24. The government 
 forces take Pere Lachaise, May 27. End of the struggle, 
 May 28. The National Assembly revokes the proscription 
 against the Bourbon and Orleans princes, June 8. The 
 Assembly prolongs Thiers's term of office, and confers on 
 him the title of President of the Republic, Aug. 31. 
 
 Meeting of the London Conference for the settlement of the 
 Black Sea question, Jan. 17. Treaty between the Powers, 
 March 13 ; the provisions of the treaty of Paris respecting 
 neutralization abrogated. 
 
 Abolition of the purchase system in the British army. 
 
 Opening of the first Reichstag of the new German Empire, 
 March 21. First general congress of the Old Catholics at 
 Munich, Sept. 
 
 The Hohenwart ministry in Cisleithan Austria attempts a 
 
176 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1871. settlement with the Czechs on the basis of Bohemian au- 
 tonomy. Hohenwart fails, and resigns, Oct. 26. Resigna- 
 tion of Beust, Nov. 6. Francis Joseph appoints Andrassy 
 minister of foreign affairs. Prince Adolf Auersperg forms 
 a ministry in Cisleithania, Nov. 
 
 The Italian Parliament passes the Bill of the Papal Guaran- 
 tees, May. The seat of the Italian government is trans- 
 ferred from Florence to Rome. 
 
 Act of the Brazilian government providing for the gradual 
 abolition of slavery, Sept. 28. 
 
 Great conflagration in Chicago, Oct. 8-10. 
 
 Opening of the Mont Cenis tunnel. 
 
 Polar expedition of Captain Hall ; lat. 82° 16' reached. 
 
 Successful expedition of Stanley in search of Livingstone. 
 
 Death of Sir John Herschel, Auber, Grote. 
 1C72. The Geneva Tribunal for the settlement of the ' ' Alabama " 
 question makes an award to the United States, Sept. 14. 
 Settlement of the San Juan boundary question by the de- 
 cision of the emperor William, Oct. 21. Grant is re-elected 
 president, and Henry Wilson is elected vice-president; 
 defeated candidate for the presidency, Horace Greeley. 
 Death of Greeley, Nov. 29. Beginning of the Modoc war. 
 
 Passage of the Ballot Bill by the English Parliament. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law suppressing the houses of 
 the Jesuits and affiliated orders, June. Open rupture be- 
 tween the German government and the papal court, Dec. 
 
 Outbreak of the great insurrection in Spain in favor of Don 
 Carlos (Charles VII.). 
 
 Oscar II. succeeds his brother, Charles XV. , in Sweden, Sept. 
 
 Assassination of the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, Feb. 8. 
 
 Death of Juarez, president of Mexico ; he is succeeded by Lerdo 
 de Tejada. 
 
 Eruption of Vesuvius. 
 
 Great conflagration in Boston, Nov. 9-11. 
 
 The Austrian polar expedition under Payer and Weyprecht 
 sails. (Francis Joseph land discovered, 1873; lat. 82° 5' 
 reached, 1874.) 
 
 Death of Mazzini and of Meade. 
 1873. Beginning of President Grant's second administration. Sur- 
 render of the Modocs. 
 
 Death of Napoleon III., Jan. 9. Resignation of Thiers, Mac- 
 Mahon chosen his successor, May 24. The Germans com- 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 177 
 
 plete the evacuation of the French territory, Sept. 16. The 
 National Assembly confers the executive power on Mac- 
 Mahon for a term of seven years (Septennat), night of 
 Nov. 19-20. Bazaine is sentenced for treason, Dec. 10. 
 
 The Prussian government issues the Falk laws against the 
 Catholics, May. 
 
 Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain, Feb. 11 ; a republican 
 government established. Formation of a ministry under 
 the presidency of Figueras, with Castelar as minister of 
 foreign affairs, Feb. 12. Act abolishing slavery in Porto 
 Rico, March 22. Spain is declared a federal republic by 
 vote of the Constituent Cortes, June 8. Pi y Margall is 
 appointed president of the executive, June 11. Risings of 
 the Intransigentes and Internationals in the cities of An- 
 dalusia, Murcia, and Valencia, June-July. Bloody excesses 
 of the Internationals in Alcoy, July 10. Formation of a 
 new ministry under Salmeron, July 19. The Carlists take 
 Igualada, July 20. End of the insurrection in Seville, July 
 29. The Intransigentes of Cartagena bombard Almeria, 
 July 30. The Intransigentes succumb, except in Carta- 
 ■ gena, Aug. Castelar is chosen by the Cortes president of 
 the Executive, Sept. 7. Ineffectual operations of Moriones 
 against the Carlists. The Carlists attempt the reduction of 
 Bilbao. 
 
 Capture of the steamship "Virginius" by a Spanish man-of- 
 war, Oct. 31. Spain yields to the demands of the United 
 States, Nov. 29. Surrender of the "Virginius," Dec. 16. 
 
 Russian expedition under General Kaufmann against Khiva. 
 The city of Khiva is taken, June 10. Treaty of peace, Aug. 
 
 Outbreak of the Ashantee war. 
 
 The sultan of Zanzibar submits to the demands of Sir Bartle 
 Frere for the abolition of the slave trade. 
 
 The Dutch make war on Atcheen; they suffer a severe re- 
 verse. 
 
 International exposition in Vienna. 
 
 Financial panic in Austria and in the United States. 
 
 Death of Bulwer, Livingstone, Mill, Manzoni, Agassiz. 
 
 Resignation of Gladstone, Feb. ; Disraeli prime-minister. 
 
 Resignation of Castelar, Jan. 3. Coup d'etat of General 
 Pavia, Jan. 3. Serrano at the head of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, Jan. 4. Surrender of Cartagena, Jan. 12. General 
 Moriones, attempting to relieve Bilbao, is repulsed by the 
 
178 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1874. Carlists at Somorrostro, Feb. 24. Serrano and Concha at- 
 tack the Carlist positions before Bilbao, and raise the siege 
 of the city, April 28-May 2. General Concha attacks the 
 Carlist strong-hold of Estella, June 25-27; he is repulsed 
 and mortally wounded. The Carlists, under Don Alfonso, 
 brother of Don Carlos, take Cuenca, July 15. The Carlists 
 are forced to retreat from before Puycerda and Irun, Aug. 
 and Nov. Alfonso, son of the ex-queen Isabella, is pro- 
 claimed king of Spain by the armies, as Alfonso XII., Dec. 
 29, 30. Establishment of a ministry of regency under 
 Canovas del Castillo, Dec. 31. 
 
 Capture of Koomassie by Sir Garnet Wolseley, Feb. 4. End 
 
 of the Ashantee war. 
 Annexation of the Feejee Islands to the British possessions. 
 Successful campaign of the Dutch in Atcheen. 
 Death of Fillmore, Sumner, Kaulbach, Guizot. 
 
 1875. England purchases the Khedive's share in the Suez canal, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 The Assembly in France adopts laws providing for the con- 
 stitution of the national legislature; the legislative power 
 to be vested in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 Alfonso XII. lands in Spain, Jan. 9. Submission of the Carlist 
 general Cabrera, March. Surrender of the Carlist fortress 
 of Seo de Urgel, Aug. General Quesada drives the Carlists 
 from before Pamplona, Nov. 
 
 Chitbreak of an insurrection in Herzegovina, July ; in Bosnia, 
 Aug. 
 
 Ismail Pasha engages in a war of conquest against the Abys- 
 sinians. 
 
 British polar expedition under Captain Nares. (See 1876.) 
 
 Cameron completes his journey across the African continent. 
 
 Death of Lyell, Andrew Johnson, Andersen. 
 
 1876. General Custer's command is annihilated by the Sioux, June 
 
 25, 26. Admission of Colorado into the Union. Disputed 
 
 presidential election in the United States. The Republicans 
 
 claim the election of Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. 
 
 Wheeler; the Democrats, of Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas 
 
 A. Hendricks. 
 Parliament confers on Queen Victoria the title of Empress 
 
 of India ; formal assumption of the title, April 28. 
 The Great Powers address a note (the Andrassy note) to the 
 
 Porte, demanding reforms, Jan. 31. Severe fighting between 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 179 
 
 1876. the Herzegovinians and Mukhtar Pasha. Fresh rising in 
 Bosnia, April. Rising in Bulgaria, May. Murder of the 
 French and German consuls at Salonica, May 6. Massacres 
 in Bulgaria, May. Revolution in Constantinople, May 12 ; 
 fall of the grand-vizier Mahmoud Pasha. Gortchakoff , An- 
 drassy, and Bismarck, draw up the Berlin Memorandum, 
 May 14. Deposition of Abdul- Aziz and elevation of Murad 
 V., night of May 29-30. Violent death of Abdul- Aziz, June 
 4. Servia and Montenegro declare war against the Porte, 
 July 2. Victory of the Montenegrins at Vrbitza, July 28. 
 The Turks defeat the Servians on the Timok, but are re- 
 pulsed before Alexinatz, Aug. Deposition of Murad V. 
 and elevation of Abdul Hamid II., Aug. 31. Surrender of 
 Medun to the Montenegrins, Oct. 20. The Turks defeat the 
 Servians at Diunis and Alexinatz, and completely break the 
 strength of the enemy, Oct. Russian ultimatum to the 
 Porte, Oct. 30. Conclusion of a general armistice, Oct. 31. 
 Midhat Pasha is appointed grand-vizier, Dec. 19. Pro- 
 clamation of a constitution for the Turkish Empire, Dec. 
 23. Opening of the conference of the Great Powers at 
 Constantinople, Dec. 23. 
 
 Fall of Estella, Feb. 19. Don Carlos retreats into France, 
 
 Feb. 28. Abolition of the Fueros of the Basque provinces. 
 Annexation of Khokan to Russia. 
 
 The Abyssinians overthrow the Egyptian forces at Gura. 
 The Boers of the Transvaal Republic, under President Burgers, 
 
 engage in a disastrous war with the Caffres. 
 Porfirio Diaz seizes the supreme power in Mexico. 
 Centennial exposition in Philadelphia; Alexander Graham 
 
 Bell exhibits his articulating telephone. 
 A sledging party of Captain Nares's expedition reaches lat. 83° 
 
 20' north of Greenland. 
 Death of Deak, George Sand, Ehrenberg. 
 
 1877. Congress passes an act providing for an Electoral Commission 
 
 to settle the disputed presidential election, Jan. 25, 26 ; Presi- 
 dent Grant approves the act, Jan. 29. Election of the mem- 
 bers of the Commission, Jan. 30. The Commission having 
 rendered a decision in favor of Hayes, Congress declares 
 him elected, March 2. Inauguration of the president, 
 March 5. Great labor strikes in the United States, dis- 
 orders suppressed by the military, July-Aug. 
 The grand council of the Turkish Empire rejects the proposi- 
 13 
 
180 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1877. tions of the Great Powers respecting reforms, Jan. 18. 
 Close of the conference at Constantinople, Jan. 20. Fall 
 of Midhat Pasha, Feb. 5. Peace between Turkey and Ser- 
 via, March 1. Opening of the Turkish Parliament, March 
 19. London Protocol of the Great Powers, March 31. It 
 is rejected by the Porte, April 9. Convention between Rus- 
 sia and Roumania, April 16. Russia declares war against 
 the Porte, April 24. The Russian forces enter Roumania 
 and Turkish Armenia, April 24. Rising in the Caucasus, 
 May. Roumania at war with the Porte, May. The Rus- 
 sians storm Ardahan, May 17. Roumania declares her in- 
 dependence, May 21. A portion of the Russian forces cross 
 the Danube at Galatz, June 22. Repulse of General Loris- 
 Melikoff at Zevin, June 25. The Russian main army begins 
 the passage of the Danube at Simnitza, June 27. Mukhtar 
 Pasha forces the Russians to raise the siege of Kars, July 9. 
 General Gurko passes the Balkans, July 13, 14. Fall of 
 Nicopolis, July 16. First victory of Osman Pasha at Plevna, 
 July 20. A portion of the army of the grand-duke Nicholas 
 suffers a great defeat before Plevna, July 30. Suleiman 
 Pasha attacks and defeats General Gurko at Eski Zaghra, 
 July 31, Aug. 1. Suleiman Pasha begins his attacks on the 
 Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, Aug. 21. Successful 
 operations of Mehemet Ali against the Russian crown-prince 
 on the Lorn, Aug. -Sept. The Russians storm Lovtcha 
 (Lovatz), Sept. 3. Surrender of Niksitch to the Montene- 
 grins, Sept. 8. Renewed attacks on Plevna, Sept. ; des- 
 perate assault of the Russians and Roumanians, Sept. 11. 
 Complete defeat of Mukhtar Pasha in the battle of Aladja 
 Dagh, Oct. 15; followed by his retreat upon Erzerum. 
 General Gurko storms Gorni Dubnik, Oct. 24. He takes 
 Telish, Oct. 28. The Russians storm the Turkish positions 
 at Deve-Boyun, and force Mukhtar Pasha to withdraw 
 behind the fortifications of Erzerum, Nov. 4. Storming of 
 Kars, Nov. 18. Mehemet Ali is forced from his positions 
 at Pravetz, Nov. 23. Suleiman Pasha's forces capture 
 Elena, Dec. 4. Osman Pasha attempts to break through 
 the Russian lines at Plevna, but is forced to surrender, Dec. 
 10. Defeat of Suleiman Pasha at Metchka, Dec. 12. Servia 
 declares war against the Porte, Dec. 14. General Gurko 
 advances across the Balkans. 
 The British take possession of the Transvaal Republic. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 181 
 
 Stanley establishes the identity of the Lualaba and Congo 
 rivers. c 
 
 Death of Motley, Thiers, Leverrier. 
 
 General Gurko enters Sofia, Jan. 4. General Kartzoff* forces 
 the Troyan Pass, Jan. 7. Generals Mirski, Skobeleff, and 
 Radetzky capture the Turkish forces in the Shipka Pass, 
 Jan. 9. Surrender of Nish to the Servians, Jan. 10. The 
 Montenegrins take Antivari, Jan. 10. Fighting near Phil- 
 ippopolis, ending in the ruin of Suleimans army, Jan. 15- 
 17. The Russians occupy Adrianople, Jan. 20. They ad- 
 vance to the neighborhood of Constantinople. Armistice, 
 Jan. 31. Entry of the British fleet into the Sea of Mar- 
 mora, Feb. 13. Treaty of San Stefano, March 3. The 
 British government embarks a force of Sepoys at Bombay 
 for service against the Russians, April. England enters 
 into a convention with Turkey, in which she engages to 
 maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions hi Asia, the 
 Porte permitting her to occupy Cyprus, June 4. Opening 
 of the congress of Berlin, June 13. Treaty of Berlin, July 13. 
 
 MAIN STIPULATIONS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN. 
 
 Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro are declared independent 
 principalities ; Russia receives most of Turkish Armenia — includ- 
 ing Kars and Ardahan — as well as Batum, and the portion of Bess- 
 arabia annexed to Moldavia in 1856. The Dobrudja is given to 
 Roumania. Large additions (including Nish) are made to the terri- 
 tory of Servia. Montenegro receives Niksitch, Podgoritza, and 
 Antivari. Bulgaria (with altered boundaries) is created a Christian 
 principality, tributary to the Porte. The province of Eastern Rou- 
 melia is created, to be ruled by a Christian governor. The fortresses 
 of Shumla, Varna, Silistria, Rustchuk, and Viddin to be dismantled. 
 Austria undertakes the occupation and administration of Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina. Civil rights are guaranteed to non-Mohamme- 
 dans in the Turkish Empire. 
 
 The Austrian forces enter Bosnia and Herzegovina, July 29. 
 The Mohammedans offer a desperate, but ineffectual, re- 
 sistance. The subjugation of the provinces completed, Oct. 
 
 Death of Victor Emanuel, Jan. 9. He is succeeded by his son, 
 Humbert. 
 
 Death of Pius IX., Feb. 7. Election of Leo XIII. , Feb. 20. 
 
 Attempt of the Nihilist Vera Zasulitch upon the life of Tre- 
 poff, prefect of St. Petersburg, Feb. 5. General Mezentzeff, 
 
182 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1373. director of the third section of the Russian imperial chan- 
 cellery, is assassinated by Nihilist conspirators, Aug. 16. 
 
 Attempt of Hodel upon the life of the emperor William, May 
 4. Nobiling wounds the emperor, June 2. The German 
 Reichstag passes the Anti-Socialist Law, Oct. 
 
 Reception of a Russian embassy, under Stolietoff, by Shir Ali, 
 ameer of Afghanistan, Aug. Lord Lytton, viceroy of India, 
 demands the admission of a British embassy at Cabool, 
 Aug. The British embassy, under Sir Neville Chamber- 
 lain, is refused a passage by the Afghan commandant at Ali 
 Musjid (at the Khyber Pass), Sept. The viceroy sends an 
 ultimatum to Shir Ali, Nov. 2. The British forces enter 
 Afghanistan, Nov. 21. General Browne attacks Ali Musjid, 
 Nov. 21. He occupies the fort, Nov. 22. Victory of Gen- 
 eral Roberts at the Peiwar Pass, Dec. 2. Withdrawal of 
 the Russian embassy from Cabool, Dec. Flight of Shir Ali 
 from Cabool, Dec. 13 ; his son, Yakub Khan, left in charge 
 of the government. Browne occupies Jellalabad, Dec. 20. 
 
 Restoration of order throughout most of Cuba. 
 
 International exhibition in Paris. 
 
 Death of Joseph Henry, Bryant, Petermann. 
 1S79. Resumption of specie payment in the United States, Jan. 1. 
 
 Resignation of President MacMahon, Jules Grevy chosen his 
 successor, Jan. 30. Gambetta is chosen president of the 
 French Chamber of Deputies, Jan. 31. 
 
 The British, under Biddulph and Stewart, occupy Candahar 
 and Kelat-i-Ghilzai, Jan. Death of Shir Ali in Turkestan, 
 Feb. 21 ; Yakub Khan succeeds him. Advance of the Brit- 
 ish from Jellalabad to Gundamuk, April. Yakub Khan re- 
 pairs to Gundamuk, and concludes there a treaty of peace 
 with the British, May 19 (treaty signed, May 26). A British 
 embassy, under Major Cavagnari, enters Cabool, July 24. 
 Massacre of Cavagnari and his suite, Sept. 3. The British 
 undertake a general advance on Cabool, Sept. Yakub Khan 
 repairs to the British camp, Sept. The main army of the 
 British, under General Roberts, traverses the Shutar-Gar- 
 dan Pass, Oct. 1. He repulses the attacks of the Ghilzais, 
 Oct. 2. He defeats the Caboolese near their capital, Oct. 6. 
 Entry of his forces into Cabool, Oct. 12. Abdication of 
 Yakub Khan, Oct. General Roberts, after protracted com- 
 bats with the Afghans, evacuates Cabool, and collects his 
 forces in a fortified position at Shirpur, Dec. He dislodges 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 183 
 
 1879. the Afghans from their positions around Shirpur, Dec. 23. 
 The British reoccupy Cahool. 
 
 The British make war on the Zulu king Cetywayo, Jan. Dis- 
 aster to the British at Isandula, Jan. 22. Lord Chelmsford 
 repulses the Zulus at Gingolovo, April 2. He relieves Colo- 
 nel Pearson at Ekowe, April 3. Sir Garnet Wolseley is 
 appointed to conduct the war, May. Prince Louis Napo- 
 leon is slain in a reconnoissance, June 1. Lord Chelmsford 
 vanquishes the Zulus at Ulundi, July 4. Capture of Cety- 
 wayo, Aug. 28. 
 
 Assassination of Krapotkin, governor of Kharkov, Feb. 21. 
 Attempt upon the life of Drenteln, the successor of Mezen- 
 tzeff, March 25. Attempt of Solovieff upon the life of 
 Alexander II., April 14. Repulse of the Russians, under 
 Lomakin, by the Tekke-Turkomans at Gok-Tepe, Sept. 9. 
 Attempt of the Nihilists to blow up the train carrying the 
 czar to Moscow, Dec. 1. 
 
 Prince Alexander of Battenberg is elected prince of Bulgaria, 
 April 29. 
 
 Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, is deposed by the Porte, and 
 his son, Tewfik Pasha, appointed his successor, June. 
 
 Passage of the Irish University Bill, Aug. Anti-rent agitation 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Resignation of Andrassy, Oct. ; Baron Haymerle succeeds him. 
 
 Chili engages in a war with Bolivia and Peru. The Peruvian 
 iron-clads "Huascar" and " Independencia " attack two 
 Chilian men-of-war at Iquique, May 21 ; one of the Chilian 
 vessels is sunk ; the " Independencia, " while pursuing the 
 other, runs upon a shoal, and is lost. The Chilians cap- 
 ture the "Huascar," Oct. 8. The Chilians occupy Pisagua, 
 Nov. 2. They defeat the Peruvians and Bolivians at Dolores, 
 Nov. 19. They occupy Iquique, Nov. 23. Battle of Tara- 
 paca, Nov. 27. President Prado quits Peru, Dec. Pierola 
 proclaims himself dictator. 
 
 Destruction of Szegedin by an inundation of the Theiss, March. 
 
 Nordenskjold accomplishes the northeast passage. 
 
 Death of Espartero, Garrison, Carey. 
 
 1880. Election of James A. Garfield to the presidency of the United 
 
 States, Nov. 2 ; defeated candidate, W. S. Hancock. Ches- 
 ter A. Arthur is elected vice-president. The United States 
 government concludes a treaty with China relative to the 
 restriction of the immigration of Chinese laborers, Nov. 17. 
 
184 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1880. Attempt to blow up the Russian imperial family in the Win- 
 ter Palace, Feb. 17. General Loris-Melikoff is appointed 
 president, with almost dictatorial powers, of a supreme com- 
 mission charged with the suppression of Nihilism, Feb. 24. 
 The Russians undertake a new expedition against the 
 Tekke-Turkomans, Skobeleff commanding, July. Aboli- 
 tion of the supreme commission, Loris-Melikoff appointed 
 minister of the interior with extensive powers, Aug. 18. 
 
 Publication of the Ferry Educational Bill in France, March 
 19. Promulgation of the decrees of the Freycinet cabinet 
 ordering the dissolution of all the Jesuit establishments and 
 compelling all other non-authorized religious orders to sub- 
 mit their statutes to the government, March 30 (decrees 
 dated March 29). Passage of a bill granting amnesty to 
 the Communists, July (decree signed by the president, July 
 10). Resignation of Freycinet, Jules Ferry becomes head 
 of the ministry, Sept. 
 
 Resignation of the Beaconsfield ministry, Gladstone forms a 
 new cabinet, April. Abdurrahman Khan, nephew of Shir 
 Ali, is proclaimed ameer of Cabool under British auspices, 
 July 22. General Burrows's command is overwhelmed at 
 Kushk-i-Nakhud, by Ayub Khan of Herat, July 27. Gen- 
 eral Roberts marches from Cabool to relieve Candahar; 
 Aug. Withdrawal of General Stewart's forces from Ca- 
 bool, Aug. 11. Roberts enters Candahar, Aug. 31. He 
 disperses Ayub Khan's army on the Argand-ab, Sept. 1 ; 
 flight of Ayub toward Herat. 
 
 The agrarian movement in Ireland develops into a formida- 
 ble system of terrorism. 
 
 A conference of the Great Powers is convened at Berlin, sup- 
 plementary to the Berlin congress of 1878, June. Naval 
 demonstration of the Powers off the coast of Albania to en- 
 force the decrees of the supplementary conference respect- 
 ing the surrender of Dulcigno by Turkey to Montenegro, 
 Sept. A Turkish force expels the Albanians from Dulcigno, 
 which is taken possession of by the Montenegrins, Nov. 
 
 A violent agitation against the Jews is set on foot in Germany. 
 
 The Cortes of Spain pass a law for the gradual abolition of 
 slavery in Cuba (the period being fixed at eight years), Jan. 
 (Promulgation of the law, Feb.) 
 
 Rising in the Transvaal against British rule, Nov. 
 
 The Society Islands are annexed to the dominions of France. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 185 
 
 1880. The Chilians unsuccessfully attack Arica by sea, Feb. 27. 
 
 They enter Moquegua and storm the heights commanding 
 it, March 20, 21. The blockade of Callao is begun, April. 
 The Chilians storm the positions of the Peruvians and Bo- 
 livians at Tacna, May 26. They make themselves masters 
 of Arica, June 7. 
 
 Manuel Gonzalez succeeds Diaz as president of Mexico. 
 
 Completion of the cathedral of Cologne. 
 
 Death of Jules Favre, Cremieux, Peirce, George Eliot. 
 
 1881. Beginning of Garfield's administration, March 4. He is shot 
 
 by an assassin, July 2. He dies Sept. 19. Chester A. 
 Arthur succeeds him. 
 
 A detachment of British troops, under Sir George Colley, is 
 annihilated by the Boers, Feb. 27. England agrees to a 
 peace with the Boers on the basis of the autonomy of the 
 Transvaal, March 21. 
 
 Final passage of the Irish Land Bill, Aug. 16 ; the bill receives 
 the royal assent, Aug. 22. Arrest and imprisonment of 
 Parnell and other Irish agitators, Oct. Manifesto of the 
 Irish Land League against the payment of rent, Oct. 18. 
 
 The Russians, under General Skobeleff, take Gok-Tepe, Jan. 
 24. Treaty between Russia and China respecting Kulja, 
 Feb. Assassination of Alexander II., March 13; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Alexander III. Outbreak of the 
 persecution of the Jews in Russia, April. General Igna- 
 tieff succaeds Loris-Melikoff as minister of the interior, 
 May 16. 
 
 France dispatches an expedition to Tunis with the ostensible 
 object of chastising the Krumirs, April. Treaty with the 
 bey establishing a French protectorate over Tunis, May 12. 
 Bloody affray between the Italians and French in Mar- 
 seilles, June 19. An insurrection breaks out in Tunis, June. 
 The French take Sfax, July 16. They occupy Kairwan, 
 Oct. 26. The Ferry ministry resigns, and is succeeded by 
 that of Gambetta, Nov. 
 
 Hamburg consents to her incorporation in the Zollverein on 
 condition of retaining the privilege of having a free port 
 for her general commerce. 
 
 The Italian Chamber passes an electoral reform bill, June; 
 the bill passes through the Senate, Dec. 
 
 The Turkish government gives its final consent to the cession 
 to Greece of an extensive territory in Thessaly and Epirus, 
 
186 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1881. May. Sentence of Midhat Pasha and others for the mur- 
 der of Abdul- Aziz, June 29. 
 
 Roumania assumes the title of kingdom, March 26. 
 
 Death of Baron Haymerle, Austrian foreign minister, Oct. 
 Kalnoky is appointed his successor, Nov. Outbreak of an 
 insurrection in the district of Crivoscie in Dalmatia, Nov. 
 Decree of the government of Austria-Hungary subjecting 
 the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina to military 
 service in the imperial army. 
 
 Sagasta becomes head of the ministry in Spain (succeeding 
 Canovas del Castillo), Feb. 
 
 Evacuation of Candahar by the British, April. Battle between 
 Ayub Khan and Abdurrahman at Candahar, Sept. 22; 
 Ayub's army broken up. Abdurrahman's forces occupy 
 Herat, Oct. 4. 
 
 Revolutionary movement of the soldiery in Cairo, headed by 
 Arabi Bey, the chief of the military or "national" party 
 in Egypt, Sept. ; the khedive appoints Sherif Pasha prime- 
 minister. Meeting of an assembly of Notables at Cairo, 
 Dec. — Revolt of the Mahdi, or False Prophet, in the Soudan. 
 
 The Chilians defeat the Peruvians at Chorillos, Jan. 13, and 
 at Miraflores, Jan. 15. They enter Lima, Jan. 17. Pierola 
 continues the war in the provinces. Establishment of a 
 provisional government in Peru under the presidency of 
 Calderon, March. Seizure of President Calderon by the 
 orders of Admiral Lynch, Nov. 
 
 Great earthquake at Scio, April. 
 
 Completion of the St. Gothard tunnel. The construction of 
 the Panama canal is begun. 
 
 Death of Mariette, Carlyle, Beaconsfield, Littre, Bluntschli. 
 
 1882. Sherif Pasha, prime-minister of Egypt, refusing to yield to 
 
 the demand of the Notables for parliamentary government, 
 is compelled to resign, Feb. ; a ministry is formed, with 
 Arabi Bey, secretary of war, as its actual head. The Anglo- 
 French "control" in the financial administration of Egypt 
 is practically abolished. Arabi Pasha (pasha since March) 
 makes himself virtual dictator, May. Massacre of Euro- 
 peans at Alexandria, June 11. A conference of the Great 
 Powers for the settlement of the Egyptian question meets at 
 Constantinople, June 23. Admiral Seymour bombards the 
 forts at Alexandria, July 11, 12. Withdrawal of Arabi and 
 his forces from the city, massacre of Europeans there, July 12. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 187 
 
 1882. The British undertake a campaign for the overthrow of 
 Arabi. He is completely defeated by Sir Garnet Wolseley 
 at Tel el-Kebir, Sept. 13. He becomes a prisoner of the 
 British, Sept. 14. He is sentenced to death, his sentence is 
 commuted to banishment, Dec. 3. 
 
 Release of Parnell and other Irish agitators, May. Lord Cav- 
 endish, the newly appointed secretary for Ireland, and 
 Burke, the undersecretary, are murdered at Dublin, May 
 6. Parliament passes the Arrears of Rent Bill for Ireland, 
 July- Aug. Formation of the Irish National League, Oct. 
 
 Gambetta resigns his premiership and is succeeded by Frey- 
 cinet, Jan. The French determine to secure the delta of 
 the Sang-koi River (Red River), in Tonquin, to their com- 
 merce and arrest the predatory incursions of the Black 
 Flags (a Chinese soldiery, a remnant of the Taiping rebels). 
 Major Riviere makes himself master of the citadel of 
 Ha-noi, April. Anam encourages the Black Flags in their 
 resistance to the French, and invokes the aid of China. 
 Resignation of the French prime-minister Freycinet, July ; 
 a new cabinet is formed under Duclerc, Aug. Death of 
 Gambetta, Dec. 31. 
 
 Insurrection in Herzegovina, Jan. The Austrian forces sup- 
 press the insurrection in Dalmatia and Herzegovina, March. 
 
 Count Tolstoi succeeds Ignatietf as minister of the interior in 
 Russia, June. 
 
 Bands of Peruvians maintain a desultory warfare against the 
 Chilians. 
 
 Death of J. H. Draper, Longfellow, Darwin, Emerson, Gari- 
 baldi, Louis Blanc, Anthony Trollope. 
 
 1883. The United States Congress passes the Civil Service Bill, Jan. 
 The Duclerc cabinet in France is succeeded by that of Fai- 
 lures, Jan. The Fallieres cabinet resigns, Feb. ; Jules 
 Ferry becomes (for the second time) head of the ministry. 
 The Anamese unsuccessfully assault Ha-noi, March. A 
 French force, under Riviere, is surprised by the Black 
 Flags and defeated, Riviere being slain, May 19. The 
 French fleet, under Courbet, bombards the Anamese forts 
 at the mouth of the river Hue, Aug. 18-20. Anam is com- 
 pelled to accept the French terms of peace, Aug. 25; a 
 French protectorate is established over Anam ; the French 
 are allowed to prosecute their designs with regard to Tonquin. 
 The French take Son-tay (N. W. of Ha-noi), Dec. 16, 17. 
 
188 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1383. Aggressions of the French in Madagascar. Admiral Pierre 
 bombards Tamatave, June 13. 
 
 Italy enters into an alliance with the German Empire and 
 Austria-Hu n gary . 
 
 Death of the count de Chambord, Aug. 24. 
 
 Coronation of Alexander III. at Moscow, May 27. 
 
 Military revolts in Spain, Aug. Resignation of prime-minis- 
 ter Sagasta, Oct. ; Posada-Herrera succeeds him. 
 
 The Mahdi annihilates an Egyptian army, under Hicks Pasha, 
 near El-Obeid (the chief town of Kordofan), Nov. 3-5. 
 Risings of the hill tribes in the coast region of the Sou- 
 dan, about Suakin. 
 
 The Iglesias government in Peru accepts Chili's terms of 
 peace. Tbe Chilian forces evacuate Lima, Oct. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general 
 insurance of workingmen against illness. 
 
 Earthquake in the island of Ischia, July 28. Volcanic erup- 
 tion at the island of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait, Aug. 
 26, 27. 
 
 Completion of the East River suspension bridge. 
 
 Death of Gustave Dore, Richard Wagner, J. R. Green, 
 Gortchakoff, Karl Marx, Abd-el-Kader, Sir E. Sabine, Tur- 
 geneff, Mayne Reid, Henri Martin. 
 1884. Grover Cleveland is elected president of the United States, 
 and Thomas A. Hendricks vice-president, Nov. 4 ; defeated 
 candidate for the presidency, James G. Blaine. 
 
 The French general Millot takes Bac-ninh (N. E. of Ha-noi), 
 March 12. The Chinese attack a French force at Lang-son 
 (a town of Tonquin, near the Chinese frontier), June 23. 
 Open war between France and China, Aug. Courbet de- 
 stroys the arsenal at Foochow, Aug. 23. Descents upon 
 Formosa. — The French continue to wage war in Madagas- 
 car. — Revision of the French constitution, Aug. 
 
 General Gordon is dispatched by the British to the Soudan, 
 Jan. An Egyptian force, under Baker Pasha, is vanquished 
 by Osman Digna near Tokar (S. E. of Suakin), Feb. 4. 
 General Graham defeats Osman Digna near Tokar, Feb. 
 29, and at Tamanieb, March 13. Goi'don is shut up 'in 
 Khartoum by the followers of the Mahdi. Egyptian con- 
 ference at London, June 28- Aug. 2. Expedition under 
 Wolseley for the relief of Gordon. 
 
 Passage of the new Franchise Bill by Parliament, Nov. -Dec. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 189 
 
 1884. Meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria at 
 
 Skierniewice (a town S. W. of Warsaw), Sept. 15-17. 
 New ministry in Spain under Canovas del Castillo, Jan. 
 The Tekke-Turkomans of Merv submit to Russia. 
 Porfirio Diaz becomes for a second time president of Mexico, 
 
 succeeding 1 Manuel Gonzalez. 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general 
 
 insurance of workingmen against accidents. 
 Germany engages in the work of colonization in Africa. 
 Death of Mignet, Reade, Lepsius, Makart. 
 
 1885. Beginning of President Cleveland's administration, March 4. 
 
 Death of Vice-president Hendricks, Nov. 25. 
 
 Attempts of Irish revolutionists to wreck the Houses of Par- 
 liament and the London Tower, Jan. 24. 
 
 The Mahdi captures Khartoum at the moment when Wolse- 
 ley's advance reaches the vicinity of the place, Jan. 26 ; 
 death of Gordon. The British forces are withdrawn from 
 Che Soudan. Death of the Mahdi. 
 
 The Russian general Komaroff occupies the Zulfikar Pass, 
 leading to Herat. He attacks the Afghans on the Kushk, 
 March 80. England makes military preparations to meet 
 a Russian advance upon Herat. A settlement is effected, 
 the British government making some concessions to Rus- 
 sia with respect to the boundary between Turkestan and 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Louis Riel heads an insurrection in Canada. He is defeated 
 and captured, May. (He is executed, Nov. 16.) 
 
 Resignation of the Gladstone ministry, June ; the Marquis 
 of Salisbury becomes premier. 
 
 Outbreak of war between England and Burmah, Nov. Eutry 
 of General Prendergast's forces into Mandalay, Nov. 28 ; 
 surrender of King Thebaw. 
 
 The French meet with a reverse in Tonquin, near the Chi- 
 nese frontier, March. Resignation of Jules Ferry's cab- 
 inet, March. Brisson forms a new ministry, April. Peace 
 between France and China, June 9. Attack upon the 
 French at Hue, July. Announcement of peace between 
 France and Madagascar, Dec. ; the government of Mada- 
 gascar forced to recognize the French protectorate. Grevy 
 is re-elected President of France, Dec. 28. Brisson re- 
 signs. 
 
 Death of Alfonso XII. of Spain, Nov. 25. His widow, Chris- 
 
190 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1885. tina, becomes regent of the kingdom. Sagasta is made 
 premier. 
 
 Meeting of the emperors of Austria and Russia at Kremsicr 
 
 (in Moravia). Aug. 
 Revolution in Eastern Roumelia, Sept. 18. Proclamation of 
 
 the union of the province with the principality of Bulga, 
 
 ria. The Servians invade Bulgaria, and are completely 
 
 defeated, Nov. 
 Creation of the Congo Free State, Feb. 
 Destructive earthquakes in Spain, Jan. 
 Death of Hugo, Grant, Montefiore, McClellan, Serrano. 
 Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
 
 1886. Extensive labor strikes in the United States. Bloody riots in 
 
 Chicago, May. 
 
 The annexation of Burmah to Great Britain proclaimed, Jan. 
 1. Resignation of the Salisbury ministry, Jan. Gladstone 
 again becomes premier, Feb. He introduces a bill in Par- 
 liament providing for home rule in Ireland, April. He 
 submits a land-purchase scheme for Ireland, April. For- 
 mation of the Liberal Unionist Party. Fall of the Glad- 
 stone ministry, July; Salisbury again premier. 
 
 Freycinet becomes head of the ministry in France, Jan. Ex- 
 pulsion of the Orleans and Bonaparte princes from the re- 
 public. Freycinet resigns ; Goblet forms a new cabinet, Dec. 
 
 Christina, widow of Alfonso XII. of Spain, gives birth to a 
 son, who becomes king as Alfonso XIII., May 17. 
 
 Measures for the Germanization of Polish districts in Prussia 
 passed by the Landtag. 
 
 King Louis II. of Bavaria drowns himself, June. He is suc- 
 ceeded by his brother, Otho II. Prince Luitpold, uncle of 
 Otho, governs as regent. 
 
 Prince Alexander of Bulgaria is recognized as governor of 
 Eastern Roumelia. Conspiracy against Alexander, excited 
 by the intrigues of Russia and headed by Zankoff, the met- 
 ropolitan Clement, and others. He is kidnapped, Aug. 21. 
 A counter-revolution takes place, the revolutionary gov- 
 ernment is overthrown by Mutkuroff, and the prince, hav- 
 ing been set at liberty, returns to resume the reins of power, 
 Aug. In consequence of the attitude of the Czar, prince 
 Alexander formally abdicates his crown, Sept. 7. 
 
 Greece threatens an invasion of Turkey. Intervention of 
 the Great Powers. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 191 
 
 13S6. The city of Charleston (S. C.) is shattered by an earthquake, 
 Aug. 
 
 Death of Liszt, Beust, Arthur, C. F. Adams. 
 1387. Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Law. Execution of 
 Anarchists in Chicago, Nov. 11. 
 
 Goblet, head of the French cabinet, resigns, May ; Rouvier 
 becomes head of the ministry. Rouvier resigns, Nov. 
 President Grevy abdicates, Dec. 2 (act of abdication dated 
 Dec. 1). Sadi Carnot is elected his successor, Dec. 3. The 
 president accepts the resignation of the Rouvier cabinet. 
 Tirard is entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet. 
 
 Termination of the Kulturkampf waged by the Prussian 
 government against the Holy See, the former having been 
 gradually compelled to renounce the policy inaugurated in 
 the ecclesiastical laws of 1873. 
 
 Renewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, 
 Austria -Hungary, and Italy. 
 
 Prince Ferdinand of Coburg is elected prince of Bulgaria, 
 July. Russia protests against the election. 
 
 The Italians suffer a bloody defeat near Massowa at the hands 
 of King John of Abyssinia, Jan. 
 
 Stanley undertakes an expedition for the relief of Emin Bey, 
 governor of the equatorial provinces of Egypt. Starting 
 from the Congo, he marches through the basin of the 
 Aruwimi, and then traverses the wilderness between that 
 river and the Albert N'yanza, which he reaches. 
 
 The German government begins the construction of the canal 
 to connect the North Sea with the Baltic. 
 
 The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal is begun. 
 
 Death of Beecher, Kraszewski, S. F. Baird, Kirchhoff. 
 1338. Fisheries Treaty between the United States and Great Britain 
 signed at Washington, Feb. 15. It is rejected by the United 
 States Senate. Benjamin Harrison is elected president of 
 the United States and Levi P. Morton vice-president, Nov. 
 6 ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Grover Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 Death of William I., empei*or of Germany, March 9 ; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Frederick. Death of Frederick, June 
 15 ; he is succeeded by his son, William II. 
 
 Boulaugist agitation in France. Boulanger demands a re- 
 vision of the constitution. Resignation of the Tirard min- 
 istry, March. Floquet forms a cabinet, April. 
 
192 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL IIISTORY. 
 
 1888. General Grenfell carries the fortifications of Osman Digna, 
 
 near Suakin, Dec. 20. 
 
 Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. 
 
 The government in Brazil passes an act by which the emanci- 
 pation of the slaves is completed. (See 1871.) 
 
 Conflict in Samoa between the Americans and Germans. 
 
 The German East African Company becomes involved in a 
 war with the Arab traders of Zanzibar. 
 
 Meeting of Stanley and Emm Pasha on Lake Albert N'yanza. 
 
 The Russian Trans-Caspian Eailway is opened as far as 
 Samarkand. 
 
 Death of Asa Gray, Matthew Arnold, General Sheridan. 
 
 1889. Beginning of President Benjamin Harrison's administration. 
 
 Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and 
 Washington into the Union. An international American 
 conference assembles in the city of Washington. 
 
 Resignation of the Floquet cabinet in France. Tirard be- 
 comes for a second time head of the ministry, Feb. Trial 
 and condemnation of Boulanger by the Senate. 
 
 The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the com- 
 pulsory insurance of workingmen against disability arising 
 from old age or infirmity. 
 
 King Milan of Servia abdicates in favor of his son, Alex- 
 ander, March. 
 
 Collision between the British and Portuguese in southeastern 
 Africa. Death of King Louis of Portugal, Oct. 19 ; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Charles. 
 
 Military uprising in Brazil, headed by Marshal Deodoro da 
 Fonseca, Nov. 15 ; the government of Pedro II. is over- 
 thrown and Brazil proclaimed a republic. 
 
 Conference at Berlin between the representatives of the Ger- 
 man Empire, the United States, and Great Britain for the 
 settlement of the affairs of Samoa. 
 
 Establishment of parliamentary government in Japan. 
 
 King John of Abyssinia is mortally wounded in a battle 
 with the dervishes, Mai'ch. Menelek of Shoa obtains pos- 
 session of the Abyssinian throne. 
 
 March of Stanley and Emin Pasha to the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 Successful expedition of Wissmann against the Arab traders 
 of Zanzibar. 
 
 International Exposition in Paris. 
 
 Destruction of Johnstown (Pa.) by the bursting of a dam. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 193 
 
 1889. Death of Ericsson, John Bright, Chevreul, Joule, Augier, 
 
 Jefferson Davis, Browning. 
 ii>£('. Oklahoma is organized as a territory. Admission of Idaho 
 and Wyoming into the Union. Congress passes the Mc- 
 Kinley Tariff Bill. Messiah craze among the Indians. 
 Killing of the Sioux chief Sitting Bull, Dec. 
 
 An international conference is held at Berlin under the 
 auspices of William II. for the discussion of questions re- 
 lating to the welfare of the working classes. Bismarck 
 resigns the chancellorship of the German Empire, March; 
 General Caprivi is appointed his successor. 
 
 Portugal is forced to yield to the demands of England in the 
 dispute respecting sovereignty in southeastern Africa. 
 
 Treaty between the German Empire and Great Britain estab- 
 lishing the boundaries of the spheres of activity of the two 
 powers in Africa, and providing for the cession of the 
 island of Heligoland to Germany. England assumes a 
 protectorate over Zanzibar. 
 
 Division in the ranks of the Irish Nationalists. The majority 
 of the party recognize Justin McCarthy as leader in oppo- 
 sition to Parnell, Dec. 
 
 The Tirard ministry in France resigns, March ; Freycinet 
 forms a new cabinet. 
 
 Tisza, the Hungarian premier, after having been at the head 
 of affairs for more than fourteen years, resigns, and is 
 succeeded by Count Szapary. 
 
 Canovas del Castillo succeeds Sagasta as head of the ministry 
 in Spain, July. 
 
 Death of William III. of Holland, Nov. 23. He is succeeded 
 by his daughter, Wilhelmina, Queen Emma being ap- 
 pointed regent. Adolphus, formerly duke of Nassau, suc- 
 ceeds to the throne of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. 
 
 Disordei'S in the Swiss canton of Ticino. The usurpations of 
 the clerical party are checked by a revolutionary outbreak, 
 Sept. Intervention of the Swiss federal government. 
 
 Convention between Belgium and the Congo Free State pro- 
 viding for the annexation of the latter to the former at the 
 end of ten years. 
 
 Insurrection in Buenos Ayres against the government of 
 President Celman, July. He is driven from the city, but 
 regains his power in a few days, after bloody fighting. He 
 resigns in favor of Pellegrini, Aug. 
 
194 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1890. Completion of the new Croton Aqueduct. 
 Opening of the Forth railway bridge. 
 
 Death of Dollinger, Andrassy, the Chinese diplomatist, Mar- 
 quis Tseng, Fremont, Cardinal Newman, Schliemann. 
 
 1891. General Miles pacifies the Indians of the Northwest, Jan. 
 
 Congress passes the Copyright Bill, March. Lynching of 
 a number of Italians in New Orleans, March. Italy sus- 
 pends diplomatic relations with the United States. 
 
 Renewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Italy. 
 
 The German Reichstag enacts a code of regulations for the 
 pi'otection of workingmen. 
 
 Death of Parnell, Oct. 
 
 Osman Digna is completely defeated by the Egyptians in the 
 neighborhood of Suakin, Feb. 
 
 A conflict in Chili between President Balmaceda and Con- 
 gress culminates in civil war. The Congressionalists, hav- 
 ing determined to put an end to the president's arbitrary 
 regime by means of a revolution, begin the struggle by in- 
 ducing the principal part of the national fleet to revolt, 
 Jan. After a number of severe encounters, the war termi- 
 nates in favor of the Congressional party, whose forces 
 vanquish those of Balmaceda in the outskirts of Valparaiso, 
 capture that city and enter Santiago, Aug. Balmaceda 
 puts an end to his life, Sept. Difficulties arise with the 
 government of the United States in consequence of a mur- 
 derous assault upon American seamen in Valparaiso, Oct. 
 Jorge Montt is chosen president of Chili, Nov. 
 
 Promulgation of the constitution of the United States of 
 Brazil, Feb. Marshal Fonseca, hitherto the provisional 
 head of the republic, is elected president, Feb. He at- 
 tempts to usurp dictatorial power, Nov. Revolt of the 
 province of Rio Grande do Sul, Nov. A revolutionary 
 movement in Rio Janeiro forces President Fonseca to re- 
 sign, Nov. The vice-president, Peixoto, assumes the duties 
 of president. 
 
 Rising among the Manipuris, in India, March-April. 
 
 The construction of the trans-Siberian railway is begun. 
 
 Famine in Russia. 
 
 Death of Kinglake, Bancroft, Meissonier, General Sherman, 
 Prince Napoleon, General J. E. Johnston, Moltke, Lowell, 
 Grevy, Eaid Lytton, Pedro II. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 195 
 
 1892. England and the United States agree to submit their diffei'- 
 ences in the matter of the Behring Sea seal-fisheries to arbi- 
 tration. Italy resumes regular diplomatic relations with 
 the United States. Suspension of the Navigation Laws in 
 the United States by the admission of some British-built 
 steamers to American registry. Grover Cleveland is elected 
 president of the United States and Adlai E. Stevenson vice- 
 president, Nov. 8. 
 The Salisbury cabinet in England resigns, Aug. ; Gladstone 
 
 becomes premier. 
 The Freycinet ministry in France resigns, Feb. ; Loubet be- 
 comes head of the cabinet. Panama Canal revelations. 
 Loubet resigns, Nov. ; Ribot is installed as his successor, Dec. 
 The Hungarian premier Szapary resigns and is succeeded by 
 
 Wekerle, Nov. 
 The cabinet of Canovas del Castillo in Spain is succeeded by 
 
 a new Sagasta ministry, Dec. 
 Death of Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt, Jan. 7 ; he is suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Abbas Pasha. 
 War between the French and the king of Dahomey. 
 Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. 
 Luis Saenz Peha is elected president of the Argentine Re- 
 public. 
 Lieutenant Peary crosses the great interior ice cap of Green- 
 land from Inglefield Gulf to Independence Bay. 
 Death of Airy, J. C. Adams, Etienne Arago, Freeman, Walt 
 Whitman, Bodenstedt, G. W. Curtis, Whittier, Renan, Ten- 
 nyson, E. W. Siemens, Richard Owen. 
 1893. Revolution in Hawaii, Jan. ; Queen Liliuokalani is dethroned. 
 President Harrison submits a treaty to the senate providing 
 for the annexation of the islands to the United States, Feb. 
 Beginning of Cleveland's second administration, March 4. 
 He recalls the annexation treaty from the senate. Finan- 
 cial panic in the United States. The government discon- 
 tinues its purchases of silver. 
 Gladstone introduces the Irish Home Rule Bill in Parlia- 
 ment, Feb. 13. The House of Commons passes it Sept. 1. 
 It is rejected by the Lords, Sept. 8. 
 The Tribunal of Arbitration created to settle the dispute be- 
 tween Great Britain and the United States relative to the 
 Behring Sea seal-fisheries renders its finding, adverse to 
 the United States, Aug. 15. 
 14 
 
19G CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1893. Sentence of the participants in the Panama Canal practices 
 
 in France. The Ribot ministry resigns, March ; Dupuy 
 forms a new cabinet, April. France wages war with Siam 
 for the possession of the left bank of the Mekong. Siam 
 agrees to relinquish her sovereignty, Aug. End of the Du- 
 puy ministry, Nov. ; Casimir-Perier forms a new cabinet. 
 
 Adoption of universal suffrage (plural vote system) in Bel- 
 gium. 
 
 The forces of the British East Africa Company attack and 
 defeat Lobengula, king of Matabeleland. (British au- 
 thority established in 1894.) 
 
 Revolt of the Brazilian navy under Mello. The insurgents 
 blockade Rio Janeiro. Repeated bombardments of the 
 city. Mello places Saldanha da Gama in charge of the 
 operations in the harbor of Rio. President Peixoto fits 
 out a fleet of war-ships. — Insurrections in various prov- 
 inces of Brazil. 
 
 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. 
 
 Death of Taine, Jowett, MacMahon, Gounod, Parkman, Tyn- 
 dall, Merivale. 
 
 1894. Great railroad strikes in and about Chicago, in California, 
 
 etc. Congress passes the Wilson Tariff Bill. 
 
 Gladstone resigns the premiership, March ; he is succeeded 
 by Rosebery. 
 
 The Casimir-Perier cabinet in France resigns, May ; Dupuy 
 forms a new ministry. Assassination of President Carnot, 
 June 24. The National Assembly elects Casimir-Perier his 
 successor, June 27. 
 
 Caprivi, chancellor of the German Empire, resigns, and is 
 succeeded by Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsf first, Oct. 
 
 Death of Czar Alexander III., Nov. 1 ; he is succeeded by his 
 son, Nicholas II. 
 
 The Hungarian Diet passes the Civil Marriage Bill. Wekerle, 
 the head of the Hungarian ministry, resigns, Dec. 
 
 Abdul- Aziz succeeds his father, Muley Hassan, as Emperor 
 of Morocco, June. 
 
 War between China and Japan, growing out of their rela- 
 tions to Corea. Hostilities begin, July. Victory of the 
 Japanese at Ping Yang, Sept. 16. Naval engagement off 
 the mouth of the Yalu, resulting in a great disaster to the 
 Chinese, Sept. 17. The Japanese invade Manchuria. The 
 Japanese attack and capture Port Arthur, Nov. 20-22. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 197 
 
 1894. Moraes Barros is elected president of Brazil to succeed Peixoto, 
 
 March. Saldanha da Gama and his followers are forced to 
 abandon their vessels in the harbor of Rio, March. Mello 
 gives up the contest, April. Moraes Barros enters upon his 
 office, Nov. 15. 
 
 Insurrection against the Spaniards in the Philippine Islands. 
 
 Opening of the Manchester Ship Canal and of the Baltic Ship 
 
 Canal. 
 Death of Kossuth, Layard, the count de Paris, Helmholtz, 
 Brugsch, Holmes, Froude, Rubinstein. 
 
 1895. Rosebery resigns the premiership, June ; he is succeeded by 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 Message of President Cleveland relative to the boundary dis- 
 put(Tbetween Great Britain and Venezuela, Dec. 17. 
 
 The Dupuy cabinet in France resigns, Jan. Resignation of 
 President Casimir-Perier, Jan. 15. Felix Faure is chosen 
 his successor, Jan. 17. Ribot forms a cabinet, Jan. He 
 resigns, Oct. ; formation of the Bourgeois cabinet. 
 
 Death^of Giers, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, Jan. 26. 
 
 Banffy forms a new cabinet in Hungary, Jan. 
 
 Count Goluchowski succeeds Kalnoky as minister of foreign 
 affairs in Austria-Hungary, May. 
 
 Massacres of Armenians by Mohammedans. 
 
 The Japanese take the forts at Wei-Hai-Wei and destroy or 
 capture the Chinese war vessels, Jan.-Feb. They capture 
 Niuchuang, March. Peace of Shimonoseki, April. China 
 recognizes the independence of Corea and cedes Formosa 
 and°the peninsula of Liao-Tung to Japan. The threats 
 of the European powers compel Japan to relinquish Liao- 
 
 Tung. 
 
 France wages war against the Hovas of Madagascar to en- 
 force her claim to a protectorate. The French forces take 
 Antananarivo, Sept. 
 
 Rising against Spanish rule in Cuba. General Martinez 
 Campos conducts the operations against the insurgents. 
 
 Saenz Peiia, president of the Argentine Republic, resigns, and 
 is succeeded by Uriburu, Jan. 
 
 Nansen, in an attempt to reach the North Pole, attains a lati- 
 tude of 86° 14'. 
 
 Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay announce the discovery 
 of a new constituent of the atmosphere, argon. 
 
 Discovery of the Rontgen rays. 
 
198 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1895. Death of Cayley, Sir Henry Rawlinson, J. D. Dana, Hux- 
 ley, Sybel, Pasteur, Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Dumas (the 
 younger). 
 1896= Admission of Utah into the Union, Jan. William McKinley 
 is elected president of the United States and Garret A. 
 Hobart vice-president, Nov. 3. Great Britain yields to the 
 demand of the United States for the arbitration of the 
 Venezuelan boundary dispute, Nov. 
 
 Dr. Jameson, having - undertaken a raid into the Transvaal in 
 behalf of the Uitlanders, is forced to surrender to the forces 
 of President Kriiger, Jan. 2. 
 
 British expedition against Koomassie. The town is occupied, 
 Jan. The Ashantees accept British suzerainty. 
 
 General Kitchener conducts a British-Egyptian expedition 
 up the Nile against the Dervishes. Occupation of Don- 
 gola, Sept. 
 
 The Bourgeois ministry in France resigns, April ; the Meline 
 cabinet installed. 
 
 Continued massacres of Armenians. 
 
 The Christian inhabitants of Crete rise in arms against the 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 Victory of Menelek, ruler of Abyssinia, over the Italians, 
 under Baratieri, at Adua, March 1. The Italian premier 
 Crispi resigns and a new cabinet is formed with Rudini at 
 its head, March. Treaty of Addis Abeba, Oct. 26 ; Italy 
 renounces her claim to a protectorate over Abyssinia. 
 
 Madagascar is declared a colony of France. 
 
 Assassination of Nasr-ed-Din, shah of Persia, May 1 ; he is 
 succeeded by his son, Muzaffer-ed-Din. 
 
 General Weyler assumes the conduct of the operations against 
 the insurgents in Cuba. 
 
 Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. 
 
 Millennial Exposition in Buda-Pesth. 
 
 Opening of the canal at the Iron Gates of the Danube. 
 
 Deatli of Leighton, Thomas Hughes, Mrs. Stowe, Curtius, Sir 
 W. R Grove, Millais, William Morris, Du Bois-Reymond. 
 1897. Richard Olney, secretary of state of the United States, signs 
 a general arbitration treaty with Great Britain, Jan. In- 
 auguration of President McKinley, March 4. The Anglo- 
 American arbitration treaty is rejected by the United States 
 senate, May. President McKinley submits a treaty to the 
 senate providing for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 199 
 
 1897. to the United States, June. Congress passes the Dingley 
 Tariff Bill ; it goes into effect, July 24. 
 
 Creation of the enlarged municipality of New York ; election 
 of officers, Nov. 2. 
 
 Fierce conflicts between the Christian and Mohammedan in- 
 habitants in Crete. Greece, having resolved to annex the 
 island, sends an armed force to take possession of it, Feb. 
 The Great Powers formally decree autonomy for Crete, call 
 upon Greece to withdraw her troops, and, on her refusal to 
 comply, blockade the island, March. Greece makes war 
 upon Turkey and is disastrously defeated, her forces being 
 driven from Thessaly, April-May. She agrees to pay a 
 heavy war indemnity, and submits to a strategic rectifica- 
 tion of her northern frontier in favor of Turkey. Prelimi- 
 naries of peace are signed, Sept. ; a definitive treaty is con- 
 cluded, Dec. 
 
 Celebration of Queen Victorias diamond jubilee, June 22. 
 
 The visit of President Faure to Russia cements the alliance 
 between that empire and the French Republic. 
 
 Assassination of the Spanish premier Canovas del Castillo, 
 Aug. 8. Sagasta forms a Liberal cabinet, Oct. General 
 Weyler is recalled from Cuba and superseded by General 
 Ramon Blanco. The Sagasta government frames a scheme 
 of autonomy for the island, Nov. 
 
 An Australian Federal Convention assembles at Melbourne 
 and adopts the principles of a constitution, March. 
 
 Revolt of hill tribes on the Afghan frontier of India. 
 
 The Germans occupy the Chinese port of Kiao-Chau, Dec. 
 
 The discovery of rich deposits of gold in the Klondike region 
 attracts large numbers of fortune-seekers. 
 
 Death of Sylvester, Brahms, Jean Ingelow, Margaret Oli- 
 phant, Sir John Gilbert, Henry George, Alphonse Daudet. 
 
PART II. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
OHEO^OLOGIOAL DICTKOTAKY OF 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abbasside Caliphs, 750-1258. (See Bagdad.) 
 
 Abensberg ' — The French defeat the Austrians at, 1809. 
 
 Aberdeen — King's College founded, 1494 ; Marischal College founded, about 
 1593 ; the two united into the University of Aberdeen, 1860. 
 
 Abo, 2 treaty of, between Russia and Sweden, 1743. 
 
 Aboukir, Bay of 3 — French fleet destroyed in the, Aug. 1, 2, 1798 (battle of 
 the Nile). 
 
 Aboukir (village) — Bonaparte defeats the Turks at, July 25, 1799. 
 
 Abyssinia — Christianity introduced, about 330 ; visited by the Portuguese, 
 about 1490; court becomes Catholic, early in the 17th c. ; Catholicism sup- 
 pressed, before 1640 ; war with England, 1867-8 ; disastrous attempt of 
 Ismail Pasha to conquer Abyssinian territory, 1875-'6 ; Menelek puts an 
 end to the aggressions of Italy, 1890. 
 
 Academy, French — Founded, 1635. 
 
 Academy of Inscriptions, French — Founded. 1663. 
 
 Academy of Sciences, French — Founded, 1666. 
 
 Acadia. See Nova Scotia. 
 
 Achaean League 4 — [b. c] — Rise of the, about 280 ; joined by Sicyon, be- 
 comes powerful, 251 ; succumbs to Rome, 146. 
 
 Acheen. See Atcheen. 
 
 Acre 5 — Taken by the crusaders, 1104; by Saladin, 1187; besieged and again 
 taken by the crusaders, 1189-91; lost by the Christians, 1291; besieged 
 by Bonaparte, 1799; stormed by the Egyptians, 1832; taken by the Eng- 
 lish, Austrians, and Turks, 1840. 
 
 Acta Eruditorum (journal)— Founded by Otto Meneke, 1682. 
 
 Actium 6 — Victory of Octavius over Antony off, 31 B. c. 
 
 1 A town of Bavaria, S. W. of Ratisbon. a A town of Finland, on the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 8 Between Alexandria and the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. 4 Originally formed hy several 
 towns of Achaia, a district of the Peloponnesus, bordering on the Gulf of Corinth. 6 A 
 seaport of Syria, near Mt. Carmel ; the ancient Ptolemais. 6 A promontory of Acarnania, 
 at the entrance to the Ambraciau Gulf. 
 
204 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Aden l — Taken possession of by the British, 1839. 
 
 Adrianople — Victory of the Goths over the Romans at, a. d. 378 ; con- 
 quered by Amurath L, 1361 ; entered by the Russians, 1829, 1878. 
 
 Adrianople, peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1829. 
 
 2Egates 2 — Roman victory over the Carthaginians at the, 241 b. c. 
 
 iEgospotami. 3 — The Spartans crush the naval power of Athens at, 405 b. c. 
 
 iEtoHan League 4 — [b. c] — Organized, latter part of 4th c. ; war with the 
 Acha'an League and Macedon (Social War), 220-217; becomes the ally 
 of Rome against Macedon, 211 ; of Syria against Rome, 192; its existence 
 or power terminates, about 167. 
 
 Afghanistan — Accession of Dost Mohammed, 1826 ; British invasion, 1839 ; 
 insurrection, British disasters, 1841-'2 ; chastised by the British, 1842 ; 
 British campaigns against Shir Ali, Yakub Khan, and Ayub Khan (of 
 Herat), 1878-'80; Abdurrahman ameer, 1880. 
 
 Aghrim 5 — Victory of the forces of William III. at, 1691. 
 
 Agincourt 6 — Victory of Henry V. over the French at, Oct. 25, 1415. 
 
 Agnadello 7 — The French defeat the Venetians at, 1509. 
 
 Agrigentum 8 — [b. c] — Founded, about 582 ; reign of Phalaris, about 570- 
 555 ; final conquest by the Romans, 210. 
 
 Air Pump — Invented by Otto von Guericke, about 1650. 
 
 Aix. See Aqu^-e Sextle. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle — Peace of, between France and Spain, 1668 ; peace ending 
 the War of the Austrian Succession, 1748 ; congress of the Powers at, 1818. 
 
 Akerman, 9 treaty of, between Russia and Turkey, 1826. 
 
 Alabama — The French settle in, 1702; admitted into the Union, 1819; se- 
 cedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. 
 
 Alabama (cruiser) — Sunk, June 19, 1864. 
 
 Alabama Claims Dispute — Settled, 1871- ? 2. 
 
 Aladja Dagh 10 — Defeat of Mukhtar Pasha at, Oct., 1877. 
 
 Alamo 11 — Storming of the, by Santa Anna, 1836. 
 
 Alani 12 — Are defeated by the Huns about 374; cross the Rhine into Gaul, 
 406; enter the Spanish peninsula, 409 ; their realm there overthrown by 
 the Visigoths, 418. 
 
 Alarcos (Alarcon) 13 — Victory of the Moors at. 1195. 
 
 Alaska — Purchased by the United States, 1867. 
 
 Albania— Taken possession of by the Turks, 1432 ; it revolts under Scander- 
 beg, 1443 ; death of Scanderbeg, 1468 ; subjugated, 1478. 
 
 1 A port at the S. W. extremity of Arabia. 2 A group of islands off the W. extremity of 
 Sicily. 3 A small stream of the Thracian Chersonesus, emptying into the Hellespont. 4 yEto- 
 lia was a district of Greece on the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth. 6 A village in county 
 Galway, Ireland. 8 Properly Azineourt, a village of Artois, S. E. of Boulogne. T A village 
 in the S. portion of Lombardy. 8 A town on the S. W. coast of Sicily ; now Girgenti. 9 A 
 town of Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Dniester. 10 A mountain in Armenia, near Ears. 
 11 The Alamo was a fort near San Antonio. l " The original home of the Alani was the 
 region of the Caucasus. 1S A town of New Castile, on the river Jucar. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 205 
 
 Albany — First settlement by the Dutch at the site of, 1614; Fort Orange 
 built, 1623. 
 
 Albert N'yanza — Discovered by Baker, 1864. 
 
 Albigenses — Condemned by the Lateran council, 1179; crusade proclaimed 
 against them, 1208 ; Raymond VII. of Toulouse submits to terms fatal to 
 them, 1229. 
 
 Albuera ' — Victory of Beresford at, 1811. 
 
 Alcala (Alcala de Henares), 2 University of — Founded, beginning of 16th 
 c. ; suppressed (transferred to Madrid), 1836. 
 
 Alcazarquivir 3 — Sebastian of Portugal vanquished by the Moors at, 1578. 
 
 Alcolea 4 — Serrano defeats the forces of Isabella at, Sept. 28, 1868. 
 
 Alcoy 5 — Bloody riot of the Internationals in, 1873. 
 
 Alemanni 6 — Wars of Rome against the, begun, a. d. 213 ; vanquished by 
 Clovis, 496 ; completely subject to the Franks, 8th c. 
 
 Alesia 7 — Taken by Caesar, 52 b. c. 
 
 Alexandria — Laid out, about close of 332 b. c. ; Alexandrine War (waged 
 by Caesar), 48-47 b. c. ; taken by Amru, a. d. 641 ; defeat of the French 
 at, 1801 ; forts at, bombarded by the British, July, 1882. 
 
 Alexandria (La.) — Escape of Porter's Red River fleet at, 1864. 
 
 Alexandrian Library — Founded, 3d c. b. c. 
 
 Alexinatz 8 — Battles between the Servians and Turks at. 1876. 
 
 Algeria — Becomes subject to Turkey, 1519 ; expedition of Charles V. 
 against, 1541; office of Dey (to share the authority with the Turkish 
 pasha) instituted, 1600; the Dey shakes off the authority of the sul- 
 tan, 1710; last great expedition of the Spaniards against, 1775; Deca- 
 tur's successful expedition, 1815 ; bombardment of Algiers by Lord Ex- 
 mouth, 1816 ; French conquest begun, 1830 ; surrender of Abd-el-Kader, 
 1847. 
 
 Alhambra — Erection of the, completed, early in the 14th c. 
 
 Alien and Sedition Laws — Passed by Congress, 1798. 
 
 Aliwal 9 — Defeat of the Sikhs at, 1846. 
 
 Allia (Alia) 10 — The Gauls vanquish the Romans at the, about 388 B. c. 
 
 Alma "—Defeat of the Russians at the, Sept. 20, 1854. 
 
 Almanza 12 — Victory of the duke of Berwick at, 1707. 
 
 Almohades. See Morocco, Moors in Spain. 
 
 Almoravides. See Morocco. 
 
 Alsace. See France. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine— Conquered by Germany. 1870— '71. 
 
 1 A town of Spain, in Estremadura. 2 A town near Madrid. 3 A town of Morocco, in a 
 N. W. direction from Fez. * A locality in the outskirts of Cordova. 6 A town of Valen- 
 cia, Spain, in the province of Alicante. 6 A people of southwestern Germany. 7 A town 
 of Gaul, in what is now Burgundy. e A town of Servia, on the Morava. 9 A village in the 
 Pun.jaub, on the Sutlej. I0 A small stream emptying into the Tiber a short distance above 
 Rome ; now called Aja. n A small river of the Crimea, which falls into the sea between 
 Eupatoria and Sebastopol. 12 A town of Murcia, Spain. 
 
206 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Altranstadt, 1 peace of, between Sweden and Saxony, 1706. 
 
 Amain 2 — Independent state, 9th-llth c. 
 
 Amboise, 3 conspiracy of (directed against the Guises), 1560. 
 
 Aniboise, edict of (granting terms to the Huguenots), 1563. 
 
 America — Discovery of, by Columbus, 1492 ; discovery of the mainland by 
 John Cabot, 1497. 
 
 Amiens, peace of, between England on one side and France and her allies 
 on the other, 1802. 
 
 Amiens, cathedral of — Erected, 13th c. 
 
 Amoor Country — Ceded by China to Russia, 1858. 
 
 Amoy — Taken by the British, 1841 ; thrown open to them, 1843. 
 
 Amphipolis 4 — The Spartans defeat the Athenians at, 422 B. c. 
 
 Amsterdam, Bank of— Founded, 1609. 
 
 Anabaptists — Sect makes its appearance, 1521. (See Munster.) 
 
 Anaesthetics — Public introduction of, by Dr. Morton, in Boston, 1846. 
 
 Ancona — Unsuccessfully defended by the revolutionists against the Aus- 
 trians, 1849 ; surrender of the papal forces, under Lamoriciere, to the Sar- 
 dinians, 1860. 
 
 Andrusovo, 5 treaty of, between Russia and Poland, 1667. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons. See England. 
 
 Angora 6 — Tamerlane vanquishes Bajazet at, 1402. 
 
 Anjou 7 — United with the crown of England, 1154; wrested from King John 
 by Philip Augustus, 1204; united with Provence under Count Charles, 
 brother of Louis IX. of France, 1246 ; Charles conquers the throne of the 
 Two Sicilies, 1266 ; separated from Naples and Provence, 1290 ; again united 
 with Provence, 1382; accession of Duke Rene the Good, 1434; on his 
 death, finally united with the French crown, 1480. 
 
 Antalcidas, peace of, between Sparta and the confederate Greeks, 387 b. c. 
 
 Antietam 8 — Battle of, between McClellan and Lee, Sept. 16, 17, 1862. 
 
 Antioch 9 — Founded, about 300 b. c. ; destroyed by an earthquake, A. D. 
 526; taken by the crusaders, 1098; made the seat of a principality by 
 Bohemond, , 'l099 ; principality overthrown, 1268. 
 
 Anti-Slavery Societies. See Slavery. 
 
 Anti-Socialist Law (in Germany) — Passed, 1878. 
 
 Antwerp— Besieged and taken by the Spaniards, 1584-'5 : occupied by the 
 Belgian revolutionists, the Dutch holding the citadel, 1830; citadel re- 
 duced by Marshal Gerard, 1832. 
 
 1 A village near Merseburg, now in Prussian Saxony. a A town on the Gulf of Salerno, 
 S. E. of Naples. 8 A town on the Loire, E. of Tours. * A town on the Strymon, a river 
 emptying into the N. portion of the ^Egean Sea. 8 A village now belonging to the Rus- 
 sian government of Smolensk. 8 Angora (Turk. Engurieh) is a town of Asia Minor, about 
 220 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople ; the ancient Ancyra. 7 A district on both sides 
 of the Loire, bordering on Brittany. 8 A small stream which crosses Maryland and empties 
 into the Potomac near Harper's Ferry. 9 A city of northern Syria, on the Orontes ; now 
 Autakieh. 
 

 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 207 
 
 Appian Way l — Construction of, begun by Appius Claudius Coecus, about 
 310 b. c. 
 
 Appomattox Court House 2 — Surrender of Lee at, April 9, 1865. 
 
 Aquae Sextise 3 — Marius vanquishes the Teutones and Ambrones at, 102 b. c. 
 
 Aquileia* — Destruction of, by Attila, a. d. 452. 
 
 Aquitania (Aquitaine, Guienne) 6 — Conquered by the Visigoths, about 418 ; 
 by Clovis, 507; powerful realm under Eudes, beginning of 8th c. ; a Car- 
 lovingian kingdom, 778-877; duchy of, united with England, 1154; con- 
 quered by the French, 1451. 
 
 Arabs. See Saracens. 
 
 Aragon — Made an independent kingdom, 1035 : Catalonia united with it, 
 1151 ; union with Castile, 1479. (See Navarre, Sardinia, and Sicilies, 
 The Two.) 
 
 Arbela 6 — Victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians near, 331 B. c. 
 
 Arcadian Confederacy — Established, 370 b. c. 
 
 Arcole 7 — Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at, 1796. 
 
 Ardahan * — Stormed by the Russians, 1877 ; ceded to Russia, 1878. 
 
 Argentine Republic — Beginning of the revolutionary struggle in the 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, 1810; the congress of Tucuman proclaims 
 the independence of the Plata provinces, 1816 ; Rosas attains to the su- 
 preme power, 1829 ; he is overthrown by the party of Urquiza, 1852 ; 
 secession of the province of Buenos Ayres, 1852; it is forced to rejoin the 
 confederation, 1859; it revolts again, 1861; reunion effected, with Mitre 
 as president, 1862; war with Paraguay, 1865-'70; Sarmiento becomes 
 president, 1868; Avellaneda, 1874; Roca, 1880; Celman, 1886; Pelle- 
 grini, 1890 ; Saenz Pefla, 1892 ; Uriburu, 1895. 
 
 Arginusae 9 — The Athenians defeat the Lacedaemonians off the, 406 b. c. 
 
 Argos — Leading power in the Peloponnesus, till about 750 b. c. ; annexed 
 to the Roman dominions, 146 b. c. 
 
 Arians — The doctrines of Arius condemned at the council of Nicapa, 325; 
 the Athanasian party condemned at the synod of Aries, 353 ; at the coun- 
 cil of Milan, 355 ; the Nicene creed upheld at the council of Constanti- 
 nople, 381 ; the Visigoths renounce Arianism, 589; the Lombards, 7th c. 
 
 Arkansas — Admitted into the Union, 1836 ; secedes, 1861 ; reconstruction 
 completed, 1868. 
 
 Aries, kingdom of. See Burgundy. 
 
 Aries, synod of — Convened for the condemnation of the opponents of 
 Arianism, 353. 
 
 1 Leading from Rome to Capua. 8 A village E. of Lynchburg, Va. 3 The modern Aix, 
 
 N. of Marseilles. 4 A town situated at the head of the Adriatic. 5 Aquitania was the 
 southwestern division of Gaul ; Guienne, with narrower limits, embraced the region of the 
 Garonne and Dordogne. 9 A town of Adiabene. a district E. of the Tigris. The battle 
 was fought at Gaugamela. 7 A village on an affluent of the Adige, near Verona. ' 8 A 
 town of Armenia. 9 Small islands near Lesbos. 
 
208 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Arniada, Invincible — Sent by Philip II. against England, 1588. 
 
 Armagnac, house of — Ruin of the, under Louis XI., 1473. 
 
 Armenian Massacres, 1895-'6. 
 
 Arminianism — Condemned by the synod of Dort, 1619. 
 
 Arques ' — Victory of Henry IV. at, 1589. 
 
 Arsacidse. See Parthia. 
 
 Artemisium 2 — Sea fight off, between the Greeks and Persians, 480 b. c. 
 
 Artois 3 — United with Burgundy, 1384; conquered by France, 1640. 
 
 Ascalon 4 — The crusaders defeat the Egyptian forces at, 1099 ; taken by the 
 crusaders, 1153; by Saladin, 1187. 
 
 Asculum 5 — Victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans at, 279 b. c. 
 
 Ashantees— Wars with the English, 1873-'4, 1896. 
 
 Ashburton Treaty, between the United States and Great Britain, 1842. 
 
 Asmoneans. See Hebrews. 
 
 Aspern and Essling 6 — Battle between the French and Austrians at, re- 
 sulting in the defeat of the French, May 21, 22, 1809. 
 
 Aspromonte 7 — Garibaldi is defeated and captured at, 1862. 
 
 Assignats — First issue of the, in France, 1790. 
 
 Assyria — [b. c] — Reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1300 ; Tiglath-pileser I., 
 about 1100; Assur-nazir-pal, 885-860 ; 8 Shalmaneser II., 860-825 ; Samsi- 
 raman (Samsi-vul), 825-812 ; Raman-nirar (Vul-nirari), 812-783 ; Shal- 
 maneser HI., 783-773 ; Assur-dan-il, 773-755 ; Assur-nirar, 755-745 ; 
 Tiglath-pileser II., 745-727 ; Shalmaneser IV., 727-722 ; Sargon, 722-705 ; 
 Sennacherib, 705-681 ; Esarhaddon, 681-668 ; Assur-bani-pal, 668-626 ; 
 Assyrian monarchy overthrown by the Medes and Babylonians, 607 (606). 9 
 
 Asteroids — Discovery of the first of them, Ceres, 1801. 
 
 Asturias. See Spain. 
 
 Atcheen 10 — War of the Dutch against, 1873-9. 
 
 Athens— [b. c] — Draco's legislation, about 624; Solon's, 594; first -usurpa- 
 tion of Pisistratus, 560; expulsion of Hippias, 510; battle of Marathon, 
 490 ; triumph of Themistocles over Aristides, 483 ; city burned by the 
 Persians, 480 ; beginning of Athenian hegemony in Greece, 477 ; attains 
 the height of her power under Pericles, about 450 ; crushed by Sparta, 
 404 ; made subject to Macedon, 338 ; placed under the rule of Demetrius 
 Phalereus, 318 or 317; his government overthrown by Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, 307 ; passes under the dominion of Rome, 146 ; city taken by Sulla, 
 
 1 A small place near Dieppe. 2 A promontory of the island of Eubcea. 3 A district 
 bordering on the Straits of Dover. 4 A town on the coast of Syria, near Gaza. * A town of 
 Apulia, in southern Italy ; now Ascoli di Satriano. 6 Villages in the outskirts of Vienna. 
 7 A mountain in Calabria. 8 The cuneiform inscriptions of the Assyrian Eponym Canon 
 furnish a complete chronological record extending from the beginning of the ninth century 
 nearly down to the destruction of the monarchy. This chronology is not fully in accord 
 with that of the Bible. See Hebrews. 9 Some authorities place this event in 625, and con- 
 sider the reign of Assur-bani-pal to have terminated about 647. See Duncker, " Allgemeine 
 Geschichte des Alterthums," fifth edition, vol. ii., pp. 473-479. 10 A territory in the N. W. 
 portion of Sumatra. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 209 
 
 86 ; — [a. d.] — duchy of, founded, beginning of 13th c. : extinguished by 
 the Turks, 1456; city taken by the Venetians, 1687; the Greeks take the 
 Acropolis, 1832 ; the Turks occupy the city, and besiege the Acropolis, 
 1826 ; fall of the Acropolis, 1827. 
 
 Atlanta — Occupied by Sherman, .Sept. 2, 1864. 
 
 Atlantic Cables,, See Telegraph. 
 
 Auerstadt ' — The French defeat the Prussians at, Oct. 14, 1806. 
 
 Augsburg — Confession of the Protestants presented at the Diet of, 1530; 
 religious peace of, 1555 ; ceases to be a free city, and is incorporated with 
 Bavaria, 1806. 
 
 Aulic Council — Established by the emperor Maximilian I., 1501. 
 
 Auray 2 — Chandos defeats the French at, 1364. 
 
 Aussig 3 — Victory of the Hussites at, 1426. 
 
 Austerlitz 4 — Napoleon defeats the Austrians and Russians at, Dec. 2, 1805. 
 
 Australia — Discovered by the Portuguese, 1601 (first discovery?); the Eng- 
 lish establish a penal settlement in, 1788; discovery of great deposits of 
 gold, 1851. 
 
 Austria — The Babenbergers become margraves of, about 976 ; erected into 
 a duchy, 1156; end of the Babenberg dynasty, 1246; acquired by Otto- 
 car (afterward Ottocar II. of Bohemia), 1251 ; given up by him, together 
 with Styria, Carinthia, etc., to Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1276 : Rudolph's 
 sons invested with the duchies, 1282 (Carinthia relinquished by them) ; 
 Carinthia a permanent possession of the Hapsburgs, 1335 ; Tyrol acquired, 
 1363 ; duchy of Austria erected into an archduchy, 1453 ; beginning of 
 the continuous rule of the Hapsburgs in Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and 
 Silesia, 1526 ; the crown of Hungary (previously borne by election) is made 
 hereditary in the house of Hapsburg, 1687; most of Silesia lost, 1742; 
 Galicia annexed, 1772 ; Francis I. assumes the title of emperor of Austria, 
 1804; accession of Ferdinand I. (V.), 1835; revolution, Francis Joseph 
 emperor, 1848 ; connection with Germany severed, 1866 ; transformation 
 of the empire into the dualistic Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, 1867. See 
 Milan, Netherlands (Spanish), Lombardy, Venice, Bosnia. (From 
 1438 to 1806, with a slight interval, the imperial throne of Germany 
 was occupied by the head of the house of Austria. See Germany.) 
 
 Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740-'48. 
 
 Avars 5 — Found their realm on the Danube, 6th c. a. d. ; succumb to the 
 Franks, 796. 
 
 Avignon 6 — Removal of the papal court to, 1309 ; sold to the Papal See, 1348 ; 
 given up as the papal residence, 1376; seat of the antipopes Clement 
 VII. and Benedict XIII.; incorporated with France, 1791. 
 
 1 A village now included in the Prussian district of Merseburg. 2 A town on the coast 
 of Brittany, near Vannes. 3 A town of northern Bohemia, on the Elbe. 4 A town of Mo- 
 ravia, near Briinn. 6 A people of Turanian origin, probably akin to the Huns. 6 A town 
 of Provence, on the Rh6ne. 
 
210 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Ayacucho l — Victory of Sucre over the Spaniards at, 1824. 
 Azores — Occupied by the Portuguese, 1432. 
 
 Azov — Taken from the Turks by Peter the Great, 1696 : restored, 1711 ; again 
 taken by the Russians, 1736; finally confirmed to Russia, 1774. 
 
 Babylonia — [b. c] — The various poi-tions of the country united into a pow- 
 erful monarchy, about 1500 (?) ; reign of Nabonassar, 747-734 2 ; Tiglath- 
 pileser II. imposes the yoke of Assyria, about 731 ; Merodach-baladan liber- 
 ates the kingdom and mounts the throne, 721 (722) ; resubjugated by the 
 Assyrian king Sargon, 710-709 ; Babylon destroyed by Sennacherib, about 
 695 : its restoration undertaken by Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, about 
 680 ; unsuccessful revolt from Assyria, about 650-648 ; Nabopolassar 
 throws off the authority of Assyria, about 620 (?) ; the Medes and Baby- 
 lonians overthrow the Assyrian monarchy, 607 (606) 3 ; reign of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, 605-561 (562); Evil-merodach, 561-559; Neriglissar, 559-555; 
 Nabonidus succeeds ; overthrow of the monarchy by Cyrus, 538 ; unsuc- 
 cessful effort to throw off the Persian yoke, about 521-519. 
 
 Babylonish. Captivity, 586 (587)-about 536 b. c. 
 
 Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, 1676. 
 
 Bactria 4 — [b. c] — Becomes subject to the Persians, about 550 ; subjected 
 by Alexander, 329 ; forms part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, from 
 about 305 ; independent Greek kingdom, from about 255 ; Bactrian con- 
 quests in the region of the Indus begun, about 200 ; end of Greek domin- 
 ion north of the Paropamisus, about 140; Gieek rule in the region of the 
 Indus extinguished, about 90. 
 
 Badajoz 6 — Taken by the French, 1811 ; by Wellington, 1812. 
 
 Baden — The margrave of, created an imperial elector, 1803 : he assumes the 
 title of grand-duke, 1806 ; revolutionary risings, 1848 ; revolution, 1849. 
 
 Baden, 6 treaty of, finally terminating the War of the Spanish Succession, 
 1714. 
 
 Bagdad — Founded, about 762 ; soon after made the capital of the Abbas- 
 side caliphate ; end of the caliphate, 1258. 
 
 Balaklava 7 — Battle of, between the Russians and English (charge of the 
 " light brigade "), Oct. 25, 1854. 
 
 Balloon — Introduced by the brothers Montgolfier, 1783. 
 
 Ballot Bill— Passed by Parliament, 1872. 
 
 Ball's Bluff 8 — Federal forces repulsed at, Oct. 21, 1861. 
 
 1 Ayacucho was the name of a small elevated plain in the Andes, near the town of Gua- 
 manga (since called Ayacucho). between Lima and Cuzco. 2 According to the Canon of 
 Ptolemy. 3 See note 9 to Assyria. 4 A region included between the river Oxus and the 
 Paropamisus range (the Hindu Kufih and its continuation westward). 6 A town of western 
 Spain, in Estremadura. 8 A town N. W. of Zurich. 7 A town on the S. W. coast of the 
 Crimea. 8 On the Virginia shore of the Potomac, between Washington and Harper's Ferry. 
 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 211 
 
 Baltimore— Laid out, 1730 ; British attack upon, 1814. 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam — Founded, 1609. 
 
 Bank of England— Established, 1694; Peel's Bank Charter Act, 1844. 
 
 Bank of the United States— The first chartered (for 20 years), 1791 ; sec- 
 ond bank chartered (for 20 years), 1816 ; on the extinction of the Fed- 
 eral charter, rechartered by Pennsylvania; collapses, 1841. 
 
 Bannockburn ' — Victory of the Scots at, June 24, 1314. 
 
 Bapaume 2 — Battle between the Germans and French at, Jan. 3, 1871. 
 
 Bar, 3 Confederation of— Formed by the Polish patriots, 1768 ; confedera- 
 tion dissolved, 1772. 
 
 Barcelona — Becomes powerful under its counts, 11th c. ; united with Ara- 
 gon, 1151; revolts from Spain under Philip IV., 1640; recovered, 1652; 
 taken by the French, 1697; by the English, 1705 ; vainly besieged by the 
 French and Spaniards, 1706 ; again besieged by them, and taken, 1713-14. 
 
 Barnet 4 — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1471. 
 
 Barometer — Invented by Torricelli, 1643. 
 
 Barrier Treaty (giving the Dutch the right to keep garrisons in the Aus- 
 trian Netherlands), 1715. 
 
 Basel (canton) — Admitted into the Swiss confederacy, 1501 ; separated into 
 two half-cantons, 1832. 
 
 Basel (city) — Council of, 1431-7 (continued as a schismatic council); uni- 
 versity founded, 1459 ; treaties of, between France and Prussia and be- 
 tween France and Spain, 1795. 
 
 Bassano 5 — Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1796. 
 
 Bastille— Storming of the, July 14, 1789. 
 
 Batavi 6 — Insurrection of the, under Claudius Civilis, 69-70. 
 
 Batavia — Founded as the capital of the Dutch East Indies, 1619. 
 
 Batavian Republic, 1795-1806. 
 
 Batum 1 — Ceded by Turkey to Russia, 1878. 
 
 Bautzen s — Battle between the French and the allied Prussians and Rus- 
 sians at, 1813. 
 
 Bavaria — Brought completely under Frankish sway, 788 ; comes into the pos- 
 session of the house of Guelph, 1070 ; passes to the house of Wittelsbach, 
 1180 ; Duke Maximilian I. receives the dignity of elector, 1623 ; — (See Pa- 
 latinate of the Rhine.) — the elector Maximilian Joseph assumes the title 
 of king, 1806; accession of Louis I., 1825; Maximilian II., 1848; Louis 
 II., 1864; Otho, 1886 (Luitpold regent). 
 
 Bavarian Succession, War of the, 1778-9. 
 
 Baylen 9 — Surrender of the French to the Spaniards at, 1808. 
 
 1 A small place near Stirling. 2 A town near Arras. 3 A town of Podolia, a province now 
 belonging to Russia. * A town near the northwestern outskirts of London. 5 A town of 
 Venetia, N. E. of Vicenza. 6 A Germanic people, who inhabited the Rhine and Maas delta. 
 7 A seaport on the E. coast of the Black Sea. 8 A town of Saxony, near the source of the 
 Spree. B A town situated at the base of the Sierra Morena on the S. side of the range. 
 15 
 
212 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Bayonne— Meeting of Napoleon with Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. of 
 Si iain at, 1808. 
 
 Beachy Head ! — Naval victory of the French off, 1690. 
 
 Beauinont ' 2 — Victory of the Germans at, Aug. 30, 1870. 
 
 Beaune-la-B,olande 3 — Victory of the Germans off, Nov. 28, 1870. 
 
 Behring Strait — Discovered, 1728. 
 
 Belfort — Besieged and taken by the Germans, 1870-71. (Restored to 
 France.) 
 
 Belgium — (See Netherlands and Netherlands, Spanish.) — Unsuccessful 
 revolt of, from Austria. 1789-90; conquered by the French, 1794; an- 
 nexed to the French Republic, 1795; ceded to France by treaty, 1797; 
 united with Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, 1815 ; re- 
 volts from Holland, 1830 ; Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, king, 1831 ; fall 
 of Antwerp, the country liberated, 1832 ; final settlement with Holland, 
 1839 ; Leopold II., 18G5. 
 
 Belgrade — Successfully defended by the Hungarians and a crusading force 
 against the Turkish sultan Mohammed II., 1456 ; taken by Solyman II., 
 1521 ; conquered by Austria, 1688 ; retaken by the Turks, 1690 ; victory of 
 Prince Eugene at, he takes the city, 1717; ceded to Austria, 1718 ; treaty 
 of, city recovered by the Turks, 1739; taken by the Austrians, 1789; re- 
 stored to Turkey, 1791 ; Servia secures the withdrawal of the Turkish gar- 
 rison, 1867. 
 
 Belle-Isle 4 — Victory of Admiral Hawke off, 1747; taken by the English, 
 1761. 
 
 Bender 5 — Taken by the Russians, 1770, 1789. 
 
 Benedictine Order — Founded, about 530. 
 
 Benevento (Beneventum) 6 — Defeat of Pyrrhus at, 275 b. c. ; victory of 
 Charles of Anjou near, 1266. 
 
 Benevento, duchy, afterward principality, of— Founded by the Lom- 
 bards, latter part of 6th c. ; transformed into the three principalities of 
 Benevento, Salerno, and Capua, 9th c. ; the line of princes of Benevento 
 terminates, 1077. 
 
 Bengal — Formal cession of, to the English, 1765. 
 
 Bennington 1 — Victory of the Americans at, Aug. 16, 1777. 
 
 Berezina 8 — Passage of the, by the French, 1812. 
 
 Bergerac, 9 peace of, between Henry III. and the Huguenots, 1577. 
 
 Berlin, treaty of, for the settlement of the Eastern Question, 1878. 
 
 Berlin, University of— Opened, 1810. 
 
 Berlin Decree (issued by Napoleon against British commerce), 1806. 
 
 1 A headland on the coast of Sussex. a A small place S. E. of Sedan. 3 A small 
 town N. E. of Orleans. * An island in the Bay of Biscay, off the coast of Brittany. 6 A 
 town of Bessarabia. e A town N. E. of Naples. 7 A town in the S. W. corner of Ver- 
 mont. B An affluent of the Dnieper. e A town on the Dordogne, a river which joins the 
 Garonne. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 213 
 
 Bessarabia — Separated from Moldavia and given to Russia, 1812 ; portion 
 of, retroceded by Russia, 1856; restored to her, 1878. 
 
 Beziers ' — Massacre of the Albigenses at, 1209. 
 
 Bible — Septuagint completed, about 285 B. c. ; Jerome's translation, the basis 
 of the Vulgate, about A. D. 405; Complutensian Polyglot, 1517; Luther's 
 Bible, 1534; King James's, 1611. 
 
 Bicocca, La 2 — Defeat of the French at, 1522. 
 
 Bilbao 3 — The Carlists attempt the reduction of, 1835, 1830, 1873-'4. 
 
 Bill of Rights — Passed by Parliament, 1689. 
 
 Birmah. See Burmah. 
 
 Bithynia 4 — Bequeathed to the Romans by Nicomedes III., 74 b. c. 
 
 Bitonto 3 — The forces of Don Carlos defeat the Austrians at, 1734. 
 
 Black Death. — Ravages Europe, 1348-ol. 
 
 Black Hawk's War, 1832. 
 
 Black Hole (of Calcutta) — English prisoners thrown into the, 1756. 
 
 Black Sea — Neutralization of the, 1856 ; deneutralization, 1871. 
 
 Bladensburg 6 — Defeat of the Americans at, 1814. 
 
 Blenheim 1 — Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French and Bavarians at, 
 Aug. 13, 1704.^ 
 
 Boers — Migration from Cape Colony commences, 1835; their republic in 
 Natal taken possession of by the British. 1842 ; attacked by the governor 
 of Capo Colony, who occupies the Orange River Sovereignty. 1848; Trans- 
 vaal Republic established, 1848 ; Orange River Republic established, 1854; 
 the British take possession of the Transvaal Republic, 1877; insurrection 
 in the Transvaal, autonomy secured, 1880-'81; Jameson's raid, 1895-'6. 
 
 Bohemia — Reign of Ottocar II., 1253-'78 ; extinction of the dynasty of Pre- 
 mysl, 1306;— HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG: John, 1310-'46 ; Charles, 1340- 
 '78 : Wenceslas, 1378-1419 ; Sigismund, 1419-'37 ; — reign of George Podie- 
 brad, 1458-'71 ; Ferdinand I. of Hapsburg elected king, 1526 ; crown made 
 hereditary in the Hapsburg family, 1547; Thirty Years' War breaks out 
 in. 1618 ; reign of Frederick of the Palatinate, 1619-20. See Electors 
 (Imperial), Hussite Wars, Prague. 
 
 Bohmisch-Brod 8 — Defeat of the Taborites at. 1434. 
 
 Bolivia — Creation of the republic, 1825 ; with Peru, engages in a war against 
 Chili, 1879 ; her forces utterly defeated by the Chilians, 1879-*S0. 
 
 Bologna, University of — Famous as a school of law, soon after 1 100. 
 
 Bomarsund ° — Taken by the English and French, 1854. 
 
 Bombay, island of — Transferred by Portugal to England, 1662; granted 
 to the English East India Company, 1668. 
 
 1 A town of Languedoc. s A village near Milan. . 8 A seaport in the province of Biscay. 
 * A country in the N. W. part of Asia Minor. 5 A town near Bari, in southeastern Italy. 
 6 A village of Maryland, near Washington. T A village on the Danube, N W. of Augs- 
 burg. 8 A town near the center of Bohemia. 9 Bomarsund was a Russian fortress on the 
 island of Aland, at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
214 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Bonn — Present university founded, 1818. 
 
 Borodino ' — Napoleon defeats the Russians at, 1812. 
 
 Bosnia — Kingdom of, conquered by the Turks, 1463 ; insurrections, 1850-51, 
 1875-'6 ; after a desperate conflict, occupied by Austria, 1878. 
 
 Bosporus, Greek kingdom of 3 — Founded, about 500 b. c. ; Ca>sar van- 
 quishes Pharnaces, 47 b. c. ; kingdom disappears, 3d c. a. d. 
 
 Boston — Founded, 1630 ; Boston Massacre, 1770 ; tea thrown overboard, 
 1773; Boston Port Bill, 1774; successful siege of, by the Americans, 
 1775-'6 ; great fire, 1872. 
 
 Bosworth 3 — Richard III. is defeated and slain at, 1485. 
 
 Bothwell Bridge 4 — Defeat of the Covenanters at, 1679. 
 
 Boulogne — Taken by the English, 1544; restored to France. 1550 ; Napoleon 
 I. assembles an army at, for the invasion of England, 1804-'5 : revolution- 
 ary attempt of Louis Napoleon at, 1840. 
 
 " Bounty " — Mutiny on board of the, 1789 ; some of the mutineers land on 
 Pitcairn Island, 1790; the colony on Pitcairn Island removed to Norfolk 
 Island, 1856. 
 
 Bourbons. See France, Spain, Sicilies (The Two), Parma and Piacenza. 
 
 Bovines 6 — Philip Augustus defeats Otho IV. at, 1214. 
 
 Boyne 6 — Victory of the Orangemen on the, 1690. 
 
 Brabant. See Lorraine, Burgundy. 
 
 Braganca, dynasty of — Placed on the throne of Portugal, 1640. 
 
 Brandenburg. See Electors (Imperial), Prussia. 
 
 Brandywine 1 — Defeat of the Americans on the, Sept. 11, 1777. 
 
 Brazil— Coast of, discovered by V. Y. Pinzon, 1500; visited by Cabral, who 
 takes possession for Portugal, 1500 ; separation from Portugal, Pedro I. 
 declared emperor, 1822 ; independence recognized, 1825 ; Pedro I. abdi- 
 cates in favor of his son, Pedro II., 1831 ; act for the gradual abolition of 
 slavery, 1871 ; emancipation completed, 1888 ; republic established, 1889. 
 
 Breda, 8 treaty of, between England, Holland, France, and Denmark, 1667. 
 
 Breisach 9 — Reduced by Bernhard of Weimar, 1638. 
 
 Breitenfeld 10 — Victory of Gustavus Adolphus at, 1631 ; victory of Tor^ten- 
 son at, 1642. 
 
 Bremen (city)— Joins the Hansa, 13th c. ; included in the French Empire, 
 1810-'13. 
 
 Bremen, duchy of— Archiepiseopal see of Bremen given to Sweden as a 
 duchy, 1648; territory ceded to Hanover, 1719. 
 
 Breslau, treaty of, between Austria and Prussia, 1742. 
 
 1 A village in the government of Moscow. 2 The Crimea and adjoining regions. 3 A 
 town near Leicester. 4 Near Glasgow. B A village near Lille. « A river emptying into 
 the Irish Sea N. of Dublin. 7 A stream of Pennsylvania and Delaware, emptying into 
 Christiana Creek. The battle was fought at the village of Chadd's Ford, Pa. 8 A town 
 of the Netherlands, in North Brabant. 8 Situated on the right bank of the Rhine, near 
 Freiburg. Breisach was formerly a free city and an important fortress of the German 
 Empire. It belongs now to Baden. 10 A village in the outskirts of Leipsic. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 215 
 
 Bretigny, 1 treaty of, between England and France, 1360, 
 
 Bridgewater, battle of. See Lundy's Lane. 
 
 Brier Creek 2 — Victory of the British at, 1779. 
 
 Bristol — Taken by Prince Rupert, 1643 ; by the Parliamentarians, 1645. 
 
 Britannia Tubular Bridge 3 (built by Robert Stephenson) — Completed, 
 1850.' 
 
 British Museum — Pounded, 1753. 
 
 Brittany — United with France, 1491. 
 
 Brbmsebro, 4 peace of, between Sweden and Denmark, 1645. 
 
 Brooklyn (N. Y.) — Incorporated as a village, 1816; receives city charter, 
 1834 ; annexation of Williamsburg, &c, 1855 ; East River bridge con- 
 structed, 1869-83. 
 
 Bruges, treaty of, between Henry VIII. and Charles V., 1521. 
 
 Brumaire, 18th, coup-de-etat of the, Nov. 9, 1799. 
 
 Brunswick, house of — Ascends the throne of England, 1714. 
 
 Bruttium 5 — Submits to Rome, 272 b. c. 
 
 Buccaneers — At the height of their power, about 1685. 
 
 Eucharest, peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1812. 
 
 Buda— Falls into the hands of the Turks, 1526, 1529, 1541 ; held by them, 
 1541-1686 ; stormed by the Hungarians, 1849. 
 
 Buena Vista 6 — Taylor defeats Santa Anna at, Feb. 23, 1847. 
 
 Buenos Ay res. See Argentine Republic. 
 
 Bulgarians, 1 Bulgaria — Migrations of the Bulgarians to the region of the 
 Danube begun, close of 5th c. a. d. ; kingdom, in modern Bulgaria, estab- 
 lished, about 680 ; their khan converted to Christianity, 863 (864?) ; their 
 realm destroyed by the Byzantines, 1018: the Bulgarians revolt against 
 the Byzantine rule under the lead of John Asen and found a new realm, 
 1186; Bulgaria conquered by the Turks, 1388-'93 ; insurrection, massa- 
 cres, 1876; created a Christian principality, 1878 ; Alexander of Batten- 
 berg elected prince, 1879 ; he proclaims the union of Eastern Roumelia 
 with Bulgaria, 1885 ; war with Servia, 1885 ; Alexander invested with the 
 governorship of Eastern Roumelia, 1886; he abdicates, 1886; Ferdinand 
 of Coburg elected prince, 1887. 
 
 Bull Run 8 — Confederate victory at, July 21, 1861 ; second battle of. Con- 
 federates victorious, Aug. 29, 30, 1862, 
 
 Bunker Hill 9 — Battle between the Americans and British, June 17, 1775. 
 
 Burgundy (kingdoms) — The Burgundians 10 establish a kingdom in the easl 
 
 1 A village nearChartres. 2 A stream of Georgia, emptying into the Savannah. 3 Across 
 Menai Strait. 4 A place in southern Sweden, to the southwest of Calmar. 6 A division of 
 Italy, embracing the peninsula now called Calabria. 6 A place near Saltillo, Mexico, in the 
 state of Coahuila. 7 The Bulgarians were originally a Turanian people, probably akin to 
 the Huns. In the course of ages they became Slavicized. 8 A small affluent of the Occo- 
 quan, a river of Virginia, emptying into the Potomac abont twenty miles below Washington. 
 * An eminence near Boston. The battle was fought at the neighboring Breed's Hill, 10 A 
 Germanic peopie. 
 
216 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 ern part of Gaul, early in the 5th c. a. d. : their realm destroyed by the 
 Franks, 534 ; foundation of a Burgundian kingdom by Boso (kingdom of 
 Aries, or of Provence, or of Cisjurane Burgundy), 879 ; kingdom of Trans- 
 jurane Burgundy l founded, 888 ; the two united into one realm, the king- 
 dom of Aries, 933 ; end of the native line of Arletan kings, 1032. 
 
 Burgundy, duchy of — First ducal house, 877-1361 ; duchy conferred upon 
 Philip the Bold, 1303; he acquires Flanders, Artois, and Franche-Comte 
 (county of Burgundy), 1384: John the Fearless, 1404; Philip the Good, 
 1419 ; Namur annexed, 1429 ; Brabant and Limburg, 1430 ; Countess Jac- 
 queline cedes Hainaut, Holland, and Zealand to Philip, 1433 ; Luxemburg 
 annexed, 1443 ; Charles the Bold, 1467 ; duchy, on the death of Charles, 
 seized by Louis XI., 1477 ; marriage of Mary and Maximilian of Haps- 
 burg, 1477. (See Netherlands.) 
 
 Burmah- Wars with British, 1824-"6, 1851-'3, 1885 (annexed by England). 
 
 Busaco 2 — Wellington defeats the French at, 1810. 
 
 Byzantine Empire (Greek Empire, Eastern Empire) — Final division of the 
 Roman Empire, A. d. 395 ; Arcadius emperor of the East, 395-408 ; reign 
 of Theodosius II., 408-450; Leo I., 457-474; Zeno, 474-491; Justin I., 
 518-527; Justinian, 527-565; Mauritius, 582-602; Hcraclius, 610-641 
 Leo the Isaurian, 717-741; Irene, 780-802; Nicephorus Phocas, 963-9 
 John Zimisces, 969-976; Basil II., 976-1025; Isaac Comnenus, 1057-'9 
 Alexis Comnenus I., 1081-1118; Manuel Comnenus, 1143-'80; the cru- 
 saders partition the Byzantine dominions, and found the Latin Empire of 
 the East, 1204; Baldwin I. (of Flanders), 1204-'5; overthrow of the Latin 
 Empire by Michael Pateologus, 1261 ; Andronicus Palreologus I., 1282- 
 1328 ; John Cantacuzenus, 1341-55 ; John Palaeologus I., 1355-91 ; Ma- 
 nuel Pala?ologus, 1391-1425 ; John Pala?ologus II., 1425-'48 ; capture of 
 Constantinople by the Turks, death of the last emperor, Constantine Palae- 
 ologus, 1453. 
 
 Byzantium — Founded by the Megarians, about 657 b. c. ; made the capital 
 of the Roman Empire by Constantine, a. d. 330 — henceforth called Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cables, transatlantic. See Telegraph. 
 
 Cabool — Occupied by the British, 1839: insurrection, 1841: retreat 'of the 
 
 British from, 1842 ; occupied by Pollock, 1842 ; Cavagnari killed at, 1879 ; 
 
 occupied by the British, 1879; withdrawal of the British forces, 1880. . 
 Cadesia 3 — The Saracens vanquish the Persians at, 635. 4 
 Cadiz — Drake destroys the Spanish ships at, 1587; taken by Howard and 
 
 Essex, 1596 ; the Cortes make a stand at, against the French, 1823. 
 
 1 On both sides of the Jura. 2 A hamlet near Coimbra, Portugal. 3 The battlefield of 
 Cadesia was W. of the Euphrates, not far from the ruins of Babylon. 4 The date com- 
 monly assigned for this event is 636. See "Annals of the Early Caliphate," by Sir W. 
 Muir (London, 1883). 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 217 
 
 Calais— Taken by the English, 1347; lost, 1558. 
 
 Calculus — Newton invents his method of fluxions, about 1665 ; Leibnitz pub- 
 lishes his invention of the differential calculus, 1684. 
 
 Calcutta — English factory established at, 1686 ; taken by Surajah Dowlah, 
 1756; retaken by Clive, 1757. 
 
 Caldiero 1 — Battle between the French and Austrians at, 1805. 
 
 Caledonia — Campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians, 83-84 ; overrun 
 by Septimius Severus, 208-9. 
 
 Calendar — Reform of the, by Julius Caesar, 46 b. c. ; by Gregory XIII., 1582 ; 
 the Gregorian calendar officially introduced in England, 1752 ; revolu- 
 tionary calendar introduced in France, 1793 (the era reckoned from, 
 Sept. 22, 1792); the Gregorian calendar restored, 1806. 
 
 California — Mission of San Diego founded, 1769 ; region occupied by the 
 United States forces, 1846 ; ceded to the United States, 1848 ; discovery 
 of gold, 1848 ; admitted into the Union, 1850. 
 
 Caliphs— Abubekr, first caliph, 632-634 ; Omar, 634-644 ; Othman, 644-656 ; 
 Ali, 656-661 ; Ommiyade caliphs (of Damascus), 661-750 ; Abbassides (see 
 Bagdad), 750-1258. (See Fatimite Caliphs, Cordova.) 
 
 Calmar,' 2 Union of (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden to remain under one 
 crown), 1397. 
 
 Cambrai, 3 League of, against Venice — formed, 1508. 
 
 Cambrai, peace of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 1529. 
 
 Cambridge, University of— Rises into eminence, about 1200 ; designation 
 of university first applied, 1231 ; the oldest of the colleges, St. Peter's Col- 
 lege, founded, 1257. 
 
 Camden 4 — Defeat of the Americans at, 1780. (See Hobkirk's Hill.) 
 
 Camisards — Insurrection of the, 1702-4. 
 
 Camperduin (Camperdown) 6 — The English defeat the Dutch fleet off, 
 1797. 
 
 Campo Formio, 6 peace of, between France and Austria, 1797. 
 
 Canada — Foundation of Quebec, 1608 : the British conquer the country 
 from the French, 1759-'60; ceded to England, 1763; divided into Upper 
 and Lower Canada, 1791; insurrections, 1837; order restored, 1838; 
 legislative union of the two divisions under a responsible government, 
 1841 ; the Dominion of Canada constituted, 1867. 
 
 Candahar— Entered by the British, 1839 ; defense of, by Nott, 1842 ; entered 
 by the British, 1879 ; besieged by Ayub Khan, 1880 ; evacuated by the 
 British, 1881. 
 
 Candia (Crete) — Conquered by the Romans, 68-67 or 66 b. c. ; conquered by 
 the Saracens, city of Candia founded, about 823 ; reconquered by the By- 
 zantines, 961 ; acquired by Venice, 1204 ; blockade of the fortress of Can- 
 
 1 A village near Verona. 3 A seaport in the S. E. part of Sweden. s A town of Flan- 
 ders, since 1677 included in France. * A small place in South Carolina, on the Wateree. 
 6 A village of North Holland. 6 A village of Venetia, near Udine. 
 
218 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 dia by the Turks begun, 1648; siege begun, 1667; fall of the fortress, 
 1669 ; insurrections against the Turks, 1866-8, 1896-7. 
 
 Cannae ' — Hannibal defeats the Romans at, 216 b. c. 
 
 Cantabri. See Spain. 
 
 Canton — Taken by the British, 1841 ; thrown open to British commerce, 
 1843; attacked by them, 1856; occupied by the British and French, 1857. 
 
 Cape Breton — Ceded to England, 1763. 
 
 Cape Colony — The Dutch found Cape Town, about 1652 ; the English con- 
 quer the colony, 1795. (See Boers.) 
 
 Cape Finisterre, Cape of Good Hope, Cape St. Vincent. See Finis- 
 terre (Cape), &c. 
 
 Capetian Dynasty, 987-1328. 
 
 Capua 2 — Becomes the headquarters of Hannibal, 216 B. c. ; he loses it, 211. 
 
 Capuchins, order of the — Instituted, about 1525. 
 
 Carabobo 3 — Victory of Bolivar and Paez at, 1821. 
 
 Caracas — Great earthquake, 1812. 
 
 Carbonari — Successful insurrection of the, against Ferdinand I. of Naples, 
 1820; the revolution put down by Austrian forces, 1821. 
 
 Carchemish 4 — Victory of Nebuchadnezzar over Necho at, 605 b. c. 
 
 Carlist Wars. See Spain. 
 
 Carlovingians — Dynasty of the, in the Frankish empire, succeeds that of 
 the Merovingians, 751 ; partition of their empire, 843 ; its final disrup- 
 tion, 888; end of their dynasty in Germany, 911; end of their dynasty in 
 France, 987. 
 
 Carlowitz, 6 peace of, between Turkey on one side, and Austria, Poland, and 
 Venice on the other, 1699. 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of, held by the German powers, 1819. 
 
 Carmelite Order — Founded, about 1200. 
 
 Carolina — Proprietary government instituted (Clarendon and associates), 
 1663 ; Locke draws up his " fundamental " constitution, 1669 ; formed 
 into two distinct royal provinces, Nortli Carolina and South Carolina, 
 1729. 6 
 
 Cartagena (Spain) — Insurrection of the Intransigentes, 1873-'4. 
 
 Carthage— [b. c.]— Colonized by the Tyrians, 9th c. ; first Punic War, 
 264-241 ; second Punic War, 219-201 ; third Punic War, ending in the 
 destruction of the city, 149-146 — [a. d.]— the later Cartbage taken by 
 the Vandals, 439 — made the seat of their kingdom; taken by Belisarius, 
 533 ; destroyed by the Saracens, close of 7th c. (See Sicily, Sardinia, 
 Spain.) 
 
 Carthusian Order— Founded by Bruno, 1084. 
 
 1 A town of southeastern Italy, in Apulia, on the Aufidus (Ofanto). 2 A town of Cam- 
 pania, N. of Naples. 3 A small place near Valencia, Venezuela. 4 Carchemish (Assyr. Gar- 
 gamis) was a town on the Euphrates, where it approaches nearest to the Mediterranean. 
 It is not, as was until recently supposed, the same as the classical Circesium. 5 A town of 
 Slavonia, on the Danube, near Peterwardein. • See note appended to 1729 in Part I. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 219 
 
 Castelfidardo ' — The Sardinians defeat the papal forces at, I860. 
 
 Castiglione ! — Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1796. 
 
 Castile — Connection with Leon severed, 10th c. ; Fernando Gonzalez recog- 
 nized as independent count, 9G1 ; taken possession of by the king of Na- 
 varre, 1028; erected into a kingdom, 1033; united with Leon, 1037; Al- 
 fonso the Valiant conquers the Moorish kingdom of Toledo (New Cas- 
 tile), 1085 ; Castile and Leon again separate states, 1157; finally reunited, 
 1230; union with Aragon, 1479 ; insurrection of the Castilian cities under 
 Padilla, 1520-21. 
 
 Catalan Grand Company — Taken into the Byzantine service, 1303. 
 
 Catalonia — United with Aragon, 1151. 
 
 Cateau Canibresis, 3 peace of, between France, Spain, and England, 1559. 
 
 Catholic Emancipation Act — Passed by Parliament, 1829. 
 
 Catholic League (in France) — Organized, 1576 ; end of the, 1596. 
 
 Catholic League (in Germany)— Organized, 1609. 
 
 Catiline's Conspiracy (in Rome), 63 b. c. 
 
 Caucasus — Russia's great war of subjugation begun, 1834: her dominion 
 virtually established, 1859; final conquest of the Circassians, 1864; insur- 
 rection," 1877. 
 
 Caudine Forks 4 — The Samnites vanquish the Romans at the, about 321 b. c. 
 
 Cawnpore 5 — Mutiny in, 1857. 
 
 Cedar Creek 6 — Sheridan routs the Confederates at, Oct. 19. 1864. 
 
 Cedar Mountain ' — Battle of, between the Federals, under Banks, and the 
 Confederates, under Jackson, Aug. 9, 1862. 
 
 Censors (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 442 b. c. 
 
 Central America — Colonies of, declare themselves independent of Spain, 
 1821: federal republic of Central America (Guatemala, San Salvador, 
 Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) constituted, 1823 ; the confederacy 
 dissolved, 1839 ; " Grand Republic " of, constituted, 1895. 
 
 Ceresole 8 — The French defeat the Imperialists at, 1544. 
 
 Cerignola 9 — The Spaniards defeat the French at, 1503. 
 
 Cerro Gordo 10 — Seott defeats Santa Anna at, April 18, 1847. 
 
 Ceylon — Portuguese settlements begun, early in the 16th c. : (lie Dutch put 
 an end to the Portuguese power in, 1656; the English dispossess the 
 Dutch, 1796. 
 
 Chaeronea 11 — Victory of Philip of Macedon at, 338 b. c. ; Sulla defeats the 
 forces of Mithridates at, 86 b. c. 
 
 Chalcedon, 12 council of, 451. 
 
 1 A town near Ancona. 2 A town near the S. extremity of Lake Garda. 3 A town near 
 Cambrai. * Passes in the mountains of Samnium. 8 A town on the Ganges, not far above 
 the mouth of the Jumna. 6 A stream flowing into the North Fork of the Shenandoah. 7 An 
 eminence in Culpepper Co., Va. % A village of Piedmont, S. E. of Turin. 9 A town of south- 
 eastern Italy, S. E. of Foggia. 10 A mountain pass on the road from Vera Cruz to Mexico. 
 11 A town of Bceotia. 12 Chalcedon was situated on the Bosporus, opposite Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
220 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Chalons (Catalauni) l — Battle between the Romans and the Huns at, 451. 
 
 Champagne 2 — Constituted a county, 10th c. ; reunited with the crown of 
 France, 1314 (the formal reunion not decreed until some time later). (See 
 Navarre.) 
 
 Champ-de-Mars 3 — Federation Fete on the, July 14, 1790. 
 
 Champlain, Lake — Discovered by Champlain, 1009; naval victory of the 
 Americans on, 1814. 
 
 Chancellorsville 4 — Battle of, between Hooker and Lee, ending in the vic- 
 tory of the Confederates, May 2-4, 1863. 
 
 Chapultepec 6 — Storming of, by the Americans, Sept. 13, 1847. 
 
 Charleston — Repulse of the British at, 1776 ; surrender of Lincoln to the 
 British, 1780; evacuated by the British, 1782; occupied by the Federals, 
 1865 ; earthquake, 1886. See Sumter (Fort), Wagner (Fort). 
 
 "Charte Constitutionelle " — Promulgated by Louis XVIIL, 1814. 
 
 Chartists — Petition Parliament for universal suffrage and other reforms, 
 1839; insurrection in Monmouthshire, 1839: prepare a monster petition, 
 1841 ; make a great demonstration in London, and present another mon- 
 ster petition to Parliament, 1848. 
 
 Chartres, cathedral of — Commenced, about 1020 ; dedicated, 1260. 
 
 Chatillon, 6 congress of, between France and the allied powers, 1814. 
 
 Chattanooga 7 — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, result- 
 ing in the victory of the former, Nov. 23-25, 1863. 
 
 Chelsea Hospital— Founded. 1682. 
 
 Chevy Chase. See Otterburn. 
 
 Chicago— Incorporated as a city, 1837; great fire, 1871 ; World's Fair, 1893. 
 
 Chickahominy s — Campaign of McCIellan on the, 1862. 
 
 Chickamauga s ' — Battle of, defeat of Rosecrans by Bragg, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. 
 
 Children's Crusade, 1212. 
 
 Chili — Beginning of the revolutionary movement, 1810; liberation from 
 Spanish rule achieved by the battle of Maypu, 1818 ; war with Spain, 
 1865-'6 ; war with Peru and Bolivia, 1879-'83 ; rebellion against President 
 Balmaceda, who is overthrown, 1891 ; Montt elected president, 1891. 
 
 Chillianwallah ,0 — Battle of, between the British and Sikhs, 1849. 
 
 China — First Mongol dynasty fully established, 1280; Ming dynasty, 1368: 
 Mantchoo dynasty, 1644; outbreak of the Opium War, 1840; treaty of 
 Nanking, 1842 — ports thrown open to the British ; treaties with the United 
 States and France, 1844; Taiping Rebellion, 1850-'64; second war with 
 the British, who are joined by the French, 1856-8 ; the Amoor country 
 
 1 A town on the Marne, about 100 miles E. of Paris. 2 A region on both sides of the 
 Marne. s An open place near the W. border of Paris. * A place W. of Fredericksburg, 
 Ya. 5 A fortress in the outskirts of the city of Mexico. 6 A town on the Seine, not far 
 from its source. 7 A town of Tennessee, on the borders of Georgia, on the S. bank of the 
 Tennessee River. 8 An affluent of the James River, running parallel with that stream on 
 the N. side. 9 A small stream flowing into the Tennessee River from the S. a few miles 
 below Chattanooga. !0 A village of the Panjaub, near the banks of the Jhelum. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 221 
 
 coded to Russia, 1858 ; difficulties and war with Great Britain and France, 
 1859-60 ; war with France, 1884-'5 ; war with Japan, 1894-5. 
 
 China, Great Wall of — Built about close of 3d c. b. c. 
 
 Chippewa '—Victory of the Americans at, 1814. 
 
 Chlorine — Discovered by Scheele, 1774. 
 
 Cholera — First great epidemic in the west begins to spread in Russia, 1829 ; 
 rages in Central Europe, 1831 ; spreads over western Europe, 1832 ; rava- 
 ges America, 1832. 
 
 Chotusitz 2 — Frederick the Great defeats the Austrians at, 1742. 
 
 Christians — First persecution of the, under Nero, 64; persecution under 
 Marcus Aurelius, 177; under Decius, 250; under Diocletian, 303; formal 
 sanction given to the Christian worship by Constantine and Licinius, 313 ; 
 first general council of the church (that of Nica?a). 325. 
 
 Churubusco 3 — Victory of the Americans over the Mexicans at, Aug. 20, 
 1847. 
 
 Cilician Pirates — Subdued by Pompey, 67 b. c. 
 
 Cimbri 4 — Begin to menace the Roman dominions, 113 B. c. ; their forces an- 
 nihilated by Marius, 101 b. c. 
 
 Cincinnati— Settled, 1788. 
 
 Cintra, 5 convention of, between the French and English, 1808. 
 
 Circassia. See Caucasus. 
 
 Circulation of the Blood — Discovered by Harvey, about Hill). 
 
 Circumnavigation of the Globe — First accomplished, 1519-'22. 
 
 Cisalpine Republic, 6 1797-1802. 
 
 Cistercian Order — Founded, close of 11th c. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo 7 — Taken by the French, 1810; stormed by Wellington, 
 1812. 
 
 Civil Rights Bill— Passed by Congress, 1866. 
 
 Clairvaux, monastery of 8 — Founded by St. Bernard, 1115. 
 
 Clarendon, Constitutions of — Enacted, 1164. 
 
 Clay's Compromise (tariff), 1833. 
 
 Clay's Compromise (slavery), 1850. 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between England and the United States, 1850. 
 
 Clermont, 9 council of, 1095. 
 
 Cnidus i0 — Defeat of the Spartan fleet off, by Conon, 394 B. c. 
 
 Coal — Mining of, in England, on a large scale, begun, about 1200; anthra- 
 cite comes into extensive use in America, about 1820. 
 
 Cochin China — The French establish their dominion in, 1859-'67. 
 
 1 A village of Canada, near the Falls of Niagara. Q A small town in the E. part of 
 Bohemia. 3 A place a few miles from the city of Mexico. 4 A Germanic people, whose 
 original seat was on the North Sea. B A suburb of Lisbon, 13 miles N. W. of it. 6 Embra- 
 cing Lombardy, portions of the Venetian and of the papal territories, Modena, &c. 7 A 
 town of Spain, near the Portuguese border, S. W. of Salamanca. 8 This establishment was 
 situated in Champagne, on the river Aube. 9 A town of France, in Auvergne. 10 A Greek 
 town in Caria, in the S. W. corner of Asia Minor. 
 
222 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Code Napoleon— Published, 1804. 
 
 Code of Justinian — Published, 529. 
 
 Cold Harbor 1 — Battle at, between the Confederates and a portion of Mc- 
 Clellan's army (battle of Gaines's Mill), June 27, 1862 ; Lee repulses Grant's 
 assault at, June 3, 1864. 
 
 Coliseum. See Colosseum. 
 
 Cologne, archbishopric of — Erected, end of 8th c. ; see secularized, 1801-3 ; 
 territories annexed to Prussia, 1814-'15 ; creation of a new archbishopric 
 of Cologne, 1824. See Electors (Imperial). 
 
 Cologne, cathedral of— Begun, 1248 ; completed, 1880. 
 
 Colombia — Beginning of the revolutionary movement in New Granada and 
 Venezuela, 1810 ; they declare themselves independent of Spain, 1811 ; 
 republic of Colombia founded, with Bolivar as president, 1819 ; Span- 
 ish power destroyed, 1821 ; province of Quito liberated from Spain, 1822 ; 
 Venezuela becomes a separate republic, 1829 ; the two republics of Ecua- 
 dor and New Granada constituted, 1830-'31 ; the name of New Granada 
 changed to Colombia, 1861. 
 
 Colonization Society, American — Establishes the colony of Liberia, 1822. 
 
 Colorado — Admitted into the Union, 1876. 
 
 Colosseum— Dedicated, a. d. 80. 
 
 Columbia, District of. See District of Columbia. 
 
 Columbia College (New York) — Opened as King's College, 1754. 
 
 Common Prayer, Book of — Adopted in the Church of England, 1549. 
 
 Commune, war of the, 1871. 
 
 Comneni — Dynasty of the, in Constantinople, 1057-'9, 1081-1185 ; in Tre- 
 bizond, 1204-1461. 
 
 Comorn 2 — Siege of, by the Austrians, 1849. 
 
 Compass, Mariner's — Comes into use in Europe, 14th c. 
 
 Concordat — Between Francis I. and Leo X., 1516 ; between Bonaparte and 
 Pius VII., 1801 ; between Austria and Pius IX., 1855. 
 
 Confederate States of America — Republic of, established, 1861 ; over- 
 thrown, 1865. 
 
 Confederation, Articles of — Adopted, 1777 ; ratification completed, 1781. 
 
 Confession of Augsburg, 1530. 
 
 Congo Free State— Founded, 1885. 
 
 Connecticut— Dutch establish settlement in, 1633 ; settled by English, 1634 
 -'6 ; colony of New Haven established, 1638 ; constitution adopted in 
 colony of Connecticut, 1639; the two colonies receive a charter, 1662; 
 their union completed, 1665 ; Connecticut one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 Constance, 3 council of, 1414-'18. • 
 
 Constance, peace of, between Frederick I. and the Lombard League, 1183. 
 
 1 A locality near the Chickahorniny River, N. E. of Richmond. 2 A fortress on the 
 Danube, between Presbnrg and Buda-Pesth. 3 A town of Germany, on the lake of its 
 name. In the Middle Ages it was a free city. It now belongs to Baden. 
 
CIIRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 223 
 
 Constantine ' — Stormed by the French, 1837. 
 
 Constantinople — (See Byzantium) — Made the capital of the Roman Empire, 
 A. d. 330: on the division of the Roman Empire, capital of the Byzantine 
 Empire ; taken by the Venetians and Crusaders, 1203 ; again taken by 
 them, and made the seat of the Latin Empire of the East, 1204 ; Byzan- 
 tine realm restored, 1261 ; taken by the Turks, 1453 ; conference of the 
 Great Powers at, 1876-'7; advance of the Russians to, 1878; — general 
 councils held at, 381 (second), 553 (fifth), 680-681 (sixth), 869-870 (eighth). 
 
 Constituent Assembly (in French history) — First, 1789-91 ; second, 
 1848-9. 
 
 Consulate (in French history), 1799-1804. 
 
 Consulship (in Rome) — Instituted, about 510 B. c. 
 
 Continental Congress. See United States. 
 
 Contreras 2 — The Americans successfully attack the Mexicans at, Aug. 20, 
 1847. 
 
 Convention (in French history), 1792-5. 
 
 Coomassie. See Koomassie. 
 
 Copenhagen— Besieged by Charles X. of Sweden, 1658-9; attacked by 
 Charles XII., 1700 ; victory of Nelson at, 1801 ; bombarded by the Brit- 
 ish, capitulates, 1807. 
 
 Copenhagen, University of— Founded, 1478. 
 
 Corcyra (Corfu)— Colonized by the Corinthians, 8th c. b. c. ; dispute with 
 Corinth in regard to Epidamnus begins, 436 b. c. 
 
 Cordova — Capital of the Ommiyade realm in Spain (caliphate 3 of Cordova), 
 756-1031 ; conquered from the Moors by St. Ferdinand of Castile, 1236. 
 
 Corinth — [b. c] — Founds the colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra, 8th c. ; 
 reign of Cypselus, about 657-627; reign of Periander, about 627-587; 
 republican government established, about 584 ; joins the Achaean League, 
 243 ; destruction of the city by Mummius, 146. 
 
 Corinth (Miss.) 4 — Evacuated by the Confederates, 1862; Confederate attack 
 upon, 1862. 
 
 Corinthian War (waged by a confederacy of Greek states against Sparta), 
 395-387 b. c. 
 
 Corn Laws — Repeal of the, 1846. 
 
 Coronea 5 — Defeat of the Athenians at, 447 b. c. ; victory of Agesilaus at, 
 394 b. c. 
 
 Corsica — Rebels against Genoa, 1729; made over by her to France, 1768; 
 subjected to France, 1769; revolts, 1793; completely liberated, 1794; 
 French dominion re-established, 1796. 
 
 1 A town in the E. part of Algeria. 2 A place in the vicinity of the city of Mexico. 
 3 The sovereigns of Cordova previous to Abderrahman III. (912-961) styled themselves sim- 
 ply emir. Abderrahman assumed the title of Commander of the Faithful, by which he 
 designated himself the true caliph, in opposition to the caliphs of Bagdad. 4 A village near 
 the border of Tennessee. 6 A town in Boeotia. 
 
224 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Cortenuova 1 — Victory of the emperor Frederick II. at, 1237. 
 
 Corunna (Coruna) 5 — Engagement between the French and English at, Jan. 
 16, 1809. 
 
 Cotton— Culture of, introduced in Virginia, 1621. 
 
 Cotton Gin — Invented by Whitney, about 1793. 
 
 Coulmiers 3 — Success of General Aitrelle de Paladines at, Nov. 9, 1870. 
 
 Courland — With Semgallia, converted into a duchy for the last grand-mas- 
 ter of the Knights Swordbearers, 1561 ; submits to Russia, 1795. 
 
 Courtrai 4 — The Flemings defeat the French at, 1302. 
 
 Coutras 5 — Victory of Henry of Navarre at, 1587. 
 
 Covenant — The Scots publish their National Covenant, 1638 ; the English 
 Parliament subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant, 1643. 
 
 Cowpens 6 — The Americans defeat the British at, Jan. 17, 1781. 
 
 Cracow, republic of — Established, 1815 ; extinguished, 1846. 
 
 Cracow, University of— Projected by Casimir the Great, 1364. (Not fully 
 established until some time after his death.) 
 
 Crannon 7 — Victory of Antipater at, 322 b. c. 
 
 Cr6cy 8 — Victory of Edward III. over the French at, 1346. 
 
 Creek War (waged in Alabama), 1813-14. 
 
 Crefeld 9 — Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French at, 1758. 
 
 Crema 10 — Besieged and taken by Frederick Barbarossa, 1159- , 60. 
 
 Crespy (Crepy), 11 treaty of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 1544. 
 
 Crete. See Candia. 
 
 Crimea — (See Bosporus, Greek kingdom op, and Kaffa.) — Under its Tar- 
 tar khans, a dependency of Turkey, 1475-1774; annexed to Russia, 1783. 
 
 Crimean War (Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia against Russia), 
 1854-'6. 
 
 Cross Keys I2 — Battle of, between Fremont and a portion of Jackson's forces, 
 commanded by Ewell, June 8, 1862. 
 
 Croton Aqueduct— The old aqueduct completed, 1842 ; the new, 1890. 
 
 Crown Point 13 — Lost by the French, 1759 ; occupied by the Americans, 
 1775. 
 
 Crusades — First crusade, Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, God- 
 frey of Bouillon, Baldwin, Robert of Normandy, Hugh of Vermandois, 
 Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, Tancred, 1096-9 ; second, Louis VII. 
 of France, Conrad III. of Germany, 1147-'9: third, Frederick Barba- 
 rossa, Richard Cceur-de-Lion, Philip Augustus, 1189-'92 ; fourth, Bald- 
 
 1 A village of Loinbardy, now included in the province of Bergamo. 2 A seaport on 
 the N. coast of Spain. 3 A village in the vicinity of Orleans. 4 A town S. \V. of Ghent. 
 
 8 A town N. E. of Bordeaux. e A locality in South Carolina, near the border of North 
 Carolina. 7 A town of central Thessaly. 8 A small town of France, N. W. of Amiens. 
 
 9 A town a short distance N. W. of Diisseldorf . 10 A town of Lombardy, between Milan 
 and Cremona. n A town of northern France, near Laon. 12 A place in.Virginia, near the 
 junction of the three streams which form the South Fork of the Shenandoah. 13 A fort in 
 New York, at the S. extremity of Lake Champlain. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 225 
 
 win of Flanders, Boniface of Montferrat, Geoffroy de Villehardouin, Louis 
 of Blois, 1201-'4 — the crusaders, with the Venetians, establish the Latin 
 Empire of the East ; crusade of Andrew II. of Hungary, William of Hol- 
 land, and John of Brienne, 1217-'21 ; of Frederick II. of Germany, 
 1228-'9 ; of Thibaud of Champagne and Navarre and Richard of Corn- 
 wall, 1239-41; of Louis IX., 1248-50; second crusade of Louis IX., 
 1270 ; Edward Plantagenet, 1270-72 — end of the crusades ; final loss of 
 Acre by the Christians, 1291. (See Jerusalem.) 
 
 Crusca, Accademia della (Florence) — Founded, 1582. 
 
 Crystal Palace — World's Fair in Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, 1851 ; the 
 palace in Sydenham, opened, 1854; that in New York, 1853. 
 
 Cuba — Discovered, 1492; the Spaniards masters of, 1511; Havana founded, 
 1519; the city taken by the English, 1762; restored, 1763; fatal expedi- 
 tion of the filibuster Narciso Lopez, 1851 ; outbreak of the great insur- 
 rection, 1868 ; order restored throughout most of the island, 1878 ; act 
 abolishing slavery, 1880; fresh insurrection, 1895-8. 
 
 Culloden l — Defeat of the Young Pretender at, 1746. 
 
 Culm 2 — Victory of the allies over the French at, 1813. 
 
 Cunaxa, 3 battle of, between Artaxerxes II. and Cyrus the Younger and his 
 Grecian auxiliaries. 401 b. c. 
 
 Curzola 4 — Naval victory of the Genoese over the Venetians at, 1298. 
 
 Custozza 5 — Victories of the Austrians at, July 25, 1848, June 24, 1866. 
 
 Cynoscephalse 6 — The Romans vanquish Philip V. of Macedon at, 197 b. c. 
 
 Cyprus — [b. c] — Dependency of the Persian Empire, about 525-333 ; 7 be- 
 comes subject to Ptolemy Lagi, about 312 ; Roman dominion established, 
 57; — [a. d.] — conquered by Richard I. of England, 1191 ; conferred as a 
 kingdom on the house of Lusignan, 1192; Venetian sway established, 
 1473 ; sovereignty formally transferred to Venice by Catarina Cornaro, 
 1489 ; conquered by the Turks, 1571 ; occupied by England, 1878. 
 
 Cyrene 8 — [b. c] — Founded by the Greeks, about 631 ; submits to Cambyses, 
 about 525 ; to Alexander the Great, 332 ; to Ptolemy Lagi, about 320. 
 
 Cyzicus 9 — Aleibiades defeats the Spartan fleet at, 410 b. c. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacia lrt — Wars of Trajan against, ending in the conquest of the country, 
 
 101-6. 
 Dalmatia — The doge of Venice assumes the title of duke of, 997 ; on the 
 
 1 A locality a few miles from Inverness. 2 A village in northern Bohemia. 3 A small place 
 near the Euphrates, not far above Babylon. * An island on the coast of Dalmatia. 6 A village 
 B.W. of Verona. 8 Hills in southern Thessaly. 7 Throughout this period native Greek princes 
 held sway in different parts of the island, the first place among them being occupied by the 
 kings of Salamia. 8 A city situated on the portion of the African coast directly opposite 
 Greece. It was distant several miles from the sea. Its dominion extended over a large terri- 
 tory, called Cyrenaica. B A Greek city on the Asiatic coast of the Propontis (Sea of Marmo- 
 ra). 10 A region embracing modern Koumania, Transylyania. mid part of Hungary proper. 
 
22G CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 extinction of the Venetian Republic given to Austria, 1797; lost by Aus- 
 tria, L805; recovered, 1814. 
 
 Damascus — Kingdom of, at the height of its power, 9th c. u. c. ; destruc- 
 tion of the kingdom by the Assyrians, about 7:32 b. c. ; city becomes the 
 capital of the Ommivade caliphs, a. d. (361 ; massacre of Christians in, 1800. 
 
 Damietta 1 — Taken by the crusaders, L219, 1249. 
 
 Danubian Commission — Instituted, 1850. 
 
 Dardanelles — Passage of the, forced by Duckworth, 1807; closed by treaty 
 against foreign vessels of war, 1841. 
 
 Dartmouth College '—Chartered 1709. 
 
 Dauphiny 3 — United with the crown of France, 1349. 
 
 Davis Strait — Entered by Davis, 1585. 
 
 Decemvirate — Instituted, about 450 b. c. ; abolished, about 418 b. c. 
 
 Declaration of Independence (United States), 1770. 
 
 Daerfield Massacre, 4 1704. 
 
 Delaware— Swedes and Finns settle in, 10.'>8; the Dutch seize the settle- 
 ment, 1655; the Dutch dispossessed by the English, 1664; Penn takes 
 possession, 1082; separated from Pennsylvania, 1702; one of the thirteen 
 states, 1770. 
 
 Delhi — Becomes the seat of an independent Mohammedan realm, beginning 
 of I3thc. ; taken by Baber, Eounder of the Mogul dynasty, 1526; splen- 
 didly embellished by Shah Jehan, and his capital alternately with Agra, 
 L628-'58; under his successors capital of the Mogul Empire; English 
 authority established, 180:>; city lakes part in the Sepoy Mutiny, 1857. 
 
 Delium'' — The Boeotians defeat the Athenians at, 424 r. c. 
 
 Denmark — United into one kingdom, 9th c. ; union of the crowns of Den- 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden (union of Calmar), 1397; final liberation of 
 Sweden from Danish rule, 1521-3; Lutheranism established, 1530-'7: 
 cedes Norway to Sweden, 1814; Schleswig-Holstein wars, 1848-51, 1804. 
 
 KINGS 
 
 OF DENMAKK 
 
 IX MODERN TIMES. 
 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 
 ACCESSION'. 
 
 Christian I., 
 
 
 1448. 
 
 Frederick IV., 
 
 1699. 
 
 John, 
 
 
 1481. 
 
 Christian VI., 
 
 1730. 
 
 Christian II., 
 
 
 1513 
 
 Frederick V., 
 
 1746. 
 
 (deposed) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Frederick I., 
 
 
 1523 
 
 Christian VII., 
 
 1766. 
 
 (dies, 1533) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Christian III., 
 
 
 1534. 
 
 Frederick VI., 
 
 1808. 
 
 Frederick II., 
 
 
 1559. 
 
 Christian VIII., 
 
 1839. 
 
 Christian IV., 
 
 
 1588. 
 
 Frederick VII., 
 
 1848. 
 
 Frederick III., 
 
 
 1G48. 
 
 Christian IX., 
 
 1863. 
 
 Christian V., 
 
 
 1670. 
 
 
 
 1 A town situated on the eastern branch of the Nile, near its mouth. 2 At Hanover, 
 New Hampshire. 3 A region E. of the RhOne, between Burgundy and Provence. 4 Dcer- 
 fleld is a place in Massachusetts, on the Connecticut. 6 A town on the coast of Bceotia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 227 
 
 Dennewitz ' — The Prussians defeat the French at, 1813. 
 
 Dessau — Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld at, 1020. 
 
 Detroit — Surrender of General Hull to the British at, 1812. 
 
 Dettingen 2 — George II. defeats the French at, 1743. 
 
 Directory, French, 1795-'9. 
 
 District of Columbia — Act of Congress for its creation, 1790; slavery- 
 abolished, 1802. 
 
 Doggerbank 3 — Naval battle between the English and Dutch off, 1781. 
 
 Domesday Book— Completed, 1080. 
 
 Dominican Order — Founded, 1215. 
 
 Dominican Republic. See Santo Domingo, republic of. 
 
 Donauwbrth 4 — Deprived of its liberties, 1007. 
 
 Donelson, Fort 6 — Surrender of, to the Federals, Feb. 10, 1802. 
 
 Dorpat, 6 University of — Founded by Gustavus Adolphus, 1032. 
 
 Dory synod of, 1018-19. 
 
 Dorylaeum 8 — Victory of the crusaders at, 1097. 
 
 Dover, treaty of, between Louis XIV. and Charles II., 1070. 
 
 Downs 3 — Naval victory of the Dutch over the Spaniards in the, 1039; bat- 
 lie between the Dutch and English, 1000. 
 
 Drepanum ,0 — Naval victory of the Carthaginians at, 249 b. c. 
 
 Dresden — Treaty of, terminating the second Silesian War, 1745 ; victory of 
 Napoleon at, 1813 ; insurrection, 1849. 
 
 Dreux u — Battle of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1502. 
 
 Druses. See Lebanon. 
 
 Dublin — Trinity College founded, about 1592; Catholic university founded, 
 1854. 
 
 Dulcigno — Transferred by Turkey to Montenegro, 1880. 
 
 Dunbar 12 — Victory of Cromwell at, Sept. 3, 1050. 
 
 Dunes ,3 — The Spaniards defeated in the, by the French and English, 1058. 
 
 Duppel, Lines of 14 — Stormed by the Germans, 1849; by the Prussians, 
 1804. 
 
 Duquesne, Fort 15 — Braddock's expedition against, 1755 ; lost by the French, 
 1758. 
 
 Durazzo I6 — Robert Guiscard defeats the Byzantine forces at, 1081. 
 
 Durham, University of— Opened, 1833. 
 
 Durham's Station "— Surrender of J. E. Johnston to Sherman at, April 20, 
 1805. 
 
 1 A village in the W. part of Brandenburg. 2 A village on the Main, near Aschaffen- 
 burg. 3 In the North Sea. 4 A town on the Danube, N. W. of Augsburg. 8 Situated in 
 northwestern Tennessee, on the Cumberland River. • A town of Livonia. 7 A town near 
 Rotterdam. 8 A town of ancient Phrygia. 9 Off the coast of Kent. 10 A town in the 
 northwestern part of Sicily ; now Trapani. » A town N. of Chartres. 12 A town at the 
 mouth of the Frith of Forth. » Near Dunkirk. 14 On the E. coast of Schleswig, near the 
 town of Sonderburg. I6 Located where Pittsburg now stands. 16 A town on the E. coast of 
 the Adriatic, now belonging to Albania. 17 In Orange Co., North Carolina, N. W. of Raleigh. 
 10 
 
228 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eastern Roumelia (province) — Constituted, 1878. (See Bulgaria.) 
 
 Eastern "War (Russia against Turkey and her western allies), 1853-'6. 
 
 East India Company, English. See India. 
 
 East River Suspension Bridge — Constructed, 1869-'83. 
 
 Eckmiihl ' — Napoleon defeats the Austrians at, 1809. 
 
 Ecuador — Province of Quito liberated from Spain, 1822 ; republic of Ecua- 
 dor established, 1830. (See Colombia.) 
 
 Edda — Songs composing the elder Edda collected, about beginning of 12th 
 c. (later?) ; the elder Edda brought to light, 1643 ; published, 1787-1828;— 
 the younger or prose Edda compiled, 13th c. ; brought to light, 1028 ; pub- 
 lished, 1G65 ; first complete edition, 1818. 
 
 Eddystone Lighthouse 3 — Smeaton's structure erected, 1756-'9; new struc- 
 ture completed, 1882. 
 
 Edessa 3 — Becomes the seat of a Christian principality, 1097; taken by the 
 Mussulmans, 1144; after a revolt, terribly chastised by Noureddin, 114*!. 
 
 Edgehill 4 — First battle between Charles I. and the Parliamentarians fought 
 at, 1642. 
 
 Edinburgh, University of— Inaugurated, 1584. 
 
 " Edinburgh Review "—Pounded, 1802. 
 
 Egypt — [b. c] — Date of the foundation of the first dynasty according to 
 the chronological reckoning of Lepsius, about 3900; according to Mari- 
 ette, about 5000. 
 
 Brugseh, presenting what he regards as a plausible approximative reconstruc- 
 tion of the chronology of the first 17 dynasties, gives : 
 
 Foundation of the first dynasty, about 4400 ; reign of Khufu (Cheops), 
 the builder of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, about 3700; invasion of the 
 Hyksos or Shepherds, about 2200; subversion of the dominion of the 
 Hyksos and foundation of the 18th dynasty (New Empire), about 1700. 
 
 Some Egyptologists reduce the period preceding the invasion of the Hyksos 
 to less than 1000 years. Rawlinson is inclined to assign to the period of the 
 Hyksos no more than 200 years. With the foundation of the 18th dynasty the 
 chronological uncertainty ceases in a great measure. Brugseh' s date for this 
 event accords with the chronology of Lepsius. Reginald Stuart Poole and Birch 
 incline to a somewhat later date. 
 
 Period of the greatest power and splendor of the New Empire, from ' 
 about 1700 (1600) to about 1250 — principal kings: Aahmes (Amasis), 
 founder of the 18th dynasty, Thothmes III. and Amenhotep III., of the 
 same dynasty, Seti I. and Rameses II. (the Sesostris of the Greeks), of the 
 19th dynasty, and Rameses III. of the 20th dynasty ; expedition of She- 
 shonk (Shishak) against Judah, about 949 (Duncker; about 973, Biblical 
 chronology) ; period of Ethiopian and Assyrian overlordship, about 750- 
 
 1 A village of Bavaria, S. E. of Ratisbon. 2 Off the coast of Cornwall. 3 A town of Meso- 
 potamia ; now Urfa. * A ridge of Warwickshire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 229 
 
 650; Psamatik I. (Psammetichus), king over the whole country, from 
 about 650; reign of Necho, about 610-595: Psamatik II., about 595- 
 589; Hophra (Apriis), about 589-570; Amasis, about 570-527: under Psam- 
 nienitus (Psamatik III.), the country is conquered by the Persian king 
 Cambyses, 527 (525 1) ; again independent, 405 (404?); Persian dominion 
 re-established, about 340; occupied by Alexander, 332; on Alexander's 
 death, 323, assigned to Ptolemy Lagi ; Ptolemy Lagi assumes the title of 
 king, 306; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty, kingdom annexed to the Roman 
 dominions. 30 ; — [a. d.] — on the final division of the Roman Empire, 
 forms part of the Byzantine Empire ; the Saracens complete their con- 
 quest, 641 ; conquered by the Fatimites, 969 ; taken possession of by Sala- 
 din, 1171 ; the Mamelukes usurp supreme power, 1250 ; Turkish conquest, 
 1517; revolt of Ali Bey, 1 768-' 73; Bonaparte's expedition, 1798; evacu- 
 ated by the French, 1801 ; massacre of the Mamelukes by the pasha Me- 
 hemet Ali, 1811 ; he conquers Nubia, 1820-22 ; conquers Syria, 1831-2; 
 again at war with the Porte, 1839 ; peace, Syria lost, Mehemet Ali recog- 
 nized as hereditary, though tributary, ruler, 1841 ; Ibrahim Pasha viceroy. 
 1848 ; Abbas Pasha, 1848 ; Said Pasha, 1854 ; Ismail Pasha, 1863 ; Ismail 
 named Khedive, 1867j deposed, succeeded by Tewfik Pasha, 1879 ; rebellion 
 of Arabi Pasha, British intervention, 1882; career of the Mahdi, 1881-'5; 
 Wolseley's expedition, 1884-'5 ; the second Abbas Khedive, 1892. 
 
 Elba ' — Napoleon's place of exile, 1814-'15. 
 
 Electors, Imperial (of Germany) — The right of choosing the emperor is 
 for the first time assumed exclusively by the archbishops of Mentz, Trevi s, 
 and Cologne, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, the count 
 palatine of the Rhine, and the king of Bohemia, 1257; the Seven Electors 
 ' recognized in the Golden Bull, 1356 ; Bavaria created an electorate in 
 place of the Palatinate, 1623 ; an eighth electorate created for the Palati- 
 nate, 1648 ; creation of a ninth electorate, Hanover, 1692 ; Bavaria and 
 the Palatinate united, 1779 ; new electors created, 1803. 
 
 Embargo Act (in American history), 1807. 
 
 Emigre's (in French history) — Beginning of the emigration, 1789; their 
 property confiscated, 1792 ; indemnity granted, 1825. 
 
 Emmett's Rebellion (in Ireland), 1803. 
 
 " Encyclopedie " — Publication of the, begun, 1751. 
 
 England 2 — Caesar invades Britain, 55, 54, b. c. ; subjugation of the Britons 
 begun by Claudius, A. D. 43 ; Roman dominion extended to the Tyne, 78- 
 79; to the Frith of Forth, 80-81 ; withdrawal of the Roman legions, about 
 410; landing of the Jutish band of Hengist and Horsa, 449; the Jutes 
 found the kingdom of Kent, 457; the South Saxons establish the king- 
 dom of Sussex, 477-491 ; the West Saxons, that of Wessex, 3 495-519 ; the 
 
 t 
 
 > An island off the coast of Tuscany. 2 The dates in the Anglo-Saxon period are mainly 
 those given hy Green. Authorities differ with regard to some of them. s We.ssex was the 
 southwestern one of the English kingdoms. 
 
230 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 East Saxons, that of Essex, 6th c. 1 ; the Angles found the kingdoms of 
 Bernicia, Deira, 2 East Anglia, 3 and Mercia, 4 and out of the first two the 
 kingdom of Northumbria, 547-593 ; Augustin begins the conversion of 
 Kent, 597 ; the English conquest completed in the main, about 007 ; Nor- 
 thumbria the dominant state in the Heptarchy, 007-085 ; the power of 
 Mercia supreme under Offa, 758-790 ; the Danes begin their inroads, about 
 789 ; Egbert establishes the overlordship of Wessex, 827 ; the Danes con- 
 quer Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia, 807-874 ; reign of Alfred the 
 Great, 871-901 ; Sweyn, king of Denmark, effects the conquest of the 
 country, 1013 ; Canute makes himself king, 1016-'17; end of Danish rule, 
 Edward the Confessor king, 1042 ; Harold II., 1006 ; Norman Conquest, 
 William the Conqueror, 1000; William Rufus, 1087,; Henry I., 1100; 
 Stephen, 1135; PLANTAGENET LINE: Henry II., 1154; conquest of 
 Ireland begun, 1109: Richard I., 1189; John, 1199; Henry III., 1216 ; 
 Edward I. (I. of the Norman dynasty), 1272 ; conquest of Wales, 1277-'83 ; 
 Edward II., 1307; Edward III., 1327; Richard II., 1377; house of Lan- 
 caster : Henry IV., 1399 ; Henry V., 1413 ; Henry VI., 1422 ; begin- 
 ning of the Wars of the Roses, 1455; house of york: Edward IV., 
 1401; Lancaster: Henry VI. again, 1470; york: Edward IV. again, 
 1471; Richard III., 1483; TUDOR DYNASTY: Henry VII., 1485; 
 Henry VIII., 1509; Edward VI., 6 1547; Mary, 1553; Elizabeth, 1558; 
 dynastic union with Scotland under the HOUSE OP STUART, James 
 I., 1603; Charles I., 1025; outbreak of the war between Parliament and 
 Charles I., 1642; execution of Charles I., England a Commonwealth, 
 1649; Oliver Cromwell Protector, 1653; Richard Cromwell, 1658 (resigns, 
 1659); Restoration, Charles II., 1660; James II., 1685; Revolution, 1688; 
 William of Orange and Mary, 1689 (death of Mary, 1694) ; Anne, daughter 
 of James II., 1702; legislative union of England and Scotland, 1707; 
 HOUSE OP HANOVER : % George I., 1714; George II., 1727; George 
 III., 1760; legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland, 1800-1801; 
 George IV., 1820 ; William IV., 1830 ; Victoria, 1837. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ACCESSION. ACCESSION. 
 
 Pitt, 
 
 1783. 
 
 Liverpool, 
 
 1812. 
 
 Addington, 
 
 1801. 
 
 Canning, 
 
 1827. 
 
 Pitt, 
 
 1804. 
 
 Godench, 
 
 1827. 
 
 Grenville and Fox, 
 
 1806. 
 
 Wellington, 
 
 1828. 
 
 Portland, 
 
 1807. 
 
 Grey, 
 
 1830. 
 
 Perceval, 
 
 1809. 
 
 Melbourne, 
 
 1834. 
 
 1 The origin of the kingdom of Essex is usually traced back to about 527. 2 Bernicia 
 and Deira enibraced a region extending from the Dumber to the Frith of Forth, Bernicia 
 in the north and Deira in the south. 3 East Anglia was a district in eastern England, 
 between the Wash on the north and Essex on the south. 4 Mercia was an inland region 
 bounded W. by Wales. 6 The elder of the two sons of Edward IV. murdered in the Tower 
 in 1483 was Edward V. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 231 
 
 Peel, 1834. Disraeli, 1868. 
 
 Melbourne, 1835. Gladstone, 1868. 
 
 Peel, 1841. Disraeli (Beaconsiield), 1874. 
 
 Russell, 1846. Gladstone, 1880. 
 
 Derby, 1852. Salisbury, 1885. 
 
 Aberdeen, 1852. Gladstone, 1886. 
 
 Palmerston, 1855. Salisbury, 1886. 
 
 Derby, 1858. Gladstone, 1S92. 
 
 Palmerston, 1859. Rosebery, 1894. 
 
 Russell, 1865. Salisbury, 1895. 
 
 Derby, 1866. 
 
 England, Church of— Act of Supremacy passed, 1534; Henry VIII. as- 
 sumes the title of Supreme Head of the Church, 1535 ; Statute of the Six 
 Articles, 1539 ; adoption of the Book of Common Prayer, 1549 ; of the 
 Forty-two Articles, 1552 ; new Act of Supremacy, Protestantism firmly es- 
 tablished in England, 1559 ; publication of the Thirty-nine Articles, 1563. 
 Ephesus ' — Temple of Diana burned, 356 b. c. ; council of (third general 
 
 council), A. D. 431 ; council of (" robbers' synod "), 449. 
 Erfurt 2 — Conference of, between Napoleon, Alexander I., and other princes, 
 
 1808 ; Unionsparlament assembled at, 1850. 
 Erie Canal — Opened, 1825. 
 
 Erie, Lake — Victory of Commodore Perry on, Sept. 10, 1813. 
 Erivan 3 — Taken by Paskevitch, 1827: ceded to Russia, 1828. 
 Erlangen, 4 University of— Founded. 1743. 
 
 Erzerum 6 — Taken by Paskevitch, 1829 ; besieged by the Russians, 1877-8. 
 Escurial 6 — Erection of the, begun, 1563. 
 
 Eski Zaghra 7 — Suleiman Pasha defeats General Gurko at, 1877. 
 Essling. See Aspern and Esslino. 
 Este, house of. See Ferrara, Modena. 
 
 Estella 8 — Entry of Don Carlos into, 1873 ; unsuccessfully attacked by Gen- 
 eral Concha, 1874 ; taken by the government forces, 1876. 
 Eton College 9 — Founded, middle of 15th c. 
 
 Etruria— [b. c] — Destruction of Veii by the Romans, about 392 ; defeats of 
 the Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake, about 310, about 283; destruc- 
 tion of Volsinii, 265 ; last struggle of Falerii against the Roman power, 
 241. 
 Etruria, kingdom of. See Tuscany. 
 
 Eurymedon 10 — Victories of Cymon over the Persians at the, 466 b. c. 
 Eutaw Springs "—Greene defeats the British at, Sept. 8, 1781. 
 
 1 A Greek city of Asia Minor, S. of Smyrna. 2 A town now included in the Prussian 
 province of Saxony. 3 A town of Armenia. 4 A town of Bavaria, near Nuremberg, for- 
 merly belonging to the margraves of Brandenburg-Baireuth. * A town of Turkish Armenia. 
 9 A palace not far from Madrid. 7 A town on the S. slope of the Balkans, now included 
 in Eastern Roumelia. 8 A town of Navarre. 9 Situated on the Thames, in Buckingham- 
 shire. I0 A stream of Pamphylia, in the S. part of Asia Minor. ll A small stream empty- 
 ing into the Santee River, in South Carolina. 
 
 
232 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Evangelical Union (of the Protestant states of Germany) — Formed, 1G08; 
 dissolved, 1621. 
 
 Evesham 1 — Simon de Montfort defeated and slain at, 1205. 
 
 Exhibitions, International. See International Exhibitions. 
 
 Eylau 2 — Battle of, between the French and the allied Russians and Prus- 
 sians, Feb. 7, 8, 1807. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fair Oaks. See Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. 
 
 Falk Laws— Passed by the Prussian Diet, 1873. 
 
 Family Compact (between the Bourbon courts), 1761. 
 
 Fatimite Caliphs, 909-1171. 
 
 Feejee Islands — Annexed to the British possessions, 1874. 
 
 Fehrbellin 3 — Defeat of the Swedes by the elector of Brandenburg at, 1675. 
 
 Fenians. See Ireland. 
 
 Ferrara — Passes from the house of Este to the popes, 1598. 
 
 Ferrara, council of, 1438. 
 
 Ferry Educational Bill— Passed, 1880. 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold 4 — Meeting of Henry VIII. of England and 
 Francis I. of France on the, 1520. 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment — Becomes part of the Constitution of the United 
 States, 1870. 
 
 Filibusters. See Cura, Nicaragua. 
 
 Finisterre, Cape — Victory of the English over the French off, 1747. 
 
 Finland — Conquered from Sweden by Russia, 1808 ; ceded to Russia, 1809. 
 
 Fisher, Fort 5 — Taken by the Federals, 1865. 
 
 Fisher's Hill 6 — Sheridan defeats Early at, Sept. 22, 18G4. 
 
 Five Forks 7 — Battle of, defeat of Lee, March 31, April 1, 1865. 
 
 Flamborough Head 8 — Victory of Paul Jones off, 1779. 
 
 Flanders — Erected into a county (fief of France), 9th c. ; united with Bur- 
 gundy, 1384 ; with Spain, 1516 ; — (See Netherlands, Spanish, and 
 Ghent.) — part of, conquered by France, 1667-78. 
 
 Fleurus 9 — Christian of Brunswick and Mansfeld defeat the Spaniards at, 
 1622 ; victory of Luxembourg at, 1690 ; victory of Jourdan at, 1794. 
 
 Flodden Field 10 — James IV. of Scotland overwhelmed at, Sept. 9. 1513. 
 
 Florence — Becomes an independent republic, 12th c. ; beginning of the con- 
 tests between Guelphs and Ghibellines, 1215 ; final triumph of the Guelphs, 
 1267; constitution made purely democratic, 1282 ; influence of the Medici 
 supreme in the republic, from 1434; the Medici expelled, 1494; re- 
 stored, 1512 ; again expelled, 1527 ; finally reinstated, 1530 ; ducal gov- 
 
 1 A town of Worcestershire, on the Avon. a A town of East Prussia, 8. E. of Konigs- 
 berg. 3 A town of Brandenburg, N. W. of Berlin. 4 Near Guines, a few miles from Calais. 
 6 Near Wilmington, N. C. ° Near Winchester, Va. 7 A locality in Dimviddie Co. in south- 
 ern Virginia. 8 On the coast of Yorkshire. 9 A town of Hainaut, Belgium. 10 In the 
 county of Northumberland. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 233 
 
 eminent established, 1532 ; the Florentine dominions erected into the 
 grand-duchy of Tuscany, 1569 ; city capital of Italy, 1865-71 ;— erection 
 of the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore) begun, 1298 (in pursuance of a de- 
 cree of 1294) ; its dome constructed by Brunelleschi, first half of 15th c. ; 
 invade completed, l?th c. ; church of Santa Croce begun, 1294; the Cam- 
 panile begun by Giotto, 1334. 
 
 Florence, council of, 1439. 
 
 Florida— Ponce de Leon lands in, 1513 ; Huguenot settlement, 1564 ; settlers 
 killed by the Spaniards, St. Augustine founded, 1565 ; ceded by Spain to 
 England, 1763 ; Pensacola taken by the Spaniards, 1781 ; the country ret- 
 roceded to Spain, 1783 ; treaty ceding it to the United States, 1819 ; taken 
 possession of by the United States, 1821 ; admitted into the Union, 1845 ; 
 secedes. 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. 
 
 Fokshani ' — The Austrians and Russians defeat the Turks at, 1789. 
 
 Fontainebleau 2 — Preliminaries of peace signed at, between England, 
 France, Spain, and Portugal, Nov. 3, 1762. 
 
 Fontenoy 3 — Victory of Marshal Saxe at, 1745. 
 
 Formula of Concord — Published, 1580. 
 
 Fort Donelson, &c. See Doxelsox, Fort, &c. 
 
 Forty-two Articles (of the Church of England) — Adopted, 1552 ; subse- 
 quently reduced to the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment — Becomes part of the Constitution of the United 
 States, 1868. 
 
 France — (See Gaul, Franks, Aquitaxia, Norjiaxdy, Axjou, etc.)— Parti- 
 tion of the Frankish dominions between the grandsons of Charlemagne 
 in the treaty of Verdun, 843 ; the monarchy of the western Franks soon 
 converted into an aggregation of autonomous states, ruled by counts and 
 dukes, vassals of the king ; 4 the royal crown held by the ducal house of 
 France (Capetians), from 987 ; the western half of France, the indepen- 
 dent state of Brittany not included, united with England, 1154; Philip 
 Augustus makes himself master of Vermandois, 1185; he wrests Nor- 
 mandy, Maine, Poitou, Anjou, and Touraine from John of England, 
 1202-5 ; county of Toulouse reunited with the crown, 1271 ; Champagne 
 reunited with the crown, 1314 ; beginning of the great wars of conquest 
 waged by the Plantagenet kings of England, 1338 ; Dauphiny acquired by 
 France, 1349; duchy of Burgundy reunited with the crown, 1361 ; again 
 separated, 1363 ; the tide of English conquest arrested at Orleans, 1429 ; 
 
 1 A town situated partly in Moldavia and partly in Wallachia. 2 A town 35 miles S. E. 
 of Paris, famous for its ancient royal chateau. 3 A town of Hainaut, Belgium. 4 Among 
 the more important of the feudatory states formed out of the territories occupied by the 
 western Franks were : The county of Flanders, the county of Vermandois (capital St. 
 Quentin), the duchy of France (capital Paris), the county of Champagne, the duchy of Bur- 
 gundy, the county of Anjou, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, and the duchy 
 of Normandy. Under the Carlovingian kings the domain directly subject to the crown was 
 at last reduced to the town of Laon, where they held their court. 
 
234 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Normandy reconquered from the English, 1449-'50 ; Guienne wrested 
 from them, 1451 ; Calais alone left to England, 1453 (regained, 1558) ; 
 Burgundy annexed to France, 1477 ; Anjou finally reunited with the 
 crown, 1480 ; Provence annexed, 1481 ; union of Brittany with France, 
 1491 ; Metz, Toul, and Verdun annexed, 1552 ; Beam, 1589 ; Artois and 
 Roussillon conquered and annexed, 1640-'59 ; cession of Alsace by Aus- 
 tria, 1648 ; French Flanders and Franche Comte conquered and annexed, 
 lG07-'78 ; Strasburg annexed, 1081 ; Lorraine becomes part of the king- 
 dom, 1766 ; Corsica ceded by Genoa, 1768 ; division into departments, 
 1790 ; Avignon and Venaissin annexed, 1791 ; Savoy and Nice acquired, 
 1860 ; Alsace, German Lorraine, and Metz ceded to Germany, 1871. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FOREIGN WARS WAGED BY FRANCE IN 
 MODERN TIMES. 
 
 1494-1544. Wars of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. for domin- 
 ion in Italy. 
 
 1513-'14, 1522-'5, 1544-'6, 1549-50. With England. 
 
 1551-'9. Germany, Spain. 
 
 1595-'8. Spain. (England and France allies.) 
 
 1628-'31. Spain, Austria, Savoy. War of the Mantuan Succession.. 
 
 1635-'48. Austria. 
 
 1635-'59. Spain. 
 
 1667-8. Spain. 
 
 1072-'9. Holland, the German Empire, Spain. 
 
 1682-97. Spain, German Empire, England, Holland, Savoy. War in 
 America. 
 
 1701-14. England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, the German Empire, Savoy, 
 Portugal. (France, Spain, and Bavaria allies.) War of the 
 Spanish Succession. War in America. 
 
 1733-'5. The German Empire, Austria. (France, Spain, and Sardinia 
 allies.) War of the Polish Succession. 
 
 1741-8. Austria, England, Holland, Sardinia. (France, Prussia, Spain, 
 and Bavaria allies. Saxony at first opposed to Austria, after- 
 ward her ally.) War of the Austrian Succession. War in 
 America and India. 
 
 1756-'63. Prussia, England. (France, Austria, the German Empire, Rus- 
 sia, Sweden, Saxony, and Spain allies.) Seven Years' War. 
 War in America, French and Indian War (begun 1754). 
 War in India. 
 
 1778-83. England. (France, the United States, Spain, and Holland 
 allies.) 
 
 1792-1802. Wars of the Revolution. 
 
 1792-7, 1799-1801. Austria and the German Empire. 
 1792-'5. Prussia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 233 
 
 1792-6. Sardinia. 
 
 1793-1802. England. 
 
 1793-'5. Spain. (Ally of France, 1796-1802.) 
 
 1793-'5. Holland. (Ally of Prance, 1795-1802.) 
 
 1793-6, 1798-1801. Naples. 
 1798-1801. Turkey. 
 
 1798-1800. 1 Russia. 
 
 1803-'14. England. 
 
 1805. Austria. 
 1805-7. Russia. 
 1806-7. Prussia. 
 
 1806. Naples. 
 1808-'14. Portugal, Spain. 
 1809. Austria. 
 1812-14. Russia. 
 
 1813-14. Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Holland, Bavaria and other German 
 states (England, Spain, Portugal). (Saxony the ally of 
 France.) 
 
 1815. England, Prussia, Holland. 
 
 1823. Spain. 
 
 1830-'47. Algeria. 
 
 1854-6. Russia. (Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia allies.) 
 
 1859. Austria. (Sardinia and France allies.) 
 
 1862-7. Mexico. 
 
 1870-71. Germany. 
 
 DYNASTIES AND POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS. 
 Carlovingian Dynasty. 
 {The princes ivhose names are italicized do not belong to the dynasty.) 
 Louis le Debonnaire, king of the Franks, succeeded by his sons, Lothaire, 
 Louis the German, and Charles the Bald, 840 ; the kingdom of the western 
 Franks allotted to Charles the Bald, 843 ; he is succeeded by Louis II., the Stain- 
 merer, 877 ; Louis III. and Carloman succeed, 879 ; Carloman sole king, 882 ; he 
 is succeeded by Charles the Fat, about close of 884; Charles the Fat deposed, 
 887; Eudes (Odo), count of Paris, elected his successor; Charles the Simple 
 elected king in opposition to Eudes, 893 ; he becomes sole ruler on the death of 
 Eudes, 898; Robert, duke of France, elected king in opposition to Charles, 922 ; 
 Charles deposed, Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king, 923 ; he is succeeded by 
 Louis IV., d'Outremer, 936; Lothaire, 954; Louis V., 986; he dies, 987. 
 Capetian Dynasty. 
 accession. 
 Hugh Capet, 987. 
 
 Robert II., 996. 
 
 Henry I., 1031. 
 
 1 Peace was not actually concluded until 1801. 
 
 
 ACCESSION 
 
 Philip I., 
 
 1060. 
 
 Louis VI., 
 
 1108. 
 
 Louis VII., 
 
 1137. 
 
236 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 
 
 ACCESSION 
 
 Philip II. (Phil 
 
 IP 
 
 
 
 Philip IV., 
 
 1285. 
 
 Augustus), 
 
 1180. 
 
 
 Louis X., 
 
 1314. 
 
 Louis VIII., 
 
 
 1223. 
 
 
 Philip V., 
 
 1316. 
 
 Louis IX., 
 
 
 1226. 
 
 
 Charles IV., 
 
 1322. 
 
 Philip III., 
 
 
 1270. 
 
 House of 
 
 Valois. 
 
 
 
 Philip VI., 
 
 
 1328. 
 
 
 Louis XII. , 
 
 1498. 
 
 John, 
 
 
 1350. 
 
 
 Francis I., 
 
 1515. 
 
 Charles V., 
 
 
 1364. 
 
 
 Henry 11., 
 
 1547. 
 
 Charles VI., 
 
 
 13S0. 
 
 
 Francis II., 
 
 1559. 
 
 Charles VII., 
 
 
 1422. 
 
 
 Charles IX., 
 
 1560. 
 
 Louis XL, 
 
 
 1461. 
 
 
 Henry III., 
 
 1574. 
 
 Charles VIII., 
 
 
 1483. 
 
 
 
 
 Bourbon Dynasty (down to the Revolution). 
 
 Henry IV., 1589. Louis XV., 1715. 
 
 Louis XIII., 1610. Louis XVI., 1774. 
 
 Louis XIV., 1643. 
 
 Beginning of the Revolution, 1789 ; Constituent Assembly, 1789-'91 ; Legis- 
 lative Assembly, 1791-'2; succeeded by the Convention; France constituted a 
 a republic, 1792 ; execution of Louis XVI., 1793 ; end of the Convention, 1795 ; 
 the Directory, 1795-'9 ; the Consulate, 1799-1804 ; Napoleon emperor, 1804 ; First 
 Restoration, accession of Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., 1814; Hundred 
 Days, Second Restoration, 1815; Charles X., 1824; overthrow of the Bourbons 
 by the July Revolution, 1830 ; Louis-Philippe (House of Orleans), 1830 ; Febru- 
 ruary Revolution, France a republic, 1848 ; Louis Napoleon president, 1848 ; 
 the C<mp-iP £tat, 1851; the Second Empire, 1S52 ; succeeded by the republic, 
 1870; beginning of Thiers's government, 1871 ; the Commune, 1871 ; MacMahon 
 president, 1873; Grevy, 1879; Carnot, 1887; Casimir-Perier, 1894; Faure, 1895. 
 
 France, Isle de. See Mauritius. 
 
 Franche-Comte - (county of Burgundy) ' — Annexed to the duchy of Bur- 
 gundy, 1384 ; retained by Mary of Burgundy after the seizure of the 
 duchy of Burgundy by Louis XL in 1477 ; finally conquered from Spain 
 by France, 1674 ; ceded to France, 1678. 
 
 Franciscan Order — Founded, 1209. 
 
 Frankenhausen 2 — Munzer and the German peasants vanquished at, 1525. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main — Deprived of its position as a free city, and an- 
 nexed to Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Frankfort, peace of, between France and Germany, 1871. 
 
 Frankfort Parliament, 1848-9. 
 
 Franks — A number of German tribes unite and assume the name of, 3d c. 
 a. d. ; Clovis puts an end to the Roman dominion in Gaul, 486 ; baptism 
 of Clovis, 496; Pepin the Short deposes the last of the Merovingians, and 
 
 1 A district W. of the Jura range. 2 A town of central Germany, now belonging to 
 Schwarzburg-Rndolstadt. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 237 
 
 founds the Carlovingian dynasty, 751 ; Charlemagne crowned emperor of 
 the West, 800 ; partition of the Prankish empire by the treaty of Verdun, 
 843 ; final disruption of the Carlovingian empire, 888. 
 
 Fraustadt ' — The Swedes defeat the forces of Augustus the Strong at, 1706. 
 
 Fredericksburg 2 — Burnside unsuccessfully attacks Lee at, Dec. 13, 1862. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland— Founded, 1843. 
 
 Freedmen's Bureau — Organized, 1865. 
 
 Freiberg 3 — Prussians defeat Austrian and Imperial forces at, 1762. 
 
 Freiburg 4 — Battle between the French and Germans at, 1644. 
 
 French Academy. See Academy, French. 
 
 French and Indian War — Begins, 1754 ; peace of Paris, 1763. 
 
 Frenchtown 5 — Victory of the British over the Americans at, Jan. 22, 1813. 
 
 Friedland 6 — Victory of Napoleon over the Russians at, June 14, 1807. 
 
 Friends. See Quakers. 
 
 Fronde, 1648-52. 
 
 Fructidor, 18th, coup-d'etat of the, Sept. 4, 1797. 
 
 Fuentes de Onoro 7 — Wellington defeats Massena at, 1811. 
 
 Fugitive Slave Law — Adopted, 1850. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gadsden Purchase — Acquisition of Mexican territory by the United States 
 (now included in Arizona and New Mexico), 1853. 
 
 Gaeta 8 — Besieged and taken by the forces of Victor Emanuel, 1860-'61. 
 
 Gaines's Mill, battle of. See Cold Harbor. 
 
 Galicia — Assigned to Austria in the first partition of Poland, 1772 ; at- 
 tempted insurrection baffled by a peasant rising against the nobles, 1846. 
 
 Gallican Church— Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., 1438; declaration 
 of the French clergy, drawn up by Bossuet, setting forth the liberties of 
 the church, 1682. 
 
 Gallipoli 9 — Seized by the Turks, 1354. 
 
 Garigliano 10 — Gonsalvo de Cordova defeats the French at, 1503. 
 
 Garter, Order of the — Instituted, about 1344. 
 
 Gas — Used in the Lyceum Theatre, London, 1803 ; introduced for general 
 illumination in London, 1814 ; in Paris, about 1820 ; in New York, 1825. 
 
 Gastein, 11 convention of, between Austria and Prussia, 1865. 
 
 Gaul — [b. c] — Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans, 225-222 ; its re- 
 subjugation, 201-191 ; conquest of the S. E. portion of Transalpine Gaul 
 
 1 A town now included in the Prussian province of Posen. a A town of Virginia, on 
 the Rappahannock, about midway between Richmond and Washington. 3 A town of Sax- 
 ony, S. W. of Dresden. 4 A town of the Breisgau, a district on the Rhine, formerly belong- 
 ing to Austria, and now included in Baden. 6 A small place in Michigan, at the mouth of 
 the Raisin River. 9 A town of East Prussia, S. E. of Konigsberg. 7 A town of Spain, close 
 to the frontiers of Portugal, near the parallel of Madrid. 8 A seaport 40 miles N. W. of 
 Naples. 9 A town on the European shore of the Dardanelles. 10 A river of Italy, emptying 
 into the Mediterranean near Gaeta. u A watering place in Salzburg, Austria, 
 
238 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 by the Romans, 125-121 ; Cassar's wars, Gaul subjugated, 58-51 ; — [a. d.] 
 —end of Roman dominion, 486. (See Aquitania, Franks.) 
 
 Gauls — [b. c] — Burn Rome, about 388 ; invade Greece, about 278 ; occupy 
 northern Phrygia, about 277. (See Gaul.) 
 
 Gaza — Taken by Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. : by Bonaparte, 1799. 
 
 Gembloux ' — Don John of Austria defeats the Dutch at, 1578. 
 
 Geneva — Becomes completely independent. 1534; Calvin makes his appear- 
 ance in, 1536 ; annexed to France, 1798 ; again independent, 1814; — uni- 
 versity founded, 1368. 
 
 Geneva Tribunal, 1871-2. 
 
 Genoa — Engaged in wars with Pisa, from about 1070 ; beginning of her first 
 great struggle with Venice, 1258; destroys the naval power of Pisa, 
 1284-'90 ; institution of the dogate, 1339 ; delivered from the French by 
 Andrea Doria, 1528 ; cedes Corsica to France, 1768 ; the Genoese domin- 
 ions constituted tlifc Ligurian Republic, 1797; unsuccessful defense of 
 the city by Massena against the Austrians and English, 1800 ; the Ligurian 
 Republic united with the French Empire, 1805 ; surrender of the city to 
 the English, 1814 ; city and territory annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, 
 1815. 
 
 George, Lake 2 — Battle between the forces of William Johnson and Dies- 
 kau at, repulse of the French, 1755. 
 
 Georgia — Settled, 1733 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776; secedes, 1861 ; re- 
 construction completed, 1870. 
 
 Georgia (Grusia) — Annexed to Russia, 1801. 
 
 Gepidae 3 — Overthrow of their kingdom in Pannonia, about a. d. 566. 
 
 Germantown 4 — Repulse of the Americans at, Oct. 4, 1777. 
 
 Germany (kingdom, empire, confederation) — Partition of the Frankish do- 
 minions by the treaty of Verdun, 843 ; end of the Carlovingian dynasty, 
 911 ; the Holy Roman Empire, 962-1806 ; foundation of the Germanic Con- 
 federation, 1815 ; great revolutionary movement, 1848-'9 ; Confederation 
 dissolved, North German Confederation founded, 1866 ; foundation of the 
 new German Empire, 1871. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF GERMANY 
 
 FROM THE END OF TnE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 
 
 Conrad of Franconia, 911-918; SAXON DYNASTY: Henry the 
 Fowler, 919-936; Otho I., the Great (son), 936-973; Otho II. (son), 973- 
 983 ; Otho III. (son), 983-1002 ;— Henry II. (of Bavaria, a descendant of 
 Henry I.), 1002-'24 ; FRANCONIAN DYNASTY: Conrad II., 1024-'39 ; 
 Henry III. (son), 1039-'56; Henry IV. (son), 1056-1106: Henry V. (son), 
 1106-'25 ;— Lothaire II., of Saxony, 1125-'37; HOUSE OF HOHEN- 
 
 1 A village near Namur. a In the E. part of New York, near the border of Vermont. 
 8 A Germanic people, who originally inhabited the region of the Baltic. * A suburb of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 239 
 
 STAUFEN: Conrad III., 1138-'52; Frederick Barbarossa (nephew), 1152- 
 '90; Henry VI. (son), 1190-97; Philip of Swabia (brother), 1198-1208 
 (crown disputed by Otho of Brunswick) ; — Otho (IV.) of Brunswick recog- 
 nized, 1208 ; — Frederick II., of Hohenstaufen (son of Henry VI.), after a 
 struggle with Otho IV., recognized, 1215; Conrad IV. (son) and William 
 of Holland (elected 1247) rival emperors, 1250-'54 ; — William of Holland 
 alone. 1254-'6; double election, Alfonso the Wise of Castile and Richard 
 of Cornwall, 1257; Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, 1273-91; Adolphus of Nas- 
 sau, 1292-'8 ; Albert I., of Hapsburg, 1298-1308 ; Henry VII., of Luxem- 
 burg, 1308-'13 ; Louis the Bavarian, 1314-'47 (crown contested by Fred- 
 erick of Austria, 1314-'22); Charles IV., of Luxemburg, 1347-'78; Wen- 
 ceslas(son), 1378-1400; Rupert of the Palatinate, 1400-1410; Sigismund 
 (last Luxemburg emperor), 1411-'37; HOUSE OF HAPSBURG: Albeit 
 II., 1438-'9; Frederick III.. 1440-'93; Maximilian I. (son), 1493-1519; 
 Charles V. (grandson), 1519-56; Ferdinand I. (brother), 1556-64; Maxi- 
 milian II. (son), 1564-76 ; Rudolph II. (son), 1576-1612 ; Matthias (broth- 
 er), 1612-'19; Ferdinand II., 1619-'37; Ferdinand III. (son), 1637-'57; 
 Leopold I. (son), 1658-1705 ; Joseph I. (son), 1705-'ll ; Charles VI. (broth- 
 er), 1711-'40; — Charles VII., of Bavaria, 1742-'5; Francis I., of Lorraine, 
 1745-'65; House of Hapsburg-Lorraine: Joseph II. (son of Francis I.), 
 1765-'90; Leopold II. (brother), 1790-'92; Francis II. (son), 1792-1806; 
 —William I. (house of Hohenzollern), 1871-88 ; Frederick (son), 1888 ; 
 William II. (son), from 1888. 
 
 Gettysburg '—Battle of, repulse of Lee by Meade, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Ghent — Jacob van Artevelde exercises supreme power in Flanders, 1338-'45 ; 
 Philip van Artevelde, his son, heads the burghers in their struggle against 
 Count Louis II., 1382 ; city deprived of its liberties by Charles V., 1540. 
 
 Ghent, Pacification of, 1576. 
 
 Ghent, treaty of, between England and the United States, Dec. 24, 1814. 
 
 Ghunib 2 — Surrender of Shamyl to the Russians at, 1859. 
 
 Ghuzni 3 — Reign of Sultan Mahmoud of Ghuzni, marked by numerous ex- 
 peditions into India, 997-1030; city taken by storm by the British, 1839. 
 
 Gibraltar — Conquest of, by the English, 1704 ; unsuccessful attempt of the 
 French and Spaniards to reconquer it, 1704-'5; ceded to England, 1713; 
 besieged by the Spaniards, 1727 ; blockade of, undertaken by the French 
 and Spanish fleets, 1779; bombarded, 1781; great cannonade, 1782. 
 
 Gilboa 4 — The Philistines vanquish the Israelites at, about 1055 b. c. (Bibl. 
 chron. ; about 1033, Duncker). 
 
 Girondists— Fall of the, 1793. 
 
 Glencoe 6 — Massacre of the MacDonalds at, 1692. 
 
 1 A small town of Pennsylvania, 3G miles S. W. of Harrisburg. 2 A mountain fast- 
 ness in Daghestan. 3 A town 80 miles S. W. of Cabool. 4 A mountain W. of the Jor- 
 dan in the territory of Issachar. 6 A valley in western Scotland, in the county of 
 Argyle. 
 
240 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Goa — Taken by the Portuguese, 1510. 
 
 Gok-Tepe >— Repulse of the Russians at, 1879 ; taken by Skobeleff, 1881. 
 
 Golden Bull of Germany, 1356. 
 
 Golden Bull of Hungary, 1222. 
 
 Golden Fleece, Order of the — Instituted by Philip the Good of Burgundy, 
 1430. 
 
 Golden Horde. See Mongols. 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of — Discovered by Dias, 1487 ; doubled by Vasco da 
 Gam a, 1497. 
 
 Goodwin Sands 2 — Naval victory of the Dutch over the English near, 1652. 
 
 Gordon Riots, 1780. 
 
 Goths 3 — Advance into the Roman dominions as far as Thrace, 250 ; the Huns 
 force the Ostrogoths into submission, and compel the Visigoths to seek 
 shelter in the Roman dominions, 375-'6. (See Visigoths, Ostrogoths.) 
 
 Gottingen, University of — Opened, 1737; dismissal of the seven profes- 
 sors by Ernest Augustus, 1837. 
 
 Granada, kingdom of. See Moors in Spain. 
 
 Granicus 4 — Alexander the Great defeats the Persians on the, 334 B. c. 
 
 Granson 5 — The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at, 1476. 
 
 Gravelines 6 — The Spaniards defeat the French at, 1558. 
 
 Gravelotte 1 — The Germans defeat the French at, Aug. 18, 1870. 
 
 Gravitation — Publication of Newton's "Principia," 1687. 
 
 Great Britain. See England. 
 
 Great St. Bernard 8 — Passage of the, by Bonaparte, 1800. 
 
 Greece — [b. c] — Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, about 1100: legisla- 
 tion of Lycurgus in Sparta, about 850 ; wars of Sparta against Messenia, 
 about 743-724,645-628; legislation of Solon in Athens, 594; first Persian 
 invasion, 490 ; invasion of Xerxes, 480 ; the hegemony passes from Sparta 
 to Athens, 477 ; Peloponnesian War, Sparta becomes dominant, 431-404 : 
 beginning of Theban hegemony, 371 ; Macedon imposes her yoke, 338 ; 
 rise of the Achaean League, about 280 ; proclamation of freedom by Fla- 
 mininus, 196 ; Roman conquest completed, 146 ; — (See Argos, Corinth, 
 Messenia, ^Etolian League, &c.) — [a. d.] — part of the Byzantine Empire, 
 395 ; partitioned among the Latin conquerors of Constantinople, 1204 ; 
 the Turks masters of nearly the whole country, 1460 ; the Morea conquei ed 
 by Venice, 1685-'7; reconquered by the Turks, 1715; Revolution, 1821-'!); 
 Otho made king, 1832; constitutional government established, 1844; 
 Otho deposed, 1862 ; election of George, 1863 ; the Ionian Islands annexed, 
 1863-4; receives territory from Turkey, 1881 ; war with Turkey, 1897. 
 
 1 A place about 200 miles E. of the Caspian Sea, a short distance N. of the 38th parallel 
 of latitude. 2 Off the coast of Kent. 3 A Germanic people, who at the beginning of the 
 Christian era inhabited the region S. of the Baltic. 4 A small stream of Asia Minor, empty- 
 ing into the Propontis (Sea of Marmora). 5 A town on Lake Neufcliatel. 6 A town of 
 Flanders, now belonging to France. T A village near Metz. 8 A mountain pass of the 
 Alps between Valais and Piedmont. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 241 
 
 Greek Church — Complete separation of the, from the Latin, 1054 ; moment- 
 ary union effected, 1439. 
 
 Greenland — Seen by the Northmen, about 870 or 876 ; first trodden by lee- 
 landers, 983 ; colonized by them, 985. 
 
 Greenwich Hospital — Erection of, begun, 1696. 
 
 Greenwich Observatory— Flamsteed begins observations in, 1676. 
 
 Gregorian Calendar. See Calendar. 
 
 Griswold, Fort ' — Taken by Arnold, 1781. 
 
 Grossbeeren 2 — Defeat of Oudinot by Billow at, 1813. 
 
 Grossjagerndorf 3 — The Russians defeat the Prussians at, 1757. 
 
 Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 4 treaty of, between Mexico and the United States, 1848. 
 
 Guadeloupe— Taken by the English, 1759, 1794, 1810. 
 
 Gueux. See Netherlands. 
 
 Guienne. See Aquitania. 
 
 Guilford Court-House 5 — Cornwallis defeats Greene at, March 15, 1781. 
 
 Guillotine — Introduction of the, in France, 1792. 
 
 Guinegate 6 — Maximilian defeats the French at, 1479 ; the English defeat 
 the French at (Battle of the Spurs), 1513. 
 
 Gujerat '—Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at, 1849. 
 
 Gundamuk, 8 treaty of, between the British and Yakub Khan, 1879. 
 
 Gunpowder — Comes into extensive use in European warfare, 14th c. ; can- 
 non used by the English at Crecy, 1346. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, 1605. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haarlem — Taken by the Spaniards, 1573 ; recovered by the Dutch, 1577. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act — Passed by Parliament, 1679. 
 
 Hague, The, conventions of, between England, France, and Holland, 1659. 
 
 Halidon Hill 9 — The English defeat the Scots at, 1333. 
 
 Halle, 10 University of— Founded, 1694. 
 
 Hambach Festival, 11 1832. 
 
 Hamburg — League with Lubeek (rise of the Hansa), 1241 ; occupied by the 
 French, 1806 ; annexed to the French Empire, 1810 ; tyrannized by Da- 
 vout, 1813-'14 ; again independent, 1814 ; great fire, 1842 ; consents to 
 become a member of the Zollverein, 1881 ; the union consummated, 1888. 
 
 Hampton Court, 12 conferences of, between the English prelates and Puri- 
 tans, 1604. 
 
 Hampton Roads 13 — Engagement between the Monitor and Virginia (Mer- 
 rimac) in, March 9, 1862. 
 
 1 Near New London, Connecticut. 2 A village near Berlin. 3 A village of East Prussia, 
 near the Pregel. 4 A small place in the outskirts of the city of Mexico. 6 A place in the 
 N. part of North Carolina. 8 A village not far from Calais. 7 A town of the Punjaub, N. 
 of Lahore. 8 A place in the N. E. part of Afghanistan, near the frontier of India. 9 Near 
 Berwick. 10 A town of Prussia, on the Saale, now included in the province of Saxony. 
 11 Hambach is a village of Bavaria, in the Rhenish Palatinate. 12 A palace on the Thames, 
 a few miles above London. 13 At the mouth of the James River. 
 
242 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Hanover — The dominions of the duke of Brunswick-Liineburg erected into 
 the electorate of, 1692 ; union with England, 1714 ; occupied by the French, 
 1803 ; given by Napoleon to Prussia, 1805 ; ceded to him by Prussia, 
 1807; recovered by the English dynasty, 1813; erected into a kingdom, 
 1814 ; separated from England, 1837 ; annexed to Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Hanover Court-House ' — Engagement between the Federals and Confed- 
 erates at, May 27, 1862. 
 
 Hanseatic League — Rise of the, 1241. 
 
 Hapsburg, House of. See Austria, Germany, Spain. 
 
 Harper's Ferry 2 — Arsenal seized by John Brown, 1859 ; by the Confederates, 
 1861 ; surrender of a Union force to " Stonewall " Jackson at, Sept. 15, 1862. 
 
 Harrow School 3 — Founded, 1571. 
 
 Hartford Convention, 1814. 
 
 Harvard College — Founded, 1638. 
 
 Hastembeck 4 — The French defeat the duke of Cumberland at, 1757. 
 
 Hastings 5 — Victory of William the Conqueror near, Oct. 14, 1066. 
 
 Hatteras, Fort 6 — Captured by the Federals, Aug. 29, 1861. 
 
 Hatti-Humayun — Published by Abdul-Medjid, 1856. 
 
 Hatti-Sherif of Gulhane— Published by Abdul-Medjid, 1839. 
 
 Havana. See Cuba. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands — Rediscovery of, by Cook, 1778. 
 
 Hayti (Hispaniola, Santo Domingo) — Discovered by Columbus, 1492 ; west- 
 ern portion occupied by the French, 17th c. ; insurrection of the blacks 
 against the French begins, 1791 ; their freedom proclaimed by the com- 
 missioners of the Convention, 1793; Toussaint l'Ouverture, the leader 
 of the blacks, joins the French in their war against the English and Span- 
 iards, 1794; Spain gives up her portion of the island to France, 1795; 
 Bonaparte makes war on Toussaint, governor of the island, who is per- 
 fidiously seized, 1802 ; the French expelled, 1803 ; Dessalines emperor, 
 1804-'6 ; independence recognized by France, 1825 ; republic of Santo 
 Domingo constituted, 1844; Soulouque proclaimed emperor of Hayti, 
 1849 ; revolution against him, the state proclaimed a republic, Dec, 1858. 
 
 Hebrews — [b. c] 
 
 According to the Common Chronology. 
 Establishment of royalty, Saul made king, about 1095 (1080). 
 
 Beginning of David's reign, 1055 (1058). 
 
 Accession of Solomon, 1015 (1017). 
 
 Revolt of the Ten Tribes, 975 (977). 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, 722 (721). 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, 586 (587). 
 
 1 A place in Virginia, N. of Richmond. 2 A village at the junction of the Potomac and 
 Shenandoah rivers, now belonging to West Virginia. 3 Harrow is a town in the northwest- 
 ern outskirts of London. * A village in the S. part of Hanover. 6 A town of Sussex, on the 
 English Channel. 8 On the coast of North Carolina. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 243 
 
 The decipherment of the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions has unsettled the 
 chronology of the early period of authentic Jewish history. 
 
 According to the Assyrian Records. 1 According to the Biblical Chronology. 
 
 King Ahab fought against the Assy- Aliab was slain in 900 (897). 
 
 rians at Karkar in 854. 
 
 Jehu paid tribute to Assyria in 842. Jehu died in 859 (856). 
 
 Uzziah was still reigning in 742 or 740. Uzziah died in 758. 
 
 Menahem paid tribute to the Assy- Menahem died in 762 (761). 
 
 rians in 738. 
 
 The Assyrian records place the capture of Samaria in 722, which agrees with 
 the Biblical chronology. With regai - d to the extraordinary discrepancy as to 
 the interval between the reign of Menahem and the capture of Samaria, Jules 
 Oppert, 2 who has devoted much labor to the revindication of the Biblical chro- 
 nology, refuses to admit that the Menahem who figures in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions in 738 is the Menahem of the Biblical text, and argues that there was 
 probably a second king of Israel by that name. Duncker, 3 who has attempted a 
 reconstruction of the Biblical chronology with reference to the data furnished by 
 Assyriologists (as well as to the information concerning the duration of the rule 
 of Omri and Ahab contained in the inscription on the Moabite Stone), gives as 
 the most plausible approximate date for the death of Solomon the year 953. The 
 beginning of Solomon's reign would then be 993, and the elevation of David in 
 Judah, 1033. 
 
 The following is a list of the successors of Solomon with the approximate 
 dates of their accession according to Duncker : 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 
 Rehoboam, 
 
 953. 
 
 Jeroboam I., 
 
 953. 
 
 
 
 Zachariah, 
 
 749. 
 
 Abijah, 
 
 932. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shallum, 
 
 748. 
 
 Asa. 
 
 929. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Menahem, 
 
 748. 
 
 
 
 Nadab, 
 
 927. 
 
 Jotham, 
 
 740. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baasha, 
 
 925. 
 
 
 
 Pekahiah, 
 
 738. 
 
 
 
 Elah, 
 
 901. 
 
 
 
 Pekah, 
 
 736. 
 
 
 
 Omri, 
 
 899. 
 
 Ahaz, 
 
 734. 
 
 Hoshea, 
 
 734. 
 
 
 
 Ahab, 
 
 875. 
 
 Hezekiah, 
 
 728. 
 
 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 
 
 873. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capture of Sr 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 853. 
 
 
 
 maria, 
 
 722. 
 
 
 
 Joram, 
 
 851. 
 
 Manasseh, 
 
 697. 
 
 
 
 Jehorara, 
 
 848. 
 
 
 
 Amon, 
 
 642. 
 
 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 844. 
 
 
 
 Josiah, 
 
 640. 
 
 
 
 Athaliah, 
 
 843. 
 
 Jehu, 
 
 843. 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 609. 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 837. 
 
 
 
 Jehoiakim, 
 
 609. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 815. 
 
 Jehoiachin, 
 
 597. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joash, 
 
 798. 
 
 Zedekiah, 
 
 597. 
 
 
 
 Amaziah, 
 
 797. 
 
 
 
 Destruction of 
 
 
 
 Uzziah, 
 
 792. 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 586. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Jeroboam II. 
 
 790. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 See Schrader, " Keilinschriften und das alte Testament," second edition, 1882 
 8 " Salomon et ses successeurs," 1877. 3 " Geschichte des Alterthums," fifth edition, 1878. 
 17 
 
244 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Successors of Solomon, 
 Oppcrt : 
 
 .IUDAH. ISE 
 
 Rehoboam, 978. 
 
 with the dates of their accession according to 
 
 Jeroboam I., 977. 
 
 Abijah, 
 
 Asa, 
 
 9G0. 
 958. 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 Foreign domi- 
 nation, 798-787. 
 Jeroboam again, 787. 
 
 Nadab, 
 Baasha, 
 Elah, 
 OmriwithTib- 
 
 956. 
 955. 
 932. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 917. 
 
 Jehoshaphat 
 
 with Jcboram,895 
 Jehoram alone, 892 
 Ahaziah, 
 Athaliah, 
 Joash, 
 
 Omri alone, 
 Ahab, 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 Joram, 
 
 887. 
 881. 
 
 Amaziah, 
 Uzziah, 
 
 Jehu, 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 Joash, 
 
 931. 
 
 927. 
 920. 
 
 900. 
 899. 
 
 887. 
 
 859. 
 842. 
 
 Jotham, 
 Ahaz, 
 
 758. 
 743. 
 
 Hczekiah, 727. 
 
 Zachariah, 
 Shallum, 
 Menahem 1., 
 Pekahiah, 
 Pekah, 
 
 Menahem II., 
 Pekah again, 
 lloshea, 
 
 Capture of Sa- 
 maria, 
 
 773. 
 772. 
 772. 
 702. 
 759. 
 
 742. 
 733. 
 730. 
 
 721. 
 
 Jeroboam II., 825. 
 
 811. 
 
 Manasseh, 
 Am on, 
 Josiah, 
 Jehoahaz, 
 Jehoiakim, 
 Jehoiachin, 
 Zedekiah, 
 Destruction of 
 Jerusalem, 587 
 
 698. 
 642. 
 640. 
 609. 
 608. 
 598. 
 598. 
 
 Babylonish Captivity, 586 (587)-about 536 ; rebuilding of the Temple, 
 about 521-516 ; migration to Jerusalem under Ezra, about 458 ; Pales- 
 tine becomes subject to Alexander the Great, 332 ; on the disruption of his 
 empire united with Egypt ; conquered by Antiochus the Great of Syria, 
 198 ; the Asmoneans (Maccabees) take up arms, 167 ; Judas Maccabauis 
 purines the Temple, 165 (Schiirer, Wellhausen, Hitzig, Oraetz) ; Simon 
 Maccabasus is proclaimed hereditary prince of the Jews, 140 ; Aristobulus 
 assumes the title of king of Judea, 105 ; Judea becomes a dependency 
 of Rome, 63 ; conquest of Jerusalem by Herod the Great, fall of the 
 Asmonean house, 37 ; death of Herod the Great, 4 ;— [a. d.] — Augustus 
 deposes Archelaus (son of Herod), and places Judea under a Roman pro- 
 curator, 6 (Schiirer, Wellhausen) ; the whole of Palestine under the sway 
 of Herod Agrippa I., 41-44 ; — the people again under Roman procura- 
 tors; rising against the Romans, 66; destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, 
 70; insurrection of Bar Cocheba, 132-135 or 136— followed by the dis- 
 persion of the people ; expulsion of the Jews from England, 1290 ; from 
 France, 1306, 1394; from Spain, 1492; rights of citizenship accorded 
 to the Jews in France, 1791 ; disabilities in Great Britain removed, 
 1858. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 245 
 
 Hegira, 622. 
 
 Heidelberg, 1 University of — Pounded, 1386. 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism — Published, 1563. 
 
 Heilbronn,' 2 Union of, between the Swedes and German Protestants, 1633. 
 
 Heligoland 3 — Ceded by Denmark to England, 1814 ; ceded by England to 
 the German Empire, 1890 ; incorporated with Prussia, 1891. 
 
 Helvetic Republic. See Switzerland. 
 
 Henry, Fort 4 — Reduced by Poote, 1862. 
 
 Heptarchy. See England. 
 
 Herat — Unsuccessfully besieged by the Persians, 1837-'8; taken by them, 
 1856 ; evacuated, 1857 ; conquered by Dost Mohammed, 1863 ; Ayub Khan, 
 ruler of Herat, opposes the English and Abdurrahman, 1880 ; city falls 
 into the hands of Abdurrahman, 1881. 
 
 Herculaneum — Overwhelmed by the eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79. 
 
 Herzegovina — Insurrections against the Turks, 1861-'2, 1875-'6 ; occupied 
 by Austria, 1878. 
 
 Hesse, landgraviate of — Divided into the landgraviates of Hesse-Cassel, 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, &c, 1567. 
 
 Hesse-Cassel — (See Hesse, landgraviate of) — Landgraviate of, erected 
 into an electorate, 1803 ; forms part of the kingdom of Westphalia, 
 1807— ? 13 ; annexed to Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt — (See Hesse, landgraviate of) — Landgraviate of, erect- 
 ed into a grand-duchy, 1806. 
 
 Hesse-Homburg — Landgraviate of, founded, 1596; annexed to Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, 1866 ; ceded to Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Hexham 5 — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1464. 
 
 Himera 6 — The Carthaginians defeated by Gelon of Syracuse at, 480 b. c. 
 
 Hindman, Fort 7 — Reduced by the Federals, 1863. 
 
 Hindostan. See India. 
 
 Hobkirk's HiU 8 — Greene defeated at (second battle of Camden), April 25, 
 1781. 
 
 Hochkirchen 9 — Defeat of Frederick II. by the Austrians at, Oct. 14, 1758. 
 
 Hochst 10 — Tilly defeats Christian of Brunswick at, 1622. 
 
 Hbchstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. 
 
 Hohenfriedberg n — Victory of Frederick II. over the Austrians at, 1745. 
 
 Hohenlinden 12 — Victory of Moreau over the Austrians at, Dee. 3, 1800. 
 
 Hohenstaufen, house of— On the throne of Germany, 1138-1208, 121 5-'54; 
 
 1 A town on the Neckar, near its junction with the Rhine, formerly belonging to the 
 Palatinate, and now included in Baden. 2 A town on the Neckar, now belonging to Wiir- 
 temberg. 3 An islet in the E. portion of the North Sea. 4 In northwestern Tennessee, on 
 the Tennessee River. 6 A town of Northumberland, on the Tyne. ° A town on the N. 
 coast of Sicily. 7 On the Arkansas River, near its mouth. 8 Near Camden, South Caro- 
 lina. 9 A village in Saxony, near Bautzen. 10 A town on the Main, near Frankfort, now 
 belonging to Prussia. xl A small place in Silesia, S. E, of Liegnitz. 12 A village E. oi 
 Munich. 
 
246 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 on that of the Two Sicilies, 1194-1266 ; the last of the Hohenstaufen exe- 
 cuted, 1268. (See Germany.) 
 
 Hohenzollern 1 — United with the crown of Prussia, 1850. 
 
 Hohenzollerns — Acquire Brandenburg, 1415 ; mount the imperial throne 
 of Germany, 1871. 
 
 Holland. See Netherlands. 
 
 Holy Alliance— Formed, 1815. 
 
 Holy League— Against the French, 1511 ; against the Turks, 1571. 
 
 Holy Roman Empire, 962-1806. 
 
 Homeric Poems — Supposed to have been composed, about 900 b. c. ; col- 
 lected and edited under the auspices of Pisistratus, about 550 B. c. 
 
 Homildon Hill 2 — Victory of the Percys over the Scots at, 1402. 
 
 Horns 3 — Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1832. 
 
 Honkong — Ceded to England, 1842. 
 
 Hospitallers. See Knights of St. John. 
 
 Hounslow Heath 4 — James II. establishes a camp at, 1686. 
 
 Hubertsburg, 5 peace of, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, Feb. 15, 
 1763. 
 
 Hudson Bay — Explored by Hudson, 1610. 
 
 Hudson Bay Company — Incorporated, 1670 ; surrenders its sovereignty 
 over the Hudson Bay Territory, 1869. 
 
 Hudson River — Ascended by Hudson, 1609. 
 
 Huguenots — Wars between them and the Catholics, 1562-1629. (See 
 Nantes, Edict of.) 
 
 Hungary — The Magyars, under the lead of Arpad, descend into, about 894 ; 
 Gejza, first Christian ruler, 972-997 ; Pope Sylvester II. confers the royal 
 dignity upon Stephen, 1000 ; reign of Ladislas I., 1077-'95 ; Andrew II., 
 1205- ? 35 ; Bela IV., 1235-'70 ; end of the Arpad dynasty, the crown be- 
 comes elective, 1301 ; reign of Charles Robert, 1309-'42 ; Louis the Great, 
 1342- '82; Sigismund, 1387-1437 ; Matthias Corvinus, 1458-'90 ; the battle 
 of Mohacs opens the way to Turkish dominion, 1526 ; Ferdinand I. in- 
 augurates the Hapsburg dynasty (John Zapolya rival king), 1526 ; the 
 Turks lose Buda, 1686 ; crown made hereditary in the Hapsburg family, 
 1687 ; the Turkish portions ceded to the Hapsburgs, 1699, 1718 ; Revolu- 
 tion, 1848-'9 ; constitutional government restored, 1867. 
 
 Huns s — Pass the Volga, overpower the Alani and Ostrogoths, and press the 
 Visigoths before them, 374-'6 ; under Attila, pass the Danube and invade 
 Illyricum, 441 ; battle of Chalons, 451 ; ravage Italy, 452. 
 
 Hussite Wars — Begin, 1419 ; settlement between the Hussites and Sigis- 
 mund. 1436. 
 
 Hydrogen — Known before 1700; nature of, described by Cavendish, 1766. 
 
 1 A division of Swabia. s In Northumberland. s A town of Syria, about 85 miles N. 
 of Damascus; the ancient Emesa. * A few miles S. W. of London. 5 A castle situated 
 about 25 miles E. of Leipsic. 6 A Mongolian people. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 247 
 
 Iceland — Settled by the Northmen, 874; made subject to Norway, 12G2-'4; 
 together with Norway, united with Denmark, 1880. 
 
 Iconium (Konieh) — Capital of the sultans of Roum, from 1097. 
 
 Iconoclasm — First edict of Leo the Isaurian respecting images, 726 ; their 
 use prohibited in the Byzantine dominions, 730 ; final sanction given to 
 image worship, 842. 
 
 Idaho — Admitted into the Union, 1890. 
 
 Iglau, 1 treaty of, between the Hussites and Sigismund, 1436. 
 
 Iliad. See Homeric Poems. 
 
 Illinois — Admitted into the Union, 1818. 
 
 Illyria 2 — Wars of Rome with the Greek kingdom of Illyria, ending in its eon- 
 quest, 229, 219, 168 b. c. ; subjugation of the native tribes by the Romans 
 completed, about 34 b. c. ; last great rising of the Dalmatians, A. D. 6-9. 
 
 Immaculate Conception, dogma of the — Promulgated, 1854. 
 
 Imperial Chamber (in the German Empire) — Established, 1495. 
 
 Index Expurgatorius — First publication of the, 1557. 
 
 India — Invasion of Alexander, 326 b. c. ; first invasion of Mahmoud of 
 Ghuzni, a. d. 1001 ; reached by Vasco da Gama, 1498 ; Goa taken by the 
 Portuguese, 1510 ; foundation of the Mogul dynasty by Baber, 1526 ; reign 
 of Akbar, 1556-1605 ; English East India Company chartered, 1600 ; 3 reign 
 of Aurungzebe, 1658-1707 ; French East India Company chartered, 1664 ; 
 capture of Delhi by Nadir Shah, 1739; wars between the English and 
 French (Dupleix, Clive), 1745-'63 ; the Mogul emperor makes a formal ces- 
 sion of Bengal and other territories to the English East India Company, 
 1765; outbreak of war between the English and Hyder Ali of Mysore, 
 1767; Hastings becomes first governor-general, 1774; creation of the 
 Board of Control, 1784 ; portion of Mysore ceded by Tippoo Saib to the 
 English, 1792; fall of Tippoo, 1799; the Carnatic 4 annexed by the Eng- 
 lish, 1801 ; they subdue the Mahrattas, 1803-'18 ; Sinde annexed by the 
 English. 1843 ; first Sikh War, 1845-'6 ; second Sikh War, the Punjaub 
 acquired by the English, 1849; they annex Oude. 1856; Sepoy Mutiny, 
 1857-8; government transferred from the East India Company to the 
 crown, 1858 ; Victoria assumes the title of empress, 1876. 
 
 (See Afghanistan, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Madras, Persia, 
 
 POXDICHERRY, &C.) 
 
 Indiana — Admitted into the Union, 1816. 
 Indian Territory — Formed by act of Congress, 1834. 
 Indulgences — Sale of, formally sanctioned by Leo X., 1517. 
 InfallibiHty, Papal, dogma of — Promulgated, 1870. 
 
 1 A town of Moravia. 2 A region on the E. coast of the Adriatic. 3 In 1698 a charter 
 was granted to a rival company in England, which was united with the first company under 
 a new charter in 1703. 4 The Carnatic was a country on the E. coast of southern India, 
 ruled by the nabobs of Arcot. 
 
248 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Infernal Machine— Attempt against Bonaparte's life with the, 1800. 
 
 Ingolstadt, 1 University of— Founded, 1472; transferred to Landsbut, 
 1800. (See Munich.) 
 
 Inkerman 2 — The English and French defeat the Russians at, 1854. 
 
 Inoculation for small-pox— Introduced into England by Lady Mary 
 Wortley Montagu, about 1720. (See Vaccination.) 
 
 Inquisition— Formally established, 1215 ; established in Spain, 1480. 
 
 Institute of France— Founded, 1795. 
 
 Interim (Augsburg Interim)— Publication of the, 1548. 
 
 International Association— Organized, 1864 ; first congress, 1866. 
 
 International Exhibitions— London, 1851; Paris. 1855; London, 1862; 
 Paris, 1867; Vienna, 1873; Phila., 1876; Paris, 1878, 1889; Chicago, 1893. 
 
 Intransigentes— Risings of the, in Spain, 1873. 
 
 Investitures— Contest, respecting them, between the popes and German 
 emperors, 1075 — 1122. 
 
 Iodine — Discovered by Courtois, 1812. 
 
 Ionian Islands— On the fall of the Venetian Republic become a possession 
 of France, 1797; taken by the Russians and Turks, 1799; restored to 
 France, 1807 ; constituted a republic under British protection, 1815 ; an- 
 nexed to Greece, 1863-'4. 
 
 Ionian Revolt 3 (against Persia) — Outbreak of the, about 501 b. c. ; the 
 Greeks succumb, 494 b. c. 
 
 Iowa — Admitted into the Union, 1846. 
 
 Ipsus 4 — Overthrow of Antigonus at, 301 or 300 b. c. 
 
 Ireland — Christianized by St. Patrick, 5th c. ; beginning of the English 
 conquest, 1169 ; Henry VIII. assumes the title of king of, 1542 ; Shane 
 O'Neill's rebellion, 1561-7; Hugh O'Neill (Tyrone) heads a new insur- 
 rection, about 1594 ; Essex sent against him, 1599 ; the power of the rebels 
 broken by Mountjoy, 1601 ; great revolt, which is suppressed by Crom- 
 well, 1641-52 ; rebellion in favor of James II., 1689-'91 ; independence of 
 the Irish Parliament secured, 1782; the Great Rebellion, 1798; legislative 
 union with Great Britain consummated. 1801 ; Emmett's rebellion, 1803 ; 
 Catholic Emancipation, 1829 ; the agitation under O'Connell for the re- 
 peal of the union reaches its climax, 1843; great famine, 1846-'7; the 
 Fenians attempt a revolution, 1865-'7 ; act for the disestablishment of 
 the Irish Church, 1869 (to take effect in 1871) ; Gladstone's first Land Act, 
 1870; new Land Act, 1881; Gladstone's Home Rule Bill passed by the 
 House of Commons and rejected by the House of Lords, 1893. 
 
 Iron-clad Ships — Iron-clad batteries employed by the French in the Cri- 
 mean War, 1855 ; construction of the frigate " Gloire," 1858-'60. 
 
 Isandula (Isandlwana) 5 — A British force overwhelmed by the Zulus at, 1879. 
 
 1 A town of Bavaria, on the Danube. 2 A ruined town in the environs of Sebastopol. 
 3 Ionia was a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor. * A small place in Asia Minor, in 
 Phrygia. 6 A place in Zulu Land, near the border of Natal. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 249 
 
 Island No. Ten ! — Surrender of, to the Federals, 1862. 
 
 Isly '2—The French defeat the emperor of Morocco on the, 1844. 
 
 Ismail 3 — Stormed by Suvaroff, 1790. 
 
 Israel. See Hebrews. 
 
 Issus 4 — Victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians at, 333 b. c. 
 
 Italy — Rome mistress of the peninsula, 265 B. c. ; fall of the Roman Empire, 
 a. d. 476 ; Ostrogothic kingdom founded, 493 ; the country conquered by 
 the Byzantines, 536-553; the Lombard kingdom established, 568-572; 
 end of the exarchate of Ravenna, 752 ; creation of the Papal States, 755 ; 
 Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom, and is crowned king of 
 Italy, 774 ; the crown passes from his descendants to the sovereigns of 
 Germany, 961 ; the Byzantine dominions in the South conquered by the 
 Normans, 11th c. ; league of the Lombard cities formed, 1167 ; the Hohen- 
 staufen dynasty established in the Two Sicilies, 1194 ; succeeded by that 
 of Anjou, 1266 ; Genoa breaks the power of Pisa, 1284-'90 ; the authority 
 of the German emperors completely set aside, before 1300 ; creation of the 
 duchy of Milan, 1395 ; Venice reaches the zenith of her power, about 1420 ; 
 the Medici supreme in Florence, from 1434 ; France and Spain contend 
 for dominion, the latter triumphing, 1494-1544 ; Spain cedes Naples and 
 Lombardy to Austria, 1713-14 ; the dominions of Savoy erected into the 
 kingdom of Sardinia, 1720 ; the Bourbon dynasty established in the Two 
 Sicilies, 1734-'5 ; Bonaparte's conquests inaugurated, 1796 ; Cisalpine Re- 
 public established, 1797 ; it is reconstituted as the Italian Republic, 1802 ; 
 Bonaparte assumes the title of king of Italy, 1805 ; the fallen dynasties 
 restored, the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom (Austrian) constituted, 1814- 
 '15 ; great revolutionary struggles, 1848-9 ; Lombardy annexed to the 
 kingdom of Sardinia, 1859 ; foundation of the kingdom of Italy by Victor 
 Emanuel, 1860-61 ; Prusso-Italian war against Austria, Venetia annexed, 
 1866 ; annexation of Rome, Italian unity achieved, 1870 ; accession of 
 Humbert, 1878. (See names of the various states and other titles.) 
 
 Ivry 5 — Henry IV. defeats the forces of the Catholic League at, 1590. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack Cade's Insurrection, 1450. 
 
 Jackson, Fort 6 — Bombarded and forced to surrender by Farragut, April, 
 
 1862. 
 Jacobins— Club of the, established, 1789 ; downfall of the party, 1794. 
 Jacquerie (insurrection of the French peasantry), 1358. 
 Jaffa 1 — Taken by Napoleon, 1799. 
 Jagellonian Dynasty. See Poland. 
 
 1 In the Mississippi River, on the confines of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. a A 
 stream on the borders of Morocco and Algeria. 3 A town of Bessarabia, on the Kilia arm 
 of the Danube. * A coast town in the extreme E. part of Cilicia. s A small place in Nor- 
 mandy, S. E. of Evreux. 6 Near the mouth of the Mississippi. 7 A seaport of Syria, 35 
 miles N. W. of Jerusalem. 
 
250 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jalapa, 1 Plan of, 1829. 
 
 Jamaica — Discovered by Columbus, 1494; conquered by England, 1655; 
 Negro insurrection under the administration of Gov. Eyre, 18G5. 
 
 Jamestown 2 — Founded by the London Company, 1607; Bacon's rebellion, 
 1676. 
 
 Janizaries — Service organized, 14th c. ; massacre of the, by Mahmoud II., 
 the organization abolished, 1826. 
 
 Jankau 3 — Victory of the Swedes at, 1645. 
 
 Jansenists — Jansen's work on the doctrine of Augustine published, 1640 ; 
 the book condemned by Urban VIII., 1642 ; condemnation of the sect by 
 Clement XL, 1713. 
 
 Japan — Policy of commercial intercourse with the world inaugurated. 1854 ; 
 embassy to the United States, 1860 ; abolition of the Shogunate, 1867 ; 
 unsuccessful attempt of the last shogun to regain power, 1868; parlia- 
 mentary government established, 1889; war with China, 1894-'o. 
 
 Jarnac 4 — Defeat of the Huguenots at, 1569. 
 
 Jassy, 5 peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1792. 
 
 Java — The Dutch lay the foundations of their dominion, 17th c. ; held by 
 the English, and administered by T. S. Raffles, 1811— '16 ; last great war 
 between the Dutch and the natives, 1825- : 30; slavery abolished, 1859. 
 
 Jay's Treaty, between England and the United States, 1794. 
 
 Jellalabad 6 — Defence of, by Sale, 1842. 
 
 Jemmapes 7 — Dumouriez defeats the Austrians at, 1792. 
 
 Jena 8 — Victory of Napoleon over the Prussians at, Oct. 14, 1806. 
 
 Jena, University of — Founded, 1547-'58. 
 
 Jerusalem — [b. c] — Concpiered by David, about 1025 (Dwncker ; about 104S, 
 common Biblical chronology) ; erection of the Temple begun, about 990 
 (Duncker ; about 10J4, Bib. citron.); city taken by Sheshonk (Shishak), 
 about 949 (Duncker ; about 973, Bib. chron.) ; besieged by Sennacherib, 
 700 (701) ; destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 (587) ; rebuilding of the 
 Temple, about 521-516 ; entry of Judas Maccaba?us into the city, the Tem- 
 ple purified, 165 ; taking of the citadel by Simon Maecabseus, 141 (Schurer) ; 
 city taken by Pompey, 63 ; by Herod I., 37 ; — [a. d.] — siege and destruc- 
 tion of, by Titus, 69-70; conquered by Omar, about close of 636; taken 
 by the Seljuks, 1076 ; stormed by the crusaders, kingdom of Jerusalem 
 founded, 1099 ; kingdom overthrown by Saladin, 1187 ; city placed in the 
 hands of the Christians, 1229 ; stormed by the Kharesmians, 1244 ; an- 
 nexed to the Turkish Empire, 1516. 
 
 Jesuits, order of — Founded by Loyola, 1534 ; sanctioned by papal bull, 
 1540 ; expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal, 1759 ; from France (under 
 
 1 A town N. W. of Vera Cruz. ' Jamestown was situated on the James River, near its 
 mouth. s A small place in southern Bohemia. 4 A town of western France, on the Oha- 
 rente River. 5 Formerly the capital of Moldavia. * A town of Afghanistan, E. of Cabool. 
 7 A town of Belgium, in Hainaut. 8 A town of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, on the Saale. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 251 
 
 Louis XV.), 1764; from Spain (under Charles III.). 1767 ; order dissolved 
 by Clement XIV., 1773 ; re-established by Pius VII., 1814. 
 
 Jews. See Hebrews. 
 
 Johnstown (Pa.) — Destroyed by the bursting of a dam, 1889. 
 
 Judah. See Hebrews. 
 
 Jugurthine War, 111-106 b. c. 
 
 Jiilich, duchy of 1 — Contest for the succession to the, begins, 1609 ; a final 
 settlement effected, the dominions being divided between the elector of 
 Brandenburg and the count palatine of Neuburg, 1666. 
 
 Junius, Letters of (by Philip Francis) — Published, 1769-'72. 
 
 Jupiter, satellites of — Discovered by Galileo, 1610. 
 
 Justinian, Code of. See Code of Justinian. 
 
 Juterbock 2 — Victory of Torstenson at, 1644. 
 
 K. 
 
 KafFa (Caffa) 3 — Colonized by the Genoese, about 1265 ; falls into the hands 
 
 of the Turks, 1475. 
 Kalisz 4 — Russia and Prussia conclude an alliance at, 1813. 
 Kansas — Slavery troubles, 1855-9 ; admitted into the Union, 1861. 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854. 
 Kapolna 5 — Defeat of the Hungarians at, 1849. 
 Kappel ° — Defeat of the Swiss Reformers at, 1531. 
 Karpenisi 7 — Attack by Botzaris upon the Turks at, 1823. 
 Kars s — Taken by the Russians, 1828, 1855, 1877 ; ceded to Russia, 1878. 
 Katzbach 9 — Bliicher defeats the French on the, 1813. 
 Kent. See England. 
 
 Kentucky— Settled, 1775 ; admitted into the Union, 1792. 
 Khartoum— Siege and capture of, by the Mahdi, 1884-'5. 
 Khiva— Disastrous expedition of the Russian general Perovski against, 
 
 1839-40 ; successful expedition of Perovski, 1854 ; expedition under Kauf- 
 
 mann, city of Khiva taken, 1873. 
 Khokan, khanate of "—Annexed to Russia, 1876 (name changed to Fer- 
 
 ghana). 
 Khotin "—Victory of Sobicski over the Turks at, 1673. 
 Kiel, 12 treaty of, between Denmark, Sweden, and England. 1814. 
 
 1 Now included in the Prussian Rhine Land. 2 A town of Brandenburg, in a S. \V. 
 direction from Berlin. 3 A town in the E. part of the Crimea, on the Black Sea, near the 
 site of the ancient Greek town of Theodosia, by whose name (in the Russian form Pco- 
 dosia) the place is now known. Under the Genoese, Kaffa was a great emporium of the 
 commerce between Europe and Asia. 4 A town of Poland, 1.30 miles S. W. of Warsaw. 6 A 
 village on a tributary of the Theiss, not far from Erlau. 6 A village in the canton of 
 Zurich. 7 A town now included in the Greek nomarchy of Acarnania and MtoHa. 8 A 
 town of Armenia. 9 An affluent of the Oder in Silesia. 10 In southern Turkestan, on both 
 sides of the Naryn. "A town of Bessarabia, on the Dniester. 1S A town of Holstein, on 
 a bay of the Baltic. 
 
252 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Kiev. See Russia. 
 
 KilUecrankie ' — Victory of the Scottish Jacobites at, 1689. 
 
 King George's War, 1744-U 
 
 King Philip's War, 1675-6. 
 
 King's Mountain 2 — The Americans defeat the British at, 1780. 
 
 King William's War, 1689-97. 
 
 Kloster-Zeven 3 (Closter Seven), convention of, between the duke of Cum- 
 berland and the French, 1757. 
 
 Knights of St. John (Knights Hospitallers) — Order instituted, 11th c. (See 
 Rhodes, Malta.) 
 
 Knights Swordbearers 4 — Order founded, about 1201 ; united with that of 
 the Teutonic Knights, 1237 ; again independent, 1521 ; their power broken 
 by the Russians, 1558-'61. 
 
 Knights Templars — Order founded, about 1118 ; arrest of the, by Philip 
 the Fair, 1307 ; burning of Molay and others, 1314. 
 
 Kolin 5 — Defeat of Frederick the Great by the Austrians at, 1757. 
 
 Komorn. See Comorx. 
 
 Konieh 6 — Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1832. 
 
 Koniggratz, battle of. See Sadowa. 
 
 Konigsberg, "University of — Founded, 1544. 
 
 Koomassie 7 - — Taken by the English, 1874 ; again occupied by them, 1896. 
 
 Kosovo 8 — Victory of Amurath I. over Lazarus of Servia at, 1389. 
 
 Kunersdorf 9 — The Russians and Austrians defeat Frederick II. at, 1759. 
 
 Kurd-Cabool Pass — The Afghans overwhelm a British army in the, 1842. 
 
 Kutchuk-Kainarji, 10 peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1174. 
 
 Lade 11 — Victory of the Persians over the Ionians off, 494 b. c. 
 
 Lagos, Bay of 12 — Victory of the English over the French in the, 1759. 
 
 La Granja, palace of 13 — Revolutionary movement in the, 1836. 
 
 La Hogue u — French fleet destroyed by the English and Dutch off, 1G92. 
 
 Lamian War 15 (between the allied Greeks and Macedon), 323-322 b. c. 
 
 Landshut 16 — The French defeat the Austrians at, 1809; seat of a university, 
 
 1800-1826. 
 Langensalza 17 — Capitulation of the Hanoverian army to the Prussians at, 
 
 1806. 
 
 1 A pass in the Grampian Mountains. 2 On the borders of South and North Carolina. 
 3 A small place in Hanover, N. E. of Bremen. 4 Established in Livonia, Courland, and 
 Esthonia. 6 A town of Bohemia, in an E. direction from Prague. e A town in the S. part 
 of Asia Minor ; the ancient Iconium. 7 The capital of Ashantee. 8 A valley in what is 
 now Turkish Servia. 9 A village of Brandenburg, near Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 10 A small 
 place in Bulgaria, near Silistria. u An island near Miletus. 12 On the S. coast of Portu- 
 gal. I3 In the town of La Granja, or San Ildefonso, N. W. of Madrid. 14 A place near 
 Cherbourg (sometimes confounded with Cape La Hogue, not far distant"). 1B Lamia was a 
 town of Phthiotis, in Thessaly. 18 A town of Bavaria, on the Isar. 17 A town of Prussian 
 Saxony, N. W. of Erfurt. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 253 
 
 Langside ' — Defeat of Mary Stuart by the earl of Murray at, 15G8. 
 
 Laocoon (group of statuary) — Discovered at Rome, 1506. 
 
 Laon 2 — Bliicher repulses the French at, 1814 ; taken by the Germans, 1870. 
 
 La Rochelle. See Rochelle, La. 
 
 Lateran, 3 councils of the, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1512-17. 
 
 Latin Empire of the East, 1204-'61. 
 
 Latins 4 — Subjugated by Rome, about 338 B. c. 
 
 Lauenburg — Ceded by Hanover to Prussia, and by Prussia to Denmark, 
 
 1815 ; relinquished by Denmark, 1864 ; passes to Prussia, 1865. 
 Lawfeld (Laffeld) 5 — Marshal Saxe defeats the duke of Cumberland at, 1747. 
 Laybach, congress of, held by the Great Powers, 1821. 
 League, the. See Catholic League. 
 Lebanon — Massacres of Maronites, or Christian inhabitants, by the Druses, 
 
 1860 ; appointment of a Christian governor, 1861. 
 Lech 7 — Victory of Otho the Great over the Hungarians on the, 955 ; the 
 
 Swedes force the passage of the, 1632. 
 Lecompton Constitution, 1857. 
 Legion of Honor — Instituted, 1802. 
 Legislative Assembly (in French history) — First, 1791-2 ; second, 
 
 1849-51. 
 Legnano 8 — The forces of the Lombard League defeat Frederick I. at, 1176. 
 Leipsic — Victory of Gustavus Adolphus at (battle of Breitenfeld), 1631 ; Na- 
 poleons army overwhelmed at, Oct., 1813. 
 Leipsic, University of — Founded, 1409. 
 
 Le Mans 9 — Defeat of the Vendeans at, 1793 ; of Chanzy's army, 1871. 
 Leoben, 10 preliminaries of, between France and Austria, 1797. 
 Leon. See Spain, Castile. 
 
 Lepanto n — The Spaniards and Venetians defeat the Turkish fleet at, 1571. 
 Lesbos 12 — [b. c] — Rule of Pittacus in Mytilene, about 589-579 ; revolt of the 
 
 island from the Athenian confederacy, 428 ; the Athenians take Mytilene, 
 
 and become masters of the island, 427. 
 Leuctra 13 — Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans at, 371 b. c. 
 Leuthen 14 — Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at, 1757. 
 Lewes Vo — Victory of Simon de Montfort at, 1264. 
 Lexington (Mass.) 16 — Encounter between the Americans and British at, 
 
 April 19, 1775. 
 Lexington (Mo.) " — Surrender of, to the Confederates, 1861. 
 
 1 A village near Glasgow. 2 A town 75 miles N. E. of Paris. s A basilica in Rome. 
 4 The Latins inhabited a district S. E. of Eome. 6 A village near Aix-la-Chapelle. 6 Capi- 
 tal of the Austrian province of Carniola. 7 An affluent of the Danube, on which Augsburg 
 is situated. 8 A town N. W. of Milan. 8 A town 120 miles S. W. of Paris. 10 A town of 
 Styria. ll A town of Greece on the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth ; the ancient Nau- 
 pactus. ia An island on the W. coast of Asia Minor. 13 A place in southern Bceotia. 14 A 
 village near Breslau. 16 A town of Sussex, near Brighton. ia A village N. W. of Boston. 
 lT A town 37 miles E. of Kansas City, on the Missouri River. 
 
254 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Ley-den — Besieged by the Spaniards, 1573-4. 
 
 Leyden, University of— Founded, 1575. 
 
 Liberia— Colony established, 1822 ; independence declared, 1847. 
 
 Licinian Rogations — Adopted, about 367 b. c. 
 
 Liegnitz ' — Victory of the Mongols near (battle on the Wahlstatt), 1241 ; 
 victory of Frederick II. over the Austrians at, 1700. 
 
 Light, velocity of — Ascertained by Roeraer, 1675. 
 
 Lightning — Identity of, with electricity, fully demonstrated by Franklin, 
 1752, 
 
 Lightning-rod — Franklin publishes his invention of the, 1752. 
 
 Ligny- — Napoleon defeats Bliicher at, June 16, 1815. 
 
 Ligurian Republic. See Genoa. 
 
 Lille — Conquered from Spain by Louis XIV., 1667 ; defence of, by Bouflers, 
 against Prince Eugene, who finally reduces the place, 1708 ; unsuccess- 
 fully attacked by the Austrians, 1792. 
 
 Lilybaeum 3 — Siege of, by the Romans, 250-241 B. c. 
 
 Lima — Foundation of, 1535 ; capture of, by the Chilians, 1881. 
 
 Limerick — Last stronghold of the Jacobites in Ireland, surrenders, 1691. 
 
 Lisbon — Wrested from the Moors, 1147 ; great earthquake, 1755 ; entered 
 by Junot, 1807 ; — aqueduct completed, 1738. 
 
 Lissa 4 — Naval victory of the Austrians over the Italians at, July 20, 1866. 
 
 Lithography — Invented by Senefelder, about 1797. 
 
 Lithuania — Grand-principality of, established, 13th c. (See Poland.) 
 
 Livonia — Subjugation of the Letts by the Knights Swordbearers and Teu- 
 tonic Knights, 13th c. ; ceded to Lithuania by the grand-master of the 
 Knights Swordbearers, 1561 ; ceded by Poland to Sweden, 1660 ; the Rus- 
 sians masters of the region, 1710 ; formally ceded to Russia, 1721. 
 
 Locomotive. See Railways. 
 
 Lodi 6 — Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at, 1796. 
 
 Logarithms — Napier announces his invention of, 1614. 
 
 Lollards — Act of Parliament for the burning of, 1401. 
 
 Lombard League — Formed, 1167 ; the cities of the league secure their 
 liberties, 1183 ; league renewed, 1226. 
 
 Lombards, kingdom of the, in Italy. See Italy. 
 
 Lombardy — (See Italy, Lombard League, Milan, Mantua.) — Conquered 
 from Austria by Bonaparte, 1796-'7; recovered by Austria, 1814; erec- 
 tion of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 1815; risings against Austrian 
 rule, 1848-'9; annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, 1859. 
 
 Lonato 6 — Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at, 1796. 
 
 London — Plague, 1665; great fire, 1666; international exhibitions. 1851, 
 1862;— St. Paul's built, 1675-1710; the Tower, 11th c. : old London 
 
 1 A town of Silesia, N. W. of Breslau. 2 A village of Belgium, N. W. of Namur. 3 A 
 town at the W. extremity of Sicily. 4 An island in the Adriatic, belonging to Dalmatia, 
 6 A town of Lombardy, on the Adda. 6 A town of Lombardy, near Lake Garda. 
 
CIIKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 255 
 
 Bridge, 1176-1209; new London Bridge, 1824-'31 ; Waterloo Bridge, 
 1811— '17 ; burning of the Parliament Houses, 1834; erection of the new 
 edifice begun, 1840; University of London founded, 1826; new Univer- 
 sity of London founded, 1836 (the former university incorporated as 
 University College). 
 
 London Company — Receives its patent, 1606; founds Jamestown, 1607; 
 reorganized, 1609; dissolved, 1624. 
 
 Londonderry — Siege of, by James II., 1689. 
 
 Long Island — Battle of, 1 defeat of the Americans, Aug. 27, 1776. 
 
 Longjumeau, 2 peace of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1568. 
 
 Long Parliament— Meets, 1640 ; " Pride's Purge," 1648. (See Rump Par- 
 liament.) 
 
 Lookout Mountain 3 — Bragg's forces driven from their positions on, Nov. 
 24, 1863. 
 
 Lorraine — Establishment of the Carlovingian kingdom of, 855 : appears as 
 a duchy half a century later; divided into the duchies of Upper and 
 Lower Lorraine, 959; the name of the latter supplanted by that of 
 Duchy of Brabant, 13th e. ; Henry II. of France wrests the bishoprics of 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun from the German Empire, 1552; union of the 
 duchy of Lorraine with France, 1766; German Lorraine and Metz ceded 
 to Germany, 1871. 
 
 Louisburg 4 — Reduced by the British colonists, 1745; restored to France, 
 1748; reduced by Amherst and Boscawen, 1758. 
 
 Louisiana — Settlement of, begun by the French, 1699 ; ceded by France to 
 Spain, 1763 ; retroceded to France, 1800 ; purchased by the United States, 
 1803 ; admission of the state into the Union, 1812 ; it secedes, 1861 ; re- 
 construction completed, 1868. 
 
 Louvain 5 — Victory of Arnulf over the Northmen at, 891 ; university 
 founded, about 1426 ; town-hall built, 15th c. 
 
 Louvre — Francis I. undertakes the reconstruction of the, 1539 ; grand col- 
 onnade of the E. front begun, 1666; New Louvre built, 1852-7; great 
 injury by fire inflicted by the Communists, 1871. 
 
 Lovtcha 6 — Stormed by the Russians, 1877. 
 
 Lowositz 7 — Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at, 1756. 
 
 Lubeck — Joins in the establishment of the Hansa, 1241 ; taken by the 
 French, 1806 ; lost, 1813. 
 
 Lubeck, treaty of, between the German Empire and Denmark, 1629. 
 
 Lucania 8 — Submits to Rome, 272 b. c. 
 
 Lucca — Rise of the Republic, 12th-13th c. ; rule of Castruccio Castracani, 
 1316-28; taken possession of by the French, 1797; erected into a prin- 
 
 1 The lighting took place in the vicinity of New York Bay. 2 A small town in the 
 pouthern outskirts of Paris. 3 Near Chattanooga. 4 Formerly a fortress on the island of 
 Cape Breton. 6 A town N. E. of Brussels. • A town of Bulgaria, S. of Plevna. T A town 
 of northern Bohemia. 8 A region in southern Italy, hetween the Mediterranean and the 
 Tarcntine Gulf, and having Bruttium on the 8. 
 
256 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 cipality for Blisa Bacciochi, one of the sisters of Napoleon, 1805 ; into a 
 duchy for the Infanta Maria Louisa and her son, diaries Louis, 1815 ; an- 
 nexed to Tuscany, 1847. 
 
 Luehana 1 — Espartero is victorious over the Carlists at, 1836. 
 
 Lucknow 2 — Mutiny at, British garrison relieved by Campbell, 1857; taken 
 by Campbell, 1858. 
 
 Lundy's Lane 3 — American victory at (battle of Bridgewater), 1814. 
 
 Luneville, 4 peace of, between France on one side, and Austria and the 
 German Empire on the other, 1801. 
 
 Lusitani 6 — [b. c] — Beginning of their great struggle with Home, about 
 154 ; their leader Viriathus achieves his first signal triumph over the 
 Romans, about 147; death of Viriathus, termination of the war, 140 
 or 139. 
 
 Lutter 6 — Tilly defeats Christian IV. of Denmark at, 1626. 
 
 Laitzen 1 — Battle between Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus at, 1632; 
 Napoleon defeats the Russians and Prussians at, 1813. 
 
 Luxemburg — Henry, count of, elected emperor of Germany (Henry VII.), 
 1308; his son John becomes king of Bohemia, 1310; — (See Germany, 
 Bohemia.) — erected into a duchy, 1354; united with Burgundy, 1443; 
 with Spain, 1516; ceded to Austria, 1713; conquered by the French, 
 1705; erected into a grand-duchy for the king of the Netherlands, 1815; 
 divided between Holland and Belgium, 1839 ; neutralization of the grand- 
 duchy, 1867 ; connection of the grand-duchy with Holland severed. 1890. 
 
 Lydia 8 — Attains the height of her power under Crcesus, about 560 b. c. ; 
 conquered by Cyrus, about 546. 
 
 Lyons — The thirteenth general council held at, 1245; the fourteenth, 1274; 
 massacres at, by the troops of the Convention, 1793; insurrections, 1831, 
 1834. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maccabees. See Hebrews. 
 
 Macedon. — [b. c] — Imposes her yoke upon Greece, 338; conquest of the 
 Persian Empire, 334-327 ; death of Alexander, partition of power among 
 his generals, 323 ; first war with Rome, 214-205 ; second war, 200-197 ; 
 third war, Macedon subjugated, 171-168. 
 
 Maciejowice 9 — Defeat of the Poles by the Russians at, 1794. 
 
 Madagascar — Discovered by Portuguese, 1506 ; French protectorate, 1885. 
 
 Madeira — Reached by the Portuguese, 1419. 
 
 Mad Parliament, 1258. 
 
 1 A place near Bilbao. s The capital of Oude, on the Goomtee, an affluent of the Gan- 
 ges. 3 A locality in Canada, near Niagara Falls. 4 A town of France, in Lorraine, S. E. 
 of Nancy. s A people inhabiting the W. portion of the Spanish peninsula, between the 
 Tagus and the Durius (Douro). 6 A village S. W. of Brunswick. 7 A town near Merseburg, 
 now included in Prussian Saxony. 8 A district in the W. part of Asia Minor. Crcesus 
 extended the sway of Lydia over a great part of the peninsula. 9 A small place 42 miles S. 
 E. of Warsaw. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 257 
 
 Madras (Fort St. George) — Made the seat of a presidency, 1653; taken by 
 Labourdonnais, 1746 ; restored to the English, 1749 ; besieged by the 
 French, 1758-'9. 
 
 Madrid — Treaty of, between Charles V. and Francis I., 1526 — construction 
 of the royal palace begun, 1737. 
 
 Magdala l — Stormed by the British, 1868. 
 
 Magdeburg — Taken by Maurice of Saxony, 1551 ; stormed by Tilly and 
 Pappenheim, 1631. 
 
 Magellan, Straits of — Navigated by Magellan, 1520. 
 
 Magenta 2 — The French and Sardinians defeat the Austrians at, 1859. 
 
 Magna Charta — Signed, 1215. 
 
 Magnesia 3 — The Romans defeat Antiochus the Great at, 190 b. c. 
 
 Magyars. See Hungary. 
 
 Mahrattas. See India. 
 
 Maine — Detached from Massachusetts, and admitted into the Union, 1820. 
 
 Mainz. See Mentz. 
 
 " Majestatsbrief " — Granted to the Bohemians by Rudolph II., 1609. 
 
 Malakhoff (at Sebastopol)— Stormed by the French, Sept. 8, 1855. 
 
 Malplaquet 4 — Prince Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at, 1709. 
 
 Malta — Given to the Knights of St. John, 1530 ; successfully defended by 
 them against the Turks, 1565 ; seized by Bonaparte, 1798 ; the English 
 become masters of, 1800. 
 
 Malvern Hill 5 — The Confederates repulsed by McClellan at, July 1, 1862. 
 
 Mamelukes. See Egypt. 
 
 Manhattan Island. See New York (city). 
 
 Manichaeans — Sect of, originates, 3d c. 
 
 Mantinea 6 — Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans at, 362 b. c. ; vic- 
 tory of Philopoemen over the Spartans at, 207 b. c. 
 
 Mantua — Rule of the Gonzaga family established, 1328; marquisate of, erect- 
 ed into a duchy, 1530 ; extinction of the house of Gonzaga, the duchy a pos- 
 session of Austria, 1708; city besieged and taken by Bonaparte, 1796-'7. 
 
 Marathon 7 — Victory of the Athenians over the Persians at, 490 b. c. 
 
 Marburg, 8 conference of, between the followers of Luther and Zwingli, 
 1529. 
 
 Marburg, University of — Founded, 1527. 
 
 Marches, the — See Papal States. 
 
 Marcomanni 9 — Under Marbod, establish themselves in Bohemia, about 8 
 b. c. ; great war waged by them, in conjunction with the Quadi, against 
 Rome, about a. d. 166-180. 
 
 1 Magdala was a mountain stronghold in Abyssinia, in a S. E. direction from Gondar. 
 8 A town W. of Milan. ' A town of Lydia, at the foot of Mt. Sipylus. 4 A village of French 
 Flanders. 6 A locality near the James River, a short distance below Richmond. 6 A town 
 of Arcadia, near the borders of Argolis. 7 A place on the coast of Attica. 8 A town of 
 Hesse, on the river Lahn, now included in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. 9 A Ger- 
 manic people. 
 
258 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Marchfeld 1 — Rudolph of Hapsburg vanquishes Ottocar of Bohemia on the, 
 
 1278. 
 Marengo 2 — Victory of Napoleon over the Austrian's at, June 14, 1800. 
 Marignano (Melegnano) 8 — Victory of Francis I. at, 1515. 
 Mars, satellites of— Discovered by Hall, 1877. 
 Marsaglia 4 — Victory of Catinat over the army of Savoy at, 1093. 
 Marsala 6 — Garibaldi lands at, May, 1800. 
 Marsic War. See Social War. 
 Mars-la-Tour 6 — Battle of (or of Vionville), between the Germans and 
 
 French, Aug. 16, 1870. 
 Marston Moor 7 — The Parliamentarians and Scots defeat the Royalists at, 
 
 1644. 
 Martinique— Taken by the English, 1762, 1794, 1809. 
 Maryland — Settlement made on Kent Island, 1631 ; Cecilius Calvert's 
 
 charter, 1632; St. Mary's settled, 1634; made a royal province, 1691; 
 
 one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 Mascara 8 — Burned by the French, 1835 ; taken by them, 1841. 
 Massachusetts — Gosnold attempts a settlement in, 1602 ; Plymouth settled, 
 
 1620; Salem settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company, 1628; Boston 
 
 founded, 1630 ; union of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies, 1692 ; 
 
 one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 Massilia (Marseilles) — Founded by the Phocaeans, about 600 b. c. ; taken by 
 
 ( 'n'sar, 49 b. c. 
 Itlaumee Rapids 9 — Wayne defeats the Miamis at, 1794. 
 Mauritius (Isle-de-Franee) — Wrested from the French by the English, 1810. 
 Ilausoleum 10 — Erected by Artemisia, about 350 B. c. 
 Maypu u — Victory of San Martin over the Spaniards on the, 1818. 
 Mechanicsville' 2 — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, June 
 
 26, 1862. 
 Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence, 13 1775. 
 Media — [b. c] — United into a single kingdom, about 640 ; accession of Cyaxa- 
 
 res, 624 (633) ; of Astyages, 584 (593) ; realm destroyed by Cyrus, 550 (558). 
 Medici, house of. See Florence, Tuscany. 
 
 Megalopolis u — Founded, 369 b. c. ; victory of Antipater at, 330 (331) b. c. 
 Megiddo I5 — Necho overwhelms Josiah at, about 609 b. c. 
 Melegnano. See Marignano. 
 
 1 A plain at the junction of the March and Danube, near Vienna. 2 A small place in 
 Piedmont, on the Bormida. 3 A town S. E. of Milan. * A village in the S. portion of Pied- 
 mont. s A town at the W. extremity of Sicily. 6 A village W. of Metz. 7 A few miles W. 
 of York. 8 A town of Algeria, 45 miles S. E. of Oran. 9 The Maumee River flows into 
 Lake Erie at its W. end ; the rapids are about 18 miles above its mouth. 10 At Halicar- 
 nassus, near the S. W. corner of Asia Minor. n A river of Chili, which empties into the 
 Pacific not far S. of Valparaiso. 12 A place a few miles N. E. of Richmond, on the Chicka- 
 hominy River, near where it is joined by Beaver Dam Creek. 13 Mecklenburg is a S. county 
 of North Carolina. li In Arcadia. 16 A valley near Mt. Carniel, with a town of the same 
 name. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 259 
 
 Meloria l — Victory of the Genoese over the Pisans off, 1284. 
 
 Mentana 2 — Defeat of Garibaldi by the French and papal forces at, 18G7. 
 
 Mentz (Mainz), archbishopric of — Established about 750; the see secular- 
 ized, 1801-3. See Electors (Imperial). 
 
 Mentz (city) — Conquered by the archbishop of Mentz, and deprived of its 
 liberties, 14G2; taken by the Swedes. 1631; by the French, 1644, 1688, 
 1792, 1797 ; ceded to France, 1801 (held till 1814) ; annexed to Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, 1815. 
 
 Mercia. See England. 
 
 Merovingian Dynasty. See Franks. 
 
 "Merrimac." See Hampton Roads. 
 
 Merseburg 3 — Henry the Fowler defeats the Hungarians at, 933. 
 
 Messene. See Messenia. 
 
 Messenia 4 — [b. c] — War with Sparta, ending in the subjection of Messenia, 
 743-724 (common chronology) ; second great struggle with Sparta, the 
 Messenians finally subdued, about 645-628 (685-668) ; 6 great rising of tho 
 Messenian helots, 464-455 ; rise of a new Messenian state, Messene found- 
 ed, 369 ; Roman dominion established, 146. 
 
 Metaurus 6 — Hasdrubal overwhelmed by the Romans on the, 207 b. c. 
 
 Methodism — First beginnings of, at Oxford, 1729 ; John Wesley begins the 
 erection of the first Methodist chapel, 1739. 
 
 Metric System — Adopted in France, 1795. 
 
 Metz — Seized by France, 1552; besieged by Charles V., 1552-'3 ; surrender 
 of Bazaine, Oct. 27, 1870 ; ceded to Germany, 1871. 
 
 Mexico — First entry of Cortes into the city of Mexico, 1519 ; reduction of 
 the capital and conquest of the country, 1521 ; beginning of the war of 
 independence, 1810 ; independence secured, 1821 ; Iturbide emperor, 
 1822-'3; constituted a federal republic, 1824; reorganized into a cen- 
 tralized state, 1835 ; Texas becomes independent, 1835-'6 ; outbreak of 
 the war with the United States, 1846; entry of Scott into the capital, 
 1847 ; treaty of peace, 1848 ; convention of London between France, Eng- 
 land, and Spain, Vera Cruz occupied by the Spaniards, 1861 ; war with 
 France, career of Maximilian, 1862-'7. 
 
 Michigan — Admitted into the Union, 1837. 
 
 Milan — City taken by Frederick Barbarossa, 1158; besieged and destroyed 
 by him, 1161— '2 ; triumph of the house of Visconti over that of La Torre, 
 1311 ; erection of the duchy of Milan, 1395 ; end of the Visconti dynasty, 
 1447; establishment of the ducal house of Sforza, 1450; duchy conquered 
 and held by the French, 1499, 1500-1512, 1515-21, 1524-'5 (partial con- 
 quest, followed by the overthrow of Francis I. at Pavia) ; end of the Sforza 
 
 1 An island oil the coast of Tuscany. a A village N. E. of Rome. 3 A town of Ger- 
 many, on the Saale, now included in Prussian Saxony. 4 A district in the S. W. portion 
 of the Peloponnesus. 6 The earlier dates, 685-668, arc according to the common chronology. 
 Recent authorities place the war 40 years later. 6 A river of Italy, in Umbria, emptying 
 into the Adriatic ; now Metaro. 
 18 
 
260 CHRONOLOGICAL. DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 dynasty, duchy taken possession of by Charles V., 1535 ; the Milanese con- 
 quered from Spain by Austria, 1706-'7 ; secured to Austria by treaties, 
 1713-14 : rising against Austrian rule, 1848. (See Lombardy.) 
 
 Milan, cathedral of — Erection of, begun, about 1386. 
 
 Milan, council of, 355. 
 
 Milan Decree (against British commerce), 1807. 
 
 Milazzo 1 — Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitan forces at, 1860. 
 
 Miletus 2 — Becomes a great naval power, 8th c. B. c. ; destroyed by the Per- 
 sians, 494 b. c. (The city was subsequently rebuilt, but did not again at- 
 tain to power.) 
 
 Military Tribunes (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 442 b. c. 
 
 Mill Spring 3 — Thomas defeats the Confederates at, 1862. 
 
 Minden 4 — Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French at, 1759. 
 
 Minnesota — Admitted into the Union, 1858. 
 
 Minorca — Wrested from Spain by the English, 1708; ceded to them, 1713: 
 taken by the French, 1756; restored to England, 1763; taken by the 
 French and Spaniards, 1782; given up to Spain, 1783. 
 
 Mint, national (at Philadelphia) — Established, 1792. 
 
 Mishnah — Systematically arranged by Judah the Holy, about beginning of 
 3d c. A. D. 
 
 Missionary Ridge 5 — The Federals carry the Confederate positions on, Nov. 
 25, 1863. 
 
 Mississippi — Admitted into the Union, 1817; secedes, 1861 ; reconstruction 
 completed, 1870. 
 
 Mississippi River — Reached by De Soto, 1541 ; descended by La Salle, 1682. 
 
 Mississippi Scheme — Law's West India Company incorporated, 1717; fail- 
 ure of the scheme, 1720. 
 
 Missolonghi 6 — Successfully defended by the Greeks, 1822, 1823 ; great 
 siege of, begun, 1825 ; falls, 1826. 
 
 Missouri — The territory of Louisiana renamed Missouri, 1812 ; admission 
 of the state into the Union, 1821. 
 
 Missouri Compromise — Adopted, 1820 ; repealed, 1854. 
 
 Mithridatic Wars, 88-84, 83-82, 74-65 b. c. 
 
 Moabite Stone — Discovered by Klein, 1868. 
 
 Mobile — Confederate fleet destroyed or captured in the bay, Aug. 5, 1864 ; 
 occupied by the Federals, April, 1865. 
 
 Modena — Rule of the house of Este established, 1288 ; erected into a duchy, 
 -1452 ; conquered by the French, 1796 ; death of the last duke of the house 
 of Este, 1803 ; ruled by a Hapsburg dynasty, from 1814 ; revolutions, 
 1831, 1848, 1859 ; annexed by Victor Emanuel, 1860. 
 
 1 A town near the N. E. corner of Sicily. 2 One of the Ionian cities on the W. coast of 
 Asia Minor. 3 A locality in southern Kentucky, on the upper Cumberland. * A town of 
 Prussia, in Westphalia, on the Weser. 6 Near Chattanooga. • A town W. of Lepauto, on 
 the Gulf of Patras. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 261 
 
 Modoc War, 1 1872-'3. 
 
 Mogadore 2 — Bombarded by the French, 1844. 
 
 Mogul Dynasty in India. See India, Delhi. 
 
 Mohacs 3 — The Turks defeat the Hungarians at, 1526; the duke of Lorraine 
 defeats the Turks at, 1687. 
 
 Moldavia — Becomes an independent principality, about beginning of 14th 
 c. ; becomes tributary to Turkey, early in the 16th c. ; ruled by Panariote 4 
 hospodars, 1709-1821 ; united with Wallachia into the principality of 
 Roumania, 1861. 
 
 Molino del Rey 5 — Stormed by Worth, 1847. 
 
 Mollwitz 6 — Frederick the Great defeats the Austrians at, 1741. 
 
 Monasteries, dissolution of the, in England — The lesser monasteries 
 suppressed, 1536 ; the greater, 1539. 
 
 Moncontour 7 — Defeat of the Huguenots at, 1569. 
 
 Mongols — Genghis Khan lays the foundations of his empire, 1202-'6 ; cap- 
 ture of Yenking (Peking) by his forces, 1215 ; he breaks the power of the 
 Kharesmians, 1219-1220 ; Batu Khan, with the Golden Horde, forces the 
 princes of Russia to do homage, 1240 ; the Golden Horde advances into 
 Central Europe, battle of Licgnitz, 1241 ; Asia Minor invaded, 1242 ; 
 Hulaku Khan puts an end to the caliphate of Bagdad, 1258 ; first Mon- 
 gol dynasty in China, 1280-1368 ; Tamerlane begins his conquests, 1366-'9 ; 
 he vanquishes Sultan Bajazet, 1402. 
 
 "Monitor." See Hampton Roads. 
 
 Monmouth 8 — Battle between the Americans and British at, June 28, 1778. 
 
 Monocacy 9 — Victory of Early on the. July 9, 1864. 
 
 Monongahela 10 — Braddock's army is overwhelmed on the. July 9. 1755. 
 
 Montana — Admitted into the Union. 1889. 
 
 Mont Blanc — Ascent to the summit first accomplished, 1786. 
 
 Montenegro — Becomes an independent state, 1389 ; recent wars with the 
 Turks, 1852-3, 1861-2, 1876-8 ; declared independent by the treaty of 
 Berlin, 1878. 
 
 Montenotte" — Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at, April 12, 1796. 
 
 Monterey »*— Taken by Taylor, 1846. 
 
 Montgomery — Convention of the seceded states held at, 1861 ; seat of the 
 Confederate Congress, 1861. 
 
 1 Waged on the northern borders of California. 2 A seaport town on the Atlantic coast. 
 of Morocco. 3 A town of southern Hungary, on the Danube. 4 The name of Fanarioks 
 was applied to a number of aristocratic Greek families dwelling in the quarter of Constan- 
 tinople called the Fanar. * Structures at Chapultepec. close to the city of Mexico. e A 
 village S. E. of Breslau. T A village about 25 miles N. W. of Poitiers. 8 A village of New 
 Jersey, in a S. E. direction from New Brunswick ; the place is now called Freehold. 9 A 
 river of Maryland, which empties into the Potomac between Washington and Harper's 
 Ferry. i° A river of West Virginia and Pennsylvania, which joins the Alleghany to form 
 the Ohio. The battle-field was near the junction. " A village in Piedmont, about 25 miles 
 W. of Genoa. 12 A town of Mexico, about 95 miles from the nearest point on the Rio Grande 
 and double this distance from the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
262 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Montreal — Taken by the British, 1760 ; by the Americans, 1775 ; recovered 
 by the British. 1776. 
 
 Moors in Spain — Conquest of Spain by the Saracens, 711-714 ; caliphate of 
 Cordova (embracing all Mohammedan Spain), 756-1031 ; succeeded by in- 
 dependent Mohammedan kingdoms; the Almoravides (see Morocco) con- 
 quer most of Mohammedan Spain, 1090-1102; disruption of their realm, 
 1145 ; the Almohades (see Morocco) establish their sway, 1146-about 1171 ; 
 their power broken by the Christians, 1212; kingdom of Granada found- 
 ed, 1238 ; overthrow of the kingdom, end of Moorish dominion in Spain, 
 beginning of 1492 ; rising in the Alpujarras, 1499-1501 ; insurrection of 
 the Moriscos under Philip II., 1568- '70 ; expulsion of the Moriscos, 1609. 
 
 Morat ' — Victory of the Swiss over Charles the Bold at, 1476. 
 
 Moravia — Cyril and Methodius engage in the work of Christianizing the in- 
 habitants, 863 ; reign of Svatopluk, 870-894 ; the Hungarians destroy the 
 Moravian realm, about 906 ; in the course of the 10th c. the country passes 
 under the dominion of Bohemia ; made a margraviate, fief of the crown 
 of Bohemia, close of 12th c. ; ruled by the Hapsburgs, from 1526. 
 
 Moravians — Begin settlement at Ilerrnhut, 1722. 
 
 Morea. See Greece. 
 
 Morgarten 2 — Victory of the Swiss over Leopold of Hapsburg at, 1315. 
 
 Moriscos. See Moors in Spain. 
 
 Mormons — Church organized, 1830 ; Nauvoo 3 founded, 1840 ; expelled from 
 Nauvoo, 1846 ; migration to the Great Salt Lake, 1848 ; rebellion, 1857-X 
 
 Morocco — The Almoravides establish their sway, 11th c. ; they found the 
 city of Morocco, 1072 ; conquer most of Mohammedan Spain, 1090-1102 ; 
 succumb to the Almohades, middle of 12th c. ; — (See Moors in Spain.) — 
 end of the Almohade dynasty, 13th c. ; invasion of Sebastian of Portu- 
 gal, 1578; Abderrahman, Abd-el-Kader's ally, vanquished by the French, 
 1844 ; Sidi Mohammed succeeds Abderrahman, 1859 ; war with Spain, 
 1859-60 : accession of Muley Hassan, 1873 ; of Abdul Aziz, 1894. 
 
 Moscow — Entered by the French, burned by the Russians, 1812. 
 
 Mb'skirch 4 — Victory of the French over the Austrians at. 1800. 
 
 Muhlberg 6 — Defeat of the German Protestants at, 1547. 
 
 Muhldorf 6 — Victory of Louis the Bavarian at, 1322. 
 
 Munda 7 — Caesar defeats the Pompeians at, 45 b. c. 
 
 Munich — University of Landshut removed to, 1826; new royal palace be- 
 gun, 1826 ; the Glyptothek completed, 1830 ; the old Pinakothek com- 
 pleted, lS3h* ; Sch want baler's statue of Bavaria executed, 1844-'50. 
 
 Minister — Reign of the Anabaptists in, 1534-'5 ; peace of Westphalia signed 
 at, 1648. 
 
 1 A town of Switzerland, near Fribonrg. 2 A declivity near Schwytz. s In Illinois, on 
 the Mississippi. * A town in the S. part of Baden. 5 A town on the Elbe, now included in 
 Prussian Saxony. 6 A town of Bavaria, on the Inn. 7 A town situated in what is now 
 Andalusia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 263 
 
 Murfreesboro ' — Engagements at (at Stone River), between Bragg and Rose- 
 
 erans, Dec., 1862-Jan., 1863. 
 Mursa (Mursia) 2 — Victory of Constantius over Magnentius at, 351. 
 Mutinensian War, 3 44-43 b. c. 
 
 Mycale 4 — Victory of the Greeks over the Persians at, 479 b. c. 
 Mycenae 5 — Conquered by the Argives, about 463 b. c. 
 Mysore. See Ixdia. 
 Mytilene. See Lesbos. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nancy — Overthrow of Charles the Bold at, 1477. 
 
 Nanking — Treaty of, between England and China, 184^; taken by the 
 Taipings, Porcelain Tower destroyed, 1853 ; recovered by the emperoi 
 of China, 1864. 
 
 Nantes — Atrocities of Carrier at, 1793-'4. 
 
 Nantes, Edict of (granting toleration to the Huguenots) — Issued. 1598; 
 revocation of the, 1685 — followed by a great migration of the Huguenots 
 from France. 
 
 Naples, duchy of— Established by the Byzantines, 6th c. ; conquered by 
 the Normans, llth-12th c. 
 
 Naples, kingdom of. See Sicilies (the Two). 
 
 Naples, University of — Founded. 1224. 
 
 Narva 6 — Victory of Charles XII. over Peter the Great at, 1700. 
 
 Naseby 7 — Victory of the Parliamentarians at. 1645. 
 
 Nashville— Defeat of Hood before, Dec. 15, 16, 1864. 
 
 Nassau — Annexed to Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Natal — The Boers establish themselves in the region, 1837-8; Boer repub- 
 lic taken possession of by the British, 1842. 
 
 Navarino 8 — Destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at, 1827. 
 
 Navarre — Kingdom of, established, 9th c. ; Aragon separated from it. and 
 erected into an independent kingdom, 1035; united witli Aragon. 1076- 
 1134 ; united with Champagne, 1234-1328 (during the last portion of this 
 period ruled by the kings of France) : again united with Aragon. 1458-79 ; 
 marriage of Queen Catharine de Foix with Jean d'Albret, 1484: con- 
 quest of Spanish Navarre by Ferdinand of Aragon, 1512 : marriage of 
 Jeanne d'Albret with Antoine do Bourbon. 1548: Henry of Navarre be- 
 comes king of France (Henry TV). 1589. 
 
 Navas de Tolosa 9 — Victory of the Christians over the Moors at, 1212. 
 
 Navigation Laws — Passed by Parliament. 1651 : repealed. 1849. 
 
 : A town of Tennessee, S. E. of Nashville. 3 A town of Pannonia, on the Drave ; now 
 Eszek. 3 Mutina is the ancient name of the town of Modena. * A mountain on the W. 
 coast of Asia Minor, opposite Samos. e A town in the N. E. part of the Peloponnesus. 
 6 A town 80 miles S. W. of St. Petersburg, a few miles from the Gulf of Finland. 7 A vil- 
 lage of Northamptonshire, near the center of England. 8 A town on the S. \Y. coast of 
 the Morea. 9 A plain of the Sierra Morena. 
 
264 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Naxos '—Naval victory of the Athenians over the Spartans off, 376 b. c. 
 
 Nebraska — Admitted into the Union, 1867. 
 
 Neerwinden 2 — Victory of the French over William III. at, 1693; victory 
 of the Austrians over the French at, 1793. 
 
 Nehavend 3 — Victory of the Saracens over the Persians at, 642. 
 
 Neptune — Discovered, 1846. 
 
 Netherlands — (See Flanders, Burgundy, &c.) — Separation from Bur- 
 gundy, 1477 ; united with Spain, 1516 ; formally united with the Spanish 
 crown, 1549 ; sovereignty renounced by Charles V. to his son, Philip, 1555 ; 
 Margaret of Parma made regent, 1559 ; the Gueux petition for rights, 
 1566 ; iconoclastic outbreaks, 1566 ; Alva organizes the " Council of 
 Blood," 1567 ; execution of Egmont and Horn, 1568 ; Louis of Nassau and 
 William of Orange in arms against Spain, 1568 ; Pacification of Ghent, 
 1576 ; foundation of the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht, 1579 ; — 
 (See Netherlands. Spanish.) — independence of Holland recognized by 
 Spain, 1648 ; the republic united with England under one sovereign, Will- 
 iam III., 1689-1702 ; conquest of Holland by the French, 1794- '5 ; proc- 
 lamation of the Batavian Republic, 1795 ; Louis Bonaparte made king 
 of Holland, 1806 ; his realm annexed to the French Empire, 1810 ; ex- 
 pulsion of the French, 1813 ; Holland and Belgium united into one 
 realm, the kingdom of the Netherlands, under William L, 1815 ; revo- 
 lution in Belgium, 1830 (see Belgium); accession of William II., 1840; 
 William III., 1849; Wilhelmina (born 1880), 1890. (See Luxemburg.) 
 
 Netherlands, Spanish — (See Netherlands.) — Given to Austria, 1713-14. 
 (See Belgium.) 
 
 Neufchatel — Sovereignty of Prussia recognized by the treaty of Utrecht, 
 1713 ; ceded to France, 1805 ; restored to Prussia, 1814 ; throws off the 
 authority of Prussia, 1848. 
 
 Nevada — Admitted into the Union, 1864. 
 
 Neville's Cross 4 — Victory of the English over the Scots at, 1346. 
 
 New Amsterdam. See New York. 
 
 Newbury 5 — Battles between the Parliamentarians and Royalists at, 1643, 
 1644. 
 
 New Caledonia — Discovered by Cook, 1774 : occupied by the French, 
 1853. 
 
 New England — Colonies of, establish a confederacy, 1643. 
 
 Newfoundland — Taken possession of by the English, 1583 ; sole sovereignty 
 secured to England, 1713. 
 
 New Granada. See Colombia. 
 
 New Hampshire— Settled at Dover, 1623 ; annexed to Massachusetts, 
 1642 ; made a royal province, 1679 ; reunited with Massachusetts, 1689 ; 
 
 1 An island of the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Cyclades. 2 A village N. W. of Liege. 
 3 A town of western Persia, about 50 miles S. of Hamadan. 4 A locality near Durham. s A 
 town of Berkshire, on the Kennet, an affluent of the Thames. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 265 
 
 again separated, 1692-'9; finally constituted a separate province, 1741; 
 one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 New Haven, colony of. See Connecticut. 
 
 New Jersey — Formed out of the Dutch territories granted to James, duke 
 of York, 1664; reoccupied by the Dutch, 1673 ; restored to the English, 
 1674; "West Jersey bought by the Quakers, 1674; purchase of East Jer- 
 sey by Penn, 1682 ; government transferred to the crown, 1702 ; one of 
 the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 New Jersey, College of. See Princeton College. 
 
 New London — Burned by Arnold, 1781. 
 
 New Mexico — Occupied by the American forces, 1846 ; ceded to the United 
 States, 1848 ; territory organized, 1850. 
 
 New Netherland. See New York. 
 
 New Orleans — Settled by the French, 1718 ; defeat of the British at, Jan. 
 8, 1815 ; taken from the Confederates, 1862. 
 
 New York — First Dutch settlements, 1614 ; the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany takes possession of New Netherland, 1622 ; building of Fort Orange 
 (Albany), 1623 ; the English take possession of New Netherland, 1664 — 
 name changed to New York ; reoccupied by the Dutch, 1673 ; restored 
 to the English, 1674; one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 New York (city) — The Dutch build a fort on Manhattan Island, 1614; pur- 
 chase of the island from the Indians, 1626 ; New Amsterdam occupied 
 by the English, and named New York, 1664 ; first colonial congress meets 
 at, 1765; occupied by the British, 1776; evacuated, 1783; seat of govern- 
 ment of the United States, 1785-90 ; great fire, 1835 ; conscription riots, 
 1863. 
 
 New Zealand— Discovered by Tasman, 1642; created a British colony, 1840. 
 
 Ngami Lake ! — Discovered by Livingstone, 1849. 
 
 Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge— Completed, 1855. 
 
 Nibelungen — Composed, 12th c. 
 
 Nicaea (Nice)' 2 — The first general council held at, 325; the seventh, 787; 
 taken by the crusaders, 1097 ; by Orkhan, 1330. 
 
 Nicsea, empire of, 1206-'61. 
 
 Nicaragua— (See Central America.) — Invaded and ruled by the filibuster 
 Walker, 1855-'6. 
 
 Nice (Asia Minor). See Nicaea. 
 
 Nice (Nizza) — Truce of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 1538 ; ceded to 
 France by Victor Emanuel, 1860. 
 
 Nicene Creed — Adopted, 325. 
 
 Nicias, peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 b. c. 
 
 Nicopolis. See Nikopoli. 
 
 Nikolsburg, 3 preliminaries of, between Prussia and Austria, 1866. 
 
 1 In the interior of South Africa, just south of the 20th parallel of latitude. 3 A town 
 of Asia Minor, in Bithynia ; now Isnik. 8 A town in the S. part of Moravia. 
 
266 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Nikopoli (Nrcopolis) 1 — Victory of Bajazet at, 1896; taken by the Russians, 
 1810 ; they destroy a Turkish fleet near, 1829 ; they storm the Turkish 
 positions at, 1829 ; take the city, 1877. 
 
 Niksitch — Taken by the Montenegrins, 1877 ; ceded to them, 1878. 
 
 Nile — Sources of the, determined by the explorations of Speke, Grant, 
 Baker, Cameron, and Stanley, 1858-'76. 
 
 Nile, battle of the. See Aboukir (Bay of). 
 
 Nimeguen 2 — France concludes peace at, with Holland and Spain, 1678; 
 with the German Empire, 1679. 
 
 Nineveh 3 — Taken and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, 607 
 (606) b. c. 4 
 
 Nitrogen — Discovered by Rutherford, 1772. 
 
 Nizib 5 — Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1839. 
 
 Nora 6 — Eumenes blockaded in, by Antigonus, 320-319 b. c. 
 
 Nbrdlingen 7 — Victory of the Imperialists over the Swedes and German 
 Protestants at, 1634. 
 
 Norfolk — Gosport navy-yard abandoned by the Federals, April, 1861 ; place 
 recovered by the Federals, May, 1862. 
 
 Normandy — Granted to the Northmen, 911 ; 8 Norman conquest of Eng- 
 land, 1066; wrested from England by Philip Augustus, 1202-'4; again 
 subject to England under Henry V. and Henry VI. ; reconquered by 
 the French, 1449-50. 
 
 Normans in Italy and Sicily. See Sicilies (the Two). 
 
 North Carolina — (See Carolina.) — One of the thirteen states, 1776 ; se- 
 cedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. 
 
 North Dakota — Admitted into the Union, 1889. 
 
 Northeast Passage — Accomplished by Nordenskjold, 1879. 
 
 North German Confederation, 1866-'70. 
 
 Northmen — Begin their inroads into Britain, about 789 ; into the Frankish 
 territories, about 800 ; pillage Paris, 845, 857, 861 ; the Varangians lay 
 the foundations of the Russian monarchy, 862 ; first expedition of the 
 Varangians against Constantinople, 865 ; the Northmen settle in Iceland, 
 »874 (Greenland first visited by them about this time) ; besiege Paris, 
 885-'6; receive Normandy, 911. 
 
 Northumbria. See England. 
 
 Northwest Boundary of the United States— Treaty for settlement of, 1846. 
 
 1 A town of Bulgaria, on the Danube. a A town of Holland, in Gelderland, near the 
 border of Germany. 3 Nineveh lay mainly on the E. bank of the Tigris, opposite the site 
 of the present city of Mosul. The remains of its structures at Khorsabad, Nimrud, and 
 Koyunjik were disclosed by Botta and Layard in 1843-'50. * See Assyria. 5 A village of 
 northern Syria. (Not to be confounded with the ancient Nisibis, in Mesopotamia.) 6 A 
 fortress in Cappadocia (in Asia Minor), at the foot of the Taurus. 7 One of the old free 
 cities of Swabia, now a town of Bavaria. It is situated a short distance N. of the Danube, 
 near the border of Wiirtemberg. 8 f] ie cession of Normandy to the Northmen is frequently 
 placed in the year 912. According to Henri Martin the investiture took place at the close 
 of 911. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 267 
 
 Northwest Passage—Accomplished by McClure, 1850-54. (The existence 
 
 of a passage ascertained by Sir John Franklin in 1846.) 
 Northwest Territory 1 — Government of the, undertaken by Congress, 
 
 1787. 
 Norway — United into a kingdom by Harald Harfager, latter part of 9th c.:, 
 
 Christianity introduced, 10th c. ; united with Denmark, 1880 ; Union of 
 
 Calmar, 1397 ; Lutheranism established, 1537 ; ceded by Denmark to 
 
 Sweden, 1814. 
 Notables, Assembly of— Meetings of the, under Louis XVI., 1787, 1788. 
 Notium 2 — Naval victory of the Spartans over the Athenians off, 407 B. c. 
 Notre Dame, cathedral of (Paris) — Built about 1163-1312. 
 Novara 3 — The Swiss defeat the French at, 1513 ; victory of the Austrians 
 
 over the Sardinians at, 1849. 
 Nova Scotia — Cession of Acadia by France to England, 1713; dispersion 
 
 of the French colonists, 1755; the colony constituted a portion of the 
 
 Dominion of Canada, 1867. 
 Novgorod. See Russia. 
 
 Novi 4 — Victory of Suvaroff over the French at, 1799. 
 Noyon, 6 treaty of, between Francis I. and Charles of Hapsburg, 1516. 
 Nubia— Conquered by Mehemet Ali, 1820-22 ; end of Egyptian rule, 1885. 
 Nullification Movement, 1832. 
 
 Numantia e — Taken and destroyed by the younger Scipio Africanus, 133 b. c. 
 Numidia 1 — [b. c] — Masinissa assists the Carthaginians against the Romans 
 
 in Spain, 212-206; he assists the Romans against the Carthaginians in 
 
 Africa, 204-202 ; Jugurthine War, 111-106; Juba I. conquered by Caesar, 
 
 46 — the kingdom a possession of Rome. 
 Nuremberg (Niirnberg)— Religious peace of, 1532 ; Wallenstein and Gus- 
 
 tavus Adolphus confront each other at, 1632 ; deprived of its rank as a 
 
 free city, and annexed to Bavaria, 1806. 
 Nystad, 8 treaty of, between Sweden and Russia, 1721. 
 
 Odessa— Founded, 1794 ; bombarded by the English and French, 1854. 
 (Enophyta 9 — The Athenians defeat the Boeotians at, 456 is. c. 
 Ohio— Admitted into the Union, 1803. 
 Ohio Company — Receives its grant, 1749. 
 Old Catholics— Rise of the sect, 1870. 
 
 Oldenburg— Acquired by the king of Denmark, 1667; made over by Den- 
 mark to the house of Holstein-Gottorp, 1773. 
 
 1 The territory N. of the Ohio. a A town on the W. coast of Asia Minor, near Ephesus. 
 8 A town of Piedmont, near the holder of Lombardy. 4 A town of Piedmont, between 
 Alessandria and Genoa, 8 A town about 65 miles N. E. of Paris, near the river Oise. 9 A 
 town of Spain, near the source of the Durius (Douro). 7 Modern Algeria. 8 A town of 
 Finland, on the Gulf of Bothnia. e A town of Bceotia, near the border of Attica. 
 
268 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Oliva, 1 peace of, between Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, and the emperor 
 of Germany, 1660. 
 
 Olmutz, 2 conference of, between Austria and Prussia, 1850. 
 
 Olympiads — Beginning of the, 776 b. c. 
 
 Olynthus 3 — War of Sparta against, 382-379 b. c. ; destroyed by Philip of 
 Macedon, 347 b. c. 
 
 Ommiyades. See Saracens, Cordova. 
 
 Opera — Originated, close of 16th c. 
 
 Ophthalmoscope — Invented by Helmholtz, 1851. 
 
 Opium War, 1840-'42. 
 
 Orange, house of — Greatness of the, founded by William, surnamed the 
 Silent, and his son, Maurice of Nassau, leaders of the Dutch in their strug- 
 gle for independence, 1568-1625 ; Holland ruled by stadtholders of the 
 house of Orange till 1795 ; restoration of the house, close of 1813 ; it is 
 invested with the regal dignity, 1815 ; — reign of William III. in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, 1689-1702. 
 
 Orange, principality of 4 — On the death of Philibert of Chalon passes to 
 the house of Nassau, 1530 ; rule of the house of Nassau terminates, 1702 ; 
 awarded to France by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 
 
 Orange River Republic. See Boers. 
 
 Oratory, Congregation of the — Founded by St. Philip Neri, 1564. 
 
 Qrebro, 6 Diet of, 1529. 
 
 Oregon — Territory organized, 1848 ; admitted into the Union, 1859. 
 
 Orleans —Besieged by the English, 1428; relieved by Joan of Arc, 1429; 
 taken by the Germans, Oct., 1870; recovered by Aurelle de Paladines, 
 Nov. ; the Germans defeat him, and reoccupy the city, Dec. 
 
 Ostend — Besieged and taken by the Spaniards, 1601-'4. 
 
 Ostend Manifesto, 1854. 
 
 Ostrogoths, realm of the, in Italy, 493-553. 
 
 Ostrolenka 6 — The Poles unsuccessfully attack the Russians at, 1831. 
 
 Otranto '—Taken by the Turks, 1480 ; lost by them, 1481. 
 
 Otterburn 8 — Battle of, between the Scots and English (Chevy Chase), 
 1388. 
 
 Ottoman Empire. See Turkey. 
 
 Oude. See India. 
 
 Oudenarde 9 — Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at, 1708. 
 
 Ourique 10 — Victory of the Portuguese over the Moors at, 1139. 
 
 Oxford, Provisions of, 1258. 
 
 Oxford, University of— Rises into eminence, 12th c. ; first styled Uni- 
 
 1 A town near Dantzic. a A fortress of Moravia, on the river March. s A town in the 
 peninsula of Chalcidice, which projects into the N. W. part of the vEgean Sea. 4 In Pro- 
 vence, near Avignon. 6 A town about 100 miles W. of Stockholm, on Lake Hjelmar. 6 A 
 town situated on the river Narew, in a N. E. direction from Warsaw. 7 A town at the S. E. 
 extremity of Italy. 8 A place in Northumberland. 8 A town of Flanders, on the Scheldt. 
 10 A town about 90 miles S. E. of Lisbon. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 269 
 
 versity, 1201 ; the oldest of the colleges, University College, founded, 
 1249. 
 Oxygen — Discovered by Priestley, 1774. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacific Ocean — Discovery of the, by Balboa, 1513. 
 
 Pacific Railway (first)— Built, 1863-9. 
 
 Padua — Conquered by Venice, 1405. 
 
 Padua, "University of — Founded, 13th c. 
 
 Palseologi — Dynasty of the, in the Byzantine Empire, 1261-1453. 
 
 Palatinate of the Rhine — Frederick V. stripped of his dominions, 1620-'22 ; 
 the Upper Palatinate J given to Bavaria, 1628 ; Frederick's son recovers 
 the Palatinate of the Rhine, 1648 ; laid waste by the French, 1674, 1689 ; 
 united with Bavaria, 1779 ; rising in the, 1849. See Electors (Imperial). 
 
 Palermo— Taken by the Saracens, about 832 ; by the Normans, 1072 ; Sicil- 
 ian Vespers, 1282 ; insurrections, 1647, 1820, 1848-9, 1860. 
 
 Palestine. See Hebrews, Jerusalem. 
 
 Palmyra 2 — Queen Zenobia vanquished by Aurelian, 272-3 — city partially 
 destroyed at this time. 
 
 Palo Alto 3 — Taylor defeats the Mexicans at, 1846. 
 
 Panama Canal — Construction of the, begun, 1881. 
 
 Panama Railway — Opened, 1855. 
 
 Pandects of Justinian — Published, 533. 
 
 Panics, financial, in the United States, 1837, 1857, 1873. 
 
 Paniput 4 — Victory of Baber over Ibrahim Lodi, emperor of Delhi, at, 1526 ; 
 victory of Ahmed Shah over the Mahrattas at, 1761. 
 
 Pannonia 6 — The Romans begin the conquest of, 35 b. c. ; Roman dominion 
 established over the whole country, 9 B. c. ; great rising, the people finally 
 subjugated, a. d. 6-9. 
 
 Pan-Slavic Congress in Prague, 1848. 
 
 Pantheon (Rome) — Built by Agrippa, about 26 b. c. 
 
 Pantheon (Paris ; church of Ste. Genevieve) — Built, 1764-'90. 
 
 Papal Guarantees, Bill of the, 1871. 
 
 Papal States — Creation of a papal realm by Pepin the Short, 755 ; the papal 
 dominion absolutely independent of the authority of the German emper- 
 ors, from close of 12th c. ; Napoleon takes possession of the papal terri- 
 tories, 1808-9 ; they are evacuated by the French, 1814 ; the Romagna, 6 
 the Marches, 7 and Umbria 8 annexed to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, 
 
 1 A district between the Danube and the Fichtelgebirge. 2 Palmyra was situated in an 
 oasis of the Syrian desert, in a N. E. direction from Damascus. 3 A locality near Matamo- 
 ros, at the S. extremity of Texas. 4 A town N. W. of Delhi. s The region of the Save and 
 Drave, the adjoining portion of Hungary proper, as far N. and E. as the Danube, and part 
 of Lower Austria. 6 The Romagna includes the towns of Bologna, Ferrara, and Ravenna. 
 
 7 A district between the Apennines and the Adriatic, the chief town of which is Ancona. 
 
 8 Umbria was the central division of the Papal States. 
 
270 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1860 ; Garibaldi's unsuccessful expeditions against, 1862, 1867 ; Rome and 
 the remaining papal territories annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1870. 
 (See Rome, Avignon, Venaissin.) 
 
 Paraguay — Foundation of Asuncion by the Spaniards, about 1536 ; expul- 
 sion of the Jesuits, 1767 ; revolutionary struggle, 1811 ; dictatorship of 
 Francia, 1814-'40 ; of C. A. Lopez, 1844-'62 ; of F. S. Lopez, 1862-70 ; 
 war with Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay, 1864-'70. 
 
 Paris — In Caesar's time capital of the Parish (Lutetia Parisiorum) ; made 
 the capital of the Frankish kingdom, 508 ; pillaged by the Northmen, 
 845, 857, 861 ; besieged by them, 885-'6 ; entry of Henry V. of Eng- 
 land into, 1420 ; recovered by the French, 1436 ; Henry IV. of France 
 begins operations against, 1589 ; surrenders to him, 1594 ; entered by the 
 allies, 1814, 1815 ; fortification of, by Louis Philippe, begun, 1841 ; be- 
 sieged and taken by the Germans, 1870-'71 ; the Commune, 1871 ; — (See 
 France.)— international exhibitions, 1855, 1867, 1878, 1889. 
 
 Paris, treaties of — Treaty terminating the Seven Years' War, 1763 ; be- 
 tween Great Britain and the United States, 1783 ; between France and 
 the coalition, 1814, 1815 ; treaty terminating the Crimean War, 1856. 
 
 Paris, University of — Becomes famous, 12th c. ; suppressed, 1793. 
 
 Parliament (of England) — Representation in, granted to the commons by 
 Simon de Montfort, 1265. 
 
 Parliament, Houses of. See London. 
 
 Parliaments (in France) — Suppressed, 1790. 
 
 Parma and Piacenza — Erected into duchies for the house of Farnese, 1545 ; 
 end of the Farnese dynasty, Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, takes 
 possession, 1731 (Bourbon dynasty) ; ceded to Austria, 1735 ; given to Don 
 Philip, brother of Don Carlos, 1748; taken possession of by Bonaparte, 
 1802 ; given to the empress Maria Louisa, 1814— '15 ; on her death revert 
 to the former Spanish dynasty, 1847 ; revolutions, 1848, 1859 ; annexed 
 by Victor Emanuel, 1860. 
 
 Parthenon — Erected, about 440 b. c. 
 
 Parthenopean Republic (Naples), 1799. 
 
 Parthia — Kingdom of the Arsacid* founded, about 248 b. c. ; overthrown, 
 a. d. 226. 
 
 Passarowitz, 1 peace of, between Turkey and Austria,, 1718. 
 
 Passau, 2 peace of, securing the liberties of the German Lutherans, 1552. 
 
 Pavia — Taken by the Lombards, 572 — made the capital of their kingdom ; 
 taken by Charlemagne, 774 ; by Otho the Great, 951 ; defeat of Francis I. 
 at, 1525. 
 
 Pazzi, conspiracy of the, against the Medici, 1478. 
 
 Pea Ridge 3 — Battle of, victory of the Federals, March 7, 8, 1862. 
 
 Peasants' War, 1524-'5. 
 
 1 A town of Servia, S. E. of Belgrade. 2 A town at the confluence of the Inn and 
 Danube, now belonging to Bavaria. 3 A hamlet near the N. W. corner of Arkansas, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 271 
 
 Peerage, hereditary, in France — Finally abolished, 1831. 
 
 Pei-ho Forts '—Captured by the British and French, 1858, 18G0. 
 
 Peking — Occupied by the British and French, 1860. 
 
 Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b. c. 
 
 Peninsular War, 1808-' 14. 
 
 Pennsylvania — Colony founded, 1682; one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 Penny Postage (in Great Britain) — Introduced, 1840. 
 
 Pequot War, 1637. 
 
 Pergamus, kingdom of 2 — Established, 3d c. B. c. ; bequeathed to the Ro- 
 mans, 133 b. c. 
 
 Perry Treaty, between Japan and the United States, 1854. 
 
 Perryville 3 — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, Oct. 8, 
 1862. 
 
 Persia — [b. c] — Cyrus founds the power of, on the ruins of the Median 
 monarchy, about 550 ; he conquers the Lydian realm, about 546 ; he takes 
 Babylon, 538 ; accession of Cambyses, 529 ; he conquers Egypt, 527 (525) ; 
 Darius Hystaspis, 521 ; first invasion of Greece, 490 ; Xerxes, 486 ; second 
 invasion of Greece, 480; Artabanus, 465; Artaxerxes I., 465; Xerxes II., 
 425 ; Sogdianus, 425 ; Darius Nothus, 424 (425) ; Artaxerxes II., 405 (404) ; 
 Artaxerxes III., 359 (361) ; Arses, 338 ; Darius Codomannus, 336 ; empire 
 overthrown by Alexander, 334-331 ; Seleucus Nicator becomes master of 
 the provinces E. of the Euphrates, 312-about 306 ; Parthian conquest, 2d 
 c. — [a. d.] — Persian kingdom of the Sassanidrc established, 226 ; overthrown 
 by the Saracens, 642; death of the last of the Sassanida?, 651; becomes 
 virtually independent of the caliphs, 9th c. ; the Seljuks establish their 
 dominion, about 1037-1050; the Kharesmians put an end to the Scl- 
 jukian rule, 1194; the power of the Kharesmians broken by Genghis 
 Khan, 1220; Tamerlane's conquest, 1387; foundation of the Suffavean 
 (Soft) dynasty, 1502; reign of Abbas Sliah, 1586-1628; war with Peter 
 the Great, 1722- , 3; end of the Suffavean dynasty, Nadir Shah placed on 
 the throne, 1736; the Russians conquer Persian Armenia, 1827; war with 
 the India government, 1856-'7. 
 
 Peru — Conquest of, by Pizarro, 1531-3 ; San Martin enters Lima and pro- 
 claims independence, 1821 ; entry of Bolivar into Lima, 1823; the Span- 
 iards overthrown at Ayacuoho, 1824; Bolivar dictator, 1824-'5 ; Callao 
 evacuated by the Spaniards, 1826 ; war with Spain, 1866 ; war with Chili, 
 1879-83. 
 
 Perusian War, 4 41-40 b. c. 
 
 Petersburg— Siege and capture of, by the Federals, 1864-'5. 
 
 Peterwardein 6 — Victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at, 1716. 
 
 1 At the mouth of the Pei-ho, a river of northeastern China, near whose hanks Peking 
 is situated. 2 In Asia Minor. The town of Pergamus was situated in Mysia on the river 
 Caicus. 3 A village in central Kentucky, W. of Danville. 4 Perusia is the ancient name of 
 Perugia, a town on the upper Tiher. 6 A fortress on the right bank of the Danube, not far 
 above the mouth of the Theiss. 
 
272 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Petition of Right, 1628. 
 
 Petroleum — Wells first sunk in the United States, 1859. 
 
 Pfalzburg '—Taken by the Germans, 1870. 
 
 Pharsalia 2 — Victory of Caesar over Pompey at, 48 B. c. 
 
 Philadelphia — Laid out, 1082 ; first Continental Congress assembles at, 
 1774 ; second, 1775 ; entered by the British, 1777 ; evacuated, 1778 ; Con- 
 stitutional Convention assembles at, 1787 ; seat of government of the 
 United States, 1790-1800 ; Centennial Exposition, 1876. 
 
 Philippi 3 — Cassius and Brutus overwhelmed at, 42 B. c. 
 
 Philippines — Reached by Magellan, 1521. 
 
 Philippopolis 4 — Suleiman Pasha's army broken up near, Jan., 1878. 
 
 Philistines B — [b. c] — Conquer Israel west of the Jordan, about beginning 
 of 11th c. ; their yoke shaken off by Saul 6 ; overwhelm Saul at Gilboa ; 
 chastised by David ; Gath and Ashdod dismantled by Uzziah ; Tiglath- 
 pileser II. of Assyria imposes his sway, about 732 : Ashdod taken by Sar- 
 gon, 711 (Dimcker); the Philistine cities submit to Sennacherib, 701 ; siege 
 and capture of Ashdod by the Egyptian king Psammetichus, second half 
 of 7th c. ; Gaza taken by Alexander the Great, 332. 
 
 Phoenicians — [b. c] — Enter upon their career as a great colonizing people 
 by establishing settlements in Cyprus, about 1250 (Duncker) ; push their 
 voyages beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, about 1100 (Duncker) ; Tyre about 
 this time supplants Sidon as the leading city ; the Phoenician cities pay 
 tribute to Assyria, 9th-7th c. ; soon after the fall of the Assyrian mon- 
 archy they are forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of Babylon; they 
 submit to Persia, latter part of 6th c. (See Tyre.) 
 
 Phonograph — Invented by Edison, 1877. 
 
 Phosphorus — Discovered by Brandt, 1669. 
 
 Photography — The daguerreotype, an invention of Niepce (d. 1833) and 
 Daguerre, perfected, 1838 ; the invention announced, 1839 ; Talbot's inde- 
 pendent invention, photography on paper, announced, 1839. 
 
 Piacenza, 7 council of, 1095. 
 
 Pianoforte — Invented early in the 18th c. 
 
 Pichincha 8 — Defeat of the Spaniards in the battle of, 1822. 
 
 Piedmont. See Sardinia (kingdom of). 
 
 Pillnitz, 9 convention of, between Prussia and Austria, 1791. 
 
 Pillow, Fort 10 — Storming of, by the Confederates, 1864. 
 
 Pindarees " — Attacked and dispersed by the British, 1817-18. 
 
 Pinkie 12 — The English defeat the Scots at, 1547. 
 
 Pisa — Her naval power destroyed by Genoa, 1284 ; destruction of the harbor, 
 
 1 A town of German Lorraine. 2 The territory of the town of Pharsalus, in central 
 Thessaly. 3 A town in the E. part of Macedonia, near the ^Egean. * A town on the river 
 Maritza, now the capital of Eastern Ronmelia. 6 Inhabitants of the southern coast land of 
 Palestine. e See Hebrews. 7 A town on the Po, about midway between Milan and Parma. 
 8 A volcano near Quito. 9 A castle near Dresden. 10 Located on the Mississippi River, in 
 Tennessee. n A class of freebooters in Central India. 12 A place near Edinburgh. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 273 
 
 1290 ; submits to Florence, 1406 ; independent of Florence, 1494 ; re- 
 gained by the Florentines, 1509 ; — cathedral consecrated, 1118 ; baptistry 
 begun, about 1153 ; leaning tower begun, about 1174 ; Campo Santo built 
 by Giovanni Pisano, 1278-'83. 
 
 Pisa, council of, 1409. 
 
 Pittsburgh Landing ' — Battle of (or of Shiloh), between the Federals, 
 under Grant, and the Confederates, under A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, 
 April 6, 7, 18G2. 
 
 Placentia. See Piacenza. 
 
 Plantagenet Dynasty, 1154-1485. (See England.) 
 
 Plassey' 2 — Victory of Clive at, 1757. 
 
 Platsea 3 — Victory of the Greeks over the Persians at, 479 b. c. 
 
 Plevna 4 — Victories of Osman Pasha at, siege and fall. 1877. 
 
 Plombieres 5 — Interview of Napoleon III. and Cavour at, 1858. 
 
 Plymouth— Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, 1620. 
 
 Plymouth Colony. See Massachusetts. 
 
 Poissy, 6 Colloquy of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1561. 
 
 Poitiers 7 — Victory of the Franks over the Saracens near, 732 ; victory of 
 the English near, 1356. 
 
 Poland — Conversion of Miecislas to Christianity, 966 ; reign of Boleslas 
 Chrobry, 992-1025 ; reign of Casimir the Great, last of the Piast dynasty, 
 1333-'70 ; Jagellon, grand-duke of Lithuania, founds the Jagellonian dy- 
 nasty, 1386 s : union of Poland and Lithuania into one commonwealth, 
 1569 ; end of the Jagellonian dynasty, 1572 — the crown becomes elective ; 
 Saxon kings, 1697-1763 (with intermission) ; first partition, 1772 ; second, 
 1793; rising under Kosciuszko, 1794; existence of, as an independent 
 kingdom, terminated by the third partition, 1795 ; duchy of Warsaw, 
 1807-'13 ; erection of the new kingdom of Poland, under Russian rule, 
 1815 ; revolution, 1830-'31 ; kingdom declared an integral part of the 
 Russian Empire, 1832 ; insurrection, 1863-4. (See Teutonic Knights, 
 Prussia, Russia, Galicia, and Cracow, republic of.) 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF POLAND 
 
 FROM THE END OF THE PIAST DYNASTY. 
 
 Louis the Great, 1370-1382. Casimir IV., 1447-1492. 
 
 Hedvig, 1384-1386. John Albert, 1492-1501. 
 
 (Marries Jagellon, 138C.) Alexander, 1501-150G. 
 
 Jagellon (Ladislas II.), 1386-1434. Sigismund I., 1506-1548. 
 
 Ladislas III., 1434-1444. Sigismund II. Augustus, 1548-1572. 
 
 1 A locality in southwestern Tennessee, on the Tennessee River. 2 The battle-field of 
 Plassey was about 85 miles N. of Calcutta. 3 A town of Bosotia, near the border of Attica. 
 4 A town of Bulgaria, near the river Vid, about 20 miles S. of the Danube, and 25 miles S. 
 W. of Nikopoli. 6 A watering place in eastern France, in the department of Vosges. 6 A 
 town on the Seine, 10 miles N. of Versailles. 7 A town 60 miles S. W. of Tours, and about 
 70 miles from the Bay of Biscay. 8 It is only at this time that Lithuania became a Chris- 
 tian country. 
 
274 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Henry of Valois, 
 
 Stephen Bathori, 
 
 Sigismund III., 
 
 Ladislas IV., 
 
 John Casimir, 
 
 Michael Korybut Wisnio- 
 
 wiecki, 
 John Sobieski, 
 
 1573-1574.1 Augustus II., 
 
 1697-1704 
 
 1575-1586. 
 1587-1632. 
 1632-1648. 
 1648-1668. 
 
 1669-1673. 
 
 1674-1696. 
 
 Stanislas Leszczynski, 1704-1709. 
 
 Augustus II. (again), 1709-1733. 
 
 Augustus III., 1733-1763. 
 
 Stanislas Poniatowski, 1764-1795. 
 
 Frederick Augustus of Sax- 
 ony, duke of Warsaw, 1807-1813. 
 
 Polish Succession, War of the — Begins, 1733 ; preliminary treaty of Vi- 
 enna, 1735 ; definitive treaty of Vienna, 1738. 
 
 Pollentia 2 — Victory of Stilicho over Alaric at, 402 (403 ?). 
 
 Poltava 3 — Peter the Great defeats Charles XII. at, 1709. 
 
 Pomerania — Extinction of its line of dukes, 1637 ; divided between Sweden 
 and Brandenburg, 1648 ; a large portion of Swedish Pomerania ceded to 
 Prussia, 1720 ; the rest of Swedish Pomerania given to Denmark, and 
 transferred by her to Prussia, 1814-'15. 
 
 Pompeii — Overwhelmed by Vesuvius, a. d. 79. 
 
 Pondicherry 4 — Acquired by the French East India Company, 1672 ; suc- 
 cessfully defended against the English by Dupleix, 1748 ; surrenders to 
 the English, 1761, 1793, 1803. 
 
 Pontiac's War, 1763. 
 
 Pontus 5 — Wars of the Romans with Mithridates the Great, 88-65 b. a. 
 
 Popes — 
 
 NOTED POPES IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Leo the Great, 
 Gregory the Great, 
 Gregory II., 
 Zachary, 
 
 Stephen III. (II.), 
 Adrian I., 
 Leo III., 
 Leo IV., 
 Nicholas I., 
 John VIII., 
 John X., 
 John XII., 
 Sylvester II., 
 Nicholas II., 
 Gregory VII. , 
 Urban II., 
 Paschal II., 
 Calixtus II., 
 
 955 
 
 440- 461. 
 
 590- 604. 
 
 715- 731. 
 
 741- 752. 
 
 752- 757. 
 
 772- 795. 
 
 795- 816. 
 
 847- 855. 
 
 858- 867. 
 
 872- 882. 
 
 914- 928. 
 (956?)- 963. 
 
 999-1003. 
 1058-1061. 
 1073-1085. 
 1088-1099. 
 1099-1118. 
 1119-1124. 
 
 Adrian IV., 
 Alexander III., 
 Innocent III., 
 Honorius III., 
 Gregory IX., 
 Gregory X., 
 Boniface VIII. , 
 Clement V., 
 John XX1L, 
 Clement VI., 
 Urban VI., 
 Boniface IX., 
 John XX1IL, 
 Martin V., 
 Eutrenius IV., 
 Nicholas V., 
 Pius II., 
 Sixtus IV., 
 
 1154-1159. 
 1159-1181. 
 1198-1216. 
 1216-1227. 
 1227-1241. 
 1271-1270. 
 1294-1303. 
 1305-1314. 
 1316-1334. 
 1342-1352. 
 1378-1389. 
 1389-1404. 
 1410-1415. 
 1417-1431. 
 14S1-1447. 
 1447-1455. 
 1458-1464. 
 1471-1484. 
 
 1 Henry was elected king in 1573, but did not arrive in Poland until 1574. 2 A town of 
 Liguria, on the Tanarus (Tanaro), an affluent of the Po. Its site is about 30 miles S. E. 
 of Turin. 3 A town of the Ukraine, 450 miles S. W. of Moscow, and about 00 miles N. E. 
 of the Dnieper. 4 A town on the Coromandel Coast, about 85 miles S. of Madras, belonging 
 to France. 6 A kingdom on the S. shore of the Black Sea. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 275 
 POPES IN MODERN TIMES. 
 
 
 DATES OF ELECTION. 
 
 
 DATES OP ELECTION 
 
 Alexander VI., 
 
 1492. 
 
 Innocent X., 
 
 1644. 
 
 Pius III., 
 
 1503. 
 
 Alexander VII., 
 
 1055. 
 
 Julius II., 
 
 1503. 
 
 Clement IX., 
 
 1007. 
 
 Leo X., 
 
 1513. 
 
 Clement X., 
 
 1070. 
 
 Adrian VI., 
 
 1522. 
 
 Innocent XL, 
 
 1076. 
 
 Clement VII., 
 
 1523. 
 
 Alexander VIII. 
 
 , 1689. 
 
 Paul III., 
 
 1534. 
 
 Innocent XII., 
 
 1691. 
 
 Julius III., 
 
 1550. 
 
 Clement XL, 
 
 1700. 
 
 Marcellus II. 
 
 1555. 
 
 Innocent XIIL, 
 
 1721. 
 
 Paul IV., 
 
 1555. 
 
 Benedict XIIL, 
 
 1724. 
 
 Pius IV., 
 
 1559. 
 
 Clement XII., 
 
 1730. 
 
 Pius V., 
 
 1566. 
 
 Benedict XIV., 
 
 1740. 
 
 Gregory XIII., 
 
 1572. 
 
 Clement XIIL, 
 
 1758. 
 
 Sixtus V., 
 
 1585. 
 
 Clement XIV., 
 
 1769. 
 
 Urban VII., 
 
 1590. 
 
 Pius VI., 
 
 1775. 
 
 Gregory XIV., 
 
 1590. 
 
 Pius VII., 
 
 1800. 
 
 Innocent IX., 
 
 1591. 
 
 Leo XII., 
 
 1823. 
 
 Clement VIII., 
 
 1592. 
 
 Pius VIII. , 
 
 1829. 
 
 Leo XL, 
 
 1605. 
 
 Gregory XVI., 
 
 1831. 
 
 Paul V., 
 
 1605. 
 
 Pius IX., 
 
 1846. 
 
 Gregory XV., 
 
 1021. 
 
 Leo XIIL, 
 
 1878. 
 
 Urban VIII. , 
 
 1623. 
 
 
 
 Popish Plot— Invented by Titus Oates, 1678. 
 
 Port Hudson ' — Surrenders to Banks, 1863. 
 
 Portland, Isle of' 2 — Victory of Blake over the Dutch off, 1653. 
 
 Porto Bello (Puerto Bello) 3 — Taken by Vernon, 1739. 
 
 Porto Rico — Discovered, 1493 ; subjugated by Ponce de Leon, 1509 ; slavery 
 abolished, 1873. 
 
 Port Royal des Champs 4 — Reform of, undertaken by Marie Angelique 
 , Arnauld, 1608 ; the establishment suppressed, 1709. 
 
 Portugal — Erected into a county by Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and 
 Leon, about 1095; becomes a kingdom. 1139; Lisbon wrested from the 
 Moors, 1147; Prince Henry the Navigator opens the era of maritime 
 enterprise, early in 15th c. ; conquered by Philip II., 1580; throws off 
 the yoke of Spain, 1640 : independence recognized by Spain, 1668 ; French 
 Invasion, 1807: rising against the French, 1808; liberation secured, 1811 ; 
 usurpation of Dom Miguel, 1828 ; his submission, 1834. 
 
 1 A place on the E. bank of the Mississippi, a short distance above Baton Rouge. 4 A 
 peninsula on the coast of Dorsetshire. 3 A town on the N. coast of the Isthmus of Panama. 
 It was the great station of the Spanish silver fleets. 4 A Cistercian abbey of nuns at Che- 
 vreuse, a few miles S. W. of Versailles, founded in the early part of the 13th c. In the 17th 
 c. a number of devout and learned men dwelt as recluses in the vicinity of the abbey, and 
 distinguished themselves as the champions of Jansenism, which was warmly espoused by 
 the nuns. Foremost among the Port Royalists were Lancelot, Nicole, Antoine Arnauld, 
 and Pascal. 
 
 19 
 
276 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 BUBGUNDIAN DYNASTY. 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 Henry (count), about 1095. 
 
 Alfonso I., 1112. 
 
 (Assumes title of king, 1139.) 
 
 Sancho L, 1185. 
 
 Alfonso II., 1211(1212?). 
 
 Sancho II., 1223. 
 
 (Deposed, 1245.) 
 
 Alfonso III., 1248. 
 
 Diniz, 1279. 
 
 Alfonso IV., 1325. 
 
 Pedro I., 1357. 
 
 Ferdinand I., 
 (Dies, 1383.) 
 
 John I., 
 
 Duarte (Edward), 
 
 Alfonso V., 
 
 John II., 
 
 Emanuel, 
 
 John HI., 
 
 Sebastian, 
 
 Henry I., 
 (Dies, 15S0.) 
 
 Period of Spanish dominion, 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 1367. 
 
 1385. 
 1433. 
 1438. 
 1481. 
 1495. 
 1521. 
 1557. 
 1578. 
 
 1580-1640. 
 
 House of Bkaganca. 
 
 accession. accession. 
 
 John IV., 1640. John VI., 1816. 
 
 Alfonso VI., 1656. Maria da Gloria, 1S26. 
 
 (Deposed, 1667; dies, 1683.) Miguel, 1828. 
 
 Pedro II. (regent since the depo- Maria restored, 1833. 
 
 sition of Alfonso VI.), 1683. Pedro V., 1853. 
 
 John V., 1706. Louis, 1861. 
 
 Joseph, 1750. Charles, 1889. 
 Maria I. and Pedro III., 1777. 
 
 (Death of Pedro, 1786.) 
 
 Potassium — Discovered by Davy, 1807. 
 
 Potato — Introduced into Europe, 16th c. 
 
 Potidaea ! — Revolts from Athens, 432 b. c. ; reduced by her, 429 b. c. 
 
 Potosi, mines of — Discovered, 1545. 
 
 Power-loom — Invented by Cartwright, 1784-'5. 
 
 Praetorship (in Rome) — Instituted, about 367 B. c. 
 
 Praga' 2 — Stormed by Suvaroff, 1794. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. of Germany — Issued, 1713 ; form- 
 ally published, 1724. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. of France, asserting the liberties 
 of the Gallican Church, 1438. 
 
 Prague— Hussite wars break out in, 1419 ; defeat of the Protestants at (bat- 
 tle of the White Mountain), 1620 ; occupied by the Saxons, 1631 ; peace 
 of, between Ferdinand II. and Saxony, 1635 ; entered by the Swedes, 1648 ; 
 falls into the hands of the allied French, Bavarians, and Saxons, 1741 ; 
 occupied by the Prussians, 1744; victory of Frederick the Great at, 1757; 
 
 1 A town in Chalcidice, a peninsula projecting into the N. W. portion of the JSgean 
 Sea. a A suburb of Warsaw, on the opposite side of the Vistula. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 277 
 
 unsuccessfully besieged by him, 1757; Pan-Slavic congress held at, in- 
 surrection, 1848 ; entered by the Prussians, 1866 ; peace of, between 
 Prussia and Austria, 18G6. 
 
 Prague, University of— Founded, 1348. 
 
 Prairial, 30th., event of the, June 18, 1799. 
 
 Presburg — Peace of, between Prance and Austria, 1805 ; last Diet at, closed, 
 1848. 
 
 Prestonpans ' — Victory of the Young Pretender at, 1745. 
 
 Priestley Riots, 1791. 
 
 Primogeniture, succession by, in France — Abolished, 1790. 
 
 Princeton 2 — Victory of Washington at, Jan. 3, 1777. 
 
 Princeton CoUege (College of New Jersey) — Opened, 1747; not established 
 at Princeton till some years later. 
 
 Printing — Practiced by Gutenberg, as early as about 1438. 
 
 Propaganda — Established, 1622. 
 
 Providence — Settled, 1636. 
 
 Prussia — Albert the Bear assumes the title of Margrave of Brandenburg, 
 middle of 12th c. ; the Hohenzollerns acquire Brandenburg, 1415 ; duchy 
 of Prussia (see Teutonic Knights) united with it, 1618 ; under Frederick 
 William, the Great Elector, Brandenburg receives large accessions in the 
 peace of Westphalia, 1648 ; suzerainty of Poland over the duchy of Prus- 
 sia renounced, 1657; the elector of Brandenburg crowns himself king of 
 Prussia, 1701; Silesia wrested from Austria, 1740-'42 ; Seven Years' War, 
 1756-'63; Prussia shares in the partition of Poland, 1772. 1793, 1795: 
 crushed by France, 1806; War of Liberation, 1813-'14; secures large 
 territories on the Rhine, half of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, &c, 1814-'15 ; 
 revolution, 1848 ; war with Austria and her German allies, 1866 ; Han- 
 over, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort annexed, 1866 ; organizes North 
 German Confederation, 1866; Schleswig-Holstein incorporated with (lie 
 kingdom, 1866 ; humbles France, 1870-'71 ; king of, becomes emperor of 
 Germany, 1871. 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 ACCESSION. ACCESSION. 
 
 Frederick I. (elector of Bran- Frederick William III., 1797. 
 
 denburg from 1688), 1701. Frederick William IV., 1840. 
 
 Frederick William I., 1713. William I., 1861. 
 
 Frederick II., the Great, 1740. Frederick III., 1888. 
 
 Frederick William II., 17S0. William II., 1888. 
 Pruth 3 — Peter the Great's army narrowly escapes being overwhelmed by 
 
 the Turks on the, 1711. 
 Publilian Law— Passed, about 471 B. c. 
 Puebla— Besieged and taken by the French, under Forey, 1863. 
 
 1 A small town a few miles E. of Edinburgh. 2 A town of New Jersey, N. E. of Tren- 
 ton. 3 An affluent of the Danube, now forming most of the boundary between Russia and 
 Roumania. 
 
278 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Pultowa. See Poltava. 
 
 Punic Wars (between Carthage and Rome). See Carthage. 
 
 Punjaub — Acquired by the British, 1849. 
 
 Puritans — Receive their designation, 1564 ; rise of the sect of Brownists 
 (Independents), about 1580 ; migration to New England begun, 1620 ; 
 Puritanism dominant in England during the period of the Rebellion and 
 the Commonwealth, 1642- '60; the Independents take the government en- 
 tirely into their own hands, 1648 ; the Puritan ministers ejected from 
 their livings, 1662 ; passage of the Toleration Act, 1689. 
 
 Pydna 1 — Victory of the Romans over Perseus at. 168 b. c. 
 
 Pyramids of Gizeh — The date of the erection of the Great Pyramid, the 
 pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), according to the chronology of Lepsius 
 is about 3100 b. c. According to Brugsch the probable date would be 
 about 3700. Mariette carries back the reign of Khufu to about 4200. 
 Other Egyptologists assign to the monument a lesser antiquity than 
 Lepsius. The other two pyramids of Gizeh are the work of the immedi- 
 ate successors of Khufu. 
 
 Pyramids, battle of the, victory of Bonaparte over the Mamelukes, 1798. 
 
 Pyrenees, peace of the, between France and Spain, 1659. 
 
 q. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, against Spain, 1718. 
 
 Quadruple Treaty, directed against Pom Miguel and Don Carlos, 1834. 
 
 Quakers — George Fox begins his preachings, 1647. 
 
 Quatre-Bras 2 — Repulse of Ney by Wellington at, June 16, 1815. 
 
 Quebec— Founded, 1608 ; taken by the English, 1629, 1759 ; unsuccessfully 
 
 assaulted by the Americans, Dec. 31, 1775. 
 Queen Anne's War, 1702-13. 
 Queretaro 3 — Besieged and taken by the troops of Juarez, execution of 
 
 Maximilian, 1867. 
 Quiberon 4 — Landing of emigres at, 1795. 
 Quiberon, Bay of— Victory of the English over the French in the, 1759. 
 
 It. 
 
 Railways — The transportation of passengers on, by means of locomotive 
 engines, successfully inaugurated, 1830. (Locomotive engines used for a 
 number of years previously for the carriage of freight.) 
 
 Ramillies 6 — Marlborough defeats the French and Bavarians at, 1706. 
 
 Rastadt 6 — Treaty of, between Prance and Austria, 1714 ; congress of 
 (France and the German Empire), 1797-9 ; last post of the Baden revo- 
 lutionists, 1849. 
 
 1 A town of southern Macedonia. 2 A locality S. of Waterloo. 3 A town 110 miles N. 
 W. of Mexico. 4 A peninsula on the S. coast of Brittany. 6 A village of South Brabant, 
 in a S. E. direction from Brussels. 6 A town S. W. of Carlsruhe. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 279 
 
 Ratisbon (Regensburg) ! — Made the permanent seat of the Diet of the Ger- 
 man Empire, 1663 ; deprived of its position as a free city, 1803 ; incorpo- 
 rated with Bavaria, 1810. 
 
 Ratkow * — Blucher capitulates to the French at, 1806. 
 
 Raucoux (Rocour) 3 — Marshal Saxe defeats Charles of Lorraine at, 
 1746. 
 
 Raudian Fields 4 — Marius overwhelms the Cimbri on the, 101 b. c. 
 
 Ravenna — Odoacer besieged in, by Theodoric, and forced to surrender, 490- 
 493 ; taken by Belisarius, 539 ; by the Lombards, 728, 752 ; becomes sub- 
 ject to the popes, 755 ; victory of the French over the forces of the Holy 
 League at, 1512. 
 
 Ravenna, exarchate of, 568-752. 
 
 Re, Isle of 8 — Expedition of Buckingham against the, 1627. 
 
 Red River Expedition (conducted by Banks), 1864. 
 
 Reformation — Beginning of the, 1517. 
 
 Reform Bill— Lit rodueed in Parliament, 1831 ; passed, 1832 ; new Reform 
 Bill for England, 1867 ; for Scotland and Ireland, 1868 ; Gladstone's 
 "Franchise Bill passed, 1884. 
 
 Regillus, Lake 6 — The Romans defeat the Latins at, about 497 b. c. 
 
 Reign of Terror (in French history), 1793-4. 
 
 Resaca de la Palma 7 — Taylor defeats the Mexicans at, May 9, 1846. 
 
 Restitution, Edict of, 1629. 
 
 Rhsetians 8 — Subjugated by the Romans, 15 b. c. 
 
 Rheinfelden 9 — Bernhard of Weimar defeats the Imperialists at, 1638. 
 
 Rheims, cathedral of — Built, 13th c. ; towers completed, about 1430. 
 
 Rhine, Confederation of the, 1806-13. 
 
 Rhode Island — Providence settled, 1636; settlement on Aquidneck, 1638; 
 patent for the united government of the Rhode Island settlements, 1644 ; 
 one of the thirteen states, 1776. 
 
 Rhode Island, battle of, between Sullivan and Pigot, 1778. 
 
 Rhodes (island) 10 — Siege of the city of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 305-304 b. c. ; becomes a great naval power, about 300 b. c. : incorporated 
 with the Roman Empire, first c. A. d. ; conquered by the Knights of St. 
 John, 1309 ; attacked by Mohammed II., 1480 ; wrested from the Knights 
 of St. John by Solyman II., 1522. 
 
 Rhodes, Colossus of— Erected by Chares, about 292-280 b. c. 
 
 Richmond— Made the capital of the Confederate States, 1861 ; occupied by 
 the Federals, April 3, 1865. 
 
 1 A town on the Danube, 65 miles N. E. of Munich. 2 A village near Liibeck, belong- 
 ing to Oldenburg. 3 A village near Liege. 4 The best authorities place the Raudian Fields 
 near the junction of the Sesia and the Po, in the E. part of modern Piedmont. 6 Near La 
 Itochelle. • About 10 miles E. or S. E. of Rome. The exact position is uncertain. 7 A 
 locality near the extreme southern point of Texas. 8 The home of the Rhaetians was Tyrol 
 and eastern Switzerland, with an adjoining portion of Italy. * A town E. of Basel, on the 
 Rhine, now included in the canton of Aargau. l0 Off the S. W. coast of Asia Minor. 
 
280 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Rivoli l — Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at, 1797. 
 
 Roanoke Island 2 — Unsuccessful settlement made at, 1585 ; captured by 
 the Federals, 18G2. 
 
 Rochelle, La 3 — Successfully defended by the Huguenots, 1573 ; besieged 
 and reduced by the forces of Richelieu, 1627-'8. 
 
 Rocroy 4 — Victory of the French over the Spaniards at, 1643. 
 
 Romagna, the. See Papal States. 
 
 Romanoff, house of. See Russia. 
 
 Rome (state) — [b. c] — Reputed to have been founded, 753 ; abolition of 
 royalty, 5 institution of the Consulship, about 510 ; attack of the Gauls 
 under Brennus, about 388 ; beginning of the Samnite wars, about 343 ; 
 the Latins subjugated, about 338; war with Pyrrhus, 280-275: Rome 
 mistress of all Italy, 6 205 ; first war with Carthage, 264-241 ; conquest 
 of Cisalpine Gaul, 225-222 ; second Punic War, 219-201 ; beginning of 
 the wars with Macedon, 214; war with Antiochus the Great of Syria, 
 192-190; conquest (if Macedon, 168; war with the Lusitani, about 154- 
 140 ; third Punic War, 149-146 ; Greece made a Roman province, 146 ; 
 kingdom of Pcrgamus bequeathed to the Romans, 133 ; conquest of the 
 southeastern portion of Transalpine Gaul, 125-121 ; Jugurthine War, 
 111-106 ; Marius overwhelms the Teutones and Cimbri. 102, 101 ; Social 
 War, 90-88; Mithridatic wars, 88-65; Syria annexed, 64; Judea made 
 tributary, 63; conquest of Gaul by Caesar, 58-51; first expedition into 
 Britain, 55 ; Caesar's triumph over Pompey, 48 ; Octavius master of the 
 Roman world, 31 — beginning of the Empire ; Egypt annexed, 30 ; Rome 
 mistress of all Spain, 19; Rhaetia and Vindelicia conquered, 15; cam- 
 paigns of Drusus in Germany, 12-9 ; conquest of Pannonia completed, 
 9;— [a. d.]— Arminius arrests the progress of the Roman arms in Ger- 
 many, 9 ; accession of Tiberius, 14 ; Caligula, 37 ; Claudius, 41 ; conquest 
 of Britain begun, 43 ; accession of Nero, 54 ; Galba, 68 ; Otho, 69 ; Vitel- 
 lius, 69 ; Vespasian, 69 ; destruction of Jerusalem, 70 ; accession of Titus, 
 79 ; Domitian, 81 ; Nerva, 96 ; Trajan, 98 ; conquest of Dacia completed, 
 106; the Roman Empire attains its greatest extension, 115; accession of 
 Hadrian, 117; Antoninus Pius, 138; reign of Marcus Aurelius, 161-180; 
 Septimius Severus, 193-211; Alexander Severus, 222-235 ; Aurclian, 270- 
 275 : partition of the empire between Diocletian, Maximian. Galerius, and 
 Constantius Chlorus, 292 ; Constantine the Great master of the whole Ro- 
 man world, 323; the empire divided on his death, 337 ; reunited under 
 his son Constantius, 353 ; reign of Julian, 361-'3 ; partition of the em- 
 pire between Valentinian I. and Valens, 364; Theodosius the Great mas- 
 ter of the whole, 394 : final division into the Eastern or Byzantine Empire 
 
 1 A village near Verona. 2 On the coast of North Carolina. 3 A town on the Bay of 
 Biscay, nearly midway between Nantes and Bordeaux. *A frontier town of northern 
 France, in the Forest of Ardennes. 6 The kings of Home are stated to have been : Romu- 
 lus, Numa Pompilius, Tullua Bostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tallius, 
 Tarquinius Superbus. 8 The peninsular portion of modern Italy. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 281 
 
 and the Western Empire, 395 ; reign of Honorius, 395-423 ; end of the 
 Western Empire, 476. 1 
 
 Rome (city) — [b. c] — Reputed to have been founded, 753 ; burned by the 
 Gauls, about 388 ; threatened by Hannibal, 211 ; — [a. d.] — great confla- 
 gration under Nero, 64 ; pillaged by the Goths, 410 ; by the Vandals, 455 ; 
 taken by Belisarius, 536 ; Belisarius besieged in, by Vitiges, 537-8 ; taken 
 by Totila, 546 ; recovered by Belisarius, 547 ; again falls into the hands of 
 Totila, 549 ; taken by Narses, 552 ; the emperors of Constantinople cease 
 to exercise authority, the popes becoming the guardians of the city, first 
 half of 8th c. ; coronation of Charlemagne in, 800 : inclosing of the Leo- 
 nine City, 848-852; coronation of Otho the Great, 962: Henry IV. he- 
 sieges Gregory VII. in the castle of Sant' Angelo, Robert Guiscard deliv- 
 ers the pope, 1084 ; anti-papal agitation of Arnold of Brescia, about 
 1145-55 ; papal see removed to Avignon, 1309 ; Rienzi's revolution, 1347 ; 
 tyranny and fall of Rienzi, 1354 ; again the papal residence, 1377 ; muni- 
 cipal liberties finally suppressed by Boniface IX., close of 14th c. ; taken 
 and plundered by Ladislas, king of Naples, 1413; last imperial corona- 
 tion at, 1452; taken and plundered by the troops of the constable de 
 Bourbon, 1527; insurrection, 1797; the French occupy the city, and pro- 
 claim the Roman Republic, 1798 ; end of the Roman Republic, 1799 ; 
 again occupied by the French, 1808; annexed to the French Empire, 
 1809 ; papal authority restored, 1814 ; rising against Pius IX., 1848 ; 
 proclamation of the Roman Republic, 1849 ; the French restore Pius IX., 
 1849 ; annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1870 ; capital of Italy, 1871. 
 
 Roncesvalles 2 — Disaster to the army of Charlemagne at, 778. 
 
 Roses, Wars of the, 1455-85. 
 
 Rosetta Stone — Discovered, 1799. 
 
 Roskilde 3 — Treaty of, between Denmark and Sweden. 1658. 
 
 Rossbach 4 — Victory of Frederick the Great at, Nov. 5, 1757. 
 
 Rouen, cathedral of — Mainly the work of the 13th c. 
 
 Bourn, sultanate of. See Seljuks. 
 
 Roumania — Moldavia and Wallachia united into the principality of, under 
 Alexander John (Cuza), 1861 ; accession of Charles of Hohenzollern, 1866; 
 the country joins in the war against Turkey, and declares her indepen- 
 dence, 1877 ; becomes a kingdom, 1881. 
 
 Roveredo 5 — Victory of the French over the Austrians at. 1796. 
 
 Royal Society of London — Founded, 1660: incorporated, 1663. 
 
 Rugby School 6 — Founded. 15(17. 
 
 Rump Parliament (in English history), 1648-'53. 
 
 Rump Parliament (in German history), 1849. 
 
 1 The chronology of the reigns of all the Roman emperors has been given in Part I. 
 a A valley in the W. portion of the Pyrenees. 3 A town on the island of Seeland. 4 A vil- 
 lage S. of Halle, now included in Prussian Saxony. B A town of southern Tyrol. e Kugby 
 is a town of Warwickshire, on the Avon. 
 
282 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Rurik Dynasty. See Russia. 
 
 Russia — The Varangian Rurik lays the foundations of the empire at Nov- 
 gorod, 1 862 ; other Varangian leaders soon after wrest Kiev from the Kha- 
 zars ; Kiev capital of the united Varangian realm, about 880 ; Vladimir 
 the Great embraces Christianity, 988 ; country partitioned into various 
 principalities, middle of 11th c. — the grand-principality of Kiev the domi- 
 nant power ; the grand-principality of Vladimir becomes the chief seat 
 of power, middle of 12th c. ; the Russian princes forced to acknowledge 
 the supremacy of the Mongols, 1240 — Novgorod remaining independent ; 
 large territories (Volhynia, Kiev, &c.) conquered by the Lithuanians, early 
 in 14th c. ; Moscow the chief seat of sovereignty, from 1328 ; republic of 
 Novgorod annexed to the Muscovite realm, 1478 ; emancipation from the 
 Mongol yoke, 1480 ; sway of Moscow extended over all the Russian do- 
 minions, early part of 10th c. ; the grand-prince Ivan IV. assumes the title 
 of Czar, 1547 ; conquest of the Tartar khanate of Kazan, 1552 ; conquest 
 of Astrakhan, 1554 ; the western portion of Siberia conquered by Cossacks, 
 1581-2 ; end of the dynasty of Rurik, 1598 ; empire prostrated by a Po- 
 lish invasion, 1610-'12 ; accession of the Romanoff dynasty, 1613 ; treaty 
 of Stolbova, Karelia and Ingria ceded to Sweden, 1617 ; treaty of Andru- 
 sovo, the Ukraine as far as the Dnieper, together with Kiev, &c, relin- 
 quished by Poland, 1667 ; conquest of Azov by Peter the Great, 1696 (see 
 (Azov) ; he wrests Karelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia from Sweden, 
 1700-1710 (treaty of Nystad, 1721) ; foundation of St. Petersburg, 1703 ; 
 first partition of Poland, 1772 ; the Crimea incorporated with the Empire, 
 1783; frontiers extended to the Dniester, 1792; second partition of Poland, 
 1793 ; third partition, 1795 ; Courland annexed, 1795 ; Georgia, 1801 ; 
 conquest of Finland, 1808 ; frontiers extended to the Pruth, 1812 ; Na- 
 poleon's invasion, 1812 ; Daghestan, Baku, and Shirvan acquired from 
 Persia, 1813 ; erection of the kingdom of Poland for the house of Roma- 
 noff, 1815 ; conquest of Persian Armenia, 1827 ; subjugation of the tribes 
 of the Caucasus, 1834-'64 ; portion of Bessarabia given up in the treaty of 
 Paris (terminating the Crimean War), 1856 ; acquisition of the Amoor 
 Country, 1858 ; abolition of serfdom, 1861 ; Alaska sold to the United 
 States, 1867; conquest of Samarkand, 1868; Khokan annexed, 1876; Bes- 
 sarabian territory recovered, portion of Turkish Armenia annexed, 1878. 
 
 Ivan I. , 
 Simeon, 
 Ivan II., 
 
 Dmitri (Demetrii 
 mir, 
 
 1 Novgorod Veliki, Novgorod the Great, near Lake Ilmen, 100 miles S. of St. Petersburg. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS 
 
 OF RUSSIA 
 
 
 FROM 
 
 1328. 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 
 ACCESSION 
 
 1328. 
 
 Dmitri Donski, 
 
 1363 
 
 1340. 
 
 Basil II., 
 
 13S9 
 
 1353. 
 
 Basil III., 
 
 1425 
 
 f Vladi- 
 
 Ivan III., 
 
 1462 
 
 1360. 
 
 Basil IV., 
 
 1505 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 283 
 
 ACCESSION. ACCESSION. 
 
 Ivan IV., the Terrible, 1533. Pseudo-Demetrius, 1605. 
 
 Fedorl., 1584. Basil V. (Shuiski), 1606. 
 
 (Last of the house of Rurik.) (Dethroned by another Pseudo- 
 Boris Godunoff, 1598. Demetrius, 1610.) 
 
 House of Romanoff. 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 Michael, 1613. 
 
 Elizabeth, 
 
 1741. 
 
 Alexis, 1645. 
 
 Peter III., 
 
 1762. 
 
 Fedor II. (III.), 1676. 
 
 Catharine II., 
 
 1762. 
 
 Ivan V. and Peter the Great, 1682. 
 
 Paul, 
 
 1796 
 
 (Peter the Great alone, 1689. ) 
 
 Alexander I., 
 
 1801. 
 
 Catharine I., 1725. 
 
 Nicholas, 
 
 1825. 
 
 Peter II., 1727. 
 
 Alexander II., 
 
 1855. 
 
 Anne, 1730. 
 
 Alexander III., 
 
 18S1 
 
 Ivan VI., 1740. 
 
 Nicholas II., 
 
 1S94 
 
 Rustchuk ' — Taken by the Russians, 1810. 
 
 Rye House Plot, 1683. 
 
 Ryswick, 2 peace of, between France and the allied powers, 1697. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabine Cross Roads 3 — The Confederates defeat Banks at, April 8, 1864. 
 
 Sackett's Harbor 4 — Repulse of the British at, 1813. 
 
 Sacred War (between the Phocians and Delphians), 448 b. c. 
 
 Sacred War (waged against Phocis by Thebes and her allies), 357-346 b. c. 
 
 Sadowa 5 — Victory of the Prussians at (battle of Koniggratz), July 3, 1866. 
 
 Saguntum 6 — Taken by Hannibal, 219 b. c. 
 
 Saint Albans ' — Victory of the Yorkists at, 1455 ; of the Lancastrians, 
 
 1461. 
 Saint Andrews, 8 University of— Founded, 1411. 
 Saint Augustine '—Founded by the Spaniards, 1565. 
 Saint Bartholomew, massacre of, Aug. 24, 1572. 
 Saint-Denis I0 — Battle of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1567. 
 Saint-Germain "—Peace of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1570 ; 
 
 peace of, between France and Brandenburg, 1679. 
 Saint Gothard 12 (Saint Gotthard)— Victory of Montecuculi over the Turks 
 
 at, 1664. 
 
 1 A town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, about 45 miles S. of Bucharest. a A village near 
 the Hague. 3 A locality in the N. W. part of Louisiana. * A place on the E. shore of Lake 
 Ontario. 6 A village in the N. E. part of Bohemia. 6 A town on the E. coast of Spain, in 
 the present province of Valencia ; the town of Murviedro is on its site. J A town of Hert- 
 fordshire, 19 miles N. W. of the center of London. 8 A town on the E. coast of Scotland, 
 between the friths of Forth and Tay. 9 A town on the E. coast of Florida. 10 A town in 
 the northern outskirts of Paris. » A town a few miles W. of Paris. ia A town on the 
 river Raab, which enters the Danube from the south between Presburg and Coniorn. 
 
284 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Saint Gothard Tunnel (in the Alps)— Completed, 1881. 
 
 Saint Louis — Settled, 1764. 
 
 Saint Paul's Cathedral. See London. 
 
 Saint Peter's (at Rome) — Erection of, begun, 1506 ; consecrated, 1626. 
 
 Saint Petersburg— Founded, 1703. 
 
 Saint-Q,uentin 1 — Victory of the Spaniards over the French at, 1557 ; de- 
 feat of the army of Faidherbe at, Jan. 19, 1871. 
 
 Saint Vincent, Cape 2 — Victory of the French over the English off, 1693 ; 
 victories of the English over the Spaniards off, 1780, 1797 ; defeat of Dom 
 Miguel's fleet off, 1833. 
 
 Sajo a — Victory of the Mongols over the Hungarians on the, 1241. 
 
 Salamanca 4 — Victory of Wellington over Marmont near, 1812. 
 
 Salamanca, University of — Founded, about 1200. 
 
 Salamis (island) 5 — The Greeks defeat the fleet of Xerxes at, 480 b. c. 
 
 Salamis (city) — Demetrius Poliorcetes annihilates the fleet of Ptolemy Lagi 
 at, 306 b. c. (See Cyprus.) 
 
 Salankamen 6 — Victory of Louis of Baden over the Turks at, 1691. 
 
 Salem (Mass.)— Settled, 1628 ; witchcraft delusion, 1692. 
 
 Salerno, 1 medical school of — At the height of its fame, about 1050- 
 1200. 
 
 Salzburg 1 , archbishopric of— Expulsion of the Protestants from the, 
 1731-'2 ; see secularized, 1802-'3 ; territory given by Napoleon to Austria, 
 1805 ; given up by Austria, and annexed to Bavaria, 1809-10 ; reannexed 
 to Austria, 1815. 
 
 Samarkand — Conquest of, by Russia, 1868. 
 
 Samaria 8 — [b. c] — Founded by Omri, about 900 ; taken by the Assyrians, 
 722 (721) ; by John Hyrcanus, about 109. 
 
 Samnite Wars 9 — About 343-341, about 326-304, 298-290 b. c. 
 
 Sandwich Islands. See Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 San Francisco — Rises into importance, 1849. 
 
 San Jacinto 10 — Battle of, victory of Houston over Santa Anna, 1836. 
 
 San Juan Boundary Question n — Settled, 1872. 
 
 San Stefano, 12 treaty of, between Russia and Turkey, 1878. 
 
 Santo Domingo, island of. See Hayti. 
 
 Santo Domingo, republic of — Constituted, 1844 ; government transferred 
 
 1 A town of France, 80 miles N. E. of Paris. 2 At the S. W. extremity of Portugal. 3 A 
 river of northern Hungary, an affluent of The llernad. which joins the Theiss below Tokay. 
 4 A town 110 miles N. W. of Madrid. 5 Oil the coast of Attica, W. of Athens. « A village 
 on the Danube, opposite the mouth of the Theiss. 7 A town 30 miles S. E. of Naples, on 
 the Golf of Salerno. 8 Samaria was situated 40 miles N. of Jerusalem, midway between the 
 Jordan and the Mediterranean. 9 The country of the Samnites. Samnium, was an interior 
 district of southern Italy, bordering on Latium and Campania. I0 A river of Texas, empty- 
 ing into an arm of Galveston Bay. The battle was fought near its mouth. n San Juan is 
 an island in the channel between Vancouver Island and the American mainland. The whole 
 of the little archipelago to which it belongs was awarded to the United States. 12 A small 
 place near Constantinople, on the Sea of Marmora. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 285 
 
 to Spain by Santana, 1861 : rising against Spain, 1863 ; independence 
 recognized, 1865 ; Grant's scheme of annexation, 1869-'71. 
 
 Saracens — The Hegira, 622 ; Mecca submits to Mohammed, 629 ; he invades 
 Palestine, 629 ; accession of Abnbekr, the first caliph, 632 ; accession of 
 Omar, 634 ; conquest of Syria and Palestine, 634-about close of 636 ; 
 victory over the Persians at Cadesia, 635 (Sir W. Mv/ir) ; conquest of 
 Egypt, 639-641 ; the victory at Nehavend places Persia in their power, 
 642 ; accession of Othman, 644 ; Ali, 656 ' ; Moawiyah founds the Ommi- 
 yade dynasty of caliphs (caliphs of Damascus), 661 ; subjugation of north- 
 ern Africa completed, 709 ; invasion of Spain, 711 ; vanquished near Poi- 
 tiers, 732 ; the Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbassides, 750 ; Bagdad 
 founded, about 762 ; Ilaroun al-Rashid, 786-809 ; conquest of Sicily, 827- 
 878 ; extend their incursions far into the region of the western Alps, first 
 half of 10th c. 
 
 Saragossa — Conquered from the Moors, 1118 ; unsuccessfully besieged by 
 the French, 1808 ; taken by them, 1809. 
 
 Saratoga — Battle of, between Burgoyne and Gates, Oct. 7, 1777 ; surrender 
 of Burgoyne, Oct. 17. 
 
 Sardinia — Relinquished by Carthage to Rome, 237 b. c. ; becomes subject to 
 Aragon, a. d. 1326 ; occupied by the English, 1708 ; awarded to Austria, 
 1713— '14 ; occupied by the Spaniards, 1717 ; given to Savoy, 1720. 
 
 Sardinia, kingdom of — The dominions of Savoy erected into the, 1720 ; 
 Savoy and Nice annexed to France, 1792 ; Piedmont given up to the 
 French, 1798 : Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice recovered, and Liguria annexed, 
 1814-'15 ; revolution, 1821; Charles Albert's war against Austria, 1848-'9 ; 
 Victor Emanuel II. takes part in the Crimean War, 1855 ; war of Victor 
 Emanuel and Napoleon III. against Austria, acquisition of Lombardy, 
 1859 ; Savoy and Nice ceded to France, 1860 ; Victor Emanuel master of 
 nearly all Italy, 1860 ; he assumes the title of King of Italy, 1861. 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA. 
 
 ACCESSION. ACCESSION. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II. (duke of Charles Emanuel IV., 1796. 
 
 Savoy from 1675) assumes Victor Emanuel I., 1802. 
 
 the title of King of Sardinia, 1720. Charles Felix, 1821. 
 
 Charles Emanuel III., 1730. Charles Albert, 1831. 
 
 Victor Amadeus III., 1773. Victor Emanuel II., 1849. 
 
 Sardis' 2 — Taken by the Ionians, 500 or 499 b. c. 
 Sassanidae. See Persia. 
 
 Sault Ste. Marie, mission of 3 — Founded, 1668. 
 Saumur 4 — Victory of the Vendeans at, 1793. 
 
 1 The year 655 is frequently given for the date of Ali's accession ; recent authorities 
 place the event in 650. 2 In Lydia. 3 Sault Ste. Marie was located on the S. side of St. 
 Mary's Strait, which connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. A village of the same name 
 now occupies the site. * A town on the Loire, S. E. of Angers. 
 
286 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Savage's Station ] — Engagement between the Confederates, under Ma- 
 gruder, and the Federals, under Sumner, at, June 29, 1862. 
 
 Savannah — Founded, 1733 ; entered by the British, 1778 ; the British re- 
 pulse an assault on, Oct. 9, 1779 ; evacuated, 1782 ; occupied by Sherman, 
 Dec. 21, 1864. 
 
 Savenay 2 — Defeat of the Vendeans at, 1793. 
 
 Savoy — Rise of the house of Savoy, 3 11th c. ; county of, erected into a 
 duchy, 1416 ; Sicily ceded to, 1713 ; Sardinia received in exchange for 
 Sicily, 1720. See Sardinia (kingdom of). 
 
 Saxony — Charlemagne enters upon his wars against the Saxons, 772 ; sub- 
 mission of their leader Wittikind, 785 ; last great effort of the Saxons to 
 shake off the Frankish yoke, about 792-804 ; creation of the old duchy of 
 the Saxons, 4 about 850 : Henry the Fowler of Saxony becomes king 
 of Germany, 919 (see Germany) ; king Otho the Great confers the 
 duchy upon Herrmann Billing, about 960 ; Lothaire of Saxony becomes 
 emperor of Germany, 1125 ; Henry the Lion, of the house of Guelph, in- 
 vested with the duchy, 1142 ; fall of Henry the Lion, dissolution of the 
 old Saxon duchy, the title of Duke of Saxony passes to Bernhard of Aska- 
 nien, son of Albert the Bear of Brandenburg, 1180-'81 ; the Saxon posses- 
 sions of the house of Askanien divided into Saxe-Wittenberg and Saxe- 
 Lauenburg, 1260; the duke of Saxe-Wittenberg recognized as one of 
 the imperial electors in the Golden Bull, 1356 ; extinction of the dy- 
 nasty of Saxe-Wittenberg, 1422 ; the duchy and the electoral dignity are 
 conferred upon Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Meissen, of the house 
 of Wettin, 1423 ; the Wettin dynasty divided into the electoral and the 
 ducal house of Saxony (Ernestine and Albertine branches), 1485 ; reign 
 of the elector Frederick the Wise, 1486-1525 ; reign of the elector John 
 the Constant, 1525-'32 ; his successor, John Frederick the Magnanimous, 
 dethroned, a great part of his dominions and the electoral dignity con- 
 ferred upon Duke Maurice, of the Albertine branch, 1547 B : Saxon rule in 
 the kingdom of Poland, Augustus II. and Augustus III., 1697-1763 (with 
 intermission) ; the elector Frederick Augustus III. assumes the title of 
 king as Frederick Augustus I., 1806 ; he is made duke of Warsaw, 1807 ; 
 duchy suppressed, 1813 ; half of Saxony annexed to Prussia, 1815 ; acces- 
 sion of Anthony, 1827 ; revolutionary movement, 1830 ; constitutional 
 government secured, 1831 ; Frederick Augustus II. king, 1836 ; insurrec- 
 
 1 About 10 miles E. of Richmond. s A town N. W. of Nantes. s The origin of the 
 house of Savoy is commonly traced back to Humbert, count of Maurienne, prominent among 
 the petty lords who held sway in the Arletan territories in the early part of the 11th c. The 
 kingdom of Aries, after the extinction of the native Burgundian dynasty in 1032, became 
 the possession of the emperor Conrad II., and thus the dominions of the house of Savoy 
 were originally included in the German Empire. * The old Saxon duchy was a very differ- 
 ent region from the Saxony of modern times. It embraced the northwestern portion of the 
 present German Empire. 6 Out of the possessions retained by the Ernestine house were 
 formed the Saxon duchies of Thuringia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 287 
 
 tion, 1849 ; John, 1854 ; kingdom becomes part of the North German Con- 
 federation, 1866 ; of the German Empire, 1871 ; Albert, 1873. 
 
 Scala, house of. See Verona. 
 
 Schassburg ' — Defeat of the Hungarians at, 1849. 
 
 Schenectady 2 — Destruction of, by the French and Indians, 1690. 
 
 Schism, the Great, 1378-1429. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein — First Schleswig-Holstein War, 1848-'51 ; second, end- 
 ing in the liberation of the duchies from Denmark, 1864; Prussia and Aus- 
 tria agree to a mutual occupation, 1865; incorporated with Prussia, 1866. 
 
 Schonbrunn, 3 peace of, between France and Austria, 1809. 
 
 Scio 4 — The Russians defeat the Turkish fleet at, 1770 ; Turkish massacres, 
 1822 ; great earthquake, 1881. 
 
 Scotland — (See Caledonia.) — The Picts overrun Britain, 4th-5th c. ; the 
 Scots, from Ireland, found the realm of Dalriada, about 503 ; settlement of 
 the Angles, 6th c. ; conversion of the Picts by Columba, second half of 
 6th c. ; the country of the Picts united with the Scottish realm, about 843 
 invasions of the Northmen, 9th-l lth c. ; invasion of William the Con- 
 queror, 1072 ; William the Lion does homage to England, 1174-'89 
 arbitration of Edward I. in regard to the succession, crown awarded to 
 John Balliol, 1291-'2 ; Edward takes possession of the kingdom, 1296 
 career of Wallace, 1297-1305 ; victory of Robert Bruce at Bannockburn 
 1314; independence of the kingdom recognized by Edward III., 1328 
 Stuart dynasty inaugurated by Robert II., 1371 ; accession of Robert 
 III., 1390 ; James I., 1406 ; James II., 1437 ; James III., 1460 ; James 
 IV., 1488 ; James V., 1513 ; Mary, 1542 ; Reformation established, 1560 ; 
 James VI., 1567 ; Presbyterianism established by Parliament, 1592 ; dy- 
 nastic union with England, 1603 ; Episcopacy restored, 1610 ; the Na- 
 tional Covenant subscribed by the people, Episcopacy abolished, 1638 ; 
 the Covenanters appeal to arms, 1639 ; the Scottish army joins the 
 forces of the English Parliament in the war against Charles I., 1.644 ; 
 the country wages war for Charles II., and is conquered by the Eng- 
 lish, 1650-'51 ; the Restoration, 1660 ; Episcopacy re-established, 1661 ; 
 fall of the Stuarts, 1688 ; Presbyterianism finally reestablished, 1690 ; 
 legislative union with England, 1707 ; rebellion in favor of James Ed- 
 ward Stuart, 1715 ; rising for the Young Pretender, 1745-'6. 
 
 Sebastopol — Siege of, by the English, French, Turks, and Sardinians, 
 1854-'5 ; falls, Sept. 8, 1855. 
 
 Sedan 5 — The Germans defeat Mac Mahon's army at, Sept. 1, 1870; surren- 
 der of the army and of Napoleon III., Sept. 2. 
 
 Sedgemoor 6 — Defeat of the duke of Monmouth at, 1685. 
 
 1 A town of Transylvania, in a N. E. direction from Herniannstadt. 2 A town N. W. of 
 Albany, on the Mohawk. 3 An imperial residence in the southwestern outskirts of Vienna. 
 4 An island off the W. coast of Asia Minor ; the ancient Chios. Previous to 1822 the popu- 
 lation was mainly Greek. 6 A town of France on the Meuse, close to the Belgian frontier. 
 6 The battle-field of Sedgemoor was near Bridgewater, in Somersetshire. 
 
288 CIIRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Seleucidee, kingdom of the, 312-65 b. c. (See Syria.) 
 
 Seljuks — Under Togrul Bog, establish their dominion in Persia, about 1037- 
 1050 ; Togrul becomes master in the dominions of the caliph of Bagdad, 
 1055; accession of Alp Arslan, 1003; lie defeats and captures the Byzan- 
 tine emperor Romanus Diogenes, 1071; accession of Malek Shah, 1072; 
 the Seljuks make themselves masters of Asia Minor, where the sultanate 
 of Roum is founded, and of Syria, about 1074-'84 ; death of Malek Shah, 
 1092— followed by the disruption of the Seljuk realm; beginning of the 
 crusades, 109G ; the crusaders take Jerusalem, 1099 ; reign of Noureddin 
 in Syria, 1145-74; his general, Saladin (a Kurd), becomes ruler of Egypt, 
 1171; the Kharesmians put an end to the Seljuk power in Persia, 1194; 
 the sultanate of Roum disappears, close of 13th c. 
 
 Sellasia 1 — Antigonus Doson vanquishes Cleomenes III. at, 221 b. c. 
 
 Seminoles 2 — Campaign of Jackson against the, 1818 ; outbreak of the sec- 
 ond Seminole war, 1835; it is finally terminated, 1842. 
 
 Sempach 3 — Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at, 1386. 
 
 Senef (Seneffe) 4 — Battle of, between Conde and William of Orange, 1674. 
 
 Sentinum 6 — The Romans defeat the Samnites and Gauls at, 295 b. c. 
 
 Sepoy Mutiny, 1857-8. 
 
 September Massacres, 1792. 
 
 Septuagint — Completed, about 285 b. c. 
 
 Serfdom in Russia — Abolished, 1861. 
 
 Seringapatam 6 — Stormed by the English, 1799. 
 
 Servia — Settlement of the Serbs, 7th c. ; independent kingdom, from the 
 11th c. ; kingdom at the height of its power under Stephen Dushan, 1331- 
 close of 1355; power of the nation broken by the Turks, 1389; incor- 
 porated with the Turkish Empire, 1459 ; — (See Belgrade.) — Czerny George 
 heads a rising against the Turks, 1804; Turkish authority re-established, 
 1813 ; rising under Milosh Obrenovitch, 1815 ; he is elected prince, 1817 ; 
 withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons, 1867 ; wars with Turkey, 1876, 
 1877-'8 ; declared completely independent, 1878 ; Milan Obrenovitch as- 
 sumes the title of king, 1882 ; war with Bulgaria, 1885. 
 
 Servile War (rising of gladiators in Italy under Spartacus), 73-71 b. c. 
 
 Servile Wars in Sicily, 134-132, 102-99 b. c. 
 
 Settlement, Act of (Hanoverian Succession), 1701. 
 
 Seven Pines and Fair Oaks 7 — Battle of, between McClellan's forces 
 and the Confederates, ending in the repulse of the latter, May 31, June 
 1, 1802. 
 
 Seven Years' War, 1756-63. 
 
 Sewing Machine — Patented by Howe, 1846. 
 
 1 A town of Laconia, N. of Sparta. 2 The old home of the Seminoles was Florida. 3 A 
 email place N. W. of Lucerne. 4 A town of Hainaut, Belgium. 6 A town in the N. part of 
 Umbria, on the E. slope of the Apennines. 6 Formerly the capital of the rulers Of Mysore, 
 in southern India. 7 Localities a few miles E. of Richmond. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 289 
 
 Shakers — Sect founded by Ann Lee, about 1770. 
 
 Shays's Rebellion, 1786-7. 
 
 Sheerness ' — Burning of British ships at, by the Dutch, 1G67. 
 
 Shiloh, battle of. See Pittsburgh Landing. 
 
 Shipka Pass 2 — Successfully defended by the Russians, 1877; surrender of 
 the Turkish army in the, Jan. 9, 1878. 
 
 Ship Money, Writ of — Issued by Charles I., 1634. 
 
 Short Parliament, 1640. 
 
 Shrewsbury 3 — Victory of Henry IV. over the Percys at, 1403. 
 
 Shumla 4 — Attempts of the Russians to take the place, 1774, 1810, 1828. 
 
 Sicilian Vespers, 1282. 
 
 Sicilies, the Two — The Normans conquer the greater part of Apulia, 
 1041 ; within a hundred years they establish their dominion over South 
 Italy and Sicily (see Sicily); union of the Norman conquests in Italy 
 with Sicily, 1127; Roger II. assumes the title of king of Sicily, 1130; 
 Norman rule succeeded by that of the Hohenstaufen, 1194; the Hohen- 
 staufen dynasty overthrown by Charles of Anjou, 1266; Sicily revolts, 
 and places herself under the rule of Aragon, 1282 (the house of Anjou 
 continuing to rule South Italy, the kingdom of Naples) ; Sicily separated 
 from Aragon, 1296; finally united with it, 1412; Alfonso V. of Aragon 
 establishes his dynasty in Naples, 1442; Naples again an independent 
 kingdom, 1458; it is conquered and lost by Charles VIII. of France, 
 1495 ; Louis XII. and Ferdinand the Catholic conquer it jointly, 1501 ; 
 the Spaniards masters of the whole, 1503; Masaniello's insurrection at 
 Naples, 1647; conquest of the kingdom of Naples by the Imperialists, 
 1707; Sicily ceded by Spain to Savoy, 171 '■*>; Naples secured to Austria, 
 1713-'14: Sicily reoccupied by the Spaniards, 1718; transferred to Aus- 
 tria, 1720; conquest of the Two Sicilies by Don Carlos, who inaugurates 
 the Bourbon dynasty, 1734-'5; accession of Ferdinand IV., 1759; the 
 French conquer Naples, 1798-'9; establishment of the Parthenopean 
 Republic, 1799; the expelled king, Ferdinand IV., recovers his throne, 
 1799; Napoleon conquers Naples, and places Joseph upon the throne, 
 1806 (Ferdinand continuing to reign in Sicily) ; Murat made king of 
 Naples. 1808; Ferdinand restored, 1815; Naples and Sicily united into 
 one consolidated realm, Ferdinand IV. assuming the title of Ferdinand I., 
 1816; revolution, Austrian intervention, 1820-'21 ; accession of Francis 
 I., 1825; Ferdinand II.. 1830; Sicily rises against Ferdinand II.. L848; 
 conflict in the streets of Naples, 1848; insurrection in Sicily suppressed, 
 1849; accession of Francis II., 1859; insurrection in Sicily, Garibaldi's 
 expedition, annexation of the Two Sicilies by Victor Emanuel, 1860; fall 
 of Gaeta, the last stronghold of the Bourbon dynasty, 1861. 
 
 1 A town at the junction of the Medway and the Thames. 2 In the Balkans, on the 
 route from Tirnova to Kazanlik. 3 The capital of Shropshire (Salop), on the Severn. * A 
 town of eastern Bulgaria, on the northern declivity of the Balkans. 
 
290 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Sicily— [b. c.]— Establishment of the Greek colonies in, about 750-700 ; dis- 
 astrous attempt of Carthage to conquer the Greek cities, 480 ; she renews 
 her efforts, 409 ; island relinquished by Carthage to the Romans, 241 ;— 
 (See Syracuse.)— [a. d.]— Conquered from the Ostrogoths by Belisarius, 
 535 ; Saracen conquest, 827-878 ; the Normans establish their sway, 1061- 
 '72 ; their conquest fully completed, 1090. See Sicilies (the Two). 
 
 Sidon— Chief city of Phoenicia, till about 1100 b. c. (See Phoenicia.) 
 
 Sievershausen '—Victory of Maurice of Saxony at, 1553. 
 
 Sikhs. See India. 
 
 Silesia— Most of it conquered from Austria by Frederick the Great, 1740- 
 '42; second Silesian War, 1744-'5; finally confirmed to Prussia, 1763. 
 
 Silistria 2 — Unsuccessfully attacked by the Russians, 1773; taken by them, 
 1810 ; unsuccessfully besieged by them, 1828 ; again taken by them, 1829 ; 
 successfully defended against them, 1854. 
 
 Sinde 3 — Annexed to British India, 1843. 
 
 Singapore 4 — Acquired by the English, 1824. 
 
 Sistova, 6 peace of, between Turkey and Austria, 1791. 
 
 Six Articles, Statute of the, 1539. 
 
 Slavery, Negro — The African slave-trade inaugurated by the Portuguese, 
 1444; slavery introduced into Virginia, 1619; slave-trade abolished by 
 the British and the United States, 1807; foundation of the British Anti- 
 Slavery Society, 1823 ; act abolishing slavery in the British West Indies, 
 1833 (to take effect, 1834) ; American Anti-Slavery Society formed, 1833; 
 decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies, 1848 ; abolition in the 
 Dutch East Indies, 1859; the slaves in the Confederate States proclaimed 
 free by Lincoln, Jan. 1, 1863 ; abolition in the United States, 1865. (See 
 Brazil, Porto Rico, Cuba.) 
 
 Sluys 6 — Naval victory of the English over the French at, 1340. 
 
 Smalcald (Schmalkalden), 1 League of— Formed, 1531 ; war of the, 1546-7. 
 
 Smolensk 8 — Victory of the French over the Russians at, 1812. 
 
 Society Islands— Admiral Du Petit-Thouars takes possession of Tahiti for 
 France, 1843 ; the French government agrees to pay England an indem- 
 nity for losses sustained by the British consul Pritchard, 1844; Queen 
 Pomare restored, French protectorate recognized, 1847 ; islands annexed 
 to the French dominions, 1880. 
 
 Social Wars (in Greek history), 358-355, 220-217 b. c. 
 
 Social War (in Roman history ; Marsic War), 90-88 b. c. 
 
 Soissons 9 — Victory of Clovis over the Romans at, 486. 
 
 1 A village near Celle, now included in the Prussian province of Hanover. 2 A town in 
 the N. B. part of Bulgaria, on the Danube. 3 A region on both sides of the lower Indus. 
 4 A town situated on a small island off the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula. 8 A town 
 of Bulgaria, on the Danube, a short distance below Nikopoli. 9 A town of the Netherlands, 
 in Zealand. 7 A town of Thuringia, now included in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nas- 
 sau. 8 A town on the Dnieper, about 230 miles S. W. of Moscow. » A town 55 miles N. E. 
 of Paris. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 291 
 
 Solferino '—French and Sardinians defeat Austrians at, June 24, 1859. 
 
 Solway Moss '•'—Victory of the English over the Scots at, 1542. 
 
 Sonderbund, War of the, 1847. 
 
 Sorbonne — Pounded, about 1253. 
 
 Sound Dues— Abolition of the, 1857. 
 
 South Carolina— (See Carolina.)— One of the thirteen states. 1776; Nulli- 
 fication movement, 1832; secedes, 1860; reconstruction completed, 18C8. 
 
 South Dakota— Admitted into the Union, 1889. 
 
 South Mountain '—Battle of, between the forces of McClellan and those of 
 Lee, Sept. 14, 1862. 
 
 South Sea Company— Assumes the discharge of the British national debt, 
 1720 ; the " bubble " bursts the same year. 
 
 Spain— [b. c.]— Conquest of the S. and S. E. portions by the Carthaginians, 
 about 236-220 ; the Romans complete the destruction of the Carthaginian 
 power in the peninsula, 206 ; the Cantabri subdued, Rome mistress of the 
 whole peninsula, 19 ;— [a. d.]— invasion of the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani, 
 409 ;— (See Vandals, Suevi, Alani.)— the Visigoths lay the foundations of 
 their realm, about 415-418; the Saracens invade the country, and over- 
 throw the Visigothic kingdom, 711 ; they become masters of the whole 
 peninsula within three years ; — (See Moors in Spain.) — the Christians 
 found the realm of Asturias, about 718 (?) ; Charlemagne conquers the 
 northeastern portion of the peninsula, latter part of 8th c. ; kingdom of 
 Navarre founded, 9th c. ; reign of King Alfonso the Great of Asturias, 
 866-910 ; soon after the close of his reign the name of Kingdom of Leon 
 is given to the Asturian dominions ; Fernando Gonzalez recognized as 
 independent count of Castile, 961 ; Castile erected into a kingdom by 
 Sancho the Great of Navarre, 1033 (see Castile) ; Sancho erects Aragon 
 into an independent kingdom, 1035 ; conquest of the Moorish kingdom 
 of Toledo (New Castile) by Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon, 1085 ; 
 Alfonso erects Portugal into a county, about 1095 ; Alfonso el Batallador 
 of Aragon wrests Saragossa from the Moors, 1118; union of Catalonia 
 and Aragon, 1151 ; Alfonso the Noble of Castile, Alfonso IX. of Leon, 
 and the king of Navarre break the power of the Moors at Navas de 
 Tolosa, 1212 ; James the Conqueror of Aragon makes himself master of 
 the Balearic Islands (held by the Mohammedans since the close of the 
 8th c.) and of the Moorish kingdom of Valencia, 1229-45 (the town of 
 Valencia taken, 1238) ; St. Ferdinand of Castile and Leon takes Cordova 
 from the Moors, 1236 ; the Moors of Murcia submit to him, 1243 ; he 
 takes Seville from the Moors. 1248 ; reign of Alfonso the Wise of Castile, 
 1252-'84 ; of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, 1350-'69 ; of Alfonso the Mag- 
 nanimous of Aragon, 1416-'58 ; union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdi- 
 
 1 A village of Lombardy, S. of Lake Garda. 5 A locality in Cumberland, adjoining Sol- 
 way Frith. 3 A ridge of the Alleghanies in Maryland and Pennsylvania. The battle of 
 South Mountain was fought near Boonesborough, S. E. of Hagerstown. 
 20 
 
202 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 nand and Isabella, 1479 ; they complete the conquest of the kingdom of 
 Granada, putting an end to Moorish dominion, beginning of 1492 ; con- 
 quest of Spanish Navarre by Ferdinand, all Spain united, 1512 ; Charles 
 I. inaugurates the Hapsburg dynasty, 1516 ; accession of Philip II.. 1550; 
 Philip III., 1598 ; Philip IV., 1621 ; Charles II., 1665 ; the Hapsburg dy- 
 nasty ends with Charles's death, 1700 ; Philip V., first of the Bourbon 
 dynasty, proclaimed king, succession disputed, 1700 ; War of the Spanish 
 Succession begins, 1701 ; Philip firmly established on the throne, 1711 ; 
 recognized by treaties, 1713-'14; Louis, 1724; Philip V. again, 1724; 
 Ferdinand VI., 1746 ; Charles III., 1759 ; Charles IV., 1788 ; Napoleon's 
 usurpation, the throne given to Joseph, 1808 ; Peninsular War, 1808-'14 ; 
 Bourbon dynasty restored, Ferdinand VII., 1814 ; revolution, 1820 ; 
 French intervention in favor of Ferdinand VII., 1823; Isabella II., 1833 
 — Maria Christina regent ; rising in favor of Don Carlos (Charles V.), 
 1833 ; end of the first Carlist war, 1840 ; revolution, fall of Isabella, 1868 ; 
 Amadeus, 1870 ; outbreak of the insurrection in favor of Don Carlos 
 (Charles VII.), 1872 ; Amadeus abdicates, Spain a republic, 1873 ; risings 
 of Intransigentes, 1873; Alfonso XII. proclaimed king, close of 1874; end 
 of Carlist war, 1876; death of Alfonso XII., 1885; Alfonso XIII., 1886. 
 See Sicilies (the Two), Sardinia, Netherlands, Milan, Portugal, &e. 
 
 Spanish Succession, War of the, 1701-'14. 
 
 Sparta — [is. c] — Legislation of Lycurgus, about 850 ; Messenian wars, about 
 743-724, about 645-628 (685-668) >; wrests Cynuria from Argos, about 
 550 — Sparta at this time recognized as the leading power in Greece ; de- 
 fense of Thermopylae, 480 ; battle of Plata^a, 479 ; the hegemony passes 
 to Athens, 477 ; city overthrown by an earthquake, 464 ; insurrection of 
 the Messenian helots, 464-455 ; Peloponnesian War, Athens succumbs, 
 431-404; Thebes puts an end to Sparta's military pre-eminence, 371 ; re- 
 forms of Agis IV., about 243-241 ; reforms of Cleomenes III., about 226 ; 
 passes under the sway of Rome, 146. 
 
 Spectacles — Invented, about close of 13th c. 
 
 " Spectator "—Published, 1711-14. 
 
 Spectrum Analysis — Science of, introduced by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 1860. 
 
 Spinning Frame — Patented by Arkwright, 1769. 
 
 Spinning Jenny — Invented by Hargreaves, 1767. 
 
 Spire (Speier), 2 Diet of— The Reformers present their protest at the, 1529. 
 
 Spottsylvania Court-House a — Battles at, between Grant and Lee, May, 
 1864 
 
 Spurs, Battle of the. See Guinegate. 
 
 Stamp Act— Passed, 1765 : repealed, 1766. 
 
 Standard, Battle of the 4 — Defeat of the Scots in the, 1138. 
 
 1 See Messenia. 2 A town on the left bank of the Rhine, a few miles above the mouth of 
 the Neckar. It was formerly one of the free cities of Germany, and now belongs to Bavaria. 
 3 A village of Virginia, S. W. of Fredericksburg. 4 Fought near Northallerton, in Yorkshire. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 293 
 
 Star Chamber — Abolished, 1G41. 
 
 States General (of France) — First convoked, 1302 ; last assembly before 
 the Revolution, 1614— '15 ; convened by Louis XVI., and soon transformed 
 into the Constituent Assembly, 1789. 
 
 Steadman, Fort ' — Taken and lost by Lee, March 25, 1865. 
 
 Steam-Engine — A rude approach to the, suggested by the marquis of Wor- 
 cester, 1663 ; Papin's improvement, about 1690; Savery's improvement, 
 1698 ; Newcomen's engine patented, 1705 ; automatic movement intro- 
 duced, 1713 ; Watt obtains his first patent, 1769. 
 
 Steam-Navigation — Fitch's boat plies on the Delaware, 1790; Fulton's 
 success, 1807; screw-propeller introduced, 1837; transatlantic steam- 
 navigation inaugurated, 1838. 
 
 Steenkerk 2 — Victory of Luxembourg over William III. at, 1692. 
 
 Stillwater— Battle of, between Burgoyne and Gates, Sept. 19, 1777. (The 
 battle of Saratoga, fought Oct. 7, 1777, is also known as the second battle 
 of Stillwater.) 
 
 Stirling 3 — Victory of Wallace at, 1297. 
 
 Stone River, engagements at. See Murfreesboro. 
 
 Stony Point 4 — Stormed by Wayne, July 16, 1779. 
 
 Stralsund 5 — Besieged by Wallenstein, 1628 ; secured to Sweden, 1648 ; taken 
 by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, 1678; by Frederick Wil- 
 liam I., 1715 ; by the French, 1807 ; seized by the Prussian officer Schill, 
 and retaken by the French, 1809 ; incorporated with Prussia, 1815. 
 
 Strasburg — Becomes a free imperial city, 13th c. ; seized by Louis XIV., 
 1681; revolutionary attempt of Louis Napoleon at, 1836; taken by the 
 Germans, Sept., 1870 ; — cathedral completed, 1439. 
 
 Stuart, bouse of. See Scotland, England. 
 
 Styria. See Austria. 
 
 Suabia. See Swabia. 
 
 Suevi 6 — Invade Gaul, 406 ; pass into Spain, 409 ; their realm there destroyed 
 by the Visigoths, 585. 
 
 Suez Canal— Constructed, 1859-69. 
 
 Sumter, Fort '—Bombardment of, April 12, 13, 1861 ; evacuated by Major 
 Anderson, April 14. 
 
 Supremacy, Act of— Passed by Parliament. 1534; new act passed. 1559. 
 
 Swabia — Duchy of, under Hohenstaufen rule, from end of 11th to middle 
 of 13th c. ; Great Swabian League formed, 1488; dissolved. 15:;:'.. 
 
 Sweden — Christianity fully established, 12th c. ; Union of Calmar (see Den- 
 mark), 1397; successful invasion of Christian II. of Denmark, 1520; Gus- 
 tavus Vasa heads a rising against the Danes, 1521 ; he becomes king, 
 
 'Before Petersburg, Va. 2 A village of Belgium, in Hainant. 3 A town on the river 
 Forth. 4 On the W. bank of the Hudson, a few miles below West Point. B A town on the 
 coast of Pomerania ; originally one of the Hanse towns. 6 A Germanic people. 7 In Charles- 
 ton harbor. 
 
294 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 1523; Luthcranism made the state church, 1529; career of Gustavus 
 Adolphus in Germany, 1630-32; the kingdom acquires possessions in 
 Germany, 1648 (see Pomerania, Wismar, Verden, and Bremen, duchy 
 of) ; campaigns of Charles XII. against Peter the Great and Augustus 
 the Strong, 1700-1709; receives Norway from Denmark, 1814. (See 
 Livonia, Finland.) 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF SWEDEN 
 
 FROM 1523. 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 ACCESSION 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, 
 
 1523. 
 
 Frederick of Hesse-Cassel shares 
 
 
 Eric XIV., 
 
 1560. 
 
 her throne, 
 
 1720. 
 
 John III., 
 
 1568. 
 
 Death of the queen, 1741. 
 
 
 Sigismund, 
 
 1592. 
 
 Adolphus Frederick, 
 
 1751. 
 
 Charles IX., 
 
 1604.1 
 
 Gustavus III., 
 
 1771. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 
 
 1611. 
 
 Gustavus IV. Adolphus, 
 
 1792. 
 
 Christina, 
 
 1632. 
 
 Charles XIII., 
 
 1809. 
 
 Charles X. Gustavus, 
 
 1654. 
 
 Charles XIV. John (Bernadotte), 
 
 1818. 
 
 Charles XL, 
 
 1660. 
 
 Oscar I., 
 
 1844. 
 
 Charles XII., 
 
 1697. 
 
 Charles XV., 
 
 1859. 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora, 
 
 1719. 
 
 Oscar II., 
 
 1872. 
 
 Swiss Confederacy — Originates in the league of Uri, Schwytz, and Unter- 
 walden (directed mainly against the house of Hapsburg), 1291 ; victory of 
 the Swiss at Morgarten, 1315 ; victory at Sempach, 1386 ; they vanquish 
 Charles the Bold, 1476-'7 ; defeat Maximilian I., become virtually inde- 
 pendent of the German Empire, 1499 ; battle of Marignano, 1515 ; Per- 
 petual Peace with France, 1516 ; beginning of the Swiss Reformation, 
 1518 ; confederacy declared completely independent of the German Em- 
 pire, 1648 ; the French establish the Helvetic Republic, 1798 ; the can- 
 tonal confederacy restored, 1803 ; neutralization of the country. 1815 ; war 
 of the Sonderbund, 1847. 
 
 Sybaris ' 2 — Destruction of, by the Crotonians, 510 B. c. 
 
 Syracuse — [b. c] — Founded by the Corinthians, about 750; battle of Ili- 
 mera, 480 ; triumph of democracy, about 468 ; Athenian expedition against , 
 415-413 ; Dionysius the Elder establishes his power, 406 ; delivered from 
 Dionysius the Younger by Timoleon, 343 ; city taken by the Romans, 212 ; 
 — [a. d.] — by the Saracens, 878. 
 
 Syria — [b. c] — Subjected to the sway of Assyria, about 732 ; to that of 
 Babylon, 605 ; on the overthrow of the Babylonian monarchy forms part 
 of the Persian empire ; falls into the hands of Alexander the Great, 333 ; 
 Upper Syria the conquest of Seleucus Nicator, founder of the kingdom 
 of Syria, 301 or 300 3 ; Coele-Syria conquered by Antiochus the Great, 198 ; 
 
 1 Charles IX. had been virtually king since 1599. Sigismund having forfeited his crown. 
 2 A Greek city of southern Italy, near the W. shore of the Tarentine Gulf. 3 The realm of 
 the Seleucida? was founded in 312. 
 
CnRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 295 
 
 end of the kingdom of the Seleucidse, 65 ; Pompey takes possession of the 
 country, 64 ; — [a. d.] — conquered by the Saracens, 634-636 ; by the Sel- 
 juks, about 1075-'84; conquests of the Crusaders begun, 1097; Saladin 
 makes himself master of most of the country, 1174-'83; — (See Jerusalem, 
 Antioch, Acre, Tyre.) — conquered by the Turks, 1516 ; by Mehemet Ali, 
 1831-'2 ; given up by him, 1841 ; massacres of the Christians, French occu- 
 pation, 1860-'61. 
 
 Szegedin — Destruction of, by an inundation of the Theiss, 1879. 
 
 Sziget ' — Defended against the Turks, falls, 1566. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tacna 5 — Victory of the Chilians at, 1880. 
 
 Tagliacozzo 3 — Victory of Charles of Anjou at, 1268. 
 
 Taiping Rebellion, 1850-64. 
 
 Talavera de la Reina 4 — Victory of Wellington over the French at, 1809. 
 
 Tanagra 5 — Battle of, between the Spartans and Athenians, 457 b. c. 
 
 Tanganyika, Lake — Discovered, by Burton and Speke, 1858. 
 
 Tannenberg * — Jagellon defeats the Teutonic Knights near, 1410. 
 
 Tara, Hill of 7 — Monster meeting of the Repealers on the, 1843. 
 
 Tarentum s — Pyrrhus espouses the cause of, against Rome, 280 B. c. ; city 
 surrenders to the Romans, 272 b. c. 
 
 Targovitza, 9 Confederation of (formed by the Polish nobility), 1792. 
 
 Tasmania — Discovered by Tasman, 1642. 
 
 Tchesme ,0 — Turkish fleet burned by the Russians at, 1770. 
 
 Tekke-Turkomans "—Russian expeditions against the, 1879, 1880-81. 
 
 Telegraph, Electric — Successfully introduced, 1844; transatlantic com- 
 munication momentarily established, 1858; successfully established, 1866. 
 
 Tel el-Kebir 12 — Victory of the English over Arabi Pasha at, Sept. 13, 1882. 
 
 Telephone — Bell produces his apparatus for the transmission of speech, 
 1876. (Gray's resonator invented some years previously.) 
 
 Telescope — Invented, about 1608. 
 
 Templars. See Knights Templars. 
 
 Tennessee — Admitted into the Union, 1796 ; secedes, 1861 ; readmitted to 
 representation in the Union, 1866. 
 
 Ten Thousand, retreat of the, 401-400 b. c. 
 
 1 A small place in southern Hungary, a few miles N. of the Drave. (Not to be con- 
 founded with the town of the same name in northeastern Hungary.) 2 A town about 175 
 miles S. E. of Areqnipa. 3 A town in the Apennines, about 40 miles N. E. of Rome. 4 A 
 town on the Tagus, 64 miles S. W. of Madrid. 6 A town of Bceotia, on the Aeopus. 6 A 
 village about 75 miles S. W. of Konigsberg. * In county Meath, in the E. part of Lemster. 
 8 A Greek city in the S. E. part of Italy, on the N. shore of the Tarentine Gulf ; now 
 Taranto. 9 A small place now included in the Russian government of Kiev. 10 A town 
 on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite the island of Scio. n A tribe of southern Turkestan, 
 dwelling along the southwestern margin of the Kara-Kuril desert. l2 A locality about 30 
 miles W. of Ismailia. 
 
296 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Tenure of Office Act — Passed by Congress, 1867. 
 
 Test Act— Passed by Parliament, 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 
 
 Teutoburg Forest J — Arminius defeats the Romans in the, a. d. 9. 
 
 Teutones — Vanquished by Marius, 102 B. c. 
 
 Teutonic Knights — Order of, founded, 1190; lay the foundations of their 
 dominion in the Baltic regions, 1231 ; complete the conquest of the Prus- 
 sians, 1283 ; — (See Livonia, Knights-Swordbearers.) — surrender West 
 Prussia 2 to Poland, 1466 — hold East Prussia 3 as a fief of Poland ; East 
 Prussia converted into the hereditary duchy of Prussia by the grand-mas- 
 ter Albert of Brandenburg, 1525. 
 
 Tewkesbury 4 — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1471. 
 
 Texas — Revolution against the government of Mexico, 1835 ; Houston be- 
 comes president, 1836 ; a state of the Union, 1845 ; secedes, 1861 ; recon- 
 struction completed, 1870. 
 
 Thames 5 — Harrison defeats the British in the battle of the, 1813. 
 
 Thames Tunnel — Opened to the public, 1843. 
 
 Thapsus 6 — Defeat of the Pompeians at, 46 b. c. 
 
 Thebes (Boeotia) — [b. c] — Citadel of, seized by the Spartans, 382 ; city deliv- 
 ered from the Spartans, 379 ; Theban supremacy in Greece established, 371 ; 
 subjected by Macedon, 338 ; city destroyed by Alexander, 335 ; rebuilding 
 undertaken by Cassander, 315. 
 
 Thermidor, 9th, event of the, July 27, 1794. 
 
 Thermometer — Comes into use, 17th c. 
 
 Thermopylae 7 — Defense of, against the Persians by Leonidas, 480 B. c. 
 
 Thirteenth Amendment — Becomes part of the constitution of the United 
 States, 1865. 
 
 Thirty-nine Articles — Published, 1563. 
 
 Thirty Tyrants (in Athens) — Rule of the, 404 b. c. 
 
 Thirty Years' War, 1618-48. 
 
 Thorn, 8 treaty of, between Casimir IV. and the Teutonic Knights, 1466. 
 
 Thrasymenus, Lake 9 — Hannibal defeats the Romans at, 217 b. c. 
 
 Tiberias 10 — Saladin defeats the Christians at, 1187. 
 
 Ticinus (Ticino) n — Hannibal defeats the Romans on the, 218 B. c. 
 
 Ticonderoga, Fort 13 — Constructed by the French, 1755 ; victory of the 
 
 1 A mountain range on the northeastern borders of the present Prussian province of 
 Westphalia. 2 A region bordering on the Baltic, and watered by the Vistula. 3 A region 
 now constituting the easternmost portion of the Prussian monarchy. * A town situated at 
 the confluence of the Avon and Severn. 5 A river of Canada emptying into Lake St. Clair. 
 n A town on the coast of Africa, about 100 miles S. E. of Carthage. 7 A pass between Mt. 
 (Eta and a morass on the edge of the Maliac Gulf (now Gulf of Lamia, or of Zeitouni), 
 which formed the only available passage for an army entering central Greece from Thes- 
 saly. 8 A town on the Vistula, now included in the Prussian province of West Prussia. 
 9 About 85 miles N. of Rome ; now called Lago di Perugia. 10 A town on the W. shore of 
 the Lake of Gennesaret. or of Tiberias ; now called Tabariyeh. n A river which rises on 
 the slopes of the St. Gothard, flows through Lago Maggiore, and discharges into the Po. 
 12 Situated on Lake Champlain at the point where Lake George discharges into it. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 297 
 
 French at, 1758; abandoned by the French, 1759; seized by Ethan Allen, 
 1775 ; surrenders to Burgoyne, 1777 ; evacuated by the British, 1777. 
 
 Tientsin 1 — China concludes treaties at, with Great Britain, France, Russia, 
 and the United States, 1858. 
 
 Tigranocerta ' 2 — Victory of the Romans over Tigranes at, 69 b. c. 
 
 Tilsit 3 — France concludes peace at, with Russia and Prussia, 1807. 
 
 Tippecanoe 4 — Harrison defeats the Indians on the, 1811. 
 
 Tippermuir 5 — Defeat of the Covenanters at, 1644. 
 
 Tlemcen B — Taken by the French, 1836 ; victory of Abd-el-Kader near, 1836, 
 
 Toggenburg War, 7 second (between the Swiss cantons), 1712. 
 
 Toledo — Conquered from the Moors by Alfonso the Valiant, 1085. 
 
 Tolentino 8 — Peace of, between the French and Pope Pius VI., 1797; defeat 
 of Murat by the Austrians at, 1815. 
 
 Toleration Act (in English history), 1689. 
 
 Tonquin — The French establish their dominion in, 1882-'5. 
 
 Topeka Constitution, 1855. 
 
 Torres Vedras, 9 lines of— Wellington retires behind the, 1810. 
 
 Toul 10 — Taken by the Germans, 1870. 
 
 Totilon — Unsuccessfully attacked by the enemies of Louis XIV., 1707 ; de- 
 feat of the English fleet before, 1744; delivered to the English, 1793; 
 retaken by the French, 1793. 
 
 Toulouse— Besieged by Simon de Montfort, 1217-'18 ; Soult unsuccessfully 
 opposes Wellington at, 1814. 
 
 Toulouse, county of— Established by Charlemagne, 778; under hereditary 
 rulers, from middle of 9th c. ; united with the French crown, 1271. 
 
 Tower of London. See London. 
 
 Towton 11 — Victory of the Yorkists at, 1461. 
 
 Trafalgar 12 — Victory of Nelson over the French and Spaniards at, Oct. 21, 
 1805. 
 
 Transvaal-Republic. See Boers. 
 
 Transylvania — Occupied by the Hungarians, 10th c. ; immigration of Ger- 
 mans, middle of 12th c. ; the waywode John Zapolya elected king of Hun- 
 gary, Ferdinand of Hapsburg elected in opposition to him, 1526 ; treaty 
 of Grosswardein between Ferdinand and Zapolya, in which Zapolya is 
 recognized as sovereign prince of Transylvania, 1538 ; reign of Stephen 
 Bathori, 1571-'6 ; Gabriel Bethlen, 1613-'29 ; George Rakoczy, 1631-'48 ; 
 
 1 The port of Peking, situated on the Pei-ho, about 65 miles S. E. of that city. 2 Tigra- 
 nocerta was founded by Tigranes as the capital of his Armenian kingdom. It was situated 
 in southern Armenia, not far from the Tigris. 3 A town of Prussia, on the Niemen, 60 
 miles N. E. of Konigsberg. 4 A river of Indiana, flowing into the Wabash. 6 A locality 
 near Perth. 6 A town of Algeria, about 70 miles S. W. of Oran. 7 Toggenburg is a dis- 
 trict embracing the upper valley of the river Thur. and included in the canton of St. Gall. 
 8 A town 30 miles S. W. of Ancona. 9 A town 25 miles N. W. of Lisbon. 10 A town of 
 French Lorraine, W. of Nancy. " A small place S. W. of York. 12 A headland of Spain, 
 at the western entrance of the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
298 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 Leopold I. of Austria takes possession, 1G99 ; united with Hungary, 1713. 
 
 Travendal, 1 peace of, between Sweden and Denmark, 1700. 
 
 Trebia (Trebbia) 2 — Hannibal defeats the Romans on the, 218 b. c. ; defeat 
 of the French at, 179!). 
 
 Trebizond, empire of, 3 1204-1461. 
 
 Trent, 4 council of— Opened, 1545 ; closed, 1563. 
 
 Trent (steamer) — Mason and Slidell seized on the, 1861. 
 
 Trenton — Surrender of the Hessians at, Dec. 26, 1776. 
 
 Treves, archbishopric of — Territories of the, conquered by the French, 
 1794; pass to Prussia, 1814-15. See Electors (Imperial). 
 
 Tribunes of the People (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 494 b. c. 
 
 Triple Alliance — England, Holland, and Sweden against France, 16G8; 
 France, Great Britain, and Holland against Spain, 1717 ; Germany, Aus- 
 tria-Hungary, and Italy against France and Russia, 1883. 
 
 Tripoli— War with the United States, 1801-5. 
 
 Tripolitza 5 — Stormed by the Greeks, 1821. 
 
 Triumvirate, first (Pompey, Caesar, Crassus) — Formed, 60 b. c. 
 
 Triumvirate, second (Octavius, Antony, Lepidus) — Formed, 43 b. c. 
 
 Trocadero, the (at Cadiz) — Stormed by the French, 1823. 
 
 Troppau, 6 congress of, held by the Great Powers, 1820. 
 
 Troyes, 1 treaty of, securing to Henry V. of England the succession to the 
 throne of France, 1420. 
 
 Tubingen, 8 University of — Founded, 1477. 
 
 Tudor Dynasty, 1485-1603. * 
 
 Tuileries — Begun by Catharine de' Medici, 1564; enlarged by Henry IV., 
 Louis XIII., and Louis XIV. ; stormed by the populace, 1792 ; burned, 1871. 
 
 Tunis — Conquered by the Arabs, who found Kairwan, 7th c. ; crusade of 
 Louis IX. against, 1270 ; city of Tunis taken by Charles V., 1535 ; French 
 protectorate established. 1881. 
 
 Turin — Victory of Prince Eugene over the French at, 1706. 
 
 Turkish Empire — Othman lays the foundation of the Ottoman realm in 
 Asia, 1288-1326 ; the Turks conquer Nicaea, 1330 ; lay the foundations of 
 their dominion in Europe by the seizure of Gallipoli, 1354 ; take Adriano- 
 ple, 1361 ; conquer Bulgaria, 1388-'93 ; break the power of Servia, 1389 ; 
 force Wallachia to acknowledge itself tributary, 1391 ; take Constantino- 
 ple, 1453 ; masters of nearly all Greece, 1460 ; conquer Trebizond, 1461 ; 
 Bosnia, 1463 ; Negropont, 1470 ; the Crimea made a vassal state, 1475 ; 
 subjugation of Albania completed, 1478 ; Syria and Palestine conquered, 
 1516; Egypt, 1517; Algeria becomes a dependency of Turkey, 1519; Bel- 
 grade taken, 1521 ; Rhodes, 1522 ; the Turks overthrow the Hungarians 
 
 1 A place in Holstein. a An affluent of the Po, rising not far from Genoa, and empty- 
 ing near Piacenza. 3 On the S. shore of the Black Sea. 4 A town in the S. part of Tyrol, 
 on the Adige ; It. Trento, Ger. Trient. 6 A town of the Morea, capital of the nomarchy 
 of Arcadia. «The capital of Austrian Silesia. 7 A town of Champagne, 90 miles S. E. of 
 Paris. 8 A town of Wiirtemberg, S. W. of Stuttgart. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 299 
 
 at Mohacs, and overrun Hungary, 1536 ; they besiege Vienna, 1529 ; Buda 
 permanently in their possession, from 1541 ; Tripoli conquered, 1551 — the 
 empire at this time at the zenith of its power ; conquest of Cyprus, 1571 ; 
 the naval power of the empire receives a great blow in the defeat at Le- 
 panto, 1571 ; Tunis made subject, 1574 ; fortress of Candia conquered, 
 1669 ; second siege of Vienna, disaster to the Turkish arms, 1683 — Tur- 
 key ceases to be a formidable aggressive power. (See Servia, Moldavia, 
 Wallachia, Hungary, Crimea, Greece, and other titles.) 
 
 PRINCIPAL WARS 
 
 WAGED BY THE TcEKS IN EUROPE SINCE 1683. 
 
 With 
 
 
 
 With 
 
 
 
 
 Austria, 
 
 1683- 
 
 '99. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1768- 
 
 '74. 
 
 
 Poland, 
 
 1683- 
 
 '99. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1787- 
 
 '92. 
 
 
 Venice, 
 
 1 684-' 99. 
 
 Austria, 
 
 1787- 
 
 '91. 
 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1695- 
 
 '99. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1806- 
 
 '12. 
 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1711. 
 
 
 Greece, 
 
 1821- 
 
 '9. 
 
 
 Venice, 
 
 1714-'18. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1828- 
 
 '9. 
 
 
 Austria, 
 
 1716- 
 
 '18. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1853- 
 
 '6. 
 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1736- 
 
 '9. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1877- 
 
 '8. 
 
 
 Austria, 
 
 1737- 
 
 '9. 
 
 Greece, 
 
 1897. 
 
 
 
 
 TURK1SII 
 
 SULTANS. 
 
 
 
 
 Othman I. dies, 
 
 1326. 
 
 ACCESSION 
 
 
 
 
 ACCESSION. 
 
 Orkhan, 
 
 ' 
 
 1326. 
 
 Othman II., 
 
 
 
 1618. 
 
 Amurath I., 
 
 
 1359. 
 
 Mustapha I. (again), 
 
 
 1622. 
 
 Bajazet I., 
 
 
 1389. 
 
 Amurath IV., 
 
 
 
 1623. 
 
 On Bajazet's fall, 
 
 1402, 
 
 
 Ibrahim, 
 
 
 
 1640. 
 
 the empire divided 
 
 
 
 Mohammed IV., 
 
 
 
 1648. 
 
 among his sons, 
 
 
 
 Solyman III., 
 
 
 
 1687. 
 
 Solynian I., 
 
 
 
 Ahmed II., 
 
 
 
 1691. 
 
 Musa, 
 
 
 
 Mustapha II., 
 
 
 
 1695. 
 
 Mohammed I. 
 
 
 
 Ahmed III., 
 
 
 
 1703. 
 
 Mohammed I. sole ruler, 
 
 1413. 
 
 Mahmoud I., 
 
 
 
 1730. 
 
 Amurath II., 
 
 
 1421. 
 
 Othman III., 
 
 
 
 1754. 
 
 Mohammed II., 
 
 
 1451. 
 
 Mustapha III., 
 
 
 
 1757. 
 
 Bajazet II., 
 
 
 1481. 
 
 Abdul Hamid I., 
 
 
 
 1773.1 
 
 Selim I., 
 
 
 1512. 
 
 Selim III., 
 
 
 
 1789. 
 
 Solyman II., 
 
 
 1520. 
 
 Mustapha IV., 
 
 
 
 1807. 
 
 Selim II., 
 
 
 1566. 
 
 Mahmoud II., 
 
 
 
 1808. 
 
 Amurath III., 
 
 
 1574. 
 
 Abdul Medjid, 
 
 
 
 1839. 
 
 Mohammed III., 
 
 
 1595. 
 
 Abdul Aziz, 
 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 Ahmed I., 
 
 
 1603. 
 
 Amurath V., 
 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 Mustapha I., 
 
 
 1617. 
 
 Abdul Hamid II 
 
 ? 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 1 Abdul Ilamid I. is generally stated to have mounted the throne in Jan., 1774. Hammer- 
 Purgstall, in his detailed history of the Ottoman Empire, places his accession in Dec, 177& 
 
300 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Turkmantchai, 1 peace of, between Russia and Persia, 1828. 
 
 Turks, Seljuk. See Seljuks. 
 
 Tuscany — Reign of Countess Matilda, 1076-1115 ; the Florentine dominions 
 erected into the grand-duchy of, 1569 ; extinction of the Medici dynasty, 
 accession of Francis Stephen of Lorraine, 1737 ; Leopold I., 1765 ; Ferdi- 
 nand III., 1790 ; occupied by the French, 1799 ; transferred to the Bour- 
 bon dynasty of Parma as the kingdom of Etruria, 1801 ; kingdom taken 
 possession of by Napoleon, 1807 ; Ferdinand III. restored, 1814; accession of 
 Leopold II., 1824 ; revolutionary troubles, 1848-9 ; Ferdinand IV. (titular 
 grand-duke), 1859; annexed to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, I860. 
 
 Tuscaroras — Power of the, broken by the people of Carolina, 1713. 
 
 Tuttlingen 2 — Defeat of the French by the Imperialists at, 1643. 
 
 Twelve Tables, Laws of the — Published, about 450 b. c. 
 
 Two Sicilies. See Sicilies (the Two). 
 
 Tyre — [b. c] — Becomes the leading city of Phoenicia, about 1100 ; the new 
 city (the island city) besieged by Shalmaneser IV. of Assyria, about 727- 
 722 ; by Nebuchadnezzar, 586-573 3 ; reduced by Alexander the Great, 
 332 ; — [a. d.] — the place taken by the Christians, 1124 ; lost, 1291. 
 
 Tyrol — Acquired by the house of Austria, 1363 ; given to Bavaria, 1805 ; 
 rising under Hofer and others, 1809 ; Hofer executed, 1810 ; recovered by 
 Austria, 1814. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulm 4 — Surrender of Mack to the French at, 1805. 
 
 Uniformity, Act of (under Edward VI.), 1549. 
 
 Uniformity, Act of (under Charles II.), 1662. 
 
 United Evangelical Church (in Germany) — Formed, 1817. 
 
 United States— First Continental Congress, 1774 ; beginning of the Revo- 
 lutionary War, 1775 ; second Continental Congress meets, 1775 ; Declara- 
 tion of Independence, 1776; Articles of Confederation adopted, 1777; 
 peace of Versailles, 1783 ; framing of the Constitution, 1787; it is ratified 
 by a majority of the states, 1788— Rhode Island the last to ratify, 1790 ; 
 the Continental Congress succeeded by the first Congress under the Con- 
 stitution, presidential government inaugurated, 1789 ; purchase of Lou- 
 isiana, 1803 ; war with Great Britain, 1812-15 ; cession of Florida by 
 Spain. 1819 ; Texas (previous to 1836 part of Mexico) becomes a state of 
 the Union, 1845 ; war with Mexico, California and New Mexico acquired, 
 1846-8; Civil War, 1861-5; purchase of Alaska, 1867; reconstruction in 
 the South completed, 1870. (See names of the various states, French and 
 Indian War and similar titles, Slavery, &c.) 
 
 1 A small place in Persia, about 70 miles S. E. of Tabriz. a A town in the S. part of 
 Wurtemberg, on the Danube. 3 This siege is sometimes stated to have taken place in the 
 years 598-585. The best recent authorities adopt the later dates. * A town on the Danube, 
 45 miles S. E. of Stuttgart. It was a free city of the old German Empire, was united to 
 Bavaria in 1803, and in 1810 was annexed to Wurtemberg. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 301 
 
 ADMISSION OF STATES 
 since the Adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 1791. 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 1836. 
 
 Nevada, 
 
 1864. 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 1792. 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 1837. 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 1867. 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 1796. 
 
 Florida, 
 
 1845. 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 1870. 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 1803. 
 
 Texas, 
 
 1845. 
 
 North Dakota, 
 
 1889. 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 1812. 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 1846. 
 
 South Dakota, 
 
 1889. 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 1810. 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 1848. 
 
 Montana, 
 
 1889. 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 1817. 
 
 California, 
 
 1850. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 1889 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 ISIS. 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 1858. 
 
 Idaho, 
 
 1890. 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 1819. 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 1859. 
 
 Wyoming, 
 
 1890. 
 
 Maine, 
 
 1S20. 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 1861. 
 
 Utah, 
 
 1896. 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 1821. 
 
 West Virginia, 
 
 1863. 
 
 
 
 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 
 
 Washington, 
 
 
 1789. 
 
 Pierce, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 John Adams, 
 
 
 1797. 
 
 Buchanan, 
 
 
 1857 
 
 Jefferson, 
 
 
 1801. 
 
 Lincoln, 
 
 
 1S61 
 
 Madison, 
 
 
 1S09. 
 
 Johnson, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 Monroe, 
 
 
 1817. 
 
 Grant, 
 
 
 1869 
 
 John Quincy 
 
 Adams, 
 
 1825. 
 
 Hayes, 
 
 
 1877 
 
 Jackson, 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 Garfield, 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 Van Buren, 
 
 
 1S37. 
 
 Arthur, 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 William H. H 
 
 arrison, 
 
 1841. 
 
 Cleveland, 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 Tyler, 
 
 
 1841. 
 
 Benjamin 
 
 larrison, 
 
 1889. 
 
 Polk, 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 Cleveland, 
 
 
 1893 
 
 Taylor, 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 MeKinley, 
 
 
 1897. 
 
 Fillmore, 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 
 
 Upsal, University of— Founded, 1477. 
 
 "Uranus — Discovered by Herschel, 1781. 
 
 Uruguay — Recognized as an independent republic, 1828. 
 
 Utah — Territory formed, 1850 ; State admitted into the Union, 1896. 
 
 Utrecht, treaty of (War of the Spanish Succession), 1713. 
 
 Utrecht, Union of (Dutch Provinces), 1579. 
 
 Vaccination — Efficacy of, shown by Jenner, 1796. (See Inoculation.) 
 
 Valley Forge 1 — Washington encamped at, 1 777— '8. 
 
 Valmy 9 — Battle of, between the French and the forces of the duke ot 
 
 Brunswick, 1792. 
 Valois Dynasty, 1328-1589. 
 Valparaiso — Bombarded by the Spaniards, 1866. 
 Vandals 3 — Invade Gaul, 406 ; pass into Spain, 409 ; from thence into 
 
 1 A locality N. W. of Philadelphia. 
 Germanic people. 
 
 ■ J A village of Champagne N. E. of Chalons. 3 A 
 
302 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Africa, 429 ; pillage Rome, 455 ; overthrow of their African kingdom, 
 533. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land. See Tasmania. 
 
 Varangians. See Northmen. 
 
 Varennes J — Flight of Louis XVI. arrested at, 1791. 
 
 Varna 2 — Victory of the Turks over the Hungarians at, 1444; taken by the 
 Russians, 1828. 
 
 Vassy 3 — Massacre of the Huguenots at, 1562. 
 
 Vatican — Present edifice mainly the work of the 15th, 16th, and 19th c. 
 
 Vatican Council, 1869-70. 
 
 Vaudois. See Waldenses. 
 
 Veii 4 — Taken by the Romans, about 396 (392) B. c. 
 
 Velletri 6 — Victory of Garibaldi over the Neapolitans at, 1849. 
 
 Venaissin 6 — Becomes a papal possession, 13th c. ; incorporated with France, 
 1791. 
 
 Vendee, La 7 — Outbreak of the great royalist insurrection, 1793; pacified 
 by Hoche, 1796 ; rising against Napoleon, 1815. 
 
 Venetia. See Venice. 
 
 Venezuela — Outbreak of the struggle against Spanish dominion, 1810 ; in- 
 dependence proclaimed, 1811 ; Bolivar receives the title of Libertador, 
 1813 ; constituted with New Granada into the republic of Colombia, 
 1819 ; separation from Colombia, 1829. 
 
 Venice — City commonly reputed to have been founded, 452 8 ; the dogate 
 established, 697 ; the doge assumes the title of duke of Venice and Dal- 
 matia, 997 ; the republic shares in the partition of the Byzantine domin- 
 ions, 1204 ; outbreak of the great wars with Genoa, 1258 ; Council of Ten 
 originates, 1310 ; city threatened by the Genoese fleet, 1379 ; Corfu perma- 
 nently a possession of the republic, from about 1386 ; Vicenza acquired, 
 1404 ; Verona and Padua, 1405 ; Brescia, 1426 ; Bergamo, 1428 ; the 
 Turks conquer Negropont, 1470; within the next 70 years they con- 
 quer the Venetian possessions in the Morea and the Archipelago ; Ve- 
 netian dominion in Cyprus established, 1473 ; the island lost, 1571 ; the 
 fortress of Candia conquered by the Turks, 1669 ; the Morea conquered 
 by the republic, 1685-7; lost, 1715; fall of the republic, most of her 
 dominions given to Austria, 1797 ; the Venetian territories lost by Aus- 
 tria, 1805 ; recovered, 1814 ; erection of the Lombardo- Venetian king- 
 dom, 1815 ; insurrection, republic established, 1848 ; fall of the city, 1849 ; 
 Venetia annexed to Italy, 1866. 
 
 Venus, transit of— First observed by Horrox, 1639. 
 
 1 A village N. W. of Verdun. fi A town of Bulgaria, on the Black Sea. 3 A town of 
 Champagne, about 40 miles S. E. of Chalons. 4 An Etruscan town, 10 miles N. W. of Rome. 
 6 A town 20 miles S. E. of Rome. 6 A district of Provence, now included in the department 
 of Vaucluse. 7 A department of France, embracing part of the old province of Poitou, and 
 bordering on the Bay of Biscay. The great war of the Vendee extended over a large por- 
 tion of western France. 8 The accounts of its origin are untrustworthy. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 303 
 
 Vera Cruz — Castle of San Juan de Ulua taken from the Spaniards by the 
 Mexicans, 1825 ; the French take the castle and city, 1838 ; the Americans, 
 1847 ; the place is occupied by a Spanish force, 1861 ; by the Juarists, 1867. 
 
 Verden — Bishopric of, given to Sweden, and converted into a duchy, 1648; 
 duchy ceded to Hanover, 1719. 
 
 Verdun, 1 treaty of, between the sons of Louis le Debonnaire, 843. 
 
 Vergara, 2 convention of, between Espartero and the Carlists, 1839. 
 
 Vermont — Admitted into the Union, 1791. 
 
 Verona — Rule of the Scala family, about 1260-1387 ; conquered by Venice, 
 1405. 
 
 Verona, amphitheatre of —Constructed about close of first c. a. d. 
 
 Verona, congress of, held by the Great Powers, 1822. 
 
 Versailles — Treaty of alliance between France and Austria signed at, 1756 ; 
 peace of, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783 ; 
 William I. proclaimed German emperor at, Jan. 18, 1871 ; preliminary 
 treaty of peace between France and Germany signed at, Feb. 26, 1871. 
 
 Vervins, 3 treaty of, between France and Spain, 1598. 
 
 Vesuvius — Overwhelms Pompeii and Herculaneum, a. d. 79; last great 
 eruption, 1872. 
 
 Vicksburg — Surrenders to Grant, July 4, 1863. (Terms arranged July 3.) 
 
 Victoria N'yanza, Lake — Discovered by Speke, 1858. 
 
 Vienna — Besieged by Solyman II., 1529 ; Ferdinand II. besieged in, by the 
 Protestants, 1619 ; city again besieged by the Turks, who suffer a great 
 defeat, 1683 ; occupied by the French, 1805, 1809 ; insurrection, the city 
 stormed by the imperial forces, 1848 ; — treaties of, between the partici- 
 pants in the War of the Polish Succession, 1735, 1738; peace of (of 
 Schonbrunn), between Austria and France, 1809 ; congress of Vienna, 
 1814-'15; treaty terminating the second Schleswig-Holstein War, 1864; 
 treaty between Austria and Italy, 1866 ;— cathedral of St. Stephen built, 
 12th-15th c. ; university founded, 1365 ; international exposition, 1873. 
 
 Vienne 4 — Fifteenth general council held at, 1311-12. 
 
 Vilagos 5 — Surrender of the Hungarian army at, Aug. 13, 1849. 
 
 Villafranca, 6 treaty of, between France and Austria, 1859. 
 
 Villaviciosa 1 — Battle of, between Vendome and Starhemberg, 1710. 
 
 Vimeiro 8 — Victory of Wellesley over Junot at, 1808. 
 
 Vindelicians 9 — Subjugated by the Romans, 15 b. c. 
 
 Vionville, battle of. See Mars-la-Tour. 
 
 Virginia— Name of Virginia given to the region visited by Raleigh's men, 
 1584; Jamestown founded, 1607; first colonial assembly convened at 
 
 1 A town 135 miles E. of Paris, now included in the French department of Meuse. 2 A 
 town of Guipiizcoa, one of the Basque provinces. s A town 95 miles N. E. of Paris. 4 A 
 town S. of Lyons, on the E. bank of the RhSne. 6 A town of southeastern Hungary, N. E. 
 of Arad. « A town S. W. of Verona. 7 A town 53 miles N. E. of Madrid. 8 A town N. W. 
 of Lisbon, near the sea. 8 The country of the Vindelicians lay between the Alps and the 
 Danube, W. of the river Inn. They are supposed to have been a Celtic people. 
 
304 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jamestown, 1619 ; representative government secured, 1621 ; placed under 
 the crown, 1624; Bacon's rebellion, 1676; one of the thirteen states, 1776; 
 secedes, 1861 ; western Virginia secedes from the state, 1861 ; state of West 
 Virginia admitted into the Union, 1863 ; reconstruction in Virginia com- 
 pleted, 1870. 
 
 Visconti, house of. See Milan. 
 
 Visigoths — (See Goths.) — Overwhelm the army of Valens, 378 ; invade Italy, 
 401 ; pillage Rome, 410 ; lay the foundations of their dominion in Spain 
 and Aquitania, about 415-418 ; stripped of most of their Gallic territories, 
 507-508 ; their kingdom in Spain overthrown, 711. 
 
 Vitoria ' — Victory of Wellington over the French at, 1813. 
 
 Volsinii 2 — Destruction of, by the Romans, 265 B. c. 
 
 Voltaic Pile— Invented,. 1799. 
 
 Volturno 3 — Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitan forces on the, 1860. 
 
 Vulgate. See Bible. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wagner, Fort 4 — Unsuccessfully attacked by the Federals, abandoned by 
 the Confederates, 1863. 
 
 Wagram 5 — Victory of Napoleon over the Austrians at, 1809. 
 
 Wahabees — Rise of the sect, about 1745 ; they take Mecca, 1803 ; their sub- 
 jugation completed by Ibrahim Pasha, 1818. 
 
 Wahlstatt, battle on the. See Liegnitz. 
 
 Wakefield «— Defeat of the Yorkists at. 1460. 
 
 Walcheren 7 — British expedition to, 1809. 
 
 Waldenses — Sect founded, about 1170; crusade waged against the Wal- 
 denses in Piedmont by Louis XIV. and Victor Amadeus II., 1686. 
 
 Wales — Conquest of, by Edward I., 1277-'83 ; beginning of Glendower's 
 rebellion, 1400 ; English authority completely re-established, about 1409 ; 
 incorporated with England, 1536. 
 
 Walhalla 8 — Built, 1830-'42. 
 
 Wallachia — Principality of, established 13th c. ; becomes tributary to Tur- 
 key, 1391 ; fully reduced to the position of a Turkish dependency, 17th 
 c. ; ruled by Fanariote hospodars, 1716-1821 ; united with Moldavia into 
 a single realm, the principality of Roumania, 1861. 
 
 Warsaw — Defeat of the Poles, by the forces of Sweden and Brandenburg, at, 
 1656; entered by Charles XII., 1702; taken by Suvaroff, 1794; annexed 
 to Prussia, 1795 ; taken from Prussia by the French. 1806 ; capital of the 
 duchy of Warsaw, 1807-43 ; occupied by the Russians, 1813 ; insurrec- 
 tion, 1830 ; falls, 1831. 
 
 1 A town of northern Spain, capital of the Basque province of Alava. 2 An Etruscan 
 town about 60 miles N. W. of Rome. 3 A river emptying into the Mediterranean 20 miles 
 S. E. of Gaeta. * At Charleston harbor. 8 A village N. E. of Vienna. 6 A town S. of Leeds. 
 7 The westernmost of the islands on the coast of the Netherlands. 8 An edifice on the banks 
 of the Danube, near Ratisbon. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 305 
 
 Wartburg Festival, 1 1817. 
 
 Washington (city) — Becomes the capital of the United States, 1800; en- 
 tered by the British, 1814; threatened by the Confederates, 1864: — the 
 original Capitol building begun, 1793; burned by the British, 1814; re- 
 erection of the edifice, 1818-'27: additions, 1851-'67. 
 
 "Washington (state) — Admitted into the Union, 1889. 
 
 Washington, treaty of, between England and the United States, 1871. 
 
 Washington, Fort 2 — Taken by the British, 1776. 
 
 Watches — Invented, about close of loth c. (Wheel and weight clocks had 
 already been in use three or four centuries.) 
 
 Waterloo 3 — Defeat of Napoleon at, June 18, 1815. 
 
 Wat Tyler's Rebellion, 1381. 
 
 Wehlau, 4 treaty of, between Poland and Brandenburg, 1657. 
 
 Weinsberg 5 — Victory of Conrad III. over Gruelph VI. at, 1140. 
 
 Weissenburg 6 — The Germans defeat the French at, Aug. 4, 1870. 
 
 Wessex. See England. 
 
 Western Empire — Final division of the Roman Empire, 395 ; fall of the 
 Western Empire, 476 ; renewed by Charlemagne, 800. 
 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines — Convened, 1643 ; Westminster Con- 
 fession of Faith adopted by Parliament, 1648. 
 
 Westphalia, kingdom of, 1807-13. 
 
 Westphalia, peace of (treaties of Osnabriick 7 and Minister), terminating 
 the Thirty Years' War, 1648. 
 
 West Point— Arnold's treason, 1780. 
 
 West Virginia. See Virginia. 
 
 Whisky Insurrection, 1794. 
 
 White Mountain, battle of the. See Prague. 
 
 White Plains 8 — Victory of the British at, Oct. 28, 1776. 
 
 Wilderness 9 — Battle of the, between Grant and Lee, May 5, 6, 1864. 
 
 William Henry, Fort 10 — Taken by Montcalm, 1757. 
 
 Williamsburg " — Capital of Virginia, 1700-1780 ; success achieved by Me- 
 ridian's forces at, May 5, 1862. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso, 1846. 
 
 Wilson's Creek 12 — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, 1881. 
 
 Wimpfen 13 — Tilly defeats the Protestants at, 1622. 
 
 1 The Wartburg is a castle near Eisenach, in the N. W. part of the Thuringian forest, in 
 which Luther found a refuge in 1521. 2 Near the N. end of Manhattan Island. 3 A village 
 8 miles S. of Brussels. 4 A town E. of Konigsberg. 5 A town in the vicinity of Heiibronn, 
 now belonging to Wiirtemberg. 6 A town of Alsace, 32 miles N. E. of Strasburg. 7 A 
 town now included in the Prussian province of Hanover, 28 miles N. E. of Mtinster. 8 A 
 village of Westchester Co., New- York, 7 miles E. of the Hudson River and about the same 
 distance from Long Island Sound. 9 A tract in Virginia, on the S. side of the Rapidan 
 River, W. of Fredericksburg. I0 At the S. end of Lake George. " A town about 50 miles 
 S. E. of Richmond, between the James and York rivers. ,s A small tributary of the White 
 River in southwestern Missouri. 13 A town on the Neckar, near Heiibronn, now belonging 
 to the grand-duchy of Hesse. 
 
306 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 Winchester 1 — Repulse of the Confederates, under Jackson, near, March 
 23, 1862 ; occupied by Lee, June 15, 1863 ; the Confederates, under Early, 
 defeated near, Sept. 19, Sept. 22, Oct. 19. 1864. 
 
 Wisconsin — Admitted into the Union, 1848. 
 
 Wismar 2 — Ceded to Sweden in the peace of Westphalia, 1648; she relin- 
 quishes the possession of it, 1803. 
 
 Wittenberg-, 3 University of — Pounded, 1502 ; becomes the cradle of the 
 Reformation, 1517 ; incorporated with the University of Halle, 1817. 
 
 Wittstock 4 — Victory of the Swedes at, 1636. 
 
 Worcester — Victory of Cromwell at, Sept. 3, 1651. 
 
 Worms 6 — Concordat of, between the emperor Henry V. and Calixtus II., 
 1122 : Luther appears at the Diet of, 1521. 
 
 Worth 6 — The Germans defeat MacMahon's army at, Aug. 6, 1870. 
 
 Wurtemberg — County of, erected into a duchy, 1495 ; the duke, Frederick 
 II., created an elector, 1803 ; he assumes the title of king as Frederick I., 
 1806; accession of William I., 1816; Charles I., 1864; William II., 1891. 
 
 Wyandotte Constitution — Adopted, 1859. 
 
 Wyatt's Rebellion, 1554. 
 
 Wyoming (state) — Admitted into the Union, 1890. 
 
 Wyoming,' 7 massacre of, 1778. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xerez (Jerez) de la Frontera 8 — Saracens vanquish Visigoths at, 711. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yale College— Founded, 1700. 
 
 Yalu — Naval engagement between Chinese and Japanese at the, 1894. 
 
 Yorktown 9 — Surrender of Cornwallis at, Oct. 19, 1781 ; besieged and occu- 
 pied by the Federals, 1862. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zama 10 — Victory of the Romans over the Carthaginians near, 202 b. c. 
 
 Zenta (Szenta) " — Victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at, 1697. 
 
 Zorndorf n — Frederick the Great defeats the Russians at, 1758. 
 
 Zulus— War of the British with Cetywayo, 1879. 
 
 Zurich — Victory of Massena over Korsakoff at, 1799; treaty of, between 
 Austria, France, and Sardinia, 1859. 
 
 1 A town of Virginia, 65 miles N. W. of Washington. 2 A seaport of Mecklenburg. 3 A 
 town on the Elbe, about 50 miles S. W. of Berlin. At the time of the Reformation it was 
 the residence of the electors of Saxony. In 1815 it was annexed to Prussia. 4 A town 60 
 miles N. W. of Berlin. 8 A town on the left bank of the Rhine, 26 miles S. E. of Mentz. 
 It was one of the free imperial cities of Germany down to the close of the last century, and 
 now belongs to the grand-duchy of Hesse. • A town of Alsace. 25 miles N. of Strasburg. 
 
 7 A valley in the E. part of Pennsylvania, watered by the North Branch of the Susquehanna. 
 
 8 A town N. E. of Cadiz. 9 A town of Virginia, on the S. shore of the York River, 60 miles 
 S. E. of Richmond. 10 A town of Numidia, on the borders of the Carthaginian territory, 
 about 100 miles S. W. of Carthage. ,l A town of Hungary, S. of Szegedm, on the Theiss. 
 12 A village of Brandenburg, 22 miles N. E. of Fraukfort-ou-the-Oder. 
 
PAET III. 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 21 
 
BIOGEAPHIOAL DICTICOTABY. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aahmes. See Amasis. 
 
 Aali Pasha, Turkish statesman. B. 1815. D. 1871. 
 
 Aasen, Ivar Andreas, Norwegian philologist. B. 1813. 
 
 Abailard. See Abelard. 
 
 Abarbanel, Isaac ben Judah, Jewish Biblical commentator, philosophical 
 
 writer. B. in Portugal 1437. D. 1508. 
 Abascal, Jose Fernando, viceroy of Peru 1804-'16. B. 1743. D. 1821. 
 Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d', French explorer (Abyssinia, Galla country). 
 
 B. 1810. 
 Abbadie, Arnaud Michel d', French explorer (Abyssinia, Galla country). 
 
 B. 1815. 
 Abbas the Great, shah of Persia. B. 1557. Reigned from 1586. D. 1628. 
 Abbas Pasha, viceroy of Egypt. Ruled 1848-'54. 
 Abbe, Cleveland, American meteorologist, astronomer. B. 183s. 
 Abbott, Charles, Lord Tenterden, English lawyer, writer on maritime law. 
 
 B. 1762. D. 1832. 
 Abbott, Jacob, American writer for the young. B. 1803. D. 1879. 
 Abbott, John S. C, American historical writer. B. 1805. D. 1877. 
 Abd-el-Kader, emir of Mascara, leader in the struggle against the French 
 
 in Algeria. B. about 1807. D. 1883. 
 Abderrahman. leader of the Saracens in their attack upon the Franks in 
 
 732. Killed in the battle of Poitiers. 
 Abderrahman I., Saracen prince, founder of the Ommiyade realm of Cor- 
 dova in 756. B. about 730. D. 788. 
 Abderrahman III., caliph of Cordova. Reigned 912-961. 
 Abderrahman, emperor of Morocco. B. 1778. Reigned from 1823. D. 
 
 1859. 
 Abdul- Aziz, sultan of Turkey. B. 1830. Reigned from 1861. D. 1876. 
 Abdul-Hamid II., sultan of Turkey. B. Sept. 22, 1842. Began to reign 
 
 Aug. 31, 1876. 
 Abdul-Medjid, sultan of Turkey. B. 1823. Reigned from 1839. D. 1861. 
 Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan since 1880. B. about 1830. 
 A Becket, Thomas. See Becket. 
 
310 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Abegg, Julius Friedrich Heinrich, German jurist. B. 1796. D. 1868. 
 Abel, Niels Henrik, Norwegian mathematician. B. 1802. D. 1829. 
 Abelard, Pierre, French scholastic philosopher. B. 1079. D. 1142. 
 Abel de Pujol, Alexandre Denis, French painter. B. 1785. D. 1861. 
 Aben Ezra, Jewish Biblical commentator. B. in Spain about 1093. D. 
 
 about 1167. 
 Abercrombie, James, British general in America. B. 1706. D. 1781. 
 Abercromby, Sir Ralph, British general. B. 1734 (according to some 1738). 
 
 Killed in Egypt 1801. 
 Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, earl of, British premier 1852-'5. B. 
 
 1784. D. 1860. 
 Abernethy, John, English surgeon. B. about 1764. D. 1831. 
 Abich,Wilhelm Hermann, German-Russ. traveler, naturalist. B.1806. D.1886. 
 About, Edmond, French author. B. 1828. D. 1885. 
 Abraham a Sancta Clara (Ulrich Megerle), Catholic preacher of Vienna, 
 
 noted for his witty and satirical sermons and writings. B. 1644. D. 
 
 1709. 
 Abrantes, duke of. See Junot. 
 Abrantes, Laure Permont, duchess of, writer of political memoirs, wife of 
 
 Junot. B. 1784. D. 1838. 
 Abravanel. See Abarbanel. 
 
 Absalon (Axel), Danish prelate, statesman, soldier. B. 1128. D. 1201. 
 Abt, Franz, German composer. B. 1819. D. 1885. 
 Abubekr, first caliph. B. about 573. Ruled from 632. D. 634. 
 Abul-Casim. See Albucasis. 
 Abulfaragius (Abulfaraj) Gregorius, known also as Bar-Hebraeus, Syriac 
 
 and Arabic writer. B. 1226. D. 1286. Historian, exegetical writer, 
 
 grammarian. 
 Abulfeda, Ismail ibn Ali, Arabian historian, geographer. B. about 1273. 
 
 D. 1331. 
 Abu Temam, Arabian poet. B. about 806. D. about 845. Compiler of the 
 
 " Ilamasa." 
 Achard, Amedee, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1814. D. 1875. 
 Achenbach, Andreas, German painter. B. 1815. 
 Achenbach, Oswald, German painter. B. 1827. 
 Achilles Tatius, Greek writer. 5th c. a. d. Author of the romance " Leu- 
 
 eippe and Clitophon." 
 Achmet. See Ahmed. 
 
 Acosta, Jose de, Spanish writer. B. about 1539. D. 1600. " Historia na- 
 tural y moral de las Indias." 
 Acosta, Uriel, a Jew of Portugal, who was brought up as a Catholic, em- 
 braced Judaism in Holland, and was persecuted by his coreligionists 
 
 there. B. about 1594. Committed suicide 1647. 
 Acton, Sir John Francis Edward, Neapolitan prime-minister. B. 1736. D. 
 
 1811. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 311 
 
 Adair, Sir Robert, British diplomatist. B. 1763. D. 1855. 
 
 Adalbert, Saint, bishop of Prague, missionary. Killed, while engaged in 
 
 converting the Prussians. 997. 
 Adam of Bremen, ecclesiastical historian. Second half of 11th c. 
 Adam, Adolphe Charles, French composer. B. 1803. D. 1856. 
 Adams, Charles Francis, American lawyer, diplomatist, son of John Quincy 
 
 Adams. B. 1807. D. 1886. 
 Adams, Henry, writer on American history, son of C. F. Adams. B. 1838 
 Adams, John, president of the United States 1797-1801. B. Oct. 19 (old 
 
 style), 1735. L>. July 4, 1826. 
 Adams, John (assumed name of Alexander Smith), " patriarch of Pitcairn 
 
 Island." B. about 1764. D. 1829. 
 Adams, John Couch, English astronomer. B. 1819. D. 1892. 
 Adams, John Quincy, president of the United States 1825-'9, son of Presi- 
 dent John Adams. B. July 11, 1767. D. Feb. 23, 1848. 
 Adams, Samuel, American patriot. B ; 1722. D. 1803. 
 Adams, William T. ("Oliver Optic"), American writer. B s 1822. D. 1897. 
 Adanson, Michel, French naturalist. B. 1727. D. 1806. 
 Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English premier 1801-4. B. 1757. 
 
 D. 1844. 
 Addison, Joseph, English author. B. May 1, 1672. D. June 17, 1719. 
 
 Essays in the " Tatler," " Guardian," and " Spectator," 1709-'14. " Cato " 
 
 (tragedy), 1713. 
 Adelaide, princess of Orleans, sister of Louis Philippe. B. 1777. D. 
 
 1847. 
 Adelaide, Saint, wife of Lothaire II., king of Italy, and afterward of the 
 
 emperor Otho the Great, B. about 931. D. 999. 
 Adeluhg, Johann Christoph, German philologist, lexicographer. B. 1732. 
 
 D. 1806. Dictionary of the German language. 
 Adolphus of Nassau, king of Germany. B. about 1250. Reigned from 
 
 1292. Slain 1298. 
 Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden. B. 1710. Reigned from 1751. D. 
 
 1771. 
 Adrian, Roman emperor. See Hadrian. 
 Adrian I., pope. Elected 772. D. 795. 
 
 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope. Elected 1154. D. 1159. 
 Adrian VI., pope. Elected 1522. D. 1523. 
 iElianus, Claudius, Roman writer (in Greek). 3d o. a. d. " Miscellaneous 
 
 Narratives " (Latin title, " Varia Historia "). " On the Nature of Animals." 
 .ffimilius Paulus. See Paulus. 
 -ffineas Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 iEschines, Athenian orator. B. 389 b. c. D. 314. 
 -ffischylus, Greek tragic poet. B. 525 b. c. D. 456. 
 .ffisop, Greek fabulist. B. about 620 b. c. D. about 564. 
 Aetius, Roman general. B. about 396. Murdered 454. 
 
312 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Affre, Denis Auguste, archbishop of Paris. B. 1793. Killed 1848. 
 
 Afranius, Lucius, Roman comic writer. About 100 b. c. 
 
 Africanus, Julius, Christian historian. D. about 232. 
 
 Afzelius, Adam. Swedish botanist. B. 1750. D. 1837. 
 
 Agardh, Karl Adolf, Swedish botanist, scholar, economist. B. 1785. D. 
 
 1859. 
 Agasias, Greek sculptor. Supposed to have flourished about the beginning 
 
 of the Christian era. 
 Agassiz, Alexander. American naturalist. B. 1835. 
 Agassiz, Louis, naturalist. B. in Switzerland 1807. D. 1873. 
 Agathias, Byzantine writer. B. about 536. D. about 582. 
 Agathocles, ruler of Syracuse 317-289 b. c. 
 
 Agesilaus, king of Sparta, general, B. about 442 b. c. D. about 360. 
 Agis II., king of Sparta. Reigned about 427-398 B. c. 
 Agis III., king of Sparta. Reigned 338-330 (331) b. c. 
 Agis IV., king of Sparta. Reigned about 245-241 b. c. 
 Agnesi, Maria Gaetana. Italian scholar. B. 1718. D. 1799. 
 Agoult, Marie C. S. de Flavigny, countess d' (" Daniel Stem "), French 
 
 novelist, political writer, moralist. B. 1805. D. 1876. "Histoire de la 
 
 revolution de 1848." " Escpiisses morales." 
 Agricola, Cneius Julius, Roman general in Britain. B. 37. D. 93. 
 Agricola (Bauer), Georg, German mineralogist. B. about 1490. D. 1555. 
 Agricola, Johann, German Reformer. B. 1492. D. 1566. 
 Agricola, Rudolf, German humanist. B. 1443. D. 1485. 
 Agrippa, Herodes. See Herod Agrippa. 
 
 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, Roman commander. B. 63 b. c. D. 12 b. c. 
 Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius, German scholar. B. 1486. 
 
 D. 1535. " De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum " (satire). 
 Agrippina, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero. B. about 15. Put to 
 
 death 59. 
 Aguesseau, Henri Francois d', French lawyer, legislator. B. 1668. D. 
 
 1751. 
 Aguilar, Grace, English authoress. B. 1816. D. 1847. 
 Ahab, king of Israel. Reigned about 875-853 b. c. (Duncker; 920-900, 
 
 Opperf). 
 Ahaz, king of Judah. Reigned 734-728 b. c. (Duncker ; 743-737, Opperf). 
 Ahlquist, August Engelbert, Finnish philologist. B. 1826. D. 1889. 
 Ahlwardt, Theodor Wilhelm, German Arabic scholar. B. 1828. 
 Ahmed I., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1603-'17. 
 Ahmed II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1691-5. 
 Ahmed III., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1703-30. 
 Ahmed Shah, Afghan conqueror. Reigned from 1747. D. 1773. 
 Ahrens, Heinrich, German juridical philosopher. B. 1808. D. 1874, 
 Aiguillon, Armand Vignerot Duplessis-Richelieu, duke d', minister of Louis 
 
 XV. B. 1720. D. 1782 (according to some later). 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 313 
 
 Aikin, John, English author. B. 1747. D. 1822. " Evenings at Home." 
 " General Biography." 
 
 Aimard, Gustave, French novelist. B. 1818. D. 1883. 
 
 Aime-Martin, Louis, French author. B. 1781. D. 1847. 
 
 Ainmiller, Max Emanuel, German painter on glass. B. 1807. D. 1870. 
 
 Ainsworth, Robert, English lexicographer. B. 1060. D. 1743. Latin dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Ainsworth, William Francis, English geologist, traveler, author. B. 1807. 
 " Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea." " Travels and Re- 
 searches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia." 
 
 Ainsworth, William Harrison, English novelist. B. 1805. D. 1882. 
 
 Airy, George Biddell, English astronomer. B. 1801. D. 1892. 
 
 Aiton, William, Scottish botanist. B. 1731. D. 1793. 
 
 Aitzema, Lieuwe van, Dutch historian. B. 1G00. D. 1669. History of Hol- 
 land in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Akbar, Mogul emperor. B. 1542. Reigned from 1556. D. 1605. 
 
 Akenside, Mark, English poet. B. 1721. D. 1770. " Pleasures of the 
 Imagination." 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph, Jewish rabbi. Executed about a. d. 135. 
 
 Alacoque, Marguerite (Marie). French nun. B. 1647. D. 1690. 
 
 Alain de Lille (Alanus de Insulis), French monk, scholar. B. 1114. D. 
 about 1203. 
 
 Alaman, Lucas. Mexican statesman, writer. D. 1855. 
 
 Alamanni. See Alemanni. 
 
 Alarcon, Hernando de, Spanish navigator. Explored of the coasts of Cali- 
 fornia 1540-'41. 
 
 Alarcon (Alarcon y Mendoza), Juan Ruiz de, Spanish dramatist. D. 
 1639. 
 
 Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, Spanish poet, novelist. B. 1833. D. 1891. 
 
 Alaric, king of the Visigoths. D. 410. 
 
 Alasco. See Laski. 
 
 Alba. See Alva. 
 
 Albani, Francesco, Italian painter. B. 1578. D. 1660. 
 
 Albany, Louisa, countess of, wife of the Young Pretender. B. 1753 (or 
 1752). D. 1824. 
 
 Albategnius, Arabian astronomer. D. about 929. 
 
 Albemarle, earl of. See Keppel, George Thomas. 
 
 Albergati-Capacelli, Francesco d', marquis, Italian actor, writer of come* 
 dy. B. 1728. D. 1804. 
 
 AJberoni, Giulio. Cardinal, minister of Philip V. of Spain. B. in Italy 1664. 
 D. 1752. 
 
 Albert I., German emperor 1298-1308, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg. B. 
 1248. Assassinated 1308. 
 
 Albert II., German emperor (of the house of Austria). Reigned 1438- ? 9. 
 
 Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg. D. 1170. 
 
314 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Albert, last grand-master of the Teutonic Knights, first duke of Prussia 
 
 from 1535. B. 1490. D. 1568. 
 Albert, archduke of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, general, 
 
 brother of the emperor Rudolph II. B. 1559. D. 1621. 
 Albert, prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, husband of Queen Victoria. B. 
 
 1819. D. 1861. 
 Albert, king of Saxony since 1873. B. 1828. 
 Albert, archduke of Austria, commander, son of the archduke Charles 
 
 (brother of the emperor Francis). B. 1817. D. 1897. 
 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. B. 1841. 
 
 Alberti, Leone Battista, Italian architect, sculptor, painter, scholar, philoso- 
 pher. B. 1404. D. 1472. 
 Albertus Magnus, German scholastic philosopher. B. 1193. D. 1280. 
 Albinus, Bernhard Siegfried, German anatomist. B. 1697. D. 1770. 
 Alboin, king of the Lombards, founder of their realm in Italy. Reigned 
 
 from about 560. D. 573 (or 572). 
 Alboni, Marietta, Italian singer. B. 1823. D. 1894. 
 Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carilla dc, Spanish cardinal. D. 1367. 
 Albret, Jeanne d\ See Jeanne d'Albret. 
 Albucasis, Arabian physician. D. early in the 12th c. 
 Albuquerque, Affonsode, Portuguese conqueror, viceroy of the Indies. B. 
 
 1453. D. 1515. 
 Alcaeus, Greek lyric poet. Flourished end of 7th c. b. c. 
 Alcamenes, Greek sculptor. D. about 400 b. c. 
 Alcibiades, Athenian general. B. 450 b. c. D. 404. 
 Alcman (Alcmason), Spartan poet. 7th c. b. c. 
 
 Alcock, Sir Rutherford, Brit, diplomatist, writer on Japan. B. 1809. D. 1897. 
 Alcott, Amos Bronson, American philosopher. B. 1799. D. 1888. 
 Alcott, Louisa May, American authoress. B. 1832. D. 1888. 
 Alcuin, English scholar. B. about 735. D. 804. 
 
 Aldobrandini, Giovanni Francesco, papal commander. B. 1546. D. 1601. 
 Aldobrandini, Ippolito. See Clement VIII. 
 Aldobrandini, Pietro, Italian cardinal. B. 1571. D. 1621. 
 Aldobrandini, Salvestro, Italian jurist. B. 1499. D. 1558. 
 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, American poet, novelist. B. 1836. 
 Aldridge, Ira, mulatto tragedian. B. about 1810. D. 1867. 
 Aldrovandus (Aldrovandi), Ulysses, Italian naturalist. B. about 1522. D. 
 
 1607. 
 Aldus Manutius. See Manutius. 
 
 Alecsandrescu, Gri^oric, Roumanian poet. B. 1812. D. 1886. 
 Alecsandri, Basile, Roumanian poet, dramatist. B. 1821. D. 1890. 
 Aleman, Mateo, Spanish novelist. 16th c. " Guzman de Alfarache." 
 Alemanni, Luigi, Florentine poet. B. 1495. D. 1556. 
 Alembert, Jean le Rond d\ French savant. B. 1717. D. 1783. "Traitede 
 
 dynamique." " Recherches sur differents points importants du systeme 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 315 
 
 du monde." " Elements de philosophie." " Opuscules mathematiques." 
 
 " Elements de musique." Associate of Diderot in the publication of the 
 
 '' Encyclopedie." 
 Alengon, Francois, duke of. See Anjou. 
 Alessandrescu. See Alecsandrescu. 
 Alessandri. See Alecsandri. 
 Alexander, surnamed the Great, Macedonian conqueror, son of Philip. B. 
 
 356 B. c. Reigned from 336. D. 323. 
 Alexander III., pope. Elected 1159. D. 1181. 
 Alexander VI. (Borgia), pope. B. 1431. Elected 1492. D. 1503. 
 Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi), pope. Elected 1655. D. 1667. 
 Alexander VIII., pope. Elected 1689. I). 1691. 
 Alexander I., czar of Russia. B. Dec. 23, 1777. Succeeded his father, 
 
 Paul, 1801. D. Dec. 1, 1825. 
 Alexander II., czar of Russia. B. April 29, 1818. Succeeded his father, 
 
 Nicholas, 1855. Assassinated March 13, 1881. 
 Alexander III., czar of Russia. B. March 10, 1845. Succeeded his father, 
 
 Alexander II., March 13, 1881. D. Nov. 1, 1894. 
 Alexander II., king of Scotland. B. 1198. Reigned from 1214. D. 1249. 
 Alexander III., king of Scotland. B. 1241. Reigned from 1249 D. 1286. 
 Alexander of Battenberg, prince of Bulgaria, 1879-'86. B. 1857. D. 1893. 
 Alexander of Hales, English theologian. D. 1245. 
 Alexander, Archibald, American clergyman, author. B. 1772. D. 1851. 
 Alexander, Sir James Edward, Eng. sold., trav., author. B. 1803. D. 1885. 
 Alexander, William, " Lord Stirling," American soldier. B. 1726. D. 1783. 
 Alexander Balas, king of Syria. Reigned 150-146 b. c. 
 Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea. Reigned 104-78 b. c. [Mvmk, ScJi urer ; 
 
 104-70, WellhauseTi.) 
 Alexander John (Alexander Cuza), prince of Roumania. B. 1820. Elected 
 
 prince of Moldavia and Wallachia 1859. Styled prince of Roumania 
 
 from 1861. Forced to abdicate 1866. D. 1873. 
 Alexander Karageorgevitch, prince of Servia. B. 1806. Elected 1842. 
 
 Deposed 1858. D. 1885. 
 Alexander Nevski, Russian hero, prince of Noygorod, grand-prince of 
 
 Vladimir. B. 1219. D. 1263. 
 Alexander Severus, Roman emperor. B. about 205 (208?). Reigned from 
 
 222. Murdered 235. 
 Alexis, czar of Russia. B. 1629 or 1630. Reigned from 1645. D. 1676. 
 Alexis, son of Peter the Great. B. 1690. D. 1718. 
 Alexis I., Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1081-1118. 
 Alexis, Wilibald. See Haring. 
 Alfarabius, Arabian scholar. D. about 950. 
 
 Alfieri, Vittorio, count, Italian dramatist. B. Jan. 17, 1749. D. Oct. 8, 1803. 
 Alfonso I., the Catholic, king of Asturias. D. 757. 
 Alfonso II., the Chaste, king of Asturias. Reigned 791-842. 
 
316 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Alfonso III., the Great, king of Asturias. Reigned 866-910. D. 912. 
 
 Alfonso VI., the Valiant, kiKg of Leon and Castile (Alfonso I. of Castile). 
 Reigned in Leon from 1065; in Castile, from 1072. D. 1109. 
 
 Alfonso VII. (VIII.), king of Leon and Castile (II. or III. of Castile). 
 Reigned 1126-'57. 
 
 Alfonso III. (VIII.), the Noble, king of Castile. Reigned 1158-1214. 
 
 Alfonso IX., king of Leon. Reigned 1188-1230. 
 
 Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Castile and Leon. Reigned 1252-'84. 
 
 Alfonso XI., king of Castile and Leon. Reigned 1312-*50. 
 
 Alfonso XII., king of Spain, son of Isabella. B. Nov. 28, 1857. Pro- 
 claimed king Dee., 1874. D. Nov. 25, 1885. 
 
 Alfonso XIII. of Spain, son of Alfonso XII. B. 1886. King from his birth. 
 
 Alfonso I., el Batallador, king of Aragon and Navarre. Reigned 1104-34. 
 
 Alfonso V., the Magnanimous, King of Aragon, Sicily, and Naples. Reigned 
 in Aragon and Sicily from 1416 : in Naples, from 1442. D. 1458. 
 
 Alfonso (Affonso) I., first king of Portugal. Count of Portugal from 1112. 
 King from 1139. D. 1185. 
 
 Alfonso V., the African, king of Portugal. Reigned 1438-81. 
 
 Alford, Henry, English divine, author. B. 1810. D. 1871. " The School of 
 the Heart and other Poems." "A Plea for the Queen's English." An- 
 notated Greek Testament. 
 
 Alfred the Great, king of England. B. 849. Reigned from 871. D. 901. 
 
 Algardi, Alessandro, Italian sculptor. D. 1654. 
 
 Algarotti, Francesco, count, Italian author. B. 1712. D. 1764. "Neu- 
 tonianismo per le donne " (on optics). 
 
 Ali, caliph. Reigned from 656. Assassinated 661. 
 
 Ali, pasha of Janina. B. about 1741. Rebelled against the Porte 1820. 
 Executed 1822. 
 
 Ali Bey, ruler of Egypt. Rebelled against the Porte 1768. Slain 1773. 
 
 Alighieri. See Dante Alighieri. 
 
 Alison, Sir Archibald, British historian, B. 1792. D. 1867. "History of 
 Europe, from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Res- 
 toration of the Bourbons " (with a continuation by the author). 
 
 Allan, Sir William, Scottish painter. B. 1782. D. 1850. 
 
 Allegri, Gregorio, Italian composer. D. 1652. 
 
 Allen, Ethan, American soldier. B. 1738. D. 1789. 
 
 Allen, Grant, English author, exponent of Darwinism, writer of fiction. 
 B. 1848. 
 
 Allen, William, American scholar, author. B. 1784. D. 1868. " The Ameri- 
 can Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Allen, William, English chemist, philanthropist. B. 1770. D. 1843. 
 
 Allibone, Samuel Austin, American bibliographer. B. 1816. D. 1889. 
 " A Critical Dictionary of English Literature." 
 
 Allix, Pierre, French Protestant theologian. D. 1717. 
 
 Allori, Alessandro, Italian painter. B. 1535. D. 1607. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 317 
 
 Allori, Cristofano, Italian painter. B. 1577. D. 1621. 
 Allouez, Claude Jean, French missionary, one of the explorers of the North- 
 west. B. 1620. D. 1690. 
 Allston, Washington, American painter. B. 1779. D. 1843. 
 Alrnagro, Diego de, Spanish adventurer, companion and afterward enemy of 
 
 Pizarro. B. about 1470. Put to death 1538. 
 Al-Mamoun, caliph. Keigned 813-833. 
 Al-Mansour, caliph. Reigned 754-775. 
 Alma-Tadema, Lourenz, Belgian-English painter. B. 1836. 
 Almeida, Francisco de, Portuguese viceroy of the Indies. Killed 1510. 
 Almeida-Garrett, Joao Baptista de, Portuguese poet, dramatist. B. 1799. 
 
 D. 1854. 
 Almquist, Karl Jonas Ludvig, Swedish poet, novelist. B. 1793. D. 1866. 
 Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan. Reigned 1063-72. 
 Alpini, Prospero, Italian botanist, physician. B. 1553. D. 1617. 
 Alt, Rudolf, Austrian painter, B. 1812. 
 
 Altdorfer, Albrecht, German painter, engraver. B. 1488. D. 1538. 
 Alva (Alba), Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duke of, Spanish general, governor 
 
 of the Netherlands. B. 1508. D. 1583 or 1582. 
 Alvarado, Pedro de, Spanish conqueror in America. D. 1541. 
 Alvarez, Francisco, Portuguese traveler. D. after 1540. 
 Alvinczy, Joseph, baron, Austrian soldier. B. 1735. D. 1810. 
 Alyattes, king of Lydia, father of Croesus. D. about 560 b. c. 
 Amadeus V. (IV.), the Great, count of Savoy. B. 1249. Reigned from 
 
 1285. D. 1323. 
 Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy. B. 1383. Reigned from 1391 (at first as 
 
 count). Proclaimed pope by the schismatic council of Basel, as Felix V., 
 
 1439. D. 1451. 
 Amadeus I., king of Spain 1870-73, son of Victor Emanuel. B.1845. D.1890. 
 Amalia, duchess of Saxe- Weimar. B. 1739. D. 1807. 
 Amalia, duchess of Saxony, dramatist. B. 1794. D. 1870. 
 Amasis (Amosis, Aahmes), king of Egypt, conqueror of the Hyksos. About 
 
 1700 (1600) b. c. 
 Amasis, king of Egypt. Reigned about 570-527 b. c. 
 Amati, family of violin makers of Cremona. 16th-17th c. 
 Amaury of Chartres (Amalric of Bene), French theologian, philosopher. 
 
 D. about 1205. 
 Amberger, Christoph, German painter. D. about 1568. 
 Amboise, George d', cardinal, prime-minister of Louis XII. of France. B. 
 
 1460. D. 1510. 
 Ambrose, Saint, bishop of Milan. B. about 340. D. 397. 
 Amelot de la Houssaye, Abraham Nicolas, French historian, translator. 
 
 B. 1634. D. 1706. " Histoire du gouvernement de Venise." 
 Amerling, Friedrich, Austrian painter. B. 1803. D. 1887. 
 Ames, Fisher, American statesman. B. 1758. D. 1808. 
 
318 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Amherst, Jeffery, baron, British general in America. B. 1717. D. 1797. 
 Amiot (Amyot), Joseph, French missionary. B. 1718. D. 1794. 
 Amman, Jost, German engraver, painter. B. 1539. D. 1591. 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman historian. D. about A. d. 395. 
 Amnion, Christoph Friedrich von, German Protestant theologian. B. 1766. 
 
 D. 1850. 
 Ammonius Saccas, Alexandrian philosopher. D. about a. d. 244. 
 Amos, Hebrew prophet. About 800 b. c. 
 Ampere, Andre Marie, French physicist. B. 1775. D. 1836. " Recueil des 
 
 observations electro-dynainiques." 
 Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine, French author. B. 1800. D. 1864. Works 
 
 on the early literature of France, historical writings, etc. 
 Amru, Saracen general, conqueror of Egypt. D. 663. 
 Amsdorf, Nikolaus von, associate of Luther. B. 1483. D. 1565. 
 Amsler, Samuel, German engraver. B. 1791. D. 1849. 
 Amurath (Murad) I., Turkish sultan. Reigned from 1359. Slain 1389. 
 Amurath II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1421-'51. 
 Amurath III., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1574-'95. 
 Amurath IV., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1623-'40. 
 Amurath V., Turkish sultan. Reigned May- Aug., 1876. 
 Amyot, Jacques, French bishop, translator of Plutarch. B. 1513. D. 1593. 
 Amyraut, Moi'se, French theologian. B. 1596. D. 1664. 
 Anacharsis, Scythian sage. Beginning of 6th c. b. c. 
 Anacletus II., antipope. Elected 1130. D. 1138. 
 Anacreon, Greek lyric poet. B. about 561 b. c. D. about 477. 
 Anaxagoras, Greek philosopher. D. about 428 b. c. 
 Anaximander, Greek philosopher, astronomer. B. about 610 b. c. D. 
 
 about 545. 
 Anaximenes, Greek philosopher. 6th c. b. c. 
 Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Francois Polycarpe, French dramatist. B. 1794. 
 
 D. 1854. 
 Ancillon, Johann Friedrich, Prussian statesman, political and philosophical 
 
 writer. B. about 1767. D. 1837. 
 Anckarstroem, Johan Jakob, assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden. B. 
 
 about 1762. Executed 1792. 
 Ancre, marquis d' (Concino de' Concini), Italian adventurer, favorite of 
 
 Maria de' Medici. Assassinated 1617. 
 Ancus Marcius, reputed king of Rome from about 640 to about 616 b. c. 
 Andersen, Hans Christian, Danish novelist, poet, dramatist, writer of fairy 
 
 tales. B. 1805. D. 1875. "The Improvisatore," "O. T.," "Only a Fid- 
 dler " (novels). 
 Anderson, Robert, American soldier. B. 1805. D. 1871. 
 Andersson, Karl Johan, Swedish explorer. B. 1827. D. 1867. Author of 
 
 " Lake Ngami." 
 Andersson, Nils Johan, Swedish botanist. B. 1821. D. 1880. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 319 
 
 Andrada, Antonio de, Portuguese Jesuit missionary, traveler in Thibet. D. 
 
 about 1633. 
 Andrada e Sylva, Joze Bonifacio de, Brazilian statesman. B. 1765. B\ 
 
 1838. 
 Andral, Gabriel, French physician. B. 1797. D. 1876. 
 Andrassy, Gyula, count, Hungarian statesman, minister of foreign affairs 
 
 of Austria-Hungary 1871-9. B. 1823. D. 1890. 
 Andre, John, British soldier. B. 1751. Executed 1780. 
 Andrea Pisano. See Pisano. 
 Andrea del Sarto. See Sarto. 
 
 Andreae, Jakob, German Protestant theologian. B. 1528. D. 1590. 
 Andreae, Johann Valentin, German Protestant theologian, satirical writer. 
 
 B. 1586. D. 1654. 
 Andrew II., king of Hungary. Reigned 1205-'35. 
 Andrew, John Albion, governor of Massachusetts 1861-'5. B. 1818. D. 
 
 1867. 
 Andrews, Lancelot, English prelate. B. 1555. D. 1626. 
 Andronicus, Livius, Latin poet. Second half of 3d e. b. c. 
 Andros, Sir Edmund, English colonial governor. B. 1637. D. 1714. 
 Angeli, Heinrich von, Austrian painter. B. 1840. 
 
 Angelico, Era (Giovanni da Fiesole), Italian painter. B. 1387. D. 1455. 
 Angelus Silesius (Johann Scheffler), German mystical poet. B. 1624. D. 
 
 1677. 
 Anghiera, Pietro Martire d' (Peter Martyr), Italian historian. B. 1455. D. 
 
 1526. Best known by his writings on the discoveries in the New World. 
 Anglesey, Henry William Paget, marquis of, British general. B. 1768. D. 
 
 1854. 
 Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, duke of, eldest son of Charles X. 
 
 of France. B. 1775. D. 1844. 
 Anguisciola, Sofonisba, Italian painter. B. about 1530. D. about 1625. 
 Angus,* Archibald Douglas, earl of (" Bell the Cat "). D. after 1514. 
 Angus, Archibald Douglas, earl of. D. about 1557. 
 Anhalt-Dessau, Leopold of. See Leopold. 
 
 Anicet-Bourgeois, Auguste, French dramatist, B. 1806. D. 1871. 
 Anjou, Francois, duke of (duke of Alcncon), son of Henry II. of Fiance. B. 
 
 1554. D. 1584. 
 Anjou, Henry, duke of. See Henry III., of France. 
 Anna Carlo vna, Russian grand-duchess. B. 1718. D. 1746. 
 Anna Comnena, Byzantine princess, writer. B. 1083. D. 1148. Author 
 
 of a history of her father, Alexis Comnenus. 
 Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia, niece of Peter the Great. B. 1693. 
 
 Reigned from 1730. D. 1740. 
 Anne, queen of England, daughter of James II. B. 1665. Reigned from 
 
 * Angus is the old name of the Scottish county of Forfar. 
 
320 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 1702. D. 1714. Married to George, brother of Christian V. of Den- 
 mark. 
 Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, queen of Louis XIII. of 
 
 France. B. about 1601. D. 1666. 
 Anne de Beaujeu, regent of France during the minority of her brother, 
 
 Charles VIII. B. about 1462. D. 1522. 
 Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. B. about 1507. Beheaded 
 
 1536. 
 Anne of Brittany, queen of Charles VIII. of France. B. 1476. D. 1514. 
 Anne of Cleves, fourth wife of Henry VIII. D. 1557. 
 Annius of Viterbo, Italian monk, literary impostor. B. about 1432. D. 
 
 1502, 
 Anno (Hanno), Saint, archbishop of Cologne. D. 1075. 
 Anquetil, Louis Pierre, French historian. B. 1723. D. 1808. Works on 
 
 universal and on French history. 
 Anquetil-Duperron, Abraham Ilyacinthe, French orientalist. B. 1731. 
 
 D. 1805. Translation of the Zend-Avesta. 
 Anscharius. See Ansgar. 
 
 Ansdell, Richard, English painter. B. 1815. D. 1885. 
 Anselm, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1033. D. 1109. 
 Ansgar, Saint, " apostle of the North." B. 801. D. 865. 
 Anson, George, Lord, English navigator. B. 1697. D. 1762. 
 Anspach, Elizabeth, margravine of (Elizabeth Berkeley, Lady Craven). B. 
 
 in England 1750. D. 1828. Author of " Memoirs of the Margravine of 
 
 Anspach." 
 Ansted, David Thomas, English geologist. B. 1814. D. 1880. 
 Antalcidas, Spartan ambassador. Peace of Antalcidas 387 b. c. 
 Anthon, Charles, American classical scholar. B. 1797. D. 1867. 
 Anthony, Saint, the Great, Egyptian ecclesiastic, father of monachism. B. 
 
 about 251. D. about 356. 
 Antigonus, Macedonian general, king in Asia. B. about 382 b. c. Slain 
 
 301 or 300. 
 Antigonus, king of Judea. B. about 80 b. c. Reigned from 40. Put to 
 
 death 37. 
 Antigonus Doson, king of Macedon. D. 220 b. c. 
 
 Antigonus G-onatas, king of Macedon. B. about 319 b. c. D. about 240. 
 Antiochus Soter, king of Syria. Reigned 280-261 b. c. 
 Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Reigned 223-187 b. c. 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria. Reigned 175-164 b. c. 
 Antipas, Herod. See Herod Antipas. 
 
 Antipater, regent of Macedonia. B. between 400 and 390 b. c. D. 319. 
 Antiphon, Athenian orator. Condemned to death 411 b. c. 
 Antisthenes, Athenian philosopher. Early in 4th c. B. c. 
 Antoine de Bourbon, husband of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre. B. 
 
 1518. D. 1562. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 321 
 
 Antommarchi, Francesco, physician to Napoleon. B. about 1780. D. 1838. 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo, Italian cardinal. B. 1806. D. 1876. 
 
 Antonello da Messina, Italian painter. B.-1414. D. about 1493. 
 
 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. See Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 
 
 Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor. B. 86. Reigned from 138. D. 161. 
 
 Antonio, Nicolas, Spanish bibliographer. B. 1617. D. 1684. 
 
 Antony, Mark (Marcus Antonius), Roman triumvir. B. 83 b. c. D. 30 
 
 B. c. 
 Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', French geographer, cartographer. 
 
 B. 1697. D. 1782. 
 Apelles, Greek painter. Flourished about 330 B. c. 
 Apicius, Marcus Gabius, Roman epicure. Early part of first c. A. D. 
 Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea. D. about 385. 
 Apollinaris, Sidonius. See Sidonius Apollinaris. 
 Apollodorus of Charystus, Greek comic poet. Early in 3d c. b. c. 
 Apollonius Pergaeus, geometer of Alexandria. About close of 3d c. b. c. 
 Apollonius Rhodius, Greek poet. Latter part of 3d c. b. c. 
 Apollonius Tyanseus, Greek philosopher. B. about 4 b. c. 
 Appian, Greek historian. 2d c. a. d. 
 Appiani, Andrea, Italian painter. B. 1754. D. 1817. 
 Appius Claudius. See Claudius. 
 Apraxin, Fedor, Russian admiral. B. 1671. D. 1728. 
 Apraxin, Stefan, Russian general. B. about 1758. 
 Apuleius, Roman satirist, philosopher. B. about a. d. 130. 
 Aquinas, Thomas, Saint, Italian scholastic philosopher. B. about 1225. 
 
 D. 1274. 
 Arabella Stuart. See Stuart. 
 Arabi Pasha, leader of the revolt in Egypt in 1882. 
 Arago, Dominique Francois, French physicist. B. 1786. D. 1853. 
 Arago, Emmanuel, French advocate, politician. B. 1812. D. 1896. 
 Arago, Etienne, Fr. journalist, dramatist, poet, politician. B. 1802. D. 1892. 
 Arago, Jacques Etienne Victor, French traveler, writer. B. 1790. D. 1855. 
 Araktcheyeff, Alexei, count, Russian general, statesman. B. 1769. D. 
 
 1834. 
 Aram, Eugene, English scholar. B. 1704. Executed for murder 1759. 
 Aranda, Pedro Abarca y Bolea, count of, Spanish statesman. B. 1718. D. 
 
 about 1799. 
 Arany, Janos, Hungarian poet. B. 1817. D. 1882. Author of the epic 
 
 poem " Toldi." 
 Aratus, Greek poet, astronomer. 3d c. b. c. 
 Aratus, Greek general, head of the Achaean League. B. about 271 b. c. 
 
 IX 213. 
 Arblay, Madame d\ See D'Arblay. 
 
 Arbogast (Arbogastes), Frank general in the Roman service. Slew him- 
 self a. d. 394. 
 
322 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Arbuthnot, John, Scottish physician, scholar, satirical writer. D. 1735. 
 " History of John Bull " (political allegory). " First Book of the Memoirs 
 of Martinus Scriblerus." Work on ancient coins, weights, and measures. 
 
 Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Arcadius, Byzantine emperor, son of Theodosius the Great. Reigned 395- 
 
 408. 
 Arcesilaus, Greek philosopher. B. about 316 b. c. D. about 241. 
 Archelaus, surnamed Physicus, Greek philosopher. 5th c. b. c 
 Archenholz, Johann Wilhelm, baron, German author. B. about 1743. D. 
 1812. Principal production, " Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Kriegs" 
 (" History of the Seven Years' War "). 
 Archias, Aulus Licinius, Greek poet. First c. b. c. 
 Archilochus of Paros, Ionic poet. About 700 b. c. 
 Archimedes, Syracusan mathematician, mechanician. B. about 287 b. c. 
 
 Killed 212. 
 Archytas of Tarentum, Greek philosopher. About 400 b. c. 
 ArQon, Jean Claude Eleonore Lemicaud (Lemiceaud f) d', French military 
 engineer, who constructed the floating batteries employed in the attack 
 on Gibraltar in 1782. B. 1733. D. 1800. 
 Ardeshir (Artaxerxes), king of Persia, first of the Sassanida?. Reigned from 
 
 226. D. about 240. 
 Arditi, Luigi, Italian violinist, composer. B. 1822. 
 Aretseus, Greek medical writer. First c. a. d. (?). 
 
 Aretino, Guido (Guido d' Arezzo), Italian monk, improver of musical nota- 
 tion. 11th c. 
 Aretino, Leonardo. See Bruni. 
 Aretino, Pietro, Italian writer, surnamed from his satires the " scourge ol 
 
 princes." B. 1492. D. 1557. 
 Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer. B. 1 <9J. V. 
 
 1875. , . , 
 
 Argens, Jean Baptiste de Boyer, marquis d', French philosophical writer. 
 
 B 1704. L\ 1771. " Histoire de l'esprit humain." 
 Argenson, Marc Antoine Rene d', marquis de Paulmy, French diplomatist, 
 
 scholar, author. B. 1722. D. 1787. 
 Argenson, Marc Pierre, count d', secretary of war under Louis XV., patron 
 
 of letters. B. 1696. D. 1764. 
 Argenson, Marc Rene d', French statesman. B. 1652. I). 1721. 
 Argenson, Marc Rene de Voyer d', French statesman. B. 1771. D. 1842. 
 Argenson, Rene Louis, marquis d', French minister of foreign affairs 
 
 1744-'7, author. B. 1694. D. 1757. 
 Argiielles, Augustin, Spanish statesman. B. 1775. D. 1844. 
 Argyll (Argyle), Archibald Campbell, marquis of. B. 1598. Beheaded 1661. 
 Argyll, Archibald Campbell, earl of. Beheaded 1685. 
 Argyll, George John Douglas Campbell, duke of, statesman, author. B. 
 
 1823. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 323 
 
 Argyll, John Campbell, duke of. B. 1678. D. 1743. 
 
 Argyropulos, Johannes, Greek professor. B. about 1415. D. about 1486. 
 
 Arias Montanus, Spanish orientalist, Biblical scholar. B. 1527. D. 1598. 
 
 Ariosto, Lndovico, Italian poet. B. 1474. D. 1583. '"Orlando furioso" 
 (poem of chivalry). 
 
 Ariovistus, German chief. Warred against Caesar 58 b. c. 
 
 Arista, Mariano, president of Mexico from Jan. 1851 to Jan. 1853. B. 1802, 
 D. 1855. 
 
 Aristarchus, Alexandrian critic, commentator. 2d c. B. c. 
 
 Aristarchus, Greek astronomer. First half of 3d c. b. c. 
 
 Aristides, Athenian statesman. D. about 468 b. c. 
 
 Aristippus, Greek philosopher. Flourished about 380 b. c. 
 
 Aristobulus I., king of Judea. Reigned 105-104 b. c. 
 
 Aristobulus II., king of Judea. Usurped the throne 69 b. c. Dethroned 
 63. D. 49. 
 
 Aristogiton. See IIarmodius and Aristogiton. 
 
 Aristomenes, Messenian hero, 7th or 8th c. B. c* 
 
 Aristophanes, Athenian comic writer. B. about 450 b. c. D. about 380. 
 
 Aristotle, Greek philosopher. B. 384 b. c. D. 322. 
 
 Arms, Egyptian ecclesiastic, founder of Arianism. D. 336. 
 
 Arkwright, Sir Richard, English inventor (spinning frame). B. 1732. D. 
 1792. 
 
 Armagnac, counts of, conspicuous in the French troubles of the 15th c. 
 
 Armansperg, Joseph Ludwig, count, Bavarian statesman, head of the re- 
 gency in Greece at the beginning of the reign of Otho. B. 1787. D. 1853. 
 
 Arminius (Hermann), prince of the German tribe of the Cherusci. Van- 
 quished the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest A. d. 9. 
 
 Arrninius, Jacobus, Dutch theologian. B. 1560. D. 1609. 
 
 Armitage, Edward, English painter. B. 1817. D. 1896. 
 
 Armstrong, John, American soldier. B. about 1758. D. 1843. 
 
 Armstrong, Lord William George, English inventor. B. 1810. 
 
 Arnauld, Angelique, abbess of Port Royal. B. 1624. D. 1684. 
 
 Arnauld, Antoine, French advocate. B. 1560. D. 1619. 
 
 Arnauld, Antoine, French Jansenist theologian. B. 1612. D. 1694. 
 
 Arnauld, Marie Jacqueline Angelique, abbess of Port Royal. B. 1591. D, 
 1661. 
 
 Arnauld d'Andilly, Robert, French theological writer. B. about 1588. 
 I). 1674. 
 
 Arnault, Vincent Antoine, French writer of tragedy, &e. B. 1766. D. 1834. 
 
 Arnd (Arndt), Johann, German Protestant theologian. B. 1555. D. 1621. 
 " Vom wahren Christenthum " (" True Christianity "). 
 
 * Aristomenes is generally represented as the leader of the Messenians in their second 
 great struggle against Sparta, in the 7th century (see Messenia in Part II.). Some ancient 
 accounts, however, make him the hero of the first Messenian War. See Grote's " History 
 of Greece," vol. ii., p. 423 (Am. edition). 
 
324 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Arndt, Ernst Moritz, German patriot, writer. B. 1769. D. 1860. Author 
 
 of the poem " Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland ? " 
 Arne, Thomas Augustine, English composer. B. 1710. D. 1778. 
 Arneth, Alfred von, Austrian historian, archivist. B. 1819. D. 1897. 
 Arnim, Elisabeth (" Bettina ") von, friend of Goethe. B. 1785. D. 1859. 
 Arnim, Harry, count, Prussian diplomatist. B. 1824. D. 1881. 
 Arnim (Arnheim), Johann Georg, German general. B. 1581. D. 1641. 
 Arnim, Ludwig Achim von, German poet. B. 1781. D. 1831. 
 Arnold, Benedict, American soldier. B. 1741. D. 1801. 
 Arnold, Edwin, English poet, journalist. B. 1832. " Light of Asia." 
 Arnold, Matthew, Eng. poet, critic, writer on higher culture. B.1822. D.1888. 
 Arnold, Samuel, English composer. B. 1740. D. 1802. 
 Arnold, Thomas, English educator, historian. B. 1795. D. 1842. "His- 
 tory of Rome." 
 Arnold of Brescia, Italian reformer. Put to death 1155. 
 Arnold of Winkelried, Swiss patriot. Slain at Sempaeh 1386. 
 Arnould, Sophie, French actress. B. 1744. D. 1803. 
 Arpad, ruler of the Hungarians about 890-907. 
 Arpino, Giuseppe Cesari d'. See Cesari. 
 
 Arran, James Hamilton, second earl of, regent of Scotland. D. 1575. 
 Arrian, Greek author. First half of 2d c. a. d. " Anabasis " (history of 
 
 the campaigns of Alexander the Great). " Indica." " Periplus of the 
 
 Euxine Sea." Works on the philosophy of Epictetus. 
 Arrivabene, Giovanni, count, Italian political economist. B. 1787. D. 1881. 
 Arsinoe, queen of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, and of Ptolemy Philadel- 
 
 phus. B. about 318 b. c. 
 Arsinoe, queen of Ptolemy Philopator. 
 
 Artaxerxes I., Longimanus, king of Persia. Reigned 465-425 b. c. 
 Artaxerxes II., Mnemon, king of Persia. Reigned 405 (404)-361 (359) B. c. 
 Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), king of Persia. Reigned 361 (359)-338 b. c. 
 Artemidorus of Ephesus, Greek geographer. About 100 b. c. 
 Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus. First half of 5th c. b. c. 
 Artemisia, queen of Caria. Succeeded Mausolus about 352 b. c. 
 Artevelde, Jacob van, leader of the popular party in Flanders. B. about 
 
 1300. Killed 1345. 
 Artevelde, Philip van, leader of the popular party in Flanders, son of 
 
 Jacob von Artevelde. Slain in battle 1382. 
 Arthur, Chester A., president of the United States from Sept. 19, 1881, to 
 
 March 4, 1885. B. 1830. D. 1886. 
 Artois, count of. See Charles X., of France. 
 
 Arundel, Thomas Howard, earl of, English art collector. B. 1586. D. 1646. 
 Arwidsson, Adolf Ivar, Swedish poet, author of a collection of Swedish 
 
 popular songs. B. 1791. D. 1858. 
 Asa, king of Judah. Reigned about 929-873 b. c. (Duncker; about 958- 
 
 917, common chron.). 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 325 
 
 Asbjornsen, Peter Kristen, Norwegian writer (folk-lore). B. 1812. D. 1885. 
 Asbury, Francis, American Methodist bishop. B. 1745. D. 1816. 
 Ascham, Roger, English scholar, writer, instructor of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 B. 1515. D. 1568. Principal production, " The Scholemaster " (on the 
 
 best method of teaching Latin). 
 Asclepiades, Greek physician. About 100 b. c. 
 Asdrubal. See Hasdrubal. 
 Aselli, Gasparo, Italian anatomist. D. 1626. 
 
 Asliburton, Alexander Baring, Lord, English statesman. B. 1774. D. 1848. 
 Ashmole, Elias, English author, founder of the Ashmolean museum. B. 
 
 1617. D. 1692. 
 Askew, Anne, English martyr. B. about 1529. Burned 1546. 
 Asmus. See Claudius, Matthias. 
 
 Aspasia, consort of Pericles. Second half of 5th c. B. c. 
 Assemani, Joseph Aloysius, ecclesiastical writer, professor of oriental lan- 
 guages at Rome. B. in Syria about 1710. D. 1782. 
 Assemani, Joseph Simon, Syrian orientalist. B. 1687. D. 1768. 
 Assemani, Simon, orientalist, professor at Padua. B. in Syria 1752. D. 
 
 1821. 
 Assemani, Stephen Evodius, bibliographer, librarian at the Vatican. B. 
 
 in Syria 1707. D. 1782. 
 Asser, English monk. D. about 910. 
 Assing, Ludmilla, German authoress. B. 1827. D. 1880, 
 Astolphus, king of the Lombards. Reigned 749-756. 
 Astor, John Jacob, American merchant. B. in Germany 1763. D. 1848. 
 Astorga, Emanuele d', Sicilian composer. B. 1681. D. 1736. 
 Astyages, king of Media. Reigned 584 (593)-550 (558) b. c. 
 Atahuallpa, inca of Peru. Put to death 1533. ' 
 Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths. Reigned 410-415. 
 Atha ben Hakem, or Al Hakem ibn Atha (Mokanna), the " veiled prophet 
 
 of Khorasan." D. about 780. 
 Athaliah, queen of Judah. Reigned about 843-837 b. c. {Duncker ; SS7- 
 
 881, Oppert). 
 Atha Melik, Persian historian. B. about 1227. D. 1282. 
 Athanasius, Saint, bishop of Alexandria, opponent of Arius. B. about 296. 
 
 D. 373. 
 Athelstan, king of England. Reigned 925-940. 
 Athenseus, Greek writer. First half of 3d c. a. d. " Deipnosophista? " 
 
 (" Banquet of the Learned "). 
 Athenagoras, Greek Christian philosopher. 2d c. 
 Atkinson, Thomas Witlam, English traveler (Siberia, Amoor region). B. 
 
 1799. D. 1861. 
 Attalus I., king of Pergamus. Reigned 241-197 b. c. 
 Attalus II., king of Pergamus. Reigned 159-138 b. r. 
 Attalus III., king of Pergamus. Reigned 138-133 b. c. 
 
326 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Atterbom, Peter Daniel Amadous, Swedish poet. B. 1790. D. 1855. 
 
 Atterbury, Francis, English bishop. B. 1662. D. 1732. 
 
 Atticus, Titus Pomponius, Roman scholar. B. 109 B. c. D. 32. 
 
 Atticus Herodes. See Herodes Atticus. 
 
 Attila, king of the Huns. D. 453. 
 
 Attwood, George, English natural philosopher. B. about 174G. D. 1807. 
 
 Attwood, Thomas, English composer. B. 17G5. D. 1838. 
 
 Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit, French composer. B. 1782. D. 1871. 
 
 Aubigne, J. II. Merle d\ See Merle d'Aubigne. 
 
 Aubigne, Theodore Agrippa d', Huguenot soldier, author. B. 1550. D. 
 
 1630. Political satires, history of his time, &c. 
 Aubusson, Pierre d', grand-master of the Knights of St. John. B. 1423. 
 
 D. 1503. 
 Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, British general. B. about 1756. D. 1822. 
 Auckland, George Eden, earl of, governor general of India 1835-'42. B. 
 
 1784. D. 1849. 
 Auckland, William Eden, baron, British diplomatist. B. about 1744. D. 
 
 LSI 4. 
 Audebert, Jean Baptiste, French painter, naturalist. B. 1759. D. 1800. 
 Audiflret-Pasquier, Edme Armand Gaston d', duke, French statesman. 
 
 B. 1823. 
 Audley, Thomas, Lord, lord chancellor under Henry VIII. B. about 1488. 
 
 D. 1544. 
 Audouin, Jean Victor, French entomologist. B. 1797. D. 1841. 
 Audran, Claude, French engraver. B. 1592. D. 1677. 
 Audran, Gerard, French engraver. B. 1640. D. 1703. 
 Audran, Jean. French engraver. B. 1667. D. 1756. 
 Audubon, John James, American ornithologist. B. between 1772 and 
 
 1783. D. 1851. " Birds of America." 
 Auenbrugger von Auenbrug (Avenbrugger). Leopold, Austrian physi- 
 cian, inventor of percussion. B. 1722. D. 1809. 
 Auerbach, Berthold, German novelist. B. 1812. D. 1882. 
 Auersperg, Adolph, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1821. D. 1885. 
 Auersperg, Anton Alexander, count (" Anastasius Grun "), Austrian poet. 
 
 B. 1806. D. 1876. " Der letzte Ritter "(" The Last Knight "). " Spazier- 
 
 gange eines Wiener Poeten " (" Walks of a Viennese Poet "). " Schutt " 
 
 (" Ruins "). 
 Auersperg, Carlos, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1814. D. 1890. 
 Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, duke of Castiglione, French general. 
 
 B. 1757. D. 1816. 
 Augier, Emile, French dramatist. B. 1820. D. 1889. 
 August Wilhelm, brother of Frederick II. B. 1722. D. 1758. 
 Augusti, Johann Christian Wilhelm, German Protestant theologian. B. 
 
 about 1771. D. 1841. 
 Augustin, Saint, "apostle of the Anglo-Saxons." D. about 605. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 337 
 
 Augustine, Saint, Latin father of the church, bishop of Hippo. B. 354. 
 D. 430. 
 
 Augustulus, Romulus. See Romulus Augustulus. 
 
 Augustus (Octavius, Octavianus), first Roman emperor. B. G3 B. c. Tri- 
 umvir with Antony and Lepidus from 43. Master of the Roman world 31. 
 Styled Augustus 27. D. a. d. 14. 
 
 Augustus II., the Strong, elector of Saxony (as such Frederick Augustus 
 I.), king of Poland. B. 1670. Reigned in Saxony 1694-1733; in Poland 
 1697-1704, 1709-'33. D. 1733. 
 
 Augustus III., elector of Saxony (as such Frederick Augustus II.), king of 
 Poland. B. 1696. Reigned from 1733. D. 1763. 
 
 Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, sixth son of George III. B. 1773. 
 I). 1843. 
 
 Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe d'Orleans, duke d', fourth son of Louis 
 Philippe. B. 1822. D. 1897. Author of historical works. 
 
 Aungervyle, Richard. See Richard de Bury. 
 
 Aurelian (Aurelianus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 270. Assassinated 
 275. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus. See Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 
 
 Aurelle de Paladines, French general. B. 1804. D. 1877. 
 
 Aurifaber (Johann Goldschmied), assistant of Luther. B. about 1519. D. 
 1575. 
 
 Aurungzebe, Mogul emperor. B. about 1619. Reigned from 1658. I). 1707. 
 
 Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, Latin poet. B. about 310. D. about 394. 
 
 Austen, Jane, English novelist. B. 1775. D. 1817. "Sense and Sensibil- 
 ity." " Pride and Prejudice." " Mansfield Park." 
 
 Austin, John, English writer on jurisprudence. B. 1790. D. 1859. 
 
 Austin, Sarah (Taylor), wife of J. Austin, English authoress, translator. B. 
 1793. D. 1867. 
 
 Austin, Stephen F., colonizer of Texas. D. 1836. 
 
 Avalos, Fernando Francesco d\ See Pescara. 
 
 Avellaneda, Gertrudis Gomez de, Spanish poetess. B. 1816. I). 1873. 
 
 Avenbrugger. See Auenbrugger. 
 
 Avenzoar (Ibn Zohr), Moorish physician. B. about 1072. D. 1162. 
 
 Averroes, Moorish philosopher. D. 1198. Commentary on Aristotle. 
 
 Avicebron. See Solomon ben Gabirol. 
 
 Avicenna, Arabian physician, philosopher. B. about 980. D. 1036 or 1037. 
 
 Axel. See Absalon. 
 
 Ayala, Pedro Lopez de, Castilian historian, poet. B. 1332. D. 1407. 
 
 Ayesha, wife of Mohammed. D. about 678. 
 
 Aylmer, John, bishop of London (tutor of Lady Jane Grey). B. 1521. P. 1594. 
 
 Ayrer, Jakob, German dramatist. D. 1605. 
 
 Ayrton, W. E., English electrician. B. 1847. 
 
 Ayton (Aytoun), Sir Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1570. D. 1638. 
 
 Aytoun, William Edmondstoune, Scottish poet. B. 1813. D. 1865. 
 
328 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Azais, Pierre Hyaeinthe, French philosopher. B. 1766. D. 1845. 
 
 Azara, Felix de, Spanish naturalist. B. 1746. D. 1811. 
 
 Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli, marquis d', Italian statesman, author. B. 1798. 
 D. 1866. " Ettore Fieramosca," " Nicolo de' Lapi " (novels). Autobi- 
 ographical memoirs. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baader, Franz Xaver von, German philosopher. B. 1765. D. 1841. 
 Baan, Jan van, Dutch painter. B. 1633. D. 1702. 
 
 Babbage, Charles, English mathematician, inventor of calculating ma- 
 chinery. B. 1792. D. 1871. 
 Baber, founder of the Mogul empire in India in 1526. B. 1483. D. 1530. 
 Babeuf, Francois Noel, French socialist, revolutionary conspirator. B. 1764. 
 
 Executed 1797. 
 Babinet, Jacques, French physicist. B. 1794. D. 1872. 
 Babington, Anthony, English conspirator. Executed 1586. 
 Babo, Franz Marius von, German dramatist. B. 1756. D. 1822. 
 Baccio della Porta. See Bartolommeo. 
 Bacciochi, Elisa. See Bonaparte, Elisa. 
 Bach, Alexander, baron, Austrian statesman. B. 1813. 
 Bach, Johann Christian, German composer. B. 1735. D. 1782. 
 Bach, Johann Christoph Friedrich, German composer. B. 1732. D. 1795. 
 Bach, Johann Sebastian, German composer. B. March 21, 1685. D. July 
 
 28, 1750. 
 Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, German composer. B. 1714. D. 1788. 
 Bach, Wilhelm Friedcmann, German organist. B. 1710. D. 1784. 
 Bache, Alexander Dallas, American scientist. B. 1806. D. 1867. 
 Bachman, John, American naturalist. B. 1790. D. 1874. 
 Back, Sir George, English Arctic explorer. B. 1796. D. 1878. 
 Backhuysen, Ludolf, Dutch painter. B. 1631. D. 1709. 
 Bacler-d'Albe, Louis Albert Ghislain, baron, French painter. B. 1762. D. 
 
 1824. 
 Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, English philosopher. B. Jan. 22, 1561. D. 
 
 April 9, 1626. "Essays," first collection 1597. "Novum Organum " 
 
 (in Latin), 1620. 
 Bacon, John, English sculptor. B. 1740. D. 1799. 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, leader of a rebellion in Virginia in 1676. B. about 1645. 
 
 D. 1676. 
 Bacon, Sir Nicholas, English statesman. B. about 1510. D. 1579. 
 .Bacon, Roger, English monk, famous for his attainments in the sciences. 
 
 B. 1214. D. about 1294. 
 Baden, Louis, margrave of. See Louis. 
 
 Badius, Jodocus (Josse), Flemish printer. B. 1462. D. 1535. 
 Baer, Karl Ernst von, Russian naturalist. B. 1792. D. 1876. 
 Baffin, William, English navigator. B. 1584. Killed 1622. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 309 
 
 Bagehot, Walter, English economical and political writer. B. 1826. D. 
 1877. 
 
 Baggesen, Jens, Danish poet. B. 1764. D. 1826. 
 
 Bagration, Petr, prince, Russian commander. B. 1765. D. 1812. 
 
 Bahr, Johann Christian Felix, German classical scholar. B. 1708. D. 1872. 
 " Geschichte der romischen Literatur." " Herodot." 
 
 Bailey, Gamaliel, American journalist, abolitionist. B. 1807. D. 1859. 
 
 Bailey, Jacob Whitman, American microscopist. B. 1811. D. 1857. 
 
 Bailey, Philip James, English poet. B. 1816. 
 
 Baillie, Joanna, Scottish poetess. B. 1762. D. 1851. " Plays on the Pas- 
 sions." 
 
 Baillot, Pierre Marie Francois de Sales, French violinist. B. 1771. D. 1842. 
 
 Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French astronomer, politician. B. 1736. Executed 
 1793. 
 
 Baily, Edward Hodges, English sculptor. B. 1788. D. 1867. 
 
 Bain, Alexander, Scottish philosopher. B. 1818. 
 
 Bainbridge, William, American naval officer. B. 1774. D. 1833. 
 
 Baird, Sir David, British general. B. 1757. D. 1829. 
 
 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist. B. 1823. D. 1887. 
 
 Baius, Michael, Flemish theologian. B. 1513. D. 1589. 
 
 Bajazet I., Turkish sultan. B. 1347. Reigned 1389-1402. D. 1403. 
 
 Bajazet II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1481-1512. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel White, English African explorer, discoverer of the Albert 
 N'yanza (1864). B. 1821. D. 1893. "Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon." 
 " The Albert N'yanza." " The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia." " Ismailia." 
 
 Bakhuysen. See Backhuysen. 
 
 Bakunin, Mikhail, Russian revolutionist. B. 1814. D. 1876. 
 
 Balbi, Adriano, Italian geographer. B. 1782. D. 1848. 
 
 Balbo, Cesare, Italian statesman, historian. B. 1789. D. 1853. 
 
 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Span, adventurer. B. 1475. Executed 1517 (1518?). 
 
 Balbuena, Bernardo de, Spanish poet. B. 1568. D. 1627. 
 
 Balde, Jakob, German Latin poet. B. 1603. D. 1668. 
 
 Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. Reigned 
 1100-1118. 
 
 Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. Reigned 1118- '31. 
 
 Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem. Reigned 1143-'62. 
 
 Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem. Reigned from 1173 to about 1184. 
 
 Baldwin I. (of Flanders), emperor of Constantinople. Reigned 1204-'5. 
 
 Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople. Reigned 1228-'61 (actual reign 
 began 1237). 
 
 Baldwin, John Dennison, Amer. journalist, archaeologist. B. 1809. D. 1883. 
 
 Balestra, Antonio, Italian painter. B. 1666. » D. about 1740. 
 
 Balfe, Michael William, Irish composer. B. 1808. D. 1870. 
 
 Balfour, Arthur James, British statesman, philosophical writer. B. 1848. 
 
 Balfour, Sir Jas., Scot, judge, noted for his intrigues and treachery. D. 1583. 
 
330 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, Irish astronomer. B. 1840. 
 Ballanche, Pierre Simon, French philosopher. B. 1776. D. 1847. 
 Balliol, Edward, king of Scotland, son of John Balliol. He seized the crown 
 
 in opposition to David Bruce in 1332, but was able to maintain himself 
 
 only a few years. I). 1363. 
 Balliol, John, king of Scotland. Reigned 1292-6. D. 1314. 
 Ballou, Ilosea, American Umversalist clergyman. B. 1771. D. 1852. 
 Balnies, Jaime Lucio, Spanish philosopher. B. 1810. D. 1848. 
 Balnaves, Henry, Scottish Reformer. D. about 1579. 
 Baltard, Louis Pierre. French architect. B. about 1765. D. 1846. 
 Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert. 
 Baltzer, Eduard, German clergyman, religious and philosophical writer, 
 
 advocate of vegetarianism. B. 1814. D. 1887. 
 Balue, Jean de la, French prelate, minister of Louis XL B. about 1422. 
 
 D. 1491. 
 Baluze, Etienne, French historian. B. 1630. D. 1718. 
 Balzac, Ilonore de, French novelist. B. 1799. D. 1850. 
 Balzac, Jean Louis Guez, seigneur de, French writer. B. about 1597. D. 
 
 1654 or 1655. " Lettres familieres." " Le Socrate chretien." 
 Bamboccio, II. See Laer. 
 Bancroft, George, American historian. B. Oct. 3, 1800. D. Jan. 17, 1891. 
 
 " History of the United States." 
 Bancroft, Hubert Howe, American ethnologist, historian. B. 1832. 
 Bandel, Ernst von, German sculptor. B. 1800. D. 1876. 
 Bandello, Matteo, Italian novelist. B. 1480. D. about 1562. 
 Bandinelli, Baccio, Florentine sculptor. B. 1488. D. 1560. 
 Bandtke, Jerzy (Georg) Samuel, Polish historian. B. 1768. D. 1835. 
 Baner, Johan, Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1595. D. 1641. 
 Banim, John, Irish novelist. B. 1798 (according to some 1800). 1). 1842. 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, English naturalist. B. 1744. D. 1820. 
 Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, American soldier, politician. B. 1816. D. 1894. 
 Banks, Thomas, English sculptor. B. 1735. D. 1805. 
 Banner. See Baner. 
 
 Baraguey d'Hilliers, Achille, French general. B. 1795. D. 1878. 
 Baraguey d'Hilliers, Louis, French general. B. 1764. D. 1812 (1813?). 
 Barante, Amable Guillaume Prosper, baron de Brugiere, French statesman, 
 
 historian. B. 1782. D. 1866. "Histoire des dues de Bourgogne de la 
 
 mnison de Valois." 
 Baratier, Johann Philipp, German prodigy. B. 1721. D. 1740. 
 Baratynski, Yevgeni, Russian poet. D. 1844. 
 Barbarelli, Giorgio. See Giorgione. 
 
 Barbarossa, Frederick. See'FREDERiCK I., emperor of Germany. 
 Barbarossa, Horuk, Greek Mohammedan corsair. Killed 1518. 
 Barbarossa, Khair-ed-Din, Greek Mohammedan corsair. I). 1546. 
 Barbaroux, Charles Jean, French revolutionist. B. 1767. D. 1794. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 331 
 
 Barbauld, Anna L&titia, English writer for the young, poetess, sister of 
 
 John Aikin. B. 1743. D. 1825. 
 Barbe-Marbois, Francois cle, marquis, French statesman. B. 1745. D. 1837. 
 Barber, Francis, American soldier. B. 1751. D. 1783. 
 Barberini, Francesco, Italian cardinal, founder of the Barberini Library. 
 
 B. 1597. D. 1679. 
 Barberini, Maffeo. [See Urban VIII. ] 
 
 Barbes, Armand, French revolutionist. B. about 1809. D. 1870. 
 Barbie du Bocage, Jean Denis, French geographer. B. 1760. D. 1825. 
 Barbier, Antoine Alexandre, French bibliographer. B. 1765. D. 1825. 
 Barbier, H. Auguste, French satirical poet. B. 1805. D. 1882. 
 Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco. See Guercino. 
 Barbour, John, Scottish poet. B. about 1316 (?). D. about 1395 (?). Author 
 
 of the national poem " The Bruce." 
 Barclay, Alexander, English poet. D. 1552. " The Ship of Fools." 
 Barclay, John, Latin author. B. 1582. D. 1621. "Argenis" (political 
 
 allegorical romance). 
 Barclay, Robert, Scottish theologian (sect of Friends). B. 1648. D. 1690. 
 Barclay, William, Scottish-French jurist. B. 1541 or 1546. D. 1608. 
 Barclay de Tolly, Michael, prince, Russian general. B. 1761. D. 1818. 
 Bar Cocheba, leader of the Jews in their rising against the emperor Ha- 
 drian. Slain A. d. 135 or 136. 
 Bardas, Byzantine usurper. Assassinated 866. 
 Bardesanes, Syrian Gnostic. Latter part of 2d c. 
 Barentz, Willem, Dutch Arctic explorer. D. 1597. 
 Barere de Vieuzac, Bertrand, French revolutionist. B. 1755. D. 1841. 
 Baretti, Giuseppe, Italian writer, lexicographer. B. 1719. D. 1789. 
 Barham, Richard Harris, English humorist. B. 1788. D. 1845. 
 Bar-Hebraeus. See Abulfaragius. 
 
 Baring, Sir Francis, English capitalist, financier. D. 1810. 
 Baring, Francis Thornhill, Lord Northbrook, English statesman. B. 1796. 
 
 D. 1866. 
 Baring, Thomas George, Lord Northbrook, English statesman, viceroy of 
 
 India 1872-6. B. 1826. 
 Baring-Gould, Sabine, English author. B. 1834. 
 Barlow, Joel, American poet, B. 1754. D. 1812. " The Columhiad." "The 
 
 Vision of Columbus." 
 Barlow, Peter, English mathematician, physicist. B. 1776. D. 1862. 
 Barnard, Fred. Augustus Porter, Am. educator, scientist. B. 1809. D. 1889. 
 Barnard, Henry, American educator. B. 1811. 
 Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie, French revolutionist. B. 1761. 
 
 Executed 1793. 
 Barnes, Albert, American divine. B. 1798. D. 1870. 
 Barneveldt, Jan van Olden, Dutch statesman. B. 1547. Executed 1619. 
 Barney, Joshua, American naval officer. B. 1759. D. 1818. 
 
332 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Baroche, Pierre Jules, French statesman. B. 1802. D. 1870. 
 
 Baronius (Cesare Baronio), Italian historian. B. 1538. D. 1007. " Annales 
 
 Ecclesiastici." 
 Barrande, Joachim. French-Austrian palaeontologist. B. 1799. D. 1883. 
 Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicolas de, count, French revolutionist. B. 1755. 
 
 D. 1829. 
 Barrington, Daines, English jurist, naturalist. B. 1727. D. 1800. 
 Barrington, Sir Jonah, Irish lawyer, author. B. 1760. D. 1834. 
 Barron, James, American naval officer. B. 1768. D. 1851. 
 Barron, Samuel, American naval officer. B. about 1763. D. 1810. 
 Barros, Joao de, Portuguese historian. B. 1496 (!). D. 1570. 
 Barrot, C. II. Odilon, French advocate, statesman. B. 1791. D. 1873. 
 Barrow, Isaac, English clergyman, mathematician. B. 1630. D. 1677. 
 Barrow, Sir John, English author, promoter of scientific voyages. B. 1704. 
 
 I). 1848. 
 Barrundia, Jose Francisco, Central American statesman. B. about 1780. 
 
 D. 1854. 
 Barry, Sir Charles, English architect. B. 1795. D. 1860. 
 Barry, Edward Middleton, English architect. B. 1830. D. 1880. 
 Barry, Gerald de. See Giraldus Cambrensis. 
 Barry, James, Irish painter. B. 1741. D. 1806. 
 
 Barry, Marie Jeanne, countess du, mistress of Louis XV. B. 1746. Exe- 
 cuted 1793. 
 Barry, Martin, English physiologist. B. 1802. D. 1855. 
 Bart (Baert), Jean, French naval officer. B. 1651. D. 1702. 
 Bartas, Guillaumc de Salluste du, French poet. B. 1544. D. 1590. 
 Barth, ITeinrieh, German African explorer. B. 1821. D. 1865. " Travels and 
 
 Discoveries in North and Central Africa." 
 Barthelemy, Francois, marquis de, French statesman. B. 1747. D. 1830. 
 Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, French author. B. 1716. D. 1795. "Voyage 
 
 du jcune Anaeharsis en Grece." 
 Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules, Fr. statesman, scholar. B. 1805. D. 1895. 
 
 Translation of Aristotle. Works on oriental religion and philosophy. 
 Barthez (Barthes), Paul Joseph, French physiologist. B. 1734. D. 1806. 
 Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, Alsatian sculptor. B. 1834. 
 Bartholin, Kaspar, Danish anatomist. B. 1585. D. 1029 or 1030. 
 Bartholin, Thomas, Danish physician, anatomist, scholar. B. 1010. D. 1680. 
 Bartolini, Lorenzo, Italian sculptor. B. about 1777. D. 1850. 
 Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), Florentine painter. B. 1469 or 
 
 1475. D. 1517. 
 Bartolozzi, Francesco, Italian engraver. B. about 1727. D. 1813. 
 Barton, Benjamin Smith, American botanist. B. 1766. D. 1815. 
 Barton, Elizabeth, " Nun of Kent." Executed 1534. 
 Barton, William P. C, American botanist. D. 1856. 
 Bartram, John, American botanist. B. 1699. D. 1777. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 333 
 
 Bartram, William, American naturalist. B. 1739. D. 1823. 
 
 Bartsch, Johann Adam Bernhard von, Austrian engraver. B. 1757. D. 
 
 1821. 
 Bartsch, Karl Friedrieh, German philologist. 1?. 1832. D. 1888. Editor 
 
 of mediaeval German poems and Provencal writings. 
 Barye, Antoine Louis, French sculptor. B. 1795. D. 1875. 
 Basedow, Johann Bernhard, German educational reformer. B. 1723. D. 
 
 1790. 
 Basil (Basilius) I., Byzantine emperor. Reigned 867-886. 
 Basil II., Byzantine emperor. Reigned 976-1025. 
 Basil the Great, Greek father of the church. B. about 329. D. 379. 
 Basil Valentine (Basilius Valentinus), German chemist. Supposed to have 
 
 lived in the first half of the 15th c. 
 Basnage de Beauval, Jacques, French Protestant clergyman, author, B. 
 
 1653. D. 1723. Works on church history and the history of the Jews. 
 Bass, George A., English surgeon, navigator. Discovered Bass Strait 1798. 
 Bassano, II (Francesco da Ponte), Italian painter. D. 1530. 
 Bassano, II (Francesco da Ponte), Italian painter. B. about 1548. D. 1591. 
 Bassano, II (Jacopo, or Giacomo, da Ponte), Italian painter. B. 1510. D. 
 
 1592. 
 Bassano, duke of. See Maret. 
 Basselin, Olivier, French poet. D. about 1418. 
 
 Bassi, Laura Maria Catarina, Italian scholar. B. 1711. D. about 1778. 
 Bassompierre, Francois de, French courtier, writer of memoirs. B. 1579. 
 
 D. 1646. 
 Bastian, Adolf, German traveler, ethnologist. B. 1826. 
 Bastian, Henry Charlton, English scientist. B. 1837. Works on the origin 
 
 of life and the development of the lowest organisms. 
 Bastiat, Frederic, French political economist. B. 1801. D. 1850. 
 Bastide, Jules, French politician, political and historical writer. B. 1800. 
 
 I). 1879. 
 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, French painter. B. 1848. D. 1884. 
 Bates, Edward, American politician. B. 1793. D. 1869. 
 Bates, Henry Walter, English traveler, naturalist. B. 1825. D. 1892. 
 
 '•The Naturalist on the River Amazonas." 
 Bath, earl of. See Pulteney. 
 Bathory, Sigismund, prince of Transylvania. Reigned 1581-'98. (Suhse- 
 
 quently resumed his crown for short intervals.) D. 1613. 
 Bathory, Stephen, prince of Transylvania, king of Poland. Reigned in 
 
 Transylvania 1571-'6 ; in Poland, 1575-86. D. 1586. 
 Bathurst, Allen, earl, English statesman. B. 1684. I). 1775. 
 Bathyanyi. See Batthyanyi. 
 
 Bathyllus of Alexandria, pantomimic actor. Second half of first c. b. c. 
 Batthyanyi, Kazmer, count, Hungarian patriot, statesman. B. 1807. D. 
 
 1854. 
 
334 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Batthyanyi, Lajos (Louis), Hungarian patriot, statesman. B. 1809. Exe- 
 cuted 1849. 
 
 Batu Khan, Mongol ruler, general. D. about 1256. 
 
 Batuta, Ibn, Moorish traveler. D. about 1378. 
 
 Batyushkoff, Constantin, Russian poet. B. 1787. D. 1855. 
 
 Baudrillart, Henri Joseph Leon, Pr. political economist. B. 1821. D. 1892. 
 
 Baudry, Paul Jacques Aime, French painter. B. 1828. D. 1886. 
 
 Bauer, Bruno, German New Testament critic, political writer. B. 1809. D. 
 1882. 
 
 Bauernfeld, Eduard von, Viennese writer of comedy. B. 1802. D. 1890. 
 
 Bauhin, Jean, Swiss botanist, physician. B. 1541. D. 1613. 
 
 Baume, Antoine, French chemist. B. 1728. D. 1804. 
 
 Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb, German philosopher, founder of the sci- 
 ence of aesthetics. B. 1714. D. 1762. 
 
 Baumgarten, Sigmund Jakob, German Protestant theologian. B. 1706. 
 I). 1757. 
 
 Baumgarten-Crusius, Detlev Karl Wilhelm, German scholar. B. 1786. 
 I). 1845. 
 
 Baumgarten-Crusius, Ludwig Friedrich Otto, German Protestant theolo- 
 gian. 15. 1788. I). 1843. 
 
 Baumgartner, Karl Heinrich, German physiologist. B. 1798. D. 1886. 
 
 Baur, Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, critic. B. 1792. I). 1800. 
 
 Baxter, Andrew, Scottish metaphysician. B. about 1686. D. 1750. "In- 
 quiry into the Nature of the Human Soul." 
 
 Baxter, Richard, English non-conformist divine. B. 1615. D. 1691. 
 
 Bayard, Pierre du Terrail, chevalier de, French soldier. B. about 1475. 
 Killed 1524. 
 
 Bayer, Johann, German astronomer, preacher. B. about 1572. D. 1625. 
 
 Bayle, Pierre, French philosopher, freethinker. B. 1647. D. 1706. "Dic- 
 tionnaire historique et critique." 
 
 Bazaine, Francois Achillc, French general. B. 1811. D. 1888. 
 
 Bazard, Sainte-Amand, Frtmch Carbonaro, socialist. B. 1791. D. 1832. 
 
 Beaconsfield, earl of. See Disraeli, Benjamin. 
 
 Beaton, David, primate of Scotland. B. about 1494. Assassinated 1546. 
 
 Beatrice Portinari, Florentine lady adored by Dante. B. 1260. D. 
 1290. 
 
 Beattie, James, Scottish author. B. 1735. D. 1803. " Essay on the Nature 
 and Immutability of Truth." " The Minstrel " (poem). 
 
 Beaufort, Henry, English prelate. B. about 1370. D. 1447. 
 
 Beaufort, Margaret, countess of Richmond and of Derby, mother of Henry 
 VII. B. 1441. D. 1509. 
 
 Beauharnais, Alexandre de, viscount, French general, husband of Jose- 
 phine. B. 1760. Executed 1794. 
 
 Beauharnais, Eugene de, duke of Leuchtenberg, prince of Eichstadt, 
 French general, son of Josephine. B. 1781. D. 1824. 
 
BIOGRArniCAL DICTIONARY. 335 
 
 Beauharnais, Hortense, wife of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, daugh- 
 ter of Josephine. B. 1783. D. 1837. Mother of Napoleon III. 
 
 Beauharnais, Josephine. See Josephine. 
 
 Beaumanoir, Philippe de, French jurist. D. 1296. 
 
 Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, French dramatist. B. 1732. D. 
 1799. " Le barbier de Seville." " Le mariage de Figaro." 
 
 Beaumont, Elie de. See Elie de Beaumont. 
 
 Beaumont, Francis, English dramatist. B. about 1585. D. 1616. 
 
 Beaumont, Gustave de, French writer, statesman. B. 1802. D. 1866. " The 
 Penitentiary System of the United States" (produced jointly with De 
 Tocqueville). " Marie, or Slavery in the United States " (work of fiction). 
 Work on the state of Ireland. 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, Confederate general. B. 1818. 
 D. 1893. 
 
 Beausobre, Isaac de, French Protestant theologian. B. 1659. D. 1738. 
 
 Beautemps-Beaupre, Charles Francois, French hydrographer. B. 1766. 
 D. 1854. 
 
 Beauvais, Charles Theodore, French general, writer. B. 1772. D. 1830. 
 
 Bebutoff, Vasili, prince, Russian general. B. about 1792. D. 1858. 
 
 Beccafumi, Domenico, Italian painter. D. about 1550. 
 
 Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marquis de, Italian jurist, political economist. 
 B. 1735 or 1738. D. 1794 or 1793. "Dei delitti e delle pene" (-'On 
 Crimes and Penalties "), 1764. 
 
 Beccaria, Giambattista, Italian physicist. B. 1716. D. 1781. "Dell' elet- 
 tricismo naturale ed artificiale." 
 
 Becerra, Caspar, Spanish painter, sculptor. B. about 1520. D. 1570. 
 
 Beck (Beek), David, Dutch painter. B. 1621. D. 1656. 
 
 Beck, John Brodhead, American physician. B. 1794. D. 1851. 
 
 Beck, Karl, Austrian poet. B. 1817. D. 1879. 
 
 Beck, Lewis C, American naturalist. B. 1798. D. 1853. 
 
 Beck, Theodoric Romeyn, American physician. B. 1791. I). 1855. 
 
 Becker, Georges, French painter. B. about 1845. 
 
 Becker, Karl, German painter. B. 1820. 
 
 Becker, Karl Friedrich, German historian. B. 1777. D. 1806. Best known 
 by his popular universal history. 
 
 Becker, Rudolf Zacliarias, German author. B. 1752. D. 1822. " Noth- und 
 Iliilfsbiichlein." 
 
 Becket, Thomas a, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1117. Murdered 
 1170. 
 
 Beckford, William, English author. B. about 1760. D. 1844. " Vathek " 
 (oriental tale, written in French). 
 
 Beckmann, Johann, German writer on rural economy, the history of inven- 
 tions, &c. B. 1739. D. 1811. 
 
 Beckx, Pierre Jean, general of the Jesuits. B. in Belgium 1795. D. 1887. 
 
 Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond, French physicist. B. 1820. D. 1891. 
 
336 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, French physicist (electricity, electro-chemical 
 science, magnetism). B. 1788. D. 1878. 
 
 Eeddoes, Thomas, English physician, chemist. B. 17G0. D. 1808. 
 
 Eede (Beda), Saxon ecclesiastical historian. B. about 672. D. about 735. 
 
 Bedeau, Marie Alphonse, French general. B. 1804. D. 1863. 
 
 Bedford, John, duke of, uncle of King Henry VI., regent of France, pro- 
 tector of England. B. about 1389. D. 1435. 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, American clergyman. B. 1813. D. 1887. 
 
 Beecher, Lyman, American clergyman. B. 1775. D. 1863. 
 
 Beechey, Frederick William, English Arctic explorer. B. 1796. D. 1856. 
 
 Eeechey, Sir William, English painter. B. 1753. D. 1839. 
 
 Eeek, David. See Beck. 
 
 Beethoven, Ludwig van, German composer. B. probably Dec. 16, 1770. 
 D. March 26, 1827. 
 
 Ee^as, Karl, German painter. B. 1794. D. 1854. 
 
 Eecas, Oskar, German painter. B. 1828. D. 1883. 
 
 Eegas, Reinhold, German sculptor. B. 1831. 
 
 Behaim (Behem), Martin, German navigator, geographer. D. 1506. 
 
 Behm, Ernst, German geographical writer, statistician. B. 1830. D. 1884. 
 
 Behn, Aphra (born Johnson), English romance writer, poetess, dramatist. 
 B. about 1640. D. 1689. 
 
 Behring, Vitus, Danish navigator in the Russian service. D. 1741. 
 
 Beke, Charles Tilstone, English traveler in Abyssinia, geographer. B. 1800. 
 D. 1874. 
 
 Bekker, Immanuel, German classical scholar. B. 1785. D. 1871. 
 
 Belcher, Sir Edward, British Arctic explorer. B. 1799. D. 1877. 
 
 Belgiojoso, Cristina, princess, Italian patriot, writer. B. 1808. D. 1871. 
 
 Belisarius, Byzantine general. B. about 505. D. 565. 
 
 Bell, Alexander Graham, American inventor. B. 1847. First public exhi- 
 bition of his telephone 1876. 
 
 Bell, Andrew, English educational writer. B. 1753. D. 1832. 
 
 Bell, Sir Charles, British anatomist, physiologist. B. 1774. D. 1842. 
 
 Bell, John, Scottish traveler. B. 1691. D. 1780. 
 
 Bell, John, British surgeon. B. 1763. D. 1820. 
 
 Bell, John, American statesman. B. 1797. D. 1869. 
 
 Bell, John, English sculptor. B. 1811. D. 1895. 
 
 Bell, Thomas, English zoologist. B. 1792. D. 1880. 
 
 Bellamont, earl of. See Bellomoxt. 
 
 Bellamy, Mrs. George Ann, English actress. B. about 1731. D. 1788. 
 
 Bellamy, Joseph, American theologian. B. 1719. D. 1790. 
 
 Bellarmin (Roberto Bellarmino). Italian Catholic theologian. B. 1542. D. 
 1621. 
 
 Bellay, Guillaume du, seigneur de Langey, French soldier, diplomatist, 
 writer of memoirs. B. 1491. D. 1543. 
 
 Bellay, Jean du, French cardinal. B. 1492. D. 1560. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 33? 
 
 Bellay, Joachim du, French writer of sonnets, songs, and odes. B. about 
 
 1524. D. 1560. 
 Belle-Isle, Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, count (from 1748 duke) de, 
 
 French general, diplomatist. B. 1684. D. 1761. 
 Belle-Isle, Louis Charles Armand Fouquet, chevalier de, French general. 
 
 B. 1693. Killed 1747. 
 Bellenden, William, Scottish Latin writer. Beginning of 17th c. 
 Bellingham, Richard, governor of Massachusetts. B. about 1592. 1). 1672. 
 Bellini, Gentile, Venetian painter. B. 1421 (according to some 1427). D. 
 
 1508 or 1507. 
 Bellini, Giovanni, Venetian painter. B. about 1428. -D. 1516. 
 Bellini, Jacopo, Italian painter. D. about 1464. 
 
 Bellini, Laurentio, Italian anatomist, physician. B. 1643. D. about 1704. 
 Bellini, Vincenzo, Italian composer. B. 1802. D. 1835. 
 Bellman, Karl Mickel, Swedish poet. B. 1740 or 1741. D. 1795. 
 Bellomont, Richard Coote, earl of, governor of New York, Massachusetts, 
 
 and New Hampshire. B. 1636. D. 1701. 
 Bellows, Henry Whitney, American Unitarian clergyman. B. 1814. D. 1882. 
 Belloy, Pierre Laurent Buirette de, French dramatist. B. 1727. D. 1775. 
 Belluno, duke of. See Victor. 
 Belmontet, Louis, French poet, political writer, partisan of Louis Napoleon. 
 
 B. 1798. D. 1879. 
 Belon, Pierre, French naturalist. B. about 1517. Assassinated 1564. 
 Belsham, Thomas, English clergyman. B. 1750. D. 1829. 
 Belzoni, Giovanni Battista, Italian traveler, explorer of the monuments of 
 
 Egypt. B. about 1778. D. 1823. 
 Bern, Jozef, Polish general, who distinguished himself in the Polish revolu- 
 tion of 1830-'31, and commanded a part of the Hungarian forces in 1848-'9. 
 
 B. 1795. D. 1850. 
 Bembo, Pietro, Italian scholar, writer, cardinal. B. 1470. D. 1547. 
 Benalcazar, Sebastian de, Spanish conqueror in South America. D. 1550. 
 Bendavid, Lazarus, German-Jewish philosopher, mathematician. B. 1762. 
 
 D. 1832. 
 Bendemann, Eduard, German painter. B. 1811. D. 1889. 
 Benedek, Ludwig von, Austrian general. B. 1804. D. 1881. 
 Benedetti, Vincent, French diplomatist. B. 1817. 
 Benedict, Saint, founder of the order of Benedictines. B. about 480. D. 
 
 about 543. 
 Benedict of Aniane, saint of the Roman Catholic church. B. in Langue- 
 
 doc about 750. I). 821. 
 Benedict XII., pope. Elected 1334. D. 1342. 
 
 Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), antipope. Elected 1394. D. about 1424. 
 Benedict XIII., pope. Elected 1724. D. 1730. 
 Benedict XIV., pope. Elected 1740. D. 1758. 
 Benedict, Sir Julius, German composer. B. 1804. D. 1885. 
 
338 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Benedix, J. Roderich, German writer of comedy. B. 1811. D. 1873. 
 
 Beneke, Priedrieh Eduard, German philosopher. B. 1798. D. 1854. 
 
 Benfey, Theodor, German Sanskrit scholar. B. 1809. D. 1881. 
 
 Bengel, Johann Albrecht, German Protestant theologian. B. 1687. D. 1752. 
 
 Benger, Elizabeth Ogilvy, English authoress. B. 1778. D. 1827. 
 
 Beniowsky, Moritz August, count, Hungarian adventurer. B. 1741. Killed 
 in Madagascar 1786. 
 
 Benjamin, Judah Phillips, American politician, secretary of state of the 
 Confederate States, lawyer. B. 1812. D. 1884. 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, Jewish traveler. D. about 1173. 
 
 Bennett, James Gordon, American journalist. B. 1795. D. 1872. 
 
 Bennett, John Hughes, English physician. B. 1812. D. 1875. 
 
 Bennett, Sir William Sterndale, English composer. B. 1816. D. 1875. 
 
 Bennigsen (Benningsen), Levin August Theophil, count, Russian general. 
 B. 1745. D. 1826. 
 
 Bennigsen, Rudolf von, German statesman. B. 1824. 
 
 Benson, Joseph, English Methodist clergyman. B. 1747. D. 1821. 
 
 Bentham, Jeremy, English jurist, originator of the philosophy of utilita- 
 rianism. B. Feb. 15, 1748. D. June 6, 1832. 
 
 Bentinck, George Frederick Cavendish, Lord, English statesman. B. 1802. 
 D. 1848. 
 
 Bentinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord, English general, governor 
 general of India 1827-'35. B. 1774. D. 1839. 
 
 Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland, English prime- 
 minister 1783, 1807-'9. B. 1738. D. 1809. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Ercole, Italian poet, diplomatist. D. 1573. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Giovanni (II.), ruler of Bologna 1462-1506. D. 1508. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Guido, Italian cardinal. B. 1579. D. 1644. 
 
 Bentley, Richard, English classical scholar. B. 1662. D. 1742. 
 
 Benton, Thomas Hart, American senator. B. 1782. D. 1858. 
 
 Beranger, Pierre Jean de, French lyric poet. B. 1780. D. 1857. 
 
 Berengarius (Berenger) I., king of Italy. Reigned from 888. Murdered 924. 
 
 Berengarius II., king of Italy. Reigned 950-961. D. 966. 
 
 Berengarius (Berenger), French ecclesiastic. B. about 998. D. about 1088. 
 
 Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Soter. 
 
 Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Euergetes. 
 
 Berenice, queen of Egypt, sister of Cleopatra. Put to death 55 b. c. 
 
 Berenice, Jewish princess beloved by Titus. 
 
 Beresford, William Carr, viscount, British general in the Peninsular War. 
 B. 1768. D. 1854. 
 
 Berg, Friedrich, count, Russian general, governor of Poland. B. 1790. D. 
 1874. 
 
 Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, French dramatist, noted as a duelist. B. 
 1620. D. 1655. 
 
 Berghaus, Heinrich, German geographer, cartographer. B. 1797. D. 1884. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 339 
 
 Berghem, Nikolaas, Dutch painter. B. 1024. D. 1683. 
 Bergman, Torbern Olof, Swedish physicist, chemist. B. 1735. D. 1784. 
 Bergsoe, Wilhelm JSrgen, Danish novelist, poet. B. 1835. 
 Beriot, Charles Auguste de, Belgian violinist. B. 1802. D. 1870. 
 Berkeley, George, Irish philosopher. B. 1685. D. 1753. 
 Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia. D. 1677. 
 Berlichingen, Gotz von, German soldier. B. 1480. D. 1562. 
 Berlinghieri, Andrea Vacca, Italian surgeon. B. 1772. D. 1826. 
 Berlioz, Hector, French composer. B. 1803. D. 1869. 
 Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, French general, king of Sweden and Nor- 
 way as Charles XIV. John. B. 1764. Reigned from 1818. D. 1844. 
 Bernard, Saint, French ecclesiastic. B. 1091. D. 1153. 
 Bernard, Claude, French physiologist. B. 1813. D. 1878. 
 Bernard, Sir Francis, colonial governor of New Jersey and Massachusetts. 
 
 B. about 1711. D. 1779. 
 Bernardin of Siena, Saint, Italian ecclesiastic. B. 1380. D. 1444. 
 Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. See Saint-Pierre. 
 Bernardo del Carpio, Spanish warrior. 9th c. 
 Bernauer, Agnes, wife of Albert, son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria. Drowned 
 
 1435. 
 Berners, Lady Juliana, reputed author of the " Book of St. Albans " (on 
 
 hunting, hawking, &c). D. after 1460. 
 Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar, Protestant general in the Thirty Years' 
 
 War. B. 1604. D. 1639. 
 Bernhard, Karl (pseudonym of A. N. Saint- Aubin), Danish novelist. B. 
 
 1798. D. 1865. 
 Bernhardt, Sarah, French actress. B. 1844. 
 Berni, Francesco, Italian poet. D. about 1536. 
 Bernier, Francois, French traveler, historian. D. 1688. Works relating to 
 
 the history of the Mogul Empire. 
 Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, Italian sculptor, architect, painter. B. 1598. 
 
 D. 1680. 
 Bernis, Francois Joachim de Pierre de, minister of Louis XV., cardinal. 
 
 B. 1715. D. 1794. 
 Bernoulli (Bernouilli), Christophe, Swiss technological writer. B. 1782. 
 
 D. 1863. 
 Bernoulli, Daniel, Swiss mathematician, physicist, anatomist, botanist. B. 
 
 1700. D. 1782. 
 Bernoulli, Jacques, Swiss mathematician. B. 1654. D. 1705. 
 Bernoulli, Jacques, Swiss mathematician. B. 1759. D. 1789. 
 Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss mathematician. B. 1667. D. 1748. 
 Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss mathematician. B. 1710. D. 1790. 
 Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss astronomer, writer. B. 1744. D. 1807. 
 Bernoulli, Jerome, Swiss naturalist. B. 1745. D. 1829. 
 Bernoulli, Nicolas, Swiss mathematician. B. 1687. D. 1759. 
 
mO BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bernstein, Aaron, German-Jewish writer. B. 1812. D. 1884. Popular expound- 
 er of science, political writer, author of works of fiction, Biblical critic. 
 Bernstorff, Johann Hart wig Ernst, count, Danish statesman. B. 1712. D. 
 
 1772. 
 Bernstorff, Andreas Peter, count, Danish statesman. B. 1735. D. 1797. 
 Berosus, Babylonian historian. 3d c. b. c. 
 Berry (Berri), Charles Ferdinand, duke of, second son of Charles X. of 
 
 France. B. 1778. Assassinated 1820. 
 Berry, Caroline, duchess of, wife of the preceding, mother of the count de 
 
 Chambord. B. 1798. D. 1870. 
 Berry, Mary, English authoress. B. about 17G2. D. 1852. 
 Berryer, Antoine Pierre, French lawyer, political leader, orator. B. 1790. 
 
 I). 1868. 
 Bert, Paul, French physiologist, politician. B. 1833. D. 1886. 
 Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin, French chemist. B. 1827. 
 Berthier, Louis Alexandre, prince of Wagraiu, French soldier. B. 1753. 
 
 D. 1815. 
 Berthold of Eatisbon, German preacher. B. about 1215. D. 1272.* 
 Berthollet, Claude Louis, French chemist. B. 1748. D. 1822. 
 Bertin, Louis Francois, French journalist. B. 1766. D. 1841. 
 Bertrand, Henri Gratien, count. French soldier. B. 1773. D. 1844. 
 Bertrand de Born, French troubadour. D. about 1209. 
 Berulle, Pierre de, French cardinal. B. 1575. D. 1629. 
 Berwick, James Fitz-James, duke of, illegitimate son of James II., English 
 
 soldier in the French service. B. 1670. Killed 1734. 
 Berzelius, Johan Jakob, Swedish chemist. B. 1779. D. 1848. 
 Berzsenyi, Daniel, Hungarian poet. B. 1776. D. 1836. 
 Besant, Walter, English novelist. B. 1838. 
 
 Bescherelle, Louis Nicolas, Fr. grammarian, lexicographer. B. 1802. D. 1883. 
 Bessarion, John or Basil, Greek scholar, Roman Catholic ecclesiastic. B. 
 
 about 1395. D. 1472. 
 Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, German astronomer. B. 1784. I). 1846. 
 Bessemer, Sir Henry, English inventor (new process of steel manufacture). 
 
 B. 1813. 
 Bessieres, Jean Baptiste, duke of Istria, French soldier. B. 1768. Killed 
 
 1813. 
 Bestuzheff, Alexander, Russian novelist, poet. B. 1795. Killed 1837. 
 Bestuzheff-Riumin, Alexei, count, grand chancellor of Russia. B. 1693. 
 
 D. 1766. 
 Bethencourt, Jean, seigneur de, French navigator, conqueror of the Canary 
 
 Islands. D. 1425. 
 Bethlen, Gabor (Gabriel), prince of Transylvania. B. 1580. Elected 1613. 
 
 D. 1629. 
 Bethune, George Washington, American clergyman, scholar, poet. B. 1805. 
 
 D. 1862. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 341 
 
 Betty, William Henry West, English actor. B. 1791. D. 1874. 
 
 Beule, Charles Ernest, French archaaologist, writer on ancient art. B. 1826. 
 
 D. 1874. 
 Beiirnonville, Pierre de Ruel, marquis de, French commander, diplomatist. 
 
 B. 1752. D. 1821. 
 Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von, count, Saxon statesman, chancellor of 
 
 Austria-Hungary 1867-71. B. 1809. D. 1886. 
 Beveridge, William, English prelate, orientalist. B. about 1637. D. 1708. 
 Beverley, John of, archbishop of York. D. about 721. 
 Bewick, Thomas, English engraver. B. 1753. D. 1828. 
 Beyle, Marie Henri ('-Stendhal"), French author. B. 1783. D. 1842. Works 
 
 dealing with music and the fine arts, descriptions of Italy, novels, &e. 
 Beza (Theodore de Beze), French Reformer. B. 1519. D. 1605. Version of 
 
 the New Testament. 
 Bianchini, Francesco, Italian astronomer, antiquary. B. 1662. D. 1729. 
 Biard, Auguste Francois, French painter. B. 1798. D. 1882. 
 Bias of Priene, one of the seven wise men of the Greeks. 6th c. b. c. 
 Bibbiena, Bernardo, Italian cardinal. B. 1470. I). 1520. 
 Bibra, Ernst von, baron, German naturalist, traveler. 15. 1806. D. 1878. 
 Bichat, Marie Francois Navier, French physiologist, anatomist. B. 1771. 
 
 D. 1802. 
 Bickersteth, Edward, English clergyman. B. 1786. D. 1850. 
 Biddle, James, American naval officer. B. 1783. D. 1848. 
 Biddle, John, founder of Unitarianism in England. B. 1615. D. 1662. 
 Biddle, Nicholas, American naval officer. B. 1750. D. 1778. 
 Biddle, Nicholas, American financier. B. 1786. D. 184-f. 
 Bidloo, Godfried, Dutch anatomist. B. 1649. D. 1713. 
 Biela, Wilhelm von, German astronomer. B. 1782. D. 1856. 
 Bielski, Martin, Polish historian. D. about 1575. 
 Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de, French governor of Louisiana, 
 
 B. 1680. D. 1768. 
 Bierstadt, Albert, American painter. B. 1830. 
 Bigelow, Jacob, American physician, writer. B. 1787. D. 1879. 
 Bilderdijk, Willem, Dutch poet. B. 1756. D. 1831. 
 Billaud-Varenne, Jean Nicolas, French revolutionist. B. 1756. D. 1819. 
 Billings, Josh. See Shaw, Henry. 
 Billroth, Theodor, German surgeon. B. 1829. D. 1894. 
 Bingham, Joseph, English ecclesiastical writer. B. 1668. D. 1723. 
 Binney, Amos, American naturalist. B. 1803. D. 1847. 
 Binney, Horace, American lawyer. B. 1780. D. 1875. 
 Binney, Thomas, English clergyman. B. 1798. D. 1874. 
 Bion, Greek poet. Flourished about 280 B. c. 
 Biot, Jean Baptiste, French physicist. B. 1774. D. 1862. 
 Birch, Samuel, English Egyptologist, Assyriolo-i^l. B. 1813. D. 1885. 
 Bird, Edward, English painter. B. 1772. D. 1819. 
 
342 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bird, Golding, English physician, writer. B. 1814. D. 1854. 
 
 Birde (Byrd), William, English composer. B. about 1540. D. 1623. 
 
 Birney, James G., American abolitionist. B. 1792. D. 1857. 
 
 Biron, Armand de Gontaut, baron, afterward duke, de, French general. B. 
 about 1524. Killed 1592. 
 
 Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, duke de (duke de Lauzun), French gen- 
 eral. B. 1747. Executed 1793. 
 
 Biron, Charles de Gontaut, duke de, French soldier. B. about 1562. Exe- 
 cuted 1602. 
 
 Biron (Biren), Ernest John, duke of Courland, minister of the empress Anna 
 of Russia. B. 1687. D. 1772. 
 
 Bischof, Karl Gustav, German geologist, chemist. B. 1792. D. 1870. 
 
 Bisehoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 
 1807. D. 1882. 
 
 Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, English composer. B. about 1786. D. 1855. 
 
 Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold von, prince, Prussian statesman. B. April 
 1, 1815. Placed at the head of Prussian affairs 1862. Chancellor of the 
 German Empire 1871-'90. . 
 
 Bitzius, Albert (" Jeremias Gotthelf "), Swiss writer of tales. B. 1797. D. 
 1854. 
 
 Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, Norwegian novelist. B. 1832. 
 
 Bjornstjerna, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand, count, Swedish soldier, diploma- 
 tist, author. B^ 1779. D. 1847. 
 
 Black, Adam, Scottish publisher. B. 1784. D. 1874. 
 
 Black, Joseph, Scottish chemist. B. 1728. D. 1799. 
 
 Black, William, British novelist. B. 1841. 
 
 Black Hawk, leader of the Sacs in their war with the United States, 1832. 
 
 Black Prince. See Edw t ard, prince of Wales. 
 
 Blackie, John Stuart, Scot. Greek scholar, poet and prose writer. B. 1809. 
 D. 1895. 
 
 Blackmore, Sir Richard, English epic poet and prose writer. D. 1729. 
 
 Blackinore, Richard Doddridge, English novelist. B. 1825. 
 
 Blackstone, Sir William, English jurist. B. 1723. D. 1780. 
 
 Blackwell, Elizabeth, American physician. B. 1821. 
 
 Blackwood, William, Scottish publisher. B. 1776. D. 1834. 
 
 Blaine, James Gillespie, American politician. B. 1830. D. 1893. 
 
 Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de, French naturalist. B. 1777 or 1778. 
 D. 1850. 
 
 Blair, Hugh, Scottish clergyman, author. B. 1718. D. 1800. " Lectures 
 on Rhetoric." 
 
 Blake, Robert, English admiral. B. about 1599. D. 1657. 
 
 Blake, William, English artist, poet. B. 1757. D. 1827. 
 
 Blakey, Robert, English philosophical writer. B. 1795. D. 1878. 
 
 Blanc, Charles, French writer on art. B. 1813. D. 1882. 
 
 Blanc, Louis, French historian, political writer, socialist. B. 1811. 1). 1882. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 343 
 
 " reorganisation du travail " (" The Organization of Labor "). " Histoire 
 de dix ans, 1830-40." " Histoire de la revolution francaise." 
 
 Blanchard, Edward Laman, English dramatist, novelist. B. 1820. D. 1889. 
 
 Blanehard, Francois, French aeronaut. D. 1809. 
 
 Blanchard, Thomas, American inventor. B. 1788. D. 1864. 
 
 Blanche of Bourbon, wife of Pedro the Cruel of Castile. B. about 1338. 
 D. 1361. 
 
 Blanche of Castile, queen of France, mother of Louis IX. B. about 1187. 
 D. 1252. 
 
 Blandrata, Giorgio, Italian Unitarian. B. about 1515. Murdered in Tran- 
 sylvania about 1590. 
 
 Blanqui, Jerome Adolphe, French political economist. B. 1798. D. 1854. 
 " Histoire de Peconomie politique en Europe." 
 
 Blanqui, Louis Auguste, French socialist, revolutionist. B. 1805. D. 1881. 
 
 Bleek, Friedrich, German New Testament critic. B. 1793. D. 1859. 
 
 Blennerhassett, Harman, associate of Aaron Burr. B. about 1765. D. 
 1831. 
 
 Blessington, Margaret, countess of, British leader of society, authoress. B. 
 1789. D. 1849. 
 
 Bligh, William, commander of the British ship " Bounty." B. 1753. D. 
 1817. 
 
 Blind, Karl, German political agitator. B. 1820. 
 
 Bloch, Markus Elieser, German ichthyologist. B. 1723. D. 1799. 
 
 Bloemaert, Abraham, Dutch painter. B. about 1564. D. 1647 (?)• 
 
 Bloemaert, Cornells, Dutch engraver. B. 1603. D. 1680. 
 
 Blomfield, Charles James, English bishop. B. 1786. D. 1857. 
 
 Blommaert, Philip, Flemish author. B. 1808. D. 1871. 
 
 Blondel, French troubadour. End of 12th c. 
 
 Blood, Thomas, Irish adventurer. D. 1680. 
 
 Bloomfield, Robert, English poet. B. 1766. D. 1823. 
 
 Bloomfield, Samuel Thomas, English Biblical and Greek scholar. B. 1790. 
 D. 1869. 
 
 Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von, Prussian general. B. Dec. 16, 1742. D. 
 Sept. 12, 1819. 
 
 Bluhme (Blume), Friedrich, German jurist. B. 1797. D. 1874. 
 
 Blum, Robert, German revolutionist, one of the leaders of the people of 
 Vienna in 1848. B. 1807. Shot Nov. 9, 1848. 
 
 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, German naturalist. B. 1752. D. 1840. 
 
 Blunt, Edmund March, American hydrographer. B. 1770. D. 1862. 
 
 Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, German jurist, publicist. B. in Switzerland 
 1808. D. 1881. 
 
 Boabdil (Abu-Abdillah), last Moorish king of Granada. His throne occu- 
 pied by Ferdinand and Isabella 1492. 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, in Britain, who headed an insurrection against 
 the Romans a. d. 61. 
 
344 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Boardrnan, George Dana, American missionary. B. 1801. D. 1831. 
 
 Boccaccio, Giovanni, Italian author. B. 1313. D. 1375. " Decamerone " 
 (tales). 
 
 Boccage, Manuel Maria Barbosa du, Portuguese poet. B. 1765. D. 1805. 
 
 Boccage, Marie Anne Le Page du, French poetess. B. 1710. D. 1802. 
 
 Boccanera, admiral of Castile. D. about 1373. 
 
 Boccanera, Simone, first doge of Genoa. Elected for the first time 1339. 
 Poisoned 1363. 
 
 Eoccardo, Girolamo, Italian political economist. B. 1829. 
 
 Boccone, Paolo, Sicilian naturalist. B. 1633. JD. 1704. 
 
 Bochart, Samuel, French Protestant clergyman, scholar. B. 1599. D. 1667. 
 " Ilierozoicon " (account of the animals mentioned in the Bible). " Geo- 
 graphia Sacra." 
 
 Bock, Franz, German archaeologist. B. 1823. 
 
 Bock, Karl Ernst, German anatomist, pathologist. B. 1809. D. 1874. 
 
 Bockk, August, German archaeologist, writer on the public economy and 
 maritime affairs of Athens, on ancient weights, coins, and measures, &c. 
 B. 1785. D. 1867. 
 
 Bccklin, Arnold, Swiss painter. B. 1827. 
 
 Bode, Johann Elert, German astronomer. B. 1747. D. 1826. 
 
 Boclenstedt, Friedrich, German poet. B. 1819. D. 1892. Best known 
 production, "Lieder des Mirza Schaffy " (songs of the Orient). 
 
 Bodin, Jean, French writer. B. about 1530. D. 1596. " Six livres de la 
 republique." " La demonomanie." 
 
 Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian library. B. 1545. D. 1613. 
 
 Bodmer, Johann Jakob, Swiss literary critic. B. 1698. D. 1783. 
 
 Bodoni, Giambattista, Italian printer. B. 1740. D. 1813. 
 
 Boeckh. See Bockh. 
 
 Boehm (Boehme), Jakob, German mystic. B. 1575. D. 1624. 
 
 Boerhaave, Hermann, Dutch physician. B. 1668. I). 1738. 
 
 Boethius (Boetius), Anicius Manlius Severinus, Roman philosopher, mathe- 
 matician, statesman. Executed about 526. " Dc Consolatione Philoso- 
 phise." " De Musica." 
 
 Boethius (Boece), Hector, Scottish historian. B. about 1465. D. about 
 1536. 
 
 Bogardus, James, American inventor. B. 1800. D. 1874. 
 
 Bogdanovitch, Ippolit, Russian poet. B. 1743. D. 1803. 
 
 Boguslawski, Adalbert, Polish dramatist, actor. B. about 1759. D. 1829. 
 
 Boha-ed-Din, Arabian historian. B. 1145. D. about 1233. 
 
 Bohemond, Norman crusader, founder of the principality of Antioch, son 
 of Robert Guiseard. B. about 1060. D. 1111. 
 
 Bohlen, Peter von. German orientalist. B. 1796. D. 1840. 
 
 Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen von, Austrian political economist. B. 1851. 
 
 Bohn, Henry George, English publisher. B. 1796. D. 1884. 
 
 Bohtlingk, Otto, German-Russian Sanskrit scholar. B. 1815. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 345 
 
 Boiardo (Bojardo), Matteo Maria, Italian poet. B. about 1434. D. 1494. 
 
 " Orlando innamorato." 
 Boieldieu, Francois Adrien, French composer. B. 1775. D. 1834. 
 Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas, French poet, satirist, critic. B. 1636. D. 
 
 1711. " Le lutrin" (mock heroic poem). "L'art poetique " (didactic 
 
 poem). 
 Boisard, Jean Jacques Francois Marie,* French fabulist. B. 1743. D. 1831. 
 Boissieu, Jean Jacques de, French engraver. B. 1736. D. 1810. 
 Boissy d'Anglas, Francois Antoine de, count, French statesman. B. 1756. 
 
 D. 1826. 
 Boito, Arrigo, Italian composer, poet. B. 1842. 
 Boker, George Henry, American poet. B. 1823. D. 1890. 
 Boleyn, Anne. See Anne Boleyn. 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, viscount, English statesman, freethinker, 
 
 author. B. 1678. D. 1751. 
 Bolintineanu, Dimitrie, Roumanian poet. B. 1826. D. 1872. 
 Bolivar (Spanish Bolivar), Simon, liberator of Colombia. B. 1783. D. 1830. 
 Bolland, John, Flemish Jesuit writer. B. 1596. D. 1665. "Acta Sanc- 
 torum " (lives of the saints). 
 Bologna, Giovanni da, Flemish-Italian sculptor. B. about 1524. D. 1608. 
 Bolswert, Boetius a, Dutch engraver. B. 1580. D. 1634. 
 Bolswert, Scheltius a, Dutch engraver. B. 1586. D. 1659. 
 Bombelli, Raffaello, Italian mathematician. 10th c. 
 Bomberg, Daniel, Flemish printer in Venice. D. 1549. • 
 Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise de, viscount, French political philosopher. 
 
 B. 1754(1753?). D. 1840. 
 Bonald, Louis Jacques Maurice, French prelate. B. 1787. D. 1870. 
 Bonaparte (Buonaparte), Carlo, father of Napoleon I. B. in Corsica 1746. 
 
 D. 1785. 
 Bonaparte, Caroline, sister of Napoleon I., wife of Murat, king of Naples. 
 
 B. 1782. D. 1839. 
 Bonaparte, Charles Lucien, prince of Canino and Musignano, son of Lucien 
 
 Bonaparte. B. 1803. D. 1857. Distinguished as a naturalist. 
 Bonaparte, Elisa (Elisa Bacciochi), sister of Napoleon I., princess of Piom- 
 
 bino and Lucca, grand-duchess of Tuscany. B. 1777. D. 1820. 
 Bonaparte, Jerome, brother of Napoleon I., king of Westphalia 1807-13. 
 
 B. 1784. D. 1860. 
 Bonaparte, Jerome Napoleon, son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth Pat- 
 terson. B. 1805. D. 1870. 
 Bonaparte, Joseph, brother of Napoleon I., king of Naples 1806-8, and of 
 
 Spain 1808-'13. B. 1768 or 1769. D. 1844. 
 Bonaparte, Josephine. See Josephine. 
 Bonaparte, Letizia Ramolino, mother of Napoleon I. B. 1750. D. 1836. 
 
 * In some works the Christian names are different, the initials being the same. 
 
34G BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bonaparte, Louis, brother of Napoleon I., king of Holland 1806-'10. B. 
 
 1778. D. 1840. Married to Hortense Beauharnais. 
 Bonaparte, Louis Lucien, son of Lucien Bonaparte, philologist, chemist. 
 
 B. 1813. D. 1891. 
 Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.), emperor of the French. B. 
 
 April 20, 1808. President of Fiance 1848~'52. Emperor 1852-70. L>. 
 
 Jan. 9, 1873. Married Eugenie de Montijo 1853. 
 Bonaparte, Lucien, prince of Canino, brother of Napoleon I., statesman, 
 
 archaeologist, author. B. 1775. D. 1840. 
 Bonaparte, Mathilde, Princess Demidoff, daughter of Jerome Bonaparte. 
 
 B. 1«2(). 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon (Napoleon I.), emperor of the French. B. Aug. 15, 
 
 1769, or Jan. 7. 1768* First Consul 1709-1802; consul for life 1802-'4; 
 
 emperor 1804— '14, 1815. I). May 5, 1821. Firs! wife, Josephine Beau- 
 harnais; second, Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis, emperor of Austria. 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon (Napoleon II.), duke oi Reichstadt, son of Napoleon 
 
 Land Maria Louisa. B. 1811. D. 1832. 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon Eugene Louis, son of Napoleon III. B. 1856. Killed 
 
 1879. 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph (Prince Napoleon), son of Jerome Bonaparte. 
 
 B. 1822. D. 1891. 
 Bonaparte, Pauline, sister of Napoleon I., wife of General Leclerc and 
 
 afterward of Prince Camillo Borghese. B. 1780. I). 1825. 
 Bonaparte, Pierre Napoleon, prince, son of Lucien Bonaparte. B. 1815. 
 
 I). 1881. 
 Bonaventura, Saint (Giovanni di Fidanza), Italian ecclesiastic, scholastic 
 
 theologian. B. 1221. I). 1274. 
 Bond, George Phillips, American astronomer. B. 1825. D. 1805. 
 Bond, William ( 'ranch, American astronomer. B. 1789. D. 1859. 
 Bone, Henry, English enamel painter. B. 1755. D. 1834. 
 Bonheur, Rosalie (Rosa), French painter. B. 1822. 
 Boniface VIII. (Gaetano), pope. Elected 1294. I). 1303. 
 Boniface IX., pope. Elected 1389. L>. 1404. 
 
 Boniface, Saint, "apostle of Germany." B. about 680. Killed about 755. 
 Bonifacius, Roman general. Killed a. d. 432. 
 Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin, French painter. B. 1833. 
 Bonner, Edmund, bishop of London. B. about 1495. D. 1569. 
 Bonnet, Charles, Swiss naturalist. B. 1720. D. 1793. 
 
 Bonneval, Claude Alexandre de, count, French soldier. B. 1675. I). 1747. 
 Bonnivard, Francois de, Genevese historian. B. 1490. D. about 1571. 
 Bonomi, Joseph, English archaeologist. B. 1796. I). 1878. "Nineveh and 
 
 its Palaces." 
 
 * Aug. 15, 1769 has been held to be the date of Napoleon's birth, and Jan. 7, 1768, that 
 of the birth of his brother Joseph. A view has been advanced that the dates were 
 interchanged. See the recent work of Jung, " Bonaparte et son temps." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 347 
 
 Bononcini, Giovanni Battista, Italian composer. B. about 1670. D. after 
 
 1752. 
 Bonpland, Aime, French botanist, companion of Humboldt in America. B. 
 
 1773. D. 1858. 
 Bonvicino, Alessanclro (II Moretto), Italian painter. D. about 1560. 
 Boole, George, English mathematician, logician. B. 1815. D. 1864. 
 Boone, Daniel, American pioneer in Kentucky. B. 1785. D. 1820. 
 Booth, Edwin, American actor. B. 1833. D. 1893. 
 
 Booth, Sir Felix, English patron of Arctic exploration. B. 1775. D. 1850. 
 Booth, John Wilkes, American actor, assassin of President Lincoln. B. 
 
 1839. Killed 1865. 
 Booth, Junius Brutus, English actor. B. 1796. D. 1852. 
 Bopp, Franz, German philologist. B. 1791. D. 1867. Authority in the 
 
 field of Aryan comparative jmilology. 
 Bora, Katharina von, wife of Luther. B. 1499. D. 1552. 
 Borda, Jean Charles, French mathematician. B. 1733. D. 1799. 
 Bordeaux, duke of. See Chambord. 
 Borden, Simeon, American engineer. B. 1798. D. 1856. 
 Bordone, Paride, Italian painter. D. about 1570. 
 Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, Italian savant. B. 1608. D. 1679. 
 Borghese, Princess. See Bonaparte, Pauline. 
 
 Borghesi, Bartolommeo, count, Italian numismatist. B. 1781. D. 1860. 
 Borgia, Cesare, Italian soldier, ruler, duke of liomagna, son of Pope Alex- 
 ander VI. Killed 1507. 
 Borgia, Saint Francis, general of the Jesuits. B. 1510. D. 1572. 
 Borgia, Lucrezia, Italian princess, daughter of Pope Alexander VI. and 
 
 sister of Cesare Borgia. D. 1519. 
 Borgo, Pozzo di. See Pozzo di Borgo. 
 Borgognone, II (Jacopo Cortesi, or, in his native French, Jacques Courtois), 
 
 Italian painter. B. in Franche-Comte 1621. D. 1676. 
 Boris Godunoff. See Godunoff. 
 Born. See Bertrand de Born. 
 
 Borne, Ludwig, German satirical political writer. B. 1786. D. 1837. 
 Borromeo, Saint Charles (Carlo), Italian cardinal, archbishop of Milan. B. 
 
 1538. D. 1584. 
 Borromeo, Federigo, Italian cardinal, archbishop of Milan, founder of the 
 
 Ambrosian library. B. about 1563. D. 1631. 
 Borrow, George, English author. B. 1803. D. 1881. Authority on the 
 
 Gypsies. 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptiste George Marie, French naturalist. 
 
 B. 1780. D. 1846. 
 Bos (Bosch), Hieronymus, Dutch painter. D. early in the 16th c. 
 Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, French naturalist. B. 1759. D. 1828. 
 Boscan Almogaver, Juan, Spanish poet. D. about 1543. 
 Boscawen, Edward, British admiral. B. 1711. D. 1761. 
 
348 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bosch, Hieronymus de, Dutch scholar, Latin poet. B. 1740. D. 1811. 
 Boscovich, Ruggiero Giuseppe, Italian natural philosopher. B. 1711. D. 
 
 1787. 
 Bosio, Francois Joseph, French sculptor. B. in Italy 1769. D. 1845. 
 Bosquet, Pierre Francois Joseph, French general. B. 1810. D. 1861. 
 Bossi, Carlo Aurelio, baron de, Italian poet, statesman. B. 1758. D. 1823. 
 Bossi, Giuseppe, Italian painter. B. 1777. D. 1815. 
 Bossi, Luigi, count, Italian historian, archaeologist, writer on art. B. 1758. 
 
 D. 1835. 
 Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, French prelate, bishop of Meaux, pulpit orator, 
 
 author. B. 1627. D. 1704. 
 Bossut, Charles, French mathematician. B. 1730. D. 1814. 
 Boswell, James, biographer of Samuel Johnson. B. in Scotland 1740. D. 
 
 1795. 
 Bosworth, Joseph, English philologist (Teutonic languages, especially Anglo- 
 Saxon). B. about 1790. D. 1876. 
 Botalli, Leonardo, physician. B. in Piedmont about 1530. 
 Botetourt, Norborne Berkeley, baron, governor of Virginia 1768-'70. D. 
 
 1770. 
 Bothwell, James Hepburn, earl of, third husband of Mary, queen of Scots. 
 
 B. about 1536. D. about 1578. 
 Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, Italian historian. B. 1766. D. 1837. 
 
 History of the American Revolution. Works on Italian history. 
 Botta, Paul Emile, French archaeologist. B. about 1802. D. 1870. " Ecri- 
 
 ture euneiforme assyrienne." " Monuments de Ninive." 
 Bottari, Giovanni Gaetano, Italian scholar. B. 1689. D. 1775. 
 Bottcher, Christian, German painter. B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 Botticelli, SandrO, Italian painter. D. 1515. 
 Bottiger, Karl August. German archaeologist, writer on art. B. 1760. D. 
 
 1835. 
 Bottiger, Karl Vilhelm, Swedish poet. B. 1807. D. 1878. 
 B5ttiger, Karl Wilhelm, German historian. B. 1790. D. 1862. Works on 
 
 universal and German history. 
 Botts, John Minor, American politician. B. 1802. D. 1869. 
 Botzaris (Bozzaris), Marcos, Greek revolutionary leader. B. about 1790, 
 
 Killed 1823. 
 Boucher, Francois, French painter. B. 1703. D. 1770. 
 Boucher de Perthes, Jacques, French archaeologist. B. 1788. D. 1868. 
 Boucicault, Dion, British dramatist, actor. B. 1822. D. 1890. 
 Bovidinot, Elias, American patriot, author. B. 1740. D. 1821. 
 Boue, Ami, German-French geologist. B. 1794. D. 1881. 
 Bouflers, Louis Francois, duke de, French soldier. B. 1644. D. 1711. 
 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, French navigator. B. 1729. D. 1811. 
 Boughton, George H., Anglo-American painter. B. about 1834. 
 Bouguer, Pierre, French scientist. B. 1698. D. 1758. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 349 
 
 Bouguereau, Adolphe William, French painter. B. 1825. 
 
 Bouille, Francois Claude Amour de, marquis, Fr. general. B. 1739. D. 1800. 
 
 Bouillon, Frederic Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de, soldier, brother 
 
 of Marshal Turenne. B. 1G05. D. 1652. 
 Bouillon, Godfrey of. See Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 Bouillon, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de (originally viscount de 
 
 Turenne), adherent of Henry of Navarre and father of Marshal Turenne. 
 
 B. 1555. D. 1623. 
 Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean Marie, French soldier, political agitator. 
 
 B. 1837. D., by his own hand, 1891. 
 Boulton, Matthew, partner of James Watt. B. 1728. I). 1809. 
 Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter, French general. B. 1816. D. 1897. 
 Bourbon, Antoine de. See Antoine de Bourbon. 
 Bourbon, Charles, duke of, constable of France, general, who passed over 
 
 from the side of Francis I. to that of Charles V. Killed 1527. 
 Bourbon, Louis Henri Joseph, duke de, prince de Conde. B. 1756. D. 1830. 
 Bourdaloue, Louis, French pulpit orator. B. 1632. D. 1704. 
 Bourdon, Louis Pierre Marie, French mathematician. B. 1799. D. 1854. 
 Bourdon, Sebastien, French painter. B. 1616. D. 1671. 
 Bourgeois, Anicet. See Anicet-Bourgeois. 
 
 Bourignon, Antoinette, Flemish religious enthusiast. B. 1616. D. 1680. 
 Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne, count de, French soldier. B. 
 
 1773. D. 1846. 
 Bourrienne, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de, French writer of memoirs. B. 
 
 1769. D. 1834. 
 Boussingault, Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonne, Fr.chem. B. 1802. D.1887. 
 Bouterwek, Friedrich, German philosopher, author. B. 1766. D. 1828. 
 
 " Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit." " Die Aesthetik." 
 Bouvart (Bouvard), Alexis, French astronomer. B. 1767. D. 1843. 
 Bouvet, Joachim, French missionary in China. D. 1732. 
 Bouvier, John, American jurist. B. 1787. D. 1851. 
 Bowdich, Thomas Edward, English traveler. B. 1791. D. 1824. Author 
 
 of " Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee." 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel, American mathematician. B. 1773. D. 1838. 
 Bowdoin, James, governor of Massachusetts 1785-7. B. 1727. D. 1790. 
 Bowdoin, James, patron of Bowdoin college. B. 1752. D. 1811. 
 Bowen, Francis, American writer on philosophy, political economy, &c. B. 
 
 1811. D. 1890. 
 Bowles, Caroline. See South e y. 
 
 Bowles, William Lisle, English poet. B. 1762. D. 1850. 
 Bowring, Sir John, English statesman, linguist, author. B. 1792. D. 1872. 
 
 Translations of Slavic and Magyar poetry. "Ancient Poetry and Ro- 
 mances of Spain." " The Kingdom and People of Siam." 
 Bowyer, William, English printer, scholar. B. 1699. D. 1777. 
 Boyce, William, English composer. B. 1710. D. 1779. 
 
350 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Boydell, John, English publisher of engravings. B. 1719. D. 1804. 
 
 Boyer, Alexis, baron, French surgeon. B. 1757 or 1760. D. 1833. 
 
 Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti 1818-'43 (of the whole island from 
 1822). B. 1776. D. 1850. 
 
 Boyle, Charles, earl of Orrery, English scholar, soldier, statesman. B. 1676. 
 D. 1731. 
 
 Boyle, Richard, earl of Cork, English statesman. B. 1566. D. 1643. 
 
 Boyle, Robert, British scientist, philosopher. B. 1627. D. 1691. 
 
 Bozzaris. See Botzaris. 
 
 Brace, Charles Loring, American philanthropist, author. B. 1826. D. 1890. 
 
 Bracton, Henry de, chief justice of England. D. 1268.* 
 
 Braddock, Edward, British general in America. Killed 1755. 
 
 Braddon, Mary Elizabeth (Mrs. Maxwell), English novelist. B. 1837. 
 
 Bradford, Andrew, American printer. B. about 1686. D. 1742. 
 
 Bradford, John, English preacher. B. about 1510. Burned 1555. 
 
 Bradford, William, governor of Plymouth colony. B. about 1590. D. 1657. 
 
 Bradford, William, American printer. B. 1663. D. 1752. 
 
 Bradford, William, American painter. B. 1827. D. 1892. 
 
 Bradley, James, English astronomer. B. 1693. D. 1762. 
 
 Bradshaw, John, English judge, statesman. D. 1659. 
 
 Bradstreet, Anne, American poetess. B. about 1612. D. 1672. 
 
 Bradstreet, Simon, governor of Massachusetts 1679-86, 1689-92. B. 1603. 
 D. 1697. 
 
 Bradwardin, Thomas, English theologian. D. 1349. 
 
 Brady, James Topham, American lawyer. B. 1815. D. 1869. 
 
 Bragg, Braxton, Confederate general. B. about 1815. D. 1876. # 
 
 Braham, John, English singer. B. 1774. D. 1856. 
 
 Brahe, Tycho, Danish astronomer. B. 1546. D. 1601. 
 
 Brahms, Johannes, German composer. B. 1833. D. 1897. 
 
 Braidwood, Thomas, British instructor of deaf-mutes. D. 1806. 
 
 Bramah, Joseph, English inventor. B. 1749. D. 1814. 
 
 Bramante d'Urbino, Italian architect. B. 1444. D. 1514. 
 
 Bramhall, John, British prelate. B. about 1593. D. 1663. 
 
 Brande, William Thomas, English chemist, B. 1788. I). 1866. " Diction- 
 ary of Science, Literature, and Art." 
 
 Brandes, Georg, Danish writer. B. 1842. Chiefly distinguished as a literary 
 critic. 
 
 Brandis, Christian August, German author. B. 1790. D. 1867. 
 
 Brant, Joseph, Mohawk chief. B. about 1742. D. 1807. 
 
 Brantome, Pierre de Bourdeilles, seigneur de l'abbaye de, French author. 
 D. 1614. Memoirs and biographical works. 
 
 Brasidas, Spartan general. Slain 422 b. c. 
 
 Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne, French archaeologist, B. 1814 
 
 * See the '■Academy," No. 464, p. 219. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 351 
 
 D. 1874. Works on the ancient history and antiquities of Mexico and 
 Central America. 
 
 Brassey, Thomas, English railway contractor. B. 1805. D. 1870. 
 
 Bratiano, Joan, Roumanian statesman. B. 1822. D. 1891. 
 
 Braun, Maximilian Ulysses. See Browne. 
 
 Brauwer (Brouwer), Adriaan, Dutch painter. B. about 1605. D. 1638. 
 
 Bravo, Nicolas, Mexican soldier, statesman. B. about 1790. D. 1854. 
 
 Bravo-Murillo, Juan, Spanish statesman. B. 1803. D. 1873. 
 
 Brazza, Pierre de, French African explorer. B. in Italy 1852. 
 
 Breal, Michel, French philologist, writer on comparative mythology. B. 1832. 
 
 Breckenridge, John Cabell, vice-president of the United States 1857-61, 
 Confederate general. B. 1821. D. 1875. 
 
 Brederode, Hendrik van, count, one of the leaders of the nobles of the Neth- 
 erlands at the beginning of the struggle against Spain. B. 1531. D. 1568. 
 
 Bredow, Gabriel Gottfried, German historian. B. 1773. D. 1814. 
 
 Bree, Mattha?us Ignazius van, Belgian painter. B. 1773. D. 1839. 
 
 Brehm, Alfred Edmund, German naturalist. B. 1829. D. 1884. 
 
 Breislak, Scipione, Italian geologist. B. 1748. D. 1826. 
 
 Bremer, Fredrika, Swedish novelist. B. 1801. D. 1865. 
 
 Brennus, leader of the Gauls in their expedition against Rome about 
 388 b. c. 
 
 Brennus, leader of the Gauls who invaded Greece about 278 n. c. 
 
 Brentano, Clemens, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1778. D. 1842. 
 
 Bret Harte. See Harte. 
 
 Breton, .Jules Adolphe, French painter. B. 1827. 
 
 Breton de los Herreros, Manuel, Spanish dramatist. B. 1800. D. 1873. 
 
 Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, German Protestant theologian. B. 1776. 
 D. 1848. ■ 
 
 Breughel, Jan, Flemish painter. B. about 1570. D. about 1625. 
 
 Breughel, Pieter, Flemish painter. D. about 1570. 
 
 Breughel, Pieter, Flemish painter. B. about 1567. D. 1625. 
 
 Brewster, Sir David, Scottish physicist. B. 1781. D. 1868. Distinguished 
 as an investigator in the field of optics. 
 
 Brewster, William, one of the Pilgrim Fathers. B. 1560. D. 1644. 
 
 Brian Boru, king of Ireland. B. about 927. Slain 1014. 
 
 Bridgeman, Frederick A., American painter. B. 1847. 
 
 Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, duke of. B. 1736. D. 1803. Noted in con- 
 nection with the history of canal construction in Great Britain. 
 
 Bridgewater, Francis Henry Egerton, earl of. B. 1758. D. 1829. 
 
 Bridgman, Laura, American blind deaf-mute. B. 1829. D. 1889. 
 
 Bright, John, English statesman, promoter of free trade. B. 1811. D. 1889. 
 
 Bright, Richard, English medical writer. B. about 1789. D. 1858. 
 
 Bril, Paul, Flemish painter. B. about 1556. D. 1626. 
 
 Brillat-Savarin, Ant helme, French author. B. 1755. D. 1826. " Physi- 
 ologie du gout " (work on gastronomy). 
 
352 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Brindley, James, English engineer. B. 1716. D. 1772. 
 
 Brinvilliers, Marie Madeleine d'Aubray, marchioness de, French criminal. 
 
 Executed 1676. 
 Brissac, count de. See Cosse. 
 
 Brisson, Mathurin Jacques, French scientist. B. 1723. D. 1806. 
 Brissot, Jean Pierre, French revolutionist. B. 1754. Executed 1793. 
 Britannicus, son of Claudius. B. about a. d. 42. Poisoned by Nero 55. 
 Britton, John, English antiquary. B. 1771. D. 1857. 
 Broca, Paul, French anthropologist. B. 1824. D. 1880. 
 Brock, Isaac, British general in America. Killed 1812. 
 Brockhaus, Friedrich Arnold, German publisher. B. 1772. D. 1823. 
 Brockhaus, Hermann, German orientalist. I?. 1806. D. 1877. 
 Brocklesby, Richard, English physician. B. 1722. D. 1797. 
 Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, English surgeon. B. 1783. D. 1862. 
 Brodzinski, Kazimierz, Polish poet. B. 1791. D. 1835. 
 Brofferio, Angelo, Italian author, radical republican leader. B. 1802. D. 
 
 1866. Dramas, poems, history of Piedmont from 1814, memoirs. 
 Broglie, Achille Charles Leonce Victor, duke de, French statesman. B. 
 
 1785. D. 1870. 
 Broglie, J. V. Albert, duke de, French statesman, author. B. 1821. 
 Broglie, Victor Francois, duke de, French general. B. 1718. I). 1804. 
 Brogni, a cardinal, who presided at the council of Constance. B. in Savoy 
 
 1342. D. 1426. 
 Brongniart, Adolphe Theodore, French botanist. B. 1801. D. 1876. 
 Brongniart, Alexandre, French mineralogist. B. 1770. D. 1847. 
 Bronte, Charlotte, English novelist. B. 1816. D. 1855. "Jane Eyre," 1847. 
 Bronte, Emily, Eng. novelist. B. 1818. D. 1848. " Wuthering Heights." 
 Brooke, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak. B. 1803. D. 1868. 
 Brooks, Maria (born Gowen), American poetess. B. about 1795. D. 1845. 
 Brosset, Marie Felicite, French orientalist, authority on Georgia (Grusia). 
 
 B. 1802. D. 1880. 
 Brothers, Richard, English religious monomaniac. I). 1824. 
 Brougham, Henry, Baron Brougham and Vaux, English statesman, scholar, 
 
 scientist. B. Sept. 19, 1779. D. May 9, 1868. 
 Brougham, John, Irish actor, playwright. B. 1814. D. 1880. 
 Broughton, Lord. See Hobhouse. 
 
 Broussais, Francois Joseph Victor, French physician. B. 1772. D. 1838. 
 Brown, Charles Brockden, American novelist. B. 1771. D. 1810. 
 Brown, Ford Madox, English painter. B. in France 1821. I). 1893. 
 Brown, Goold, American grammarian. B. 1791. D. 1857. 
 Brown, Henry Kirke, American sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1886. 
 Brown, J. G., American painter. B. in England 1831. 
 Brown, John, Scottish physician. B. about 1735. D. 1788. 
 Brown, John, American abolitionist. B. 1800. Executed 1859. 
 Brown, Robert, English theologian. B. about 1550. D. about 1630. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 353 
 
 Brown, Robert, British botanist, B. 1773. D. 1858. 
 
 Brown, Thomas, Scottish philosopher. B. 1778. D. 1820. 
 
 Browne, Charles Farrar (" Artetnus Ward "), American humorist. B. 1834. 
 
 D. 1867. 
 Browne, Maximilian Ulysses, count, Austrian general. B. 1705. D. 1757. 
 Browne, Sir Thomas, English physician, author. B. 1605. D. 1682. " Re- 
 
 ligio Medici." 
 Browne, William George, English traveler. B. 1768. Murdered 1813. 
 
 "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria," 
 Brownell, Thomas Church, American clergyman. B. 1779. D. 18G5. 
 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, English poetess, wife of Robert Browning. 
 
 B. 1806. D. 1861. Principal production, "Aurora Leigh." 
 Browning, Robert, English poet. B. 1812. D. 1889. 
 Brown-Sequard, Edward, Amer.-French physiologist. B. 1818. D. 1894. 
 Brownson, Orestes Augustus, American clergyman, writer. B. 1803. D. 
 
 1876. 
 Bruce, David, king of Scotland. Succeeded his father, Robert, (when only 
 
 a few years old) 1329. D. 1371. 
 Bruce, James, Scottish traveler. B. 1730. D. 1794. " Travels to discover 
 
 the Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1708-73." 
 Bruce, Robert, competitor for the throne of Scotland, rival of John Balliol. 
 
 B. 1210. D. 1295. 
 Bruce, Robert (Robert I.), king of Scotland, grandson of the preceding. B. 
 
 1274. Crowned 1306. D. 1329. 
 Briicke, Ernst Wilhelm, German physiologist. B. 1819. D. 1892. 
 Brucker, Jakob, German historian of philosophy. B. 1696. D. 1770. 
 Brugsch, Heinrich Karl, German Egyptologist. B. 1827. D. 1894. 
 Briihl, Heinrich von, count, prime-minister of Augustus III. of Poland and 
 
 Saxony. B. 1700. D. 1703. 
 Bruhns, Karl Christian, German astronomer. B. 1830. D. 1881. 
 Brummel, George Bryan ("Beau Brummel"), English man of fashion. B. 
 
 1778. D. 1840. 
 Brun, Friederike, German authoress. B. 1765. D. 1835. 
 Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general. B. 1763. Murdered 1815. 
 Brunehaut (Brunehild), queen of Austrasia. Put to death 613. 
 Brunei, Isambard Kingdom, English engineer. B. 1806. I). 1859. 
 Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard, English engineer. B. in France 1769. D. 1849. 
 
 Constructed the Thames Tunnel. 
 Brunelleschi, Filippo, Italian architect. B. about 1377. D. about 1446. 
 Brunet, Jacques Charles, French bibliographer. B. 1780. D. 1867. 
 Bruni, Leonardo (Leonardo Aretino). Italian historian, biographer. B. about 
 
 1369. D. 1444. 
 Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. B. 925. D. 905. 
 
 Bruno, Saint, " apostle of the Prussians." B. about 970. Killed 1009. 
 Bruno, Saint, founder of the order of Carthusians. D. 1101. 
 
354 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, Italian philosopher. B. about 1548. Burned 1600. 
 
 Brunswick, Charles II., duke of. B. 1804. Reigned from 1815. Expelled 
 1830. D. 1873. 
 
 Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, duke of, general in the service of 
 Prussia and Austria. B. 1735. Killed 1806. 
 
 Brunswick, Christian, duke of, Protestant general in the Thirty Years' War. 
 B. 1599. D. 1626. 
 
 Brunswick, Ernest Augustus, duke of, elector of Hanover. D. 1698. Hus- 
 band of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I. of England, and father of 
 George I. 
 
 Brunswick, Ferdinand, prince of, general in the service of Prussia and Eng- 
 land in the Seven Years' War. B. 1721. D. 1792. 
 
 Brusasorci (Domenico Riccio), Italian painter. B. 1494. D. 1567. 
 
 Brutus, Decimus Junius, Roman soldier. Put to death 43 b. c. 
 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius, reputed leader of the Roman people in their rising 
 against Tarquin the Proud, about 510 b. c. 
 
 Bi'utus, Marcus Junius, one of the assassins of Caesar, opponent of An- 
 tony and Octavius. B. 85 b. c. D. by his own hand 42 b. c. 
 
 Bruyere, Jean de la. See La Bruyere. 
 
 Bruys, Pierre de, French heretic. First half of 12th c. 
 
 Bryan, William Jennings, American politician. B. 1860. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, American poet. B. Nov. 3, 1794. D. June 12, 1878. 
 " Thanatopsis," 181G. " The Ages," 1821. Translation of Homer, 1870-71. 
 
 Bryce, James, British author. B. 1838. " The Holy Roman Empire." 
 "The American Commonwealth." 
 
 Brydges, Sir Samuel Egerton, English poet, bibliographer. B. 1762. D. 1837. 
 
 Bucer, Martin, German Reformer. B. 1491. I). 1551. 
 
 Buch, Leopold von, German geologist. B. 1774. D. 1853. 
 
 Buchan, David, British Arctic explorer. B. 1780. D. about 1837. 
 
 Buchan, William, Scottish physician. B. 1729. D. 1805. 
 
 Buchanan, George, Scottish Latin writer. B. 1506. D. 1582. Version of 
 the Psalms, work on government, history of Scotland. 
 
 Buchanan, James, president of the United States 1857-'61. B. April 22, 
 1791. D. June 1, 1868. 
 
 Buchanan, Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1841. 
 
 Buchez, Philippe Joseph Benjamin, French political and social philosopher. 
 B. 1796. D. 1865. Author, jointly with Roux-Lavergne, of "Histoire 
 parlementaire de la revolution francaise." 
 
 Biichner, Ludwig, German naturalist, philosopher. B. 1824. Best known 
 production, " Kraft und Staff " (" Force and Matter "). 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, favorite of James I. and Charles L 
 B. 1592. Assassinated 1628. 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of. B. 1627. D. 1688. 
 
 Buckingham, or Buckinghamshire, duke of. See Sheffield. 
 
 Buckingham, James Silk, English traveler. B. 1786. I). 1855. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 355 
 
 Buckland, William, English geologist. B. 1784. D. 1856. 
 
 Buckle, Henry Thomas, English author. B. Nov. 24, 1821. D. May 29, 
 1862. " History of Civilization in England," 1857-61. 
 
 Buddha (Gautama), founder of Buddhism, native of India, 5th (6th?) c. B.C. 
 
 Buddeus, Johann Franz, German Protestant theologian. B. 1667. D. 1729. 
 
 Bude (Budams), Guillaume, French Hellenist. B. 1467. 1). 1540. 
 
 Buell, Don Carlos, American general. B. 1818. 
 
 Buffier, Claude, French grammarian, scientific and philosophical writer. B. 
 1661. D. 1737. 
 
 Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, count de, French naturalist. B. Sept. 7, 1707. 
 D. April 16, 1788. " Histoire naturelle," 1749-'88. 
 
 Bugeaud de la Piconnerie, Thomas Robert, duke of Isly, French general, 
 governor general of Algeria. B. 1784. D. 1849. 
 
 Bugenhagen, Johann (Pomeranus), German Reformer. B. 1485. D. 1558. 
 
 Bugge, Elseus Sophus, Norwegian philologist, editor of the Edda. B. 1833. 
 
 Bugge, Thomas, Danish astronomer. B. 1740. D. 1815. 
 
 Bulgarin, Thaddeus, Russian author. B. 1789. D. 1859. Humorous and 
 satirical essays, novels, general account of Russia. 
 
 Bull, Ole Bornemann, Norwegian violinist, B. 1810. D. 1880. 
 
 Bullinger, Ileinrich, Swiss Reformer. B. 1504. D. 1575. 
 
 Biilow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, count, Prussian general. B. 1755. D. 1816. 
 
 Billow, Hans Guido von, German pianist. B. 1830. D. 1894. 
 
 Bulwer, Edward George Earle Lytton, Lord Lytton (Bulwer-Lytton), Eng- 
 lish novelist, poet, dramatist, statesman. B. May, 1803. D. Jan. 18, 1873. 
 " Pelham, or the Adventures of a Gentleman," 1828 ; " Eugene Aram," 
 1832; "The Last Days of Pompeii," 1834; "Rienzi," 1835; " Zanoni," 
 1842 ; " The Last of the Barons," 1843 ; " The Caxtons," 1848-'9 ; " A 
 Strange Story," 1861 ; " Kenelm Chillingly," 1873. " King Arthur " (epic 
 poem). " The Lady of Lyons," " Richelieu," " Not as Bad as we Seem " 
 (dramas). 
 
 Bulwer (Bulwer-Lytton), Edward Robert. See Lytton. 
 
 Bulwer, Henry Lytton Earle, Baron Dalling and Bulwer, English diploma- 
 tist, author. B. 1801. D. 1872. 
 
 Bulwer, John, English writer on the instruction of deaf-mutes. Middle of 
 17th c. 
 
 Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias von, baron, German scholar, diplomatist. B. 
 1791. D. 1860. " Die Verfassung der Kirehe der Zukunft " (" The Con- 
 stitution of the Church of the Future "). " Aegyptens Stelle in der Welt- 
 geschichte " (" Egypt's Place in the World's History "). " Hippolytus 
 and his Times " (English and German). " Christianity and Mankind " 
 (English). '• Zeichen der Zeit " (" Signs of the Times "). " Gott in der 
 Geschichte " (" God in History "). " Bibelwerk fur die Gemeinde " (" The 
 Bible for the Common People "). Posthumous memoirs. 
 
 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, German chemist, B. 1811. Originator with 
 Kirchhoff of the science of spectrum analysis. 
 24 
 
356 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bunyan, John, English preacher, author. B. 1G28. D. 1688. " Pilgrim's 
 Progress." 
 
 Buol-Schauenstein, Karl Ferdinand, count, Austrian diplomatist, minister 
 of foreign affairs. B. 1797. D. 1865. 
 
 Buonaparte. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Buonarroti (Buonarotti), Pilippo, Italian revolutionist. B. 17G1. D. 1837. 
 
 Buonarroti, Michel Angelo. See Michael Angelo. 
 
 Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig, traveler in the service of the African Asso- 
 ciation of London, author. B. in Switzerland 1784. D. 1817. Traveled 
 in Syria, Egypt, Arabia, &c. 
 
 Burdett, Sir Francis, English politician. B. 1770. D. 1844. 
 
 Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgina, baroness (married to Ashmead-Bartlett), 
 English philanthropist. B. 1814. 
 
 Burger, Gottfried August, German poet. B. 1747. D. 1794. Best known 
 production, " Lenore." 
 
 Burgoyne, John, English general in America. D. 1792. 
 
 Burgoyne, Sir John Fox, English military engineer. B. 1782. D. 1871. 
 
 Buridan, Jean, French scholastic philosopher. D. about 1358. 
 
 Burke, Edmund, English statesman, orator, author. B. in Ireland about 
 1729.* D. 1797. "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas 
 of the Sublime and the Beautiful,"' 1756. "Reflections on the Revolu- 
 tion in France," 1790. 
 
 Burlamaqui, Jean Jacques, Swiss jurist. B. 1694. D. 1748. 
 
 Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord, English statesman. B. 1520. D. 1598. 
 
 Burmann, Pieter, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1668. D. 1741. 
 
 Burmann, Pieter, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1713. D. 1778. 
 
 Burmeister, Hermann, German naturalist. B. 1807. D. 1892. 
 
 Burnes, Sir Alexander, British traveler, political resident of the India gov- 
 ernment at Cabool. B. 1805. Murdered 1841. 
 
 Burnet, Gilbert, British prelate, historian. B. 1643. D. 1715. "History of 
 the Reformation of the Church of England." " Exposition of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles." " History of his Own Time." 
 
 Burnet, James. See Monboddo. 
 
 Burnet, John, Scottish engraver, writer on art. B. 1784. D. 1868. 
 
 Burnet, Thomas, English author. B. about 1635. D. 1715. "Sacred 
 Theory of the Earth " (originally in Latin). 
 
 Burnett, Frances (Hodgson), American novelist. B. in England 1849. 
 
 Burney, Charles, English composer, historian of music. B. 1726. D. 1814. 
 
 Burney, Frances. See D'Arblay. 
 
 Burnouf, Emile Louis, French classical and Sanskrit scholar, author. B. 
 1821. 
 
 Burnouf, Eugene, French orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1852. 
 
 * " The best opinion is that he was born at Dublin on the 12th of January, 1729 (N. S.)." 
 (John Morley.) 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 357 
 
 Burnouf, Jean Louis, French classical scholar. B. 1775. D. 1844. 
 
 Burns, Robert, Scottish poet. B. Jan. 25, 1759. D. July 21, 1796. 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose Everett, American general. B. 1824. D. 1881. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, American politician. B. 1756. D. 1836. 
 
 Burrhus, Afranius, adviser of Nero. D. about A. d. 62. 
 
 Burritt, Eliliu, American author. B. 1811. D. 1879. 
 
 Bursian, Konrad, German classical scholar. B. 1830. D. 1883. 
 
 Burton, John Hill, Scottish historian, jurist. B. 1809. D. 1881. " History 
 of Scotland from Agricola's Invasion to the Revolution of 1688." " His- 
 tory of the Reign of Queen Anne." 
 
 Burton, Richard Francis, British traveler in India, Arabia, Africa, Pales- 
 tine, &c, author. B. 1821. D. 1890. Discovered Lake Tanganyika (with 
 Speke) 1858. 
 
 Burton, Robert, English author. B. 1577. D. 1640. " The Anatomy of 
 Melancholy." 
 
 Busbecq (Busbequius), Augier Ghislain de, scholar, ambassador of the em- 
 peror Ferdinand I. at the court of Solyman the Magnificent. B. in Flan- 
 ders 1522. D. 1592. 
 
 Busby, Richard, head-master of Westminster school. B. 1606. D. 1695. 
 
 Biisching, Anton Friedrich, German geogi-apher. B. 1724. D. 1793. 
 
 Busembaum, Hermann, German Jesuit writer. B. 1600. D. 1668. 
 
 Bustamante, Anastasio, Mexican general, president of Mexico. B. 1780. 
 Governed 1830-'32, 1837-41. D. 1853. 
 
 Bute, John Stuart, earl of, British statesman, prime-minister 1762-'3. B. 
 1713. D. 1792. 
 
 Butler, Benjamin Franklin, Am. general, politician, lawyer. B. 1818. I). 1893. 
 
 Butler, Charles, English jurist, scholar, author. B. 1750. D. 1832. 
 
 Butler, James, duke of Ormond. See Ormond. 
 
 Butler, Joseph. English bishop, juridical, ecclesiastical, and historical writer. 
 B. 1692. D. 1752. " Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the 
 Constitution and Course of Nature." 
 
 Butler, Samuel, English poet. B. 1612. D. 1680. " Hudibras." 
 
 Buttmann, Philipp Karl, German Greek scholar. B. 1764. D. 1829. 
 
 Buturlin, Dmitri, Russian military writer. B. 1790. D. 1849. 
 
 Buxhowden, Friedrich Wilhelm von, count, Russian general. B. 1750. D. 
 1811. 
 
 Buxton, Jcdidiah, English mathematical prodigy. B. 1705. D. about 1775. 
 
 Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, English philanthropist. B. 1786. D. 1845. 
 
 Buxtorf, Johann, German Hebrew scholar. B. 1564. D. 1629. 
 
 Buxtorf, Johann, German Hebrew scholar. B. 1599. D. 1664. 
 
 Byng, John, English admiral. B. 1704. Executed 1757. 
 
 Byron, George Gordon, Lord, English poet, B. Jan. 22, 1788. D. April 19, 
 1824. " Hours of Idleness," 1807. " English Bards and Scotch Review- 
 ers." " Childe Harold," 1812-18. " Hebrew Melodies." " Prisoner of 
 Chillon." " Manfred." " Cain." " Don Juan." 
 
358 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Byron, Henry James, English playwright. D. 1884. 
 
 Byron, John, English commander, explorer. B. 1723. D. 1786. 
 
 Bystrom, Johan Nils, Swedish sculptor. B. 1783. D. 1848. 
 
 C. 
 
 Caballero, Fernan (pseudonym of Cecilia de Arrom, born Bold von Faber) 5 
 Spanish writer of fiction. B. 1797. D. 1877. 
 
 Cabanel, Alexandre, French painter. B. 1823. D. 1889. 
 
 Cabanis, Pierre Jean George, French philosopher, physician. B. 1757. D. 
 1808. 
 
 Cabarrus, Francois de, count, financier in Spain. B. in France 1752. D. 
 1810. 
 
 Cabega de Vaca. See NuSJez, Alvar. 
 
 Cabet, Etienne, French communist, head of the society of Icarians (in the 
 United States). B. 1788. D. 1856. 
 
 Cable, George W., American writer of fiction. B. 1844. 
 
 Cabot (Caboto), John, Italian navigator in the service of England. Discov- 
 ered the mainland of America 1497. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian, English navigator, son of John Cabot. B. about 1476. D. 
 alter 1557. 
 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez de, Portuguese navigator. D. about 1526. 
 
 Cabrera, Ramon, Carlist leader. B. 1810. D. 1877. 
 
 Cadalso (Cadahalso), Jose de, Spanish author. B. 1741. D. 1782. 
 
 Cadamosto, Luigi da, Venetian navigator in the Portuguese service. B. 
 about 1432. 
 
 Cade, John (Jack), English insurgent. Killed 1450. 
 
 Cadet de Vaux, Antoine Alexis Francois, French chemist, economical writer. 
 B. 1743. D. 1828. 
 
 Cadillac, Antoine de la Mo the, French officer in America. D. about 1720. 
 
 Cadoudal, Georges, French royalist leader. B. about 1769. Executed 1804. 
 
 Cadwalader, John, American general. B. 1743. I). 1780. 
 
 Caecilius Statius, Latin comic poet. D. about 168 b. c. 
 
 Casdmon, Anglo-Saxon poet. D. about 680. 
 
 Caesalpinus (Cesalpino), Andreas, Italian physician, naturalist. B. 1519. D. 
 1603. 
 
 Caesar, Caius Julius, Roman general, dictator. B. July 12, 100 b. c. Assas- 
 sinated March 15, 44. 
 
 Caffarelli (Gaetano Majorano), Italian singer. B. about 1703. D. 1783. 
 
 Cagliari, Paolo (Paul Veronese), Italian painter. B. about 1530. D. 1588. 
 
 Cagliostro, Alessandro di, count, Italian impostor. B. 1743. D. 1795. 
 
 Cagnola, Luigi, marquis, Italian architect. B. 1762. D. 1833. 
 
 Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. See La Caille. 
 
 Caillet, Guillaume (Jacques Bonhomme), French insurgent leader. Exe- 
 cuted 1359. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 359 
 
 Cailliaud, Frederic, French traveler in Egypt, Nubia, &c. B. 1787. D. 1869. 
 
 Caillie, Rene, French traveler in northwestern Africa. B. 1799. D. 1838. 
 
 Cairnes, John Elliot, British political economist. B. 1823. D. 1875. 
 
 Cairns, Hugh MacCalmont, earl, British statesman. B. 1819. D. 1885. 
 
 Cairoli, Benedetto, Italian statesman. B. 1825. D. 1889. 
 
 Caius, John, English physician. B. 1510. D. 1573. 
 
 Cajetan (Cajetanus, Thomas de Vio), Italian cardinal. B. 1469. D. 1534. 
 
 Calabrese, II. See Peeti. 
 
 Calamatta, Luigi, Italian-French engraver. B. 1802. D. 1869. 
 
 Calame, Alexandre, Swiss painter. B. 1810. D. 1864. 
 
 Calamis, Greek sculptor. 5th c. b. c. 
 
 Calcar, Jan van, painter. B. in the duchy of Cleves 1499 or 1500. D. 
 
 1546 (?). 
 Caldani, Leopoldo Marco Antonio, Italian anatomist. B. 1725. D. 1813. 
 Caldara, Polidoro. See Caravaggio. 
 Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, Spanish dramatist. B. Jan. 17, 1600. D. 
 
 May 25, 1681. 
 Calepino, Ambrogio, Italian lexicographer. B. 1435. D. 1511. 
 Calhoun, John Caldwell, American statesman. B. March 18, 1782. D. 
 
 March 31, 1850. 
 Caligula, Caius Caesar, Roman emperor. B. a. d. 12. Reigned from 37. 
 
 Murdered 41. 
 Calixtus II., pope. Elected 1119. D. 1124. 
 Calixtus III., pope. Elected 1455. D. 1458. 
 Calixtus (Georg Callisen), German Protestant theologian. B. 1586. D. 
 
 1656. 
 Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, English painter. B. 1779. D. 1844. 
 Callicrates, Athenian architect. 5th c. b. c. 
 Callicratidas, Spartan commander. Killed 406 b. c. 
 Callimachus, Greek architect, sculptor. Supposed to have nourished in the 
 
 latter part of the 5th c. b. c. 
 Callimachus, Alexandrian scholar, writer. D. about 240 b. c. Epigrams, 
 
 hymns, &c. 
 Callinus of Ephesus, Greek poet. About 700 b. c. 
 Callisthenes, Greek writer. Latter part of 4th c. b. c. 
 Callistratus, Athenian orator, soldier. First half of 4th c. B. c. 
 Callot, Jacques, French engraver. B. about 1593. D. 1635. 
 Calmet, Augustin, French monk. Biblical scholar. B. 1672. D. 1757. 
 Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, French minister of finance 1783-'7. B. 
 
 1734. D. 1802. 
 Calpurnius, Titus (surnamed Siculus), Latin bucolic poet. Supposed by 
 
 some critics to have lived in the third c. a. d. and by others placed in the 
 
 first c. 
 Calvaert, Denis (II Fiammingo), Flemish painter. B. about 1555. D. 1619. 
 Calvert, Cecil, Lord Baltimore, proprietor of Maryland. D. 1675. 
 
360 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, projector of the colony of Maryland. B. 
 about 1582. D. 1632. 
 
 Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland. B. about 1606. D. 1647. 
 
 Calvin, John, Protestant Reformer. B. in France July 10, 1509. D. May 
 27, 1564. 
 
 Cam, Diogo, Portuguese navigator. Latter part of 15th e. 
 
 Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de, French statesman. B. 1753. D. 1824. 
 
 Cambiaso, Luca, Italian painter. B. 1527. D. 1585. 
 
 Cambon, Joseph, French revolutionist. B. 1754. D. 1820. 
 
 Cambridge, Adolphus Frederick, duke of, youngest son of George III. of 
 England, governor and viceroy of Hanover. B. 1774. D. 1850. 
 
 Cambridge, George William Frederick Charles, duke of, son of Adolphus 
 Frederick, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief of the British army. 
 B. 1819. 
 
 Cambronne, Pierre Jacques Etienne, French general. B. 1770. D. 1842. 
 
 Cambyses, king of Persia, son of Cyrus. Reigned 529-522 b. c. 
 
 Camden, Charles Pratt, earl, English statesman. B. about 1713. D. 1794. 
 
 Camden, William, English antiquary, historian. B. 1551. D. 1623. Prin- 
 cipal production, " Britannia " (Latin). 
 
 Camerarius, Joachim, German scholar. B. 1500. D. 1574. 
 
 Cameron, John, Scottish theologian. B. about 1579. D. about 1625. 
 
 Cameron, Richard, Scottish preacher, Covenanter. D. 1680. 
 
 Cameron, Simon, American politician. B. 1799. D. 1889. 
 
 Cameron, Verney Lovett, English African explorer. B. 1844. D. 1894. 
 
 Camillus, Marcus Furius, Roman dictator, commander. D. about 365 B. c. 
 
 Camoens, Luiz de, Portuguese poet. B. 1524. D. 1580. " Lusiad " (epie 
 poem). 
 
 Campan, Jeanne Louise Henriette Genest, Madame, French teacher, au- 
 thoress. B. 1752. D. 1822. " Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie An- 
 toinette." 
 
 Campanella, Tommaso, Italian philosopher. B. 1568. D. 1639. 
 
 Campbell, Alexander, founder of the sect of Campbellites. B. in Ireland 
 1788. Emigrated to America 1809. D. 1866. 
 
 Campbell, Archibald. See Argyll. 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde, British general in India. B. 1792. D. 
 1863. 
 
 Campbell, John, British historical and political writer. B. 1708. D. 1775. 
 
 Campbell, John, Lord. British jurist, author. B. 1779. I). 1861. " Lives 
 of the Lord Chancellors." " Lives of the Chief Justices." 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, British poet. B. 1777. D. 1844. " The Pleasures of 
 Hope." " Gertrude of Wyoming." " Ye Mariners of England." 
 
 Campe, Joachim Heinrich, German author. B. 1746. D. 1818. Descrip- 
 tions of travels and discoveries for the young. " Robinson der Jiingere." 
 
 Campeggio, Lorenzo, Italian cardinal. B. 1474. D. 1539. 
 
 Camper, Pieter, Dutch physician, anatomist. B. 1722. D. 1789. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 361 
 
 Camphausen, Otto. Pruss. minister of finance 18G9-'78. B. 1812. D. 1896. 
 Camphausen, Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1818. D. 1885. 
 Camphuysen, Dirk Rafaelsz, Dutch painter. B. 1586. D. 1627. 
 Campi, Bernardino, Italian painter. B. 1522. D. about 1590. 
 Campi, Giulio, Italian painter. B. about 1500. D. 1572. 
 Camus, Armand Gaston, French revolutionist. B. 1740. D. 1804. 
 Canaletto (Bernardo Bellotto), Italian painter, engraver. B. 1724. D. 1780. 
 Canaletto (Canale), Antonio, Italian painter. B. 1697. D. 1768. 
 Canaris, Constantine, Greek naval hero, statesman. B. about 1790. D. 
 
 1877. 
 Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg, American soldier. B. 1819. Killed 1873. 
 Cancrin, Georg, count, Russian minister of finance. B. in Germany 1774. 
 
 D. 1845. 
 Candido, Pietro (Pieter de Witte), painter, sculptor. B. in Flanders about 
 
 1545. D. about 1628. 
 Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de, botanist, son of Augustin 
 
 Pyramus de Candolle. B. 1806. D. 1893. 
 Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de, Fr. botanist. B. in Geneva 1778. D. 1841. 
 Cane I. (Can Grande) della Scala, ruler of Verona 1312-'29. 
 Cange, sieur du. — See Du Cange. 
 Canina, Luigi, Italian writer on ancient architecture, the topography of 
 
 Rome, &c. B. 1795. D. 1856. 
 Canino, prince of, naturalist. See Bonaparte, Charles Lucien. 
 Canisius, Petrus, German Jesuit. B. 1521. D. 1597. 
 Canitz, Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig, baron, German poet. B. 1654. D. 1699. 
 Canning, Charles John, viscount (from 1859 earl), British statesman, gov- 
 ernor general of India 1856-'62. B. 1812. D. 1862. 
 Canning, George, British statesman. B. April 11, 1770. Foreign secretary 
 
 1807-'9, 1822-'7 ; prime-minister, 1827. D. Aug. 8, 1827. 
 Canning, Stratford. See Stratford de Redcliffe. 
 Cano, Alonso, Spanish artist. B. about 1601. D. about 1667. 
 Canova, Antonio, Italian sculptor. B. Nov. 1, 1757. D. Oct. 13, 1822. 
 Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, Spanish statesman, historian, critic. B. 
 
 1828. Murdered 1897. 
 Canrobert, Francois Certain, French soldier. B. 1809. D. 1895. 
 Canstein, Karl Hildebrand, German Biblical editor. B. 1667. D. 1719. 
 Cantacuzenus, Johannes, Byzantine emperor, historian. Reigned 1341-'55. 
 
 D. about 1383 (according to some much later). 
 Cantacuzenus, Serban, waywode of Wallachia. Ruled 1679-88. 
 Cantacuzenus, Stephen, waywode of Wallachia. Ruled 1714-16. 
 Cantarini, Simone, Italian painter. B. 1612. I). 1648. 
 Cantu, Cesare, Italian historian. B. 1805. D. 1895. 
 Canute (Knut), king of Denmark and England. Successor to his father 
 
 Sweyn in England 1014. (His authority there not fully established until 
 
 1017.) Reigned in Denmark from 1016. D. 1035. 
 
3G2 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Capefigue, Jean Baptiste Honore Raymond, French historian. B. 1802. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Capello, Bianca, wife of Francesco de' Medici, grand-duke of Tuscany. 
 
 B. about 1542. L>. 1587. 
 Capet, Hugh. See Hugh Capet. 
 Capistranus (Capistrano), Johannes, Italian monk, commander against the 
 
 Turks. B. about 1386. D. 1456. 
 Capitolinus, Julius, Roman historian. Latter part of 3d c. a. d. Lives of 
 
 Roman emperors. 
 Capmany, Antonio de, Spanish patriot, writer. B. 1742. D. 1813. Works 
 
 on the maritime institutions of the Middle Ages and other archaeological 
 
 writings. " Filosofia de la elocuencia." 
 Capo d'Istria, John Anthony, count, diplomatist in the Russian service, 
 
 president of Greece. B. at Corfu about 1776. Chosen president 1827 
 
 (government assumed by him 1828). Assassinated 1831. 
 Capponi, Gino, marquis, Italian statesman, historian, critic. B. 1792. D. 
 
 1876. " Storia della republica di Firenze " (Florence). 
 Caprivi, Georg Leo von, count, chancellor of the German Empire 1890-'4. 
 
 B. 1831. 
 Caracalla, Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus. B. 188. Reigned 
 
 from 211. Assassinated 217. 
 Caracci. See Carracci. 
 
 Caraccioli, Francesco, Neapolitan admiral. B. about 1748. Hanged 1799. 
 Caractacus, king of the Silures (in Wales). Betrayed to the Romans and 
 
 brought a prisoner to Rome 50-51. 
 Carafa, Giovanni Pietro. See Paul IV., pope. 
 Carafa, Michele, Italian composer. B. 1787. D. 1872. 
 Caravaggio, Michel Angelo Amerighi da, Italian painter. B. 1569. D. 1609. 
 Caravaggio, Polidoro Caldara da, Italian painter. B. about 1495. D. 1543. 
 Cardan, Jerome (Girolamo Cardano, Cardanus), Italian physician, savant, 
 
 mathematician, astrologer. B. 1501. D. 1576. 
 Cardi, Ludovico (also called Cigoli), Italian painter. B. 1559. D. 1613. 
 Cardigan, Jas. Thomas Brudenell, earl of, British general. B. 1797. D. 1868. 
 Carducci, Giosue, Italian poet. B. 1836. 
 
 Cardwell, Edward, viscount, English statesman. B. 1813. D. 1886. 
 Carey, Henry, English poet. D. 1743. 
 
 Carey, Henry Charles, American political economist. B. 1793. D. 1879. 
 Carey, Mathew, American author. B. in Ireland 1760. D. 1839. 
 Carey, William, English missionary. B. about 1761. D. 1834. 
 Carinus, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor. Reigned 283-285. 
 Carissimi, Giovanni Giacomo, Italian composer. D. about 1674. 
 Carlen, Emilia (born Smith ; first husband, Flygare), Swedish novelist. B. 
 
 1807. B. 1892. 
 Carleton, Sir Guy, Lord Dorchester, British general in America. B. 1724. 
 
 D. 1808. 
 Carleton, William, Irish novelist. B. about 1794. D. 1869. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 363 
 
 Carlisle, Sir Anthony, English surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1840. 
 
 Carlisle, Frederick Howard, earl of, English statesman, poet, dramatist. 
 B. 1748. D. 1825. 
 
 Carlisle, George William Frederick Howard, earl of (Lord Morpeth), Eng- 
 lish statesman. B. 1802. D. 1864. 
 
 Carlos, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain. B. 1545. D. 1568. 
 
 Carlos, Don. son of Philip V. of Spain. See Charles III., king of Spain. 
 
 Carlos, Don. pretender to the throne of Spain, son of Charles IV. and uncle 
 of Isabella. B. 1788. D. 1855. 
 
 Carlos, Don, pretender to the throne of Spain, son of the preceding. B. 
 1818. D. 1861. 
 
 Carlos, Don, pretender to the throne of Spain, nephew of preceding. B. 1848. 
 
 Carlson, Fredrik Ferdinand, Swedish historian. B. 1811. D. 1887. 
 
 Carlstadt, Andreas, German Reformer. B. about 1483. D. 1541. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, British author. B. Dec. 4, 1795. D. Feb. 5, 1881. " Sartor 
 Resartus," 1833-'4. " The French Revolution," 1837. " Heroes and Hero 
 Worship," 1840, " The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell," 1845. 
 " History of Frederick II.," 1858-'64. 
 
 Carmagnola (Francesco Bussone), Italian condottiere. Executed 1432. 
 
 Carmontelle, French writer, artist. B. 1717. D. 1806. "Proverbes dra- 
 matiques." 
 
 Carneades, Greek philosopher. B. about 213 b. c. D. about 129. 
 
 Carnicer, Ramon, Spanish composer. B. 1789. D. 1855. 
 
 Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French strategist, mathematician, mem- 
 ber of the Directory. B. 1753. D. 1823. 
 
 Carnot, M. F. Sadi, president of France 1887-'94. B. Aug. 11, 1837. Assas- 
 sinated June 24, 1894. 
 
 Caro, Elme Marie, French philosopher. B. 1826. D. 1887. 
 
 Carolina Maria, wife of Ferdinand IV. of Naples, daughter of Maria The- 
 resa. B. 1752. D. 1814. 
 
 Caroline, wife of George IV. of England. B. 1768. D. 1821. 
 
 Caroline Matilda, wife of Christian VII. of Denmark, sister of George III. 
 of England. B. 1751. D. 1775. 
 
 Carpaccio, Vittore, Venetian painter. D. after 1519. 
 
 Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, French sculptor. B. 1827. D. 1875. 
 
 Carpenter, William Benjamin, English physiologist. B. 1813. D. 1885. 
 
 Carpini, Giovanni di Piano, Italian monk, who was sent by the pope in 1246 
 on a mission to the Mongols, and wrote an account of his experience. 
 
 Carpocrates (Carpocras), Alexandrian Gnostic. 2d c. 
 
 Carracci, Agostino, Bolognese painter, engraver. B. about 1558. D. about 
 1602. 
 
 Carracci, Annibale, Bolognese painter. B. 1560. D. 1609. 
 
 Carracci, Francesco, Bolognese painter. B. 1595. D. 1622. 
 
 Carracci, Ludovico, Bolognese painter. B. 1555. D. 1619. 
 
 Carrel, Nicolas Armand, French journalist. B. 1800. D. 1836. 
 
3G4 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Carrefio de Miranda, Juan, Spanish painter. B. 1G14. D. 1685. 
 Carrera, Rafael, president of Guatemala 1847-05. B. 1814. D. 1805. 
 Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist. B. 1750. Executed 1794. 
 Carriere, Moritz, German philosophical and aesthetic writer. B. 1817. 
 
 D. 1895. 
 Carroll (Carroll of Carrollton), Charles, American patriot. B. 1737. D. 
 
 1832. 
 Carson, Christopher (Kit), American trapper, guide, negotiator between the 
 
 United States government and the Indians. B. 1809. I). 1808. 
 Carstairs, William, Scottish theologian. B. 1049. D. 1715. 
 Carstens, Asmus Jakob, German painter. B. 1754. D. 1798. 
 Carter, Elizabeth, English Greek scholar, poetess. B. 1717. D. 1800. 
 
 Translation of Epictetus. 
 Carteret, John. See Granville. 
 
 Carteret, Philip, English navigator. Voyage to the South Sea 170G-'9. 
 Cartier, Sir George Etienne, Canadian statesman. B. 1814. D. 1873. 
 Cartier, Jacques, French navigator, explorer of Canada. B. 1494. D. about 
 
 1555. 
 Cartwright, Edmund, inventor of the power loom. B. in England 1743. 
 
 I). 1823. 
 Cartwright, John, English political reformer. B. 1740. D. 1824. 
 Cartwright, Thomas, English Puritan divine. B. about 1535. D. 1003. 
 Cams, Roman emperor. Reigned 282-'3. 
 Cams, Julius Victor, German naturalist. B. 1823. 
 
 Cams, Karl Gustav, German physiologist, psychologist. B. 1789. D. 1809. 
 Carvajal, Tomas Jose Gonzales, Spanish scholar, statesman. B. 1753. 
 
 D. 1834. Author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the 
 
 Bible. 
 Carver, John, first governor of Plymouth colony. D. 1021. 
 Carver, Jonathan. American explorer. B. 1732. D. 1780. 
 Cary, Alice, American authoress. B. 1820. D. 1871. 
 Cary, Phoebe, American authoress. B. 1824. D. 1871. 
 Cary, Henry Francis, English scholar, literary historian, translator of Dante. 
 
 B. 1772. D. 1844. 
 Casa, Giovanni della. Italian author. B. 1503. D. 1556. " Galateo, ovvero 
 
 de' costumi " (on behavior and. manners). 
 Casabianca, Louis (Lucien ¥), French naval officer. B. about 1755. Killed 
 
 in the battle of the Nile 1798. 
 Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Jacopo, Italian adventurer. B. 1725. 
 
 D. 1798 (according to some 1803). 
 Casas, Las. See Las Casas. 
 
 Casaubon, Isaac Greek scholar. B. in Geneva 1559. D. 1(114. 
 Casimir III., the Great, king of Poland. Reigned from 1333. D. 1370. 
 Casimir-Perier, Jean Paul Pierre, president of France 1894-*5. B. 1847. 
 Caspari, Paul, German Biblical scholar. B. 1814. D. 1879. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 305 
 
 Cass, Lewis, American statesman. B. 1782. D. I860. 
 
 Cassagnac, Granier de. See Granier. 
 
 Cassagnac, Paul de. Bonapartist politician, journalist. B. 1843. 
 
 Cassander, king of Macedon, son of Antipater. B. about 354 b. c. D. 297. 
 
 Cassin, John, American ornithologist. B. 1813. D. 18G9. 
 
 Cassini (Cassini de Thury), Cesar Francois, French topographer, astronomer. 
 
 B. 1714. D. 1784. 
 Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, Italian astronomer. B. 1G25. D. 1712. 
 Cassini, Jacques, French astronomer. B. 1677. D. 1756. 
 Cassini, Jacques (according to some Jean) Dominique, French astronomer, 
 
 topographer. B. 1748. D. 1845. 
 Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, Latin writer, minister of Theodoric the 
 
 Great, monk. J}, about 475. D. about 570. History of the Goths and 
 
 other works. 
 Cassius (Cassius Longinus), Caius, conspirator against the life of Caesar, 
 
 adversary of Antony and Octavius. Killed himself 42 rs. c. 
 Cassius, Dion. See Dion Cassius. 
 Castanos, Francisco Xavier de, duke of Baylen, Spanish general. B. about 
 
 1756. D. 1852. 
 Castelar, Emilio, Spanish statesman, orator. B. 1832. 
 Castelnau, Michel de, French diplomatist. B. about 1520. D. 1592. 
 Casti, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet. B. 1721. D. 1803. 
 Castiglione, Baldassare, Italian author. B. 1478. D. 1529. "H libro del 
 
 cortegiano " (on court life). 
 Castiglione (Castiglioni), Carlo Ottavio, count, Italian philologist, anti- 
 quary. B. 1784. D. 1849. 
 Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto (II Grechetto), Italian artist. B. 1616. 
 
 D. 1670. 
 Castilho, Antonio Feliciano, Portuguese poet. B. 1800. D. 1875. 
 Castilla, Ramon, Peruvian general and president. B. about 1797. D. 1867. 
 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, viscount, marquis of Londonderry, British 
 
 statesman. B. 1769. D. 1822. 
 Castren, Matthias Alexander. Finnish philologist. B. 1813. I). 1852. 
 Castriota, George. See ScANDERBEG. 
 Castro, Ines de. See Ines de Castro. 
 
 Castro, Joao de, Portuguese navigator, commander. B. 1500. D. 1548. 
 Castruccio Castracani, ruler of Lucca. D. 1328. 
 Catalani, Angelica, Italian singer. B. about 1782. D. 1849. 
 Catesby, Mark, English naturalist. B. about 1680. D. 1749. 
 Catharine I., empress of Russia, second wife and successor of Peter the 
 
 Great. Reigned from 1725. D. 1727. 
 Catharine II., empress of Russia, wife and successor of Peter III. B. 
 
 1729. Reigned from 1762. D. 1796. 
 Catharine, Saint (of Genoa). B. about 1447. D. 1510. 
 Catharine, Saint (of Siena). B. 1347. D. 1380. 
 
366 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Catharine de' Medici, queen of France, wife of Henry II. and regent for 
 
 her son Charles IX. B. 1519. D. 1589. 
 Catharine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and first wife 
 
 of Henry VIII. B. about 1485. D. 1536. Married first to Prince Arthur, 
 
 brother of Henry. Married Henry 1509. Divorced 1533. 
 Catharine of Braganza (Braganca), daughter of John IV. of Portugal, 
 
 wife of Charles II. of England. B. 1638. D. 1705. 
 Catharine of France (or of Valois), daughter of Charles VI. of France, 
 
 wife of Henry V. of England, mother of Henry VI. B. 1401. D. 1438. 
 
 (See Henry VII.) 
 Catharine Howard, fifth wife of Henry VIII. Executed 1542. 
 Catharine Parr, sixth wife of Henry VIII. D. about 1548. 
 Cathcart, Sir George, English general, son of Earl Cathcart. B. 1794. 
 
 Killed 1854. 
 Cathcart, William Shaw, earl, English general, diplomatist. B. 1755. D. 
 
 1843. 
 Cathelineau, Jacques, Vendean commander. B. 1759. Killed 1793. 
 Catherine. See Catharine. 
 
 Catiline (Catilina), Roman conspirator. Slain 62 b. c. 
 Catinat, Nicolas de, French general. B. 1637. D. 1712. 
 Catlin, George, American artist. B. 1796. D. 1872. 
 Cato, Marcus Porcius (the Censor), Roman statesman. B. about 234 b. c. 
 
 D. 149. 
 Cato, Marcus Porcius (of Utica), Roman statesman, soldier, adversary of 
 
 Caesar. B. 95 b. c. D. by his own hand 46. 
 Cats, Jakob, Dutch poet, statesman. B. 1577. D. 1660. 
 Cattermole, George, English painter. B. 1800. D. 1868. 
 Catullus, Caius Valerius, Roman lyric poet. Middle of first c. B. c. 
 Catulus, Caius Lutatius, Roman naval commander in the first Punic War. 
 
 Consul 242 b. c. 
 Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, Roman general. D. 87 b. c. 
 Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, Roman statesman. D. 60 b. c. 
 Cauchy, Augustin Louis, French mathematician. B. 1789. D. 1857. 
 Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, duke of Vicenza, French diplo- 
 matist. B. 1772. D. 1827. 
 Caus (Caulx), Salomon de, French engineer. D. about 1630. 
 Caussin de Perceval, Armand Pierre, French orientalist. B. 1795. D. 
 
 1871. 
 Caussin de Perceval, Jean Jacques Antoine, French orientalist. B. 1759. 
 
 D. 1835. 
 Cavaignac, Godefroy, French republican leader. B. 1801. D. 1845. 
 Cavaignac, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist, father of the preceding. 
 
 B. 1762. D. 1829. 
 Cavaignac, Louis Eugene, French soldier, head of the French government 
 
 in 1848, son of the preceding. B. 1802. D. 1857. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 3GT 
 
 Cavalcanti, Guido, Italian poet, philosopher. D. about 1300. 
 
 Cavalier, Jean, Camisard leader. B. about 1679. D. 1740. 
 
 Cavalieri, Bonaventura, Italian mathematician. B. 1598. D. 1647. 
 
 Cavallo, Tiberio, English physicist. B. in Italy 1749. D. 1809. 
 
 Cave, William, English ecclesiastical writer. B. 1637. D. 1713. 
 
 Cavedone, Giacomo, Italian painter. B. 1577. D. 1660. 
 
 Cavelier, Pierre Jules, French sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1894. 
 
 Cavendish, Henry, English chemist. B. 1731. D. 1810. 
 
 Cavendish (Candish), Sir Thomas, English naval commander. I). 1592. 
 
 Cavendish, William. See Newcastle. 
 
 Cavour, Camillo Benso di, count, Italian statesman, prime-minister of Victor 
 
 Emanuel 1852-61. B. Aug. 10, 1810. D. June 6, 1861. 
 Caxton, William, English printer. B. about 1422 or about 1412. D. about 
 
 1491. 
 Cayley, Arthur, English mathematician. B. 1821. D. 1895. 
 Caylus, Anne Claude Philippe de Tubieres, count de, French antiquary. 
 
 B. 1692. D. 1765. 
 Cazotte, Jacques, French author. B. 1720. Executed 1792. 
 Cean-Bermudez, Juan Augustin, Spanish historian of art, archaeologist. 
 
 B. 1749. D. 1829. 
 Cebes, Greek philosopher. About 400 b. c. 
 
 Cecco d'Ascoli, Italian astrologer, author. B. about 1257. Burned 1327. 
 Cecil, Robert, earl of Salisbury, English statesman. D. 1612. 
 Cecil, William. See Burleigh. 
 Celakovsky (Czelakovsky), Frantisek Ladislav, Bohemian poet, Slavic 
 
 scholar. B. 1799. D. 1852. 
 Celestine V., founder of the order of Celestins, pope 1294. Abdicated 
 
 1294. D. 1296. 
 Cellamare, Antonio Giudice, prince of, Spanish ambassador to France. B. 
 
 in Italy 1657. D. 1733. 
 Cellarius, Christoph, German scholar. B. 1638. D. 1707. 
 Cellini, Benvenuto. Italian sculptor and worker in gold. B. 1500. T>. 1571. 
 Celsius, Anders, Swedish astronomer. B. 1701. D. 1744. 
 Celsus, anti-Christian writer (in Greek). 2d c. 
 Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, Roman writer on medicine. About beginning of 
 
 1st c. A. D. (?). 
 Censorinus, Roman author. 3d c. A. D. 
 Ceracchi, Giuseppe, conspirator against Napoleon I. ; native of Corsica. 
 
 Executed 1801. 
 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, Spanish author. B. Oct. 9, 1547. D. 
 
 April 23, 1616. " Don Quixote." 
 Cesalpino. See Cesalpinus. 
 
 Cesari, Giuseppe, Italian painter. B. about 1570. D. about 1640. 
 Cesarotti, Melchiore, Italian poet. B. 1730. D. 1808. 
 Cespedes, Carlos Manuel de, Cuban revolutionist. B. 1819. Shot 1874. 
 
368 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Cespedes, Pablo de, Spanish painter. B. 1538. D. 1G08. 
 
 Cetywayo, king of the Zulus. D. 1884. 
 
 Chabas, Francois Joseph, French Egyptologist. B. 1817. D. 1882. 
 
 Chabot, Francois, French revolutionist. B. 1759. Executed 1794. 
 
 Chabrias, Athenian general. Slain 358 or 357 n. c. 
 
 Cbalcondyles, Demetrius, Greek scholar. B. about 1423. D. about 1510. 
 
 Chalcondyles, Laonicus (or Nicolaus), Byzantine historian. 15th c. 
 
 Chalmers, Alexander, British editor, writer. B. 1759. D. 1834. 
 
 Chalmers, George, British author. B. 1742. D. 1825. 
 
 Chalmers, Thomas, Scottish preacher, leader in the establishment of the 
 
 Free Church of Scotland, political economist. B. 1780. D. 1847. 
 Cham (Amedee de Noe), French caricaturist, B. 1819. D. 1879. 
 Chambers, Ephraim, English encyclopaedist. D. 1740. 
 Chambers, Robert, Scottish publisher, author. B. 1802. D. 1871. 
 Chambers, William, Scottish publisher, author. B. 1800. D. 1883. 
 Chambers, Sir William, English architect. B. about 172G. D. 1796. 
 Chambord, Henri, count de, son of the duke of Berry and grandson of 
 
 Charles X. B. 1820. D. 1883. (Originally styled duke de Bordeaux.) 
 Chamfort, Sebastien Roch Nicolas, French author. B. 1741. D. 1794. 
 Chamisso, Adalbert von, German lyric poet, naturalist, traveler. B. 1781. 
 
 D. 1838. Author of the story of " Peter Schlemihl." 
 Champagne, Philippe de, French painter. B. 1602. D. 1674. 
 Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompere, count de, duke of Cadore, French 
 
 statesman. B. 1756. D. 1834. 
 Champeaux, Guillaume de, French scholastic philosopher. D. 1121. 
 Champlain, Samuel de, French explorer, governor of Canada. B. 1567. D. 
 
 1635. 
 Champmesle, Marie Desmares, French actress. B. 1644. D. 1698. 
 Champollion, Jean Francois, French Egyptologist. B. 1791. D. 1832. 
 Champollion-Figeac, Jacques Joseph, French archaeologist, brother of the 
 
 preceding. B. 1778. D. 1867. 
 Chandler, Samuel, English divine. B. 1693. D. 1766. " Critical History 
 
 of the Life of David." 
 Chandos, Sir John, English soldier. Killed 1369. 
 
 Changarnier, Nicolas Anne Theodule, French general. B. 1793. D. 1877. 
 Channing, William Ellery, American Unitarian clergyman, abolitionist, B. 
 
 1780. D. 1842. 
 Chantal, Jeanne Francoise Fremiot, baroness de, French religious devotee. 
 
 B. 1572. D. 1641. 
 Chantrey, Sir Francis, English sculptor. B. 1781. D. 1841. 
 Chanzy, Antoine Eugene Alfred, French general, diplomatist, B. 1823. D. 
 
 1883. 
 Chapelain, Jean, French poet. B. 1595. D. 1674. 
 Chapman, George, English dramatist, translator of the Homeric poems, &c. 
 
 B. about 1559. D. 1634. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 3G9 
 
 Chapone, Hester (born Mulso), English authoress. B. 1727. D. 1801. 
 
 " Letters on the Improvement of the Mind." 
 Chaptal, Jean Antoine, French chemist, statesman. B. 175G. D. 1832. 
 Chardin, Jean, French traveler in the East. B. 1643. D. 1713. 
 Charette, Francois Athanase, Vendean leader. B. 1763. Shot 1796. 
 Charlemagne (Charles the Great), king of the Franks, emperor of the West 
 
 (of the Romans), son of Pepin the Short. B. 742. King from 768 (his 
 
 brother, Carloman, joint king till 771). Crowned emperor 800. D. 814. 
 Charles I., king of England and Scotland, son and successor of James I. 
 
 B. Nov. 19, 1600. Reigned from 1625. Executed Jan. 30, 1649. Married 
 
 to Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. 
 Charles II., king of England and Scotland, son of Charles I. B. May 29, 
 
 1630. Reigned from 1660. D. Feb. 6, 1685. Married to Catharine of 
 
 Braganza. 
 Charles II., the Bald, king of the western Franks. B. 823. Successor to 
 
 his father, Louis le Debonnaire, jointly with his brothers, Lothaire and 
 
 Louis, 840. France assigned to him in the partition of the Carlovingian 
 
 empire in the treaty of Verdun 843. D. 877. 
 Charles III., the Simple, king of France. B. 879. Elected in opposition 
 
 to Eudes 893. Generally recognized 898. Dethroned 923. D. 929. 
 Charles IV., the Fair, king of France, last of the Capetian dynasty. B. 
 
 about 1294. Reigned from 1322. D. 1328. 
 Charles V., the Wise, king of France, son and successor of John the Good. 
 
 B. 1337. Reigned from 1364. D. 1380. 
 Charles VI., the Mad, king of France, son of Charles V. B. 1368. Reigned 
 
 from 1380. D. 1422. 
 Charles VII., the Victorious, king of France, son of Charles VI. B. 1403. 
 
 Reigned from 1422. D. 1461. 
 Charles VIII., king of France, son and successor of Louis XI. B. 1470. 
 
 Reigned from 1483. D. 1498. Married to Anne of Brittany. 
 Charles IX., king of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. 
 
 1550. Reigned from 1560. D. 1574. 
 Charles X., king of France, brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII. B. 
 
 1757. Reigned 1824-'30. D. 1836. (Previous to his accession styled 
 
 count of Artois.) 
 Charles the Great, king of the Franks. See Charlemagne. 
 Charles III., the Fat, emperor of the Romans, son of Louis the German. 
 
 King of part of Germany from 876. King of Italy from 879. King of 
 
 all Germany from 882. Made king of the western Franks (France) about 
 
 close of 884. Deposed 887. D. 888. 
 Charles IV. (of Luxemburg), emperor of Germany, son of John, king of 
 
 Bohemia. B. 1316. King of Bohemia from 1346. Reigned in Germany 
 
 from 1347 (authority disputed until 1349). D. 1378. 
 Charles V., emperor of Germany, king of Spain (as Charles I.), son of Philip 
 
 the Handsome and Joan the Mad, respectively son and daughter of 
 
370 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy and of Ferdinand and 
 
 Isabella. B. in Ghent Feb. 24, 1500. Sovereign of the Netherlands 
 
 1506-55. King of Spain 1516-'5G. Emperor of Germany 1519-'56. D. 
 
 Sept. 21, 1558. 
 Charles VI., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, brother and suc- 
 cessor of Joseph I. B. 1685. Reigned from 1711. D. 1740. 
 Charles VII. (Charles Albert of Bavaria), emjjeror of Germany. B. 1697. 
 
 Reigned from 1742. D. 1745. 
 Charles I. of Spain. See Charles V., emperor of Germany. 
 Charles II., king of Spain, son and successor of Philip IV. B. 1661. 
 
 Reigned from 1665. D. 1700. 
 Charles III., king of Spain, son of Philip V. and brother and successor of 
 
 Ferdinand VI. B. 1716. Conquered the Two Sicilies 1734-'5. Reigned 
 
 there till 1759. Reigned in Spain from 1759. D. 1788. 
 Charles IV, king of Spain, son of Charles III. B. 1748. Reigned 1788- 
 
 1808. D. 1819. 
 Charles IX., king of Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa. B. 1550. Declared king 
 
 1604 (for some years previously administrator of the kingdom). D. 1611. 
 Charles X. Gustavus, king of Sweden, cousin and successor of Christina. 
 
 B. 1622. Reigned from 1654. D. 1660. 
 Charles XI., king of Sweden, son of Charles X. B. 1655. Reigned from 
 
 1660. D. 1697. 
 Charles XII., king of Sweden, son of Charles XI. B. June 27, 1682. 
 
 Reigned from 1697. Killed Dec. 11, 1718. 
 Charles XIII., king of Sweden and Norway. B. 1748. Reigned in Sweden 
 
 from 1809 ; in Norway, from 1814. D. 1818. 
 Charles XIV. John, king of Sweden and Norway. See Bernadotte. 
 Charles XV., king of Sweden and Norway, son and successor of Oscar I. 
 
 B. 1826. Reigned from 1859. D. 1872. 
 Charles (Charles V. Leopold), titular duke of Lorraine, general in the service 
 
 of the emperor Leopold I. B. 1643. D. 1690. 
 Charles, archduke of Austria, brother of the emperor Francis, general. B. 
 
 1771. D. 1847. 
 Charles I., king of Portugal since 1889, son of Louis I. B. 1863. 
 Charles I. (of Hohenzollern), king of Roumania. B. 1839. Elected prince 
 
 1866. Proclaimed king 1881. 
 Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, king of Naples and Sicily, brother 
 
 of Louis IX. of France. B. about 1220. Reigned in Naples and Sicily 
 
 from 1266. Sicily revolted 1282. D. 1285. 
 Charles of Blois, claimant of the duchy of Brittany. Slain 1364. 
 Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Reigned 1349-87. 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, sovereign of the Netherlands. B. 
 
 1433. Reigned from 1467. Killed 1477. 
 Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. B. 1798. Reigned from 1831. Abdi- 
 cated in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, 1849. D. 1849. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 371 
 
 Charles Augustus, duke (afterward grand-duke) of Saxe- Weimar. B. 1757. 
 
 Declared reigning duke 1775. I). 1828. 
 Charles Edward Stuart, son of James Edward Stuart and grandson of 
 
 James II., pretender to the throne of England (the Young Pretender). B. 
 
 1720. D. 1788. 
 Charles Emanuel I., the Great, duke of Savoy. B. 1562. Reigned from 
 
 1580. D. 1630. 
 Charles Martel, ruler of the Franks. B. about 690. D. 741. 
 Charles Robert, king of Hungary, of the house of Anjou. Reigned 
 
 1309-42. 
 Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar, French physicist. B. 1746. D. 1823. 
 Charlet, Nicolas Toussaint, French artist. B. 1792. D. 1845. 
 Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xavier de, French Jesuit, historian. B. 1682. 
 
 D. 1761. " Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 
 Charlotte, princess, daughter of George IV. B. 1796. D. 1817. 
 Charras, Jean Baptiste Adolphe, French soldier, military writer. B. 1810. 
 
 D. 1865. 
 Charriere, Isabelle Agnete de Saint-Hyacinthe de, French authoress. B. 
 
 about 1740. D. 1805. 
 Charron, Pierre, French preacher, philosopher. B. 1541. D. 1603. 
 Chartier, Alain, French poet. B. about 1385. D. about 1455. 
 Chartres, Robert, duke de, son of the duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis 
 
 Philippe. B. 1840. 
 Chase, Salmon Portland, American statesman, secretary of the United 
 
 States treasury 1861-'4, subsequently chief justice of the United States. 
 
 B. 1808. D. 1873. 
 Chase, Samuel, American judge. B. 1741. D. 1811. 
 Chasles, Michel, French mathematician. B. 1793. D. 1880. 
 Chasles, V. E. Philarete, French literary critic. B. 1798. D. 1873. 
 Chasse, David Ilendrik. baron, Dutch soldier. B. 1765. D. 1849. 
 Chasseloup-Laubat, Francois de, marquis, French military engineer. B. 
 
 1754. D. 1833. 
 Chassepot, Antoine Alphonse, French inventor. B. 1833. 
 Chastelain, Georges, Flemish chronicler (wrote in French). B. about 
 
 1404. D. about' 1474. 
 Chasteler, Jean Gabriel de, marquis, Austrian general. B. 1763. D. 
 
 1825. 
 Chastellux, Francois Jean de, marquis, French soldier, author. B. 1734. 
 
 D. 1788. 
 Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, viscount, French author, statesman. 
 
 B. 1768. D. 1848. " Le genie du Christianisme." " Les martyrs." 
 
 " Memoires d'outre-tombe." 
 Chatelet, marchioness du. See Du Chatelet. 
 Chatham, earl of. See Pitt. 
 
 Chatterton, Thomas, English poet, literary impostor. B. 1752. D. 1770. 
 25 
 
372 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, English poet. B. about 1328 or 1340. D. 1400. " Can- 
 terbury Tales." 
 
 Chaudet, Antoine Denis, French sculptor. B. 1763. D. 1810. 
 
 Chauliac, Gui de, French surgeon. 14th c. 
 
 Chaulieu, Guillaume Amfrye de, French poet. B. 1639. D. 1720. 
 
 Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French revolutionist. B. 1763. Executed 
 1794. 
 
 Chauncey, Isaac, American naval commander. B. 1772. D. 1840. 
 
 Chaussard, Pierre Jean Baptiste, French author. B. 1766. D. 1823. 
 
 Chauveau-Lagarde, Claude Francois, French advocate. B. about 1756. 
 I). 1841. 
 
 Cheke, Sir John, English Greek scholar. B. 1514. D. 1557. 
 
 Chelmsford, Frederick Thesiger, baron, English lawyer, lord chancellor. B. 
 1794. D. 1878. 
 
 Chemnitz, Martin, German Protestant divine. B. 1522. D. 1586. 
 
 Chemnitzer (Khemnitzer), Ivan, Russian fabulist. B. 1744. D. 1784. 
 
 Chenavard, Paul Joseph, French painter. B. 1808. D. 1895. 
 
 Chenevix, Richard, Irish author. D. 1830. 
 
 Chenier, Andre de, French poet. B. 1762. Executed 1794. 
 
 Chenier, Louis de, French historian. B. 1723. D. 1796. Works on Moor- 
 ish and Turkish history. 
 
 Chenier, Marie Joseph de, French poet. B. 1764. D. 1811. 
 
 Cherbuliez, Antoine Elisee, Swiss political economist, publicist. B. 1797. 
 I). 1869. 
 
 Cherbuliez, Victor, French novelist. B. in Geneva about 1829. 
 
 Cherubini, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore, Italian composer. B. 
 1760. D. 1842. 
 
 Chesne, Andre du. See Duchesne. 
 
 Chesney, Charles Cornwallis, British military writer. B. 1829. D. 1876. 
 
 Chesney, Francis Rawdon, British officer, military writer. B. 1789. D. 
 1872. 
 
 Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of, English statesman, writer. 
 B. 1694. D. 1773. Author of a famous series of letters addressed to his 
 son. 
 
 Chevalier, Michel, French economist. B. 1806. D. 1879. 
 
 Chevreul, Michel Eugene, French chemist. B. 1786. D. 1889. 
 
 Chevreuse, Marie de Rohan, duchess de, French lady. B. 16U0. D. 1679. 
 
 Cheyne, George, British physician. B. about 1671. D. about 1743. 
 
 Chezy, Antoine Leonard de, French orientalist. B. 1773. D. 1832. 
 
 Chigi, Fubio. See Alexander VII., pope. 
 
 Child, Sir Josiah, English merchant, political economist. B. 1630. D. 1699. 
 
 Child, Lydia Maria (Francis). American authoress, abolitionist. B. 1802. 
 D. 1880. 
 
 Childebert I., king over a portion of the Franks, son of Clovis. Reigned 
 511-558. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 373 
 
 Chilling-worth, William, English divine. B. 1602. D. 1644. 
 
 Ckimay, Jeanne Marie Ignace Therese de Cabarrus, princess de, wife of 
 
 Tallien. B. in Spain about 1775. D. 1835. 
 Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich, German physicist. B. 1756. D. 1827. 
 Chlopicki, Jozef, Polish soldier, dictator for a short time in the revolu- 
 tionary rising of 1830-'31. B. 1772. D. 1854. 
 Chrnielnicki, Bogdan, Cossack chief. D. 1657. 
 Choate, Rufus, American lawyer. B. 1799. D. 1859. 
 Chodowiecki, Daniel Nikolaus, German artist, B. 1726. D. 1801. 
 Chodzko, Alexander Boreyko, Polish orientalist, poet, Slavic scholar. 13. 
 
 1804. D. 1891. 
 Chodzko, Jacques Leonard, Polish historian. B. 1800. D. 1871. 
 Choiseul, Etienne Francois de, duke, chief minister of Louis XV. 1758-'70. 
 
 B. 1719. D. 1785. 
 Choiseul-Gouffier, Marie Gabriel Florent Auguste de, count, French trav- 
 eler, writer. B. 1752. D. 1817. " Voyage pittoresque en Grece." 
 Chopin, Frederic Francois, pianist, composer. B. in Poland 1810 (1809 ?). 
 
 D. 1849. 
 Chorley, Henry Fothergill, English musical critic, author. B. 1808. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Chosroes I., king of Persia. Reigned 531-579. 
 Chosroes II., king of Persia. Reigned 590-628. 
 Chretien de Troyes, French poet. D. about 1200. 
 Christian II., king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. B. 1481. Reigned 
 
 in Denmark and Norway 1513- r 23 ; in Sweden 1520-'23 (the kingdom in 
 
 rebellion from 1521). D. 1559. 
 Christian IV., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1577. Reigned from 
 
 1588. D. 1648. 
 Christian VII., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1749. Reigned from 
 
 1766. D. 1808. 
 Christian VIII., king of Denmark. B. 1786. Reigned from 1839. D. 1848. 
 Christian IX., king of Denmark since 1863. B. 1818. 
 Christian of Brunswick. See Brunswick. 
 Christina, queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. B. 1626. 
 
 Reigned 1632-'54. D. 1689. 
 Christina (Maria Christina), regent of Spain for her son Alfonso XIII. 
 
 B. 1858. 
 Christison, Sir Robert, Scottish physician, toxicologist. B. 1797. D. 1882. 
 Christophe, Henri, negro general, president and king of ITayti. Elected 
 president 1806. Royal title assumed 1811. D. 1820. (Only a portion of 
 the island was under his sway.) 
 Christopher, duke of Wurtemberg. Reigned 1550-'68. 
 Christopulos, Athanasios, Greek poet. 15.1772. D. 1847. 
 Chrysippus, (J reek philosopher. D. about 207 b. c. 
 Chrysoloras, Manuel, Greek scholar. D. 1415. 
 
374 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Chrysostom, John, patriarch of Constantinople. B. 347. D. 407. 
 
 Chrzanowski, Adalbert, Polish general. B. about 1788. D. 1861. 
 
 Church, Frederick Edwin, American painter. B. 1826. 
 
 Church, Sir Richard, English general in the service of Greece. B. about 
 1785. D. 1873. 
 
 Churchill, Charles, English poet, satirist. B. 1731. D. 1764. 
 
 Churchill, John. See Marlborough. 
 
 Cialdini, Enrico, Italian general, diplomatist. B. 1811. D. 1892. 
 
 Cibber, Colley, English dramatic writer. B. 1671. D. 1757. 
 
 Gibber, Susannah Maria, English actress. B. 1714. D. 1766. 
 
 Cibrario, Luigi, Italian statesman, historian. B. 1802. D. 1870. 
 
 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Roman orator, philosopher. B. 106 b. c. Killed 
 43 b. c. " De Oratore " and other works on oratory. " De Republica." " De 
 Legibus " (on laws). " De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum " (inquiry con- 
 cerning the supreme good). " De Natura Deorum " (on the nature of the 
 gods). " De Divinatione." " De Officiis " (on duties). " De Senectute " 
 (on old age). " De Amicitia " (on friendship). Among the most famous 
 of Cicero's orations are those against Verres and Catiline, those in favor 
 of Archias, Milo, and Marcellus (the authenticity of the one for Marcellus 
 has been questioned), the one in favor of the Manilian law (investing 
 Pompey with the command of the forces against Mithridates), and the 
 orations called " Philippics," directed against Antony. 
 
 Cid, the (Ruy Diaz de Bivar), Spanish hero. B. about 1040. D. 1099. 
 
 Cienfuegos, Nicasio Alvarez de, Spanish poet. B. 1764. D. 1809. 
 
 Cignani, Carlo, Italian painter. B. 1628. D. 1719. 
 
 Cigoli. See Cardi. 
 
 Cimabue, Giovanni, Italian painter. B. 1240. D. about 1302. 
 
 Cimarosa, Domenico, Italian composer. B. 1749. D. 1801. 
 
 Cimon, Athenian commander, son of Miltiades. D. 449 b. c. 
 
 Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, Roman dictator, eommandei\ Middle of 
 5th c. b. c. 
 
 Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus and his envoy to Rome. Early in 3d c. b. c. 
 
 Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, Roman party leader (on the side of Marius). Slain 
 84 b. c. 
 
 Cino da Pistoja, Italian poet. B. 1270. D. 1336. 
 
 Cinq-Mars, Henri Coiffier de Ruze, marquis de, conspirator against Riche- 
 lieu. B. 1620. Executed 1642. 
 
 Cirillo, Domenico, Italian physician, naturalist. B. 1734. Executed 1799. 
 
 Cissey, Ernest Louis Octave Courtot de, French general, minister of war. 
 B. about 1810. D. 1882. 
 
 Civiale, Jean, French surgeon. B. 1792. D. 1867. 
 
 Civilis, Claudius, Batavian insurgent leader. Defeated a. d. 70. 
 
 Clairaut, Alexis Claude, French mathematician. B. 1713. D. 1765. 
 
 Clairfait. See Clerfayt. 
 
 Clairon, Mademoiselle, French actress. B. 1723. D. 1803. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 375 
 
 Clajus (Clai), Johannes, German poet, grammarian. B. about 1533. D. 
 
 1592. 
 Clajus, Johannes, German poet. B. 1(516. D. 1G56. 
 Clapperton, Hugh, British African explorer. B. 1788. D. 1827. 
 Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, English statesman, historian. B. 1008. 
 
 D. 1674. " History of the Rebellion." 
 Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers, earl of, English statesman. 
 
 B. 1800. D. 1870. 
 Claretie, Jules, French novelist, political writer, dramatist. B. 1840. 
 Clark, Sir James, British physician. B. 1788. D. 1870. 
 Clark, Latimer, English electrician. B. 1822. 
 Clarke, Adam, British Biblical scholar. B. 1762. D. 1832. 
 Clarke, Edward Daniel, English traveler. B. 1769. D. 1822. 
 Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, duke de Feltre, French general. B. 1765. 
 
 D. 1818. 
 Clarke, Jas. Freeman, Amer. Unitarian clergyman, author. B. 1810. D. 1888. 
 Clarke, Mary Victoria Cowden (born Novello), English Shakespearean 
 
 scholar, authoress. B. 1809. D. 1898. 
 Clarke, Samuel, English divine, philosopher. B. 1675. D. 1729. 
 Clarke, William, American explorer. B. 1770. D. 1838. 
 Clarkson, Thomas, English abolitionist. B. 1760. D. 1846. 
 Claude, Jean, French Protestant clergyman. B. 1619. D. 1687. 
 Claude Lorraine * (Claude Gelee), painter. B. in Lorraine 1600. Lived in 
 
 Italy. D. 1682. 
 Claudian (Claudius Claudianus), Latin poet. B. about a. d. 365. 
 Claudius I., Roman emperor. B. 10 b. c. Reigned from a. d. 41. D. 54. 
 Claudius II., Roman emperor. B. 214. Reigned from 268. D. 270. 
 Claudius, Matthias (•' Asmus "), German author. B. 1740. D. 1815. Author 
 
 of the periodical " Her Wandsbecker Bote." 
 Claudius Cascus, Appius, Roman statesman, general, writer. D. after 
 
 280 b. c. 
 Claudius Civilis. See Civilis. 
 
 Claudius Crassus, Appius, Roman decemvir about 450-448 b. c. 
 Claudius Nero, Roman general. Consul 207 b. c. 
 Claudius Nero, Tiberius, father of the emperor Tiberius. 
 Clausel, Bertrand, count, French general. B. 1772. D. 1842. 
 Clausewitz, Karl von, Prussian soldier, military writer. B. 1780. D. 
 
 1831. 
 Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel, German physicist. B. 1822. D. 1888. 
 Clauzel. See Clausel. 
 Claverhouse. See Dundee. 
 Claviere, Etienne, Swiss financier, minister of finance in France. B. 1735. 
 
 D. 1793. 
 
 * Properly Claude Lorrain. 
 
376 BIOGRAPniCAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Clavigero, Francisco Saverio, Mexican historian. B. about 1730. D. about 
 
 1787. "Storia antica del Messico" (Italian). 
 Clay, Henry, American statesman, orator. B. April 12, 1777. D. June 29, 
 
 1852. 
 Clayton, John Middleton, American statesman. B. 1796. D. 1856. 
 Cleanth.es, Greek philosopher. B. about 300 b. c. D. about 220. 
 Cleaveland, Parker, American mineralogist. B. 1780. D. 1858. 
 Clebsch, Rudolf Friedrich Alfred, German mathematician. B. 1833. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Cleef, Jan van, Flemish painter. B. 1646. D. 1716. 
 Cleef, Joost van. Flemish painter. B. about 1480. D. about 1530. 
 Clemenceau, Eugene, French politician. B. 1841. 
 Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (" Mark Twain "), American humorist. B. 
 
 1835. 
 Clement V., pope. Elected 1305. D. 1314. 
 Clement VI., pope. Elected 1342. D. 1352. 
 Clement VII., antipope. Elected 1378. D. 1394. 
 Clement VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope. Elected 1523. D. 1534. 
 Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope. Elected 1592. D. 1605. 
 Clement IX., pope. Elected 1667. D. 1669. 
 Clement X., pope. Elected 1670. D. 1676. 
 Clement XI., pope. Elected 1700. D. 1721. 
 Clement XII., pope. Elected 1730. D. 1740. 
 Clement XIII., pope. Elected 1758. D. 1769. 
 Clement XIV. (Ganganelli), pope. Elected 1769. D. 1774. 
 Clement of Alexandria, Greek father of the church. D. about 215. 
 Clementi, Muzio, Italian musician. B. 1752. D. 1832. • 
 Cleomenes III., king of Sparta. Reigned from 236 (or 235). D. 221 b. c. 
 Cleon, Athenian demagogue. Slain 422 b. c. 
 Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. B. 69 b. c. D. 30 b. c. 
 Clerfayt (Clairfait), F. S. C. J. de Croix, count de, Austrian general. B. 
 
 1733. D. 1798. 
 Cleveland, Grover, president of the United States 1885-'9 and 1893-7. B. 
 
 March 18, 1837. 
 Clifford, William Kingdon* English philosopher. B. 1845. D. 1879. 
 Clinton, De Witt, Am. statesman, governor of New York. B. 1769. D. 1828. 
 Clinton, George, American statesman. B. 1739. D. 1812. 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, English general in America. B. 1738. T>. 1795. 
 Clinton, Henry Fynes, English chronologist. B. 1781. D. 1832. "Fasti 
 
 Hellenici." "Fasti Romani." 
 Clinton, James, American soldier. B. 1736. I). 1812. 
 Clisthenes, Athenian statesman. End of 6th c. B. c. 
 Clitus, favorite of Alexander the Great. Slain by Alexander 328 b. c. 
 Clive, Robert, Lord, English general in India. B. 1725. D. 1774. 
 Clodius Pulcher, Publius, Roman demagogue. Killed 52 b. c, 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 377 
 
 Clootz, Jean Baptiste, baron (Anaeharsis Clootz), French revolutionist. B. 
 in Germany 1755. Executed 1794. 
 
 Clotaire I., king of the Franks. Successor to his father, Clovis, jointly 
 with his brothers 511. Ruler of the reunited Frankish realm from 558. 
 D. 561. 
 
 Clotaire II., king of the Franks. King of Neustria from the year of his 
 birth, 584 — his mother Fredegonda regent. Ruler of the reunited Frank- 
 ish realm from 613 (the kingdom again divided during his reign). D. 
 628. 
 
 Clotilda, wife of Clovis. D. 545. 
 
 Clovis, king of the Franks. Reigned from 481. D. 511. 
 
 Clowes, William, English printer. B. 1779. D. 1847. 
 
 Cluver (Cluverius), Philipp, German geographer, antiquary. B. 1580. D. 
 1623. 
 
 Clyde, Lord. See Campbell, Sir Colin. 
 
 Cobbe, Frances Power, English authoress. B. 1822. Writings on social, 
 moral, .and religious subjects. 
 
 Cobbett, William, English political writer, agitator for reform. B. 1762. 
 D. 1835. 
 
 Cobden, Richard, English statesman, chief leader in the movement for the 
 repeal of the Corn Laws. B. June 3, 1804. D. April 2, 1865. 
 
 Cobham. See Oldcastle. 
 
 Coburg, Friedrich Josias, prince of, Austrian general. B. 1737. D. 1815. 
 
 Coccejus (Cock), Johannes, Dutch theologian. B. in Germany 1603. D. 
 1669. 
 
 Cochin, Charles Nicolas, French engraver. B. 1715. D. 1790. 
 
 Cochrane. See Dundonald. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir Alexander James Edmund, English jurist. B. 1802. D. 
 1880. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir George, English admiral. B. 1772. D. 1853. 
 
 Cockerill, John, Anglo-Belgian machinist. B. 1790. D. 1840. 
 
 Coddington, William, one of the founders of Rhode Island. B. 1601. I). 
 1678. 
 
 Codrington, Sir Edward, English admiral. B. 1770. D. 1851. 
 
 Coehoorn, Menno van, baron, Dutch military engineer. B. 1641. D. 1704. 
 
 Coello, Claudio, Spanish painter. B. 1621. D. 1693. 
 
 Cceur, Jacques, French financier. D. 1456. 
 
 Cogalniceanu, Mihai, Roumanian historian, statesman. B. 1817. D. 1891. 
 
 Cogniet, Leon, French painter. B. 1794. D. 1880. 
 
 Cohn, Ferdinand, German botanist. B. 1828. Distinguished for his re- 
 searches regarding the development of the lowest vegetable organisms. 
 
 Coke, Sir Edward, English jurist. B. 1552. D. 1634. 
 
 Coke, Thomas, English Methodist. B. 1747. D. 1814. 
 
 Coke, Thomas William, earl of Leicester of Ilolkham, English agriculturist. 
 B. 1752. D. 1842. 
 
378 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Colbert, Jean Baptiste, minister of Louis XIV. B. 1619. D. 1683. 
 Colburn, Zerah, American arithmetical prodigy. B. 1804. D. 1840. 
 Colby, Thomas, English engineer. B. 1784. L\ 1852. 
 Cole, Thomas, American painter. B. in England 1801. D. 1848. 
 Colebrooke, Henry Thomas. English Sanskrit scholar, writer on Hindoo 
 
 subjects. B. 1765. D. 1837. 
 Colenso, John William, English divine, Biblical critic, bishop of Natal. B. 
 
 1814. D. 1883. 
 Coleridge, Hartley, English poet, son of S. T. Coleridge. B. 1796. D. 
 
 1849. 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, English poet, philosopher, critic. B. Oct. 21, 1772. 
 
 D. July 25, 1834. " Cristabel." " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner." 
 Coleridge, Sara, English authoress, daughter of S. T. Coleridge. B. 1802. 
 
 D. 1852. 
 Coligni (Coligny), Gaspard de, French Huguenot leader. B. 1517. Mur- 
 dered 1572. 
 Colletta, Pietro, Neapolitan patriot, historian. B. 1775. D. 1831. 
 Collier, Jeremy, English clergyman, writer. B. 1650. D. 1726. 
 Collier, John Payne, English author, critic. B. 1789. D. 1883. 
 Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord, English admiral. B. 1750. D. 1810. 
 Collins, Anthony, English theological and philosophical writer. B. 1676. 
 
 D. 1729. 
 Collins, William, English poet (odes, &c). B. 1721. D. 1759. 
 Collins, William Wilkie, English novelist. B. 1824. D. 1889. 
 Colloredo, Rudolph von, count of Wallsee, Austrian general. B. 1585. D. 
 
 1657. 
 Colloredo-Mansfeld, Hieronymus, count of, Austrian general. B. 1775. 
 
 D. 1822. 
 Colloredo-Mels and Wallsee, Joseph Maria, count of, Austrian general. 
 
 B. 1735. D. 1818. 
 Collot d'Herbois, Jean Marie, French revolutionist. B. about 1750. D. 
 
 1796. 
 Colman, George, English playwright. B. about 1733. D. 1794. "The 
 
 Jealous Wife." Translation of Terence. 
 Colman, George, English playwright. B. 1762. D. 1836. "John Bull." 
 
 " The Iron Chest." " The Poor Gentleman." " The Heir at Law." 
 Colman, Samuel, American painter. B. 1832. 
 Colocotronis, Theodoros, Greek patriot. B. 1770. D. 1843. 
 Colonna, Fabio, Italian botanist. B. 1567. D. 1650. 
 Colonna, Prospero, Italian general. D. 1523. 
 Colonna, Vittoria, Italian poetess, wife of the marquis of Pescara. B. about 
 
 1490. D. 1547. 
 Columba, Saint, " apostle of Caledonia." D. 597. 
 Columbanus, Saint, Irish monk and missionary, who labored in various parts 
 
 of continental Europe. D. 615. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 379 
 
 Columbus (It. Colombo ; Sp. Colon), Bartholomew, brother of Christopher 
 
 Columbus. D. about 1515. 
 Columbus, Christopher, discoverer of America. B. probably in Genoa about 
 
 1447 (possibly as early as 1435). D. May 20, 1506. 
 Columbus, Diego, son of Christopher Columbus, governor of Hispaniola 
 
 (Ilayti). D. 1526. 
 Columna, Fabius. See Colonna, Fabio. 
 
 Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus, Roman writer on husbandry. Flour- 
 ished about A. d. 40. 
 Combe, George, Scottish phrenologist. B. 1788. D. 1858. 
 Comenius (Komensky), John Amos, educational reformer. B. in Moravia 
 
 1592. D. 1671. 
 Comines, Philippe de, French historian, statesman. B. 1445. D. 1509. 
 Commodus, Roman emperor, son of Marcus Aurelius. B. 161. Reigned 
 
 from 180. Murdered 192. 
 Comnena, Anna. See Anna Comnena. 
 Comonfort, Ygnacio, president of Mexico from close of 1855 to beginning 
 
 of 1858. B. 1812. Murdered 1863. 
 Comte, Auguste, French philosopher, mathematician. B. Jan., 1798. D % 
 
 Sept. 5, 1857. " Cours de philosophic positive." " Systeme de politique 
 
 positive." 
 Concha, Jose de la, Spanish soldier, statesman. B. 1809. 
 Concha, Manuel de la, Spanish general. B. 1808. Killed 1874. 
 Concini. See Ancre. 
 
 Condamine, Charles Marie de la, French savant. B. 1701. D. 1774. 
 Conde, Henri I. de Bourbon, prince de, Huguenot leader. B. 1552. D. 
 
 1588. 
 Conde, Henri II. de Bourbon, prince de. B. 1588. D. 1646. 
 Conde, Jose Antonio, Spanish historian. B. about 1765. D. 1820. " His- 
 
 toria de la dominacion de los Arabes en Espana." 
 Conde, Louis I. de Bourbon, prince de, Huguenot leader. B. 1530. Shot 
 
 1569. 
 Conde, Louis II. de Bourbon, prince de (known as the Great Conde), French 
 
 general. B. 1621. D. 1686. 
 Conde, Louis Henri Joseph de Bourbon, prince de. See Bourbon. 
 Conde, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de, French royalist commander. 
 
 B. 1736. TJ. 1818. 
 Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de, French philosopher. B. 1715. D. 1780. 
 Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de, French mathe- 
 matician, philosopher, president of the Legislative Assembly, Girondist. 
 
 B. 1743. D. 1794. 
 Confucius, Chinese philosopher. About 500 b. c. 
 Congreve, William. English dramatist. B. 1670. D. 1729. 
 Congreve, Sir William, English inventor. B. 1772. D. 1828. 
 Conon, Athenian commander. I), after 392 B. c. 
 
380 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Conrad I., king of Germany. Reigned from 911. D. 918. 
 
 Conrad II., emperor of Germany. Reigned from 1024. D. 1039. 
 
 Conrad III. (of Hohenstaufen), emperor of Germany. Reigned from 1138. 
 I). 1152. 
 
 Conrad IV., emperor of Germany, son of Frederick II. Reigned from 1250. 
 I>! 1254. (Also king of Sicily.) 
 
 Conrad, Karl Immanuel, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1873. 
 
 Conradin, son of the emperor Conrad IV. B. about 1252. Executed in 
 Naples 1268. 
 
 Coming 1 , Hermann, German scholai', author. B. 1606. D. 1681. 
 
 Consalvi, Ercole, cardinal, Italian statesman. B. 1757. D. 1824. 
 
 Conscience, Hendrik, Flemish novelist. B. 1812. D. 1883. 
 
 Considerant, Victor, French socialist. B. 1808. D. 1893. 
 
 Constable, Archibald, Scottish publisher. B. 1774. D. 1827. 
 
 Constans, Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great. Reigned over a 
 portion of the Roman Empire 337-350. 
 
 Constant, Benjamin (Henri Benjamin Constant de Rebecque), French ora- 
 tor, political writer. B. 1767. D. 1830. 
 
 Constantine (Constantinus) the Great, Roman emperor, son of Constan- 
 tius Chlorus. B. 274 (272 "?). Ruled over a small portion of the Roman 
 world from 306. Master of the western half of the empire 312. Reigned 
 over the whole from 323. D. 337. 
 
 Constantine II., Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great. Reigned 
 over part of the Roman Empire 337-340. 
 
 Constantine V., Copronymus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 741-775. 
 
 Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, Byzantine emperor, author. B. 905. 
 Reigned from 911. D. 959. (Romanus Lecapenus his colleague in the 
 empire 919-944.) 
 
 Constantine XIII. (Constantine Pateologus), last Byzantine emperor. 
 Reigned 1448-'53. 
 
 Constantine, brother of the Russian emperors Alexander I. and Nicholas, 
 viceroy of Poland. B. 1779. D. 1831. 
 
 Constantine, brother of Alexander II. of Russia. B. 1827. \D. 1892. 
 
 Constantius I. (Constantius Chlorus), Roman emperor jointly with Galeri- 
 us 305-"6. (Constantius shared in the government of the Roman Em- 
 pire as " Ca?sar " from 292.) 
 
 Constantius II., Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great. B. 317. 
 Reigned over the eastern portion of the Roman Empire from 337; undis- 
 puted master of the whole from 353. D. 361. 
 
 Contarini, Andrea, doge of Venice. Ruled 1367-82. 
 
 Contarini, Domenico II., doge of Venice. Ruled 1659-'74. 
 
 Conti, Armand de Bourbon, prince de, brother of the Great Conde. B. 1629. 
 D. 1666. 
 
 Conti, Francois Louis de Bourbon, prince de, general. B. 1664. I). 1709. 
 
 Conybeare, William Daniel, English geologist, B. 1787. D. 1857. 
 
BIOGRAPIHCAL DICTIONARY. 381 
 
 Cook, Eliza, English poetess. B. about 1818. D. 1889. 
 
 Cook, James, English navigator. B. 1728. Killed 1779. 
 
 Cooke, George Frederick, English actor. B. 1756. D. 1811. 
 
 Coomans, Pierre Olivier Joseph, Belgian painter. B. 1816. D. 1889. 
 
 Cooper, Anthony Ashley. See Shaftesbury. 
 
 Cooper, Sir Astley, English surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1841. 
 
 Cooper, James Fenimore, American novelist. B. Sept. 15, 1789. D. Sept. 
 
 14, 1851. Best known productions in the order of their publication : 
 
 " The Spy," 1821 (preceded by " Precaution." 1819) ; " The Pioneers " ; 
 
 " The Pilot " ; " The Last of the Mohicans," 1826 ; " The Prairie " ; " The 
 
 Red Rover " ; " The Bravo " ; " The Headsman " ; " The Pathfinder " ; 
 
 " The Deerslayer," 1841. 
 Cooper, Peter, American philanthropist. B. 1791. D. 1883. 
 Cooper, Thomas Sidney, English painter. B. 1803. 
 Cope, Charles West, English painter. B. 1811. D. 1890. 
 Cope, Edward Drinker, American naturalist. B. 1840. D. 1897. 
 Copernicus, Nicholas, astronomer. B. at Thorn (on the Vistula) 1473. D. 
 
 1543. 
 Copley, John Singleton, American painter. B. 1737. D. 1815. 
 Coquelin, Benoit Constant, French actor. B. 1841. 
 Coquerel, Athanase Laurent Charles, French Protestant clergyman. B. 
 
 1795. D. 1868. 
 Corday, Charlotte, assassin of Marat. B. 1768. Executed 1793. 
 Cordova, Francisco Fernandez de, Spanish navigator. D. 1518. 
 C6rdova, Gonsalvo de. See Gonsalvo de Cordova. 
 Coriolanus, hero of Roman legend. First half of 5th c. b. c. 
 Cork, earl of. See Boyle, Richard. 
 Cormenin, Louis Marie de la JJaie, viscount de, French political writer, 
 
 jurist, B. 1788. P. 1868. 
 Cornaro, Caterina, queen of Cyprus. B. 1454. D. 1510. 
 Corneille, Pierre, French dramatist. B. June 6, 1606. I). Oct. 1, 1684. 
 
 " Le Cid," 1636. " Horace " (" Les Horaces "). " China." " Polycucte." 
 Corneille, Thomas, French dramatist. B. 1625. D. 1709. 
 Cornelia, mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. 
 Cornells, Cornelius, Dutch painter. B. 1562. D. 1638. 
 Cornelius, Peter von, German painter. B. 1783. D. 1867. 
 Cornelius Nepos. See Nepos. • 
 
 Corniani, Giovanni Battista, count, Italian author. B. 1742. D. 1813. 
 
 History of Italian literature. 
 Cornwall, Barry. See Procter. 
 Comwallis, ( 'harles, Lord, English general, governor general of India 
 
 1786-'93 (again 1805), lord lieutenant of Ireland 1798-1801. B. 1738. D. 
 
 1805. 
 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, Spanish explorer. Sot out on his expedi- 
 tion to explore the region afterward called New Mexico 1540. 
 
382 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, French painter. B. 1796. D. 1875. 
 
 Correggio, Antonio Allegri da, Italian painter. B. 1494. D. 1534. 
 
 Cortes (Cortez), Hernan, conqueror of Mexico. B. in Spain 1485. D. 1547. 
 
 Cortcma, Pietro Berrettini da, Italian painter, architect. B. 159G. D. 1G69, 
 
 Corvinus, Matthias. See Matthias Corvinus. 
 
 Corwin, Thomas, American statesman, orator. B. 1794. D. 18G5. 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Cossa, Pietro, Italian dramatist. B. about 1834. D. 1881. 
 
 Cosse, Charles de, count de Brissac, French general. B. about 1505. D. 
 1563. 
 
 Costa, Sir Michael, musical director, composer. B. in Italy 1810. D. 1884. 
 
 Costa-Cabral, Antonio Bernardo da, duke of Thomar, Portuguese states- 
 man. B. 1803. D. 1889. 
 
 Costello, Louisa Stuart, English authoress. B. 1799. D. 1870. 
 
 Coster (Koster), Laurens Janszoon, one of the reputed inventors of printing. 
 B. in the Netherlands about 1370. D. about 1440. 
 
 Cotes, Roger, English mathematician. B. 1682. D. 1716. 
 
 Cotta, Bernhard von, German geologist. B. 1808. D. 1879. 
 
 Cotta, Johann Friedrich von, baron, German publisher. B. 1764. D. 1832. 
 
 Cottenham, Charles Christopher Pepys, earl of, lord chancellor of England. 
 B. 1781. D. 1851. 
 
 Cottin, Madame Sophie, French novelist. B. 1773. D. 1807. 
 
 Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, English antiquary. B. 1571. D. 1631. 
 
 Coucy, Enguerrand, French soldier. D. 1397. 
 
 Coucy, Renaud (or Raoul), castellan of, French minstrel. Killed 1191. 
 
 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, French physicist. B. 1736. D. 1806. 
 
 Courbet, Gustave, French painter, Communist. B. 1819. D. 1877. 
 
 Courier, Paul Louis, French classical scholar, political writer. B. about 
 1773. Murdered 1825. 
 
 Court de Gebelin, Antoine, French author. B. 1725. D. 1784. 
 
 Courtois, Jacques. See Borgognone, II. 
 
 Cousin, Jean, French painter, sculptor. B. about 1500. D. about 1589. 
 
 Cousin, Victor, French philosopher. B. 1792. D. 1867. 
 
 Cousin-Montauban. See Palikao. 
 
 Coustou, Guillaume, French sculptor. B. about 1677. D. 1746. 
 
 Coustou, Guillaume, French sculptor. B. 1716. D. 1777. 
 
 Coustou, Nicolas, French sculptor. B. 1658. D. 1733. 
 
 Couthon, Georges, French revolutionist. B. 1756. Executed 1794. 
 
 Couture, Thomas, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1879. 
 
 Coverdale, Miles, English translator of the Bible. B. 1488. D. 1568. 
 
 Cowley, Abraham, English poet. B. 1618. D. 1667. 
 
 Cowper, William, earl, lord chancellor of England. B. 1664. D. 1723. 
 
 Cowper, William, English anatomist. B. 1666. D. 1710. 
 
 Cowper, William, English poet. B. 1731. D. 1800. " The Task." "John 
 Gilpin." Translation of Homer. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 383 
 
 Cox, Sir George William, English author. B. 1827. Works on mytholo- 
 gy, Grecian history, &c. ^ 
 
 Coxcie (Coxis), Michiel van, Flemish painter. B. about 1499. D. 1592. 
 
 Coxe, William, English historian, writer of travels, biographer. B. 1747. IX 
 1828. " History of the Hou,ge of Austria." 
 
 Coypel, Antoine, French painter. B. 1661. D. 1722. 
 
 Coypel, Noel, French painter. B. 1628. D. 1707. 
 
 Coysevox, Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1640. D. 1720. 
 
 Crabb, George, English author, scholar. B. 1778. D. 1851. "English 
 Synonyms." 
 
 Crabbe, George, English poet. B. 1754. D. 1832. " The Library." " The 
 Village." " The Parish Register." " The Borough." " Tales of the 
 Hall." 
 
 Crabeth, Dirk, Dutch painter on glass. D. about 1601. 
 
 Crabeth, Wouter, Dutch painter on glass. D. about 1580. 
 
 Craik, Dinah Maria. See Mulock. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Andreas, German preacher, poet. B. 1723. D. 1788. 
 
 Cramer, John Baptist, German-English pianist, composer. B. 1771. D. 
 1858. 
 
 Cranach (Kranach), Lucas, German painter, engraver. B. 1472. D. 1553. 
 
 Cranbrook, Lord. See Hardy, Gathorne. 
 
 Cranch, William, American judge. B. 1769. D. 1855. 
 
 Cranmer, Thomas, English Reformer, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1489. 
 Burned 1556. 
 
 Crassus, Lucius Licinius, Roman orator. B. 140 b. c. D. 91. 
 
 Crassus, Marcus Licinius, Roman triumvir. B. about 114 B. c. Slain 53. 
 
 Craterus, Macedonian general. Slain 321 B. c. 
 
 Crates, Greek comic poet. Flourished about 450 b. c. 
 
 Crates, Greek Cynic philosopher. D. about 300 b. c. 
 
 Crates, Greek grammarian. 2d c. b. c. 
 
 Cratinus, Greek comic poet. B. about 519 b. c. D. about 422. 
 
 Cratippus, Greek philosopher. B. about 75 b. c. 
 
 Craven, Elizabeth. See Anspach. 
 
 Crawford, F. Marion, American novelist. B. 1854. 
 
 Crawford, Thomas, American sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1857. 
 
 Crawford, William Harris, American statesman. B. 1772. D. 1834. 
 
 Crayer, Gaspar de, Flemish painter. B. 1582. D. 1669. 
 
 Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd, English historian. B. 1812. D. 1878. " Fif- 
 teen Decisive Battles of the World." Works on the British constitution, 
 the history of the Turks, &c. 
 
 Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, French writer of tragedy. B. 1674. D. 1762. 
 
 Cremieux, Isaac Adolphe, French statesman. B. 1796. D. 1880. 
 
 Creuzer, Georg Friedrich, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1771. D. 
 1858. 
 
 Crevecceur, Philippe de, French general. D. 1494. 
 
384 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Crichton, James, Scottish genius. B. about 1560. Murdered about 1582. 
 Crillon, Louis des Balbes de Berton de, French military hero. B. 1541. D. 
 
 1615. 
 Crispi, Francesco, Italian statesman. B. 1819. 
 
 Critias, Athenian orator, poet, one of the Thirty Tyrants. Slain 404 or 403 b. c. 
 Crittenden, John Jordan, American statesman. B. 1787. D. 1863. 
 Croesus, king of Lydia. Reigned about 560-546 b. c. 
 Croker, John Wilson, British author, politician. B. 1780. D. 1857. 
 Croly, George, Brit, author. B. about 1780. D. 1860. " The Angel of the 
 
 World, an Arabian Tale." " Salathiel." " Personal History of George IV." 
 Cromwell, Oliver, Puritan general, lord protector of England 1653-8. 
 
 B. April 25, 1599. D. Sept. 3, 1658. 
 Cromwell, Richard, lord protector of England 1658-9, son of Oliver Crom- 
 well. B. 1626. D. 1712. 
 Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, English statesman. Executed 1540. 
 Cropsey, Jasper Frank, American painter. B. 1823. 
 Crosse, Andrew, English electrician. B. 1784. D. 1855. 
 Crowe, Joseph Archer, English historian of art. B. 1825. 
 Cruden, Alexander, author of a concordance to the Bible. B. in Scotland 
 
 1701. D. 1770. 
 Cruikshank, George, English caricaturist. B. 1792. D. 1878. 
 Crusenstolpe, Magnus Jacob, Swedish political writer, novelist. B. 1795. 
 
 D. 1865. 
 Crusius, Christian August, German philosopher, theologian. B. 1715. D. 
 
 1775. 
 Csokonay, Vitez Mihaly, Hungarian poet. B. 1773. D 1805. 
 Csoma de Koros, Sandor, Hungarian traveler in central Asia, Thibetan 
 
 scholar. B. 1798. D. 1842. 
 Ctesias, Greek historian. Flourished 400 b. c. Histories of Persia and 
 
 India. 
 Ctesibius, Alexandrian mechanician. 3d c. b. c. (?). 
 Ctesiphon, Athenian orator. Second half of 4th c. b. c. 
 Cudworth, Ralph, English philosopher, divine. B. 1617. D. 1688. " The 
 
 True Intellectual System of the Universe." 
 Cueva, Juan do la, Spanish poet. B. about 1550. D. about 1608. 
 Cujas, Jacques, French jurist. B. about 1522. D. 1590. 
 Cullen, Paul, Irish cardinal. B. 1803. D. 1878. 
 Cullen, William, Scottish physician. B. 1710. D. 1790. 
 Culpeper, John, leader of an insurrection in Carolina in 1678. 
 Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, governor of Virginia. Administered the colony 
 
 1680, 1682-'3. 
 Cumberland, Richard, English moral philosopher. B. 1631. D. 1718. 
 Cumberland, Richard, English dramatist. B. 1732. D. 1811. 
 Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, son of George II., English general. 
 
 B. 1721. D. 1765. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 385 
 
 Cumberland, duke of, son of George III. See Ernest Augustus. 
 
 dimming, John, British clergyman. B. 1807. D. 1881. 
 
 Cumming, R. G. Gordon, Scottish sportsman in South Africa, author. B. 
 
 1820. D. 1866. 
 Cummins, Maria S., American novelist. B. 1827. D. 1866. 
 Cunningham, Allan, Scottish poet, novelist, writer on art, literary critic. 
 
 B. 1784. D. 1842. 
 Curio, Caius Scribonius, Roman general. D. 53 b. c. 
 Curio, Caius Scribonius, adherent of Caesar. Killed 49 B. c. 
 Curius Dentatus. See Dentatus. 
 Curran, John Philpot, Irish orator. B. 1750. D. 1817. 
 Cursor, Papirius. See Papirius Cursor. 
 
 Curtis, George Ticknor, Arner. jurist. B. 1812. D. 1894. " History of the Ori- 
 gin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States." 
 Curtis, George William, American author, journalist. B. 1824. D. 1892. 
 
 Sketches of travel. " The Potiphar Papers." 
 Curtius, Ernst, Ger. hist., archaeologist. B. 1814. D. 1896. " Peloponnesos." 
 
 " Griechische Geschichte." " Die Ionier vor der ionischen Wanderung." 
 Curtius, Quintus, Roman historian. Commonly supposed to have lived in 
 
 the first c. a. d., but by some placed as late as the 3d or 4th c. History of 
 
 Alexander the Great. 
 Gushing, Caleb, American politician, lawyer, writer. B. 1800. D. 1879. 
 Cushing, Luther Stearns, American writer on parliamentary law, &c. B. 
 
 1803. D. 1856. 
 Cushman, Charlotte Saunders, American actress. B. 1816. D. 1876. 
 Custer, George Armstrong, American general. B. 1839. Killed 1876. 
 Custine, Adam Philippe de, count, French general. B. 1740. Executed 
 
 1793. 
 Cuthbert, Saint, English monk. D. 687. 
 Cuvier, Frederic, French naturalist, brother of the following. B. 1773. D. 
 
 1838. 
 Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, French naturalist, 
 
 founder of the science of comparative anatomy. B. Aug. 23, 1769. D. 
 
 May 13, 1832. " Le regne animal." " Les ossemens fossiles." 
 Cuyp, Albert, Dutch painter. B. about 1605. D. about 1091. 
 Cuza. See Alexander John T. 
 Cyaxares, king of Media. D. 584 (593) b. c. 
 Cyprian, Saint, bishop of Carthage. Put to death 258. 
 Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth. Reigned about 657-627 b. c. 
 Cyril, Saint, bishop of Jerusalem. D. 386. 
 Cyril, Saint, bishop of Alexandria. I). 444. 
 Cyril, Saint, " apostle of the Slavs." D. 869 (1). 
 Cyrus, king of Persia. Put an end to the kingdom of Media, and mada 
 
 Persia a great monarchy, about 550 B. c. D. 529. 
 Cyrus, brother of Artaxerxes II. of Persia. Slain 401 b. c. 
 
386 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Czajkowski, Michal, Polish novelist. B. 1808. D. 1886. 
 Czarnecki, Stefan, Polish general. B. 1599. D. 1G65. 
 Czartoryski, Adam, prince, Polish noble. B. about 1734. D. 1823. 
 Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the revolutionary government in Poland 
 
 in the rising of 1830-'31. B. 1770. D. 1861. 
 Czelakowsky. See Celakovsky. 
 
 Czermak, Johann Nepomuk, Bohemian physiologist. B. 1828. D. 1873. 
 Czerny George (Kara George), leader in a rising of the Servian people 
 
 against the Turks. B. about 1766. Put to death 1817. 
 Czuczor, Gergely, Hungarian poet, scholar. B. 1800. D. 1866. 
 
 Dacier, Andre, French classical scholar, translator. B. 1651. D. 1722. 
 Dacier, Anne (Tanneguy-Lefevre), French classical scholar, translator. B. 
 
 probably 1654. D. 1720. 
 Dagobert I., king of the Franks. Made king of Austrasia in the lifetime 
 
 of his father, Clotaire II., 622. Succeeded Clotaire in Neustria and Bur- 
 gundy 628. Ruler of the whole Prankish realm from 631. D. 638. 
 Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande, one of the inventors of photography. B. 
 
 in France 1789. D. 1851. 
 Dahl, Johann Kristen Clausen, Norwegian painter. B. 1788. D. 1857. 
 Dalil, Mikael, Swedish painter. B. 1656. D. 1743. 
 Dah.1, Vladimir (" Kosak Luganski "), Russian novelist, scholar. B. about 
 
 1802. D. 1872. 
 Dahlbom, Anders Gustaf, Swedish entomologist. B. 1806. D. 1859. 
 Dahlgren, John Adolf, American naval officer. B. 1809. D. 1870. 
 Dahlgren, Karl Fredrik, Swedish poet, novelist. B. 1791. D. 1844. 
 Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph, German historian. B. 1785. D. 1860. 
 
 Works on German, Danish, English, and French history. 
 Dahn, Felix, German historian, jurist, novelist, poet. B. 1834. Authority 
 
 on the early history of the Germanic and Romanic peoples. 
 Dalberg, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von, German prelate, prince, author. 
 
 B. 1744. D. 1817. 
 Dalby, Isaac, English mathematician. B. 1744. D. 1824. 
 D'Alembert. See Alembert. 
 Dalgarno, George, inventor of a deaf-mute alphabet. B. in Scotland about 
 
 1627. D. 1687. 
 Dalhcmsie, James Andi'ew Broun-Ramsay, marquis of, British statesman, 
 
 governor general of India 1848-56. B. 1812. D. 1860. 
 Dallas, Alexander James, American statesman. B. 1759. D. 1817. 
 Dallas, George Mifflin, American statesman. B. 1792. D. 1864. 
 Dalling and Bulwer, baron. See Bulwer, Henry Lytton Earle. 
 DalP Ongaro, Francesco, Italian patriot, poet, romance writer. B. 1808. 
 
 D. 1873. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 3S7 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir David, Lord Hailes, Scottish judge, antiquary B 1726 
 I). 1792. 
 
 Dalrymple, James, Viscount Stair, Scottish jurist, statesman. B. 1619 D 
 
 1695. 
 Dalrymple, John, earl of Stair, secretary of state for Scotland, who was 
 
 regarded as the author of the massacre of Glencoe. D. 1707. 
 Dalrymple, John, earl of Stair, British general. B. 1673. D. 1747. 
 Dalton, John, English chemist, author of the atomic theory. B 1766 D 
 
 1844. 
 Dalton, John Call, American physiologist. B. 1825. D. 1889. 
 Damascene, John, theologian of Damascus. 8th c. 
 Damascius, Ned-Platonic philosopher. First half of 6th e. a. d. 
 Damiani, Pietro, Italian prelate. D. 1072. 
 Damiens, Robert Francois, Frenchman who attempted to assassinate Louis 
 
 XV. B. about 1715. Put to death 1757. 
 Dampier, William, English navigator. B. 1652. D. 1715. 
 Dampierre, Auguste Henri Marie Picot, marquis de, French general B 
 
 1756. Killed 1793. 
 Dana, Francis, American statesman, jurist. B. 1743. I). 1811. 
 Dana, James Dwight, American geologist, mineralogist. B. 1813. D. 1895. 
 Dana, Richard Henry, American poet. B. 1787. D. 1879. 
 Dana, Richard Henry, jr., American author, lawyer. B. 1815. D. 1882. 
 
 " Two Years Before the Mast." 
 Danby, Francis, British painter. B. 1793. D. 1861. 
 Dancourt, Florent Carton, French writer of comedy. B. 1661. D. 1725. 
 Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice, principal leader of the expedition of Ve- 
 netians and crusaders which established the Latin Empire of the East. 
 B. about 1109. Made doge 1192. D. 1205. 
 Danican, Francois Andre (" Philidor "), French chess-player, composer. B. 
 
 1726. D. 1795. 
 Daniel, Hermann Adalbert, German geographer. B. 1812. D. 1872. 
 Daniel, Samuel, English poet. B. 1562. D. 1619. 
 Daniell, John Frederick, English physicist. B. 1790. D. 1845. 
 Daniell, William, English artist. B. 1769. D. 1837. 
 Dannecker, Johann Heinrich von, German sculptor. B. 1758. D. 1841. 
 Dante Alighieri, Florentine poet, diplomatist. B. May or June, 1265. D, 
 Sept., 1321. "La divina commedia" (•' Inferno," " Purgatorio," " Para- 
 diso "). Prose writings : " La vita nuova," " II convito," " De Vulgari 
 Eloquio," " De Monarchia " (last two in Latin). 
 Danton, Georges Jacques, French revolutionist. B. 1759. Executed 1794. 
 D'Arblay, Madame (Frances Bumey), English novelist. B. 1752. D. 1840. 
 
 " Evelina." " Cecilia." 
 Darboy, Georges, archbishop of Paris. B. 1813. Shot 1871. 
 Darcet, Jean, French chemist. B. about 1727. D. 1801. 
 Darius I., Hystaspis, king of Persia. Reigned 521-486 b. c. 
 26 
 
388 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Darius II., Nothus, king of Persia. Reigned from 424 or 425 to 405 or 
 404 b. c. 
 
 Darius III., Codomannus, king of Persia. Reigned 336-330 b. c. 
 
 Darley, Felix 0. C, American artist. B. 1822. D. 1888. 
 
 Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord, second husband of Mary Stuart. B. 1541 or 
 1546. Killed 1567. 
 
 Daru, Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno, count, French statesman, historian. B. 
 1767. D. 1829. " Histoire de la republique de Venise." 
 
 Darwin, Charles Robert, English naturalist. B. Feb. 12, 1809. I). April 
 19, 1882. " The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," 1859. 
 " The Descent of Man," 1871. 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus, English physiologist, naturalist, didactic poet, grand- 
 father of Charles Darwin. B. 1731. D. 1802. 
 
 Darwin, Francis, English vegetable physiologist. B. 1848. 
 
 Darwin, George Howard, English physiographer. B. 1845. 
 
 Dash, countess (pseudonym of the viscountess de Saint-Mars), French au- 
 thoress. B. 1804. D. 1872. 
 
 Dashkoff, Yekaterina Romanovna, Russian princess, accomplice of Catha- 
 rine II. in the conspiracy against Peter III., authoress. B. 1743. D. 1810. 
 
 Daubenton, Louis Jean Marie, French naturalist. B. 1716. D. Dec. 31, 
 1799, or Jan. 1, 1800. 
 
 Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, English chemist, geologist. B. 1795. D. 1867. 
 
 Daubigne. See Merle d'Aubigne. 
 
 Daubigny, Charles Francois, French painter. B. 1817. D. 1878. 
 
 Daudet, Alphonse, French novelist. B. 1840. D. 1897. 
 
 Daudet, Ernest, French novelist, political writer. B. 1837. 
 
 Daudin, Francois Marie, French naturalist. B. 1774. D. 1804. 
 
 Daun, Leopold Joseph Maria von, count, Austrian general. B. 1705. D. 
 1766. 
 
 Daunou, Pierce Claude Francois, French statesman, historian. B. 1761. 
 D. 1840. 
 
 Davenant, Sir William, English dramatist, epic poet. B. 1606. D. 1668. 
 
 Davenport, John, Puritan minister at New Haven. B. about 1598. D. 
 1670. 
 
 David, king of the Hebrews. Reigned about 1033-993 b. c. (Duncker; 1058- 
 1017, Oppert). 
 
 David Bruce. See Bruce. 
 
 David, Felicien Cesar, French composer. B. 1810. D. 1876. 
 
 David, Jacques Louis, French painter. B. 1748. D. 1825. 
 
 David (David d' Angers), Pierre Jean, French sculptor. B. 1789. D. 1856. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel. British Biblical scholar. B. 1807. 
 
 Davies, Sir John, English poet. B. 1569. D. 1626. 
 
 Davila, Enrico Caterino, Italian historian. B. 1576. Murdered 1631. His- 
 tory of the civil wars in France in the 16th century. 
 
 Davis, Charles Henry, American naval officer, scientist. B. 1807. D. 1877. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 389 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, president of the Confederate States. B. June 3, 1808. D. 
 
 Dec. 6, 1889. 
 Davis, John, English navigator. Killed 1605. 
 
 Davis, Sir John Francis, English writer on China. B. 1795. D. 1890. 
 Davout (Davoust), Louis Nicolas, duke of Auerstadt and prince of Eckmiihl, 
 
 French general. B. 1770. D. 1823. 
 Davy, Sir Humphry, English chemist. B. 1778. D. 1829. 
 Dawison, Bogumil, actor. B. in Poland 1818. D. 1872. 
 Dawkins, W. Boyd, Eng. geologist, palaeontologist, anthropologist. B. 1838. 
 Dawson, John William, Canadian geologist, naturalist. B. 1820. 
 Day, Thomas, English author. B. 1748. D. 1789. " Sandford and Morton." 
 Deak, Ferencz, Hungarian statesman. B. Oct. 17, 1803. D. night of Jan. 
 
 28-29, 1876. 
 De Amicis, Edmondo, Italian author. B. 1846. Sketches of travel, tales, 
 
 poems, &c. 
 Deane, Silas. American diplomatist. B. 1737. D. 1789. 
 Dearborn, Henry, American general. B. 1751. D. 1829. 
 Decamps, Alexandre Gabriel, French painter. B. 1803. D. 1860. 
 De Candolle. See Candolle. 
 
 Decatur, Stephen, American naval officer. B. 1751. D. 1808. 
 Decatur, Stephen, jr.. American naval officer. B. 1779. D. 1820. 
 Decazes, Elie, duke, French statesman. B. 1780. D. 1860. 
 Decazes, Louis Charles Elie Amanieu, duke, Fr. statesman. B. 1819. D. 1886. 
 Decebalus, king of the Dacians. D. a. d. 106. 
 Decius, Roman emperor. Reigned 249-251. 
 
 Decius Mus, Publius, Roman consul, general. Slain about 340 b. c. 
 Decius Mus, Publius, Roman consul, general. Slain 295 rs. c. 
 Decken, Karl Klaus von der, Ger. African explorer. B. 1833. Killed 1865. 
 Dee, John, English astrologer. B. 1527. D. 1608. 
 Deffand, Marie, marchioness du, French lady. B. about 1697. D. 1780. 
 Defoe, Daniel, English author. B. 1661(?). D. 1731. " Robiuson Crusoe." 
 Defregg-er, Franz, Austrian painter. B. 1835. 
 De Gerando. See Gerando. 
 De Grasse. See Grasse. 
 
 Dejazet, Pauline Virginie, French actress. B. 1798. D. 1875. 
 Dejean, Pierre Francois Aime Auguste, French entomologist. B. 17S0. D. 
 
 1845. 
 De Kalb, John, baron, general in the American service. B. in Alsace 1721, 
 
 Killed 1780. 
 De Kay, James E., American naturalist. B. 1792. D. 1851. 
 Dekker (Decker), Thomas, English dramatist. D. after 1637. 
 De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas, English geologist. B. 1796. D. 1855. 
 Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene, French painter. B. 1799. D. 1863. 
 Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French astronomer. B. 1749. D. 1822. 
 De la Baine, Louisa (" Ouida"), English novelist. B. about 1840. 
 
390 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 De la Rive. See La Rive. 
 
 Delaroche, Paul, French painter. B. 1797. D. 1856. 
 
 De La Rue, Warren, English astronomer, physicist. B. 1815. D. 1889. 
 
 " Researches on Solar Physics." 
 Delaunay, Charles Eugene, French astronomer. B. 1816. D. 1872. 
 Delavigne, J. F. Casimir, French poet, dramatist. B. 1793. D. 1843. " Les 
 
 Messeniennes " (patriotic elegies). " Les vepres siciliennes," " Le Paria," 
 
 " Marino Faliero," " Louis XI. " (tragedies). " L' ecole des vieillards " 
 
 (comedy). " La Parisienne " (patriotic hymn). 
 Delaware (Delawarr), Thomas West, Lord, governor of Virginia. D. 1618. 
 Delbriick, Rudolph, German statesman. B. 1817. 
 Delescluze, Louis Charles, French Communist. B. 1809. Killed 1871. 
 Delille, Jacques, French didactic poet. B. 1738. D. 1813. " Les jardins." 
 
 " La pitie." Translations of Virgil's " Georgics " and "iEneid." 
 Delisle. See Lisle. 
 
 Delitzsch, Franz, German Biblical scholar, Hebraist. B. 1813. D. 1890. 
 Delitzsch, Friedrich, German Assyriologist. B. 1850. 
 Delolme, Jean Louis, Swiss author. B. 1740. D. 1806. " Constitution de 
 
 l'Angleterre." 
 Dclord, Taxile, French journalist, historian. B. 1815. D. 1877. " Histoire 
 
 du second empire." 
 Deluc, Jean Andre, Swiss scientist, B. 1727. D. 1817. 
 Demades, Athenian demagogue. Put to death 319 b. c. 
 Dembinski, Henryk, Polish commander, who bore a distinguished part in 
 
 the revolution of 1830-'31, and was a general of the Hungarians in 1849. 
 
 B. 1791. D. 1864. 
 Demetrius (Dmitri), pretender to the throne of Russia. Crowned czar 1605. 
 
 Killed 1606. 
 Demetrius, pretender to the throne of Russia. Killed 1610. 
 Demetrius Phalereus, ruler of Athens, orator, philosopher. Governed 
 
 Athens from 318 or 317 to 307 b. c. D. about 283. 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, commander, king of Macedonia 
 
 294-287 b. c. B. about 338. D. 283. 
 Demetrius Soter, king of Syria. Reigned from 162 to 151 or 150 b. c. 
 Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria. Reigned 146-138 b. c. {Clinton ; 146- 
 
 140 Rawlmsori) and again 129-125 (Clinton; 129-126 Bawl.). 
 Demidoff, Anatoli, prince, Russian noble. B. about 1812. D. 1870. 
 Demidoff, Nikolai, count, Russian noble. B. about 1773. D. 1828. 
 Democedes, Greek physician. Latter part of 6th c. b. c. 
 Democritus, Greek philosopher. B. about 460 b. c. D. about 360. 
 Demoivre. See Moivre. 
 
 De Morg-an, Augustus, English mathematician. B. 1806. D. 1871. 
 Demosthenes, Athenian general. Put to death 413 b. c. 
 Demosthenes, Athenian orator. B. about 384 b. c. D. 322. 
 Denham, Dixon, English African explorer. B. 1786. D. 1828. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 391 
 
 Denham, Sir John, English poet. B. 1615. D. 1669. 
 
 Denina, Carlo, Italian historian. B. 1731. D. 1813. " Istoria delle rivo- 
 
 luzioni d'ltalia." 
 Denis, Saint, patron saint of Paris. Put to death 273. 
 Denman, Thomas, Lord, English judge. B. 1770. D. 1854. 
 Denner, Balthasar, German painter. B. 1685. D. 1747. 
 Dennis, John, English writer, critic. B. 1657. D. 1734. 
 Denon, Dominique Vivant, baron, French artist, writer on Egypt and on 
 
 art. B. 1747. D. 1825. 
 Dentatus, M. Curius, Roman general, D. about 270 B. c. 
 D'Eon, chevalier. See Eon de Beaumont. 
 
 Depping, Georges Bernard, French author. B. 1784. D. 1853. 
 Depretis, Agostino, Italian statesman. B. 1818. D. 1887. 
 De (Juincey, Thomas, English author. B. 1785. D. 1859. "Confessions 
 
 of an English Opium Eater." 
 Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith-Stanley, earl of, British premier 1852, 
 
 1858-'9, 1866-8. B. 1799. D. 1869. 
 Derby, Edward Henry Smith-Stanley, earl of, British statesman, son of the 
 
 preceding. B. 1826. D. 1893. 
 Derwentwater, James Radcliffe, earl of, English Jacobite leader. B. 1689. 
 
 Executed 1716. 
 Derzhavin, Gavriil, Russian lyric poet. B. 1743. D. 1816. 
 Desaix, Louis Charles Antoine, French general, B. 1768. Killed 1800. 
 Desau.lt, Pierre Joseph, French surgeon. B. 1744 D. 1795. 
 Descartes, Rene, French philosopher, mathematician. B. March 31, 1596. 
 
 D. Feb. 11, 1650. 
 Desfontaines, Rene Louiche, French botanist, B. about 1752. D. 1833. 
 Deshoulieres, Antoinette. French poetess. B. about 1634. D. 1694. 
 Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Reigned from about the close of 756 
 
 to 774. 
 Desmoulins, Benoit Camille, French revolutionist. B. about 1760. Exe- 
 cuted 1794. 
 Desnoyers, Auguste Gaspard Louis Boucher, baron, French engraver. B. 
 
 1779. D. 1857. 
 Desor, Edward, Swiss geologist, naturalist, archaeologist. B. in Germany 
 
 1811. D. 1882. 
 De Soto, Fernando, Spanish explorer, discoverer of the Mississippi. B. 
 
 about 1501. D. 1542. 
 Dessalines, Jean Jacques, Negro emperor of Hayti. Reigned 1804-6. 
 Dessolles, Jean Joseph Paul Augustin, marquis, French general. B. 1767. 
 
 D. 1828. 
 D'Estaing. See Estaing. 
 
 Destouches, Philippe Nericault, French dramatist. B. 1680. D. 1754. 
 Destutt de Tracy, Antoine Louis Claude, count de Tracy, French philoso- 
 pher. B. 1754. I). 1836. 
 
392 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Detaille, Edouard Jean Baptiste, French painter. B. 1848. 
 
 De Tocqueville. See Tocqueville. 
 
 Deutsch, Emanuel, Jewish orientalist, Biblical and Talmud ical scholar. B. 
 in Germany 1829. Lived in England from 1855. 1). 1873. 
 
 Deville, Sainte-Claire. See Sainte-Claire Deyille. 
 
 Devonshire, duke of. See Hartington. 
 
 Devrient, Eduard, German actor, writer. B. 1801. D. 1877. "Gesehichte 
 der deutschen Schauspielkunst" ("History of German IlistrionicArt "). 
 
 Devrient, Emil, German actor. B. 1803. D. 1872. 
 
 Devrient, Ludwig, German actor. B. 1784. D. 1832. 
 
 De Wette, Wilhelm Martin Leberecht, Ger. Biblical critic. B. 1780. D. 1849. 
 
 De Witt, Johan, Dutch statesman. B. about 1623 * Murdered 1672. 
 
 Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, mistress of Henry II. of France. 
 B. 1499. D. 1566. 
 
 Dias (Diaz), A. Gongalvez. See Goncalvez Dias. 
 
 Dias, Bartholomcu, Portuguese navigator, discoverer of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. D. 1500. 
 
 Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, one of the companions of Cortes, historian. 
 "Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nucva Espaiia." 
 
 Diaz, Porfirio, Mexican general in the war against Maximilian and presi- 
 dent of Mexico. Took possession of the government close of 1876 ; actiuii 
 president from 1877. Term ended 1880. Again president since 1884. 
 
 Diaz de la Pena, Nareisse, French painter. B. 1807. D. 1876. 
 
 Diaz de Solis. See Solis. 
 
 Dibdin, Charles, English song-writer, dramatist. B. 1745. D. 1814. 
 
 Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, English bibliographer. B. 1776. D. 1847. 
 
 Dickens, Charles. English novelist. B. Feb. 7, 1812. D. June 9, 1870. " The 
 Pickwick Papers," 1836-'7. " Oliver Twist,"' 1837-8. " Nicholas Nickle- 
 by," 1838-9. "Martin Chuzzlewit," 1843-4. "Dombey and Son," 
 1846-8. " David Copperfield," 1849-'50. " Our Mutual Friend," the 
 author's last novel (except one not completed), 1864-'5. 
 
 Dickinson, John, American statesman. B. 1732. D. 1808. 
 
 Diderot, Denis, French author, free-thinker, principal editor of the "Ency- 
 clopedic." B. 1713. D. 1784. " Pensees philosophiques." "Lettressur 
 les aveugles a l'usage de ceux qui voient " (" Letters on the Blind for the 
 use of Those who See "). 
 
 Didius Julianus, Roman emperor a. d. 193. 
 
 Didot, Ambroise Firmin, French publisher. B. 1790. D. 1876. 
 
 Didot, Firmin, French publisher. B. 1764. D. 1836. 
 
 Didot, Francois Ambroise, French publisher. B. 1730. D. 1804. 
 
 Didot, Ilyacinthe Firmin, French publisher. B. 1794. D. 1880. 
 
 * According to his own entry in the inscription roll of the University of Leyden, the 
 date of J. De Witt's birth is 1023 ; according to his contemporary Balen he was born in 
 1625. (Geddes.) 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 393 
 
 Didymus, writer of Alexandria,. First e. b. c. 
 
 Diebitsch, Hans Karl Friedrieh Anton, count, Russian general. B. in Prus- 
 sia 178o. D. 1831. 
 Diefenbach, Lorenz, German philologist, ethnologist, novelist. B. 1806. 
 
 I). 1883. 
 Dieskau, Ludwig August, German officer in the French service. B. 1701. 
 
 D. 17G7. 
 Diesterweg, Friedrieh Adolf Wilhelm, German educational writer. B. 
 
 1790. D. I860. 
 Dietz, Feodor, German painter. B. 1813. D. 1870. 
 Diez, Friedrieh Christian, German philologist. B. 1794. D. 187G. " Gram- 
 
 matik der romanischen Sprachen." " Etymologisehes Worterbuch der 
 
 romanischen Sprachen." 
 Digby, Sir Kenelm, English philosopher. B. 1603. D. 1665. 
 Digges, Leonard, English mathematician. D. about 1574. 
 Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, English author, politician. B. 1843. 
 
 " Greater Britain, a Record of Travel in English-speaking Countries." 
 Dillenius, Johann Jakob, German botanist. B. 1687. D. 1747. 
 Dillmann, August, German orientalist, theologian. B. 1823. D. 1894. 
 
 Authority on the language and literature of Ethiopia. 
 Dindorf, Wilhelm. German classical scholar. B. 1802. D. 1883. 
 Dingelstedt, Franz, German poet, novelist, theatrical director. B. 1814. 
 
 D. 1881. 
 Diniz (Dionysius), king of Portugal. Reigned 1279-1325. 
 Dinwiddie, Robert, governor of Virginia 1752-8. B. about 1690. U. 1770. 
 Diocletian, Roman emperor 284-305. B. 245. D. 313. 
 Diodorus Siculus, Greek historian. Latter part of first c. b. c. 
 Diogenes, Greek Cynic philosopher. B. about 412 b. c. D. 323. 
 Diogenes of Apollonia, Greek philosopher. Latter part of 5th c. b. c. 
 Diogenes Laertius, Greek author. About a. d. 200. Work on the Greek 
 
 philosophers. 
 Dion, liberator of Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger 356 b.,c. Assassi- 
 nated 353. 
 Dion Cassius, historian. B. in Bithynia about a. d. 155. History of 
 
 Rome (in Greek). 
 Dion Chrysostomus, Greek rhetorician. D. about a. d. 117. 
 Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse. Ruled 406-367 b. c. 
 Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Syracuse. Ruled 367-356, 346-343 
 
 b. c. 
 Dionysius, king of Portugal. See Diniz. 
 Dionysius, Saint, bishop of Alexandria. D. 265. 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Greek historian. Latter part of first c. b. c. 
 
 Writer on early Roman history. 
 Dioscorides, Greek writer on materia medica. First or second c. a. d. 
 Disraeli, Benjamin, earl of Beaconsfield, English statesman, novelist. B, 
 
394 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 probably Dec. 21, 1804.* Premier 1868, 1874-'80. D. April 19, 1881. 
 Best known productions in the order of their publication : " Vivian 
 Grey," 1826-'7 ; " Contarini Fleming " ; " Alroy " ; " Coningsby " ; " Sy- 
 bil " ; " Tancred " ; " Lothair," 1870. 
 
 Disraeli, Isaac, English author. B. 1766. D. 1848. " Curiosities of Litera- 
 ture." " Amenities of Literature." 
 
 Dix, John Adams, American general, statesman. B. 1798. D. 1879. 
 
 Dixon, William Hepworth, English author. B. 1821. D. 1879. "New 
 America." " Spiritual Wives." " Free Russia." 
 
 Dmitri. See Demetrius. 
 
 Dobell, Sydney Thompson, English poet. B. 1824. D. 1874. 
 
 Dobrentei, Gabor, Hungarian scholar, author. B. 1786. D. 1851. 
 
 Dobrovsky, Jozef, Slavic scholar. B. in Hungary 1753. D. 1829. 
 
 Dobson, William, English painter. B. 1610. D. 1646 (1647 ?). 
 
 Dodd, William, English clergyman, author. B. 1729. Executed 1777. 
 
 Doddridge, Philip, English clergyman. B. 1702. D. 1751. 
 
 Dodington, George Bubb, Lord Melcombe, English politician. B. 1691. D. 
 1762. 
 
 Dodsley, Robert, English bookseller, author. B. 1703. D. 1764. 
 
 Dodwell, Henry, chronologist, theological writer. B. in Ireland about 1641. 
 I). 1711. 
 
 Dolci (I)..lce), Carlo. Italian painter. B. 1616. D. 1686. 
 
 Dolgoruki, Ivan, prince, Russian noble. Executed 1739. 
 
 Dolgoruki, Ivan, Russian poet. B. 1764. D. 1823. 
 
 Dolgoruki, Peter, prince, Russian writer. B. 1807. D. 1868. 
 
 Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von, German theologian, leader in the Old 
 Catholic movement. B. 1799. D. 1890. 
 
 Dollond, John, English optician. B. 1706. D. 1761. 
 
 Dolomieu, D. G. S. T. de Gratet de, French geologist, mineralogist. B. 
 1750. D. 1801. 
 
 Domat, Jean, French jurist. B. 1625. D. about 1696. 
 
 Dombrowski, Jan Henryk, Polish general. B. 1755. D. 1818. 
 
 Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), Italian painter. B. 1581. D. 1641. 
 
 Dominic, Saint (Domingo de Guzman), founder of the Dominican order. B. 
 in Spain 1170. D. 1221. . 
 
 Dominis, Marc' Antonio de, theologian, natural philosopher. B. in Dalmatia 
 1566. D. 1624. 
 
 Domitian, Roman emperor, brother of Titus. Reigned a. d. 81-96. 
 
 Donatello, Italian sculptor. B. about 1386. D. 1466. 
 
 Donati, Giovanni Battista, Italian astronomer. B. 1826. D. 1873. 
 
 Donatus, the name of two African ecclesiastics of the first half of the 4th c, 
 who originated the sect of Donatists. 
 
 Donders, Frans Cornells, Dutch oculist. B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 
 * Disraeli himself gives 1805 as the year of his birth. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 395 
 
 Donizetti, Gaetano, Italian composer. B. 1797 (1798"?). D. 1848. 
 
 Donndorf, Adolf, German sculptor. B. 1835. 
 
 Donne, John, English poet. B. 1578. D. 1631. 
 
 Donovan, Edward, English naturalist. D. 1837. 
 
 Doo, George Thomas, English engraver. B. 1800. D. 1886. 
 
 Dora d'Istria (pseudonym of Princess Helen Koltzoff-Massalski, born 
 
 Ghika), Wallachian writer (in French). B. 1828. D. 1888. 
 Dore, Gustave, French artist, B. 1833. D. 1883. 
 
 Doria, Andrea, Genoese admiral, statesman. B. 1468 (1466 ?). D. 1560. 
 Dost Mohammed, ameer of Cabool. B. about 1770. Reigned from 1826 
 
 (J. Talboys Wheeler). Dethroned by the British in the latter part of 
 
 1839 ; restored 3 years later. D. 1863. 
 Dostoyevski, Fedor, Russian novelist. B. 1821. D. 1881. 
 Douglas, Archibald, fourth earl of, Scottish noble. Slain 1424. 
 Douglas, Archibald, earl of Angus. See Angus. 
 Douglas, Gawin, Scottish poet, B. about 1474. D. about 1522. " The 
 
 Palace of Honor." Translation of the " iEneid." 
 Douglas, Sir James (the Good Sir James), companion in arms of Robert 
 
 Bruce. Slain about 1331. 
 Douglas, James, second earl of. Slain 1388. 
 Douglas, James, ninth earl of. D. about 1488. 
 Douglas, Stephen Arnold, American politician. B. 1813. D. 1861. 
 Douglas, Sir William, Knight of Liddisdale, Scottish soldier. Killed about 
 
 1353. 
 Douglas, William, first earl of. D. 1384. 
 Douglas, William, sixth earl of. Executed 1440. 
 Douglas, William, eighth earl of. Murdered 1452. 
 Douw (Dow), Gerard, Dutch painter. B. 1613 (1607 ¥). D. 1675 (1680 ?). 
 Dove, Heinrich Wilhclm, German meteorologist, physicist. B. 1803. D. 
 
 1879. 
 Dowden, Edward, English Shakespearean scholar. B. 1843. 
 Dozy, Reinhart, Dutch Arabic scholar, authority on the history and litera- 
 ture of the Mohammedans of Spain. B. 1820. D. 1883. 
 Draco, Athenian legislator. Drew up his code about 624 B. c. 
 Drake, Sir Francis, English naval commander. B. about 1540 (about 
 
 1545?). D.Jan., 1596* 
 Drake, Friedrich, German sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1882. 
 Drake, Joseph Rodman, American poet. B. 1795. D. 1820. " The Culprit 
 
 Fay." " The American Flag." 
 Draper, Henry, American physiologist, chemist, astronomer, son of J. W. 
 
 Draper. B. 1837. D. 1882." 
 Draper, John William, American chemist, physiologist, writer. B. 1811. 
 
 D. 1882. " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe." " His- 
 
 * Drake is by some incorrectly stated to have died in Jan., 1595. 
 
396 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 tory of the American Civil War." " History of the Conflict between Re- 
 ligion and Science." 
 
 Drayton, Michael, English poet, B. 1563. D. 1631. " Polyolbion " (de- 
 scriptive poem on Britain). 
 
 Drelincourt, Charles, French Protestant divine. B. 1595. D. 1669. 
 
 Dreyschock, Alexander, German pianist. B. 1818. D. 1869. 
 
 Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus von, German inventor (needle-gun). B. 1787. D. 
 1867. 
 
 Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist. B. 1763. D. 1824. 
 
 Drouet d'Erlon, Jean Baptiste, count, French general. B, 1765. D. 1844. 
 
 Drouyn de Lhuys, Edouard, French statesman. B. 1805. D. 1881. 
 
 Droysen, Johann Gustav, German historian. B. 1808. D. 1884. " Ge- 
 schichte der preussischen Politik." 
 
 Droz, Francois Xavier Joseph, French author. B. 1773. D. 1850. " De la 
 philosophic morale, ou des differents systemes sur la science de la vie." 
 " Histoire du regne de Louis XVI." 
 
 Droz, Gustave, French novelist, B. 1832. D. 1895. 
 
 Droz, Henri Louis Jacquet, Swiss maker of automatons. B. 1752. D. 1791. 
 
 Droz, Pierre Jacquet, Swiss maker of clocks and automatons. B. 1721. D. 
 1790. 
 
 Drummond, Thomas, inventor of the Drummond light, B. in Scotland 
 1797. I). 1840. 
 
 Drummond, William, Scottish poet. B. 1585. D. 1649. " Notes of Ben 
 Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of Ilawthornden." 
 
 Drusus, Nero Claudius, Roman general, brother of Tiberius. B. 38 b. c. 
 D. 9 b. c. 
 
 Drusus Csesar, son of Tiberius. Poisoned A. d. 23. 
 
 Dryden, John, English poet, satirist. B. Aug. 9, 1631. D. May 1, 1700. 
 " Absalom and Achitophel." " The Hind and the Panther." " Ode on 
 St. Cecilia's Day " (" Alexander's Feast "). Translation of the " yEneid." 
 
 Du Barry. See Barry. 
 
 Dubois, Antoine, baron, French surgeon. B. 1756. D. 1837. 
 
 Dubois, Guillaume, cardinal, French statesman. B. 1656. D. 1723. 
 
 Dubois, Jean Antoine, French missionary, author. B. 1765. D. 1848. 
 
 Dubois, Paul, French sculptor. B. 1829. 
 
 Du Eois-E.eymond, Emil, German physiologist. B. 1818. D. 1896. 
 
 Dubs, Jakob, Swiss statesman. B. 1822. D. 1879. 
 
 Ducamp, Maxime, French author. B. 1822. D. 1894. 
 
 Du Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur, French scholar. B. 1610. D. 1688. 
 Glossaries of mediaeval Latin and Greek. Historical writings. 
 
 Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian. 15th c. 
 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna, Italian painter. Beginning of 14th c. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, traveler in Africa, author. B. in France 1835. 
 
 Du Chatelet, Gabrielle Emilie, marchioness, French authoress, friend of 
 Voltaire. B. 1706. D. 1749. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 397 
 
 Duchesne, Andre, French historian. B. 1584. D. 1640. 
 
 Ducis, Jean Francois, French dramatic poet. B. 1733. D. 1816. 
 
 Duclos, Charles Pineau, French author. B. 1704. D. 1772. " Considera- 
 tions sur les moeurs de ce siecle." " Memoires secrets des regnes de Louis 
 XIV. et de Louis XV." 
 
 Ducrot, Auguste Alexandre, French general. B. 1817. D. 1882. 
 
 Du Deffand. See Deffaxd. 
 
 Dudevant, Aurore (born Dupin) (" George Sand "), French novelist. B. 
 1804. D. 1876. 
 
 Dudley, A nil .rose, earl of Warwick. B. about 1530. D. 1589. 
 
 Dudley, Lord Guildford, husband of Lady Jane Grey. B. about 1536. Exe- 
 cuted 1554. 
 
 Dudley, John, duke of Northumberland. See Northumberland. 
 
 Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester. See Leicester. 
 
 Duer, John, American jur*t. B. 1782. D. 1858. 
 
 Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas, French statesman. B. 1798. D. 1881. 
 
 Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, marquis of, statesman, 
 gov.-general of Canada 1873-8, viceroy of India 1884-'8, author. B. 1820. 
 
 Dufour, Guillaume Ilenri, Swiss general, military writer, cartographer. B. 
 1787. D. 1875. 
 
 Dufrenoy, Pierre Armand, French geologist, mineralogist. B. 1792. D. 
 1857. 
 
 Dufresne, Charles. See Du Canoe. 
 
 Dufresny, Charles Riviere, French dramatist, B. 1648. D. 1724. 
 
 Dugdale, Sir William, English antiquary. B. 1605. I). 1686. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin, Rene, French admiral. B. 1673. D. 1736. 
 
 Du Guesclin, Bertrand, French soldier. B. about 1314. I). 1380. 
 
 Duhamel, Jean Marie Constant, French mathematician. B. 1797. D. 
 1872. 
 
 Duhamel du Monceau, Ilenri Louis, French vegetable physiologist, agri- 
 culturist, B. 1700. D. 1782. 
 
 Duhring, Eugen Karl, German philosophical and economical writer. B. 
 1833. 
 
 Dtiilius, Caius, Roman naval commander. Consul 260 B. c. 
 
 Dujardin, Karel, Dutch painter. D. 1678. 
 
 Dulong, Pierre Louis, French chemist, physicist. B. 1785. D. 1838. 
 
 Dumas, Alexandre, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1870. 
 
 Dumas, Alexandre, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1824. D. 1895. 
 
 Dumas, Jean Baptiste, French chemist. B. 1800. D. 1884. 
 
 Dumas, Matthien, count. French general. B. 1753. D. 1837. 
 
 Dumeril, Andre Marie Constant, French naturalist, B. 1774. D. 1860. 
 " L'erpetologie generale " (prepared jointly with Bibron). 
 
 Diimichen, Johannes, German Egyptologist. B. 1833. D. 1894. 
 
 Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis, Swiss writer on law, &c. B. 1759. D. 
 1829. 
 
398 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Dumont d'Urville, Jules Sebastien Cesar, French navigator, naturalist. 
 
 B. 1790. D. 1842. 
 Dumouriez, Charles Francois, French general. B. 1739. D. 1823. 
 Dunbar, William, Scottish poet. B. about 1460. D. about 1525. 
 Duncan, Adam, viscount, British admiral. B. 1731. D. 1804. 
 Duncker, Max, German historian. B. 1811. D. 1886. "Geschichte des 
 
 Alterthums " (" History of Antiquity ")• 
 Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, British statesman. B. about 1742. D. 
 
 1811. 
 Dundas, Robert, Viscount Melville, British statesman. B. 1771. D. 1851. 
 Dundee, Lord John Graham of Claverhouse, viscount, Scottish soldier, 
 
 Jacobite, leader. B. about 1650. Killed 1689. 
 Dundonald, Thomas Cochrane, earl of, English admiral. B. 1775. D. 
 
 1860. 
 Dunglison, Robley, American physician. B. 1798, D. 1869. 
 Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, English lawyer. B. 1731. D. 1783. 
 Dunois, Jean, count do. French soldier. B. 1402. D. 1468. 
 Duns Scotus, John, British scholastic philosopher. B. about 1270. D. 
 
 1308. 
 Dunstan, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 925. D. 988. 
 Dunton, John, English author. B. 1659. D. 1733. 
 
 Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Philippe, bishop of Orleans. B. 1802. D. 1878. 
 Duperron, Jacques Davy, French cardinal. B. 1556. D. 1618. 
 Du Petit-Thouars, Abel Aubert, French naval officer. B. 1793. D. 1864. 
 Dupin, Andre Marie Jean Jacques, French lawyer, statesman. B. 1783. D. 
 
 1865. 
 Dupin, Pierre Charles Francois, baron, French politician, economist. B. 
 
 1784. D. 1873. 
 Dupin, Louis Ellies, French writer on ecclesiastical literature. B. 1657. D. 
 
 1719. 
 Dupleix, Joseph Francois, governor of the French East Indies. B. about 
 
 1697. D. 1764 or 1763. 
 Duplessis-Mornay. See Mornay. 
 Dupont (Dupont de 1'Eure), Jacques Charles, French statesman. B. 1767. 
 
 D. 1855. 
 Du Pont, Samuel Francis, American naval officer. B. 1803. D. 1865. 
 Dupont de l'JStang, Pierre, count, French general. B. 1765. I). 1838. 
 Du Pont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel, French political economist, states- 
 man. B. 1739. D. 1817. 
 Duprat, Antoine, French statesman. B. 1463. D. 1535. 
 Dupre, Giovanni, Italian sculptor. B. 1817. D. 1882. 
 Dupre, Jules, French painter. B. 1812. D. 1889. 
 Dupuis, Charles Francois, French author. B. 1742. D. 1809. " L'origine 
 
 de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle." 
 Dupuytren, Guillaume, baron, French surgeon. B. 1777. D. 1835. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 399 
 
 Duquesne, Abraham, French naval commander. B. 1610. I). 1688. 
 
 Duran, Carohis, French painter. B. 1837. 
 
 Durand, Alice (" Henry Greville "), French novelist. B. 1842. 
 
 Durante, Francesco, Italian composer. B. 1684. D. 1755. 
 
 Diirer, Albrecht, German painter, engraver. B. 1471. D. 1528. 
 
 D'Urfey, Thomas, English dramatist, poet. B. about 1650. D. 1723. 
 
 Durham, John George Lambton, earl of, English statesman. B. 1792. D. 
 
 1840. 
 Duringsfeld, Ida von, German authoress. B. 1815. D. 1876. 
 Duroc, Michel, duke of Friuli, French general. B. 1772. Killed 1813. 
 Duruy, Victor, French historian. B. 1811. D. 1894. Histories of Rome, 
 
 Greece, and France. 
 Dussek, John Louis, composer, pianist. B. in Bohemia 1761. D. 1812. 
 Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper, French statesman. B. 1798. D. 
 
 1881. 
 Duvernoy, Georges Louis, French naturalist. B. 1777. D. 1855. 
 Duveyrier, Henri, French African explorer. B. 1840. D. 1892. 
 Duyckinck, Evert Augustus, American essayist, scholar. B. 1816. D. 
 
 1878. " Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 Dvorak, Antonin, Bohemian composer. B. 1841. 
 Dwight, Timothy, American divine. B. 1752. 1). 1817. 
 Dyce, Alexander, English scholar. B. 1798. D. 1869. Editor of the works 
 
 of Shakespeare and other dramatists. 
 Dyce, William, English painter. B. about 1806. D. 1864. 
 Dyrnond, Jonathan, English moralist. B. 1796. D. 1828. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eadmer, English monk, historian. D. about 1124. 
 
 Eads, James Buchanan, American engineer. B. 1820. D. 1887. 
 
 Early, Jubal A., Confederate general. B. 1816. D. 1894. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, English painter. B. 1793. D. 1865. 
 
 Eaton, Amos, American naturalist. B. 1776. D. 1842. 
 
 Eaton, William, American soldier. B. 1764. D. 1811. 
 
 Eberhard, Johann August, German philosopher. B. 1739. D. 1809. 
 
 Ebers, Georg, German Egyptologist, novelist. B. 1837. 
 
 Ebert, Adolf, German literary historian. B. 1820. D. 1890. 
 
 Eck, Johann Mayr von, German theologian. B. 1486. D. 1543. 
 
 Eckardt, Julius. Livonian writer. B. 1836. Works dealing with the social 
 
 and political condition of Russia. 
 Eckermann, Johann Peter, German author. B. 1792. D. 1854. " Ge- 
 
 spriiche mit Goethe." 
 Eckhart, " Meister," German mystic. D. about 1328. 
 Edgar, king of England. Reigned 958-975. 
 Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside. D. early in the 12th c. 
 
400 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria, English authoress. B. 17G7. D. 1849. Novels, moral 
 
 tales, &e. 
 Edgeworth, Richard Lovell, English author, engineer, mechanician. B. 
 
 1744. D. 1817. 
 Edison, Thomas Alva, American inventor. B. 1847. 
 Edmund I., king of England. Reigned 940-946. 
 Edmund II. (Ironside), king of England. B. 989. Succeeded his father, 
 
 Ethelred II., 1016. D. 1010. 
 Edmund, Saint. See Rich. 
 Edred, king of England. Reigned 946-955. 
 Edrisi, Arabian geographer. B. about 1099. D. about 1180. 
 Edward the Elder, king of England, son and successor of Alfred the Great. 
 
 Reigned 901-925. 
 Edward the Martyr, king of England. B. about 962. Reigned from 975. 
 
 Murdered 979. 
 Edward the Confessor, king of England. B. about 1004. Reigned from 
 
 1042. D. 1066. 
 Edward I., king of England, son of Henry III. B. 1239. Reigned from 
 
 1272. D. 1307. 
 Edward II., king of England, son of Edward I. B. 1284. Reigned from 
 
 1307. Murdered 1327. 
 Edward III., king of England, son of Edward II. B. 1312. Reigned from 
 
 1327. D. 1377. 
 Edward IV., king of England, son of Richard, duke of York. B. 1441 or 
 
 1442. Reigned 1461-70, 1471-'83. D. 1483. 
 Edward V., king of England. B. 1470. Successor to his father, Edward 
 
 1Y., 1483. Murdered by his uncle, the duke of Gloucester (Richard III.), 
 
 1843. 
 Edward VI., king of England, son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour. B. 
 
 1537. Reigned from 1547. D. 1553. 
 Edward, prince of Wales (the Black Prince), son of Edward III., general. 
 
 B. 1330. D. 1376. 
 Edwards, Amelia B., English novelist, writer of travels, Egyptologist. B. 
 
 1831. D. 1892. 
 Edwards, George, English naturalist. B. about 1693. D. 1773. 
 Edwards, Jonathan, American theologian, metaphysician. B. 1703. D. 
 
 1758. 
 Edwards, Milne. See Milne-Edwards. 
 
 Edwin, king of Northumbria. Reigned from about 616. D. 633. 
 Edwy, king of England. B. about 938. Reigned from 955. D. 958. 
 Eeckhout, Gerbrant van den, Dutch painter. B. 1621. D. 1674. 
 Egbert, king of England. Became king of Wessex about 800 ; overlord of 
 
 England 827. D. 837 or 836. 
 Egede, Hans, " apostle of Greenland." B. 1686. D. 1758. 
 Egerton, Francis. See Bridgewatkr and Ellesmere. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 401 
 
 Egerton, Francis Henry. See Bridgewater. 
 
 Egerton, Thomas, Lord Ellesmere, lord chancellor of England. B. 1540. 
 
 D. 1617. 
 Eginhard, biographer of Charlemagne. B. about 770. D. about 844. 
 Egmont, Lamoral, count of, soldier and patriot of the Netherlands. B. 
 
 1522. Executed 1568. 
 Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, German naturalist (infusoria). B. 1795. 
 
 D. 1876. 
 Eichendorff, Joseph von, baron, German poet, novelist. B. 1788. D. 1857. 
 Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried, Ger. Biblical critic, author. B. 1752. D. 1827. 
 Eichwald, E., Russian naturalist, B. 1795. D. 1876. 
 Eiffel, Gustave, French engineer. B. 1832. 
 Elagabalus (Heliogabalus), Roman emperor. B. about 205. Reigned from 
 
 218. Murdered 222. 
 Eldon, John Scott, earl of, lord chancellor of England. B. 1751. D. 1838. 
 Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of Henry II. of England. B. about 1122. 
 
 I), about 1204. 
 Eleonora of Este, sister of Duke Alfonso II. of Ferraraand friend of Tasso. 
 
 B. 1537. D. 1581. 
 Elgin, James Bruce, earl of, British statesman, diplomatist, viceroy of India 
 
 1862-3. B. 1811. I). 1863. 
 Elgin, Thomas Bruce, earl of, British diplomatist, collector of the Elgin 
 
 marbles. B. 1766. D. 1841. 
 Elias Levita, Italian Hebrew scholar, grammarian, lexicographer. B. 
 
 about 1470. I). 1549. 
 Elie de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Armand Louis Leonce, French geologist. 
 
 B. 1798. I). 1874. 
 Elijah, Hebrew prophet, contemporary of Ahab. 
 Eliot, George. See Lewes, Marian Evans. 
 Eliot, John, missionary to the Indians of New England. B. in England 
 
 1604. D. 1690. 
 Eliott, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield, British soldier, defender of 
 
 Gibraltar against the French and Spaniards. 15. about 1717. D. 1790. 
 Elisabeth, Madame, sister of Louis XVI. B. 1764. Executed 1794. 
 Elisha, Hebrew prophet, disciple of Elijah. 
 Elizabeth, queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. 
 
 B. Sept. 7, 1533. Reigned from Nov. 17, 1558." D. March 24, 1603. 
 Elizabeth, empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great, B. 1709. 
 
 Reigned from 1741. D. 1762. 
 Elizabeth of Valois, queen of Philip II. of Spain. B. 1545. D. 1568. 
 Elizabeth, queen of Philip IV. of Spain, daughter of Henry IV. of France. 
 
 B. 1602. D. 1644. 
 Elizabeth, Madame. See Elisabeth. 
 Elizabeth (of Hungary), Saint, landgravine of Thuringia. B. 1207. I). 
 
 1231. 
 
402 • BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Elizabeth Charlotte, duchess of Orleans, sister-in-law of Louis XIV. B. 
 1652. D. 1722. Author of memoir and letters. 
 
 Elizabeth Christina, queen of Frederick the Great. B. 1715. D. 1797. 
 
 Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I., wife of Frederick V., elector pala- 
 tine and king of Bohemia. B. 1596. D. 1662. 
 
 Ellenborough, Edward Law, Lord, English lawyer, lord chief justice. B. 
 1750. I). 1818. 
 
 Ellenborough, Edward Law, earl of, statesman, governor-general of India 
 1842-4. B. 1790. D. 1871. 
 
 Ellery, William, American patriot. B. 1727. D. 1820. 
 
 Ellesmere, Francis Egerton, earl of (Francis Leveson-Gower), English states- 
 man, author. B. 1800. D. 1857. 
 
 Elliott, George Augustus. See Eliott. 
 
 Elliott, Ebenezer, English poet, known as the Corn Law Rhymer. B. 1781. 
 D. 1849. 
 
 Elliston, Robert William, English actor. B. 1774. D. 1831. 
 
 Ellsworth, Oliver, chief justice of the United States. B. 1745. D. 1807. 
 
 Ellwood, Thomas, English author, friend of Milton. B. 1639. D. 1714. 
 
 Elmacin (Almakin, Elmacinus), George, Arabian (Christian) historian. B. 
 1223. D. 1273. 
 
 Elmes, Harvey Lonsdale, English architect. B. about 1814. D. 1847. 
 
 Elrasley, Peter, English Greek scholar. B. 1773. D. 1825. 
 
 Elphinstone, George Keith, Viscount Keith, British naval commander. B. 
 1746. D. 1823. 
 
 Elphinstone, Mountstuart, East Indian statesman, historian. B. 1779. D. 
 1859. " History of India." 
 
 Elssler, Fanny, Viennese dancer. B. 1810. D. 1884. 
 
 Elzevir, the name of a Dutch family of printers in the 16th and the 17th c. 
 
 Emanuel, king of Portugal. B. 1469. Reigned from 1495. D. 1521. 
 
 Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, general in the service of Charles V. and 
 Philip II. B. 1528. Reigned from 1559 (titular duke from 1553). D. 1580. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, American philosophical writer, poet. B. May 25, 
 
 1803. D. April 27, 1882. " Nature," 1836. " Essays." " Essays on Rep- 
 resentative Men." " English Traits." " The Conduct of Life." " Society 
 and Solitude," 1870. 
 
 Emm Pasha (Eduard Schnitzer), German-Jewish African explorer, gov- 
 ernor of the Equatorial Provinces of Egypt. B. 1840. Murdered 1892. 
 Emmet, Robert, Irish revolutionist. B. about 1778. Hanged 1803. 
 Empedocles, Greek philosopher. Middle of 5th c. b. c. 
 Encke, Johann Franz, German astronomer. B. 1791. D. 1865. 
 Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts colony. B. 1589. I). 1665. 
 Endlicher, Stephan Ladislaus, German- Hungarian botanist, scholar.' B. 
 
 1804. D. 1849. 
 
 Enfantin, Barthelemy Prosper, French socialist. B. 1796. D. 1864. 
 Enfield, William, English author. B. 1741. D. 1797. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 403 
 
 Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, duke d'. B. 1772. Shot 1804. 
 
 Ennius, Quintus, Latin poet. B. about 239 b. c. D. 169. 
 
 Enriquez Gomez, Antonio, Spanish author. 17th c. " El siglo pita- 
 
 gorico." 
 Enzio, illegitimate son of the emperor Frederick II. B. about 1224. D. 
 
 1272. 
 Eon de Beaumont, chevalier d', French diplomatist, who disguised himself 
 
 in female attire. B. 1728. D. 1810. 
 Eotvos, Jozsef, baron, Hungarian statesman, novelist, political philosopher. 
 
 B. 1813. D. 1871. " The Carthusian." " The Village Notary." 
 Epaminondas, Theban general, statesman. B. about 418 b. c. Slain 362. 
 Epee, Charles Michel de 1', abbe, French instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1712. 
 
 D. 1789. 
 j2pernon, Jean Louis de Nogaret de la Valette, duke d', French courtier, 
 
 soldier. B. 1554. D. 1642. 
 Ephraem the Syrian, theologian, sacred poet. D. about 378. 
 Epictetus, philosopher, native of Phrygia. Close of first c. a. d. 
 Epicurus, Greek philosopher. B. about 342 B. c. D. 270. 
 Epimenides, Cretan bard and seer. D. after 600 b. c. 
 Epinay, Louise Florence Petronille de la Live, Madame d', French authoress. 
 
 B. about 1725. I). 1783. 
 Epiphanius, Saint, bishop of Constantia (Salamis in Cyprus). B. about 310. 
 
 I). 402 or 403. 
 Episcopius, Simon, Dutch theologian. B. 1583. D. 1643. 
 J2rard, Sebastien, French manufacturer of pianos. B. 1752. D. 1831. 
 Erasistratus, Greek physician, anatomist. Beginning of 3d c. B. c. 
 Erasmus, Desiderius, Dutch classical scholar, theological polemic, satirist. 
 
 B. about 1467. D. July 12, 1536. " Colloquia," 1522. Edition of the 
 
 Greek New Testament, 1516. " Encomium Moria? " (" Praise of Folly "), 
 
 1510. 
 Eratosthenes, Greek mathematician, astronomer, grammarian. B. about 
 
 276 B. c. D. about 195. 
 Ercilla y Ztiniga, Alonso de, Spanish poet. B. 1533. D. about 1595. " La 
 
 Araucana " (epic poem). 
 Erckmann-Chatrian (Emile Erckmann, Alexandre Chatrian), French 
 
 writers of fiction. Erckmann b. 1822, Chatrian b. 1826; d. 1890. 
 Erdmann, Johann Eduard, German philosopher. B. 1805. D. 1892. 
 Erdmann, Otto Linne, German chemist. B. 1804. D. 1869. 
 Eric XIV., king of Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa. B. 1533. Reigned 
 
 1560-'68. D. 1577. 
 Ericsson, John, Swedish-American mechanical engineer. B. 1803. D. 1889. 
 Erigena, John Scotus, philosopher, theologian, native of Ireland. Flour- 
 ished middle of 9th c. 
 Erman, Adolf, German scientist, traveler. B. 1806. D. 1877. Noted for 
 
 his investigations in the field of terrestrial magnetism. 
 
404 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover. See Brunswick, Ernest Augustus, 
 
 duke OF. 
 Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, king of Hanover, son of George 
 
 III. B. 1771. Reigned from 1837. D. 1851. 
 Ernesti, Johann August, German classical scholar, Biblical critic. B. 1707. 
 
 D. 1781. 
 Erostratus (Herostratus). Burned the temple of Diana at Ephesus 356 b. c. 
 Erpenius (Van Erpen), Thomas, Dutch Arabic scholar. B. 1584. D. 1624. 
 Ersch, Johann Samuel, German encyclopaedist. B. 1766. D. 1828. 
 Erskine, Ebenezer, founder of the Secession Church of Scotland. B. 1680. 
 
 D. 1754. 
 Erskine, Thomas, baron, lord chancellor of England. B. 1750. D. 1823. 
 Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, son of Sennacherib. Reigned 681-668 b. c. 
 Eschenbach, Wolfram von. See Wolfram von Eschenbach. 
 Eschenmayer, Karl Adolf von, German philosopher. B. about 1770. D. 
 
 1852. 
 Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio, Spanish casuist. B. 1589. D. 1669. 
 Esmarch, Friedrich, German surgeon. B. 1823. 
 Espartero, Baldomero, duke de la Vitoria, Spanish general, statesman. B. 
 
 1792. D. Jan. 9, 1879. 
 Espinel, Vicente, Spanish poet. D. about 1634. 
 Espronceda, Jose de, Spanish poet. B. 1810. D. 1842. 
 Espy, James P., American meteorologist. B. 1785. D. 1860. 
 Esquirol, Jean Etienne Dominique, French writer on insanity. B. 1772. 
 
 D. 1840. 
 Essen, Hans Henrik, count, Swedish general. B. 1755. D. 1824. 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, commander, favorite of Elizabeth. B. 
 
 1567. Executed 1601. 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of. B. about 1591. D. 1646. 
 Essex, Walter Devereux, earl of. B. about 1540. D. 1576. 
 Estaing, Charles Hector d', count, French admiral. B. 1729. Executed 
 
 1794. 
 Esterhazy (Eszterhazy), Nicholas, prince, Hungarian magnate, patron of 
 
 art. B. 1765. D. 1833. 
 Esterhazy, Paul, prince, palatine of Hungary, general. B. 1635. D. about 
 
 1713. 
 Esterhazy, Paul Anthony, prince, Hungarian magnate, Austrian diploma- 
 tist. B. 1786. D. 1866. 
 Estienne. See Stephens. 
 Estrees, Gabrielle d', mistress of Henry IV. of France. B. about 1571. D. 
 
 1599. 
 Etex, Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1808. D. 1888. 
 Ethelbald, king of Wessex, son of Ethelwulf. Began to reign about 856 
 
 (during the lifetime of his father). D. 860. 
 Ethelbert, king of Kent. Reigned from about 565. D. 616. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 405 
 
 Ethelbert, king of England. Succeeded his father, Ethelwulf, in a portion 
 of his dominions 858. Reigned in Wessex from 860. D. 866. 
 
 Ethelred I., king of England, son of Ethelwulf. Reigned 866-871. 
 
 Ethelred II., the Unready, king of England. Reigned 979-1013, 1014-16. 
 
 Ethelwulf, king of England, son of Egbert. Reigned from 837 or 836. 
 D. 858. 
 
 Etherege (Etheridge), Sir George, English dramatist. B. about 1636. D. 
 
 about 1690. 
 JStienne. See Stephens. 
 Ettrick Shepherd. See Hogg. 
 Etty, William, English painter. B. 1787. D. 1849. 
 Eu, Louis Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston d'Orleans, count d\ grandson 
 
 of Louis Philippe, general in the Brazilian service. B. 1842. 
 Euclid (Euclides), Greek geometer. Flourished 300 B. c. 
 Euclid of Megara, Greek philosopher. B. about 440 b. c. 
 Eudes, duke of Aquitaine. D. 735. 
 Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II., emperor of the East. B. about 394. D. 
 
 about 461. 
 Eudocia, Byzantine empress, wife of Constantine Ducas and Romanus Dioge- 
 nes. D. about 1100. 
 Eudoxia, Roman empress, wife of Valentinian III. and Maximus. D. 
 
 about 463. 
 Eudoxus of Cnidus, Greek astronomer. D. about 356 b. c. 
 Eugene of Savoy, prince, Austrian general. B. 1663. D. 1736. 
 Eugenie (de Montijo), wife of Napoleon III. B. in Spain 1826. 
 Eugenius III., pope. Elected 1145. D. 1153. 
 Eugenius IV., pope. Elected 1431. D. 1447. 
 Euler, Leonhard, Swiss mathematician. B. 1707. D. 1783. 
 
 Eumenes, general and one of the successors of Alexander the Great. Put 
 to death 316 b. c. 
 
 Eunapius, Greek sophist, author. B. about 347. D. about 420. 
 
 Eupolis, Greek comic poet. B. about 446 b. c. D. about 411. 
 
 Euripides, Greek tragic poet. B. about 480 b. c. D. 406. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of C»sarea, theologian, ecclesiastical historian. B. about 
 265. D. about 340. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Emesa. D. about 360. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia and Constantinople. D. about 342. 
 
 Eustachi (Eustachius), Bartolommeo-, Italian anatomist. D. 1574. 
 
 Eutropius, Flavius, Roman historian. D. about A. d. 370. 
 
 Eutych.es, founder of the sect of Monophysites. D. about 454. 
 
 Evagoras, king of Salamis (in Cyprus). Assassinated about 374 B. c. 
 
 Evald (Ewald), Johannes, Danish poet. B. 1743. D. 1781. 
 
 Evans, Augusta J. (Mrs. Wilson), American novelist. B. about 1835. 
 
 Evans, Sir De Lacy, British general. B. 17H7. D. 1870. 
 
 Evans, Marian. See Lewes, Marian Evans. 
 
406 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Evans, Oliver, American inventor. B. 1755. D. 1819. 
 
 Evelyn, John, English author. B. 1620. D. 1706. " Sylva, or a Discourse 
 
 on Forest Trees." " Diary." 
 Everdingen, Aldert van, Dutch painter, engraver. B. 1621. D. 1675. 
 Everett, Alexander Hill, American diplomatist, author. B. 1792. D. 
 
 1847. 
 Everett, Edward, American statesman, orator, author. B. 1794. D. 1865. 
 Ewald, Heinrich, German Biblical critic. B. 1803. D. 1875. " Geschichte 
 
 des Volkes Israel." 
 Ewald, Johannes. See Evald. 
 
 Ewell, Richard Stoddard, Confederate general. B. 1817. D. 1872. 
 Exelmans (Excelmans), Remy Joseph Isidore, count, French general. B. 
 
 1775. D. 1852. 
 Exmouth, Edward Pellew, viscount, English admiral. B. 1757. D. 1833. 
 Eyck, Hubert van, Flemish painter. B. 1366. D. 1426. 
 Eyck, Jan van, Flemish painter. D. 1440. 
 Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet. Beginning of 6th c. b. c. 
 Ezra, Hebrew scribe and priest. Middle of 5th c. b. c. 
 Ezzelino (Eccelino) da Romano, Ghibelline leader. B. 1194. D. 1259. 
 
 Faber, George Stanley, English theological writer. B. 1773. D. 1854. 
 Fabius Maximus Hullianus, Quintus, Roman general in the second and 
 
 third Samnite wars. Consul fifth time 295 b. c. 
 Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, Quintus (surnamed Cunctator), Roman 
 
 general in the second Punic War. D. 203 b. c. 
 Fabius Pictor, Quintus, Roman historian. End of 3d c. B. c. 
 Fabre, Ferdinand, French novelist. B. 1830. D. 1898. 
 Fabre d'Figlantine, Philippe Francois Nazaire, French poet, revolutionist. 
 
 B. 1755. Executed 1794. 
 Fabriano, Gentile da, Italian painter. B. about 1370. D. about 1450. 
 Fabricius (Caius Fabricius Luscinus), Roman consul, commander. D. after 
 
 275 b. c. 
 Fabricius, Johann Albert, German bibliographer. B. 1668. D. 1736. 
 Fabricius, Johann Christian, entomologist. B. in Schleswig 1743. D. 1808 
 
 (1807 !). 
 Fabricius (Fabrizio) ab Aquapendente, Hieronymus, Italian anatomist, 
 
 B. 1537. D. 1619. 
 Facciolati, Jacopo, Italian philologist, lexicographer. B. 1682. D. 1769. 
 Faed, John, Scottish painter. B. 1820. 
 Faed, Thomas, Scottish painter. B. 1826. 
 Fahlcrantz, Karl Johan, Swedish painter. B. 1774. D. 1861. 
 Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, German physicist. B. about 1690. D. 1736. 
 Faidherbe, Louis Leon Cesar, French general. B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 407 
 
 Failly, Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French general. B. 1810. D. 1892. 
 Fairfax, Edward, English poet. D. about 1635. Translation of Tasso's 
 
 " Jerusalem Delivered." 
 Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, English Parliamentary general. B. 1612. D. 1671. 
 Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, British nobleman settled in Virginia. B. about 
 
 1692. D. 1782. 
 Falconet, Etienne Maurice, French sculptor. B. 1716. D. 1791. 
 Falguiere, Jean Alexandre Joseph, French sculptor, painter. B. 1831. 
 Falieri, Marino, doge of Venice. B. about 1275. Elected 1354. Beheaded 
 
 1355. 
 Falk, Adalbert, Prussian statesman. B. 1827. 
 Falkland, Lucius Cary, viscount, English statesman, soldier. B. about 1610. 
 
 Killed while fighting for the royalist cause 1643. 
 Fallmerayer, Philipp Jakob, German historian, traveler. B. 1790. D. 1861. 
 
 " Fragmente aus dem Orient." Works on the history of Trebizond and 
 
 the Morea. 
 Falloppio (Fallopius), Gabriello, Italian anatomist. B. about 1523. D. 1562. 
 Falloux, Alfred Pierre, count de, Fr. politician, author. B. 1811. D. 1886. 
 Faraday, Michael, English physicist. B. 1791. D. 1867. 
 Farel, Guillaume, French Reformer. B. 1489. D. 1565. 
 Faria y Sousa, Manoel de, Spanish-Portuguese historian, poet. B. in Por- 
 tugal 1590. D. 1649. 
 Farinelli, Carlo, Italian singer. B. 1705. D. 1782. 
 Farnese, Alessandro, pope. See Paul III. 
 Farnese, Alessandro, duke of Parma and Piacenza, son of Margaret of 
 
 Parma, general of Philip II. in the Netherlands. B. about 1546. Died 
 
 of a wound 1592. 
 Farnese, Ottavio, duke of Parma and Piacenza. D. 1586. Married to 
 
 Margaret, half-sister of Philip II. of Spain. 
 Farnese, Pietro Luigi, duke of Parma and Piacenza, son of Pope Paul III. 
 
 Assassinated 1547. 
 Farquhar, George, British dramatist. B. 1678. D. 1707. 
 Farragut, David Glaseoe, American admiral. B. 1801. D. 1870. 
 Farrar, Frederick William, English clergyman, author. B. 1831. 
 Faucher, Leon, French statesman, economist. B. 1803. D. 1854. 
 Faure, Felix, president of France since 1895. B. Jan. 30, 1841. 
 Fauriel, Claude Charles, French philologist, historian. B. 1772. D. 1844. 
 Faust (Fust), Johann, Ger. printer, partner of Gutenberg. D. about 1466. 
 Faust, Dr. Johann, German magician, reputed to have lived at the begin- 
 ning of the 16th c. 
 Faustin I. See Soulouque. 
 Favart, Charles Simon, French writer of comedies and comic operas. 
 
 B. 1710. D. 1792. 
 Favart, Madame (Duronceray), French actress, writer of comedy. B. 1727 
 
 D. 1772. 
 
408 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Favre, Jules, French advocate, statesman. B, 1809. D. 1880. 
 
 Favre, Pierre. See Lefevre. 
 
 Fawcett, Henry, English statesman, political economist. B. 1833. D. 1884 
 
 Fawkes, Guv, English conspirator (Gunpowder Plot). Executed 1606. 
 
 Fay, Andras, Hungarian author. B. 1786. D. 1864. 
 
 Fazy, James, Swiss statesman. B. 1796. D. 1878. 
 
 Fechner, Gustav Theodor, Ger. physicist, philosoph. writer. B.1801. D.1887. 
 
 Fedor (Feodor) I., czar of Russia, son of Ivan IV. Reigned 1584-'98. 
 
 Fedor II. (Ill), czar of Russia, son of Alexis. Reigned 1676-82. 
 
 Feith, Rhijnvis, Dutch poet. B. 1753. D. 1824. 
 
 Fellenberg, Philipp Emanuel von, Swiss educationist. B. 1771. D. 1844. 
 
 Feltre, duke de. See Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume. 
 
 Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe, French prelate, author. B. 
 1651. D. 1715. " Maximes des saints." " Les aventures de Telemaque." 
 
 Fenton, Elijah, English poet. B. 1683. D. 1730. 
 
 Feodor. See Fedor. 
 
 Ferdinand I., the Great, king of Castile and Leon. King of Castile from 
 1033 ; of Leon from 1037. D. 1065. 
 
 Ferdinand III., the Saint, king of Castile and Leon. King of Castile (as 
 such properly Ferdinand II.) from 1217; of Leon, from 1230. D. 1252. 
 
 Ferdinand V., the Catholic, king of Spain. B. 1452. King of Castile (con- 
 sort of Isabella) from 1474 ; of Aragon, from 1479. I). Jan. 23, 1516. 
 
 Ferdinand VI., king of Spain, son of Philip V. B. 1712 or 1713. Reigned 
 from 1746. D. 1759. 
 
 Ferdinand VII., king of Spain, son of Charles IV. B. 1784 Reigned 
 1808 (March-May), 1814-'33. D. 1833. 
 
 Ferdinand I., sovereign of Austria, king of Bohemia and Hungary, emperor 
 of Germany, brother of Charles V. B. 1503. Reigned in the Austrian 
 dominions from 1519 (at first jointly with Charles); in Bohemia and 
 part of Hungary, from 1526. Emperor from 1556. D. 1564 
 
 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, king of Bohemia 
 and Hungary, grandson of Ferdinand I. B. 1578. Successor to his father, 
 Charles, in Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola 1590. Successor to his cousin, 
 Matthias, in the arch-duchy of Austria. Hungary, and Bohemia 1619 (the 
 crown of Bohemia held for a year, 1619-'20. by the elector palatine Fred- 
 erick V.). Elected emperor 1619. D. 1637. 
 
 Ferdinand III., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, Bohemia, and 
 Hungary, son of Ferdinand II. B. 1608. Reigned from 1637. D. 1657. 
 
 Ferdinand, emperor of Austria, son of Francis. B. 1793. Reigned 1835-48. 
 I). 1875. 
 
 Ferdinand I., king of Naples, illegitimate son of Alfonso V. of Aragon. 
 Reigned from 1458. D. 1494 
 
 Ferdinand IV., king of Naples and Sicily (from 1816 styled Ferdinand I. 
 as king of the consolidated realm of the Two Sicilies). B. 1751. Reigned 
 in Sicily 1759-1825 : in Naples 1759-1806, 1815-'25. D. 1825. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 409 
 
 Ferdinand II., king of the Two Sicilies. B.1810. Reigned from 1830. D.1859. 
 Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany, brother of Francis II., emperor of 
 
 Germany (Francis I. of Austria). B. 1769. Reigned 1790-99, 1814-'24 
 
 I). 1824. 
 Ferdinand IV., son of Leopold II. of Tuscany. B. 1835. D. 1891. 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick. See Brunswick. 
 Ferdinand of Coburg, prince of Bulgaria since 1887, B. 1861. 
 Ferguson, Adam, Scottish author, philosopher. B. 1723. D. 1816. "Essay 
 
 on the History of Civil Society." "Institutes of Moral Philosophy." 
 
 "Principles of Moral and Political Science." "History of the Progress 
 
 and Termination of the Roman Republic." 
 Ferguson, James, Scottish astronomer, mechanician. B. 1710. D. 1776. 
 Fergusson, James, British writer on architecture. B. 1808. D. 1886. 
 Ferishtah, Mohammed Kasim, Persian historian. D. probably about 
 
 1611. 
 Fermat, Pierre de, French mathematician. D. 1665. 
 Fern, Fanny. See Parton, Sara Payson Willis. 
 Fernkorn, Anton Dominik, German sculptor. B. 1813. D. 1878. 
 Ferrari, Gaudenzio, Italian painter. B. 1484. D. 1550 or 1549. 
 Ferrari, Giuseppe, Italian writer on the philosophy of history, &c, states- 
 man. B. about 1812. D. 1876. 
 Ferreira, Antonio, Portuguese poet. B. 1528. D. 1569. 
 Ferry, Jules, French statesman. B. 1832. D. 1893. Head of the cabinet 
 
 from Sept., 1880, to Nov., 1881, and from Feb., 1883, to March, 1885. 
 Fersen, Axel, count, Swedish officer. B. about 1750. Murdered 1810. 
 Ferstel, Heinrich von, baron, Austrian architect. B. 1828. D. 1883. 
 Fesch, Joseph, French cardinal. B. 1763. D. 1839. 
 Fessenden, William Pitt, American statesman. B. 1806. D. 1869. 
 Fessler, Ignaz Aurelius, ecclesiastic, author. B. in Hungary 1756. D. 1839. 
 
 •• Geschichte der Ungern." 
 Feth Ali (Futteh Ali), shah of Persia. Reigned 1797-1834. 
 Fetis, Francois Joseph, Belgian writer on music and musicians, composer. 
 
 B. 1784. D. 1871. 
 Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas, German philosopher. B. 1804. D. 1872. 
 Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von, German jurist. B. 1775. D. 1833. 
 Feuillet, Octave, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1821. D. 1890. 
 Feval, Paul, French novelist. B. 1817. D. 1887. 
 Feydeau, Ernest, French novelist. B. 1821. D. 1873. 
 Fibonacci. See Leonardo da Pisa. 
 Fichte, Immanuel Hermann von, German philosopher, son of Johann 
 
 Gottlieb Fichte. B. 1797. D. 1879. 
 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, German philosopher. B. May 19, 1762. D. Jan. 
 
 27, 1814. 
 Ficino, Marsilio, Italian Platonic philosopher. B. 1433. D. 1499. 
 Fick, Adolf, German physiologist. B. 1829. 
 
410 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Fick, August, German philologist. B. 1838. Distinguished in the field of 
 
 the comparative study of the Indo-European languages. 
 Field, Cyrus West, American promoter of telegraphy. B. 1819. D. 1893. 
 Field, David Dudley, American jurist. B. 1805. D. 1894. 
 Field, John, British pianist. B. 1782. D. 1837. 
 
 Fielding, Copley Vandyke, English painter. B. about 1787. D. 1855. 
 Fielding, Henry, English novelist, writer of comedy. B. 1707. D. 1754. 
 
 Principal novels : " Tom Jones," " Amelia." 
 Fieschi, Joseph Marie, conspirator against the life of Louis Philippe in 
 
 1835. B. in Corsica 1790. Executed 1836. 
 Fiesco, Giovanni Luigi, Genoese conspirator. B. about 1524. Drowned 
 
 1547. 
 Fiesole, Giovanni da. See Angelico, Fra. 
 Figueras, Estanislao, Spanish statesman. B. 1819. D. 1882. 
 Figueroa, Cristoval Suarez de, Spanish author. B. about 1586. D. about 
 
 1650. 
 Figueroa, Francisco de, Spanish poet. B. about 1540. D. about 1620. 
 Filangieri, Gaetano, Italian publicist. B. 1752. D. 1788. "La scienza 
 
 della legislazione." 
 Filicaja, Vincenzo da, Italian poet. B. 1642. D. 1707. 
 Fillmore, Millard, president of the United States from July 9, 1850 to 1853. 
 
 B. Jan. 7, 1800. D. March 8, 1874. 
 Finlay, George, English historian. B. 1799. D. 1875. Works on the 
 
 ancient, mediaeval, and modern history of Greece and the history of the 
 
 Byzantine Empire. 
 Firdusi, Persian poet. D. 1020. " Shah Nameh " (" Book of Kings," his- 
 torical poem). 
 Fischart, Johann, German satirist. D. 1589. 
 Fischer, Kuno, German philosopher. B. 1824. " Geschichte der neuern 
 
 Philosophic" 
 Fisher, John, English prelate. B. 1459. Executed 1535. 
 Fitch, John, American inventor, who contrived a steamboat which plied 
 
 successfully on the Delaware in 1790. B. 1743. D. 1798. 
 Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord, Irish revolutionist. B. 1763. D. 1798. 
 Fitzroy, Robert, British naval officer, meteorologist. B. 1805. D. 1865. 
 Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth, earl, English statesman. B. 1748. D. 
 
 1833. 
 Flaccus, C. Valerius. See Valerius Flaccus. 
 Flacius Illyricus, Matthias, German Protestant theologian. B. about 
 
 1520. D. 1575. 
 Flamininus, Titus Quintius, Roman general. D. about 175 b. c. 
 Flaminius, Caius, Roman general. Slain 217 b. c. 
 Flammarion, Camille, French astronomer. B. 1842. 
 Flamsteed, John, English astronomer. B. 1646. D. 1719. 
 Flandin, Eugene Napoleon, French artist, archaeologist. B. 1809. D. 1876. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOXARY. 411 
 
 Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, French painter. B. 1809. D. 1864. 
 
 Flaubert, Gustave, French novelist. B. 1821. D. 1880. 
 
 Flaxman, John, English sculptor. B. 1755. D. 1826. 
 
 Flechier, Esprit, French pulpit orator. B. 1632. D. 1710. 
 
 Fleetwood, Charles, follower of Cromwell. 
 
 Fleetwood, William, English preacher. B. 1656. D. 1723. 
 
 Fleischer, Heinrich Leberecht, German Arabic scholar. B. 1801. D. 1888. 
 
 Fleming, John, Scottish naturalist. B. 1785. D. 1857. 
 
 Fleming (Flemming), Paul, German poet. B. 1609. D. 1640. 
 
 Fletcher, Andrew, Scottish parliamentary orator, political thinker. B. 1655. 
 
 I). 1716. 
 Fletcher, Giles, English poet. B. about 1580. D. 1623. " Christ's Victory 
 
 and Triumph." 
 Fletcher, John, English dramatist. B. 1579* D. 1625. 
 Fletcher, Phineas, English poet. B. about 1582. D. about 1650 (about 
 
 1660 ?). "The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man" (allegorical description 
 
 of the human body and mind). 
 Fleury, Andre Hercule de, cardinal, prime-minister of France. B. 1653. 
 
 Placed at the head of affairs 1726. D. 1743. 
 Fleury, Claude, abbe, French ecclesiastical historian. B. 1640. D. 1723. 
 Fliedner, Theodor, founder of the Protestant house of deaconesses at Kai- 
 
 serswerth. B. 1800. D. 1864. 
 Flinders, Matthew, English navigator, explorer of the coasts of Australia. 
 
 B. 1774. D. 1814. 
 Flint, Austin, American physician, medical writer. B. 1812. D. 1886. 
 Flint, Austin, jr., American physician, physiologist. B. 1836. 
 Florian, Jean Pierre Claris de, French author. B. 1755. D. 1794. Ro- 
 mances, fables, dramas. 
 Floris, Frans, Flemish painter. B. about 1520. D. 1570. 
 Florus, Roman historian. Early in 2d c. A. d. 
 Flotow, Friedrich von, German composer. B. 1812. D. 1883. 
 Flourens, Gustave, member of the Paris Commune. B. 1838. Killed 1871. 
 Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre, French physiologist. B. 1794. D. 1867. 
 Floyd, John Buchanan, secretary of war of the United States, Confederate 
 
 general. B. 1805. D. 1863. 
 Flugel, Gustav Lebrecht, German Arabic scholar. B. 1802. D. 1870. 
 Foerster, Wilhelm, German astronomer. B. 1832. 
 Foix, Gaston de. See Gaston de Foix. 
 Foley, John Henry, British sculptor. B. 1818. D. 1874. 
 Fonblanque, Albany W., English journalist. B. 1793. D. 1872. 
 Fonblanque, John de Grenier, English lawyer. B. 1759. D. 1837. 
 
 * The year 1570 is the date given in the article on Beaumont and Fletcher in the ninth 
 edition of the " Encyclopedia Britannica,'' the author of which has followed the memoir 
 prefixed by Alexander Byce to his edition of the works of those dramatists. 
 
412 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Fonblanque, John Samuel Martin, English lawyer. B. 1787. D. 1865. 
 
 Fontana, Carlo, Italian architect. B. 1634. D. 1714. 
 
 Fontana, Domenico, Italian architect. B. 1543. D. 1607. 
 
 Fontana, Prosper©, Italian painter. B. 1512. D. 1597. 
 
 Fontanes, Louis de, marquis, French author, statesman. B. 1757. D. 1821. 
 
 Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, French author. B. 1657. D. 1757. 
 '' Dialogues des morts " (" Dialogues of the Dead "). " Entretiens sur la 
 pluralite des mondes " (" Talks on the Plurality of Worlds "). Eloges on 
 the members of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Foote, Andrew Hull, American naval officer. B. 1806. D. 1863. 
 
 Foote, Samuel, English dramatist, actor. B. 1720. D. 1777. 
 
 Forbes, Duncan, Scottish judge. B. 1685. D. 1747. 
 
 Forbes, Edward, English naturalist. B. 1815. D. 1854. 
 
 Forbes, James David, Scottish scientist. B. 1809. D. 1868. 
 
 Forcellini, Egidio, Italian Latin scholar, lexicographer. B. 1688. D. 1768. 
 
 Forchhammer, Peter Wilhelm, German writer on Greek antiquities. B. 
 1801. D. 1894. 
 
 Ford, John, English dramatist. B. about 1586. D. about 1640. 
 
 Fordyce, David, Scottish moral philosopher. B. 1711. D. 1751. 
 
 Forester, Frank. See Herbert, Henry William. 
 
 Forey, Elie Frederic, French general. B. 1804. D. 1872. 
 
 Forrest, Edwin, American actor. B. 1806. D. 1872. 
 
 Forster, Ernst Joachim, German writer on art. B. 1800. D. 1885. 
 
 Forster, Friedrich, German historian. B. 1791. I). 1868. Works on 
 Frederick the Great, Wallenstein, Columbus, the Wars of Liberation, &c. 
 
 Forster, Johann Georg, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1754. D. 1794. 
 
 Forster, Johann Reinhold, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1729. D. 1798. 
 
 Forster, John, English biographer. B. 1812. D. 1876. 
 
 Forster, William Edward, English statesman. B. 1818. D. 1886. 
 
 Forsyth, John, American statesman. B. about 1780. I). 1841. 
 
 Fortescue, Sir John, English jurist. D. about 1485. 
 
 Fortune, Robert, British traveler in China and Japan, botanist. B. 1813. 
 I). 1880. 
 
 Fortuny, Mariano, Spanish painter. B. 1838. D. 1874. 
 
 Foscari, Francesco, doge of Venice. Elected 1423. D. 1457. 
 
 Foscolo, Ugo, Italian author. B. 1777. D. 1827. "Le ultime lettere di 
 Jacopo Ortis " (political romance). " I sepolcri " (lyric poem). Trage- 
 dies. 
 
 Foster, John, English essayist. B. 1770. D. 1843. 
 
 Foucault, Leon, French physicist. B. 1819. D. 1868. 
 
 Fouche, Joseph, duke of Qtranto, French minister of police under Napo- 
 leon. B. 1763. D. 1820. 
 
 Fould, Achille, French financier. B. 1800. D. 1867. 
 
 Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl de la Motte, baron, German poet, romance 
 writer. B. 1777. D. 1843. Most celebrated work, " Undine" (tale). 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 413 
 
 Fouquet, Nicolas, French minister of finance. B. 1615. D. 1680. 
 Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin, French revolutionist. B. 1747. 
 
 Executed 1795. 
 Fourcroy, Antoine Fran9oise de, French chemist. B. 1755. D. 1809. 
 Fourier, Charles, founder of the social system of Fourierism. B. in France 
 
 1772. D. 1837. 
 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, baron, French mathematician, scientist. B. 
 
 1768. D. 1830. 
 Fowler, Sir John, English engmeer. B, 1817. 
 
 Fox, Charles James, English statesman. B. Jan. 24, 1749. D. Sept. 13, 1800. 
 Fox, George, founder of the Society of Friends. B. in England 1624. D. 
 
 1691. 
 Fox, John. English martyrologist. B. 1516. D. 1587. 
 Foy, Maximilien Sebastien, French general. B. 1775. D. 1825. 
 Francia, Erancesco (Francesco Raibolini), Italian painter. I), about 1517. 
 Francia, -lose Caspar Rodriguez, dictator of Paraguay 1814-'40. B. about 
 
 1757. D. 1840. 
 Francis I., king of France. B. 1494. Reigned from 1515. D. 1547. 
 Francis II., king of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. 
 
 1544. Reigned from 1559. D. 1560. First husband of Mary Stuart. 
 Francis I., emperor of Germany, husband of Maria Theresa. B. 1708. 
 
 Duke of Lorraine 1729-'37. Grandduke of Tuscany 1737-"65. Elected 
 
 emperor 1745. D. 1765. 
 Francis II., emperor of Germany and of Austria (Francis I. of Austria), 
 
 son of Leopold II. B. 1768. Reigned in Germany 1792-1806; in the 
 
 Austrian dominions, 1792-1835 (as emperor from 1804). D. 1835. 
 Francis I., king of the Two Sicilies. B. 1777. Reigned from 1825. D. 1830. 
 Francis II., king of the Two Sicilies. B. 1836. Reigned 1859-'60. D. 1894. 
 Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria since Dec. 2, 1848, nephew of the em- 
 peror Ferdinand. B. Aug. 18, 1830. 
 Francis, Sir Philip. British statesman, author of the "Letters of Junius." 
 
 B. 1740. D. IMS. 
 Francis of Assisi, Saint, founder of the order of Franciscans. B. 1182. 
 
 D. 1226. 
 Francis of Paula. Saint, founder of the order of Minims. B. in Calabria 
 
 1418. D. 1507. 
 Francis de Sales, Saint, bishop of Geneva. B. 1567. D. 1622. 
 Francke, August Hermann, German philanthropist. B. 1663. D. 1727. 
 Frankel, Zacharias, German Talmudical scholar. B. 1801. D. 1875. 
 Frankl, Ludwig August, Austrian-Jewish poet. B. 1810. D. 1894. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, American philosopher, statesman. B. .Ian. 17, 1706. 
 
 D. April 17. 1790. 
 Franklin, Lady Jane, second wife of Sir John Franklin. B. about 1792. 
 
 D. 1875. 
 Franklin, Sir John. English Arctic explorer. B. 1786. D. 1847. 
 
414 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Franklin, William Buel, American general. B. 1823. 
 
 Franz, Robert, German composer. B. 1815. D. 1892. 
 
 Franzos, Karl Emil, Austrian-Jewish novelist. B. 1848. 
 
 Fraser, Simon. See Lovat. 
 
 Fraunhofer, Joseph von, German optician. B. 1787. D. 1826. 
 
 Fredegonda, queen of Neustria. B. about 545. D. 597. 
 
 Frederick I., Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, of the house of Hohcn- 
 
 staufen. B. about 1121. Reigned from 1152. D. 1190. 
 Frederick II., emperor of Germany, king of Sicily, grandson of Frederick 
 
 Barbarossa. B. 1194. Recognized as emperor 1215. D. 1250. 
 Frederick the Handsome, duke of Austria, king of Germany in opposi- 
 tion to Louis the Bavarian. B. 1286. D. 1330. 
 Frederick III. (IV.), emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria. B. 
 
 1415. Reigned from 1440. D. 1493. 
 Frederick I., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William of Brandenburg. 
 
 B. 1657. Reigned as elector of Brandenburg from 1688; as king, from 
 
 1701. D. 1713. 
 Frederick II., the Great, king of Prussia, son of Frederick William I. B. 
 
 Jan. 24, 1712. Reigned from 1740. D. Aug. 17, 1786. 
 Frederick III. (Frederick William), king of Prussia, emperor of Germany, 
 
 son of William I. B. Oct. 18, 1831. Reigned from March 9, 1888. D.June 
 
 15, 1888. 
 Frederick V., elector palatine 1610-'22, king of Bohemia 1619-'20. B. 
 
 1596. D. 1632. Husband of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England. 
 Frederick III., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1609. Reigned from 
 
 1648. D. 1670. 
 Frederick IV., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1671. Reigned from 
 
 1699. D. 1730. 
 Frederick V., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1723. Reigned from 
 
 1746. D. 1766. 
 Frederick VI., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1768. Reigned from 
 
 1808 (Norway ceded to Sweden 1814). D. 1839. 
 Frederick VII., king of Denmark. B. 1808. Reigned from 1848. D. 1863. 
 Frederick I., king of Wurtemberg. B. 1754. Reigned as duke from 1797; 
 
 as elector, from 1803 ; as king, from 1806. D. 1816. 
 Frederick I., grandduke of Baden. B. 1826. Began to rule as regent 
 
 1852 ; grandduke from 1856. 
 Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Meissen (Misnia), elector of Saxony. 
 
 B. 1369. Elector from 1423. D. 1428. 
 Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony. B. 1463. Reigned from 1486. 
 
 D. 1525. 
 Frederick Augustus I., king of Saxony. B. 1750. Reigned as elector of 
 
 Saxony (as such, Frederick Augustus III.) from 1763 ; as king, from 1806. 
 
 Duke of Warsaw 1807-13. D. 1827. 
 Frederick Augustus II., king of Saxony. B. 1797. Reigned from 1836. 
 
 D. 1854. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 415 
 
 Frederick Charles, prince of Prussia, nephew of the emperor William, 
 
 general. B. 1828. D. 1885. 
 Frederick Francis II., grandduke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, general. B. 
 
 1823. Reigned from 1842. D. 1883. 
 Frederick Henry, brother of Frederick the Great. See Henry. 
 Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, styled the Great Elector. B. 
 
 1(520. Reigned from 1640. D. 1688. 
 Frederick William I., king of Prussia, father of Frederick the Great. B. 
 
 1688. Reigned from 1713. D. 1740. 
 Frederick William II., king of Prussia, nephew of Frederick the Great. 
 
 B. 1744. Reigned from 1786. D. 1797. 
 Frederick William III., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William II. B. 
 
 1770. Reigned from 1797. D. 1840. 
 Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William HI. 
 
 B. 1795. Reigned from 1840. D. 1861. 
 Frederick William, crown prince of Prussia and of the German empire, 
 
 son of William I., general. See Frederick III. (king of Prussia). 
 Freeman, Edward Augustus, English historian. B. 1823. D. 1892. " His- 
 tory of the Norman Conquest." " History and Conquests of the Saracens." 
 
 "Growth of the English Constitution." " Historical Geography of Europe." 
 
 " History of Sicily." Other historical works. Writings on architecture. 
 Freiligrath, Ferdinand, German poet. B. 1810. D. 1876. 
 Fremont, John Charles, American explorer, general. B. 1813. D. 1890. 
 Frere, Sir Bartle, Eng. administrator (India, Cape Colony). B. 1815. D. 1884. 
 Frere, C. Theodore, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1888. 
 Frere, P. Edouard, French painter. B. 1819. D. 1886. 
 Frere-Orban, Hubert Joseph Walther, Belg. statesman. B. 1812. D. 1896. 
 Freret, Nicolas, French historical critic. B. 1688. D. 1749. 
 Freron, Louis Stanislas, French journalist, revolutionist. D. 1802. 
 Fresenius, Karl Remigius, German chemist. B. 1818. 
 Fresnel, Augustin Jean, French physicist, noted for his discoveries in 
 
 optics. B. 1788. D. 1827. 
 Freund, Wilhelm, German Latin scholar, lexicographei - . B. 1806. D. 1894. 
 Freycinet, Charles Louis de Saulces de, French statesman. B. Nov, 14, 
 
 1828. Head of the cabinet from Dec, 1879, to Sept., 1880: from Jan. to 
 
 July, 1882 ; from Jan. to Dec, 1886 ; from March, 1890, to Feb., 1892. 
 Freycinet, Louis Claude Desaulses de, French navigator, scientist. B. 
 
 1779. D. 1842. 
 Freytag, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, German Arabic scholar, lexicographer. 
 
 B. 1788. D. 1861. 
 Freytag, Gustav. German novelist, dramatist. B. 1816. D. 1895. 
 Fries, Elias Magnus, Swedish botanist. B. 1794. D. 1878. 
 Fries, Jakob Friedrich, German philosopher. B. 1773. D. 1843. 
 Frith, William Powell, English painter. B. 1819. 
 Frobel. See Froebel. 
 
416 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin, English navigator. D. 1594. 
 
 Froebel, Priedrich, originator of the Kindergarten. B. in Germany 1782. 
 
 I). 1852. 
 Froissart, Jean, French chronicler. B. about 1337. D. about 1410. 
 Fromentin, Eugene, French painter. B. 1820. D. 1876. 
 Frontenac, Louis de Buade, count de, governor of Canada. B. about 1620. 
 
 D. 1698. 
 Froude, James Anthony, English historian. B. 1818. D. 1894. Principal 
 
 production, " History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat 
 
 of the Spanish Armada." 
 Fry, Elizabeth (born Gurney), English Quakeress, philanthropist. B. 1780. 
 
 1). 1845. 
 Fryxell, Andei's, Swedish historian. B. 1795. D. 1881. Works on Swedish 
 
 history. 
 Fuad Pasha, grand vizier of Turkey. B. 1814. D. 1869. 
 Fuchs, Leonhard von, German botanist. B. 1501. D. 1566. 
 Fugger, the name of a family of Augsburg, noted for its wealth. It was 
 
 especially prominent in the 16th c. 
 Fiihrich, Joseph von, German painter. B. 1800. D. 1876. 
 Fuller, Andrew, English Baptist theologian. B. 1754. D. 1815. 
 Fuller, Margaret, Marchioness Ossoli, American authoress. B. 1810. 
 
 1). 1850. 
 Fuller, Thomas, English clergyman, author. B. 1608. D. 1061. " Church 
 
 History of Britain." " History of the Worthies of England." 
 Fulton, Robert, American inventor. B. 1765. D. 1815. Successfully in- 
 troduced steam navigation 1807. 
 Fiirst, Julius, German Hebraist. B. 1805. D. 1873. Hebrew and Chaldee 
 
 dictionary. Concordance to the Old Testament. Works on Jewish 
 
 topics. 
 Fuseli (Ftissli), Henry, Swiss-British painter. B. 1741. D. 1825. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabelentz, Hans Conon von der, German philologist, B. 1807. D. 1874. 
 
 Gaboriau, Emile, French novelist. B. 1835. D. 1873. 
 
 Gabrielli, Catarina, Italian singer. B. 1730. D. 1796. 
 
 Gaddi, Angelo, Italian painter. D. about 1395. 
 
 Gaddi, Gaddo, Italian artist, especially noted for his mosaics. D. early in 
 
 the 14th c. 
 Gaddi, Taddeo, Italian painter. B. about 1300. D. about 1366. 
 Gade, Niels Wilhelm, Danish composer. B. 1817. D. 1890. 
 Gagarin, Alexander, prince, Russian military officer. Assassinated 1857. 
 Gagarin, Pavel, prince, Russian statesman. D. 1872. 
 Gage, Thomas, British commander, last royal governor of Massachusetts, 
 
 D. 1787. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 417 
 
 Gagern, Heinrich von, baron, German statesman, president of the Frank- 
 fort Parliament, B. 1799. D. 1880. 
 Gaillard, Gabriel Henri, French historian. B. 1726. D. 1806. 
 Gainsborough, Thomas, English painter. B. 1727. D. 1788. 
 Gaius (Caius), Roman jurist. 2d c. a. d. 
 
 Galba, Roman emperor. B. about 3 b. c. Succeeded Nero a. d. 68. Mur- 
 dered 69. 
 Gale, Theophilus, English divine, author. B. 1628. D. 1678. 
 Galen (Claudius Galenus), Greek medical writer. B. about 130. D. about 
 
 200. 
 Galen, Christoph Bernhard von, prince-bishop of Munster, soldier. D. 1678. 
 Galerius, Roman emperor. Reigned over a portion of the Roman Empire 
 
 305-311. 
 Galileo (Galileo Galilei), Italian natural philosopher, astronomer. B. Feb., 
 
 1564. D. Jan. 8, 1642. 
 Galitzin. See Golitzyn. 
 
 Gall, Franz Joseph, founder of phrenology. B. in Germany 1758. D. 1828. 
 GaUait, Louis. Belgian painter. B. 1810. D. 1887. 
 Galland, Antoine, French orientalist. B. 1646. D. 1715. 
 Gallas, Matthias von, Austrian general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1589. 
 
 I). 1647. 
 Gallatin, Albert, American statesman. B. in Switzerland 1761. I). 1849. 
 Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, American instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1787. 
 
 I). 1851. 
 Galle, Johann Gottfried, German astronomer. B. 1812. 
 Gallienus, Roman emperor. Reigned from about 260. (Associated with 
 
 his father, Valerian, in the empire from 254.) Killed 268. 
 Gallitzin (Golitzyn), Demetrius Augustine, Catholic missionary in America, 
 
 son of the Russian diplomatist Dimitri Golitzyn. B. 1770. D. 1840. 
 Gait, John, Scottish novelist, humorist, biographer. B. 1779. I). 1839. 
 
 " Ayrshire. Legatees." " Annals of the Parish." " Lawrie Todd." 
 Galton, Francis, English traveler, author. B. 1822. " Notes of an Ex- 
 plorer in Tropical South Africa." " Hereditary Genius." 
 Galluppi (Galuppi), Pasquale, Italian philosopher. B. 1770. D. 1846. 
 Galuppi, Baldassare, Italian composer. B. 1703. D. 1785. 
 Galvani, Aloisio (Luigi), Italian physiologist, B. 1737. D. 1798. 
 Gama, Vasco da, Portuguese navigator. D. 1524. Doubled the Cape of 
 
 Good Hope 1497. 
 Gamaliel (the Elder), president of the Sanhedrim of Jerusalem. First 
 
 half of first c. a. d. 
 Gambetta, Leon, French statesman. B. 1838. D. Dec. 31, 1882. 
 Gambier, James, baron, British admiral. B. 1756. D. 1833. 
 Gans, Eduard, German jurist. B. 1798. D. 1839. 
 
 Garat, Dominique Joseph, French statesman, author. B. 1749. D. 1833. 
 Garay, Jiinos, Hungarian poet. B. 1812. D. 1853. 
 
418 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Garcia, Manuel, musical instructor, writer on singing and the physiology of 
 
 the human voice. B. in Spain 1805. 
 Garcia, Manuel de Populo Vicente, Spanish singer, composer. B. 1775. D. 
 
 1832. 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish poet. B. 1503. D. 1536. Sonnets, elegies, 
 
 pastorals, &c. 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish historian. D. about 1620. History of the 
 
 Incas of Peru. 
 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, English historian. B. 1829. Best known by 
 
 his works on the first two Stuart kings of England and the Puritan revo- 
 lution. 
 Gardiner, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, lord chancellor of England. B. 
 
 about 1483. D. 1555. 
 Garfield, James Abram, president of the United States. B. Nov. 19, 1831. 
 
 President from March 4, 1881. Shot July 2, 1881 ; died Sept. 19. 
 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Italian patriot, general. B. July, 1807. D. June 2, 
 
 1882. 
 Gamier, Charles, architect of the Grand Opera in Paris. B. 1825. 
 Gamier-Pages, Louis Antoine, French politician. B. 1803. D. 1878. 
 Garrick, David, English actor. B. 1717. D. 1779. 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, American abolitionist. B. 1805. D. 1879. 
 Gartner, Joseph, German botanist. B. 1732. D. 1791. 
 Garve, Christian, German philosopher. B. 1742. D. 1798. 
 Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (born Stevenson), English novelist. B. -1810. 
 
 I). 1865. 
 Gassendi, Pierre, French metaphysician, natural philosopher. B. 1592. D. 
 
 1655. 
 Gasser, Joseph, Viennese sculptor. B. 1816. 
 Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, French general. B. 1489. Killed 
 
 1512. 
 Gates, Horatio, American general. B. 1728. D. 1806. 
 Gatling, Richard Jordan, American inventor. B. 1818. 
 Gauden, John, English clergyman. B. 1605. D. 1662. Reputed author of 
 
 " Eikon Basilike." 
 Gauss, Karl Friedrich, German mathematician. B. 1777. D. 1855. 
 Gautier, Theophile, French dramatic and art critic, novelist, poet, writer of 
 
 travels. B. 1811. D. 1872. 
 Gavarni (pseudonym of S. P. Chevalier), French caricaturist. B. 1801. D. 
 
 1866. 
 Gavazzi, Alessandro, Italian preacher, agitator against the papal hierarchy. 
 
 B. 1809. D. 1889. 
 Gay, Delphine. See Girardin. 
 Gay, John, English poet, dramatist, fabulist. B. 1685. I). 1732. Most 
 
 noted dramatic production, " The Beggar's Opera." 
 Gay, Sophie, French novelist. B. 1776. D. 1852. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 419 
 
 Gayangos, Pascual de, Spanish scholar. B. 1809. D. 1897. 
 
 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, French chemist, physicist. B. 1778. D. 1850. 
 
 Gaza, Theodore, Greek scholar. B. about 1400. D. 1478. 
 
 Gebelin, Court de. See Court de Gebelin. 
 
 Geber, Arabian chemist. Flourished about 800. 
 
 Geddes, Alexander, British Biblical scholar, author. B. 1737. D. 1802. 
 
 Geefs, Willem, Belgian sculptor. B. 1806. D. 1883. 
 
 Geibel, Emanuel, German poet. B. 1815. D. 1884. 
 
 Geiger, Abraham, German rabbi, reformer, critic. B. 1810. D. 1874. 
 
 Geiger, Lazarus, German philologist, writer on the origin of language. B. 
 
 1829. D. 1870. 
 Geijer, Eric Gustaf, Swedish historian, poet. B. 1783. D. 1847. " History 
 
 of the Swedish People." 
 Geikie, Sir Archibald, Scottish geologist. B. 1835. 
 Gell, Sir William, English antiquary. B. 1777. D. 1836. Works on the 
 
 topography of the Troad and of Greece. Account of Pompeii. 
 Gellert, Christian Fiirchtegott, German poet. B. 1715. D. 1769. Best 
 
 known by his fables. 
 Gellius, Aldus, Latin author. 2d c. a. d. " Noctes Atticse." 
 Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. D. about 478 B. c. 
 Gemistus, George, Byzantine philosopher. 15th c. 
 Genelli, Johann Bonaventura, German artist. B. 1800. D. 1868. 
 Genest (Genet), Edmond Charles, French diplomatist. B. 1765. D. 1834. 
 Genevieve, patron saint of Paris. B. about 422. D. about 512. 
 Genghis Khan, Mongol conqueror. D. 1227. 
 Genlis, Stephanie FeTicite Ducrest de Saint-Aubin, countess de, French 
 
 authoress. B. 1746. 1). 1830. 
 Genovesi, Antonio, Italian philosopher, political economist. B. 1712. D. 
 
 1769. 
 Genseric, king of the Vandals, conqueror. Led the Vandals from Spain 
 
 into Africa 429. D. 477. 
 Gensonne, Armand, French revolutionist. B. 1758. Executed 1793. 
 Gentz, Friedrich von, German publicist, statesman. B. 1764. D. 1832. 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, English historian. D. about 1154. 
 Geoffrin, Madame Marie Therese, French leader of society, patroness of 
 
 learning. B. 1699. D. 1777. 
 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne, French naturalist. B. 1772. D. 1844. 
 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Isidore, French naturalist. B. 1805. D. 1861. 
 Goorge I., king of England, son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, 
 
 and of Sophia, granddaughter of James I. B. March 28, 1660. Elector of 
 
 Hanover from 1698. Reigned in England from 1714. D. June 11, 1727. 
 George II., king of England, son of George I. B. Oct. 30, 1683. Reigned 
 
 from 1727. D. Oct. 25, 1760. 
 George III., king of England, grandson of George II. B. June 4, 1738. 
 
 Reigned from 1760. D. Jan. 29, 1820. 
 28 
 
420 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 George IV., king of England, son of George III. B. Aug. 12, 1762. Reigned 
 
 from 1820 (regent from 1811). D. June 26, 1830. 
 George I., king of Greece since 1863, son of Christian IX. of Denmark. B. 
 
 1845. 
 George V., king of Hanover, son of Ernest Augustus. B. 1819. Reigned 
 
 1851-66. D. 1878. 
 George, prince of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne. B. 1653. D. 1708. 
 George of Trebizond, scholar. B. 1396. D. about 1486. 
 George, Henry, American political economist. B. 1839. D. 1897. 
 George Podiebrad. See Podiebrad. 
 
 Georges, Marguerite, French actress. B. about 1786. D. 1867. 
 Gerando, Joseph Marie de, French philosophical writer. B. 1772. D. 1842. 
 Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, French general. B. 1773. D. 1852. 
 Gerard, Francois Pascal, baron, French painter. B. 1770. D. 1837. 
 Gerhard, Eduard, German archaeologist. B. 1795. D. 1867. 
 Gerhardt, Paul, German writer of hymns. B. about 1607. D. 1676. 
 Gericault, Jean Louis Theodore Andre, French painter. B. 1791. D. 1824. 
 Gerlach, Franz Dorotheus, German classical scholar. B. 1793. D. 1876. 
 Germanicus Caesar, Roman general, nephew of Tiberius. B. 15 B. c. D. 
 
 a. d. 19. 
 Germanus, Saint, bishop of Auxerre. B. about 380. D. about 448. 
 Gerome, Jean Leon, French painter. B. 1824. 
 Gerry, Elbridge, American statesman. B. 1744. D. 1814. 
 Gerson, Jean Charlier de, French theologian. B. 1363. D. 1429. 
 Gerson ben Judah, French rabbi. B. about 960. D. about 1030. 
 Gerstacker, Friedrich, German writer of travels, novelist. B. 1816. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Gerster, Etelka, Hungarian singer. • B. 1857. 
 Gervais, Paul, French naturalist. B. 1816. D. 1879. 
 Gervinus, Georg Gottfried, German historian, critic. B. 1805. D. 1871. 
 
 " Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts " (" History of the Nine- 
 teenth Century "). " Geschichte der poetischen Nationallitteratur der 
 
 Deutschen." " Shakespeare." 
 Gesenius, Friedrich Heinrich Wilhelm, German orientalist. B. 1786. D. 
 
 1842. Hebrew lexicon, grammar, " Thesaurus." " Phoenicia? Monu- 
 
 menta." 
 Gesner (Gessner), Konrad von, Swiss naturalist. B. 1516. D. 1565. 
 Gessner, Salomon, Swiss idyllic poet, painter. B. 1730. D. 1788. 
 Gfrorer, August Friedrich, German historian. B. 1803. D. 1861. Works 
 
 on the history of the church, and on that of the Carlovingians, of Gregory 
 
 VII. and his age, of the Byzantine Empire, &c. 
 Gherardesca, Ugolino della, partisan leader of Pisa. D. 1289. 
 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Florentine sculptor. B. about 1380. D. about 1455. 
 Ghirlandaio, II (Domenico Bigordi), Florentine painter. B. 1449. D. 
 
 about 1494. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 421 
 
 Gibbon, Edward, English historian. B. April 27, 1737. D. Jac. 16, 1794. 
 
 "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." (First volume 1776.) 
 Gibbons, Orlando, English composer. B. 1583. D. 1625. 
 Gibbs, Wolcott, American chemist. B. 1822. 
 Gibson, John, English sculptor. B. 1790 (1791 ?). D. 1866. 
 Giddings, Joshua Reed, American abolitionist. B. 1795. D. 1864. 
 Giebel, Christoph, German naturalist, palaeontologist. B. 1820. D. 1881. 
 Giers, Nikolai de, Russian minister of foreign affairs. B. 1820. D. 1895. 
 Giesebrecht, Wilhelm von, German historian. B. 1814. D. 1889. " Ge- 
 
 schichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit." 
 Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig, German historian. B. 1792. D. 1854. 
 
 "Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte." 
 GifFord, Robert Swain, American painter. B. 1840. 
 Gifford, Sandford Robinson, American painter. B. 1823. D. 1880. 
 Giffbrd, William, English author. B. 1757. D. 1826. Poetical satires, 
 
 literary criticisms, etc. 
 Gil Vicente, Portuguese dramatist. B. about 1470. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, Eng. navigator. B. about 1539. Lost at sea 1583. 
 Gilbert, Sir John, English painter. B. 1817. D. 1897. 
 Giles, Ernest, Eng. explorer of Australia. First journey undertaken 1872. 
 Giles, William Branch, American statesman. B. 1762. D. 1830. 
 Gilfillan, George, Scottish author. B. 1813. D. 1878. 
 Gillespie, William Mitchell, American writer on civil engineering. B. 1816. 
 
 D. 1868. 
 Gillies, John, Scottish historian. B. 1747. D. 1836. Works on ancient 
 
 history. 
 Gillmore, Quincy Adams, American general, engineer. B. 1825. D. 1888. 
 Gillott, Joseph, English manufacturer of pens. B. 1800. D. 1872. 
 Gillray, James, English caricaturist. B. about 1757. D. 1815. 
 Gindely, Anton, German historian. B. 1829. D. 1892. History of the 
 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 Ginguene, Pierre Louis, French literary historian. B. 1748. D. 1816. 
 
 " Ilistoire litteraire d'ltalie." 
 Gioberti, Vincenzo, Piedmontese philosopher, patriot, statesman. B. 1801. 
 
 D. 1852. 
 Giocondo, Fra Giovanni, Italian architect. B. about 1440. D. about 1525. 
 Gioja, Flavio, Italian navigator. 14th c. 
 
 Gioja, Melchiorre, Italian political economist. B. 1767. D. 1829. 
 Giordano, Luca, Neapolitan painter. B. 1632. D. 1705. 
 Giorgione, Giorgio Barharelli, Venetian painter. B. about 1477. D. 1511. 
 Giotto, Florentine painter, architect. B. about 1276. D. 1337. 
 Giovanni da Bologna. See Bologna. 
 Giovio, Paolo, Italian historian. B. 1483. D. 1552. History of his own 
 
 time (in Latin). 
 Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald de Barry), British historian. B. about 1220. 
 
422 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Girard, Stephen, American philanthropist. B. 1750. D. 1831. 
 
 Girardin, Delphine Gay de, wife of Emile de Girardin, French poetess, 
 
 novelist, dramatist, writer of " Letters " on Parisian society. B. 1804. 
 
 D. 1855. 
 Girardin, Emile de, French journalist. B. 1806. D. 1881. 
 Girardin, Saint-Marc. See Saint-Marc Girardin. 
 Girardon, Francois, French sculptor. B. 1630. D. 1715. 
 Girodet-Trioson, Anne Louis, French painter. B. 1767. D. 1824. 
 Giulio Romano, Italian painter, architect. D. 1546. 
 Giusti, Giuseppe, Italian poet. B. 1809. D. 1850. 
 
 Giustiniani, Agostino Pantaleone, Italian philologist. B. 1470. D. 1536. 
 Gladstone, William Ewart, English statesman. B. Dec. 29, 1809. Pre- 
 mier 1868-74, 1880-85, 1886, 1892-'4. Author of "Studies on Homer 
 
 and the Homeric Age," "Juventus Mundi: the Gods and Men of the 
 
 Heroic Age," &c. 
 Glaire, Jean Baptiste, French orientalist, theological writer. B. 1798. D. 
 
 1879. 
 Glais-Bizoin, Alexandre, French politician. B. 1800. D. 1877. 
 Glaisher, James, British meteorologist, aeronaut. B. 1809. 
 Glanvill, Joseph, English philosopher. B. 1636. D. 1680. 
 Glanville, Ranulf de, English lawyer. D. 1190. 
 Glauber, Johann Rudolf, German chemist. B. 1604. D. 1668. 
 Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig, German poet. B. 1719. D. 1803. 
 Glendower, Owen, Welsh insurgent leader. B. about 1349. D. about 1416. 
 Glinka, Fedor, Russian military writer, poet. B. 1788. D. 1880. 
 Glinka, Mikhail, Russian composer. B. 1804. D. 1857. 
 Glinka, Sergei, Russian author. B. 1774. D. 1847. 
 Gloucester, duke of. See Richard III. 
 Gluck, Christoph Wilibald von, German composer. B. July 2, 1714. D. 
 
 Nov. 15, 1787. 
 Gmelin, Johann Friedrich, German naturalist. B. 1748. D. 1804. 
 Gmelin, Johann Georg, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1709. D. 1755. 
 
 " Reisen durch Sibirien." " Flora Sibirica." 
 Gneisenau, August, Prussian general. B. 1760. D. 1831. 
 Gneist, Rudolf, German jurist, politician. B. 1816. D. 1895. Especially 
 
 distinguished in the field of administrative law. 
 Goderich, Frederick John Robinson, viscount (afterward earl of Ripon), 
 
 English statesman, prime-minister 1827-8. B. 1782. D. 1859. 
 Godfrey, Thomas, American mathematician. D. 1749. 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, one of the leaders of the first crusade. B. 1061. D. 
 
 1100. 
 Godkin, Edwin Lawrence, American journalist. B. in Ireland 1831. 
 Godman, John D., American naturalist. B. 1794. D. 1830. 
 Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, English prime-minister under Queen Anne. B. 
 
 about 1635. D.1712. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 423 
 
 Godoy, Manuel de, duke of Alcudia, Spanish prime-minister under Charles 
 IV. B. 1767. D. 1851. 
 
 Godunoff, Boris, czar of Russia. Reigned 1598-1605. 
 
 Godwin, earl of the West Saxons, father of Harold II. D. 1053. 
 
 Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, wife of William Godwin, English authoress. 
 B. 1759. D. 1797. " Vindication of the Rights of Woman." 
 
 Godwin, Parke, American author, journalist. B. 1816. 
 
 Godwin, William, English author. B. 1756. D. 1836. " Inquiry concerning 
 Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness." 
 '• Caleb Williams," " St. Leon," " Mandeville " (novels). " History of the 
 Commonwealth." 
 
 Goes, Hugo van der, Flemish painter. D. about 1482. 
 
 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet. B. Aug. 28, 1749. D. March 
 22, 1832. " Gotz von Berlichingen " (1773). " Die Leiden des jungen 
 Werther." " Iphigenie auf Tauris." " Torquato Tasso." " Egmont." 
 " Faust." " Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre." " Hermann und Dorothea." 
 " Wahlverwandtschaften." " Dichtung und Wahrheit." " Westostlicher 
 Divan." " Italienische Reise." " Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre." 
 " Faust," second part (completed shortly before the author's death). — " Die 
 Metamorphose der Pflanzen " (" The Metamorphosis of Plants "). " Die 
 Farbenlehre" (" The Theory of Colors"). 
 
 Goflfe, William, English Parliamentary commander. B. about 1605. D. 
 1679. 
 
 Gogol, Nikolai, Russian author. B. 1809. D. 1852. Sketches of Russian 
 life. " The Inspector " (satirical comedy). " Dead Souls " (novel). 
 
 Goldoni, Carlo, Italian writer of comedy. B. 1707. D. 1793. 
 
 Goldsborough, Louis M., American naval officer. B. 1805. D. 1877. 
 
 Goldschmidt, Hermann, German painter, astronomer. B. 1802. D. 1866. 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, British author. B. Nov. 10, 1728. D. April 4, 1774. 
 " The Traveler," 1764. " The Vicar of Wakefield," 1766. " The Deserted 
 Village," 1770. " She Stoops to Conquer," 1773. 
 
 Golitzyn (Galitzin), Amalia, princess, wife of the diplomatist Dimitri Golit- 
 zyn. B. in Germany 1748. D. 1806. 
 
 Golitzyn, Dimitri. prince, Russian statesman. D. 1738. 
 
 Golitzyn, Dimitri, prince, Russian diplomatist, author. D. 1803. 
 
 Golitzyn, Mikhail, prince, Russian general. B. 1674. D. 1730. 
 
 Golitzyn, Vasili, Russian statesman. D. 1713. 
 
 Golius, Jacobus, Dutch orientalist. B. 1596. D. 1667. 
 
 Golovnin, Vasili, Russian navigator, author. B. 1776. D. 1831. 
 
 Gomes de Amorim, Francisco, Portuguese poet, dramatist, novelist. B. 
 1827. D. 1891. 
 
 Goncalvez Dias (Diaz), Antonio, Brazilian poet. B. 1823. D. 1864. 
 
 Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de, French novelists and authors of works on 
 French society in the eighteenth century. B. 1822 and 1830. Jules d. 
 1870. Edmond d. 1893. 
 
424 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 G6ngora y Argote, Luis de, Spanish poet. B. 1561. D. 1627. 
 Gonsalvo de Cordova, Spanish commander. B. 1453. D. 1515. 
 Gonzaga, Carlo I. di, duke of Nevers, Mantua, and Montferrat. D. 1637. 
 Gonzaga, Pederico II. di, duke of Mantua, marquis of Montferrat. Reigned 
 
 in Mantua 1519-40 (till 1530 as marquis) ; in Montferrat, 1536-40. 
 Gonzaga, Ludovico III. di, the Turk, marquis of Mantua, general. Reigned 
 
 1444-78. 
 Gonzaga, Thomas Antonio, Brazilian poet. B. 1744. D. about 1807. 
 Good, J ohn Mason, English writer on medical science, poet. B. 1 764. D. 1C27. 
 Goodall, Edward, English engraver. B. 1795. D. 1870. 
 Goodall, Frederick, English painter. B. 1822. 
 
 Goodrich, Chauneey Allen, American philologist. B. 1790. D. 1860. 
 Goodrich, Samuel Griswold (" Peter Parley "), American writer for the 
 
 young. B. 1793. D. 1860. 
 Goodyear, Charles, American inventor (vulcanization of rubber). B. 1800. 
 
 D. 1860. 
 Goppert, Hcinrich Robert, German botanist. B. 1800. D. 1884. 
 Gordian (Gordianus), Roman emperor. Reigned 238-244. 
 Gordon, Charles George (Gordon Pasha), English officer in the Chinese and 
 
 the Egyptian service B. 1833. Killed 1885. 
 Gordon, George, Lord, English agitator. B. 1751. D. 1793. 
 Gordon, Sir John Watson, Scottish painter. B. about 1788. D. 1864. 
 Gore, Catharine Grace, English novelist. B. 1799. D. 1861. 
 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, lord proprietary of Maine. D. 1647. 
 Gorgey, Arthur, Hungarian general. B. 1818. 
 Gorgias, Greek rhetorician, sophist. Flourished in latter part of 5th c. B. c. 
 
 (He is said to have died about 380 b. c, aged more than 100 years.) 
 Gorres, Jakob Joseph von, German political writer. B. 1776. D. 1848. 
 Gortchakoff, Alexander, prince, Russian general. B. 1764. D. 1825. 
 Gortchakoff, Alexander, prince, chancellor of the Russian Empire. B. 
 
 1798. I). 1883. 
 Gortchakoff, Mikhail, prince, Russian general, commander-in-chief of the 
 
 forces in the Crimea in 1855. B. 1795. D. 1861. 
 Gortchakoff, Peter, prince, Russian general. B. about 1790. D. 1868. 
 G15rtz, Georg Heinrich, baron, prime minister of Sweden. Executed 1719. 
 Goschen, George Joachim, English statesman. B. 1831. 
 Gosnold, Bartholomew, English navigator. D. 1607. 
 Gossart, Jan. See Mabuse. 
 
 Gosse, Edmund William, English literary critic. B. 1849. 
 Gosse, Philip Henry, English zoologist. B. 1810. D. 1888. 
 Gotthelf, Jeremias. See Bitzius. 
 
 Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, American pianist. B. 1829. D. 1869. 
 Gottschall, Rudolph, German writer. B. 1823. 
 Gottsched, Johann Christoph, German critic. B. 1700. D. 1766. 
 Gotz von Berlichingen. See Berlichingen. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 425 
 
 Gough, Sir Hugh, British general in China and India. B. 1779. D. 1809. 
 
 Goujon v Jean, French sculptor. B. about 1515. D. about 1566 (?). 
 
 Gould, Augustus Addison, American naturalist. B. 1805. D. 1866. 
 
 Gould, Benjamin Apthorp, American astronomer. B. 1824. D. 1896. 
 
 Gould, John, English ornithologist. B. 1804. D. 1881. 
 
 Gould (Baring-Gould), Sabine. See Baring-Gould. 
 
 Gounod, Charles Francois, French composer. B. 1818. D. 1893. 
 
 Gourgaud, Gaspard, baron, French general. B. 1783. D. 1852. 
 
 Gourgues, Dominique de, French soldier. B. about 1530. D. about 1593. 
 
 Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Laurent, French general. B. 1764. D. 1830. 
 
 Gower, John, English poet. B. about 1325. D. 1408. 
 
 Gozzi, Carlo, count, Italian dramatist. B. 1722. D. 1806. 
 
 Gozzi, Gasparo, count, Italian author. B. 1713. D. 1786. 
 
 Gozzoli, Benozzo, Florentine painter. D. close of 15th e. 
 
 Graaf, Regnier de, Dutch physiologist, B. 1641. D. 1673. 
 
 Gracchus, Caius, Roman tribune. Slain 121 b. c. 
 
 Gracchus, Tiberius, Roman tribune, brother of Caius Gracchus. Slain 133 
 
 b. c. 
 Graetz, Heinrich, German-Jewish historian. B. 1817. D. 1891. "Ge- 
 
 schichte der Juden." Critical works on the Old Testament. 
 Graevius, J. G., Dutch classical scholar. B. in Germany 1632. D. 1703. 
 Grafe, Albrecht von, German oculist, B. 1828. D. 1870. 
 Grafe, Alfred, German oculist, B. 1830. 
 
 Grafe, Karl Ferdinand von, German surgeon, oculist. B. 1787. D. 1840. 
 Graham, John (Lord Graham of Claverhouse). See Dundee. 
 Graham, Sylvester, American writer on hygiene. B. 1794. D. 1851. 
 Graham, Thomas, Scottish chemist. B. 1805. D. 1869. 
 Grahame, James, Scottish poet. B. 1765. D. 1811. 
 Grahame, James, Scottish historian. B. 1790. D. 1842. " History of the 
 
 United States." 
 Gramont, Philibert de, count, French general, courtier. B. 1621. D. 1707. 
 Gramont, Antoine Agenor Alfred de, duke, French diplomatist, minister of 
 
 foreign affairs 1870. B. 1819. D. 1880. 
 Granby, John Manners, marquis of, English general. B. 1721. D. 1770. 
 Grandville (Gerard), Jean Ignace Isidore, French caricaturist. B. 1803. 
 
 D. 1847. 
 Granier (Granier de Cassagnac), Adolphe, French journalist, politician, sup- 
 porter of Xapoleon III. B. about 1808. D. 1880. 
 Grant, Anne, Scottish authoress. B. 1755. D. 1838. 
 Grant, Sir Francis, Scottish painter. B. 1803. D. 1878. 
 Grant, James. Scottish novelist, B. 1822. D. 1887. 
 Grant, James Augustus, British African explorer. B. 1827. D. 1892. 
 Grant, Sir James Hope, British general. B. 1808. D. 1875. 
 Grant, Ulysses S., general, president of the United States 1869-77. B. 
 
 April 27, 1822. D. July 23, 1885. 
 
426 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Granvelle (Granvella), Antoine Perrenot, cardinal de, minister of Charles 
 
 V. and Philip II., chief adviser of Margaret of Parma in the Netherlands. 
 
 B. 1517. D. 1586. 
 Granville, George, Lord Lansdowne, English statesman, dramatist. B. 
 
 1G67. D. 1735. 
 Granville, Granville George Leveson-Gower, earl, English statesman. B. 
 
 1815. D. 1891. 
 Granville, John Carteret, earl, English statesman. B. 1090. D. 1763. 
 Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul de, count, French admiral. B. 1723. D. 
 
 1788. 
 Grassmann, Hermann Giinther, German mathematician. B. 1809. D. 
 
 1877. 
 Gratian, Roman emperor. Reigned over a portion of the Roman Empire 
 
 375-383 (associate of his father, Valentinian L, from 367). 
 Gratry, Auguste Joseph Alphonse, abbe, French theologian. B. 1805. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Grattan, Henry, Irish statesman, orator. B. 1746. D. 1820. 
 Gratz. See Graetz. 
 
 Graun, Karl Heinrich, German composer. B. 1701. D. 1759. 
 Gravesande, Willem Jakob van 's, Dutch natural philosopher. B. 1688. 
 
 I). 1742. 
 Gravina, Giovanni Vincenzo, Italian jurist. B. 1664. D. 1718. 
 Gray, Asa, American botanist. B. 1810. D. 1888. 
 Gray, George Robert, English ornithologist, entomologist. B. 1808. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Gray, John Edward, English naturalist. B. 1800. D. 1875. 
 Gray, Thomas, English poet. B. 1716. D. 1771. "Elegy written in a 
 
 Country Churchyard." 
 Greatrakes, Valentine, Irish medical celebrity. B. 1628. 
 Greaves, John, English mathematician, orientalist, antiquary. B. 1602. 
 
 D. 1652. 
 Greeley, Horace, American journalist, author. B. 1811. D. Nov. 29, 1872. 
 
 " The American Conflict." 
 Green, John Richard, English historian. B. 1837. D. 1883. " History of 
 
 the English People." 
 Green, Samuel, American printer. B. 1615. D. 1702. 
 Greene, Nathanael, American general. B. 1742. D. 1786. 
 Greene, Robert, English dramatist. B. about 1560. D. 1592. 
 Greenleaf, Simon, American jurist. B. 1783. D. 1853. 
 Greenough, Horatio, American sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1852. 
 Gregoire, Henri, French ecclesiastic, revolutionist. B. 1750. D. 1831. 
 Gregorovius, Ferdinand, German historian. B. 1821. D. 1891. " Geschichte 
 
 der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter." " Wander j ah re in Italien." 
 Gregory I., the Great, pope. Elected 590. D. 604. 
 Gregory II., pope. Elected 715. D. 731. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 427 
 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), pope. Elected 1073. D. 1085. 
 
 Gregory VIII., pope. Elected 1187. D. 1187. 
 
 Gregory IX., pope. Elected 1227. D. 1241. 
 
 Gregory X., pope. Elected 1271. D. 1270. 
 
 Gregory XI., pope. Elected 1370. D. 1378. 
 
 Gregory XII., pope. Elected 1406. Deposed 1409. D. 1417. 
 
 Gregory XIII., pope. Elected 1572. D. 1585. Reformer of the calendar. 
 
 Gregory XV., pope. Elected 1621. D. 1623. 
 
 Gregory XVI., pope. Elected 1831. D. 1846. 
 
 Gregory the Illuminator, Saint, " apostle of the Armenians." D. about 
 
 332. 
 Gregory Nazianzen, Saint, Greek father of the church. B. about 328. D. 
 
 about 389. 
 Gregory of Nyssa, Saint, Greek father of the church. B. about 331. D. 
 
 about 400. 
 Gregory Thaumaturgus, Saint, bishop of Neo-Ca^sarea, D. about 270. 
 Gregory of Tours, Saint, Prankish historian. B. about 540. D. about 595. 
 Gregory, David, Scottish mathematician, astronomer. B. 1661. D. about 
 
 1708. 
 Gregory, James, Scottish mathematician, who suggested the plan of the 
 
 reflecting telescope. B. about 1638. D. 1675. 
 Gregory, Olinthus Gilbert, English mathematician, author. B. 1774. D. 
 
 1841. 
 Grenville, George, English statesman. B. 1712. D. 1770. 
 Grenville (Granville, Greenville), Sir Richard, English naval officer. B. 
 
 about 1540. Killed 1591. 
 Grenville, William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman, prime-minister 
 
 1806-7. B. 1759. D. 1834. 
 Gresham, Sir Thomas, English merchant. B. 1519. D. 1579. 
 Gresset, Jean Baptiste Louis, French poet. B. 1709. D. 1777. "Vert- 
 vert " (comic poem). " Epitre a ma sceur sur ma convalescence." " Le 
 
 •mechant " (comedy). 
 Gretry, Andre Ernest Modeste, French composer. B. 1741. D. 1813. 
 Greuze, Jean Baptiste, French painter. B. 1725. D. 1805. 
 Greville, Henry. See Durand, Alice. 
 Grevy, Jules, president of France 1879-87. B. 1807 (not 1813). D. Sept, 9, 
 
 1891. 
 Grey, Charles, earl, English statesman. B. 1764. Premier 1830-34. D. 1845. 
 Grey, Sir George, British traveler, colonial governor, author. B. 1812. 
 Grey, Henry George, earl, English statesman, B. 1802. D. 1894, 
 Grey, Lady Jane, great-granddaughter of Henry VII. B. about 1537. Pro- 
 claimed queen of England 1553. Executed 1554. Married to Lord 
 
 Guildford Dudley. 
 Gribeauval, Jean Baptiste Vaquette de, French artillerist. B. 1715. D. 
 
 1789. 
 
428 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Griesbach, Johann Jakob, German Biblical critic. B. 1745. D. 1812. 
 
 Grijalva, Juan de, Spanish navigator. D. 1527. 
 
 Grillparzer, Franz, German dramatic poet. B. 1791. D. 1872. 
 
 Grimaldi, Antonio, Genoese admiral. Middle of 14th c. 
 
 Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, baron, French critic. B. in Germany 1723. D. 
 1807. 
 
 Grimm, Herman, German author, son of W. Grimm. B. 1828. Life of 
 Michael Angelo, essays on art, studies on Goethe, works of fiction, &c. 
 
 Grimm, Jakob, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1785. D. 1863. " Deutsche 
 Grammatik." " Geschichte der deutschen Sprache." " Deutsche Mytho- 
 logie." " Kinder- und Hausmarchen " (fairy tales, produced jointly with 
 W. Grimm). " Deutsche Rechtsalterthiiiner " (" German Law Antiqui- 
 ties "). An exhaustive dictionary of the German language, undertaken 
 jointly with W. Grimm ; only a small portion completed at the time of 
 the author's death. 
 
 Grimm, Wilhelm, Germanist, brother of J. Grimm. B. 1786. D. 1859. 
 
 Grindal, Edmund, English prelate. B. about 1519. D. 1583. 
 
 Grisi, Giulia, Italian singer. B. 1811. D. 1869. 
 
 Griswold, Rufus Wilmot, American literary critic, biographer. B. 1815. 
 D. 1857. 
 
 Gronovius, Jacobus, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1645. D. 1716. 
 
 Gronovius, J. F., German classical scholar, professor at Leyden. B. 1611. 
 D. 1671. 
 
 Gronovius, J. F., Dutch botanist. B. 1690. D. 1760. 
 
 Gronovius, Laurentius Theodoras, Dutch naturalist. B. 1730. D. 1778. 
 
 Groot, Gerhard, founder of the Congregation of the Brethren and Clerks of 
 the Common Life. B. in Holland 1340. D. 1384. 
 
 Gros, Antoine Jean, baron, French painter. B. 1771. D. 1835. 
 
 Grose, Francis, English antiquary. B. 1731. D. 1791. 
 
 Gross, Samuel D., American surgeon. B. 1805. D. 1884. 
 
 Grosseteste (Lat. Capito), Robert, English prelate, writer. B. about 1175. 
 D. 1253. 
 
 Grossi, Tomaso, Italian poet, novelist. B. 1791 (1790?). D. 1853. 
 
 Grote, George, English historian. B. 1794. D. 1871. " History of Greece." 
 
 Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, German philologist, antiquary, pioneer in the 
 decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. B. 1775. D.1853. 
 
 Grotius (De Groot), Hugo, Dutch publicist, theologian. B. April 10, 1583. 
 I). Aug. 28, 1645. " De Jure Belli et Paris." 
 
 Grouchy, Emmanuel de, marquis, French general. B. 1766. D. 1847. 
 
 Grove, Sir George, English engineer, scholar, journalist, editor of a "Dic- 
 tionary of Music and Musicians." B. 1820. 
 
 Grove, Sir William Robert, English physicist. B. 1811. Announced in 
 1842 his theory of the correlation of forces. D. 1896. 
 
 Gruber, Johann Gottfried, German encyclopaedist. B. 1774. D. 1851. 
 
 Griin, Anastasius. See Auersperg, Anton Alexander. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 429 
 
 Grundtvig-, Nicolai Frederik Severin, Danish author. B. 1783. D. 1872. 
 
 Grundy, Felix, American statesman. B. 1777. D. 1840. 
 
 Gruner, Wilhelm Heinrich Ludwig, German engraver. B. 1801. D. 1882. 
 
 Gryphius, Andreas, German poet, dramatist. B. 1616. D. 1664. 
 
 Guarini, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet. B. 1537. D. 1612. " II pastor 
 fido " (pastoral drama). 
 
 Guarneri, Andrea, Italian violin-maker. Second half of 17th c. 
 
 Guameri, Giuseppe Antonio, Italian violin-maker. B. 1683. D. 1745. 
 
 Guatemozin, last Aztec emperor of Mexico. Put to death 1525. 
 
 Gubitz, Friedrich Wilhelm, German author. B. 1786. D. 1870. 
 
 Gude, Hans Frederik, Norwegian painter. B. 1825. 
 
 Gudin, Theodore, French painter. B. 1802. D. 1880. 
 
 Guerazzi. See Guerrazzi. 
 
 Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri), Italian painter. B. 1590. D. 1666. 
 
 Guericke, Otto von, German natural philosopher, inventor of the air-pump. 
 B. 1602. D. 1686. 
 
 Guerin, Jean Baptiste Paulin, French painter. B. 1783. D. 1855. 
 
 Guerrazzi, Francesco Domenico, Italian novelist, revolutionist. B. 1804. 
 1). 1873. 
 
 Guerrero, Vicente, one of the leaders in the Mexican struggle for independ- 
 ence, president of Mexico 1829-'30. Executed 1831. 
 
 Guesclin. See Du Guesclin. 
 
 Guess, George (Sequoyah), Cherokee half-breed, inventor of a Cherokee 
 alphabet, B. about 1770. D. 1843. 
 
 Guicciardini, Francesco, Italian historian. B. 1483. D. 1540. History of 
 Italy during his own time. 
 
 Guiccioli, Teresa, countess, friend of Byron. B. 1801. D. 1873. 
 
 Guichard. See Guischard. 
 
 Guido Aretino. See Aretino. 
 
 Guido Reni, Italian painter. B. 1575. D. 1642. 
 
 Guignes, Joseph de, French orientalist. B. 1721. D. 1800. " Histoire 
 generate des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols et des autres Tartars occiden- 
 taux." 
 
 Guillaume, Claude Jean Baptiste Eugene, French sculptor. B. 1822. 
 
 Guillotin, Joseph Ignace, French physician. B. 1738. D. 1814. 
 
 Guiscard, Robert. See Robert Guiscaru. 
 
 Guiscard, Roger. See Roger I. 
 
 Guischard, Karl Gottlieb (" Quintus Icilius "), Prussian soldier, writer. B. 
 1724. 1). 1775. Works on the military affairs of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Guise, Charles de Lorraine, duke of (cardinal de Lorraine), French states- 
 man, son of Claude de Lorraine, duke of Guise. B. 1525. D. 1574. 
 
 Guise, Charles de Lorraine, duke of. B. 1571. D. 1640. 
 
 Guise, Claude de Lorraine, duke of. B. 1496. D. 1550. 
 
 Guise, Francois de Lorraine, duke of. statesman, soldier, brother of Cardinal 
 Charles de Lorraine. B. 1519. Murdered 1563. 
 
430 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Guise, Henri I. de Lorraine, duke of, son of the preceding, head of the 
 Catholic League. B. 1550. Assassinated 1588. 
 
 Guise, Henri II. de Lorraine, duke of. B. 1614. D. 1664. 
 
 Guise, Louis II. de Lorraine, cardinal de, son of Francois, duke of Guise. 
 B. 1555. Assassinated 1588. 
 
 Guise, Louis III. de Lorraine, cardinal de. D. 1621. 
 
 Guise, Mary of. See Mary of Lorraine. 
 
 Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume, French statesman, historian. B. 1787. 
 Minister of foreign affairs under Louis Philippe 1840-'48 ; during the 
 last few months of this period prime-minister. D. 1874. " Histoire de 
 la civilisation en France." " Histoire de la civilisation en Europe." 
 " Histoire de la revolution d'Angleterre " (first revolution) and other 
 works on English history. " Cours d'histoire moderne." " Memoires 
 pour servira. 1 'histoire de mon temps." " Vie, correspondance et ecrits de 
 Washington." " Histoire de France, racontee a mes petitsenfants." " Cor- 
 neille et son temps." " Meditations sur la religion chretienne." 
 
 Gunter, Edmund, English mathematician. B. about 1581. D. 1626. 
 
 Gurney, Sir Goldsworthy, English inventor. B. 1793. D. 1875. 
 
 Gurowski, Adam, count, Polish author. B. 1805. D. 1866. Writer on 
 Russian, Polish, and American affairs. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden. B. 1496. Reigned from 1523. D. 1560. 
 
 Gustavus II. Adolphus, king of Sweden, son of Charles IX. B. 1594. 
 Reigned from 1611. Killed 1632. 
 
 Gustavus III., king of Sweden. B. 1746. Reigned from 1771. Assassi- 
 nated 1792. 
 
 Gustavus IV. Adolphus, king of Sweden. B. 1778. Reigned 1792-1809. 
 D. 1837. 
 
 Gutenberg, Johann, reputed inventor of printing. B. in Germany about 
 1397. D. 1468(1467?). 
 
 Guthrie, Thomas, Scottish clergyman. B. 1803. D. 1873. 
 
 Gutzkow, Karl, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1811. D. 1878. 
 
 Giitzlaff, Karl, German missionary, author. B. 1803. D. 1851. 
 
 Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, founder of the Lusignan dynasty in 
 Cyprus. D. 1194. 
 
 Guy, Thomas, English philanthropist. B. about 1643. D. 1724. 
 
 Guyon, Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte, French religious writer. B. 
 1648. D. 1717. 
 
 Guyot, Arnold Henry, American scientist. B. in Switzerland 1807. D. 1884. 
 
 Guyton de Morveau, Louis Bernard, French chemist. B. 1737. H. 1816. 
 
 Gwynn, Eleanor, mistress of Charles II. D. 1687. 
 
 H. 
 
 Habakkuk, Hebrew prophet. About 600 b. c. 
 
 Hackel. See Haeckel. 
 
 Hackert, Philipp, German painter. B. 1737. D. 1807. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 431 
 
 Hackett, Horatio Balch, American Biblical scholar. B. 1808. D. 1875. 
 Hackett, James Henry, American actor. B. 1800. D. 1871. 
 Hacklander, Friedrich Wilhelm von, German author. B. 1816. D. 1877. 
 
 Novels, pictures of soldier life, sketches of the Orient, comedies, &c. 
 Hadji Khalfa, Turkish historian, bibliographer. D. 1658. 
 Hadley, James, American philologist. B. 1821. D. 1872. 
 Hadley, John, English astronomer. D. 1744. 
 Hadrian, Roman emperor. B. 76. Reigned from 117. D. 138. 
 Haeckel, Ernst, German naturalist. B. 1834. " Generelle Morphologie der 
 
 Organismen." " Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte (" Natural History of 
 
 Creation "). " Uber die Entstehung und den Stammbaum des Menschen- 
 
 geschlechts" ("On the Origin and Genealogy of the Human Species"). 
 
 " Die Kalkschwamme " (" Calcareous Sponges "). " Anthropogenic, Ent- 
 
 wickelungsgeschichte des Menschen " (" Anthropogeny, the History of 
 
 the Evolution of Man "). 
 Hafiz, Persian poet. D. about 1390. 
 
 Hagedorn, Friedrich von, German poet. B. 1708. D. 1754. 
 Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf, German ecclesiastical historian. B. 1801. D. 
 
 1874. 
 Haggai, Hebrew prophet. About 520 b. c. 
 Hahnel, Ernst Julius, German sculptor. B. 1811. D. 1891. 
 Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich, originator of homoeopathy. B. 
 
 in Germany 1755. D. 1843. 
 Hahn-Hahn, Ida von, countess, German authoress. B. 1805. D. 1880. 
 Hailes, Lord. See Dalrymple, Sir David. 
 
 Hakluyt, Richard, English writer on voyages. B. about 1553. D. 1616. 
 Halbig, Johann, German sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1882. 
 Haldeman, S. Stehman, American naturalist, philologist. B. 1812. D. 
 
 1880. 
 Hale, Edward Everett, American author. B. 1822. " The Man without a 
 
 Country." 
 Hale, Sir Matthew, English jurist. B. 1609. D. 1676. 
 Hale, Nathan, American soldier. B. 1755. Hanged as a spy 1776. 
 Hale, Sarah Josepha (born Buell), Amer. authoress. B. about 1790. D. 1879. 
 Hales, Alexander of. See Alexander of Hales. 
 
 Hales, Stephen, English scientist. B. 1677. D. 1761. " Vegetable Staticks." 
 Halevy, Jacques Fromental. French composer. B. 1799. D. 1862. 
 Halevy, Joseph. French orientalist, traveler in Arabia. B. 1827. 
 Halevy, Leon, French writer on literature, translator, dramatist. B. 1802. 
 
 D. 1883. 
 Halevy, Ludovic, French writer of comedy and fiction, literary associate of 
 
 Meilhac. B. 1834. 
 Halford, Sir Henry, English physician. B. 1766. D. 1844. 
 Haliburton, Thomas Chandler (" Sam Slick "), British American humorist. 
 
 B. 1796. D. 1865. 
 
432 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Halifax, earl of. See Montague, Charles. 
 
 Halifax, marquis of. See Savile. 
 
 Hall, Anna Maria (born Fielding), wife of S. C. Hall, British authoress. B. 
 1800. D. 1881. Novels, dramas, studies of Irish character* 
 
 Hall, Basil, British seaman, writer of travels. B. 1788. D. 1844. 
 
 Hall, Charles Francis, American Arctic explorer. B. 1821. D. 1871. 
 
 Hall, James, American author. B. 1793. D. 18G8. "Legends of the 
 West." " Sketches of the West." " Tales of the Border." " History 
 of the Indian Tribes" (written in conjunction with McKenney). 
 
 Hall, James, American geologist. B. 1811. 
 
 Hall, Joseph, English bishop, author. B. 1574. D. 1656. 
 
 Hall, Marshall. English physician. B. 1790. D. 1857. 
 
 Hall, Newman, English clergyman. B. 1816. 
 
 Hall, Robert, English preacher. B. 1764. D. 1831. 
 
 Hall, Samuel Carter, English editor. B. 1800. D. 1889. 
 
 Hallam, Henry, English historian. B. 1777. D. Jan. 21, 1859. ' " View of 
 the State of Europe during the Middle Ages." " The Constitutional His- 
 tory of England." " Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 
 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries." 
 
 Halleck, Fitz-Greene, American poet. B. 1790. D. 1867. 
 
 Halleck, Henry Wager, American general. B. 1815. D. 1872. 
 
 Haller, Albrecht von, Swiss physiologist. B. 1708. D. 1777. 
 
 Hallevi, Judah. See Judah Hallevi. 
 
 Halley, Edmund, English astronomer. B. 1656. D. 1742. 
 
 Halliwell-Phillipps, James Orchard, English Shakespearean scholar. B. 
 1820. D. 1889. 
 
 Hals, Franciscus, Dutch painter. B. about 1584. D. 1666. 
 
 Hamann, Johann Georg, German philosophical writer. B. 1730. D. 1788. 
 
 Hamerling, Robert, German poet. B. 1830. D. 1889. 
 
 Hamerton, Philip Gilbert, English writer on art. B. 1834. L\ 1894. 
 
 Hamilcar Earca, Carthaginian general. Slain 229 b. c. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, American statesman, secretary of the treasury under 
 Washington 1789-'95. B. Jan. 11, 1757. D. July 12, 1804. 
 
 Hamilton, Anthony, count, writer. B. in Ireland about 1646. D. 1720. 
 " Les memoires du comte de Gramont." 
 
 Hamilton, Elizabeth, British authoress. B. 1758. D. 1816. Philosophical 
 writings. " Memoirs of Modern Philosophers." " The Cottagers of Glen- 
 burnie" (tale). 
 
 Hamilton, Lady Emma, wife of the diplomatist Sir William Hamilton, no- 
 torious through her connection with Queen Caroline of Naples and Ad- 
 miral Nelson. B. about 1760. D. 1815. 
 
 Hamilton, Robert, Scottish writer on finance, &c. B. about 1743. D. 1829. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William, British diplomatist, antiquary. B. 1730. D. 1803. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William, Scottish philosopher. B. 1788. D. 1856. 
 
 Hamilton, William Gerard, English statesman. B. 1729. D. 1796. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 433 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, Irish astronomer, mathematician. B. 1805. 
 
 D. 1805. 
 Hamlin, Hannibal, vice-pres't of United States 1861-'65. B. 1809. D. 1891. 
 Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von, German orientalist, historian. B. 1774. 
 
 D. 1856. " Geschichte dcs osmanischen Reichs." " Geschichte der Golde- 
 
 nen Horde." Works on Arabian, Turkish, and Persian literature. 
 Hamon, Jean Louis, French painter. B. 1821. D. 1874. 
 Hampden, John, English Puritan statesman. B. 1594. Killed 1G43. 
 Hampden, Renn Dickson, English divine, philosophical writer. B. 1793. 
 
 D. 1868. 
 Hampton, Wade. Confederate soldier, governor of South Carolina, senator 
 
 of the United States. B. 1818. 
 Hancock, John, American statesman. B. 1737. D. 1793. 
 Hancock, Winfield Scott, American general. B. 1824. D. 1886. 
 Handel (Ger. Handel), Georg Friedrich, German composer. B. Feb. 23, 
 
 1685. D. April 13, 1759. 
 Hanka, Venceslav, Bohemian scholar. B. 1791. D. 1861. 
 Hannibal, Carthaginian general, son of Hamilcar Barca. B. 247 b. c. D. 
 
 about 183. 
 Hanno, Carthaginian navigator. About 500 B. c. 
 Hanno (the Great), Carthaginian general, party leader. Second half of 
 
 3d c. b. c. 
 Hansen, Peter Andreas, German astronomer. B. 1795. D. 1874. 
 Hansen, Theofilus, Austrian architect. B. in Denmark 1813. D. 1891. 
 Hansteen, Christopher, Norwegian astronomer, physicist. B. 1784. D. 
 
 1873. 
 Harald Harfager, king of Norway. D. 933. 
 Harcourt, Sir W. G. G. Vernon, English lawyer, statesman, writer. B. 
 
 1827. 
 Hardee, William J., American tactician, Confederate general. B. 1815. 
 
 D. 1873. 
 Hardenberg, Friedrich von, baron (" Novalis "), German poet and prose 
 
 writer. B. 1772. D. 1801. " Heinrich von Ofterdingen *' (novel). 
 Hardenberg, Karl August von, prince, Prussian statesman. B. 1750. D. 
 
 1822. 
 Hardicanute, king of Denmark and England, son of Canute. Reigned in 
 
 Denmark from 1035. Shared the possession of England with his half- 
 brother, Harold Harefoot, 1035-'7. Sole king of England from 1040. D. 
 
 1042. 
 Hardinge, Henry, viscount. English general, governor general of India 
 
 1844-'8. B. 1785. I). 1856. 
 Hardouin, Jean, French Jesuit, chronologist, numismatist, classical scholar. 
 
 15.1646. D. 1729. " Conciliorum collectio." 
 Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, first earl of, English jurist. B. 1690. D. 1764. 
 Hardy, Gathorne, Lord Cranbrook, English statesman. B. 1814. 
 
434 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Hardy, Tliomas, English novelist. B. 1840. 
 
 Hare, Julius Charles, English clergyman. B. 1795. D. 1855. " Guesses at 
 
 Truth " (written in conjunction with his brother, Augustus William). 
 Hare, Robert, American chemist. B. 1781. D. 1858. 
 Hargraves, Edmund Hammond, discoverer of the gold fields of Australia 
 
 in 1851. 
 Haring, Willielm (" Wilibald Alexis "), German novelist. B. 1797. D. 1871. 
 
 " Der neue Pitaval " (collection of famous trials). 
 Hariri (Al-IIariri), Arabian poet. B. about 1050. D. about 1122. "Maka- 
 
 mat." 
 Harizi (Al-IIarizi), Hebrew poet, translator and imitator of Hariri, native 
 
 of Spain. D. before 1235. 
 Harlay, Achille de, president of the Parliament of Paris. B. 1536. D. 
 
 1616. 
 Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, British prime-minister 1711— '14. B. 1661. 
 
 I). 1724. 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton. Conspired to free Athens from Hippias 
 
 and Hipparchus 514 b. c. 
 Harold I., Harefoot, king of England, son of Canute. Reigned from 1035. 
 
 I). 1040. 
 Harold IL, last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Ascended the throne 1066. 
 
 Slain 1066. 
 Harold Harfager. See IIabald Harfager. 
 Haroun al-Rashid, caliph of Bagdad. Reigned 786-809. 
 Harper, Robert Goodloe, American lawyer, statesman. B. 1765. D. 1825. 
 Harpocration, Valerius, Greek grammarian of Alexandria. Lived between 
 
 the 2d and 4th c. a. d. 
 Harrington, James. English political philosopher. B. 1611. D. 1677. 
 
 "Oceana" (plan of an ideal republic). 
 Harriot, Thomas, English mathematician, astronomer. B. 1560. D. 1621. 
 Harris, James, English philologist, critic. B. 1709. D. 1780. "Hermes, 
 
 or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar." 
 Harris, Thaddeus William, American entomologist. B. 1795. D. 1856. 
 Harris, Thomas Lake, American spiritualistic teacher, founder of the 
 
 Brotherhood of the New Life. B. 1823. 
 Harrison, Benjamin, president of the United States 1889-'93. Grandson 
 
 of William Henry Harrison. B. Aug. 20, 1833. 
 Harrison, William Henry, general, president of the United States. B. Feb. 
 
 9, 1773. Inaugurated 1841. D. April 4, 1841. 
 Hart, James McDougal, American painter. B. 1828. 
 Hart, Solomon Alexander, English painter. B. 1806. D. 1881. 
 Hart, William, American painter. B. 1823. D. 1894. 
 Harte, Francis Bret, American writer of fiction, poet. B. 1839. 
 Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, marquis of, from 1891 duke of 
 
 Devonshire, English statesman. B. 1833. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 435 
 
 Hartley, David, English philosopher. B. 1705. D. 1757. "Observations 
 
 on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations." 
 Hartmann, Eduard von, German philosopher. B. 1842. " Die Philosophie 
 
 des Unbewussten " (" The Philosophy of the Unconscious "). 
 Hartmann, Moritz, German poet. B. 1821. D. 1872. Author of patriotic 
 
 poems, novels, &c. 
 Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, Dutch physicist, optician. B. 1G5G. D. 1725. 
 Hartzenbusch, J. Eugenio, Spanish dramatist, writer of tales. B. 1806. 
 
 D. 1880. 
 Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College. B. 1607. D. 1638. 
 Harvey, Sir George, Scottish painter. B. 1806. D. 1876. 
 Harvey, William, English physiologist, discoverer of the circulation of the 
 
 blood. B. 1578. D. 1657. 
 Harwood, Edward, English Biblical and classical scholar. B. 1729. D. 
 
 1794. 
 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, son-in-law of Ilamilcar Barca. Murdered 
 
 221 b. c. 
 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, brother of Hannibal. Slain 207 b. c. 
 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, son of Gisco. D. about 202 b. c. 
 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian commander in the third Punic War. 
 Hase, Karl August, German theologian. B. 1800. D. 1890. "Das Leben 
 
 Jcsu." " Kirehengeschichte." 
 Hasenclever, Johann Peter, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1853. 
 Hasse, Johann Adolf, German composer. B. 1699. D. 1783. 
 Hasselquist, Predrik, Swedish naturalist. B. 1722. D. 1752. 
 Hasting, Northman, viking. B. about 812. D. about 900. 
 Hastings, Francis Rawdon Hastings, marquis of (earl of Moira), English 
 
 general, governor general of India from 1813 to the beginning of 1823. 
 
 B. 1754. D. 1826. 
 Hastings, Warren, governor general of India 1774-'85. B. 1732. D. 1818. 
 Hauch, Johannes Carstcn von, Danish poet. B. 1790. D. 1872. 
 Hauer, Franz von, Austrian geologist, palaeontologist. B. 1822. 
 Hauff, Wilhelm, German writer of fiction. B. 1802. D. 1827. 
 Haug, Martin, German orientalist. B. 1827. D. 1876. 
 Hauksbee (Hawksbee), Francis, English physicist. D. after 1731. 
 Haupt, Moritz, German philologist. B. 1808. D. 1874. 
 Haupt, Paul, German-American Assyriologist. B. 1853. 
 Hauptmann, Moritz, German composer, writer on music. B. 1792. D. 
 
 1808. 
 Hausser, Ludwig, German historian. B. 1818. D. 1867. 
 Hausemann, Georges Eugene, baron, French politician, prefect of the 
 
 Seine under Napoleon III. B. 1809. D. 1891. 
 Haiiy, Rene Just, French mineralogist, B. 1743. D. 1822. 
 Haiiy, Valentin, French instructor of the blind. B. 1745. D. 1822. 
 Havelock, Sir Henry, English commander in the East. B. 1795. D. 1857. 
 29 
 
436 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Hawke, Edward, baron, English admiral. D. 1781. 
 
 Hawkesworth, John, English author. 13. about 1715. D. 1773. Essays in 
 the " Adventurer." 
 
 Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse, English naturalist, artist. B. 1807. D. 1889. 
 
 Hawkins, Sir John, English naval commander. B. about 1530. D. 15D5. 
 
 Hawks, Francis Lister, American clergyman, author. B. 1798. D. 1800. 
 
 Hawkshaw, Sir John, English civil engineer. B. 1811. D. 1891. 
 
 Hawkwood, Sir John, English condottiere in Italy. D. 1394. 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, American novelist. B. July 4, 1804. D. May 19, 
 1864. " The Scarlet Letter." " The House of the Seven Gables." " The 
 Blithedale Romance." " The Marble Faun " (" Transformation "). " Twice- 
 told Tales." " Mosses from an old Manse." " Our Old Home " (English 
 sketches). Books for the young and other works. 
 
 Haxthausen, August von, baron, German author. B. 1792. D. Dec. 31, 
 1860 (Jan. 1, 1867 ?). Works on the agrarian institutions of East and 
 West Prussia, on the social condition and agrarian institutions of Rus- 
 sia, &c. 
 
 Hayden, Ferdinand Vandeveer, American geologist. B. 1829. D. 1887. 
 
 Haydn, Joseph, German composer. B. March 31, 1732. D. May 31, 1809. 
 
 Haydn, Michael, German composer. B. 1737. D. 1806. 
 
 Haydon, Benjamin Robert, English painter. B. 1786. D. 1846. 
 
 Hayes, Augustus Allen, American chemist. B. 1806. D. 1882. 
 
 Hayes, Isaac Israel, American Arctic explorer. B. 1832. D. 1881. 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, president of the United States 1877— '81. B. 
 Oct. 4, 1822. D. Jan. 17, 1893. 
 
 Haymerle, Heinrich Karl von, baron, Austrian foreign minister 1879-'81. 
 B. 1828. D. 1881. 
 
 Haynau, Julius Jakob von, Austrian general. B. 1786. D. 1853. 
 
 Hayne, Isaac, American soldier. B. 1745. Hanged 1781. 
 
 Hayne, Robert Young, American statesman. B. 1791. D. 1840. 
 
 Haynes, John, governor of the Massachusetts and Connecticut colonies. D. 
 1654. 
 
 Hazlitt, William, English author, critic. B. 1778. D. 1830. " Characters 
 of Shakespeare's Plays." " Original Essays." " The Spirit of the Age." 
 " Political Essays." " Table Talk." " Life of Napoleon." 
 
 Hazlitt, William, English scholar, translator of French historical works. 
 B. 1811. D. 1893. 
 
 Hazlitt, William Carew, English scholar, historian. B. 1834. " History of 
 the Venetian Republic." " Old English Jest Books." " Remains of the 
 Early Popular Poetry of England." " English Proverbs and Proverbial 
 Phrases." 
 
 Head, Sir Francis Bond, English author, lieutenant governor of Upper 
 Canada 1835-'8. B. 1793. D. 1875. "Bubbles from the Brunnen of 
 Nassau." " A Fagot of French Sticks." " Stokers and Pokers." " The 
 Defenceless State of Great Britain." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 437 
 
 Headley, Joel Tyler, American author. B. 1813. D. 1897. 
 
 Healy, George Peter Alexander, American painter. B. about 1808. D. 1894. 
 
 Hearne, Samuel, English explorer (Hudson Bay Territory). B. 1745. D. 
 1792. 
 
 Heathfield, Lord. See Eliott, George Augustus. 
 
 Hebbel, Friedrich, German dramatist. B. 1813. D. 1863. 
 
 Hebel, Johann Peter, German poet. B. 1760. D. 1826. Best known by his 
 " Allemannische Gedichte " (written in the Swabian dialect). 
 
 Heber, Reginald, English poet, clergyman, bishop of Calcutta. B. 1783. D. 
 1826. " Palestine." " Hymns." " Narrative of a Journey through the 
 Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta to Bombay." 
 
 Heber, Richard, English bibliomaniac. B. 1773. D. 1833. 
 
 Hebert, Jacques Rene, French revolutionist. B. 1755. Executed 1794. 
 
 Hecataeus, Greek historian, geographer. D. about 476 b. c. 
 
 Hecker, Friedrich, German revolutionist. B. 1811. I). 1881. 
 
 Hedge, Frederick Henry, American clergyman, author. B. 1805. D. 1890. 
 
 Heemskerk. See Hemskerk. 
 
 Heer, Oswald, Swiss naturalist. B. 1809. D. 1883. 
 
 Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig, German historian. B. 1760. D. 1842. 
 Works on the governments and economic affairs of the ancient nations. 
 History of antiquity. General history of Europe. 
 
 Hefele, Karl Joseph von, German ecclesiastical historian, bishop of Rotten- 
 burg. B. 1809. D. 1893. " Conciliengeschichte." 
 
 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, German philosopher. B. Aug. 27, 1770. 
 D. Nov. 14, 1831. 
 
 Heibergj Johann Ludwig, Danish dramatist. B. 1791. D. 1S60. 
 
 Heim, Francois Joseph, French painter. B. 1787. D. 1865. 
 
 Heine, Heinrich, Ger. poet. B. 1797 (1799?). D. Feb. 17, 1856. " Das Bucli 
 der Lieder " (" The Book of Songs "). " Reisebilder " (" Pictures of Trav- 
 el "), prose sketches, remarkable for wit and sarcasm. 
 
 Heineccius, Johann Gottlieb, German jurist. B. 1681. D. 1741. 
 
 Heinecken, Christian Heinrich, German intellectual prodigy. B. 1721. I). 
 1725. 
 
 Heinicke, Samuel, German instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1727. D. 1790. 
 
 Heinse, Johann Jakob Wilhelm, German romance writer. B. 1749. D. 1803. 
 
 Heinsius, Antonius, grand pensionary of Holland. B. 1641. D. 1720. 
 
 Heinsius, Daniel, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1580. D. 1655. 
 
 Heinsius, Nicolaas, Dutch classical scholar. Latin poet. B. 1620. D. 1681. 
 
 Helena, Saint, mother of Constantine the Great. B. 247. D. about 328. 
 
 Heliodorus, Greek romance writer. About 400 a. d. " ^Ethiopica." 
 
 Heliogabalus. See'ELAGABALUS. 
 
 Hell, Maximilian, Austrian astronomer. B. 1720. D. 1792. 
 
 Heller, Stephen, pianist, composer. B. in Hungary 1814. D. 1888. 
 
 Helmholtz, Hermann, German scientist. B. 1821. D. 1894. Especially 
 distinguished in the field of physiological optics and in that of acoustics ; 
 
438 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 inventor of the ophthalmoscope (1851) and discoverer of the physiological 
 
 facts connected with the perception of harmony. 
 Helmont, Jan Baptista van, Flemish physician, chemist, philosopher. B. 
 
 1577. D. 1644. 
 Heloi.se, French abbess, friend of Abelard. B. about 1101. D. about 1104. 
 Helps, Sir Arthur, English author. B. 1813. D. 1875. " Friends in Coun- 
 cil." " Conversations on War and general Culture." "The Spanish Con- 
 quest in America." 
 Heist, Bartholomeus van der, Dutch painter. D. 1670. 
 Helvetius, Claude Adrien, French philosopher. B. 1715. D. 1771. 
 Helyot, Pierre, French monk, historian. B. 1660. D. 1716. History of the 
 
 religious orders. 
 Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, English poetess. B. 1793. D. 1835. 
 Hemling. See Memling. 
 
 Hemskerk, Martin van, Dutch painter. B. 1498. D. 1574. 
 Hemsterhuys, Frans, Dutch philosopher. B. about 1720. D. 1790. 
 Hemsterhuys, Tiberius, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1685. D. 1766. 
 Hendricks, Thomas Andrews, American politician. B. 1819. D. 1885. 
 Hengist and Horsa, leaders of the Jutes who landed in Britain in 449, and 
 
 began the English conquest. 
 Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm, German Biblical critic. B. 1802. D. 1869. 
 Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jakob, German physiologist, anatomist. B. 1809. 
 
 D. 1885. 
 Henley, John, English clergyman, lecturer, author. B. 1692. D. 1756. 
 Hennepin, Louis, missionary, explorer of the Mississippi River. B. in the 
 
 Spanish Netherlands about 1640. D. after 1701. 
 Henrietta Anna, daughter of Charles I. of England, duchess of Orleans. 
 
 B. 1644. D. 1670. 
 Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England, daughter of Henry IV. 
 
 of France. B. 1609. D. 1669. 
 Henriquel-Dupont, Louis Pierre, French engraver. B. 1797. D. 1892. 
 Henry I., king of England, son of William the Conqueror and brother of 
 
 William Rufus. B. about 1068. Reigned from 1100. D. 1135. 
 Henry II. (Henry Plantagenet), king of England, son of Matilda, daughter 
 
 of Henry I., and of Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou. B. 1133. 
 
 Reigned from 1154. D. 1189. 
 Henry III., king of England, son of John. B. 1207. Reigned from 1216. 
 
 D. 1272. 
 Henry IV., king of England, son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, son 
 
 of Edward III. B. 1366 or 1367. Reigned from 1399. D. 1413. 
 Henry V., king of England, son of Henry IV. B. 1388 or 1387. Reigned 
 
 from 1413. D. 1422. 
 Henry VI., king of England, son of Henry V. B. 1421. Reigned 1422-'61, 
 
 1470-'71. D. 1471. 
 Henry VII., king of England, grandson of Owen Tudor and Catharine of 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 439 
 
 Valois, widow of Henry V. B. 1457. Reigned from 1485. D. 1509. 
 
 (Previous to his accession styled earl of Richmond.) 
 Eenry VIII., king of England, son of Henry VII. B. 1491. Reigned from 
 
 1509. D. 1547. 
 Henry I., king of France. Reigned from 1031. D. 1060. 
 Henry II., king of France, son of Francis 1. B. 1519. Reigned from 1547. 
 
 Accidentally killed 1559. Husband to Catharine de' Medici. 
 Henry III., king of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. 
 
 1551. King of Poland 1573-4. Reigned in France from 1574. Assas- 
 sinated 1589. (Previous to his accession styled duke of Anjou.) 
 Henry IV., king of France, founder of the Bourbon dynasty, son of Jeanne 
 
 d'Albret, queen of Navarre, and of Antoine de Bourbon. B. Dec. 1553. 
 
 King of Navarre from 1572. King of France from 1589. Assassinated 
 
 May 14, 1610. 
 Henry I., the Fowler, king of Germany, first of the Saxon dynasty. 
 
 Reigned from 919. D. 936. 
 Henry II., emperor of Germany, great-grandson of Henry I. B. 972. 
 
 Reigned from 1002. D. 1024. 
 Henry III., emperor of Germany, son of Conrad II. (the founder of the 
 
 Franconian dynasty). B. 1017. Reigned from 1039. D. 1056. 
 Henry IV., emperor of Germany, son of Henry III. B. 1050. Reigned 
 
 from 1056. D. 1106. 
 Henry V., emperor of Germany, son of Henry IV. B. 1081. Reigned from 
 
 1106. D. 1125. 
 Henry VI., emperor of Germany, king of Sicily, son of Frederick Barba- 
 
 rossa. B. 1165. Reigned in Germany from 1190; in the Two Sicilies, 
 
 from 1194. D. 1197. 
 Henry VII., emperor of Germany, first of the house of Luxemburg. B. 
 
 1262. Reigned from 1308. D. 1313. 
 Henry, king of Navarre. See Hexry IV., king of France. 
 Henry, prince, brother of Frederick the Great, general. B. 1726. D. 1802. 
 Henry the Hermit (Henry of Lausanne), founder of the sect of Henricians. 
 
 D. about 1149. 
 Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria. B. 1129. D. 1195. 
 Henry of Trastamare, king of Castile, brother of Pedro the Cruel. 
 
 Reigned 1366-7, 1369-'79. 
 Henry the Navigator, son of John I. of Portugal. B. 1394. D. 1460. 
 Henry, Joseph, American physicist. B. 1797. D. 1878. Distinguished by 
 
 his researches in the field of electro-magnetism. 
 Henry, Matthew, English Biblical scholar. B. 1662. D. 1714. 
 Henry, Patrick, American patriot, orator. B. 1736. D. 1799. 
 Henry son, Robert, Scottish poet. Second half of 15th c. 
 Henselt, Adolf, German pianist. B. 1814. D. 1889. 
 Hentz, Caroline Lee (born Whiting), American writer of fiction. B. 1800. 
 
 D. 1856. 
 
440 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Hephaestion, favorite of Alexander the Great. D. 325 or 324 B. c. 
 
 Heraclitus, Greek philosopher. About close of 6th c. b. c. 
 
 Heraclius, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 610-641. 
 
 Herault de Sechelles, Marie Jean, French revolutionist. B. 1760. Exe- 
 cuted 1T94. 
 
 Herbart, Johann Friedrich, German philosopher. B. 1776. D. 1841. 
 
 Herbelot, Barthelemy d', French orientalist. B. 1625. D. 1695. " Biblio- 
 theque orientale " (encyclopaedic work on the peoples of the East). 
 
 Herbert, Edward, Lord, Eng. philosopher. B. about 1581. D. 1648. "Trac- 
 tatus de Veritate." " History of the Life and Reign of Henry VIII." 
 
 Herbert, George, English poet. B. 1593. D. 1633. 
 
 Herbert, Henry William (" Frank Forester"), American author. B. 1807. 
 D. 1858. 
 
 Herbert, Sidney, English secretary of war. B. 1810. D. 1861. 
 
 Herbert, William, earl of Pembroke, English poet. B. 1580. D. 1630. 
 
 Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, Alexandre, Portuguese poet, novelist, 
 historian. B. 1810. D. 1877. 
 
 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, German philosophical writer, poet, critic. 
 B. 1744. D. 1803. " Geist der Ebraischen Poesie "(" Spirit of Hebrew 
 Poetry "). " Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit " 
 ("Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man"). " Volkslieder " 
 (translations from the poetry of various nations). Translation of the ro- 
 mances of the Cid. 
 
 Herkomer, Hubert, English painter. B. in Germany 1849. 
 
 Hermann. See Arminius. 
 
 Hermann, Gottfried, German classical scholar. B. 1772. D. 1848. 
 
 Hermes, Georg, German G 1 atholic theologian, philosopher. B. 1775. D. 
 1831. 
 
 Hermogenes, Greek rhetorician. Flourished at Rome in the reign of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius. 
 
 Herndon, William Lewis, American explorer of the valley of the Amazon, 
 &c. B. 1813. D. 1857. 
 
 Hero. See Heron. 
 
 Herod the Great, king of Judea. Appointed king 40 b. c. Master of the 
 realm 37. D. 4 b. c. 
 
 Herod Agrippa I., king of Judea, grandson of Herod the Great. Reigned 
 a. d. 37-44 (over the whole of Palestine from 41). 
 
 Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great. Reigned 
 from 4 b. c. Deposed a. d. 40.* 
 
 Herodes Atticus, Athenian rhetorician, famous for his munificence. D. 
 about a. d. 177. 
 
 Herodian, Greek writer on Roman history, early part of 3d c. a. d. 
 
 * See an article by Prof. Sattler in the supplement to the "Allgemeine Zeitung"of 
 March 13, 1883. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 441 
 
 Herodotus, Greek historian. B. about 484 b. c. 
 
 Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand, French composer. B. 1791. D. 1833. 
 
 Heron (Hero), mathematician and natural philosopher of Alexandria. 3d 
 
 c. b. o. 
 Herophilus, anatomist of Alexandria. About 300 b. c. 
 Herostratus. See Erostratus. 
 Herrera (Herrera y Tordesillas), Antonio de, Spanish historian. B. 1549. 
 
 D. 1625. History of the deeds of the Spanish discoverers and conquerors 
 
 in the New World. 
 Herrera, Fernando de, Spanish poet. B. about 1534. D. 1597. 
 Herrera, Francisco de, Spanish painter. B. 1576. D. 1656. 
 Herrera, Francisco de, Spanish painter, architect. B. 1622. D. 1685. 
 Herreros, Breton de los. See Breton de los Herreros. 
 Herrick, Robert, English lyric poet. B. 1591. D. 1674. 
 Herschel, Caroline Lucretia, English astronomer, sister of Sir William Her- 
 
 schel. B. in Hanover 1750. D. 1848. 
 Herschel, Sir John, English astronomer, son of Sir William Herschel. B. 
 
 1792. D. 1871. 
 Herschel, Sir William, English astronomer. B. in Hanover 1738. D. 1822. 
 Hertz, Henrik, Danish poet, dramatist, writer of fiction. B. 1798. D. 1870. 
 
 Masterpiece, " King Rene's Daughter " (lyrical drama). 
 Hertzberg, Gustav, German historian. B. 1826. Works on Greek, Roman, 
 
 and Byzantine history. 
 Hertzen (Herzen), Alexander, Russian author, political agitator. B. 1812. 
 
 D. 1870. 
 Herve (Florimond Ronger), French composer. B. 1825. D. 1892. 
 Hervey, James, English clergyman, author. B. 1713 or 1714. D. 1758. 
 
 " Meditations and Contemplations." 
 Herwegh, Georg, German poet. B. 1817. D. 1875. 
 Herz, Henriette, German-Jewish lady. B. 1764. D. 1847. 
 Herzen. See Hertzen. 
 Herzog, Johann Jakob, German Protestant ecclesiastical encyclopaedist. B. 
 
 1805. D. 1882. 
 Hesiod, Greek poet. Flourished probably about 800 b. c. " Theogony." 
 
 " Works and Days." 
 Hess, Heinrich von, German painter. B. 1798. D. 1863. 
 Hess, Karl Adolf Heinrich, German painter. B. 1769. D. 1849. 
 Hess, Karl Ernst Christoph, German engraver. B. 1755. D. 1828. 
 Hess, Peter, German painter. B. 1792. D. 1871. 
 Hesse, J. B. Alexandre, French painter. B. 1806. D. 1879. 
 Hesse, Nicolas Auguste, French painter. B. 1795. D. 1869. 
 Hesychius, Greek lexicographer of Alexandria. 4th c. a. d. 
 Hesychius of Miletus, historian. Early part of 6th c. a. d. 
 Heuglin, Theodor von, baron, German traveler in northeastern Africa, natu- 
 ralist. B. 1824. D. 1876. 
 
442 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Hevelius (Hevel), Johannes, astronomer of Dantzic. B. 1611. D. 1687 
 
 (1688 f). 
 Heyden, Jan van der, Dutch painter. B. about 1637. D. 1712. 
 Heyne, Christian Gottlob, German classical scholar. B. 1729. D. 1812. 
 Heyse, Paul, German poet, novelist. B. 1830. 
 Heywood, John, English author. D. about 1565. Interludes, epigrams, 
 
 proverbs, &c. 
 Heywood, Thomas, English dramatist. D. about 1650. 
 Hezekiah, king of Judah. Reigned 728-697 b. c. (Duncker ; 727-698, 
 
 Oppert). 
 Hickes, George, English clergyman, scholar, author. B. 1642. D. 1715. 
 
 Works on the old Teutonic languages. 
 Hickok, Laurens Perseus, American philosopher. B. 1798. D. 1888. 
 Hicks, Elias, American Quaker preacher. B. 1748. D. 1830. 
 Hidalgo (Hidalgo y Costilla), Miguel, Mexican revolutionist. Shot 1811. 
 Hiero (Hieron), tyrant of Syracuse. Reigned from about 478 B. c. D. 467. 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse. Reigned from 270 B. c. D. 216. 
 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, American author. B. 1823. 
 Hilarion, Saint, founder of Monachism in Palestine. B. about 291. D. 
 
 about 371. 
 Hilary (Hilarius), Saint, bishop of Poitiers. D. about 367. 
 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. 
 
 Hildebrandt, Theodor. German painter. B. 1804. D. 1874. 
 Hildegard, Saint, German nun. B. about 1098. D. about 1179. 
 Hildreth, Richard, American author. B. 1807. D. 1865. " History of the 
 
 United States." 
 Hill, Ambrose Powell, Confederate general. B. about 1825. Killed 1865. 
 Hill, Rowland, English preacher. B. 1744. D. 1833. 
 Hill, Rowland, viscount, English general. B. 1772. D. 1842. 
 Hill, Sir Rowland, author of the cheap postage system in Great Britain. B. 
 
 1795. D. 1879. 
 Hillard, George Stillman, American author. B. 1808. D. 1879. 
 Hillel, Jewish rabbi, president of the Sanhedrim. Second half of first 
 
 c. b. c. 
 Hillel, Jewish rabbi, who perfected the Jewish calendar. 4th c. A. d. 
 Hiller, Ferdinand, German composer. B. 1811. D. 1885. 
 Hilton, William, English painter. B. 1786. D. 1839. 
 Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims. B. about 806. D. 882. 
 Hind, John Russell, English astronomer. B. 1823. D. 1895. 
 Hipparchus, ruler of Athens. Succeeded his father, Pisistratus, jointly 
 
 with his brother, Hippias, 527 b. c. Slain 514. 
 Hipparchus, Greek astronomer, native of Bithynia. 2d c. B. c. 
 Hippias, ruler of Athens. Succeeded his father, Pisistratus, jointly with 
 
 his brother, Hipparchus, 527 b. c. (see Hipparchus). Expelled 510. 
 Hippocrates, Greek physician. B. about 460 b. c. D. about 360. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 443 
 
 Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer (in Greek). First part of 3d c. 
 
 Hipponax, Greek poet. 6th c. b. c. 
 
 Hirtius, Aulus, Roman consul, general. Slain 43 b. c. 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, American geologist. B. 1793. D. 1864. 
 
 Hittorff, Jacques Ignace, French architect. B. 1793. D. 1867. 
 
 Hitzig, Ferdinand, German Biblical critic. B. 1807. D. 1875. 
 
 Hitzig, Georg Heinrich Friedrich, German architect. B. 1811. D. 1881. 
 
 Hoadley, Benjamin, English divine. B. 1676. D. 1761. 
 
 Hobbema, Minderhout, Dutch painter. D. 1709. 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas, English philosopher. B. 1588. D. 1679. " Leviathan, or 
 the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and 
 Civil." 
 
 Hobhouse, John Cam, Lord Broughton, English statesman, author. B. 
 1786. D. 1869. "Journey through Albania and other Provinces of Tur- 
 key with Lord Byron." 
 
 Hoche, Lazare, French general. B. 1768. D. 1797. 
 
 Hochstetter, Ferd. von, Austrian geologist, mineralogist. B. 1829. D. 1884. 
 
 Hodge, Charles, American theologian. B. 1797. D. 1878. 
 
 Hoeven, Jan van der, Dutch naturalist. B. 1801. D. 1868. 
 
 Hofer, Andreas, Tyrolese patriot. B. 1767. Shot 1810. 
 
 Hofer, Edmund, German novelist, B. 1819. D. 1882. 
 
 Hoffman, Charles Fenno, American author. B. 1806. D. 1884. 
 
 Hoffman, David, American lawyer, writer on law. B. 1784. D. 1854. 
 
 Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus, German writer. B. 1776. D. 1822. 
 Author of humorous and fantastic tales. 
 
 Hoffmann, Friedrich, German physician. B. 1660. D. 1742. 
 
 Hoffmann von Fallersleben, August Heinrich, German poet, critic, liter- 
 ary historian. B. 1798. D. 1874. 
 
 Hofland, Barbara, English authoress. B. 1770. D. 1844. Novels and 
 moral tales. 
 
 Hofler, Konstantin, German historian. B. 1811. Works on German his- 
 tory. 
 
 Hofmann, August Wilhelm, German chemist. B. 1818. D. 1892. 
 
 Hofmann, Heinrich Johann Ferdinand Michael, German painter. B. 1824. 
 
 Hogarth, William, English artist. B. 1697. D. 1764. 
 
 Hogg, James (the "Ettrick Shepherd"), Scottish poet. B. 1770 or 1772. 
 D. 1835. 
 
 Hohenlohe, Friedrich Ludwig, prince, Prussian general. B. 1746. D. 1818. 
 
 Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, Chlodwig. prince, German statesman, diplo- 
 matist, chancellor of the German Empire since 1894. B. 1819. 
 
 Holbach, Paul Henri Thyry d\ baron, French philosopher. B. 1723. D. 
 1789. " Le Christianisme devoile " (" Christianity unveiled "). " Le sys- 
 teine de la nature, ou des lois du monde physique et moral." 
 
 Holbein, Hans, German painter. B. about 1497. D. 1543. 
 
 Holberg, Ludvig, baron, Danish author. B. 1684. D. 1754. Comedies. 
 
444 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Comic poems. "The Subterranean Travels of Nicholas Klim " (satirical 
 
 story, written in Latin). History of Denmark. 
 Holbrook, John Edwards, American naturalist. B. 1795. D. 1871. 
 Holcroft, Thomas, English dramatist. B. 1745. D. 1809. 
 Holinshed (Holingshed), Raphael, English writer of annals. D. about 
 
 1580. 
 Holland, Sir Henry, English physician. B. 1788. D. 1873. 
 Holland, Henry Richard Vassall Fox, Lord, English statesman. B. i773. 
 
 D. 1840. Author of " Memoirs of the Whig Party." 
 Holland, Josiah Gilbert (" Timothy Titcomb "), American author. B. 1819. 
 
 D. 1881. 
 Hollar, Wenzel, Bohemian-English engraver. B. 1607. D. 1077. 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, American humorous writer (prose and poetry), 
 
 physician. B. 1809. D. 1894. "The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table." 
 
 " The Professor at the Breakfast Table." " The Poet at the Breakfast 
 
 Table." '• Elsie Venner, a Romance of Destiny." " Over the Teacups." 
 Hoist, Hans Peder, Danish poet, novelist. B. 1811. D. 1893. 
 Hoist, Hermann von, German historian. B. 1841. " Verfassungsgeschiehte 
 
 der Vereinigten Staaten " (" Constitutional History of the United States "). 
 Holt, Sir John, chief justice of England. B. 1642. D. 1710. 
 Holtei, Karl von, German poet, dramatist. B. 1798. D. 1880. 
 Holty, Ludwig Ileinrich Christoph, German poet. B. 1748. D. 1776. 
 Holtzendorff, Franz von, German jurist. B. 1829. D. 1889. 
 Holub, Emil, Bohemian traveler in South Africa, naturalist. B. 1847. 
 Home, Daniel Dunglas, British spiritualist. B. 1833. D. 1886. 
 Home, Sir Everard, Scottish surgeon, anatomist. B. 1756. D. 1832. 
 Home, Henry, Lord Karnes. See Kames. 
 Home (Hume), John, Scottish dramatist. B. 1722. D. 1808. 
 Homer, Greek poet. Flourished about S00 b. c. (?). 
 Hone, William, English author. B. about 1779. D. 1842. "The Political 
 
 House that Jack built " (satire). " Every-day Book." " Table Book." 
 
 " Year Book." 
 Honorius, emperor of the West, son of Theodosius. Reigned 395-423. 
 Honorius I., pope. Elected about 625. D. 638. 
 Honorius II., pope. Elected 1124. I). 1130. 
 Honorius III., pope. Elected 1216. D. 1227. 
 Honorius IV., pnpe. Elected 1285. D. 1287. 
 
 Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von, German ecclesiastic, famous for his writ- 
 ings attacking the papal power. B. 1701. D. 1790. 
 Hood, Alexander (Viscount Bridport), British naval commander. D. 1814. 
 Hood, John B., Confederate general. B. 1831. D. 1879. 
 Hood, Samuel, viscount, British admiral. B. 1724. D. 1816. 
 Hood, Thomas, English poet, humorist. B. 1798. D. 1845. " The Dream 
 
 of Eugene Aram." " The Song of the Shirt." "The Bridge of Sighs." 
 
 " The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 445 
 
 Hooft, Pieter Corneliszoon, Dutch historian (liistory of the Netherlands), 
 
 poet. B. 1581. D. 1647. 
 Hooghe (Hooch), Pieter de, Dutch painter. Second half of 17th c. 
 Hook, Theodore Edward, English author. B. 1788. D. 1841. Humorous 
 
 novels, dramas. 
 Hook, Walter Earquhar, English clergyman, author. B. 1798. D. 1875. 
 
 '• Church Dictionary."' " Ecclesiastical Biography." " Lives of the Arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury." 
 Hooke, Robert, English scientist. B. 1035. D. 1703. 
 Hooker, Joseph, American general. B. 1814. D. 1879. 
 Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, English botanist, son of Sir W. J. Hooker. B. 
 
 1817. 
 Hooker, Richard, English divine. B. about 1553. D. 1600. " The Laws 
 
 of Ecclesiastical Polity." 
 Hooker, Thomas, clergyman, one of the founders of Connecticut. B. 1586. 
 
 D. 1647. 
 Hooker, Sir William Jackson, English botanist. B. 1785. D. 1865. 
 Hooker, Worthington, American physician, author. B. 1806. D. 1867. 
 
 " Child's Book of Nature." 
 Hooper, John, English bishop. B. about 1495. Burned 1555. 
 Hoorn, Philip, count of See Horn. 
 Hope (Beresford-Hope), Alexander James, English politician, author. B. 
 
 1820. D. 1887. 
 Hope, Thomas, English author. B. about 1770. D. 1831. 
 Hopkins, Edward, governor of Connecticut. B. 1600. D. 1657. 
 Hopkins, Samuel, American theologian. B. 1721. D. 1803. 
 Hopkinson, Francis, American patriot, humorous political writer. B. 1737. 
 
 D. 1791. Best remembered production, " The Battle of the Kegs." 
 Hopkinson, Joseph, American lawyer, author of " Hail Columbia." B. 
 
 1770. I). 1842, 
 Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus), Latin poet. B. 65 b. c. D. 8 b. c. 
 
 Odes, satires, epistles (including " De Arte Poetica "). 
 Hormayr, Joseph, baron, German historian. B. 1781. D. 1848. 
 Horn, Gustaf, Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1592. D. 1657. 
 Horn (Hoorn, Hoorne), Philip, count of, noble and patriot of the Nether- 
 lands. B. 1522. Executed 1568. 
 Horne, George, English Biblical scholar. B. 1730. D. 1792. 
 Home, Richard Hengist (Henry), Eng. poet, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1884. 
 Horne, Thomas Hartwell, English Biblical scholar, author. B. 1780. D. 
 
 1862. 
 Horne Tooke. See Tooke. 
 
 Horner, Francis, British statesman. B. 1778. D. 1817. 
 Horrocks (Horrox), Jeremiah, English astronomer. B. about 1619. D. 
 
 1641. 
 Horsley, John Callcott. English painter. B. 1817. 
 
446 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Horsley, Samuel, English bishop, scholar. B. 1733. D. 1806. 
 
 Hortense, queen of Holland. See Beauharnais. 
 
 Hortensius, Quintus, Roman orator. B. 114 b. c. D. 50. 
 
 Horvath, Mihaly, Hungarian historian. B. 1809. D. 1878. History of 
 
 Hungary. 
 Hosack, David, American physician. B. 1769. D. 1835. 
 Hosea, Hebrew prophet. 8th c. b. c. 
 
 Hotho, Heinrich Gustav, German writer on art. B. 1802. D. 1873. 
 Hottinger, Johann Heinrich, Swiss Biblical scholar, orientalist. B. 1620. 
 
 D. 1667. 
 Houdetot, Elisabeth Francoise Sophie d', countess, French lady. B. about 
 
 1730. D. 1813. 
 Houdin, Robert, French juggler, mechanician. B. 1805. D. 1871. 
 Houdon, Jean Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1741 (1740?). D. 1828. 
 Houghton, Richard Monckton Milnes, Lord, English statesman, poet, 
 
 essayist. B. 1809. D. 1885. 
 Houston, Sam, American soldier, president and governor of Texas. B. 
 
 1793. D. 1863. 
 Hovedon, Roger de, English chronicler. End of 12th c. 
 Howard, Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham, earl of Nottingham, English 
 
 admiral. B. 1536. D. 1624. 
 Howard, Frederick. See Carlisle, earl of. 
 Howard, George William Frederick. See Carlisle, earl of. 
 Howard, Henry, earl of Surrey. See Surrey. 
 
 Howard, John, English philanthropist (prison reform). B. 1726. D. 1790. 
 Howard, John Eager, American soldier. B. 1752. D. 1827. 
 Howard, Oliver Otis, American general. B. 1830. 
 Howard, Thomas. See Norfolk and Arundel. 
 
 Howe, Elias, American inventor (sewing-machine). B. 1819. D. 1867. 
 Howe, John, English clergyman, author. B. 1630. D. 1705. 
 Howe, Julia Ward, American authoress, advocate of woman's rights, wife of 
 
 S. G. Howe. B. 1819. 
 Howe, Richard, earl, British admiral. B. 1726. D. 1799. 
 Howe, Samuel Gridley, American philanthropist. B. 1801. D. 1876. 
 Howe, Sir William, British general. B. 1729. D. 1814. 
 Howell, James, English author. B. about 1596. D. 1666. 
 Howells, William Dean, American novelist, dramatist. B. 1837. 
 Howitt, Mary (Botham), English authoress, wife of William Howitt. B. 
 
 about 1804. D. 1888. 
 Howitt, William, English author. B. 1792. D. 1879. 
 Hoyle, Edmund, English writer on whist, &c. B. 1672. D. 1769. 
 Hrabanus Maurus. See Rabanus Maurus. 
 
 Huber, Francois, Swiss naturalist. B. 1750. D. 1831. Noted for his in- 
 vestigations in the natural history of the bee. 
 Huber, Jean Rodolphe, Swiss painter. B, 1668. D. 1748. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 447 
 
 Hiibner, Julius, German painter. B. 1806. D. 1882. 
 
 Hue, Evariste Regis, French traveler in Tartary, Thibet, and China. B. 
 1813. D. 1860. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, English navigator. D. about 1611. 
 
 Huet, Pierre Daniel, French scholar, philosophical and religious writer. B. 
 1630. D. 1721. 
 
 Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm, German physician. B. 1762. D. 1836. 
 " Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst das menschliche Leben zu verliingern " 
 (on the art of prolonging life). 
 
 Hiigel, Karl Alexander Anselm von, baron, German traveler. B. 1796. D. 
 1870. " Kaschmir und das Reich der Sikhs." " Das Becken von Kabul." 
 
 Huggins, William, English spectroscopist. B. 1824. 
 
 Hugh Capet, king of France. Reigned from 987. D. 996. 
 
 Hughes, John, archbishop of New York. B. 1797. D. 1864. 
 
 Hughes, Thomas, English author. B. 1823. D. 1896. "Tom Brown's 
 School Days." " Tom Brown at Oxford." 
 
 Hugo, Gustav, German jurist. B. 1764. D. 1844. 
 
 Hugo, Victor, French poet, dramatist, novelist, politician. B. Feb. 26, 1802. 
 D. May 22, 1885. " Marion Delorme," " Hernani," " Le roi s'amuse," 
 "RuyBlas" (dramas), 1829-'38. "Notre Dame de Paris " (novel), 1831. 
 " Les feuilles d'automne " (poems), 1831. " Les chatiments " (poetical sat- 
 ires against Napoleon III.), 1853. " Les contemplations " (poems), 1856. 
 "Les miserables," "Les travailleurs de la mer," "L'homme qui rit," 
 " Quatre-vingt-treize " (novels), 1862-'74. 
 
 Hull, Isaac, American naval officer. B. about 1773. D. 1843. 
 
 Hull, William, American general. B. 1753. D. 1825. 
 
 Hullah, John, Eng. teacher of vocal music, writer on music. B. 1812. D. 1884 
 
 Humbert, king of Italy since 1878, son of Victor Emanuel. B. March 14, 
 1844. 
 
 Humboldt, Alexander von, baron, German traveler, naturalist. B. Sept. 14, 
 1769. D. May 6, 1859. "Voyage aux regions equinoxiales du nouveau 
 continent, fait en 1799-1804" (the work of several scientists, dealing with 
 physical geography, geology, zoology, botany, trigonometrical operations 
 and barometrical measurements, antiquities, &c). "Ansichten der Na- 
 tur " (" Views of Nature "). " Des lignes isothermes et de la distribution 
 de la chaleur sur le globe." " Examen critique de l'histoire de la geogra- 
 phic du nouveau continent." " Asie centrale, recherches sur les chaines 
 de montagnes et la climatologie comparee." " Kosmos " (Humboldt's 
 principal work, embi'acing the whole range of natural science), 1845-'58. 
 
 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, baron, German statesman, philologist, brother of 
 Alexander von Humboldt. B. 1767. D. 1835. 
 
 Hume, David, Scottish philosopher, historian. B. April 26, 1711. D. Aug. 
 25, 1776. "Treatise of Human Nature," 1739-1740. "Essays, Moral, 
 Political, and Literary," first collection 1741. " Inquiry concerning the 
 Human Understanding" ("Philosophical Essays"), 1748. "Inquiry con- 
 
448 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 cerning the Principles of Morals," 1751. " Political Discourses," 1752. 
 
 "History of England," 1754-'61. "Natural History of Religion," 1757. 
 
 " Dialogues concerning Natural Religion," 1779. 
 Hume, Joseph, British statesman. B. 1777. D. 1855. 
 
 Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, German pianist, composer. B. 1778. D. 1837. 
 Hunfalvy, Pal, Hungarian philologist. B. 1810. D. 1891. 
 Hunniades. See Hunyady. 
 
 Hunt, Henry, English radical politician. B. 1773. D. 1835. 
 Hunt, James Henry Leigh, English author. B. 1784. D. 1859. Poems, 
 
 essays, literary criticisms. " Recollections of Lord Byron and some of 
 
 his Contemporaries." " Autobiography." 
 Hunt, Thomas Sterry, American chemist, geologist. B. 1826. D. 1892. 
 Hunt, William, English painter. B. 1790. D. 1864. 
 Hunt, William Holman, English painter. B. 1827. 
 Hunt, William Morris, American painter. B. 1824. D. 1879. 
 Hunter, John, British anatomist, surgeon. B. 1728. D. 1793. 
 Hunter, William, British anatomist, physician, brother of John Hunter. 
 
 B. 1718. D. 1783. 
 Hunter, William Wilson, English statistician, philologist, author. B. 1840. 
 
 " Annals of Rural Bengal." " Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan 
 
 Languages of India and High Asia." " Imperial Gazetteer of India."' 
 Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, patron of Caivinistic Methodism. B. 
 
 1707. D. 1791. 
 Huntington, Daniel, American painter. B. 1816. 
 Huntington, Samuel, American patriot. D. 1796. 
 Hunyady (Hunyad, Hunniades), .Linos (John), Hungarian general, regent of 
 
 Hungary. D. 1456. 
 Hurd, Richard, English prelate, writer. B. 1720. D. 1808. 
 Huskisson, William, English statesman. B. 1770. D. 1830. 
 Huss, John, Bohemian religious reformer. B. 1369. Burned 1415. 
 Hutcheson, Francis. Scottish philosopher. B. 1694. D. about 1747. " In- 
 quiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue." " System of 
 
 Moral Philosophy." 
 Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast. B. in England about 1591. Emi- 
 grated to Boston 1634 ; banished from there 1637. Murdered by the 
 
 Indians (burned <?) 1643. 
 Hutchinson, John, English Puritan officer. B. 1616. D. 1664. 
 Hutchinson, John, English natural philosopher (opponent of Newton's 
 
 theory of gravitation), theologian, writer. B. 1674. D. 1737. 
 Hutchinson, Thomas, governor of Massachusetts 1769-'74. B. 1711. D. 
 
 1780. 
 Hutten, Ulrich von, German writer, one of the first promoters of the 
 
 Reformation. B. 1488. D. 1523. 
 Hutton, Charles, English mathematician. B. 1737. D. 1823. 
 Hutton, James, Scottish geologist. B. 1726. D. 1797. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 449 
 
 Huxley, Thomas Henry, Eng. naturalist. B. May 4, 1825. D. June 29, 1895. 
 
 Huygens, Christian, Dutch physicist, mathematician. B. 1G29. D. 1695. 
 
 Hyacinthe, Pere. See Loy.son. 
 
 Hyde, Edward. See Clarendon. 
 
 Hyde, Thomas, English orientalist. B. 1636. D. 1703. 
 
 Hyder Ali, sultan of Mysore. B. about 1718. D. 1782. 
 
 Hypatia, female Neo-Platonic philosopher of Alexandria. Murdered i d 
 
 415. ' ' 
 
 Hyperides, Athenian orator. Put to death 322 b. c. 
 Hyrcanus I. (John .Hyrcanus), ruler and high priest of the Jews, son of 
 
 Simon Maccabaeus. Ruled from 135 b. c. D. 105. 
 Hyrcanus II. (John Hyrcanus), ruler and high priest of the Jews, son of 
 
 Alexander Janna?us. Put to death 30 b. c. 
 Hyrtl, Joseph, Austrian anatomist. B. 1810. D. 1894. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iamblichus, Neo-Platonic philosopher. Flourished in Syria early in the 
 4th e. a. d. 
 
 Iberville, Pierre le Moyne, sieur d', French commander, who founded a 
 colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, which he afterward transferred to 
 the site of Mobile. B. in Canada 1661. D. 1706. 
 
 Ibn Batuta. See Batuta. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, Egyptian general, son of Mehemet Ali. B. 1789 D 
 1848. 
 
 Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian dramatist, B. 1828. 
 
 Ibycus, Greek poet. 6th c. b. c. * 
 
 Ictinus, Greek architect. Second half of 5th e. b. c. 
 
 Iffland, August Wilhelm, German dramatist. B. 1759. D. 1814. 
 
 Ignatieff, Nikolai, Russian diplomatist. B. 1832. 
 
 Ignatius, Saint, patriarch of Constantinople. D. 878. 
 •Ignatius, Saint (Ignatius Loyola). See Loyola. 
 
 Immermann, Karl, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1796. D. 1840. 
 
 Imola, Innocenzio da, Italian painter. D. about 1550. 
 
 Inchbald, Elizabeth (born Simpson), English dramatist, novelist. B. 1753. 
 D. 1821. 
 
 Ines de Castro, wife of Pedro, son of Alfonso IV. of Portugal. Assassi- 
 nated 1355. 
 
 Ingelow, Jean. English poetess, writer of fiction. B. about 1830. D. 1897. 
 
 Ingemann, Bernhard Severin, Danish poet, B. 1789. 1). 1862. 
 
 Inghirami, Francesco, Italian antiquary. B. 1772. D. 1846. "Monumenti 
 etruschi." 
 
 Inghirami, Tommaso, Italian scholar, poet, orator (Latin writings and 
 orations). B. 1470. D. 1516. 
 
 Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, French painter. B. 1781. D. 1867. 
 
450 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ingulphus, English monk. B. about 1030. D. 1109. 
 Inness, George, American painter. B. 1825. D. 1894. 
 Innocent I., Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 402. D. 417. 
 Innocent II., pope. Elected 1130. D. 1143. 
 Innocent III., pope. Elected 1198. D. 1210. 
 Innocent XI., pope. Elected 1076. D. 1089. 
 Iphicrates, Athenian commander. First half of 4th c. b. c. 
 Ireland, William Henry, English literary impostor. B. 1777. D. 1835. 
 Ireneeus, Saint, Greek father of the church. D. about 202. 
 Irene, empress of the East. B. about 752. Regent for her son, Constantino 
 VI., and afterward his associate in the empire 780-797. Empress alone 
 797-802. D. 803. 
 Ireton, Henry, English Parliamentary general. B. about 1611. D. lbOl- 
 Iriarte. See Yriarte. 
 
 Irving, Edward, Scottish preacher. B. 1792. D. 1834. 
 Irving, John Henry Brodribb, English actor. B. 1838. 
 Irving, Washington, American author. B. April 3, 1783. D. Nov. 28, 
 1S59 Principal works in the order of their production : " History of 
 New York by Diedrich Knickerbocker" 1809; "Sketch Book"; "Brace- 
 brid-e Hall " ; " Tales of a Traveler " ; " History of Christopher Colum- 
 bus"; "Conquest, of Granada"; "The Companions of Columbus"; 
 » The Alhambra " ; " Oliver Goldsmith " ; " Mahomet and his Succes- 
 sors" ; " Life of George Washington " 1855-9. 
 Isaac Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1057-'9. D. 1061. 
 Isaac Angelus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1185-95, 1203-'4. Put to 
 
 death 1204. 
 Isabella, wife of Edward 11. B. about 1292. D. 1358. 
 Isabella, queen of Castile. B. 1451. Married to Ferdinand, prince of Ara- 
 
 gon. 1469. Ascended the throne of Castile 1474. D. 1504. 
 Isabella II., queen of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand VII. and Maria Chris- 
 tina. B. 1830. Reigned from 1833. Dethroned 1868. Mother of Al- 
 fonso XII. 
 Isabey, Eugene Louis Gabriel, French painter. B. 1804. D. 1886. 
 Isabey, Jean Baptiste, French miniature painter. B. 1767. D. 1855. 
 Isseus, Athenian orator. First half of 4th c. b. c. 
 Isaiah, Hebrew prophet. Latter part of 8th c. b. c. 
 Isidorus, Saint, bishop of Seville, scholar. D. 636. 
 
 Isla, Jose Francisco de, Spanish author. D. 1781 (1783?). " Histona 
 del famoso predicador Fray Gerundio de Campazas " (satire on the 
 
 cl6r°*v). 
 Ismaif Pasha, khedive of Egypt. B. 1830. Reigned 1863-79. D. 1895. 
 Isocrates, Athenian orator. B. 436 b. c. D. 338. 
 Isturiz, Francisco Xavier de, Spanish statesman. B. 1790. D. 1871. 
 Iturbide, Augustin de, emperor of Mexico. B. 1783. Reigned 1822-'a 
 
 Shot 1824. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 451 
 
 Ivan III., the Great, ruler of Russia. Reigned from 1462. D. 1505. 
 Ivan IV., the Terrible, czar of Russia. B. 1530 (1529 f). Reigned from 
 
 1533. D. 1584. 
 Ivan V., czar of Russia. Reigned jointly with his half-brother, Peter the 
 
 Great, 1682-'9. D. 1696. 
 Ivan VI., czar of Russia, son of Anna Ivanovna. B. 1740. Czar 1740-'41. 
 
 Put to death 1704. 
 Ivory, James, British mathematician. B. 1765. D. 1842. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, general, president of the United States 1829-'37. B. 
 
 March 15, 1767. D. June 8, 1845. 
 Jackson, Charles Thomas, one of the inventors of etherization. B. in Massa- 
 chusetts 1805. D. 1880. 
 Jackson, Thomas Jonathan (" Stonewall " Jackson), Confederate general. 
 
 B. 1824. Died of a wound 1863. 
 Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, German philosopher. B. 1743. D. 1819. 
 Jacobi, Johann Georg, German poet. B. 1740. D. 1814. 
 Jacobi, Karl Gustav Jakob, German mathematician. B. 1804. D. 1851. 
 Jacobi, Moritz Hermann, German physicist. B. 1801. D. 1874. One of 
 
 the inventors of the electric telegraph and of electrotyping. 
 Jacobs, Christian Friedrich Wilhelm, German author, Greek scholar. B. 
 
 1764. D. 1847. 
 Jacoby, Johann, Prussian statesman. B. 1805. D. 1877. 
 Jacquard, Joseph Marie, French inventor (Jacquard loom). B. 1752. D, 
 
 1834. 
 Jacqueline of Bavaria, countess of Hainaut and Holland. B. 1400. D. 
 
 1436. 
 Jacquemart, Jules, French engraver. B. 1837. D. 1880. 
 Jacquin, X. J., Austrian botanist. B. in Holland 1727. D. 1817. 
 Jagellon (Jagiello), grand-prince of Lithuania, king of Poland (as such 
 
 Ladislas II.). Reigned in Poland from 1386. D. 1434. 
 Jager, Gustav, German naturalist. B. 1832. 
 Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, German patriot, who organized gymnasia for the 
 
 physical training of the German youth. B. 1778. D. 1852. 
 Jahn, Otto, German classical scholar, writer on ancient art, &c. B. 1813. 
 
 D. 1869. 
 Jakob, Ludwig Heinrich von, German philosopher, political writer, econo- 
 mist. B. 1759. D. 1827. 
 Jalabert, Charles Francois, French painter. B. 1819. 
 James I. (James Stuart), king of Scotland. B. about 1394. Reigned from 
 
 1406 (prisoner of the English till 1424). Assassinated 1437. 
 James II., king of Scotland, son of James I. B. 1430. Reigned from 1437. 
 
 Killed by an accident 1460. 
 30 
 
452 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 James III., king of Scotland, son of James II. B. about 1451. Reigned 
 from 1460. Murdered 1488. 
 
 James IV., king of Scotland, son of James III. B. 1473. Reigned from 
 1488. Slain 1513. 
 
 James V., king of Scotland, son of James IV. and Margaret Tudor, daugh- 
 ter of Henry VII. B. 1512. Reigned from 1513. D. 1542. 
 
 James, king of Scotland (James VI.) and of England (James I.), son of 
 Mary Stuart and Darnley. B. June, 1566. King of Scotland from 1567; 
 of England from 1603. D. March, 1625. 
 
 James II., king of England and Scotland, brother of Charles II. B. Oct., 
 1633. Reigned 1685-8. D. Sept., 1701. (Previous to his accession 
 styled duke of York.) 
 
 James the Conqueror, king of Aragon. Reigned 1213-'76. 
 
 James, George Payne Rainsford, English novelist, historian. B. 1801. D. 
 1860. 
 
 James, Henry, American religious and philosophical writer. B. 1811, D. 
 1882. 
 
 James, Henry, jr., American novelist. B. 1843. 
 
 James, John Angell, English clergyman, author. B. 1785. D. 1859. 
 
 James Edward Stuart, pretender to the throne of England, son of James 
 II. B. 1688. D. 1766. 
 
 Jameson, Anna (born Murphy), British authoress. B. 1794. D. 1860. 
 Works on woman and female celebrities, on art, &c. 
 
 Jameson, Robert, Scottish mineralogist, geologist. B. 1774. D. 1854. 
 
 Jamesone, George, Scottish painter. B. about 1586. D. 1644. 
 
 Jami, Persian poet. B. 1414. D. 1492. 
 
 Jamieson, John, Scottish divine, scholar. B. 1759. D. 1838. "Etymo- 
 logical Dictionary of the Scottish Language." 
 
 Janet, Paul, French philosophical writer. B. 1823. 
 
 Janin, Jules, French literary and dramatic critic, novelist. B. 1804. D. 1874. 
 
 Jansen (Jansenius), Cornelius, theologian. B. in Holland 1585. D. 1638. 
 
 Janson, Kristoffer, Norwegian novelist, poet. B. 1841. 
 
 Janssen, Pierre Jules Cesar, French natural philosopher, astronomer, espe- 
 cially distinguished in the field of solar physics. B. 1824. 
 
 Janssens, Abraham, Flemish painter. D. about 1631. 
 
 Januarius, Saint, bishop of Benevento. Put to death 305. 
 
 Jaroslav. See Yaroslav. 
 
 Jasmin, Jacques, Provencal poet. B. 1798. D. 1864. 
 
 Jasper, William, American soldier. B. about 1750. Killed 1779. 
 
 Jay, John, American statesman. B. 1745. D. 1829. 
 
 Jay, William, American philanthropist, abolitionist, son of John Jay. B. 
 1789. D. 1858. 
 
 Jean Paul. See Richter. 
 
 Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre. Reigned 1555-72. Wife of Antoine 
 de Bourbon and mother of Henry IV. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 453 
 
 Jeanne d'Arc. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Jefferson, Joseph, American actor. B. 1829. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, president of the United States 1801-9. B. April 2 (old 
 
 style). 1743. D. July 4. 1826. 
 Jeffrey, Francis, Scottish critic. B. 1773. D. 1850. 
 Jeffreys, George, English judge. B. 1648. D. 1689. 
 Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. Reigned about 873-848 b. c. (Dimeter ; 
 
 about 917-892, common chrun.). 
 Jehu, king of Israel. Reigned about 843-815 b. c. (Dimeter ; SS7S59, 
 
 Oppert). 
 Jelal-ed-Din er-Rumi, Persian religious poet. D. 1273. 
 Jellachich, Joseph, ban of Croatia. B. 1801. D. 1859. 
 Jengis Khan. See Genghis Khan. 
 
 Jenkins, Edward, English author. B. 1838. " Ginx's Baby." 
 Jenner, Edward, Eng. physician, originator of vaccination. B. 1749. D. 1823. 
 Jenner, Sir William, English physician. B. 1815. 
 Jenyns, Soame, English author. B. 1704. D. 1787. " A Free Inquiry into 
 
 the Nature and Origin of Evil." "A View of the Internal Evidence of 
 
 the Christian Religion." 
 Jeremiah, Hebrew prophet. 600 b. c. 
 Jeroboam I., king of Israel. Reigned about 953-927 b. c. (Duncter; about 
 
 977-956, common citron.). 
 Jeroboam II., king of Israel. Reigned about 790-749 b. c. (Dimeter; 
 
 825-798 and again 787-773, Oppert). 
 Jerome, king of "Westphalia. See Bonaparte, Jerome. 
 Jerome, Saint, Latin father of the church, translator of the Bible. B. about 
 
 340. D. 420. 
 Jerome of Prague, Hussite preacher. Burned 1416. 
 Jerrold, Douglas William, English writer of comedy, humorist. B. 1803. 
 
 D. 1857. 
 Jerusalem, Johann Fried rich Wilhelm, German divine, pulpit orator. B, 
 
 1709. D. 1789. 
 Jervis, Sir John, earl of St. Vincent, English admiral. B. 1735. D. 1823. 
 Jevons, William Stanley, English economist, philosophical writer. B. 1835. 
 
 D. 1882. 
 Jewel (Jewell), John, English bishop. B. 1522. D. 1571. 
 Jhering, Rudolf von, German jurist. B. 1818. D. 1892. 
 Joachim, Joseph, German violinist. B. 1831. 
 Joan of Arc, French heroine. B. about 1411. Burned 1431. 
 Joan the Mad, queen of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, B. 
 
 1479. D. 1555. Wife of Philip, son of Maximilian I., and mother of 
 
 Charles V. 
 Joanna I., queen of Naples. B. about 1327. Reigned from 1343. Put to 
 
 death 1382. 
 Joanna II., queen of Naples. B. about 1371. Reigned from 1414. D. 1435. 
 
454 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Jogues, Isaac, French missionary in America. B. 1607. Put to death 1646. 
 
 Johannes Secundus (Jan Everard), Dutch Latin poet. B. 1511. D. 1536. 
 
 John the Baptist. Preached about a. d. 28. 
 
 John the Evangelist. D. about 100 (?). 
 
 John I., pope. Elected 523. D. 526. 
 
 John VIII., pope. Elected 872. Killed 882. 
 
 John X., pope. Elected 914. Put to death 928. 
 
 John XII., pope. Assumed the papacy end of 955 (beginning of 956?). 
 
 Deposed 963. D. 964. 
 John XXII., pope. Elected 1316. D. 1334. 
 John XXIII., pope. Elected 1410. Deposed 1415. D. 1419. 
 John, king of England, brother of Richard Cceur-de-Lion. B. 1166. 
 
 Reigned from 1199. D. 1216. 
 John the Good, king of France, son of Philip VI. B. about 1319. 
 
 Reigned from 1350. D. 1.364. 
 John of Luxemburg (the Blind), king of Bohemia, son of the emperor 
 
 Henry VII. Reigned from 1310. Slain 1346. 
 John I., the Great, king of Portugal. Reigned from 1385. D. 1433. 
 John II., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1481. D. 1495. 
 John III., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1521. D. 1557. 
 John IV., king of Portugal, first of the house of Braganca. Reigned from 
 
 1640. D. 1656. 
 John V., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1706. D. 1750. 
 John VI., king of Portugal. Reigned as regent for his mother, Maria, from 
 
 1792 ; king from 1816. D. 1826. 
 John, king of Saxony. B. 1801. Reigned from 1854. D. 1873. 
 John III., king of Sweden. Reigned from 1568. D. 1592. 
 John, archduke of Austria, general, son of Leopold II. B. 1782. D. 1859. 
 John of Austria, Don, Spanish commander, half-brother of Philip II. B. 
 
 about 1546. D. 1578. 
 John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III. B. about 1340. D. 
 
 1399. 
 John of Swabia, nephew and murderer of the emperor Albert I. B. 1289. 
 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy. B. about 1370. Reigned from 
 
 1404. Murdered 1419. 
 John the Constant, elector of Saxony. Reigned from 1525. D. 1532. 
 John of Leyden, Anabaptist leader. B. about 1510. Put to death 1536. 
 John of Salisbury, English ecclesiastic, writer. D. about 1180. 
 John, Eugenie (" E. Marlitt "), German novelist. B. 1825. D. 1887. 
 John Cantacuzenus. See Cantacuzenus, Johannes. 
 John Casirnir, king of Poland. Reigned from 1648. Abdicated 1668. D. 
 
 1672. 
 John Frederick the Magnanimous, elector of Saxony. Reigned from 
 
 1532. Dethroned 1547. D. 1554. 
 John George I., elector of Saxony. Reigned from 1611. D. 1656. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 455 
 
 John Hyrcanus. See Hyrcanus. 
 
 John Palseologus II., Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 1425. D. 1448. 
 
 John Scotus. See Erigexa. 
 
 John Sobieski. See Sobieski. 
 
 John Zimisces, Byzantine general and emperor. Reigned from 9G9. D. 
 970. 
 
 Johnson, Alexander Bryan, American author. B. 1786. D. 1867. " Phi- 
 losophy of Human Knowledge, or a Treatise on Language." " Treatise 
 on Language, or the Relation which Words bear to Things." 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, president of the United States from April 15, 1865, to 
 March 4, 1869. B. Dec. 29, 1808. D. July 31, 1875. 
 
 Johnson, Eastman, American painter. B. 1824. 
 
 Johnson, Reverdy, American statesman. B. 1796. D. 1876. 
 
 Johnson, Richard Mentor, vice-president of the United States 1837— '41. 
 B. 1780. D. 1850. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, English author. B. Sept. 18, 1709. D. Dec. 13, 1784. 
 " The Vanity of Human Wishes " (poem). Essays in the " Rambler," 
 "Adventurer," and "Idler." "Dictionary of the English Language." 
 " Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia," 1759. " Lives of the English Poets," 
 1779-81. 
 
 Johnson, Sir William, British commander in America. B. 1715. D. 1774. 
 
 Johnston, Albert Sidney, Confederate general. B. 1803. Killed 1862. 
 
 Johnston, Alexander Keith, British geographer. B. 1804. D. 1871. 
 
 Johnston, George, Scottish naturalist. B. 1797. D. 1855. 
 
 Johnston, James F. W., Scottish agricultural chemist. B. about 1796. 1). 
 1855. 
 
 Johnston, Joseph Eccleston, Confederate general. B. 1807. D. 1891. 
 
 Joinville, Francois d'Orleans, prince de, son of Louis Philippe. B. 1818. 
 
 Joinville, Jean, sire de, French chronicler. B. about 1224. D. about 1319. 
 
 Jokai, Mor, Hungarian novelist. B. 1825. 
 
 Jolliet (Joliet), Louis, Canadian explorer. B. 1645. D. 1700. Expedition 
 down the Mississippi with Marquette, 1673. 
 
 Jomard, Edme Francois, French scholar, writer on Egypt. B. 1777. D. 
 1862. 
 
 Jomelli, Niccolo, Italian composer. B. 1714. D. 1774. 
 
 Jomini, Henri, baron, French military writer. B. 1779. D. 1869. 
 
 Jonas, Justus, German Reformer. B. 1493. D. 1555. 
 
 Jones, Inigo, English architect. B. about 1572. D. 1652 (according to 
 some 1651). 
 
 Jones, Jacob, American naval officer. B. 1770. D. 1850. 
 
 Jones, John Paul, American naval officer. B. 1747. D. 1792. 
 
 Jones, Owen, English architect. B. 1809. D. 1874. 
 
 Jones, Thomas Rymer, English comparative anatomist, physiologist. B. 
 about 1810. D. 1880. 
 
 Jones, Sir William, English orientalist. B. 1746. D. 1794. 
 
456 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Jonson, Ben. English dramatist. B. 1573 or 1574. D. 1637. 
 
 Jordaens, Jacob, Flemish painter. B. 1594. D. 1678. 
 
 Jordan, Camille, French politician. B. 1771. D. 1821. 
 
 Jordan, Dorothea, Irish actress. B. about 1762. D. probably 1816. 
 
 Jordan, Rudolf, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1887. 
 
 Jordan, Wilhelm, German poet. B. 1819. 
 
 Jordanes (Jornandes), Gothic historian. Middle of 6th c. a. d. 
 
 Jorgenson, Jorgen, Danish adventurer. B. 1779. D. about 1830. 
 
 Jornandes. See Jordanes. 
 
 Joseph I., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, son of Leopold I. B. 
 1678. Reigned from 1705. D. 1711. 
 
 Joseph II., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, son of Francis I. 
 and Maria Theresa. B. 1741. Reigned in Germany from 1765; in Aus- 
 tria, from 1780. D. 1790. 
 
 Joseph, king of Naples and of Spain. See Bonaparte, Joseph. 
 
 Joseph, Father, French friar, confidant of Richelieu. B. 1577. D. 1638. 
 
 Josephine, wife of Napoleon I. B. 1763. D. 1814. Born Tascher de la 
 Pagerie. Married first to the viscount de Beauharnais. Married to Na- 
 poleon 1790. Divorced 1809. 
 
 Josephus, Flavius, Jewish historian. B. about A. D. 37. D. about 100. 
 " History of the Jewish War " (written originally in Hebrew and trans- 
 lated by the author into Greek). " Jewish Antiquities " (a general history 
 of the Jews, in Greek). " Against Apion " (a treatise on the antiquity of 
 the Jewish nation, in Greek). 
 
 Josh Billings. See Shaw, Henry W. 
 
 Josiah, king of Judah. Reigned about 640-609 b. c. 
 
 Josika, Miklos, baron, Hungarian novelist. B. 1794 (1796?). D. 1865. 
 
 Josquin des Pres, French composer. B. about 1440. 
 
 Jost, Isaak Marcus, Jewish historian. B. in Germany 1793. D. 1860. 
 Works on Jewish history. 
 
 Joubert, Barthelemy Catherine, French general. 'B. 1769. Killed 1799. 
 
 Jouffroy, Theodore Simon, French philosopher. B. 1796. D. 1842. 
 
 Jovile, James Prescott, English physicist. B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 
 Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, French general. B. 1762. D. 1833. 
 
 Jouvenet, Jean, French painter. B. about 1644. D. 1717. 
 
 Joivy, Victor Joseph Etienne de, French author. B. 1764. D. 1846. Trage- 
 dies. Texts for operas. " L'hermite de la chaussee d'Antin " (series of 
 essays). 
 
 Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish patriot, poet, scholar. B. 1744. 
 D. 1811. 
 
 Jovian (Jovianus), Roman emperor. Reigned 363-'4. 
 
 Jovius, Paulus. See Giovio. 
 
 Jowett, Benjamin, English scholar, translator of Plato and Thucydides. 
 B. 1817. D. 1893. 
 
 Juan, Don. See John of Austria. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 457 
 
 Juan y Santacilla (Don Jorge Juan), Spanish explorer, scientist. B. 1712. 
 
 D. 1774. 
 Juana of Castile. See Joan the Mad. 
 
 Juarez, Benito, Indian, president of Mexico. B. about 1806. D. 1872. 
 Juba I., king of Numidia. D. 46 b. c. 
 Judah the Holy, principal redactor of the Mishnah. Flourished about 
 
 a. d. 200. 
 Judah IZallevi (Abul Hassan), Jewish philosophico-religious writer, poet. 
 
 D. about 1140. 
 Judas Maccabaeus, leader of the Jews in their rising against the Syrians. 
 
 Killed 160 b. c. 
 Judd, John W., English geologist. B. 1840. 
 Judd, Sylvester, American author. B. 1813. D. 1853. Best known by his 
 
 romance " Margaret." 
 Judson, Adoniram, American missionary. B. 1788. D. 1850. 
 Juel, Niels, Danish admiral. B. 1629. D. 1697. 
 Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Carried a prisoner to Rome 106 B. c. 
 
 T). 104. 
 Julian (Julianus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 361. D. 363. 
 Julien, Stanislas Aignan, French Chinese scholar. B. 1799. D. 1873. 
 Julius II. (Giuliano della Rovere), pope. Elected 1503. D. 1513. 
 Julius III., pope. Elected 1550. D. 1555. 
 
 Jung, Joachim, German philosopher, botanist. B. 1587. D. 1657. 
 Junghuhn, Franz Wilhelm, German naturalist, explorer of Java and Su- 
 matra. B. 1812. D. 1864. 
 Jung-Stilling (Johann Ileinrich Jung), German author. B. 1740. D. 1817. 
 
 Autobiographical writings, tales, books on spirits, various mystical pro- 
 ductions. 
 Junius, Franciscus (Francois du Jon), Protestant theologian. B. in France 
 
 1545. D. 1602. 
 Junius, Franciscus, German-English philologist. B. 1589. D. 1677. 
 Junot, Andoche, duke of Abrantes, French general. B. 1771. D. 1813. 
 Jussieu, Adrien de, French botanist. B. 1797. D. 1853. 
 Jussieu, Antoine de, French botanist. B. 1686. D. 1758. 
 Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, French botanist. B. April 12, 1748. D. 
 
 Sept. 17, 1836. 
 Jussieu, Bernard de, French botanist. B. 1699. D. 1777. 
 Jussieu, Laurent Pierre de, French author. B. 1792. D. 1866. Best 
 
 known work. " Simon de Nantua " (a book for the people). 
 Justin I. (Justinus), Byzantine emperor. Reigned 518-527. 
 Justin II., Byzantine emperor. Reigned 565-578. 
 Justin, Latin historian. Placed by some in the latter part of the 2d c. A. D., 
 
 by others supposed to have lived in the 3d or 4th c. 
 Justin Martyr, father of the church, philosopher (writings in Greek). Put 
 
 to death about 165. 
 
 
458 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Justinian I. (Justinianus), Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 527. D„ 
 
 565. 
 Juvenal, Roman satirical poet. Close of first e. a. d. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kalakaua, king of the Sandwich Islands 1874-'91. B. 1836. D. 1891. 
 Kalergis, Demetrius, Greek soldier, statesman. B. about 1803. D. 1867. 
 Kalidasa, Sanskrit poet. Recent criticism assigns Kalidasa to the 6th c. 
 
 A. d. Some scholars have supposed him to have lived much later. By 
 the Hindoos he is believed to have lived about the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian era. Most famous production, "Sakuntala" (drama). 
 
 Kalkbrenner, Friedrich, German pianist, composer. B. 1784 (1788?). D. 
 
 1849. 
 Kalnoky, Gustav Siegmund, count, minister of " foreign affairs of Austria- 
 Hungary 1881-'95. B. 1832. D. 1898. 
 Karnes, Henry Home, Lord, Scottish jurist, author. B. 1696. D. 1782. 
 
 " Elements of Criticism." 
 Kanaris. See Canaris. 
 
 Kane, Elisha Kent, American Arctic explorer. B. 1820. D. 1857. 
 Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher. B. April 22, 1724. D. Feb. 12, 
 
 1804. 
 Kapnist, Vasili, Russian poet. B. 1756. D. 1823. 
 Kara George. See Czerny George. 
 Kara Mustapha, commander of the Turkish army which besieged Vienna 
 
 in 1683. Put to death at the close of 1683. 
 Karajiteh, Vuk Stefanovitch, Servian scholar. B. 1787. D. 1864. 
 Karamzin, Nikolai, Russian historian. B. 1765. D. 1826. History of 
 
 Russia. 
 Karlstadt. See Carlstadt. 
 
 Karpinski, Franeiszek, Polish poet. B. 1741. D. 1825. 
 Karr, Alphonse, French novelist, satirical writer. B. 1808. D 1890. 
 Karsch, Anna Luise, German poetess. B. 1722, D. 1791. 
 Karsten, Karl Johann Bernhard, German mineralogist. B. 1782. D. 1853. 
 Kastner, Abraham Gotthelf, German mathematician, poet. B. 1719. D. 
 
 1800. 
 Katkoff, Mikhail, Russian journalist. B. about 1818. D. 1887. 
 Kauffmann, Angelica, Swiss painter. B. 1741. D. 1807. 
 Kaufmann, Constantin, Russian general. B. 1818. D. 1882. 
 Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, German painter. B. Oct. 15, 1805. D. April 7, 
 
 1874. 
 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton, prince, Austrian diplomatist, statesman, chief 
 
 minister of Maria Theresa. B. 1711. D. 1794. 
 Kavanagh, Julia, British novelist, writer of works on eminent women, &c. 
 
 B. 1824. D. 1877. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 459 
 
 Kazinczy, Perencz, Hungarian author. B. 1759. D. 1831. 
 
 Kean, Charles John, English actor. B. 1811. I). 1868. 
 
 Kean, Edmund, English actor. B. 1787. D. 1833. 
 
 Keane, John, Lord, British general. B. 1781. D. 1844. 
 
 Kearny, Philip, American general. B. 1815. Killed 1862. 
 
 Kearny, Stephen Watts, American general. B. 1794. D. 1848. 
 
 Keats, John, English poet. B. 1795. D. 1821. 
 
 Keble, John, English poet. B. 1792. D. 1866. 
 
 Keightley, Thomas, British historian, critic. B. 1789. D. 1872. 
 
 Keill, John, British mathematician. B. 1671. D. 1721. 
 
 Keim, Theodor, German Protestant theologian. B. 1825. I). 1878. 
 
 Keith, viscount. See Elphinstone, George Keith. 
 
 Keith, James, Scottish soldier in the service of Russia and Prussia. B. 
 
 1696. Killed 1758. 
 Kellermann, Francois Christophe, duke of Valmy, French general. B. 
 
 1735. D. 1820. 
 Kellermann, Francois Etienne, French general. B. 1770. D. 1835. 
 Kellogg, Clara Louisa, American singer. B. 1842. 
 Kelvin, Lord. See Thomson, William. 
 Kemble, Charles, English actor. B. 1775. D. 1854. 
 
 Kemble, Frances Anne (Mrs. Butler), Eng. actress, authoress. B. 1809. D. 1803. 
 Kemble, George Stephen, English actor. B. 1758. D. 1822. 
 Kemble, John Mitchell, English Anglo-Saxon scholar, historian. B. 1807. 
 
 D. 1857. 
 Kemble, John Philip, English actor. B. 1757. D. 1823. 
 Kemeny, Zsigmond, baron, Hungarian author. B. 1816. D. 1875. 
 Kempelen, Wolfgang, baron, Hung, inventor of automata. B. 1734. D. 1804. 
 Kempis, Thomas a, German monk, reputed author of " De Imitatione 
 
 Christi." B. 1380. D. 1471. 
 Kendall, Amos, American politician. B. 1789. D. 1869. 
 Kendrick, Asahal Clark, American New Testament critic, author. B. 1809. 
 
 D. 1895. 
 Kennicott, Benjamin, English Biblical scholar. B. 1718. D. 1783. 
 Kensett, John Frederick, American painter. B. 1818. D. 1872. 
 Kent, Edward Augustus, duke of, son of George III. and father of Queen 
 
 Victoria. B. 1767. D. 1820. 
 Kent, James, American jurist. B. 1763. D. 1847. 
 Kent, William, English landscape architect. B. about 1685. D. 1748. 
 Kenyon, Lloyd, Lord, English lawyer. B. 1732. D. 1802. 
 Kepler, Johann, German astronomer. B. Dec. 27, 1571. D. Nov. 15, 1630. 
 Keppel, Augustus, viscount, English admiral. B. 1725. D. 1786. 
 Keppel, George Thomas, earl of Albemarle, English author. B. 1799. 
 
 D. 1891. Works of travel, memoirs, &c. 
 Kerguelen-Tremarec, Yves Joseph de, French navigator. B. 1745. D, 
 
 1797. 
 
460 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Kerner, Andreas Justinus, German poet, author of works dealing with ani- 
 mal magnetism, somnambulism, &c. B. 1786. D. 1862. Best known 
 production, " Die Seherin von Prevorst " (" The Seeress of Prevorst "). 
 
 Ketteler, Wilhelm Emanuel von, bishop of Mentz, Ultramontane leader. 
 B. 1811. D. 1877. 
 
 Key, Francis Scott, American poet. B. 1780. D. 1843. '"The Star-Span- 
 gled Banner." 
 
 Khemnitzer. See Chemnitzer. 
 
 Kheraskoff, Mikhail, Russian poet, B. 1733. D. 1807. 
 
 Kidd, William, seaman, native of Scotland. Executed 1701. 
 
 Kiepert, Heinrich, German geographer, cartographer. B. 1818. 
 
 Kimhi (Kimchi), David, Hebraist and Biblical critic of Narbonne. Flour- 
 ished early part of 13th c. 
 
 King, Peter, Lord, lord chancellor of England. B. 1669. D. 1734. 
 
 King, Rufus, American statesman. B. 1755. D. 1827. 
 
 King, William Rufus, American statesman. B. 1786. D. 1853. 
 
 Kinglake, Alexander William, English author. B. 1809. D.1891. "Eothen" 
 (descriptive of travels in the East). " The Invasion of the Crimea." 
 
 Kingsley, Charles, English clergyman, novelist, poet, noted for his efforts 
 in behalf of the improvement of the working classes. B. 1819. D. 1875. 
 "Village Sermons." "Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet," "Yeast," "Hypa- 
 tia," " Westward Ho ! " (works of fiction). " Andromeda " (poem). 
 
 Kingston, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duchess of. B. 1720. D. 1788. 
 
 Kinkel, Gottfried, Ger. revolutionist, poet, writer on art, &c. B. 1815. D. 1882. 
 
 Kipling, Rudyard, British writer of fiction, poet. B. in India 1865. 
 
 Kirby, William, English entomologist. B. 1759. D. 1850. 
 
 Kircher, Athanasius, German scholar. B. about 1602. D. 1680. 
 
 Kirchhoff, Adolf, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1826. 
 
 Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, German physicist. B. 1824. D. 1887. Origi- 
 nator with Bunsen of the science of spectrum analysis. 
 
 Kirk, John Foster, American author. B. 1824. " History of Charles the 
 Bold." 
 
 Kirkland, Caroline Matilda (born Stansbury), American authoress. B. 1801. 
 D. 1864. 
 
 Kirkwood, Daniel, American astronomer. B. 1814. D. 1895. 
 
 Kirwan, Richard, Irish chemist, D. 1812. 
 
 Kisfaludy, Karoly, Hungarian dramatist, B. 1788. D. 1830. 
 
 Kisfaludy, Sandor, Hungarian poet, B. 1772. D. 1844. 
 
 Kiss, August, German sculptor. B. 1802. D. 1865. 
 
 Kitto, John, English Biblical scholar. B. 1804. D. 1854. 
 
 Klapka, Gyorgy, Hungarian general. B. 1820. D. 1892. 
 
 Klaproth, Heinrich Julius von, German traveler, Asiatic scholar. B. 1783. 
 D. 1835. 
 
 Klaproth, Martin Heinrich, German chemist, B. 1743. D. 1817. 
 
 Kleber, Jean Baptiste, French general. B. 1753 (1754?). Assassinated 1800. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 461 
 
 Kleist, Ewald Christian von, German poet. B. 1715. D. 1759. "Der 
 
 Friihling " (" Spring "). 
 Kleist, Heinrich von, German poet. B. 1777. D. 1811. 
 Klemm, Gustav, German author. B. 1802. D. 1867. " Allgemeine Kultur- 
 
 geschichte der Mensehheit." 
 Klenze, Leo von, German architect. B. 1784. D. 1864. 
 Kliefoth, Theodor, German Protestant theologian. B. 1810. D. 1895. 
 Klinger, Friedrich Maximilian von, German dramatist, writer of fiction. 
 
 B. 1752 (1753?). D. 1831. Author of the drama « Sturm und Drang" 
 
 (" Storm and Pressure "). 
 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, German poet. B. 1724. D. 1803. " Mes- 
 
 sias " (epic). 
 Knaus, Ludwig, German painter. B. 1829. 
 Kneller, Sir Godfrey, English painter. B. in Germany 1648(1646?). D. 
 
 1723(1726?). 
 Kniaznin, Franciszek Dyonizy, Polish poet. B. 1750. D. 1807. 
 Knight, Charles, English publisher, author. B. 1791. D. 1873. "The 
 
 Penny Cyclopaedia." "Popular History of England." 
 Knight, Richard Payne, Eng. antiquary, author. B. about 1750. D. 1824. 
 Knipperdolling, Bernhard, German Anabaptist. Executed 1536. 
 Knobel, August, German Biblical critic. B. 1807. D. 1863. 
 Knobelsdorff, Hans Georg Wenzeslaus von, baron, Prussian architect. B. 
 
 1697. D. 1753. 
 Knowles, James Sheridan, British dramatist. B. 1784. D. 1862. 
 Knox, Henry, American general. B. 1750. D. 1806. . 
 Knox, John, Scottish Reformer. B. 1505. D. Nov. 24, 1572. 
 Knyphausen, baron, Hessian commander in the British service in the war 
 
 against the American colonies. B. about 1725. D. 1789. 
 Koch, Karl, German botanist. B. 1809. D. 1879. 
 Koch, Robert, German physician, bacteriologist. B. 1843. 
 Kochanowski, Jan, Polish poet. B. 1532. D. 1584. 
 Kock, Paul de, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1794. D. 1871. 
 Koekkoek, Barend Cornells, Dutch painter. B. 1803. D. 1862. 
 Koenig, Heinrich Joseph, German novelist. B. 1790. D. 1869. 
 Kohl, Johann Georg. German writer of travels. B. 1808. D. 1878. 
 Kohlrausch, Heinrich Friedrich Theodor. German pedagogue, author. B. 
 
 1780. D. 1867. " Die deutsche Geschichte." 
 Kolb, Georg Friedrich, German statistician. B. 1808. D. 1884. 
 Kolbe, Hermann, German chemist. B. 1818. D. 1884. 
 Kolbe, Karl Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1781. D. 1853. 
 Kolcsey, Ferencz, Hungarian poet, critic, orator. B. 1790. D. 1838. 
 Kollar, Jan, Slavic scholar, writer. B. in Hungary 1793. D. 1852. 
 Kolliker, Albert, German anatomist. B. 1817. 
 Konigsmark, Maria Aurora, countess of, mistress of Augustus the Strong 
 
 of Saxony and Poland. B. 1670 (or some years earlier). D. 1728. 
 
462 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Kopitar, Bartholomaus, Slavic philologist. B. in Carniola 1780. D. 1844. 
 
 Koppen, Friedrich, German philosopher. B. 1775. D. 1858. 
 
 Koppen, Peter von, Russian author. B. 1793. D. 1864. Antiquarian, 
 geographical, ethnological, and statistical works relating to Russia. 
 
 Korner, Theodor, German poet, dramatist. B. 1791. Killed 1813. Chiefly 
 distinguished as a writer of patriotic war songs, published under the title 
 of " Leier und Schwert " (" Lyre and Sword "). Principal dramatic pro- 
 ductions, " Zriny " and " Rosamunde " (tragedies). 
 
 Korosi, Jozsef, Hungarian statistician. B. 1844. 
 
 Korosi Csoma. See Csoma de Koros. 
 
 Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, Polish patriot, general, leader in the rising of his 
 people in 1794. B. 1746. D. 1817. 
 
 Kosegarten, Johann Gottfried Ludwig, German orientalist. B. 1792. D. 
 I860. 
 
 Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), Hungarian statesman, orator, revolutionary leader, 
 governor of Hungary 1849. B. 1802. D. March 20, 1894. 
 
 Koster. See Coster. 
 
 Kostlin, Julius, German theologian, biographer of Luther. B. 1826. 
 
 Kotzebue, August Friedrich Ferdinand von, German dramatist. B. 1761. 
 Assassinated 1819. 
 
 Kotzebue, Otto von, Russian navigator, son of the preceding. B. 1787. D. 
 1846. 
 
 Kranach. See Cranach. 
 
 Krasicki, Ignacy, Polish author. B. 1734. D. 1801. 
 
 Krasinski, Waleryan, count, Polish author. B. about 1780. D. 1855. 
 
 Krasinski, Zygmunt Napoleon, count, Polish poet. B. 1812. D. 1859. 
 
 Kraszewski, Jozef Ignacy, Polish novelist, poet, miscellaneous writer. B. 
 1812. D. 1887. 
 
 Krause, Karl Christian Friedrich, German philosopher, Free Mason. B. 
 1781. D. 1832. 
 
 Kreutzer, Konradin, German composer. B. 1780. D. 1849. 
 
 Kreutzer, Rodolphe, French composer. B. 1766. D. 1831. 
 
 Kriloff. See Kryloff. 
 
 Kriidener, Juliane von, baroness, Russian religious enthusiast. B. 1764 
 (1766?). D. 1824. 
 
 Krug, Wilhelm Traugott, German philosopher. B. 1770. D. 1842. 
 
 Krummacher, Friedrich Adolf, German Protestant divine, writer. B. 
 1768. D. 1845. Author of parables (in verse), religious poems for chil- 
 dren, works on Christianity, &c. 
 
 Krummacher, Friedrich Wilhelm, German Protestant divine, pulpit orator. 
 B. 1796. D. 1868. 
 
 Krupp, Alfred. Ger. manufacturer (iron and steel works). B. 1810. D. 1887. 
 
 Krusenstern, Adam Johann von, Russian navigator. B. 1770. D. 1846. 
 
 Kryloff, Ivan, Russian fabulist, B. 1768. D. 1844. 
 
 Kublai Khan, founder of the Mongol dynasty in China. D. 1294. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 463 
 
 Kuenen, Abraham, Dutch Biblical critic. B. 1828. D. 1891. "The Re- 
 ligion of Israel." " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel." 
 
 Kugler, Franz Theodor, German writer on art. B. 1808. D. 1858. 
 
 Kuhn, Adalbert, German comparative philologist. B. 1813. D. 1881. 
 Noted also for his researches in the comparative mythology of the 
 Aryan races. 
 
 Kuhne, Gustav, German author. B. 1806. D. 1888. 
 
 Kuhner, Raphael, German philologist. B. 1802. D. 1878. Greek and 
 Latin text-books. 
 
 Kung, prince, Chinese statesman. B. 1833. 
 
 Kunth, Karl Sigismund, German botanist. B. 1788. D. 1850. 
 
 Kurz, Heinrich, German author. B. 1805. D. 1873. 
 
 Kutuzoff, Mikhail, Russian general. B. 1745. D. 1813. 
 
 Kiitzing, Priedrich Traugott, German botanist. B. 1807. D. 1893. 
 
 Kuyp. See Cuyp. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laar. See Laer. 
 
 Labadie, Jean de, French preacher, founder of the sect of Labadists. B. 
 
 1610. D. 1674. 
 Labedoyere, Charles Angelique Huchet de, count, French soldier. B. 1786. 
 
 Shot 1815. 
 Labiche, Eugene, French writer of comedy. B. 1815. D. 1888. 
 Labienus, Titus, Roman general. Killed 45 b. c. 
 Lablache, Luigi, singer, actor. B. in Italy 1794. D. 1858. 
 Laborde, Alexandre Louis Joseph de, count, French author. B. 1773. D. 
 
 1842. Descriptive works on Spain and other countries. 
 Laborde, Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph de, marquis, French traveler in 
 
 the East, archaeologist. B. 1807. D. 1869. 
 Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, English statesman. B. 1798. D. 
 
 1869. 
 Laboulaye, Edouard Rene Lefebvre de, French author, statesman. B. 
 
 1811. D. 1883. Historical works on various points of jurisprudence. 
 
 Works on the United States and other political writings. 
 Labourdonnais, Bertrand Francis Mahe de, French naval commander. 
 
 B. 1699. D. about 1755. 
 La Bruyere, Jean de, French author. B. 1645. D. 1696. " Les caracteres 
 
 de Theophraste." 
 La Caille, Nicolas Louis de, French astronomer. B. 1713. D. 1762. 
 Lacepede, Bernard Germain Etienne de la Ville, count de, French natural- 
 ist. B. 1756. D. 1825. 
 La Chaise, Francois d'Aix de, Jesuit, confessor of Louis XIV. B. 1624. D 
 
 1709. 
 Lachmann, Karl, German critic, philologist. B. 1793. D. 1851. 
 Lachner, Franz, German composer. B. 1804. D. 1890. 
 
404 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Laclos, Pierre Ambroise Francois Choderlos de, French soldier, revolution- 
 ist, author. B. 1741. D. 1803. 
 La Condamine. See Condamine. 
 Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, French Catholic divine, pulpit orator. 
 
 B. 1802. D. 1861. 
 Lacretelle, Jean Charles Dominique de, French historian. B. 1766. D. 
 
 1855. Works on French history. 
 Lacretelle, Pierre Louis, French jurist, author. B. 1751. D. 1824. 
 Lacroix, Paul, French historical writer, novelist. B. 1806. D. 1884. 
 Lacroix, Sylvestre Francois, French mathematician. B. 1765. D. 1843. 
 Lactantius, Firmianus, Latin father of the church. D. about 325. 
 Ladislas II. of Poland. See Jagellon. 
 Ladislas III., king of Poland and of Hungary (Uladislas I. of Hungary). 
 
 Reigned in Poland from 1434 ; in Hungary, from 1440. Killed 1444. 
 Ladislas IV., king of Poland. Reigned 1632-'48. 
 Lislius, Caius, Roman commander in the second Punic "War. 
 Laelius (Lselius Sapiens), Caius, Roman general, statesman, orator, friend of 
 
 the younger Scipio Africanus. Consul 140 b. c. 
 Laennec, Rene Theodore Hyacinthe, French jahysician, inventor of the 
 
 stethoscope. B. 1781. D. 1826. 
 Laer (Laar), Pieter van (II Bamboccio), Dutch painter. 17th c. 
 Lafarge, Marie (born Cappelle), French woman sentenced as a poisoner. 
 
 B. 1816. D. 1852. 
 Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, marquis de, French 
 
 soldier, statesman. B. Sept. 6, 1757. D. May 20, 1834. 
 Lafayette, Marie Madeleine Pioche de Lavergne, countess de, French 
 
 novelist, leader of society. B. about 1632. D. 1693. 
 Laffitte, Jacques, French financier, statesman. B. 1767. D. 1844. 
 Lafitau, Joseph Francois, French missionary. B. 1670. D. 1746. 
 Lafitte, Jean, pirate. B. in France about 1780. D. 1817 or 1826. 
 La Fontaine, Jean de, French fabulist. B. 1621. D. 1695. 
 La Fuente, Modesto, Spanish historian. B. 1806. D. 1866. "Historia 
 
 general de Espana." 
 La Fuente y Alcantara, Miguel, Spanish historian. B. 1817. D. 1850. 
 Lagrange, Joseph Louis de, count, mathematician. B. in Piedmont 1736. 
 
 I). 1813. 
 La Harpe, Frederic Cesar, Swiss statesman, instructor of Alexander I. of 
 
 Russia. B. 1754. D. 1838. 
 La Harpe, Jean Francois de, French critic. B. 1739. D. 1803. " Lycee, 
 
 ou Cours de litterature ancienne et moderne." 
 Lainez. See Laynez. 
 
 Laing, Alex. Gordon, British African explorer. B. about 1794. Killed 1826. 
 Laing, Malcolm, Scottish historian. B. 1762. D. 1818. "History of Scot- 
 land, from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms." 
 Lais, Greek hetcera. 5th c. b. c. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 465 
 
 Lais, Greek hetwra. 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Lake, Gerard, viscount, English commander in Ireland and India. B. 1744. 
 D. 1808. 
 
 Lalande, Joseph Jerome Le Francais de, French astronomer. B. 1732. D. 
 1807. 
 
 Lally, Thomas Arthur de, count, baron de Tollendal, French general in 
 India. Executed 1766. 
 
 Lally-Tollendal, Trophime Gerard de, marquis, French politician. B. 
 1751. D. 1830. 
 
 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de, French naturalist. 
 B. 1744. D. 1829. 
 
 Lamarmora, Alfonso Ferrero di, marquis, Italian general, statesman. B. 
 1804. D. 1878. 
 
 Lainarque, Maximilien, count, French general, politician. B. 1770. D. 
 1832. 
 
 Lamartine, Alphonse de, French poet, historian, politician, orator. B. Oct. 
 21, 1790. D. March 1, 1869. "Meditations poetiques," 1820. "Nouvelles 
 meditations poetiques." " Voyage en Orient." " Jocelyn " (poem). "His- 
 toire des Girondins," 1847, and various other historical works. Biographi- 
 cal sketches, autobiographical writings, &c. 
 
 Lamb, Charles, English author. B. 1775. D. 1834. "Essays of Elia." 
 " Tales from Shakespeare." " Specimens of English Dramatic Poets." 
 " The Old Familiar Faces," and other poems. 
 
 Lamballe, Marie Therese Louise de Savoie-Carignan, princess of, friend of 
 Marie Antoinette. B. in Turin 1749. Murdered 1792. 
 
 Lambert, Johann Heinrich, German natural philosopher, mathematician. 
 B. 1728. D. 1777. 
 
 Lambert, John, English Parliamentary general. D. about 1692. 
 
 Lambruschini, Luigi, Italian cardinal. B. 1776. D. 1854. 
 
 Lamennais, Ungues Felicite Robert de, French religious and political 
 writer. B. 1782. D. 1854. " Paroles d'un croyant " (" Words of a Be- 
 liever ""). 
 
 La Mettrie, Julien Offray de, French philosopher. B. 1709. D. 1751. 
 " L'homme machine." 
 
 Lamoriciere, Christophe Louis Leon Juchault de, French general in Alge- 
 ria, commander of the papal forces in 1860. B. 1806. D. 1865. 
 
 La Motte-Fouque. See Fouque. 
 
 Lamotte-Valois, Jeanne de, countess, noted in connection with the affair 
 of the diamond necklace. B. 1756. D. 1791. 
 
 Lancaster, Sir James, English navigator. D. about 1620. 
 
 Lancaster, John, duke of. See John of Gaunt. 
 
 Lancaster, Joseph, English educationist. B. 1778 (1771?). D. 1838. 
 
 Lance, George. English painter. B. 1802. D. 1864. 
 
 Lancelot, Claude, French grammarian. B. about 1615. D. 1695. 
 
 Landen, John, English mathematician. B. 1719. D. 1790. 
 
466 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lander, Richard, English African explorer. B. 1804. D. 1834. 
 
 Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (Mrs. Maclean), English poetess. B. 1802. D. 1838. 
 
 Landor, Walter Savage, English author. B. 1775. D. 1864. "Imaginary 
 Conversations of Literary Men and Statesmen." "Gebir" (epic poem). 
 "Idyllia Heroica" (Latin poems). "Hellenics." " Heroic Idyls." "Peri- 
 cles and Aspasia." " Count Julian " (tragedy). 
 
 Landseer, Sir Edwin, English painter. B. 1802. D. 1873. 
 
 Landseer, John, English engraver. B. 1769. D. 1852. 
 
 Landseer, Thomas, English engraver. B. about 1795. D. 1880. 
 
 Lane, Edward William, English orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1876. Transla- 
 tion of the "Arabian Nights." "Manners and Customs of the Modern 
 Egyptians." Arabic dictionary. 
 
 Lane-Poole, Stanley, English orientalist, numismatist. B. 1854. 
 
 Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1005. D. 1089. 
 
 Lanfranco, Giovanni, Italian painter. B. 1581. D. 1647. 
 
 Lanfrey, Pierre, Erench historian. B. 1828. D. 1877. "Histoire de Na- 
 poleon I." 
 
 Lang, Andrew, English poet and prose writer. B. 1844. 
 
 Langdon, John, American statesman. B. 1739. P. 1819. 
 
 Lange, Albert, German philosophical writer. B. 1828. D. 1875. "Ge- 
 schichte des Materialismus." 
 
 Lange, Johann Peter, German theologian, Biblical scholar. B. 1802. D. 1884. 
 
 Lange, Ludwig, Ger. antiquary. B. 1825. D. 1885. " Romische Alterthiimer." 
 
 Langenbeck, Bernhard von, German surgeon. B. 1810. D. 1887. 
 
 Langenbeck, Konrad Johann Martin, German surgeon, anatomist. B. 
 1776. D. 1851. 
 
 Langland (Longland), William, reputed author of the "Vision of Piers 
 Ploughman," a poem written about 1362, directed against the vices and 
 abuses of the day. 
 
 Langton, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury. D. 1228. 
 
 Lanjuinais, Jean Denis, count, French statesman. B. 1753. D. 1827. 
 
 Lankester, Edwin Ray, English naturalist. B. 1847. 
 
 Lannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, French general. B. 1769. Killed 1809. 
 
 La Noue, Francois de, French nuguenot soldier. B. 1531. Killed 1591. 
 Author of " Discours politiques et militaires." 
 
 Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Fitzmaurice, marquis of, governor-gen- 
 eral of Canada 1883-'8, viceroy of India 1888-'93. B. 1845. 
 
 Lansdowne, Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, marquis of, English statesman. B. 
 1780. D. 1863. 
 
 Lansdowne, William Petty, marquis of. See Shelburne. 
 
 Lanza, Giovanni, Italian statesman. B. 1815. D. 1882. 
 
 Lanzi, Luigi, Italian author, antiquary. B. 1732. D. 1810. Best known 
 by his history of painting in Italy. 
 
 La Perouse, Jean Francois de Galaup, count de, French navigator. B. 
 1741. D. about 1788. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 467 
 
 Laplace, Pierre Simon de, marquis, French astronomer. B. March, 1749. 
 D. March 5, 1827. 
 
 Lappenberg, Johann Martin, German historian. B. 1794. D. 1865. Best 
 known by his work on English history. 
 
 Lardner, Dionysius, British author. B. 1793. D. 1859. Works on physi- 
 cal science. 
 
 La Rive, Auguste de, Swiss physicist. B. 1801. D. 1873. 
 
 La Rive, Charles Gaspard de, Swiss chemist, physicist. B. 1770. D. 1834. 
 
 La Rochefoucauld, Francois de, duke, French author. B. 1613. D. 1680. 
 " Reflexions, on Sentences et maximes morales." Memoirs. 
 
 La Rochefoucauld (La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt), Francois Alexandre 
 Frederic de, duke, French philanthropist. B. 1747. D. 1827. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein, Henri du Verger (Vergier ?), count de, Vendean leader. 
 B. 1772. Killed 1794. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein, Louis du Verger, marquis de, Vendean leader. B. 
 1777. Killed 1815. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein, Marie Louise Victoire de Donnissan, marchioness de, 
 wife of the preceding, writer of memoirs. B. 1772. D. 1857. 
 
 Laromiguiere, Pierre, French philosopher. B. 1756. D. 1837. 
 
 Larrey, Dominique Jean, baron, French surgeon. B. 1766. D. 1842. 
 
 La Salle, Robert Cavelier, sieur de, French explorer. B. 1643. Killed 1687. 
 Descended the Mississippi to its mouth 1682. 
 
 Lascaris, Andreas Joannes, Greek scholar. B. about 1445. D. 1535. 
 
 Lascaris, Constantine, Greek grammarian. Second half of 15th c. 
 
 Las Casas, Bartolome de, Spanish priest, author. B. 1474. D. 1566. " Ilis- 
 toria general de las Indias." 
 
 Las Cases, Emmanuel Augustin Dieudonne de, count, companion of Napo- 
 leon at St. Helena. B. 1766. D. 1842. Author of " Memorial de Sainte- 
 Helene." 
 
 Lasker, Eduard, Prussian statesman. B. 1829. D. 1884. 
 
 Laski, Jan (John a Lasco), Polish Reformer. B. 1499. D. 1560. 
 
 Lassalle, Ferdinand, German socialist. B. 1825. Killed 1864. 
 
 Lassell, William, English astronomer. B. 1799. D. 1880. 
 
 Lassen, Christian, German orientalist. B. in Norway 1800. D. 1876. Dis- 
 tinguished as a Sanskrit scholar, authority on Hindoo antiquities, and 
 decipherer of Persian cuneiform inscriptions. 
 
 Lasso, Orlando di, composer. B. in Hainaut about 1520. D. 1594. 
 
 Latham, John, English ornithologist, B. 1740. D. 1837. 
 
 Latham, Robert Gordon, English ethnologist. B. 1812. D. 1888. 
 
 Latimer, Hugh, English Reformer. B. about 1490. Burned 1555. 
 
 Latini, Brunetto, Italian scholar. D. 1294. 
 
 Latour d'Auvergne, The'ophile de, French soldier. B. 1743. Killed 1800. 
 
 Latreille, Pierre Andre, French entomologist. B. 1762. D. 1833. 
 
 Latude, Henri Masers de, prisoner in the Bastile. B. 1725. D. 1805. 
 
 Laube, Heinrich, German dramatist, novelist. B. 1806. D. 1884. 
 31 
 
468 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Laud, William, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1573. Executed 1C45. 
 
 Lauder, William, Scottish literary impostor. D. about 1771. 
 
 Laudon (Loudon), Gideon Ernst von, baron, Austrian general. B. 171G 
 
 (1717?). D. 1790. 
 Laura (Laure de Noves), a lady of Avignon beloved by Petrarch. B. about 
 
 1307. D. 1348. 
 Laurens, Henry, American statesman. B. 1724. D. 1792. 
 Laurens, John, American soldier. B. about 1753. Killed 1782. 
 Laurent, Francois, Belg. historical writer, publicist, jurist. B. 1810. D. 1887. 
 Lauriston, Jacques Alexandre Bernard Law, marquis de, French general. 
 
 B. 17G8. D. 1828. 
 Lautrec (Odet de Foix), French general. D. 1528. 
 Lauzun, Antonin Nompar de Caumont, duke de, French courtier, general. 
 
 B. about 1633. D. 1723. 
 La Valette, Antoine Marie Chamans, count de, postmaster general under 
 
 Napoleon I. B. 1769. D. 1830. 
 La Valette, Jean Parisot de. See Valette. 
 La Valliere, Louise Francoise de, duchess, mistress of Louis XIV. B. 1644. 
 
 D. 1710. 
 Laval-Montmorency, Francois Xavier de, bishop of Quebec. B. 1622. D. 
 
 1708. 
 Lavater, Johann Kaspar, Swiss mystic, physiognomist. B. 1741. D. 1801. 
 Laveleye, Emile de, Belgian economist, political writer. B. 1822. D. 1892. 
 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, French chemist. B. 1743. Executed 1794. 
 Law, Edward, Lord Ellenborough. See Ellenborough. 
 Law, John, Scottish financier, who assumed the management of the French 
 
 finances at the beginning of the reign of Louis XV. B. 1671. D. 1729. 
 Law, William, English mystic. B. 1686. D. 1761. " Serious Call to a De- 
 vout and Holy Life." 
 Lawes, Henry, English composer. B. about 1595. D. 1662. 
 Lawrence, Abbott, American philanthropist. B. 1792. D. 1855. 
 Lawrence, Amos, American philanthropist. B. 1786. D. 1852. 
 Lawrence, Sir Henry Montgomery, officer in the service of the English East 
 
 India Company. B. 1806. Killed 1857. 
 Lawrence, James, American naval commander. B. 1781. Killed 1813. 
 Lawrence, Sir John Laird Mair, afterward Lord Lawrence, viceroy of India 
 
 1864-'9. B. 1811. D. 1879. 
 Lawrence, Sir Thomas, English painter. B. 1769. D. 1830. 
 Lawrence, Sir William, English surgeon, anatomist, medical writer. B. 
 
 1783. D. 1867. 
 Lawrence, William Beach, American jurist. B. 1800. D. 1881. 
 Layard, Sir Austen Henry, English archaeologist, diplomatist. B. 1817. 
 
 D. 1894. " Nineveh and its Remains." " Discoveries among the Ruins of 
 
 Nineveh and Babylon." 
 Laynez (Lainez), general of the Jesuits. B. in Spain 1512. D. 1565. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 469 
 
 Lea, Henry Charles, American writer, author of a history of the Inquisition, 
 and other works on ecclesiastical history. B. 1825. 
 
 Lea, Isaac, American naturalist. B. 1792. D. 1886. 
 
 Leach, William Elford, English naturalist. B. 1790. D. 1836. 
 
 Leake, Sir John, English admiral. B. 1656. D. 1720. 
 
 Leake, William Martin, Eng. author. B. 1777. D. 1860. Works on Greece. 
 
 Lebceuf, Edmond, French general. B. 1809. D. 1888. 
 
 Lebrun, Charles, French painter. B. 1619. D. 1690. 
 
 Lebrun, Charles Francois, duke of Piacenza, French statesman, author. B. 
 1739. D. 1824. 
 
 Lebrun, Marie Louise Elisabeth (born Vigee), Fr. painter. B. 1755. D. 1842. 
 
 Lebrun, Pierre Antoine, French poet. B. 1785. D. 1873. 
 
 Lebrun, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, French poet. B. 1729. D. 1807. 
 
 Lechevalier, Jean Baptiste, French archaeologist. B. 1752. D. 1836. 
 " Voyage de la Troade." 
 
 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, British author. B. 1838. " History of 
 European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne." " History of England 
 in the Eighteenth Century." " Democracy and Liberty." 
 
 Le Clerc, Jean, theologian, scholar. B. in Switzerland 1657. D. 1736. 
 
 Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel, French general. B. 1772. D. 1802. 
 
 Le Conte, John Lawrence, American entomologist. B. 1825. D. 1883. 
 
 Le Conte, Joseph, American geologist. B. 1823. 
 
 Lecoq, Henri, French naturalist. B. 1802. D. 1871. "Etudes de la 
 geographie botanique de l'Europe." 
 
 Lecouvreur, Adrienne, French actress. B. about 1692. D. 1730. 
 
 Ledebour, Karl Friedrich von, German botanist. B. 1785. D. 1851. 
 Authority on the flora of northeastern Europe and northern Asia. 
 
 Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste, French politician, one of the leaders in 
 the establishment of the republic in 1848. B. 1807. D. 1874. 
 
 Ledyard, John, American traveler. B. 1751. D. 1789. 
 
 Lee, Ann, founder of the sect of Shakers. B. in England 1736. D. 1784. 
 
 Lee, Arthur, American diplomatist, statesman. B. 1740. D. 1792. 
 
 Lee, Charles, American soldier. B. 1731. D. 1782. 
 
 Lee, Francis Lightfoot, American patriot. B. 1734 D. 1797. 
 
 Lee, Harriet, English writer of fiction. B. 1756. D. 1851. Best known 
 by the " Canterbury Tales," written in conjunction with her sister, So- 
 phia. 
 
 Lee, Henry, American soldier. B. 1756. D. 1818. 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry, American statesman. B. 1732. D. 1794. 
 
 Lee, Robert Edward, Confederate general. B. 1807. D. 1870. 
 
 Lee, Sophia, English writer of fiction, dramatist. B. 1750. D. 1824. Asso- 
 ciate of her sister, Harriet, in the authorship of the " Canterbury Tales." 
 " A Chapter of Accidents " (drama). 
 
 Leeuwenhoek, Antonius van, Dutch naturalist, microscopist. B. 1632. 
 D. 1723. Discoverer of infusoria. 
 
470 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzic, Fr. general. B. 1755. D. 1820. 
 Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, French painter. B. 1836. 
 
 Lefebvre-Desnouettes, Charles, count, French general. B. 1773. D. 1822. 
 Lefevre, Pierre, Jesuit. B. in Savoy 1506. D. 1546. 
 Le Flo, Adolphe Emmanuel Charles, French general, diplomatist. B. 1804. 
 
 D. 1887. 
 Lefort, Francois, minister of Peter the Great. B. in Switzerland 1656. D. 
 
 1699. 
 Lefuel, Hector Martin, French architect. B. 1810. D. 1881. 
 Legare, Hugh Swinton, American statesman. B. 1789. D. 1843. 
 Legendre, Adrien Marie, French mathematician. B. 1752. D. 1833. 
 Legouve, Ernest Wilfrid, French dramatist, novelist. B. 1807. 
 Legouve, Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste, French poet. B. 1764. D. 1812. 
 Lehmann, Heinrich, German painter. B. 1814. D. 1882. 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, German philosopher, mathematician. B. 1646. 
 
 D. Nov. 14, 1716. 
 Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Elizabeth, commander of the 
 
 English forces sent to aid the Dutch against Spain. B. about 1532. D. 
 
 1588. 
 Leicester of Holkham, earl of. See Coke, Thomas William. 
 Leichhardt, Ludvvig, German Australian explorer. B. 1813. Disappeared 
 
 1848. 
 Leidy, Joseph, American naturalist. B. 1823. D. 1891. 
 Leighton, Sir Frederick, English painter. B. 1830. D. 1896. 
 Leighton, Robert, Scottish prelate. B. 1611. D. 1684. 
 Leisler, Jacob, usurper of the government of New York in 1689. Executed 
 
 1691. 
 Leland, Charles Godfrey, American author. B. 1824. " Hans Breitmann's 
 
 Ballads." " The English Gipsies and their Language." 
 Lelewel, Joachim, Polish historian, patriot. B. 1786. D. 1861. 
 Lely, Sir Peter, English painter. B. in Westphalia about 1618. D. 1680. 
 Lemery, Nicolas, French chemist. B. 1645. D. 1715. 
 Lemoinne, John Emile, French journalist. B. 1815. D. 1892. 
 Lemon, Mark, English humorist. B. 1809. D. 1870. 
 Lempriere, John, English classical scholar. D. 1 824. 
 Lenau, Nikolaus (Niembsch von Strehlenau), German poet. B. 1802. D. 
 
 1850. 
 Lenbach, Franz, German painter. B. 1836. 
 
 L'Enclos, Ninon de, French beauty. B. probably 1616. D. about 1706. 
 Lennep, Jacobus van, Dutch novelist, poet, dramatist. B. 1802. D. 1868. 
 Lenormand, Marie Anne, French fortune-teller. B. 1772. D. 1843. 
 Lenormant, Charles, French writer on art and archaeology. B. 1802. D. 
 
 1859. 
 Lenormant, Francois, French archaeologist. B. 1837. D. 1883. "Manuel 
 
 d'histoire ancienne de TOrient." " Lettres assyriologiques et epigra- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 471 
 
 phiques." " Etudes accadiennes." " Les sciences occultes en Asie." " Les 
 
 origines de l'histoire d'apres la Bible." 
 Lenz, Jacob Michael Reinhold, German dramatist. B. 1750. D. 1792. 
 Lenz, Oskar, German traveler in Africa. B. 1848. 
 Leo the Great, bishop of Rome. Elected 440. D. 461. 
 Leo III., pope. Elected 795. D. 816. 
 Leo IV., pope. Elected 847. D. 855. 
 
 Leo X. (Giovanni de' Medici),, pope. B. 1475. Elected 1513. D. 1521. 
 Leo XII., pope. Elected 1823. D. 1829. 
 Leo XIII. (Gioachino Pecci), pope. B. 1810. Elected 1878. 
 Leo I., the Thracian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 457-474. 
 Leo III., the Isaurian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 717-741. 
 Leo V., the Armenian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 813-820. 
 Leo VI., the Philosopher, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 886-911. 
 Leo, Heinrich, German historian. B. 1799. D. 1878. Works on mediaeval 
 
 and universal history, history of the Italian states, &c. 
 Leo Afrieanus (Al-Hassan ibn Mohammed), Moorish geographer. First 
 
 half of 16th c. 
 Leochares, Athenian sculptor. About 350 b. c. 
 Leon, Ponce de. See Ponce de Leon. 
 Leonardo Aretino. See Bruni. 
 Leonardo da Pisa (Leonardo Bonacci or Fibonacci), Italian mathematician. 
 
 B. about 1170. 
 Leonardo da Vinci. See Vinci. 
 Leonhard, Karl Casar von, German geologist, mineralogist. B. 1779. D. 
 
 1862. 
 Leonidas, king of Sparta. Reigned from 491 b. c. Slain 480. 
 Leopardi, Giacomo, count, Italian poet. B. 1798. D. 1837. 
 Leopold I., sovereign of Austria, emperor of Germany, son of Ferdinand 
 
 III. B. 1640. Reigned in Austria from 1657; emperor of Germany 
 
 from 1658. D. 1705. 
 Leopold II., sovereign of Austria, emperor of Germany, brother of Joseph 
 
 II. B. 1747. Grand-duke of Tuscany 1765-90. Reigned in the Austrian 
 
 dominions and Germany from 1790. D. 1792. 
 Leopold I. (of Saxe-Coburg), king of Belgium. B. 1790. Reigned from 
 
 1831. D. 1865. 
 Leopold II., king of Belgium since 1865, sovereign of the Congo Free 
 
 State, son of Leopold I. B. 1835. 
 Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany. B. 1797. Reigned 1824-'59. D. 1870. 
 Leopold I., prince of Anhalt-Dessau, general in the Prussian service. B. 
 
 1676. I). 1747. 
 Leosthenes, Athenian general. Commander in the Lamian war 323 B. c. 
 Lepage, Bastien. See Bastien-Lepage. 
 Lepage, Marie Anne. See Boccage. 
 L'lSpee, abbe de. See Epee. 
 
472 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lepidus, M. ./Emilias, triumvir with Antony and Octavius 43-36 b. c. D. 
 
 13 b. c. 
 Lepsius, Richard, German Egyptologist. B. 1810. D. 1884. 
 Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian, president of Mexico 1872-6. B. 1825. D. 
 
 1889. 
 Lermontoff, Mikhail, Russian poet. B. 1814. Killed 1841. 
 Leroux, Pierre, French social philosopher, socialist. B. 1798. D. 1871. 
 Leroy de Saint-Arnaud. See Saint-Arnaud. 
 Leroy Beaulieu, Pierre Paul, French political economist. B. 1843. 
 Le Sage, Alain Rene, French author. B. 1668. D. 1747. " Gil Bias." 
 Lescot, Pierre, French architect. D. 1578 (about 1570 ?). 
 Lesley, John, Scottish prelate. B. 1527. D. 1596. 
 Lesley, John Peter, American geologist. B. 1819. 
 Leslie, Charles Robert, English painter. B. 1794. D. 1859. 
 Leslie, Henry David, English composer. B. 1822. D. 1896. 
 Leslie, Sir John, Scottish physicist, mathematician. B. 1766. D. 1832. 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, viscount, constructor of the Suez canal. B. in 
 
 France, 1805. D. 1894. 
 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, German author, critic. B. Jan. 22, 1729. D. 
 
 Feb. 15, 1781. "Laokoon, oder liber die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie" 
 
 (''Laocoon, or the Limits of Painting and Poetry"), 1766. '"Minna von 
 
 Barnhelm" (comedy). " Dramaturgic" "Emilia Galotti" (tragedy). 
 
 " Nathan der Weise " (philosophical drama), 1779. 
 Lessing, Karl Friedrich, German painter. B. 1808. D. 1880. 
 Lestocq, Johann Hermann, count, favorite of the empress Elizabeth of 
 
 Russia, a native of Germany. D. 1767. 
 L'Estrange, Sir Roger, partisan of the Stuarts, writer, translator. B. 1616. 
 
 D. 1704. 
 Le Sueur, Eustache, French painter. B. 1617. D. 1655. 
 Le Sueur, Jean Francois, French composer. B. 1760. D. 1837. 
 Leszczynski, Stanislas. See Stanislas Leszczynski. 
 Letronne, Jean Antoine, French antiquary. B. 1787. D. 1848. 
 Leuchtenberg, duke of. See Beauhaknais, Eugene de. 
 Leucippus, Greek philosopher. About 500 B. c. 
 Leuckart, Rudolf, German naturalist, authority on entozoa. B. 1822. 
 Leutze, Emanuel, American painter. B. in Germany 1816. D. 1868. 
 Le Vaillant, Francois, French traveler in South Africa. B. 1753. D. 
 
 1824. 
 Lever, Charles James, Irish novelist. B. 1806. D. 1872. 
 Leverett, Sir John, governor of Massachusetts. B. 1616. D. 1679. 
 Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, French astronomer. B. 1811. D. 1877. 
 Levita, Elias. See Elias Levita. 
 Lewald, August, German author. B. 1792. D. 1871. 
 Lewald, Fanny (wife of Adolf Stahr), German authoress. B.1811. D. 1889. 
 
 Works of fiction, sketches of travel, &c. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 473 
 
 Lewes, George Henry, English philosopher, author. B. 1817. D. 1878. 
 "Biographical History of Philosophy." "Life of Goethe." "Comte's 
 Philosophy of the Sciences." " Problems of Life and Mind." " Physi- 
 ology of Common Life." " The Spanish Drama." 
 
 Lewes, Marian Evans (" George Eliot "), English novelist, wife of George 
 Lewes. B. 1819. D. 1880. "Adam Bede," 1859. "The Mill on the 
 Floss." " Romola." " Felix Holt, the Radical." " Middlemarch." " Dan- 
 iel Deronda." — " The Spanish Gypsy " (poetical romance). 
 
 Lewis, Sir George Cornwalle, English statesman, antiquary, political writer. 
 B. 1806. D. 1863. 
 
 Lewis, John Frederick, English painter. B. 1805. D. 1876. 
 
 Lewis, Matthew Gregory, English novelist, dramatist. B. 1775. D. 1818. 
 
 Lewis, Meriwether, American explorer. B. 1774. D. 1809. 
 
 Lewis, Morgan, American soldier, chief justice and governor of New York. 
 B. 1754. D. 1844. 
 
 Leyden, John, Scottish philologist, author. B. 1775. D. 1811. Authority 
 on the Indo-Chinese languages. 
 
 Leyden, Lucas van, Dutch painter, engraver. B. 1494. D. 1533. 
 
 Leys, Hendrik, baron, Belgian painter. B. 1815. D. 1869. 
 
 L'Hdpital, Michel de, French statesman. B. about 1505. D. 1573. 
 
 Libanius, Greek sophist, rhetorician. B. about 314. D. about 392. 
 
 Libelt, Karol, Polish patriot, philosopher. B. 1807. D. 1875. 
 
 Liberius, Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 352. D. 366. 
 
 Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph, German physicist, author. B. 1742. D. 
 1799. 
 
 Lichtenstein, Martin Heinrich Karl, German naturalist. B. 1780. D. 1857. 
 
 Licinius (Licinius Stolo), Roman tribune of the people, consul. The Licin- 
 ian Rogations adopted about 307 B. c. 
 
 Licinius, Roman emperor, ruler of the eastern portion of the Roman world. 
 Put to death 324. 
 
 Liddell, Henry George, English Greek scholar. B. about 1811. D. 1898. 
 
 Lieber, Francis, American publicist. B. in Germany 1800. D. 1872. 
 
 Liebig, Justus von, baron, German chemist. B. 1803. D. 1873. 
 
 Lieven, Dorothea, princess, wife of the Russian diplomatist Prince Lieven. 
 B. about 1786. D. 1857. 
 
 Lightfoot, John, English Hebraist, divine. B. 1602. D. 1675. 
 
 Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, English Biblical critic. B. 1828. D. 1889. 
 
 Ligne, Charles Joseph de, prince, Austrian soldier, author. B. in Brussels 
 1735. D. 1814. 
 
 Liguori, Alfonso Maria de', Italian ecclesiastic, founder of the order of 
 Redemptorists. B. 1696. D. 1787. 
 
 Lilburne, John, English agitator. B. about 1614. D. 1657. 
 
 Lillo, George, English dramatist. B. 1693. D. 1739. 
 
 Lilly (Lyly), John, English wit, writer. B. about 1553. D. 1606. " Eu- 
 phues, the Anatomy of Wit." 
 
474 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lilly, William, English astrologer. B. 1602. D. 1681. 
 
 Lily, William, English grammarian. B. about 1466. D. 1523. 
 
 Limborch, Philippus van, Dutch theologian. B. 1633. D. 1712. 
 
 Linacre, Thomas, English physician, scholar. B. about 1460. D. 1524. 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, president of the United States from 1861 to April, 
 1865. B. Feb. 12, 1809. Shot April 14, 1865. D. April 15. 
 
 Lincoln, Benjamin, American general. B. 1733. D. 1810. 
 
 Lind, Jenny (married to 0. Goldschmidt), Swedish singer. B. 1820. D. 1887. 
 
 Lindau, Paul, German critic, novelist. B. 1839. 
 
 Lindau, Rudolf, German novelist. B. about 1829. 
 
 Linde, Samuel Bogumil, Polish lexicographer. B. 1771. D. 1847. Dic- 
 tionary of the Polish language. 
 
 Lindenschmit, Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1829. 
 
 Lindley, John, English botanist. B. 1799. D. 1865. 
 
 Lindsay, Sir David, Scottish poet. First half of 16th c. 
 
 Lingard, John, English historian. B. 1771. D. 1851. " History of Eng- 
 land." 
 
 Ling, Peter Henrik, originator of curative gymnastics. B. in Sweden 1776. 
 D. 1839. 
 
 Link, Heinrich Friedrich, German botanist. B. about 1767. D. 1850 or 1851. 
 
 Linley, Thomas, English composer. B. about 1732. D. 1795. 
 
 Linnaeus (Karl von Linne), Swedish naturalist. B. May, 1707. D. Jan. 10, 
 1778. 
 
 Linnell, John, English painter. B. 1792. D. 1882. 
 
 Lippi, Filippino, Italian painter. D. about 1505. 
 
 Lippi, Era Filippo, Italian painter. D. 1469. 
 
 Lisle, Guillaume de, French geographer. B. 1675. D. 1726. 
 
 List, Friedrich, German political economist. B. 1789. D. 1846. 
 
 Lister, Sir Joseph, British surgeon. B. 1827. 
 
 Liszt, Franz, Hungarian pianist, composer. B. Oct. 22, 1811. D. July 31, 1886. 
 
 Littleton (Lyttelton), Sir Thomas, English jurist. D. 1481. 
 
 Littre, Maximilien Paul Emile, French physician, scholar, philosopher. 
 B. 1801. D. 1881. Chiefly noted for his dictionary of the French lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Littrow, Joseph Johann von, Austrian astronomer. B. 1781. D. 1840. 
 
 Littrow, Karl von, Austrian astronomer. B. 1811. D. 1877. 
 
 Liutprand. See Luitprand. 
 
 Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, earl of, British statesman. B. 1727. D. 1808. 
 
 Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, British premier 1812-'27. B. 
 1770. D. 1828. 
 
 Livia Drusilla, wife of Augustus. B. about 56 b. c. D. a. d. 29. 
 
 Livingston, Edward, American jurist, statesman. B. 1764. D. 1836. 
 
 Livingston, Robert R., American statesman. B. 1746. D. 1813. 
 
 Livingstone, David, Scottish African explorer. B. 1813. D. 1873. 
 
 Livius Andronicus. See Andronicus, Livius. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 475 
 
 Livy (Titus Livius), Roman historian. B. 59 b. c. D. a. d. 17. History of 
 Rome. 
 
 Ljunggren, Gustaf, Swedish writer on aesthetics, literary critic. B. 1823. 
 
 Llorente, Juan Antonio, Spanish ecclesiastic, historian. B. 1756. D. 1823. 
 " History of the Spanish Inquisition " (published in Spanish and French). 
 
 Lloyd, Henry, soldier, military writer, b. in Wales. D. 1783. 
 
 Lobeira, Vasco de, Portuguese writer. D. 1403. Reputed author of the 
 romance of " Amadis of Gaul." 
 
 Lobo, Jeronimo, Portuguese missionary. B. about 1595. D. 1678. 
 
 Locke, John, English philosopher. B. Aug. 29, 1632. D. Oct. 28, 1704. 
 " Essay concerning Human Understanding," 1690. 
 
 Lockhart, John Gibson, Scottish author. B. 1794. D. 1854. Life of Scott 
 and other biographies. Works of fiction. Translations of ancient Span- 
 ish ballads. 
 
 Lockyer, Norman, English astronomer. B. 1836. 
 
 Loftus, William Kennett, English archaeologist. B. about 1820. D. 1858. 
 " Travels and Researches in Chaldoaa and Susiana." 
 
 Logan, Indian chief. B. about 1725. Killed 1780. 
 
 Logan, Sir William Edmond, Canadian geologist. B. 1798. D. 1875. 
 
 Lola Montez. See Montez. 
 
 Lombard, Peter (Petrus Lombardus), Italian theologian. D. about 1160. 
 
 Lomenie, Louis Leonard de, French author. B. 1815. D. 1878. " Galerie 
 des contemporains." " Beaumarchais et son temps/' 
 
 Lomenie de Brienne, Etienne Charles de, French prelate, comptroller of 
 finances under Louis XVI. 1787-8. B. 1727. D. 1794. 
 
 Lomonosoff, Mikhail, Russian poet. B. 1712 (1711?). D. 1765. 
 
 Londonderry, Charles William Stewart Vane, marquis of. See Stewart. 
 
 Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of. See Castlereagh. 
 
 Long, George, English author. B. 1800. D. 1879. Historical and geo- 
 graphical works. 
 
 Long, Stephen Harriman, American engineer, explorer. B. 1784. I). 1864. 
 
 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, American poet. B. Feb. 27, 1807. D. 
 March 24,1882. "Hyperion" (prose romance), 1839. "Voices of the 
 Night," 1839. " Poets and Poetry of Europe," 1845. " Evangeline," 1847. 
 " The Golden Legend," 1851. "The Song of Hiawatha," 1855. "The 
 Courtship of Miles Standish," 1858. Translation of Dante's "Divina 
 Commedia," 1867-70. 
 
 Longhi, Giuseppe, Italian engraver. B. 1766. D. 1831. 
 
 Longinus, Greek philosopher, critic, counselor of Zenobia, queen of Pal- 
 myra. Put to death a. d. 273. 
 
 Longland, William. See Langland. 
 
 Longman, Thomas Norton, English publisher. B. 1771. D. 1842. 
 Longstreet, James, Confederate general. B. 1821. 
 
 Longueville, Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess de, one of the leaders 
 of the Fronde, sister of the Great Conde. B. 1619. D. 1679. 
 
476 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lonnrot, Elias, Finnish scholar, editor of the popular epic of the Finns, 
 the " Kalevala," of Finnish proverbs, &c. B. 1802. D. 1884. 
 
 Loomis, Elias, Amer. physicist, astronomer, mathematician. B. 1811. D. 1889. 
 
 Lope de Vega, Felix, Spanish dramatist. B. 1562. D. 1635. 
 
 Lopez, Carlos Antonio, dictator (nominally president) of Paraguay 1844-62. 
 B. about 1790. D. 1862. 
 
 Lopez, Francisco Solano, dictator (nominally president) of Paraguay 1862-70, 
 son of the preceding. B. about 1827. Killed 1870. 
 
 Lopez, Narciso, Cuban revolutionist. B. about 1799. Executed 1851. 
 
 Lorenzo de Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Loris-Melikoff, Mikhail, Russian general, statesman. B. 1826. D. 1888. 
 
 Lorraine, Charles de (cardinal de Lorraine). See Guise. 
 
 Lorraine, Claude. See Claude Lorraine. 
 
 Los Herreros. See Breton de los Herreros. 
 
 Lossing, Benson John, American historical and biographical writer. R 
 1813. D. 1891. 
 
 Lothaire I., Frankish ruler, emperor of the Romans. B. about 796. Suc- 
 ceeded to the dominions of his father, Louis le Debonnaire, jointly with 
 his brothers, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, 840. Italy, an ex- 
 tensive region west of the Rhine, and the country between the Rhone 
 and the Alps allotted to him 843. I). 855. 
 
 Lothaire II. (Ill), the Saxon, German emperor. Reigned from 1125. D. 
 1137. 
 
 Lotze, Rudolf Hermann, German philosopher. B. 1817. D. 1881. 
 
 Loudon, Gideon Ernst =von. See Laudon. 
 
 Loudon, John Claudius, British writer on agriculture, botany, &c. B. 1783. 
 D. 1843. 
 
 Lough, John Graham, English sculptor. B. about 1804. D. 1876. 
 
 Louis L, le Debonnaire, king of the Franks, emperor of the Romans, son of 
 Charlemagne. B. 778. Reigned from 814. D. 840. 
 
 Louis II., emperor of the Romans. Succeeded his father, Lothaire I., in 
 Italy 855. D. 875. 
 
 Louis the German, king of Germany. Succeeded his father, Louis le 
 Debonnaire, jointly with his brothers, Lothaire and Charles the Bald, 840. 
 Germany assigned to him in the partition of the Carlovingian empire in 
 the treaty of Verdun 843. D. 876. 
 
 Louis the Child, king of Germany. Reigned 900-911. 
 
 Louis IV., the Bavarian, emperor of Germany. Elected 1314. D. 1347. 
 
 Louis II., the Stammerer, king of France. Reigned 877-9. 
 
 Louis III., king of France. Reigned jointly with his brother, Carloman, 
 879-882. 
 
 Louis IV., (TOutremer, king of France. Reigned 936-954. 
 
 Louis V., king of France. Reigned 986-7. 
 
 Louis VI., the Fat, king of France. B. about 1078. Reigned from 110a 
 D. 1137. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 477 
 
 Louis VII., king of France. B. about 1120. Reigned from 1137. D. 1180. 
 Louis VIII., king of France. B. 1187. Reigned from 1223. D. 1226. 
 Louis IX., Saint, king of France. B. 1215. Reigned from 1226. D. 1270. 
 Louis X., king of France. B. 1289. Reigned from 1314. D. 1316. 
 Louis XL, king of France, son of Charles VII. B. 1423. Reigned from 
 
 1461. D. 1483. 
 Louis XII., king of France. B. 1462. Reigned from 1498. D. Jan. 1, 
 
 1515. 
 Louis XIII., king of France, son of Henry IV. and Maria de' Medici. B. 
 
 1601. Reigned from 1610. D. May 14, 1643. Husband of Anne of 
 
 Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. 
 Louis XIV., the Great, king of France, son of Louis XIII. and Anne of 
 
 Austria. B. Sept., 1638. Reigned from 1643. D. Sept. 1, 1715. Mar- 
 ried to Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain ; after her death, 
 
 to Madame de Maintenon. 
 Louis XV., king of France, great-grandson of Louis XIV. B. Feb. 15, 
 
 1710. Reigned from 1715. D. May 10, 1774. Husband of Maria Lesz- 
 
 czynska, daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski. 
 Louis XVI., king of France, grandson of Louis XV. B. Aug. 23, 1754. 
 
 Reigned from 1774. Deposed 1792. Executed Jan. 21, 1793. Husband 
 
 of Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa. 
 Louis XVII., dauphin, son of Louis XVI. B. 1785. D. 1795. 
 Louis XVIII. , king of France, brother of Louis XVI. B. Nov. 17, 1755. 
 
 Reigned from April, 1814, to March, 1815, and from June, 1815, to Sept. 
 
 16, 1824 (date of his death). (Previous to his accession styled count of 
 
 Provence.) 
 Louis L, the Great, king of Hungary and Poland. B. 1326. Reigned in 
 
 Hungary from 1342 : in Poland, from 1370. D. 1382. 
 Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia. Reigned 1516-'26. 
 Louis I., king of Bavaria. B. 1786. Reigned 1825-'48. D. 1868. 
 Louis II., king of Bavaria. B. 1845. Reigned from 1864. D. 1886. 
 Louis, king of Holland. See Bonaparte, Louis. 
 Louis, king of Portugal. B. 1838. Reigned from 1861. D. 1889. 
 Louis, margrave of Baden, general. B. 1655. D. 1707. 
 Louis Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Louis, Pierre Charles Alexandre, French physician. B. 1787. D. 1872. 
 Louis Philippe, king of France, son of Philippe Egalite, duke of Orleans. 
 
 B. Oct, 6, 1773. Reigned from Aug. 7, 1830, to Feb. 24, 1848. D. Aug. 
 
 26, 1850. 
 Louisa, wife of Frederick William III. of Prussia, B. 1776. D. 1810. 
 Louisa Ulrica, wife of Adolphus Frederick of Sweden, sister of Frederick 
 
 the Great. B. 1720. D. 1782. 
 L'Ouverture, Toussaint. See Toussaint l'Ouverture. 
 Louvet de Couvray, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist, author. B. 1760. 
 D. 1797. 
 
478 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Louvois, Francois Michel Letellier, marquis de, minister of war undei 
 Louis XIV. B. 1641 or 1639. D. 1691. 
 
 Lovat, Simon Fraser, Lord, Scottish soldier, intriguer. B. about 1670. 
 Executed 1747. 
 
 Lovelace, Richard, English poet. B. 1618. D. 1658. 
 
 Lover, Samuel, Irish author. B. 1797. D. 1868. " Legends and Stories of 
 Ireland." " Metrical Tales and other Poems." " Handy Andy " and 
 other humorous works of fiction. 
 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson, British soldier, governor of St. Helena during Napoleon's 
 confinement. B. 1769. D. 1844. 
 
 Lowe, Robert, Viscount Sherbrook, English statesman. B. 1811. D. 1892. 
 
 Lowell, James Russell, American author. B. 1819. D. 1891. " The Biglow 
 Papers " (humorous satires). Literary essays. Poems. 
 
 Lower, Richard. English physiologist. B. about 1631. D. 1691. 
 
 Lowth, Robert, English bishop, Biblical scholar. B. 1710. D. 1787. " Prae- 
 lectiones de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum." 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius de, Saint, founder of the order of Jesuits. B. in Spain 
 1491. D. 1556. 
 
 Loyson, Charles (Pere Hyacinthe), French preacher. B. 1827. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, English archaeologist, naturalist, son of Sir J. W. Lub- 
 bock. B. 1834. " Prehistoric Times." " The Origin of Civilization and 
 the Primitive Condition of Man." " On the Origin and Metamorphoses 
 of Insects." " Ants, Bees, and Wasps." " The Pleasures of Life." 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John William, English astronomer. B. 1803. D. 1865. 
 
 Liibke, Wilhelm, German writer on art. B. 1826. D. 1893. 
 
 Luca Giordano. See Giordano. 
 
 Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus), Latin poet. B. a. d. 39. D. 65. " Phar- 
 salia " (epic). 
 
 Lucan, George Charles Bingham, earl of, British general. B. 1800. D. 1888. 
 
 Lucas van Leyden. See Leyden. 
 
 Lucca, Pauline, German singer. B. about 1842. 
 
 Lucian, Greek author. B. about 120. D. about 200. " Dialogues " (hu- 
 morous and satirical writings directed against the superstitions and vices 
 of his time and the follies of the philosophers). 
 
 Lucilius, Caius, Latin poet. B. 148 b. c. D. 103. 
 
 Liicke, Gottfried Christian Friedrich, German Protestant theologian. B. 
 1792. D. 1855. 
 
 Luckner, Nicholas, German general in the service of France. B. 1722. 
 Executed 1794. 
 
 Lucretius, Latin didactic poet. D. about 52 b. c. " De Rerum Natura " 
 (" On the Nature of Things "). 
 
 Lucullus, Lucius Licinius, Roman general, commander against Mithridates 
 and Tigranes. D. about 57 B. c. 
 
 Luden, Heinrich, German historian. B. 1780. D. 1847. 
 
 Liiders, Alexander, count, Russian general. B. 1790. D. 1874. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOxYARY. 479 
 
 Ludolphus, Hiob, German philologist. B. 1624. D. 1704. 
 
 Ludwig, Karl, German physiologist. B. 1816. D. 1895. 
 
 Luganski, Kosak. See Dahl, Vladimir. 
 
 Luini, Bernardino, Italian painter. D. after 1530. 
 
 Luitpold, regent for Otho of Bavaria. B. 1821. 
 
 Luitprand (Liutprand), king of Lombardy. Reigned 712-744. 
 
 Luitprand, Lombard historian. B. about 920. I), about 970. 
 
 Lully, Jean Baptiste, French composer. B. 1633. D. 1687. 
 
 Lully, Raymond (Raimundo Lullo), Spanish logician, missionary. B. about 
 
 1235. D. 1315. 
 Luna, Pedro de. See Benedict XIII., antipope. 
 Lundy, Benjamin, American abolitionist. B. 1789. D. 1839. 
 Lushington, Stephen, English lawyer. B. 1782. D. 1873. 
 Lusignan, Guy of. See Guy of Lusignan. 
 
 Luther, Martin, German Reformer. B. Nov. 10, 1483. D. Feb. 18, 1546. 
 Liitke, Fedor, Russian navigator. B. 1797. D. 1882. 
 
 Lutzow, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von, baron, Pruss. gen'l. B. 1782. D. 1834. 
 Lux, Adam, German revolutionary enthusiast. B. 1766. Executed in Paris 
 
 1793. 
 Luxembourg, Francois Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duke dc, French 
 
 general. B. 1628. I). 1695. 
 Luynes (Luines), Charles d' Albert, duke de, favorite of Louis XIII. of 
 
 France. B. 1578. D. 1621. 
 Luynes, Honore Theodoric Paul Joseph d' Albert, duke de, French archae- 
 ologist. B. 1802. D. 1867. 
 Lycon, Greek philosopher. D. about 226 b. c. 
 Lycophron, Greek tragic poet, grammarian. 3d c. b. c. 
 Lycurgus, Spartan legislator. Supposed to have lived in the 9th c. b. c. 
 Lycurgus, Athenian orator. D. about 323 b. c. 
 Lydgate, John, English poet. B. about 1375. D. about 1461. 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, British geologist. B. 1797. D. 1875. 
 Lyly, John. See Lilly. 
 Lyndhurst, John Singleton Copley, baron, British statesman. B. 1772. D. 
 
 1863. 
 Lyon, Nathaniel, American general. B. 1819. Killed 1861. 
 Lysander, Spartan commander. Slain 395 b. c. 
 Lysias, Athenian orator. D. 378 b. c. 
 Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, king of Thrace. B. about 360 
 
 b. c. Slain 281. 
 Lysippus, Greek sculptor. 4th c. b. c. 
 Lyttelton, George, Lord, English author. B. 1709. D. 1773. " Dialogues 
 
 of the Dead." " History of Henry II." Poems. 
 Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, Lord, English diplomatist, viceroy 
 
 of India 1876-80, poet (" Owen Meredith "), son of the novelist Bulwer. 
 
 B. 1831. D. 1891. 
 
480 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mabillon, Jean, French scholar, writer (in Latin). B. 1632. D. 1707- 
 Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de, French publicist. B. 1709. D. 1785. 
 Mabuse, Jan van (Jan Gossart), Flemish painter. D. 1532 (according td 
 
 some 1562). 
 Macadam, John Loudon, Scottish road-maker. B. 1756. D. 1836. 
 Mc Arthur, Duncan, American pioneer, soldier, governor of Ohio. B. 1772. 
 
 D. 1839. 
 Macartney, George, earl, British diplomatist. B. 1737. D. 1806. 
 Macaulay, Catharine (born Sawbridge), English historian. B. 1733. D. 
 
 1791. 
 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord, English historian, essayist, poet, 
 
 statesman. B. Oct. 25, 1800. D. Dec. 28, 1859. " History of England " 
 
 (reigns of James II. and William III). " Lays of Ancient Rome."' 
 Macbeth, king of Scotland. Reigned from about 1040. Slain about 1057. 
 McCarthy, Justin, Irish novelist, historian, political leader. B. 1830. 
 
 "History of our own Times." 
 Macchiavelli. See Machiavelli. 
 
 McClellan, George Brinton, American general. B. 1826. D. 1885. 
 McClintock, Sir Francis Leopold, British Arctic explorer. B. 1819. 
 McClintock, John, American theological writer. B. 1814. D. 1870. 
 McClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier, British Arctic explorer. B. 1807. 
 
 I). 1873. 
 McOosh, James, Scottish metaphysician, divine, president of the College of 
 
 New Jersey 1868-88. B. 1811. D. 1894. 
 McCulloch, John Ramsay, Scottish political economist, statistician. 15. 
 
 1789. D. 1864. 
 Macdonald, Etienne Jacques Joseph Alexandre, duke of Taranto, French 
 
 general. B. 1765. D. 1840. 
 Macdonald, George, British poet, novelist. B. 1824. 
 
 Macdonald, Sir John Alexander, Canadian statesman. B. 1815. D. 1891. 
 McDonough, Thomas, American naval officer. B. 1783. D. 1825. 
 McDowell, Irvin, American general. B. 1818. D. 1885. 
 McDuffie, George, American politician. B. about 1788. D. 1851. 
 Macedo, Joaquim Manoel de, Brazilian author. B. 1820. 
 Macfarren, George Alexander, English composer. B. 1813. D. 1887. 
 McGillivray, William, Scottish naturalist, B. 1796. D. 1852. 
 Macgregor, John, British statistician, economist, B. 1797. D. 1857. 
 Machiavelli, Niccold, Florentine .statesman, writer. B. 1469. D. 1527. 
 
 " Istorie fiorentine." " II principe " (" The Prince "). " Arte della guer- 
 
 ra " (" Art of War "). 
 Mack, Karl von, baron, Austrian general. B. 1752. D. 1828. 
 Mackay, Charles, British author. B. 1814. D. 1889. 
 Mackean, Thomas, American patriot. B. 1734. D. 1817. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 481 
 
 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, Scottish explorer of British America. D. 1820. 
 Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell, Amer. naval officer, author. B. 1803. D. 1848. 
 Mackenzie, Henry, Scottish author. B. 1745. D. 1831. Novels, essays, 
 
 dramas, &c. 
 Mackenzie, Robert Shelton, author, journalist. B. in Ireland 1809. Lived 
 
 in the United States from 1852. D. 1881. 
 Mackenzie, William Lyon, Canadian politician. B. 1795. D. 1861. 
 McKinley, William, president of the United States. B. Jan. 29, 1843. 
 Mackintosh, Sir James, British author, statesman. B. 1765. D. 1832. 
 
 " Vindiciae Gallicte, or Defense of the French Revolution." " Discourse 
 
 on the Law of Nature and Nations." " Dissertation on the Progress of 
 
 Ethical Philosophy." " History of England." 
 Macklin, Charles, Irish actor, dramatist. B. about 1695. D. 1797. 
 Macknight, James, Scottish divine. B. 1721. D. 1800. 
 Maclaurin, Colin, Scottish mathematician. B. 1698. D. 1746. 
 Macleod, Norman, Scottish clergyman, author. B. 1812. D. 1872. 
 Maclise, Daniel, British painter. B. 1806 or 1811. D. 1870. 
 Maclure, William, American geologist. B. in Scotland 1763. D. 1840. 
 MacMahon, Marie Edtne Patrice Maurice de, duke of Magenta, general, 
 
 president of France 1873-'9. B. 1808. D. 1893. 
 Macomb, Alexander, American general. B. 1782. D. 1841. 
 Macpherson, James, Scottish author. B. 1736. D. 1796. "The Poems of 
 
 Ossian." 
 Macready, William Charles, English actor. B. 1793. D. 1873. 
 Macrinus, Roman emperor. Reigned 217-218. 
 Macrobius, Latin grammarian, writer. 5th c. a. d. 
 Madden, Sir Frederick, English antiquary. B. 1801. D. 1873. 
 Madden, Richard Robert, Irish author. B. 1798. D. 1886. 
 Madison, James, president of the United States 1809-17. B. March 16, 
 
 1751. D. June 28, 1836. 
 Madler, Johann Heinrich, German astronomer. B. 1794. D. 1874. 
 Madoz, Pascual, Spanish statesman, author. B. 1806. D. 1870. Editor of 
 
 the " Diccionario geografico estadistico y historico de Espana." 
 Madrazo, Frederico, Spanish painter. B. 1815. D. 1894. 
 Madrazo, Jose, Spanish painter. B. 1781. D. 1859. 
 Madvig, Johann Nikolai, Danish Latin scholar, writer on the constitution 
 
 and administration of the Roman state. B. 1804. D. 1886. 
 Maecenas, Caius Cilnius, friend of the emperor Augustus, patron of letters. 
 
 B. about 70 b. c. D. 8 b. c. 
 Maerlant, Jakob van, Dutch poet. D. about 1300. 
 Mafiei, Francesco Scipione, Italian scholar, author. B. 1675. D. 1755. 
 
 " Verona illustrata," " Gallise Antiquitates." " Merope " (tragedy). 
 Magalhaes, Domingos Joze Goncalves de, Brazilian poet. B. 1811. D. 1882. 
 Magellan (Fernando de Magalhaes), Portuguese navigator in the service of 
 
 Spain. B. about 1470. Killed 1521. 
 
482 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Magendie, Francois, French physiologist. B. 1783. D. 1855. 
 
 Maginn, William, Irish author. B. 1793. D. 1842. 
 
 Magliabecchi, Antonio, Italian scholar. B. 1633. D. 1714. 
 
 Magnentius, emperor of the West, 350-353. 
 
 Magnus, H. Gustav, German chemist, physicist. B 1802 D. 1870. 
 
 Magnusson (Magnusen), Finnish antiquary. B. in Iceland 1 781. D. 184/. 
 
 Noted in the field of Norse mythology, literature, and antiquities. 
 Magyar, Laszlo, Hungarian traveler in Africa. B^ 1817 D. 18b4. 
 Mahaffy, John Peytland, Irish classical scholar. B. ladJ. 
 Mahdi, the (Mohammed Ahmed), leader in a revolt against Egyptian rule 
 
 in the Soudan. B. about 1844. D. 1885 
 Mahmond II., Turkish sultan. B. 1785. Reigned from 1808 D 1839. 
 Mahmoud, sultan of Ghuzni, Mohammedan conqueror. B. about J71. 
 
 Assumed power 997. D. 1030. 
 Mahomet. See Mohammed. 
 Mahon, Lord. See Stanhope, Philip Henry. 
 
 Mai, Angelo, cardinal, Italian classical scholar, noted as the discoverer of 
 numerous fragments of ancient writers, preserved in palimpsest manu- 
 scripts. B. 1782. D. 1854. r, ,„ QR r. 18^ 
 Mailath, Janos Nepomuk, count, Hungarian historian B 1786 JV1BM. 
 Maimbourg, Louis, French ecclesiastical historian. B. 16.0. V. lt>8b. _ 
 Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon), Jewish theologian, philosopher. B. in 
 
 Spain 1135. D. 1204. 
 Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, English jurist. B. 1822. D. law. 
 Noted as a writer on law in its connection with the history of pnmitive 
 
 society t • * 
 
 Maine de Biran, Marie, Francois Pierre Gonthier, French metaphysician. 
 
 B. 1766. D. 1824. T . 
 
 Maintenon, Francoise d'Aubigne, marchioness de, second wife of Louis 
 
 XIV. B. 1635. D. 1719. , 
 
 Maistre, Joseph de, count, Sardinian minister, political and philosoph cal 
 
 writer, noted as a champion of the papal authority. B. in Savoy 1754 
 
 Maltrefxavier de, count, writer. B. in Savoy 1763 or 1764 D. 1852. 
 
 « Voyage autour de ma chambre " (" Journey round my Room ). 
 Maitland, Sir Richard, Scottish poet. B. 1496 D. 1586 
 Maitland, Samuel Roffey, English essayist, historical writer. B. 1,9.. D. 
 
 Mattland, William, Scottish statesman, son of Sir Richard Maitland. D. 
 
 1573. 
 Majorano, Gaetano. See Caffarelli. 
 Makart, Hans, Austrian painter. B. 1840. D. 1884. 
 TVTfllflclii Hebrew orophet. About latter part of 5th c. B. c. 
 JSSiSS offleer in the service 0. the English Bast India Company, 
 
 author ot works on Persian and Indian history, &e. B. 1 ,09. D. lSod. 
 

 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 483 
 
 Malczewski, Antoni, Polish poet. B. about 1792. D. 1826. "Marja" 
 
 (metrical romance). 
 Malebranche, Nicolas, French metaphysician. B. 1638. D. 1715. 
 Malesherbes, Chretien Guillaume de Lamoignon de, French statesman. 
 
 B. 1721. Executed 1794. 
 Malet, Claude Francois de, conspirator against the government of Napoleon. 
 
 B. 1754. Shot 1812. 
 Ivlalherbe, Francois de, French poet. B. 1555. D. 1628. 
 Malibran, Maria Felicita, singer, daughter of Manuel Garcia. B. in France 
 
 1808. D. 1836. 
 Mallet, David, Scottish poet, dramatist. B. about 1700. D. 1765. 
 Mallet, Robert, British engineer, distinguished by his investigations regard- 
 ing earthquakes. B. 1810. D. 1881. 
 Mallock, William Hurrell, English author. B. 1849. " The New Republic." 
 
 " Is Life worth Living?" 
 Malrnesbury, James Harris, earl of, Eng. diplomatist. B. 1746. D. 1820. 
 Malmesbury, James Howard Harris, earl of, Eng. statesm. B. 1807. D. 1889. 
 Malrnesbury, William of, English historian. B. about 1095. D. about 1143. 
 Malory, Sir Thomas, author (compiler) of a prose romance, "Morte Arthure," 
 
 completed about 1470. 
 Malpighi, Marcello, Italian anatomist, physiologist. B. 1628. D. 1694. 
 Malte-Brun, Danish-French geographer. B. 1775. D. 1826. 
 Malthus, Thomas Robert, English political economist. B. 1766. D. 1834. 
 
 Best known by his " Essay on the Principle of Population." 
 Maltitz, Apollonius von, baron, German poet, dramatist. B. 1795. D. 
 
 1870. 
 Maltitz, Franz Friedrich von, baron, German poet, dramatist. B. 1794. 
 
 D. 1857. 
 Maltzan, Heinrich von, baron, German traveler in the Barbary states, 
 
 Arabia, Egypt, &c, author of works on the countries visited by him. 
 
 B. 1826. D. 1874. 
 Malus, Etienne Louis, French physicist. B. 1775. D. 1812. Noted for his 
 
 discoveries in optics. 
 Malvoisine (Mawmoisine), William de, Scottish prelate. D. 1238. 
 Mamiani, Terenzio della Rovere, count, Italian statesman, philosopher. B. 
 
 1800. D. 1885. 
 Manasseh, king of Judah. Reigned 697-642 b. c. (Dunclcer ; 608-642, 
 
 Opp&rt). 
 Manco Capac, inca of Peru. Killed 1544. 
 Mandeville, Sir John, English traveler. B. about 1300. 
 Manes, founder of the sect of Manicha?ans, a Persian. 3d c. A. d. 
 Manetho, Egyptian historian. First half of 3d c. b. c. 
 Manfred, king of Sicily, son of the emperor Frederick II. B. 1231. Regent 
 
 of the Two Sicilies for his nephew, Conradin, from 1254. Crowned king 
 
 1258. Slain 1266. 
 
484 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Manin, Daniele, Italian patriot, head of the revolutionary government of 
 
 Venice 1848-9. B. 1804. D. 1857. 
 Manley, Mary, English authoress. B. about 1672. D. 1724. 
 Manlius Capitolinus, Marcus, Roman patrician. Said to have saved the 
 
 Capitol from the attack of the Gauls about 387 B. c. Subsequently 
 
 espoused the cause of the plebeian debtors. 
 Mann, Horace, American educationist. B. 1796. D. 1859. 
 Manners, John. See Granby. 
 
 Manning, Henry Edward, English cardinal. B. 1808. D. 1892. 
 Mansart (Mansard), Francois, French architect. B. 1598. D. 1666. 
 Mansart, Jules Ilardouin, French architect. B. 1645. D. 1708. 
 Mansel, Henry Longueville, English metaphysician. B. 1820. D. 1871. 
 Mansfelo, Ernst, count of, German Protestant soldier in the Thirty Years' 
 
 War. B. x-oW. D. 1626. 
 Mansfield, William Murray, earl of, British jurist. B. 1705. D. 1793. 
 Mantegna, Andrea, Italian painter. B. 1431. I). 1506. 
 Mantell, Gideon Algernon, English geologist. B. about 1790. D. 1852. 
 Manteuffel, Edwin von. baron, Prussian general. B. 1809. D. 1885. 
 ManteufFel, Otto Theodor von, baron, Prussian statesman. B. 1805. D. 
 
 1882. 
 Manuel Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 1143. D. 1180. 
 Manuel Paleeologus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 1391. D. 1425. 
 Manutius (Manuzio), Aldus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1449. D. 
 
 1515. 
 Manutius, Aldus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1547. D. 1597. 
 Manutius, Paulus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1511. D. 1574. 
 Manzoni, Alessandro, count, Italian novelist, poet, dramatist. B. 1784. D. 
 
 1873. Best-known production, " I promessi sposi " (" The Betrothed 
 
 Lovers," novel). 
 Mapes, Walter, English Latin poet, romance writer. D. about 1210. 
 Maquet, Auguste, French novelist. B. 1813. D. 1888. 
 Mar, John Erskine, earl of, organizer of the rising in Scotland in favor of 
 
 James Edward Stuart in 1715. B. 1675. D. 1732. 
 Marat, Jean Paul, French revolutionist. B. 1744. Assassinated 1793. 
 Maratti, Carlo, Italian painter. B. 1625. D. 1713. 
 Marbeck, John, English composer. D. about 1585. 
 Marbois, Barbe. See Barbe-Marbois. 
 Marc' Antonio. See Raimondi. 
 Marceau, Francois Severin-Desgraviers, French general. B. 1769. Killed 
 
 1796. 
 Marcello, Benedetto, Italian composer. B. 1686. I). 1739. 
 Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, Roman general in the second Punic War. 
 
 Slain 208 b. c. 
 March, earl of. See Mortimer. 
 March, Francis Andrew, American philologist. B. 1825. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 485 
 
 Marchesi, Pompeo, Italian sculptor. B. about 1790. D. 1858. 
 
 Marco Polo. See Polo. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor, philosopher. B. 121. 
 Reigned from 161. D. 180. 
 
 Marcy, William Learned, American statesman. B. 1786. D. 1857. 
 
 Mardonius, Persian general in Greece. Slain 479 b. c. 
 
 Marenzio, Luca, Italian composer. B. about 1550. D. 1599. 
 
 Maret, Hugues Bernard, duke of Bassano, French general, statesman. B. 
 1763. D. 1839. 
 
 Margaret, queen and patron saint of Scotland. B. 1046. D. about 1093. 
 
 Margaret, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, daughter of Walde- 
 mar III. B. about 1353. D. 1412. 
 
 Margaret, half-sister of Philip II. of Spain, duchess of Parma, regent of 
 the Netherlands 1559-'67. B. 1522. D. 1586. 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI. of England. B. 1430. D. 1482 
 (1481 ?). 
 
 Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands, daughter of Maximilian 
 I. B. 1480. D. 1530. 
 
 Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. of France, wife of Henri d'Albret, 
 king of Navarre, author of the Heptameron (in the style of Boccaccio's 
 Decameron). B. 1492. D. 1549. 
 
 Margaret of Valois, first wife of Henry IV. of France, daughter of Catha- 
 rine de' Medici. B. 1553. D. 1615. 
 
 Margaritone d'Arezzo, Italian painter, sculptor. 13th c. 
 
 Marheineke, Philipp Konrad, German Protestant theologian. B. 1780. D. 
 1846. 
 
 Maria II. (Maria da Gloria), queen of Portugal, daughter of Pedro I. of Bra- 
 zil. B. 1819. Declared queen 1826. Throne usurped by her uncle, Dom 
 Miguel, 1828. Placed in possession of her kingdom 1833-'4. D. 1S53. 
 
 Maria Christina, queen of Spain, wife of Ferdinand VII., regent for her 
 daughter, Isabella II. B. 1806. D. 1878. 
 
 Maria de' Medici, second wife of Henry IV. of France. B. 1573. D. 1642. 
 
 Maria Louisa, second wife of Napoleon I., daughter of Francis, emperor of 
 Austria. B. 1791. Married 1810. After Napoleon's fall duchess of 
 Parma. D. 1847. 
 
 Maria Theresa, sovereign of the Austrian dominions (queen of Hungary 
 and Bohemia), wife of Francis I., emperor of Germany. B. 1717. Suc- 
 ceeded her father, Charles VI., 1740. D. 1780. 
 
 Mariana, Juan, Spanish Jesuit, historian. B. 1536. D. 1623. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI., daughter of Maria Theresa. B. 
 1755. Guillotined 1793. 
 
 Mariette, Auguste Edouard, French Egyptologist. B. 1821. D. 1881. 
 
 Marini, Giambattista, Italian poet. B. 1569. D. 1625. 
 
 Mario, Giuseppe, marquis di Candia, Italian singer. B. 1808. D. 1883. 
 
 Marion, Francis, American soldier. B. 1732. D. 1795. 
 
486 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Mariotte, Edme, French physicist. D. 1684. 
 
 Marius, Cuius. Roman general. B. about 157 b. c. D. 86. 
 
 Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de, French writer of comedy, novelist 
 B. 1688. D. 1763. 
 
 Mark Antony. See Antony. 
 
 Mark Twain. See Clemens. 
 
 Markham, Clements Robert, English geographer, author. B. 1830. 
 
 Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, English general. B. June 24, 
 1650. D. June 16, 1722. 
 
 Marlitt, E. See John, Eugenie. 
 
 Marlowe, Christopher (Kit), English dramatist. B. 1564. D. 1593. 
 
 Marmier, Xavier, French author. B. 1800. D. 1892. Books of travel, 
 novels, translations from the German. 
 
 Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse de, duke of Ragusa, French gen- 
 eral. B. 1774. D. 1852. 
 
 Marmontel, Jean Francois, French author. B. 1723. D. 1799. " Contes 
 moraux " (" Moral Tales "). " Belisaire " and " Les Incas " (romances). 
 Tragedies. Operas. " Elements de Litterature." 
 
 Marnix, Philip van. See Sainte-Aldegonde. 
 
 Marochetti, Carlo, baron, Italian sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1868 (close of 
 (1807 f). 
 
 Marot, Clement, French poet. B. 1495. D. 1544. 
 
 Marquette, Jacques, French Jesuit, missionary. B. 1637. D. 1675. Voy- 
 age down the Mississippi with Joliet, 1673. 
 
 Marracci, Ludovico, Italian Arabic scholar. B. 1612. D. 1700. 
 
 Ilarryat, Frederick, captain, English writer of fiction. B. 1792. D. 1848. 
 
 Mars, Anne Francoise Ilippolyte Boutet, French actress. B. 1778 or 1779. 
 D. 1847. 
 
 Marschner, Heinrich, German composer. B. 1795. D. 1861. 
 
 Marsden, William, British philologist, numismatist, authority on the Malay 
 language. B. 1754. D. 1836. 
 
 Marsh, George Perkins, American scholar, author, diplomatist. B. 1801. 
 D. 1882. " Origin and History of the English Language." " The Earth, 
 as modified by Human Action." 
 
 Marsh, Othniel Charles, American palaeontologist. B. 1831. 
 
 Marshall, John, chief justice of the United States 1801-'35. B. 1755. D. 
 1835. 
 
 Marshall, William Calder, Scottish sculptor. B. 1813. D. 1894. 
 
 Marshman, Joshua, English missionary and Chinese, Sanskrit, and Ben- 
 galee scholar. B. 1768. D. 1837. 
 
 Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando, count, Italian savant. B. 1658. D. 1730. 
 
 Marston, John, English dramatist. D. about 1634. 
 
 Marstrand, Wilhelm, Danish painter. B. 1810. D. 1873. 
 
 Martel, Charles. See Charles Martel. 
 
 Martens, Georg Friedrich von, German publicist. B. 1756. D. 1821. 
 

 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 487 
 
 Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), Latin epigrammatic poet. B. about 
 43. D. about 104. 
 
 Martin I., pope. Elected 649. Deprived of his dignity 653. 
 
 Martin IV., pope. Elected 1281. D. 1285. 
 
 Martin V., pope. Elected 1417. D. 1431. 
 
 Martin, Aime. See Aijie-Martin. 
 
 Martin, Francois Xavier, American jurist. B. in France 1764. D. 1846. 
 
 Martin, Henri, French historian. B. 1810. D. 1883. "Histoire de France." 
 
 Martin, Saint, bishop of Tours. B. about 316. D. about 400. 
 
 Martin, Sir Theodore, British poet, translator, biographer. B. 1816. "Life 
 of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort." 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, English authoress. B. 1802. D. 1876. Tales and 
 Novels. " Illustrations of Political Economy" (series of tales). " Illustra- 
 tions of Taxation." " Society in America." " Eastern life, Past and 
 Present." " History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace." 
 
 Martineau, James, English divine, brother of Harriet Martineau. B. 1805. 
 
 Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco, Spanish statesman, author. B. 1789. D. 
 . 1862. 
 
 Martius, Karl Friedrieh Philipp von, German traveler in Brazil, botanist. 
 B. 1794. D. 1868. 
 
 Martyr, Peter, historian. See Anghiera. 
 
 Martyr, Peter, Reformer. See Peter Martyr. 
 
 Marvell, Andrew, member of Parliament, writer, celebrated for his attacks 
 on the government of Charles II. B. about 1621. D. 1678. 
 
 Marx, Karl, German socialist, founder of the Internationale. B. 1818. D. 
 1883. 
 
 Mary I., queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of 
 Aragon. B. 1516. Reigned from 1553. D. 1558. Married to Philip II. 
 of Spain. 
 
 Mary II., queen of England, daughter of James II., wife of William III. 
 B. 1662. D. 1694. 
 
 Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, wife of Maximilian. 
 B. 1457. D. 1482. 
 
 Mary of Lorraine (of Guise), queen regent of Scotland, mother of Mary 
 Stuart. B. 1515. D. 1560. Sister of Francis, duke of Guise. 
 
 Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, daughter of James V. and Mary of Lorraine. 
 B. Dec, 1542. Queen from Dec. 14, 1542. Forced to abdicate in favor of 
 her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Executed Feb. 8, 1587. Married to the 
 dauphin Francis 1558 (queen of France 1559-'60) : to Darnley, 1565 ; to 
 Bothwell, 1567. 
 
 Masaccio (Tommaso Guidi), Italian painter. First half of 15th c. 
 
 Masaniello (Tommaso Aniello), leader in an insurrection of the Neapolitan 
 populace in 1647. B. about 1623. Killed 1647. 
 
 Masham, Lady Abigail, favorite of Queen Anne. D. 1734. 
 
 Masinissa, a Numidian king, who in the second Punic War fought at first 
 
488 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 on the side of Carthage and then joined Rome. B. about 240 B. c. D. 
 
 about 148. 
 Maskelyne, Nevi], English astronomer. B. 1732. D. 1811. 
 Mason, Francis, American missionary in Burmah. B. in England 1799. D. 
 
 1874. 
 Mason, George, American statesman. B. about 1725. D. 1792. 
 Mason, James Murray, American politician. B. 1798. D. 1871. 
 Mason, John, soldier of Connecticut. B. 1G00. D. 1672. 
 Mason, Lowell, American composer. B. 1792. D. 1872. 
 Maspero, G., French Egyptologist, writer on the early history of the East. 
 
 B. 1846. 
 Massasoit, Indian sachem. D. 1661. 
 
 Massena, Andre, prince of Essling, French general. B. 1758. D. 1817. 
 Massey, Gerald, English poet. B. 1828. 
 
 Massillon, Jean Baptiste, French pulpit orator. B. 1663. D. 1742. 
 Massinger, Philip, English dramatist. B. about 1583. D. 1640. 
 Massinissa. See Masinissa. 
 Masson, David, British literary historian. B. 1822. Principal production, 
 
 " Life of John Milton." 
 Masudi, Arabian scholar, writer. D. 956. 
 Matejko, Jan, Polish painter. B. 1838. 13. 1893. 
 Materna, Amalie, Viennese singer. B. 1847. 
 Mather, Cotton, American theologian, writer. B. 1663. D. 1728. 
 Mather, Increase, American clergyman, writer. B. 1639. D. 1723. 
 Mathew, Theobald, " the apostle of temperance." B. in Ireland 1790. D. 
 
 1856. 
 Mathews, Charles, English actor. B. 1776. D. 1835. 
 Matsys (Metsys), Quintin, Flemish painter. D. about 1530. 
 Matteucci, Carlo, Italian scientist. B. 1811. D. 1868. 
 Matthew Paris (Matthew of Westminster), English chronicler. D. 1259. 
 Matthias, emperor of Germany, brother of Rudolph II. B. 1557. Reigned 
 
 in the archduchy of Austria, part of Hungary, and Moravia from 1608. 
 
 King of Bohemia from 1611. Emperor from 1612. D. 1619. 
 Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, son of John Hunyady. B. 1443. 
 
 Reigned from 1458. D. 1490. 
 Matthisson, Friedrich von, German poet. B. 1761. D. 1831. 
 Maturin, Charles Robert, Irish novelist, dramatist, preacher. B. 1782. D. 
 
 1824. 
 Maudsley, Henry, English physiologist. B. 1835. " Physiology and Pa- 
 thology of Mind." " Responsibility in Mental Disease." " Body and Will." 
 Maupassant, Guy de, French writer of fiction, poet. B. 1850. D. 1893. 
 Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de, French mathematician, astronomer. 
 
 B. 1098. D. 1759. 
 Maurepas, Jean Frederic Phelypeaux, count de, French statesman. B. 
 
 1701. D. 1781. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 489 
 
 Maurice, Byzantine emperor. See Mauricius. 
 
 Maurice, duke and elector of Saxony, general, ally of Charles V. in the 
 war of the Smalcald League, subsequently the champion of the Protestant 
 cause. B. 1521. Killed 1553. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau, prince of Orange, stadtholder of the Netherlands, 
 general, son of William the Silent. B. 1567. D. 1625. 
 
 Maurice, Frederick Denison, English divine, social reformer, writer on re- 
 ligion and philosophy. B. 1805. D. 1872. 
 
 Maurice, Thomas, English scholar, author. B. about 1754. D. 1824. 
 Works on the antiquities and history of India. 
 
 Mauricius, Byzantine emperor. B. about 539. Reigned from 582. Exe- 
 cuted 602. 
 
 Maurocordatos. See Mavrocordatos. 
 
 Maury, Alfred, French author. B. 1817. D. 1892. Works on the religious 
 beliefs, superstitions, and legends of antiquity and the Middle Ages. 
 Various works on the forests of France. 
 
 Maury, Jean Siffrein, archbishop of Paris. B. 1746. D. 1817. 
 
 Maury, Matthew Fontaine, American hydrographer. B. 1806. D. 1873. 
 
 Mavrocordatos, Alexander, Greek soldier, statesman. B. 1791. D. 1865. 
 
 Max, Gabriel, German painter. B. 1840. 
 
 Maxentius, Roman emperor. Proclaimed 306. (Recognized in a small 
 portion only of the Roman world.) D. 312. 
 
 Maximian (Maximianus) L, Roman emperor. Colleague of Diocletian 286- 
 305. Executed 310. 
 
 Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria, son of Fred- 
 erick III. B. 1459. Reigned from 1493. D. 1519. Husband of Mary 
 of Burgundy and grandfather of Charles V. 
 
 Maximilian II., emperor of Germany, archduke of Austria, king of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia, son of Ferdinand I. B. 1527. Reigned from 1564. 
 D. 1576. 
 
 Maximilian, archduke of Austria, emperor of Mexico, brother of Francis 
 Joseph. B. 1832. Shot 1867. 
 
 Maximilian, duke and afterward elector of Bavaria. Reigned 1597-1651 
 (elector from 1623). 
 
 Maximilian, prince of Neuwied. See Neuwied. 
 
 Maximilian Joseph, "duke in Bavaria," German author. B. 1808. 
 D. 1888. Novels, dramas, travels. 
 
 Maximin (Maximinus), Roman emperor. Reigned 235-238. 
 
 Maxwell, James Clerk, British physicist. B. 1831. D. 1879. 
 
 May, Sir Thomas Erskine, English author. B. 1815. D. 1886. Works on 
 the British Parliament and constitution. "Democracy in Europe.*' 
 
 Mayenne, Charles de Lorraine, duke of, last head of the Catholic League, 
 brother of Henry I. of Guise. D. 1611. 
 
 Mayer, Alfred Marshall, American physicist. B. 1836. D. 1897. 
 
 Mayer, Johann Tobias, German astronomer. B. 1723. D. 1762. 
 
490 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Mayer, Julius Robert, German physicist. B. 1814. D. 1878. One of the 
 
 originators of the mechanical theory of heat. 
 Mayhew, Henry, Eng. writer. B. 1812. D. 1887. Author of humorous writ- 
 
 iL of " London Labor and London Poor," •' The Wonders of Science, &c 
 Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, earl of, British statesman, viceroy of 
 
 India 1869-72. B. 1822. Assassinated 1872. 
 Mazade, Charles de, French political writer B. 1820 D. 1893. 
 Mazarin, Jules, cardinal, prime minister of Louis XIV. B. in Italy 1UU 
 
 Mazeppa,' hetman of the Cossacks, ally of Charles XII. B. about 1645. D. 
 
 1709. 
 
 Mazzini, Giuseppe, Italian patriot, revolutionist B 1808 D. 187.. 
 Mazzolini, Ludovico, Italian painter. First half of 16th c. 
 Mazzuchelli, Giovanni Maria, count, Italian biographer, critic. B.1,07. 
 
 D. 1765. " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 Mazzuola, Francesco. See Parmigiano. 
 Mead, Larkin Goldsmith, American sculptor. B. 1835. 
 Mead, Richard, English physician. B. 167 3 D. 1754 
 Meade, George Gordon, American general B 1815. D. 18 W. 
 Mechain, Pierre Francois Andre, French astronomer. B. 1744. D. 1804 
 
 or 1805. . r „ q 
 
 Mecheln (Meckenen), Israel von, German engraver D. loW. 
 Mechi, John Joseph, English agriculturist. B. 1802. D. 1880 
 Medhurst, Walter Henry, English missionary, Chinese scholar. B. 1796. 
 
 T) 1 S57 
 Medici, Alessandro de', duke of Florence. B. about 1510. Declared duke 
 
 1532. Assassinated 1537. 
 Medici, Catharine de'. See Catharine de' Medici. 
 Medici, Cosmo de' (Cosmo the Elder), Florentine statesman, patron of aits 
 
 and letters. B. 1389. D. 1464. 
 Medici, Cosmo de' (Cosmo the Great), grand -duke of Tuscany. B 1519. 
 
 Ruler of Florence from 1537. Proclaimed grand-duke 1569. D. lo74. 
 Medici, Giovanni de'. See Leo X., pope. 
 Medici, Giovanni Angelo de'. See Pius IV., pope. 
 Medici Giulio de'. See Clement VII., pope. 
 Medic; Lorenzo de' (Lorenzo the Magnificent), head of the Florentine state, 
 
 patron of arts and letters, poet. B. 1449. Governed from 1469. D. 
 
 1492. 
 Medici, Maria de'. See Maria de' Medici D about 
 
 Meer, van der, Jan (the elder), Dutch painter. B. about 1628. D. about 
 
 Meer! van der, Jan (the younger), Dutch painter. B. about 1658. D. about 
 
 1705. 
 Me^erle Ulrich. See Abraham a Sancta Clara. 
 MeWe't AH, viceroy ot Egypt. B. about HW. Ruled ie06-'48. D. 1849. 
 

 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 491 
 
 Mehernet Ali, Turkish general. B. in Prussia 1827. Murdered 1878. 
 Mehul, Etienne Henri, French composer. B. 1763. D. 1817. 
 Meilhac, Henri, French dramatist. B. 1832. D. 1897. 
 Meissner, Alfred, German poet, novelist. B. 1822. D. 1885. 
 Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1891. 
 Mekhitar (Mechitar), founder of the Armenian congregation of Mekhitarists. 
 
 D. 1749. 
 Mela, Pomponius, Roman geographer. Flourished about a. d. 50. 
 Melanchthon (Melancthon), Philipp, German Reformer. B. 1497. D. 
 
 1560. 
 Melbourne, William Lamb, viscount, British prime-minister 1834, 1835-'41. 
 
 B. 1779. D. 1848. 
 Melendez Valdes, Juan Antonio, Spanish poet. B. 1754. D. 1817. 
 Meletius, author of the Meletian schism. 1). about 326. 
 Meletius, Saint, bishop of Antioch. D. 381. 
 Melikoff. See Loris-Melikoff. 
 
 Mellin, Gustaf Henrik, Swedish novelist. B. 1803. D. 1876. 
 Melo, Manuel de, Spanish historian, poet. B. in Portugal 1611. D. 1665. 
 Melville, Andrew, Scottish Reformer. B. 1545. D. 1622. 
 Melville, Sir James, Scottish soldier, writer of historical memoirs. B. about 
 
 1535. D. 1617. 
 Melville, Lord. See Dundas. 
 
 Memling, Hans, Flemish painter. Flourished second half of 15th c. 
 Memmi, Simone (Simone di Martino), Italian painter. B. about 1283. D. 
 
 1344. 
 Menage, Gilles. French scholar. B. 1613. D. 1692. " Dictionnaire etymolo- 
 
 gique de la langue francaise." 
 Menander, Greek comic poet. B. 342 b. c. D. about 291. 
 Menant, Joachim, French Assyriologist. B. 1820. 
 Menasseh ben Israel, Dutch rabbi, writer. B. in Portugal about 1604. 
 
 D. 1657. Author of a " Defence of the Jews," addressed to Cromwell. 
 Mencius (Meng-tse), Chinese philosopher. 4th c. b. c. 
 Mendelssohn, Moses, German - Jewish philosopher. B. 1729. D. 1786. 
 
 "Phaedon, oder liber die Unsterblichkeit der Seele " (" Phaedo, or the Im- 
 mortality of the Soul"). " Jerusalem, oder liber religiose Macht und 
 
 Judenthum" ("Jerusalem, or Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism"). 
 
 " Morgenstunden " (•' Morning Hours," on the existence of God). 
 Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, German composer, grandson of Moses 
 
 Mendelssohn. B. 1809. D. 1847. 
 Mendez Pinto, Portuguese traveler, adventurer. B. about 1510. D. 1583. 
 Mendizabal, Juan Alvarez y, Spanish financier. B. about 1790. D. 1853. 
 Mendoza, Antonio de, viceroy of New Spain (Mexico). D. 1552. 
 Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de, Spanish author, soldier, diplomatist. B. about 
 
 1503. D. 1575. "Lazarillo de Tonnes" (humorous satirical romance). 
 
 " Guerra de Granada contra los Moriscos." Poems. 
 
492 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Mendoza, Inigo Lopez de, marquis of Santillana, Castilian soldier, states- 
 man, noted as a poet and scholar. B. 1398. D. 1458. 
 Mendoza, Pedro Gonzales de, Spanish prelate. B. 1428. D. 1495. 
 Menendez de Aviles, Pedro, Spanish commander, colonizer of Florida. 
 
 B. 1519. D. 1574. 
 Mengs, Rafael, German painter. B. 1728. D. 1779. 
 Menno Symons (Merino Simonis), founder of the sect of Mennonites, 
 
 native of Friesland. D. about 1559. 
 Menshikoff, Alexander, prince, Russian statesman, general. B. 1672. D. 
 
 1729 or 1730. 
 Menshikoff, Alexander, prince, Russian soldier, diplomatist, commander of 
 
 the forces in the Crimea in 1854 and in the beginning of 1855. B. 1787. 
 
 D. 1869. 
 Menzel, Adolf Friedrich Erdmann, German painter. B. 1815. 
 Menzel, Karl Adolf, German historian. B. 1784. D. 1855. Works on 
 
 German history. 
 Menzel, Wolfgang, German historian, critic. B. 1798. D. 1873. Works on 
 
 German history and literature. 
 Mercadante, Saverio, Italian composer. B. 1795. D. 1870. 
 Mercator, Gerard, geographer, cartographer. B. in Flanders, 1512. D. 
 
 1594. 
 Mercer, Hugh, American soldier. Killed 1777. 
 Merck, Johann Heinrich, German writer, friend of Goethe. B. about 1741. 
 
 D. 1791. 
 Meredith, Owen. See Lytton. 
 
 Merian, Maria Sibylla, artist, naturalist. B. in Germany 1647. D. 1717. 
 Merian, Matthaus (the elder), Swiss engraver. B. 1593. D. 1650. 
 Merian, Matthaus (the younger), painter. B. in Switzerland 1621. D. 
 
 1687. 
 Merimee, Prosper, French novelist, dramatist, poet, historical writer. B. 
 
 1803. D. 1870. 
 Merivale, Charles, English historian. B. 1808. D. 1893. " History of the 
 
 Romans under the Empire." 
 Merle d'Aubigne, Jean Henri, Swiss historian. B. 1794. D. 1872. " His- 
 
 toire de la reformation au XVI e siecle." 
 Merlin de Douai, Philippe Antoine, count, French statesman, jurist. B. 
 
 1754. D. 1838. 
 Merrick, James, English poet, B. 1720. D. 1769. 
 Mery, Joseph, French author. B. 1798. D. 1866. Satirical and other 
 
 poems, novels, sketches of travel, dramas. 
 Mesmer, Friedrich Anton (Franz ?), German physician. B. about 1734. D. 
 
 1815. 
 Messala (Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus), Roman general, orator, scholar. 
 
 B. about 65 b. c. 
 Messalina, wife of Claudius. Put to death a. r». 48. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 493 
 
 Metastasio, Pietro Antonio Domenico Bonaventura, Italian poet. B. 1698. 
 
 D. 1782. Operatic dramas. 
 Metellus (Quintus Caeeilius Metellus Macedonicus), Roman genei*al. D. 
 
 115 B. c. 
 
 Metellus (Quintus Caeeilius Metellus Numidicus), Roman general. Consul 
 109 b. c. 
 
 Metellus (Quintus Caeeilius Metellus Celcr), Roman consul 60 b. g. D. 59. 
 
 Metellus (Quintus Caeeilius Metellus Creticus), Roman general. Consul 
 69 b. c. 
 
 Methodius, Greek missionary to the Slavs. D. about 885. 
 
 Metternich, Clemens Wenzel Lothar von, prince, diplomatist, statesman, 
 chief minister in Austria 1809-'48. B. May 15, 1773. D. June 11, 
 1859. 
 
 Metternich, Richard von, prince, son of the preceding, Austrian diploma- 
 tist. B. 1829. D. 1895. 
 
 Metzu, Gabriel, Dutch painter. B. about 1630. 
 
 Meulen, Antoine Francois van der, French painter. B. in Brussels 1634. 
 D. 1690. 
 
 Meyer (von Bremen), Johann Georg, German painter. B. 1813. D. 1886. 
 
 Meyer, Johann lleinrich, Swiss writer on art. B. 1759. D. 1832. 
 
 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, German composer. B. 1791. D. 1864. 
 
 Meyerheim, Eduard, German painter. B. 1808. D. 1879. 
 
 Meyerheim, Paul Friedrich, German painter. B. 1842. 
 
 Mezeray, Francois Eudes de, French historian. B. 1610. D. 1683. " His- 
 toire de France." 
 
 Mezieres, Alfred, French author. B. 1826. Works on the English drama- 
 tists, on Petrarch, Goethe, &c. 
 
 Mezzofanti, Giuseppe, cardinal, Italian linguist. B. 1774. D. 1849. 
 
 Miall, Edward, English journalist, Nonconformist writer. B. 1809. D. 
 1881. 
 
 Miaulis, Andros, Greek admiral. B. about 1768. D. 1835. 
 
 Micah, Hebrew prophet. Second half of 8th c. b. c. 
 
 Michael, czar of Russia, founder of the Romanoff dynasty. Reigned 
 from 1613. D. 1645. 
 
 Michael Angelo (Michel Angelo Buonarroti), Italian painter, sculptor, 
 architect, poet. B. March 6, 1475. D. Feb. 17 (18 f), 1564* 
 
 Michael Obrenovitch, prince of Servia. Reigned 1839-42, 1860-68. As- 
 sassinated 1868. 
 
 Michael Palaeologus, Byzantine emperor. Emperor of Nicaea from 1259. 
 Conquered the Byzantine throne 1261. D. 1282. 
 
 Michaelis, Johann David, German Biblical scholar. B. 1717. D. 1791. 
 
 * Michael Angelo's birth is sometimes falsely placed in the year 1474 and his death in 
 1563. This is due to the circumstance that in various parts of Italy (as was also the case 
 in England) the year formerly began with March 25, so that March 6, 1475, and Feb. 17, 
 1504, modern reckoning, were included in the years 1474 and 1563. 
 
494 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Michaud, Joseph Francois, French journalist, historian, poet, one of the 
 founders of the " Biographie Universelle." B. 1767. D. 1839. 
 
 Michaux, Andre, French botanist. B. 1746. D. 1802. 
 
 Michaux, Francois Andre, French botanist. B. 1770. D. 1855. 
 
 Michel Angelo. See Michael Angelo. 
 
 Michelet, Jules, French historian, miscellaneous writer. B. 1798. D. 1874. 
 " Histoire de France." " Histoire de la revolution francaise." 
 
 Michelis, Friedrich, German Old Catholic theologian. B. 1815. D. 1886. 
 
 Micipsa, king of Numidia. D. 118 b. c. 
 
 Mickiewicz, Adam, Polish poet. B. 1798. D. 1855. 
 
 Middleton, Conyers, English divine, scholar. B. 1683. D. 1750. " Life of 
 Cicero." 
 
 Middleton, Thomas, English dramatist. D. 1627. 
 
 Midhat Pasha, Turkish statesman. B. about 1823. D. 1884. 
 
 Mieris, Frans (the elder), Dutch painter. B. 1635. D. 1681. 
 
 Mieroslawski, Ludwik, Polish revolutionist, soldier. B. 1814. D. 1878. 
 
 Mifflin, Thomas, American general. B. 1744. D. 1800. 
 
 Mignet, Francois Auguste, French historian. B. 1796. D. 1884. Best- 
 known work, " Histoire de la revolution francaise." 
 
 Miguel, Dom, usurper of the throne of Portugal, uncle of Maria da Gloria. 
 B. 1802. Declared king 1828. Dethroned 1833-'4. D. 1866. 
 
 Miklosich, Franz von, Slavic philologist. B. in Styria 1813. D. 1891. 
 
 Milan Obrenovitch, king of Servia. B. 1854. Elected prince 1868. As- 
 sumed the royal dignity 1882. Abdicated 1889. 
 
 Mill, James, British historian, political economist, philosopher. B. 1773. 
 D. 1836. " History of British India." 
 
 Mill, John Stuart, English philosopher, economist, son of James Mill. B. 
 May 20, 1806. D. May 9, 1873. " System of Logic." " Principles of 
 Political Economy." " Essay on Liberty." " Utilitarianism." " The 
 Subjection of Women." 
 
 Millais, John Everett, English painter. B. 1829. D. 1896. 
 
 Miller, Hugh, British geologist. B. 1802. D. 1856. " The Footprints of 
 the Creator." " The Testimony of the Rocks." " My Schools and School- 
 masters." 
 
 Miller, Joaquin, American poet. B. 1841. 
 
 Millet, Jean Francois, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1875. 
 
 Mills, Clark, American sculptor. B. 1815. D. 1883. 
 
 Milman, Henry Hart, dean of St. Paul's, English historian, poet. B. 1791. 
 D. 1868. " History of the Jews." Works on the history of Christianity. 
 
 Milne-Edwards, Henri, French naturalist. B. 1800. D. 1885. 
 
 Milnes, Richard Monckton. See Houghton. 
 
 Milo, Titus Annius, Roman tribune. Slain 48 B. c. 
 
 Milo of Crotona, athlete. Latter part of 6th c. b. c. 
 
 Milosh Obrenovitch, prince of Servia from 1817 to 1839, and from Dec, 
 1858 to 1860. D. 1860. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 495 
 
 Miltiades, Athenian general. D. 489 b. c. 
 
 Milton, John, English poet, Puritan. B. Dec. 9, 1608. D. Nov. 8, 1674. 
 '•L' Allegro" and "II Penseroso," '• Comus," " Lycidas," written between 
 1632 and 1637. " Pro Populo Anglieano Defensio," published 1650. 
 " Paradise Lost," 1667. " Paradise Regained," 1671. " Samson Agonistes," 
 1671. Various ecclesiastical and political writings. 
 
 Milyutin, Dmitri, Russian minister of war. B. 1816. 
 
 Milyutin, Nikolai, Russian statesman. B. 1818. D. 1872. 
 
 Mirnnermus, Greek poet. 600 b. c. 
 
 Mind, Gottfried, Swiss painter. B. 1768. D. 1814. 
 
 Minghetti, Marco, Italian statesman. B. 1818. D. 1886. 
 
 Minie, Claude Etienne, French inventor. B. 1804. D. 1879. 
 
 Minto, Gilbert Elliot, earl of, British statesman, governor general of India 
 1807-'13. B. 1751. D. 1814. 
 
 Minutoli, Ileinrich (Baron Menu von Minutoli), German archaeologist, his- 
 torical writer. B. in Geneva 1772. D. 1846. "Reise zum Tempel des 
 Jupiter Amnion und nach Oberagypten." 
 
 Mirabeau, Honore Gabriel Riquetti, count de, French orator, statesman, 
 revolutionist. B. March 9, 1749. D. April 2, 1791. 
 
 Mirabeau, Victor Riquetti, marquis de, French economist, father of the 
 preceding. B. 1715. D. 1789. " L'ami des homines " (" The Friend of 
 Man "). 
 
 Miramon, Miguel, Mexican soldier, revolutionary leader, president of Mexi- 
 co 1859-60, partisan of Maximilian. B. 1832. Shot 1867. 
 
 Miranda, Francisco, Venezuelan revolutionist. D. 1816. 
 
 Mirandola. See Pico della Mirandola. 
 
 Mirbel, Charles Francois Brisseau de, French botanist, vegetable physiolo- 
 gist. B. 1776. D. 1854. 
 
 Mistral, Frederic, Provencal poet. B. 1830. 
 
 Mitchel, John, Irish journalist, revolutionist. B. 1815. D. 1875. 
 
 Mitchel, Ormsby Macknight, American astronomer. B. 1810. D. 1862. 
 
 Mitchell, Donald Grant (" Ik Marvel "), American author. B. 1822. " Rev- 
 eries of a Bachelor." " Dream Life." " My Farm of Edgewood." 
 
 Mitchell, Maria, American astronomer. B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 
 Mitchell, S. Weir, American physician, physiologist. B. 1829. 
 
 Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone, British Australian explorer. B. 1792. 
 D. 1855. 
 
 Mitford, Mary Russell, English poetess, dramatist, writer of tales. B. 1787. 
 D. 1855. Best known by her sketches of English rural life. 
 
 Mitford, William, English historian. B. 1744. D. 1827. "History of 
 Greece." 
 
 Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus. B. about 132 b. c. Reigned from 
 120. D. 63. 
 
 Mitscherlich, Eilhard, German chemist. B. 1794. D. 1863. 
 
 Mittermaier, Karl Joseph Anton, German jurist.' B. 1787. D. 1867. 
 
496 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Mivart, St. George, English naturalist. B. 1827. 
 
 Moawiyah, founder of the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs. Eeigned 
 G61-680. 
 
 Mobius, August Ferdinand, German mathematician. B. 1790. D. 1868. 
 
 Mocanna. See Atha ben Hakem. 
 
 Moffat, Robert, Scottish missionary. B. 1795. D. 1883. 
 
 Mogila, Petr, Russian theologian. B. about 1597. D. 1646. 
 
 Mohammed (Mahomet), founder of Islam. B. in Mecca 570 or 571. D. 
 632. 
 
 Mohammed II., Turkish sultan. B. 1430. Reigned from 1451. D. 1481. 
 
 Mohammed IV., Turkish sultan. B. about 1642. Reigned 1648-87. D. 
 about 1692. 
 
 Mohl, Hugo von, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1805. D. 1872. 
 
 Mohl, Robert, German writer on constitutional law. B. 1799. D. 1875. 
 
 Mohler, Johann Adam, German Catholic theologian. B. 1796. D. 1838. 
 
 Mohs, Friedrich, German mineralogist. B. 1773. D. 1839. 
 
 Moir, David Macbeth, Scottish author. B. 1798. D. 1851. 
 
 Moira, earl of. See Hastings, marquis of. 
 
 Moivre, Abraham de, French mathematician. B. 1667. D. 1754. 
 
 Mokanna. See Atha ben Hakem. 
 
 Molay, Jacques de, last grand-master of the order of Templars. Burned 
 in Paris 1314. 
 
 Molbech, Christian, Danish historian, philologist. B. 1783. D. 1857. 
 
 Molbech, Christian Knud Frederik, Dan. poet, dramatist, B. 1821. D. 1888. 
 
 Mole, Louis Mathieu, count, French statesman, premier 1837-'9. B. 1781. 
 D. 1855. 
 
 Moleschott, Jacob, Dutch-German physiologist. B. 1822. D. 1893. 
 
 Moliere (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), French writer of comedy. B. Jan. 15, 
 1622. D. Feb. 17, 1673. " Les precieuses ridicules," 1659. "L'ecoledes 
 maris." "L'eeole des femmes." "Tartufe." "Le misanthrope." "Le 
 medecin malgre lui." " L'avare." " Le bourgeois gentilhomme." " Les 
 femmes savantes." "Le malade imaginaire," 1673. 
 
 Molina, Luis, Spanish theologian. B. 1535. D. 1600. 
 
 Molinos, Miguel, Spanish mystic. B. 1627. D. 1696. 
 
 Moltke, Helmuth von, count, German strategist. B 1800. D. 1891. 
 
 Mommsen, Theodor, German historian. B. 1817. " Romische Geschichte" 
 (extending to the end of the republic). " Romische Chronologie bis auf 
 Caesar." " Geschichte des romischen Munzwesens " (" History of Roman 
 Money "). " Romisches Staatsrecht " (" Roman Constitutional Law "). 
 
 Monboddo, James Burnet. Lord, Scottish jurist, author. B. 1714. D. 1799. 
 " Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of Language." " Ancient Meta- 
 physics, or the Science of Universals." 
 
 Monge, Gaspard, French mathematician. B. 1746. D. 1818. 
 
 Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, English Parliamentary general, who be- 
 came the chief actor in. the restoration of the Stuarts. B. 1608. D. 1670. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 4S7 
 
 Monmouth, James Scott, duke of, reputed son of Charles II., soldier. B. 
 1G49. Executed for attempting to seize the throne 1685. 
 
 Monrad, Ditlev Gothard, Danish bishop, statesman. B. 1811. D. 1887. 
 
 Monro, Alexander, British physician, anatomist. B. 1697. D. 1767. 
 
 Monroe, James, president of the United States 1817-25. B. April 28, 1758. 
 D. July 4, 1831. 
 
 Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, French chronicler. B. about 1390. D. 1453. 
 
 Montagu, Basil, English lawyer, author. B. 1770. D. 1851. 
 
 Montagu, Edward VVortley, Eng. author, son of Mary Wortley M. B. 1713. 
 D. 1776. " Reflections on the Rise and Fall of Ancient Republics." 
 
 Montagu, Elizabeth (born Robinson), English authoress. B. 1720. D. 
 1800. " Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare." 
 
 Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley (born Pierrepont), English authoress. B. 
 about 1689. D. 1762. Celebrated for her letters descriptive of oriental 
 life. Introduced inoculation for small-pox into England. 
 
 Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, British statesman. B. 1661. D. 1715. 
 
 Montaigne, Michel de, French essayist. B. 1533. D. 1592. 
 
 Montalembert, Charles de, count, French statesman, orator, writer. B. 
 1810. D. 1870. " Vie de Sainte Elisabeth de Hongrie." " Les moines 
 d'Occident depuis Saint Benoit jusqu'a Saint Bernard " (" The Monks of 
 the West from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard "). 
 
 Montalembert, Marc Rene de, marquis, French military engineer. B. 
 1714. D. 1800. 
 
 Montalvan, Juan Perez de, Spanish dramatist. B. 1602. D. 1638. 
 
 Montanus, Arias. See Arias Moxtaxus. 
 
 Montcalm, Louis Joseph de, marquis, French general in America. B. 
 1712. Killed 1759. 
 
 Montecueuli, Raimondo, count, Austrian general. B. in Italy 1609. D. 
 1680. 
 
 Montefiore, Sir Moses, English-Jewish philanthropist. B. Oct. 24, 1784. D. 
 July 28, 1885. 
 
 Montespan, Francoise Athenais de, marchioness, mistress of Louis XIV. 
 B. 1641. D. 1707. 
 
 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de, French author. B. Jan. 18, 
 1689. D. Feb. 10, 1755. "Lettres persanes" (directed against the princi- 
 ples of government prevailing in France and the follies of society). " ( !i >n- 
 siderations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la decadence des Romains." 
 "De l'esprit des lois" ("The Spirit of Laws"), greatest production, 1748. 
 
 Monteverde, Claudio. Italian composer. B. about 1565. D. about 1650. 
 
 Montez, Lola, dancer, favorite of Louis I. of Bavaria. B. of a Creole 
 mother, probably in Scotland, about 1820. D. 1861. 
 
 Montezuma II., emperor of Mexico. Reigned 1502-'20. 
 
 Montfaucon, Bernard de, French scholar. B. 1655. D. 1741. "L'antiquite 
 expliquee et representee en figures." " Pahneographia Gneca." " Les 
 monuments de la monarchic francaise." Editions of the Greek fathers. 
 
498 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de, French commander in the crusade against the Albi- 
 
 genses. Killed 1218. 
 Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, son of the preceding, leader of the 
 
 English barons against Henry III. Killed 1265. 
 Montgolfler, Jacques Etienne and Joseph Michel, inventors of the balloon, 
 
 B. in France 1745, 1740. D. 1799, 1810. 
 Montgomery, James, British poet. B. 1771. D. 1854. 
 Montgomery, Richard, American general. B. 1730. Killed 1775. 
 Montholon, Charles Tristan de, marquis, French soldier, companion of 
 
 Napoleon at St. Helena, editor, jointly with General Gourgaud, of the 
 
 emperor's memoirs. B. about 1783. D. 1853. 
 Monthyon. See Montyon. 
 
 Monti, Vincenzo, Italian poet, B. 1 754. D. 1828. 
 Montmorency, Anne, duke de, French general, constable of France. B. 
 
 about 1493. Killed 1567. 
 Montmorency, Henry II., duke de, French general. B. 1595. Executed 
 
 1632. 
 Montmorency (Montmorency-Laval), Matthieu Jean Felieite, duke de, 
 
 French statesman. B. about 1767. D. 1826. 
 Montpensier, Anne Marie Louise d'Orleans, duchess de, cousin of Louis 
 
 XIV. B. 1627. D. 1693. 
 Montpensier, Antoine d'Orleans, duke de, youngest son of Louis Philippe. 
 
 B. 1824. D. 1890. 
 Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, Scottish royalist commander. B. 
 
 about 1612. Executed 1650. 
 Montucla, Jean Etienne, French mathematician, writer on the history of 
 
 mathematics. B. 1725. D. 1799. 
 Montyon (Monthyon), Antoine Jean Baptiste Robert Auget, baron de, 
 
 French philanthropist. B. 1733. D. 1820. 
 Moorcroft, William, English traveler in the East. D. 1825. 
 Moore, Sir John, British general. B. 1761. Killed 1809. 
 Moore, Thomas, British poet, B. May 28, 1779. D. Feb. 25, 1852. " Lalla 
 
 Rookh." " Irish Melodies." 
 Morales, Luis de, Spanish painter. B. about 1509. D. 1586. 
 Moran, Edward, American painter. B. 1829. 
 Moran, Thomas, American painter. B. 1837. 
 Morata, Olympia Fulvia, learned Italian lady. B. 1526. D. 1555. 
 Moratin, Leandro Fernandez de, Spanish writer of comedy. B. 1760. D. 
 
 1828. 
 Moratin, Nicolas Fernandez, Spanish poet. B. 1737. D. 1780. 
 Moray. See Murray. 
 Mordaunt, Charles. See Peterborough. 
 More, Hannah, English authoress. B. 1745. D. 1833. Dramas. Moral 
 
 tales. " Thoughts on the Manners of the Great." " Strictures on the 
 
 Modern System of Female Education." " Ccelebs in Search of a Wife." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 499 
 
 More, Ilenry, English philosopher. B. 1614. D. 1687. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, English statesman, author. B. 1478. Executed 1535. 
 
 " Utopia." 
 Moreau, Jean Victor, French general. B. 1763 (1761 ?). Killed 1813. 
 Morellet, Andre, French writer. B. 1727. D. 1819. " Melanges de litte- 
 
 rature et de philosophic du XVIII 6 siecle." 
 Morelos, Jose Maria, Mexican patriot commander. B. 1765. Shot 1815. 
 Moreto, Augustin, Spanish dramatist. D. 1669. 
 Moretto, II. See Bonvicino. 
 
 Morgagni, Giovanni Battista, Italian anatomist. B. 1682. D. 1771. 
 Morgan, Daniel, American general. B. 1736. D. 1802. 
 Morgan, Sir Henry, buccaneer. B. in Wales about 1637. T). about 1690. 
 Morgan, Lewis Henry, American author. B. 1818. D. 1881. " League of 
 
 the Iroquois." " The American Beaver and his Works." " Systems of 
 
 Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family." 
 Morgan, Lady Sydney, Irish authoress. B. about 1783. D. 1859. Novels 
 
 (best known, " The Wild Irish Girl "). Works treating of the social state 
 
 of France and Italy. " Woman and her Master." 
 Morghen, Raffaelle Sanzio, Italian engraver. B. 1758. D. 1833. 
 Morhof, Daniel Georg, German author. B. 1639. D. 1691. 
 Morier, James, English writer of fiction. B. about 1780. D. 1849. " The 
 
 Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan." 
 Morike, Eduard, German poet, novelist. B. 1804. D. 1875. 
 Morland, George, English painter. B. about 1763. D. 1804. 
 Morley, Henry, Eng. author. B. 1822. D. 1894. Lives of Palissy, Cardan, and 
 
 Henry Cornelius Agrippa. " First Sketch of Eng. Literature." " Library 
 
 of English Literature." " English Literature in the Reign of Victoria." 
 Morley, John, English author, critic, statesman. B. 1838. "Edmund Burke." 
 
 " Voltaire." " Rousseau." " Diderot." " Richard Cobden." " Walpole." 
 Mornay, Philippe de (Duplessis-Mornay), Huguenot statesman, religious 
 
 writer, author of memoirs. B. 1549. D. 1623. 
 Morny, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph de, duke, French statesman. B. 
 
 1811. D. 1865. 
 Morpeth, Lord. See Carlisle, G. W. F. Howard, earl of. 
 Morphy, Paul, American chess-player. B. 1837. D. 1884. 
 Morris, George P., American journalist, poet. B. 1802. D. 1864. 
 Morris, Gouverneur, American statesman. B. 1752. D. 1816. 
 Morris, Lewis, English poet. B. 1833. 
 Ilorris, Robert, American financier. B. 1734. D. 1806. 
 Morris, William, English poet. B. 1834. D. 1896. 
 
 Morrison, Robert, English missionary, Chinese scholar. B, 1782. D. 1834. 
 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, American painter, inventor of the electric 
 
 telegraph. B. 1791. D. 1872. 
 Mortier, Edouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph, duke of Treviso, French gen- 
 eral. B. 1768. Killed 1835. 
 33 
 
500 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Mortimer, Roger, earl of March, favorite of Isabella, queen of Edward II. 
 Executed 1330. 
 
 Morton, James Douglas, earl of, regent of Scotland. Executed 1581. 
 
 Morton, Levi Parsons, vice-president of the United States 1889-93. B. 1824. 
 
 Morton, Samuel George, American geologist, craniologist. B. 1799. D. 1851. 
 
 Morton, William Thomas Green, American dentist, who first publicly intro- 
 duced the use of anaesthetics (1846). B. 1819. D. 1868. 
 
 Moscheles, Ignaz, German composer. B. 1794. D. 1870. 
 
 Moschus, Greek poet. 3d c. b. c. 
 
 Mosen, Julius, German poet, novelist. B. 1803. D. 1867. 
 
 Mosenthal, Salomon Hermann, German dramatist. B. 1821. D. 1877. 
 
 Moser, Johann Jakob, German jurist, publicist. B. 1701. D. 1785. 
 
 Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von, German ecclesiastical historian. B. 1694. 
 D. 1755. 
 
 Mothe-Cadillac. See Cadillac. 
 
 Motherwell, William, Scottish poet. B. 1797. D. 1835. 
 
 Motley, John Lothrop, American historian. B. 1814. D. 1877. " Rise of 
 the Dutch Republic." " History of the United Netherlands." " Life and 
 Death of John of Barneveld." 
 
 Mott, Lucretia (born Coffin), American social reformer. B. 1793. D. 
 1880. 
 
 Mott, Valentine, American surgeon. B. 1785. D. 1865. 
 
 Moultrie, William, American general. B. 1731. D. 1805. 
 
 Movers. Franz Karl, German scholar. B. 1806. D. 1856. Principal work, 
 " Die Phonizier." 
 
 Mozart, Wolfgang, German composer. B. Jan. 27, 1756. D. Dec. 5, 
 1791. 
 
 Miicke, Heinrich Karl Anton, German painter. B. 1806. D. 1891. 
 
 Miigge, Theodor, German novelist. B. 1806. D. 1861. 
 
 Muhlbach, Luise. See Mundt, Klara. 
 
 Muhlenberg, Gotthilf Henry Ernst, American botanist. B. 1753. D. 
 1815. 
 
 Muir, John, British Sanskrit scholar. B. 1810. D. 1882. " Original San- 
 skrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, their Re- 
 ligion and Institutions." 
 
 Mulder, Gerard Jan, Dutch chemist. B. 1802. D. 1880. 
 
 Mulgrave, Constantine John Phipps, Lord, British navigator. B. 1734. D. 
 1792. 
 
 Mulgrave, John Sheffield, earl of. See Sheffield. 
 
 Muller, Friedrich, German poet, painter. B. 1750. D. 1825. 
 
 Muller, Friedrich, German comparative philologist, ethnologist. B. 1834. 
 
 Muller, Friedrich Max, German-English Sanskrit scholar, comparative phil- 
 ologist. B. 1823. " Lectures on the Science of Language." " Chips from 
 a German Workshop." " Introduction to the Science of Religion." " Lee 
 tures on the Origin and Growth of Religion." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 501 
 
 Miiller, Johann. See Reuiomontanus. 
 
 Miiller, Johann Priedrich WiJhelni von, German engraver. B. 1782. D. 
 1816. 
 
 Miiller, Johann Gotthard von, German engraver. B. 1747. D. 1830. 
 
 Miiller, Johann Heinrich Jakob, German physicist. B. 1809. D. 1875. 
 
 Miiller, Johannes, German physiologist. B. 1801. D. 1858. 
 
 Miiller, Johannes von, German historian. B. in Switzerland 1752. D. 1809. 
 '• Die Geschichte der schweizeiischen Eidgenossensehaft " (" History of 
 the Swiss Confederacy"). " Vierundzwanzig Biicher allgemeiner Ge- 
 schichten " (" Twenty-four Books of Universal History "). 
 
 Miiller, Johannes Eduard, German sculptor. B. 1828. 
 
 Miiller, Julius, German Protestant theologian. B. 1801. D. 1878. 
 
 Miiller, Karl Otfried, German Hellenic scholar, archaeologist. B. 1797. D. 
 1840. 
 
 Miiller, Max. See Muller, Friedrich Max. 
 
 Miiller, Otfried. See Muller, Karl Otfried. 
 
 Miiller, Otto, German novelist. B. 1816. 
 
 MiiUer, Otto Prederik, Danish naturalist. B. 1730. D. 1784. 
 
 Muller, Peder Erasmus, Danish bishop, scholar. B. 1776. D. 1834. " Li- 
 brary of the Sagas." 
 
 Muller, Sophie, German actress. B. 1803. D. 1830. 
 
 Muller, Wilhelm, German poet. B. 1794. D. 1827. 
 
 Muller (von Konigswinter), Wolfgang, German poet, writer of tales, novelist. 
 B. 1816. D. 1873. Celebrated as a poet of the Rhine. 
 
 Mulock, Dinah Maria (Mrs. Craik), English novelist. B. 1826. D. 1887. 
 
 Mulready, William, British painter. B. 1786. D. 1863. 
 
 Mummius, Lucius, Roman general, who conducted the final operations 
 against the Acha?an League in 146 B. c. 
 
 Munch, Andreas, Norwegian poet, dramatist. B. 1810 (1811 T). D. 1884. 
 
 Munch, Ernst Hermann Joseph von, German historian. B. 1798. D. 
 1841. 
 
 Munch, Peder Andreas, Norwegian scholar. B. 1810. D. 1863. " Det 
 norske Folks Historic." 
 
 Miinch-Bellinghausen, Eligius Franz Joseph von, baron (" Friedrich 
 Halm"), German dramatist. B. 1806. D. 1871. 
 
 Miinchhausen, Karl Friedrich Hieronymus von, baron, German soldier, 
 famous for his lying anecdotes. B. 1720. D. 1797. 
 
 Mundt, Klara ("Luise Miihlbach"), German novelist, wife of Theodor 
 Mundt. B. 1814. D. 1873. 
 
 Mundt, Theodor, German novelist, literary critic. B. 1808. D. 1861. 
 
 Munk, Salomon, Jewish Hebraist, Arabic and Syriac scholar. B. in Ger- 
 many 1805. Settled in France. D. 1867. * 
 
 Munkacsy, Mihaly. Hungarian painter. B. 1844. 
 
 Miinnich, Burkhard Christoph, count, Russian general, statesman. B. in 
 Oldenburg 1683. D. 1767. 
 
502 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Miintz, Eugene, French writer on art, biographer of Raphael. B. 1845. 
 Miinzer, Thomas, German curate, leader of the insurgent peasantry in 1525. 
 
 B. about 1490. Executed 1525. 
 Munzinger, Werner, Swiss traveler in eastern Africa, officer in the Egyp- 
 tian service. B. 1832. Killed 1875. 
 Murad. See Ajiurath. 
 Murat, Joachim, French general, king of Naples 1808-15. B. 1771. Shot 
 
 Oct., 1815. Husband of Caroline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon. 
 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, Italian antiquary, historian. B. 1672. D. 
 
 1750. " Rerum Italicarum Scriptores." " Antiquitates Italicae Medii 
 
 JEvi." " Annali dTtalia." 
 Muravieff, Mikhail, Russian noble, administrator, military commander. B. 
 
 1796. D. 1866. 
 Muravieff, Nikolai, Russian general. B. about 1794. D. 1866. 
 Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, British geologist. B. 1792. D. 1871. 
 Mure, William, Scottish scholar. B. 1799. D. 1860. " Critical History of 
 
 the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece." 
 Murger, Henry, French author. B. 1822. D. 1861. " Scenes de la vie de 
 
 Boheme." 
 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, Spanish painter. B. 1618. D. 1682. 
 Murner, Thomas, German satirist. B. 1475. D. about 1536. 
 Murray, Alexander, Scottish philologist. B. 1775. D. 1813. " History of 
 
 the European Languages." 
 Murray (Moray), James Stuart, earl of, half-brother of Mary, queen of Scots, 
 
 regent of Scotland. B. about 1533. Killed 1570. 
 Murray, John, American divine. B. 1741. D. 1815. 
 Murray, John, English publisher. B. 1778. D. 1843. 
 Murray, Lindley, grammarian. B. in Pennsylvania 1745. D. 1826. 
 Murray, William. See Mansfield. 
 Musaeus, Greek poet. About a. d. 500. " nero and Leander." (Musaeus 
 
 is also the name of a mythical Greek poet.) 
 Musaus, Johann Karl August, German author. B. 1735. D. 1787. " Volks- 
 
 marchen der Deutsche n " (" Folk-lore of the Germans "). 
 Muspratt, James Sheridan, British chemist. B 1821. D. 1871. 
 Musschenbroek, Pieter van, Dutch natural philosopher. B. 1692. D. 
 
 1761. 
 Musset, Alfred de, French poet. B. 1810. D. 1857. 
 Musset, Paul Edme de, French novelist. B. 1804. D. 1880. 
 Mustapha I., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1617-'18, 1622-'3. Put to death 
 
 1639. 
 Mustapha II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1695-1703. D. 1704. 
 Mustapha III., Turkish sultan. Reigned from 1757. D. 1773. 
 Mustapha IV., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1807-8. Put to death 1808 
 Myer, Albert J., American meteorologist. B. 1827. D. 1880. 
 Myron, Greek sculptor. B. about 480 b. c. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 503 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabis, tyrant of Sparta. Reigned 207-192 b. g. 
 
 Nabopolassar, king of Babylonia, father of Nebuchadnezzar. D. 605 b. c. 
 
 Nachtigal, Gustav, German African explorer. B. 1834. D. 1885. 
 
 Nadir Shah (Kuli Khan), king of Persia. Reigned from 1736. Assassi- 
 nated 1747. 
 
 Nsevius, Cneius, Roman poet. D. about 204 B. c. 
 
 Nahum, Hebrew prophet. Probably about 620 b. c. 
 
 Nana Sahib, one of the leaders in the Sepoy Mutiny 1857-8. 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles, British admiral. B. 1786. D. 1860. 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles James, British general, conqueror of Sinde. B. 1782. 
 D. 1853. 
 
 Napier, John, Scottish mathematician, inventor of logarithms. B. 1550. 
 I). 1617. 
 
 Napier, Robert, Scottish nautical engineer. B. 1791. D. 1876. 
 
 Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick, British general, military historian, 
 brother of Sir C. J. Napier. B. 1785. D. 1860. " History of the War in 
 the Peninsula." 
 
 Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornelis, Lord, Brit, general. B. 1810. D. 1890. 
 
 Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Nares, Sir George, English Arctic explorer. B. 1831. 
 
 Nares, Robert, English scholar, theologian. B. 1753. D. 1829. 
 
 Narses, Byzantine general. D. about 568. 
 
 Naruszewicz, Adam Stanislaw, Polish historian, poet. B. 1733. D. 1796. 
 
 Narvaez, Pamfilo de, Spanish commander in America. D. 1528. 
 
 Narvaez, Ramon Maria, duke of Valencia, Spanish statesman. D. 1868. 
 
 Nash, Richard, English man of fashion. B. 1674. D. 1761. 
 
 Nasr-ed-Din, shah of Persia 1848-'96. B. 1831. Assassinated 1896. 
 
 Nassau, Maurice of. See Maurice of Nassau. 
 
 Naumann, Johann Friedrich, German ornithologist. B. 1780. D. 1857. 
 
 Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de, Spanish author. B. 1765. D. 1844. 
 Best known by his work on the voyages of discovery of the Spaniards. 
 
 Navez, Frangois Joseph, Belgian painter. B. 1787. D. 1869. 
 
 Neal, John, American author. B. 1793. D. 1876. 
 
 Neander, Johann August Wilhelra, German theologian, ecclesiastical his- 
 torian. B. 1789. D. 1850. 
 
 Nearchus, admiral of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia, son of Nabopolassar. Reigned from 
 605 b. c. D. about 561. 
 
 Necho, king of Egypt, son of Psammetichus. Reigned about 610-595 b. c. 
 
 Necker, Jacques, French minister of finance under Louis XVI. B. in 
 Geneva 1732. D. 1804. 
 
 Neef (Neefs), Pieter (the elder), Flemish painter. B. about 1570. D. about 
 1651. 
 
504 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Nees von Esenbeek, Christian Gottfried, German botanist. B. 1776. D. 
 
 1858. 
 Nehemiah, governor of Jerusalem under Artaxerxes I. Second half of 
 
 5 th c. b. c. 
 Nekrasoff, Nikolai, Russian poet, B. 1821. D. 1878. 
 Nelaton, Auguste, French surgeon. B. 1807. D. 1873. 
 Nelson, Horatio, Lord, English admiral. B. Sept. 29, 1758. Killed Oct. 21, 
 
 1805. 
 Kelson, Thomas, American patriot. B. 1738. D. 1789. 
 Nemesianus, Marcus Amelias Olympius, Latin poet. Flourished toward 
 
 close of 3d c. A. d. 
 Nemours, Louis d'Orleans, duke de, second son of Louis Philippe. B. 1814. 
 
 D. 1896. 
 Nepomuk, John of, patron saint of Bohemia. Killed 1393. 
 Nepos, Cornelius, Roman historian. Flourished about 40 B. c. 
 Neri, Filippo de' (Saint Philip Neri), founder of the order of Oratorians. B. 
 
 in Italy 1515. D. 1595. 
 Nero, Roman emperor, son of Agrippina and step-son of Claudius. B. A. D. 
 
 37. Reigned from 54. D. 68. 
 Nero, Claudius. See Claudius Nero. 
 
 Nerva, Roman emperor. B. a. d. 32. Reigned from 90. D. 98. 
 Nesselrode, Karl Robert, count, Russian statesman. B. 1780. D. 1862. 
 Nestor, Russian chronicler. Beginning of 12th c. 
 Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople 428-431. 
 Neuhof, Theodor von, baron, German adventurer, king of Corsica 1736-'8. 
 
 B. about 1686. D. 1756. 
 Neukornrn, Sigismund, German composer. B. 1778. D. 1858. 
 Neumann, Karl Friedrich, German orientalist, historian. B. 1798. D. 
 
 1870. Works on Asiatic history. History of the United States. 
 Neuville, Alphonse de, French painter. B. 1836. D. 1885. 
 Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, German traveler in Brazil and North 
 
 America, naturalist. B. 1782. D. 1867. 
 Newberry, John Strong, Amer. geologist, palaeontologist. B. 1822. D. 1892. 
 Newcastle, Henry Pelham Finnes-Pelham-Clinton, uuke of, English states- 
 man. B. 1811. D. 1864. 
 Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish, duchess of, wife of William Cavendish, 
 
 duke of Newcastle, English authoress. B. about 1625. D. 1673. 
 Newcastle, Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of, British statesman. B. about 
 
 1693. First lord of the treasury and prime-minister 1754-'6 ; first lord 
 
 of the treasury in Pitt's ministry from 1757; head of ministry on Pitt's 
 
 retirement 1761 ; resigned 1762. D. 1768. 
 Newcastle, William Cavendish, duke of, English royalist general. B. 1592. 
 
 D. 1676. 
 Newcomb, Simon, American astronomer. B. 1835. 
 Newcome, William, English Biblical scholar. B. 1729. D. 1800. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 505 
 
 Newcomen, Thomas, one of the early improvers of the steam-engine, Eng- 
 lishman. Patent granted to him 1705. 
 
 Newman, Francis William, English philosophico-religious and historical 
 writer, philologist, reformer, brother of J. H. Newman. B. 1805. 
 
 Newman, John Henry, an English clergyman, who gradually departed 
 from the established church, and eventually embraced Catholicism. B. 
 1801. Cardinal 1879. D. 1890. 
 
 Newton, Charles Thomas, English archaeologist. B. 1816. D. 1894. 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, English natural philosopher, mathematician. B. Dec. 25, 
 1642. D. March 20, 1727. Discovered the composition of light 1606; con- 
 ceived the theory of the law of gravitation about the same time ; the " Prin- 
 cipia," enunciating the law of gravitation and setting forth the system of 
 the universe, presented to the Royal Society in 1686 and printed in 1687. 
 
 Newton, John, English clergyman and author. B. 1725. D. 1807. 
 
 Newton, John, American engineer. B. 1823. D. 1895. 
 
 Ney, Michel, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskva, French general. B. 
 1709. Executed 1815. 
 
 Nicander, Greek poet. 2d c. b. c. 
 
 Niccolini, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet. B. 1785. D. 1861. 
 
 Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine emperor, general. Reigned 963-9. 
 
 Nicholas I., pope. Elected 858. D. 867. 
 
 Nicholas II., pope. Elected 1058. D. 1061. 
 
 Nicholas III., pope. Elected 1277. D. 1280. 
 
 Nicholas IV., pope. Elected 1288. D. 1292. 
 
 Nicholas V., pope. Elected 1447. D. 1455. 
 
 Nicholas I., czar of Russia, brother of Alexander I. B. July, 1796. Reigned 
 from Dec, 1825. D. March 2, 1855. 
 
 Nicholas II., czar of Russia since 1894, son of Alexander III. B. 1868. 
 
 Nicholas, prince of Montenegro. See Nikita. 
 
 Nicias, Athenian general. Put to death 413 B. c. 
 
 Nicola Pisano, See Pisa no. 
 
 Nicolai, Christoph Friedrich, German author. B. 1733. D. 1811. 
 
 Nicolas, Sir Nicholas Harris, English author. B. 1799. D. 1848. Works 
 on the English peerage and knighthood, &c. 
 
 Nicole, Pierre, French Jansenist, philosopher, moralist. B. 1625. D. 1695. 
 
 Nicomachus, Greek painter. 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, German historian. B. 1776. D. 1831. " Ro- 
 mische Geschichte." 
 
 Niebuhr, Karstens, German traveler in the East. B. 1733. D. 1815. 
 
 Niel, Adolphe, French soldier. B. 1802. D. 1869. 
 
 Niembsch von Strehlenau. See Lenau. 
 
 Niemcewicz, Julian Ursin, Polish author. B. 1757. D. 1841. 
 
 Niepce, Joseph Nicephore, one of the inventors of photography. B. in 
 France 1765. D. 1833. 
 
 Niepce de Saint-Victor, French photographer. B. 1805. D. 1870. 
 
506 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Nightingale, Florence, English philanthropist. B. 1820. 
 
 Nikita (Nicholas), prince of Montenegro since 1860. B. 1841. 
 
 Nilsson, Christine, Swedish singer. B. 1843. 
 
 Nilsson, Sven, Swedish naturalist, archaeologist. B. 1787. D. 1883. 
 
 Ninon de l'Enclos. See L'Enclos. 
 
 Nisard, Jean Marie Napoleon Desire, French critic, literary historian. B. 
 
 1806. D. 1888. " Histoire de la litterature francaise." 
 Nitzsch, Gregor Wilhelm, German scholar. B. 1790. D. 1861. Works on 
 
 the early poetry of the Greeks. 
 Noailles, Adrien Maurice de, duke, French general, statesman. B. 1678. 
 
 D. 1766. 
 Nobunaga, Japanese warrior and governor. B. 1533. D. 1582. 
 Nodier, Charles, French novelist, lexicographer, grammarian, critic, writer 
 
 of memoirs. B. about 1780. D. 1844. 
 Noggerath, Jakob, German geologist. B. 1788. D. 1877. 
 Noldeke, Theodor, German orientalist, Biblical critic. B. 1836. 
 Nollekens, Joseph, English sculptor. B. 1737. D. 1823. 
 Nordenskjold, Nils Adolf Erik, Swedish Arctic explorer. B. 1832. 
 Norfolk, Thomas Howard, third duke of. B. about 1473. D. 1554. 
 Norfolk, Thomas Howard, fourth duke of. B. about 1536. Executed 1572. 
 Normanby, Constantine Henry Phipps, marquis of, English statesman. B. 
 
 1797. D. 1863. 
 North, Christopher. See Wilson, John. 
 
 North, Francis, Lord Guilford, English judge. B. 1637. D. 1685. 
 North, Frederick, Lord, British premier 1770-82. B. 1732. D. 1792. 
 Northbrook, Lord. See Baring, F. T. and T. G. 
 Northcote, James, English painter. B. 1746. D. 1831. 
 Northcote, Sir Stafford (Lord Iddesleigh), Eng. statesman. B. 1818. D. 1887. 
 Northumberland, John Dudley, duke of, father of Lord Guildford Dudley. 
 
 B. 1502. Executed 1553. 
 Norton, Andrews, American theologian. B. 1786. D. 1853. 
 Norton, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah (born Sheridan), English authoress. B. 
 
 1808. D. 1877. 
 Norton, Charles Eliot, American scholar, author. B. 1827. 
 Nostradamus (Michel de Notredame), French astrologer. B. 1503. D. 1566. 
 Nottingham, Charles Howard, earl of. See Howard. 
 Noureddin, sultan of Syria. Reigned from 1146. D. 1174. 
 Novalis. See Hardenberg, Friedrich von. 
 Novikoff, Nikolai, Russian author. B. 1744. D. 1818. 
 Numa Pompilius, reputed second king of Rome, aoout 715-672 b. c. 
 Nunez, Alvar (Cabeca de Vaca), Spanish explorer. D. 1564. 
 Nunez de Arce, Gaspar, Spanish poet. B. 1834. 
 Nuttall, Thomas, American naturalist. B. in England 1786. D. 1859. 
 Nyerup, Rasmus, Danish author. B. 1759. D. 1829. Authority on the 
 
 old Danish language and literature. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 507 
 
 Oates, Titus, inventor of the Popish Plot. B. about 1650. D. 1705. 
 
 Oberlin, Jean Frederic, Alsatian philanthropist. B. 1740. D. 1826. 
 
 Obrenovitch. See Michael Obrenovitch, Milan 0., Milosu O. 
 
 O'Brien, William Smith, Irish revolutionist. B. 1803. D. 1864. 
 
 Occam (Ockham), William of, English scholastic philosopher. D. 1347. 
 
 O'Connell, Daniel, Irish political agitator, orator. B. 1775. D. 1847. 
 
 O'Connor, Peargus Edward, Chartist leader. B. 1796. D. 1855. 
 
 O'Conor, Charles, American lawyer. B. 1804. D. 1884. 
 
 Octavius. See Augustus. 
 
 Odilon Barrot. See Barrot. 
 
 Odoacer, German military chief, king of Italy. Reigned from 476. Put to 
 death 493. 
 
 O'Donnell (O'Donel), Leopold, count of Lucena, duke of Tetuan, Spanish 
 general, statesman. B. 1809. D. 1867. 
 
 QScolampadius, German Reformer. D. 1531. 
 
 Oehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob, Danish poet. B. 1779. D. 1850. Espe- 
 cially celebrated as a writer of tragedy. 
 
 Oersted, Hans Christian, Danish physicist, discoverer of the relation between 
 electricity and magnetism. B. 1777. D. 1851. 
 
 Oertel, Abraham van. See Ortelius. 
 
 Oetinger, Friedrich Christoph, German theologian, mystic. B. 1702. D. 
 1782. 
 
 Offa, king of Mercia. Reigned about 758-796. 
 
 Offenbach, Jacques, French composer. B. 1819. D. 1880. 
 
 Ofterdingen, BLeinrich von, German minnesinger. Close of 12th c. 
 
 Oggione (Uggione), Marco da, Italian painter. D. 1530. 
 
 Ogilby, John, author. B. in Scotland 1600. D. 1676. Translations of Vir- 
 gil and Homer. " Geography of the World." 
 
 Oglethorpe, James Edward, founder of the colony of Georgia in 1733. D. 
 1785. 
 
 Ohm, Georg Simon, German physicist. B. 1787. D. 1854. Distinguished 
 for his investigations in galvanism. 
 
 Ohm, Martin, German mathematician. B. 1792. D. 1872. 
 
 O'Keefe, John, Irish dramatist. B. 1747. D. 1833. 
 
 Oken, Lorenz, German naturalist. B. 1779. D. 1851. 
 
 Olaf II., Saint, king of Norway. Slain 1030. 
 
 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus, German astronomer. B. 1758. D. 
 1840. 
 
 Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham, English religious reformer. Put to 
 death 1417. 
 
 Oldham, John, English satirical poet. B. 1653. D. 1683. 
 
 Ole Bull. See Bull. 
 
 Olga, Saint, Russian princess. D. 969. 
 
508 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Oliphant, Laurence, English traveler, author. B. 1829. D. 1888. 
 
 Oliphant, Margaret (born Wilson), British novelist, biographical writer. 
 B. 1828. D. 1897. 
 
 Olivarez, Gaspar de Guzman, count, minister of Philip IV. of Spain. B. 
 1587. D. 1645. 
 
 Olivier, Guillaume Antoine, French entomologist. B. 175G. D. 1814. 
 
 Ollivier, Emile, head of the French cabinet in 1870. B. 1825. 
 
 Olmsted, Denison, American scientist. B. 1791. D. 1859. 
 
 Olshausen, Hermann, German Protestant theologian. B. 1796. D. 1839. 
 
 Olshausen, Justus, German orientalist, Biblical scholar. B. 1800. D. 1882. 
 
 Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great. Put to death 316 B. c. 
 
 Omar I., caliph. B. about 581. Reigned from 634. Murdered 644. 
 
 Omar Khayyam, Persian poet, astronomer. D. about 1124. Rubaiyat 
 (Quatrains), philosophical effusions in praise of earthly joys. 
 
 O'Meara, Barry Edward, physician of Napoleon. D. 1836. 
 
 Omer Pasha (Michael Lattas), Turkish general, native of Croatia. B. 1806. 
 D. 1871. 
 
 Omri, king of Israel. Reigned about 899-875 b. c. (DuncJeer; 931-920, Oppert). 
 
 Ongaro. See Dall' Ongaro. 
 
 Cost, Jacob van (the elder), Flemish painter. B. about 1600. D. 1671 or 1674. 
 
 Oost, Jacob van (the younger), Flemish painter. B. about 1637. D. 1713. 
 
 Oosterzee, Jan Jacob van, Dutch theologian. B. 1817. D. 1882. 
 
 Opie, Amelia (bora Alderson), English writer of tales, poetess. B. 1769. D. 
 1853. 
 
 Opie, John. English painter, husband of Amelia Opie. B. 1761. D. 1807. 
 
 Opitz, Martin, German poet. B. 1597. D. 1639. 
 
 Oppert, Jules, French orientalist. B. in Germany 1825. Chiefly dis- 
 tinguished as an Assyriologist. 
 
 Oppian, Greek poet, author of " Halieutica," a poem on fishing. Flour- 
 ished about a. d. 180. (" Cynegetica," a poem on hunting, is supposed 
 to have been written by another Oppian, who flourished about a genera- 
 tion later.) 
 
 Optic, Oliver. See Adams, William T. 
 
 Opzoomer, C. W., Dutch philosopher, jurist. B. 1821. D. 1892. 
 
 Orange, prince of. See William, prince of Orange, and William III. 
 
 Orbigny, Alcide Dessalines d', French naturalist. B. 1802. D. 1857. 
 
 Orcagna (Andrea di Cione), Italian painter, architect, sculptor. 14th c. 
 
 Ordericus Vitalis, English chronicler. B. 1075. D. about 1143. 
 
 Orellana, Francisco, Spanish adventurer. Descended the Amazon 1541. 
 
 Orelli, Johann Kaspar, Swiss classical scholar. B. 1787. D. 1849. 
 
 Orfila, Mateo Jose Bonaventura, French toxicologist. B. in Minorca 1787. 
 D. 1853. 
 
 Orford, earl of. See Walpole. 
 
 Oriani, Barnaba, Italian astronomer. B. 1752. D. 1832. 
 
 Origen, Greek father of the church. B. about 185. D. about 254. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOXARY. 509 
 
 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks. Reigned from 1326. D. 1359. 
 
 Orleans, Adelaide, princess of. See Adelaide, 
 
 Orleans, Charles, duke of, nephew of Charles VI. of France. B. 1391. D. 
 
 1465. 
 Orleans, Ferdinand, duke of, eldest son of Louis Philippe. B. 1810. D 
 
 1842. 
 Orleans, Gaston, duke of, brother of Louis XIII. B. 1608. D. 1660. 
 Orleans, Louis, duke of, brother of Charles VI. B. about 1372. Assassi-. 
 
 nated 1407. 
 Orleans, Lends Philippe Joseph, duke of (" Philippe Egalite "), father oi 
 
 King Louis Philippe. B. 1747. Executed 1793. 
 Orleans, Philippe, duke of, brother of Louis XIV. B. 1640. D. 1701. 
 Orleans, Philippe, duke of, regent of France during the minority of Louis 
 
 XV. B. 1674. D. 1723. 
 Orloff, Alexei, count, Russian admiral. B. 1737. D. 1808. 
 OrlofF, Alexei, count, Russian commander, diplomatist. B. 1787. I). 1861. 
 OrlofF, Grigori, count, favorite of the empress Catharine II. B. 1734. D. 
 
 1783. 
 Ormond, James Butler, earl, afterward marquis and duke, of, supporter of 
 
 Charles I., lord lieutenant of Ireland. B. 1610. I). 1688. 
 Orosius, Paulus, Latin Christian historian. Early in 5th c. 
 Orrery, earl of. See Boyle, Charles. 
 Orsay, Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d', count, leader of fashion. B. in France 
 
 1801. D. 1852. 
 Orsini, Felice, Italian patriot, who made an attempt upon the life of Napo- 
 leon III. B. 1819. Executed 1858. 
 Orsted. See Oersted. 
 
 Ortelius (Abraham van Oertel), Flemish geographer. B. 1527. D. 1598. 
 Osborn, Sherard, English naval officer, author. B. 1822. D. 1875. 
 Oscar I., king of Sweden and Norway, son of Bernadotte. B. 1799. Reigned 
 
 from 1844. D. 1859. 
 Oscar II., king of Sweden and Norway since 1872, son of Oscar I. B. 
 
 1829. 
 Osceola, Seminole chief. B. 1804. D. 1838. 
 Osiander, Andreas, German Reformer. B. 1498. D. 1552. 
 Osman. See Othman. 
 
 Osman Digna, Mahdist commander in the Soudan. B. in France 1836. 
 Osman Pasha, Turkish general, defender of Plevna. B. about 1837. 
 Ossoli, marchioness d'. See Fuller, Margaret. 
 Ostade, Adriaan van, Dutch paintei'. B. 1610. D. 1685. 
 Ostade, Isaac van, Dutch painter, brother of Adriaan van Ostade. 
 Osuna (Ossuna), Pedro Tellez y Giron, duke of, viceroy of Naples. B. 1579, 
 
 D. 1624. 
 Otfried, German monk, poet. 9th c. 
 Othman, caliph. Reigned from 644. Murdered 656. 
 
510 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Othman (Osman), founder of the Ottoman Empire. B. 1259. D. 1326. 
 Otho, Roman emperor. B. a, d. 32. Seized the throne G9. Took his own 
 
 life 69. 
 Otho I., the Great, emperor of Germany, son of Ilenry the Fowler. B. 912. 
 
 Chosen king 936 ; crowned emperor of the Romans 962. D. 973. 
 Otho II., emperor of Germany, son of Otho I. B. 955. Reigned from 973. 
 
 P. 983. 
 Otho III., emperor of Germany, son of Otho II. B. 980. Reigned from 
 
 983. D. 1002. 
 Otho IV. (of Brunswick), emperor of Germany, son of Ilenry the Lion. B. 
 
 1174. Elected emperor in opposition to Philip of Swabia 1198. Recog- 
 nized 1208. His authority at an end 1214. D. 1218. 
 Otho, king of Greece, son of Louis I. of Bavaria. B. 1815. Elected 1832. 
 
 Deposed 1862. D. 1867. 
 Otis, James, American patriot, orator. B. 1725. D. 1783. 
 Otranto, duke of. See Foiviik. 
 
 Ottocar II., king of Bohemia. Reigned from 1253, Slain 1278. 
 Otway, Thomas, English dramatist, B. 1652. D. 1685. 
 Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, duke of Reggio, French general. B. 1767. D. 
 
 1847. 
 Oudinot, Nicolas Charles Victor, duke of Reggio, French general. B. 1791. 
 
 D. 1863. 
 Ouida. See De la Ramk. 
 
 Outram, Sir James, English general in India, B. 1803. D. 1863. 
 Overbeck, Friedrich, German painter. B. 1789. D. 1869. 
 Overbeck, Johannes Adolf, German writer on ancient art. B. 1826. 
 Overbury, Sir Thomas, English writer, courtier. B. 1581. Poisoned by the 
 
 earl of Rochester and the countess of Essex (the future earl and countess 
 
 of Somerset) 1613. 
 Overweg, Adolf, German African explorer. B. 1822. I). 1852. 
 Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), Latin poet. B. 43 b. c. D. a. d. 18 or 17. 
 
 •• Metamorphoses " (dealing with the Greek and Roman myths involving 
 
 transformation from one state of being to another). " lleroides" (letters 
 
 written by heroines of mythology to their lovers). " Amores." "Ars 
 
 Amatoria." " Fasti " (a sort of poetical calendar). 
 Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de, Spanish historian. B. 1478. D. 
 
 1557. " Historia general y natural de las Indias Occidentales." 
 Owen, John, English theologian. B. 1616. D. 1683. 
 Owen, Richard, English naturalist. B. 1804. D. 1892. 
 Owen, Robert, British socialist. B. 1771. D. 1858. 
 Owen, Robert Dale, American spiritualist, author, son of Robert Owen. B. 
 
 1801. D. 1877. 
 Oxenstiern (Oxenstjerna), Axel, count, chancellor of Sweden, head of the 
 
 government during the minority of Christina. B. 1583. D. 1654. 
 Oxford, earl of. See IIarley. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 51 1 
 
 Paalzow, Henriette von, German novelist. B. 1788. D. 1847. 
 
 Pachomius, Saint, Egyptian ecclesiastic, founder of the first regular mon- 
 astery. D. about 350. 
 
 Pacini, Giovanni, Italian composer. B. 1796. D. 1867. 
 
 Pacuvius, Marcus, Latin tragic poet. B. about 220 b. c. D. about 130. 
 
 Padilla, Juan Lopez do, leader of the Castilian people in the rising of 
 1520-'21. Executed 1521. 
 
 Paer, Ferdinando, Italian composer. B. 1771. D. 1839. 
 
 Paez, Jose Antonio, Venezuelan patriot, general, president. B. 1790. D. 
 1873. 
 
 Paganini, Niccold, Italian violinist. B. 1782. D. 1840. 
 
 Page, William, American painter. B. 1811. D. 1885. 
 
 Paget, Sir James, English surgeon. B. 1814. 
 
 Pahlen, Peter von der, count, Russian commander, statesman, leader in the 
 conspiracy against the life of the emperor Paul. B. 1746. I). 1826. 
 
 Pailleron, Edouard, French writer of comedy, poet. B. 1834. 
 
 Paine, Martyn, American medical writer. B. 1794. D. 1877. 
 
 Paine, Thomas, Anglo-American political and philosophical writer. B. 1737. 
 D. 1809. "Common Sense," 1776. "The Crisis," first number 1776. 
 " The Rights of Man," 1791-'2. " The Age of Reason," 1794-'5. 
 
 Paisiello, Giovanni, Italian composer. B. 1741. D. 1816. 
 
 Paixhans, Henri Joseph, French artillery officer, inventor. B. 1783. D. 
 1854. 
 
 Palacky, Frantisck, Bohemian historian, political leader. B. 1798. D. 1876. 
 
 Palafox, Jose de, Spanish general, defender of Saragossa against the French 
 1808-'9. B. 1780. D. 1847. 
 
 Palestrina, Giovanni Pietro Aloisio da, Italian composer. D. 1594. 
 
 Paley, William, English theologian, philosopher. B. 1743. D. 1805. " Evi- 
 dences of Christianity." " Natural Theology." 
 
 Palfly, John, count, Hungarian general in the service of the Ilapsburgs. B. 
 about 1663. D. 1751. 
 
 Palfrey, John Gorham, American theological writer, historian. B. 1796. 
 I). 1881. " History of New England." 
 
 Palgrave, Sir Francis, English historian. B. 1788. D. 1861. "Rise and 
 Progress of the English Commonwealth " (Anglo-Saxon period). " His- 
 tory of Normandy and England." 
 
 Palgrave, William 'Gilford, English traveler in Arabia. B. 1826. D. 188a 
 
 Palikao, C. G. M. A. A. Cousin-Montauban, count de, French general. B. 
 1796. D. 1878. 
 
 Palisot, A. M. F. J. Beauvois de, baron, French naturalist. B. 1752. D. 
 1820. 
 
 Palissy, Bernard, French potter. B. about 1510. D. about 1589. 
 
 Palladio, Andrea, Italian architect. B. 1518. D. 1580. 
 
512 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Palladius, Roman writer on agriculture. 4th c. a. d. 
 
 Pallas, Peter Simon, German traveler, naturalist, and ethnologist in tha 
 Russian service. B. 1741. D. 1811. 
 
 Palliser, Sir William, British inventor (shot and guns). B. 1830. D. 1882. 
 
 Palma, Jacopo (the elder), Italian painter. D. 1528. 
 
 Palma, Jacopo (the younger), Italian painter. B. 1544. D. 1628. 
 
 Palmblad, Vilhelm Fredrik, Swedish author. B. 1788. D. 1852. 
 
 Palmer, Edward Henry, English orientalist, explorer of the Sinaitic Penin- 
 sula. B. 1840. Killed 1882. 
 
 Palmer, Rounded, Lord Selborne, English statesman. B. 1812. D. 1895. 
 
 Palmerston, Henry John Temple, viscount, English statesman, prime-min- 
 ister 1855-8, 1859-'65. B. Oct. 20, 1784. D. Oct. 18, 1865. 
 
 Palomino de Castro y Velasco, Acislo Antonio, Spanish painter, writer 
 on painting. B. about 1653. D. about 1726. 
 
 Pamphilus, Greek painter. Flourished between 390 and 350 b. c. 
 
 Panckoucke, Charles Joseph, French publisher, translator. B. 1736. D. 
 1798. 
 
 Panckoucke, Charles Louis Fleury, French publisher, translator. B. 1780. 
 I). 1844. 
 
 Panini, Sanskrit grammarian. 4th c. b. c. (?). 
 
 Panizzi, Sir Anthony, librarian of the British Museum. B. in Italy 1797. 
 D. 1879. 
 
 Paoli, Pasquale, Corsican patriot, general. B. 1726. D. 1807. 
 
 Paolo, Fra. See Sarpi. 
 
 Papin, Denis, French physicist, inventor. B. 1647. D. about 1715. 
 
 Papineau, Louis Joseph, Canadian revolutionist. B. 1789. D. 1871. 
 
 Papinian (iEmilius Papinianus), Roman jurist. Put to death A. D. 212. 
 
 Papirius Cursor, Lucius, Roma*n general. D. about 300 B. c. 
 
 Papirius Cursor, Lucius, Roman general, son of the preceding. D. about 
 250 b. c. 
 
 Pappenheim, Gottfried Heinrich, count, German Catholic general in the 
 Thirty Years' War. B. 1594. Killed 1632. 
 
 Paracelsus, Swiss alchemist, medical impostor. B. 1493. D. 1541. 
 
 Pardessus, Jean Marie, French jurist. B. 1772. D. 1853. 
 
 Pardoe, Julia, English authoress. I). 1862. 
 
 Pare, Ambroise, French surgeon. B. 1517. D. 1590. 
 
 Pareja, Juan de, Spanish painter. D. 1670. 
 
 Parini, Giuseppe, Italian poet. B. 1729. D. 1799. 
 
 Paris, Louis Philippe d'Orleans, count de, son of the duke of Orleans, eldest 
 son of Louis Philippe. B. 1838. D. 1894. Author of a history of the 
 civil war in America. 
 
 Paris, Matthew. See Matthew Paris. 
 
 Park, Mungo, Brit, traveler in Africa. B. 1771. D. about beginning of 1806. 
 
 Parker, Matthew, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1504. D. 1575. 
 
 Parker, Theodore, American Unitarian clergyman. B. 1810. D. 1860. 
 
mOGRAPITICAL DICTIONARY. 513 
 
 Parkman, Francis, American author. B. 1823. D. 1893. Works relating 
 to the exploration of the Great West, French rule in Canada, &c. 
 
 Parma, Alessandro Farnese, duke of. See Farnese. 
 
 Parmenides, Greek philosopher. Flourished about 450 b. c. 
 
 Parmenio, Macedonian general. Put to death about 330 b. c. 
 
 Parmigiano, II (Francesco Mazzuola), Italian painter. B. about 1504. D. 
 1540. 
 
 Parnell, Charles Stewart, Irish political leader. B. 184C. D. 1891. 
 
 Paraell, Thomas, Irish poet. B. 1679. D. 1718. 
 
 Parny, Evariste Desire Desforges, chevalier de, French poet. B. 1753. D. 
 1814. 
 
 Parr, Catharine. See Catharine Parr. 
 
 Parr, Samuel, English scholar. B. 1747. D. 1825. 
 
 Parr, Thomas, an Englishman who is said to have attained the age of 152 
 years. D. 1635. 
 
 Parrhasius, Greek painter. 400 b. c. 
 
 Parry, Sir William Edward, English Arctic explorer. B. 1790. D. 1855. 
 
 Parsons, Theophilus, American jurist. B. 1750. D. 1813. 
 
 Parsons, Theophilus, American jurist. B. 1797. D. 1882. 
 
 Parsons, Thomas William, American poet. B. 1819. D. 1892. 
 
 Parton, James, American biographer. B. 1822. D. 1891. 
 
 Parton, Sara Payson Willis (" Fanny Fern "), American authoress, wife of 
 James Parton." B. 1811. D. 1872. 
 
 Pascal, Blaise, French author, mathematician. B. June 19, 1623. D. Aug. 
 19, 1662. " Lettres provinciates " (directed against the Jesuits). " Pen- 
 sees sur la religion " (" Thoughts on Religion "). 
 
 Paschal II., pope. Elected 1099. D. 1118. 
 
 Paskevitch, Ivan, Russian general. B. 1782. D. 1856. 
 
 Pasquier, Audiffret. See Audiffret-Pasquier. 
 
 Pasquier, Etienne, French advocate, historian. B. 1529. D. 1615. 
 
 Passaglia, Carlo, Italian theologian. B. 1812. D. 1887. 
 
 Passavant, Johann David, German writer on art. B. 1787. D. 1861. 
 
 Passow, Franz, German Greek scholar, lexicographer. B. 1786. D. 1833. 
 
 Pasta, Giuditta, Italian singer. B. 1798. D. 1865. 
 
 Pasteur, Louis, French chemist, especially distinguished for his discoveries 
 regarding the agency of bacteria in fermentation, putrefaction, and the 
 propagation of contagious affections. B. 1822. D. 1895. 
 
 Paterculus, Velleius, Roman historian. B. about 19 b. c. 
 
 Paterson, William, founder of the Bank of England. B. about 1658. D. 
 1719. 
 
 Patkul, Johann Reinhold von, a Livonian noble, who, having been sentenced 
 as a rebel by the government of Sweden, entered the service of Augustus 
 the Strong and Peter the Great. B. about 1660. Executed by Charles 
 XII. 1707. 
 
 Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, British painter. B. 1821. 
 
514 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Patrick, Saint, "apostle of Ireland." 5th c. 
 
 Patrick, Simon, English divine. B. 1026. D. 1707. 
 
 Patti, Adelina, singer. B. in Spain 1843. 
 
 Paul, Saint. Date of death variously placed in the latter part of the reign 
 of Nero. 
 
 Paul II., pope. Elected 1464. D. 1471. 
 
 Paul III. (Alessandro Farnese), pope. Elected 1534. D. 1549. 
 
 Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Carafa), pope. Elected 1555. D. 1559. 
 
 Paul V., pope. Elected 1605. 1). 1621. 
 
 Paul, czar of Russia, son of Catharine II. B. 1754. Reigned from 1796. 
 Murdered 1801. 
 
 Paul, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul. 
 
 Paul Veronese. See Cagliari. 
 
 Paula, St. Francis of. See Francis of Paula. 
 
 Paulding, Hiram, American naval officer. B. 1797. D. 1878. 
 
 Paulding, James Kirke, American author. B. 1779. D. 1860. "The 
 Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan." " The Back- 
 woodsman " (poem). " Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham." 
 " The Dutchman's Fireside " (romance). 
 
 Pauli, Reinhold, German historian. B. 1823. D. 1882. English history. 
 
 Paulinus, Saint, bishop of Nola. B. about 353. D. 431. 
 
 Paulinus, Suetonius. See Suetonius Paulinus. 
 
 Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob, German Protestant theologian. B. 
 1761. D. 1851. 
 
 Paulus (Paul] us), L. JEmilius, Roman general. Slain 216 b. c. 
 
 Pailu.s, L. ^Emilius, Roman general. D. 160 B. c. 
 
 Paulus Diaconus, Lombard chronicler. D. about close of 8th c. 
 
 Pausanias, Spartan general. D. about 468 b. c. 
 
 Pausanias, Greek topographer. 2d c. a. d. 
 
 Pauwels, Ferdinand, Belgian painter. B. 1830. 
 
 Paxton, Sir Joseph, English architect, gardener. B. 1803. D. 1865. De- 
 signed the Crystal Palace at Hyde Park. 
 
 Payer, Julius, Austrian Arctic explorer. B. 1842. 
 
 Payne, John Howard, American actor, dramatist. B. 1792. D. 1852. 
 Author of " Home, Sweet Home." 
 
 Peabody, George, American philanthropist. B. 1795. D. 1869. 
 
 Fedro I., emperor of Brazil, son of John VI. of Portugal and father of 
 Maria da Gloria. B. 1798. Reigned 1822-'31. D. 1834. 
 
 Pedro II., emperor of Brazil 1831-89, son of Pedro I. B. 1825. D. 1891. 
 
 Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile. B. 1334. Reigned from 1350. Slain 1369. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, English statesman. B. Feb. 5, 1788. Prime-minister 
 1834-'5, 1841-6. D. July 2, 1850. 
 
 Peirce, Benjamin, American mathematician. B. 1809. D. 1880. 
 
 Pelagius, author of the Pelagian heresy. Beginning of 5th c. 
 
 Pelayo (Pelagius), founder of the kingdom of Asturias. D. about 737. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 515 
 
 Pelham, Sir Henry, prime-minister of England 1743-'54, brother of the 
 
 duke of Newcastle. B. about 1696. D. 1754. 
 Pelham, Thomas Holies. See Newcastle. 
 Pelissier, Aimable Jean Jacques, duke of Malakoff, French general. B. 
 
 171)4. D. 1864. 
 Pellegrini, Pellegrino (Pellegrino Tibaldi), Italian painter, architect. B. 
 
 about 1527. D. about 1600. 
 Pelletan, Pierre Clement Eugene, Fr. writer, politician. B. 1813. D. 1884. 
 Pellico, Silvio, Italian author. B. 1789. D. 1854. " Francesca da Rimini" 
 
 (tragedy). " Le mie prigioni " (recounting the author's sufferings under- 
 gone in Austrian prisons). 
 Pelopidas, Theban general. Slain 364 or 363 b. c. 
 Pelouze, Theophile Jules, French chemist. B. 1807. D. 1867. 
 Pembertpn, John C, Confederate general, defender of Vicksburg. B. 1814. 
 
 I). 1881. 
 Pembroke, earl of, poet. See Herbert, William. 
 Penn, William, founder of Pennsylvania. B. 1644. D. 1718. 
 Perm, Sir William, English admiral. B. 1621. D. 1670. 
 Pennant, Thomas, English zoologist, B. 1726. D. 1798. 
 Pepe, Gruglielmo, Italian general, author. B. 1783. D. 1855. 
 Pepin of Heristal, Frankish ruler. D. 714. 
 Pepin the Short, first king of the Franks of the Carlovingian dynasty, 
 
 son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Ruled over a portion 
 
 of the Frankish realm from 741; over the whole, from 747. D. 768. 
 
 (Pepin ruled as mayor of the palace until about the close of 751, when 
 
 lie put aside the nominal Merovingian king and mounted the throne.) 
 Pepperell, Sir William, American general. B. 1696. D. 1759. 
 Pepys, Charles Christopher. See Cottenham. 
 Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the English navy, author of a celebrated diary. 
 
 B. about 1633. D. 1703. 
 Perceval, Caussin de. See Caussin de Perceval. 
 Perceval, Spencer, English statesman. B. 1762. Prime-minister 1809-'12. 
 
 Assassinated 1812. 
 Percival, James Gates, American poet. B. 1795. D. 1856. 
 Percy, Henry (Hotspur), English warrior. Slain 1403. 
 Percy, Thomas, English scholar, writer. B. 1729. D. 1811. "Reliques of 
 
 Ancient English Poetry." 
 Perdiccas, Macedonian general. Assassinated 321 b. c. 
 Perez, Antonio, Spanish statesman. B. about 1539. D. 1611. 
 Perez Galdos, Benito, Spanish novelist. B. 1845. 
 
 Pergolesi (Pergolese), Giovanni Battista, Italian composer. B. 1710. D. 1736. 
 Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Reigned about 627-587 b. c. 
 Pericles, Athenian statesman. B. about 495 b. c. D. 429. 
 Perier, Auguste Casimir Victor Laurent, French statesman. B. 1811. D. 1876. 
 Perier, Casimir, French statesman. B. 1777. D. 1832. 
 34 
 
A. D. 34. I 
 
 ). 62. 
 
 D. 1884. 
 
 
 D. 1876. 
 
 " Monumenta 
 
 516 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOXART. 
 
 Perier (Casimir-Perier), president of France. See Casimir-Perier. 
 
 Perouse, La. See La Perouse. 
 
 Perrault, Charles, French author. B. 1628. D. 1703. "Parallele des 
 
 anciens et des modernes." " Hommes illustres du siecle de Louis XIV." 
 
 (" Eminent Men of the Century of Louis XIV."). Fairy tales (on which 
 
 the author's reputation now chiefly rests). 
 Perrault, Claude, French architect. B. 1613. D. 1688. 
 Perry, Arthur Latham, American political economist. B. 1830. 
 Perry, Matthew Calbraith, American naval officer. B. 1794. D. 1858. 
 Perry, Oliver Hazard, American naval officer, commander in the battle of 
 
 Lake Erie. B. 1785. D. 1819. 
 Persano, Carlo Pelion, count, Italian admiral. B. 1806. D. 1883. 
 Perseus, king of Macedon. Reigned 179-168 B. c. 
 Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, duke de, French statesman, friend of 
 
 Napoleon III. B. 1808. D. 1872. 
 Persius Flaccus, Aulus, Latin satirical poet. B. 
 Perty, Maximilian, German naturalist. B. 1804. 
 Pertz, Georg Heinrich, German scholar. B. 1795. 
 
 Germanise Historica." 
 Perugino, II (Pietro Vannucci), Italian painter. B. 1446. D. 1524. 
 Peruzzi, Baldassare, Italian architect. B. 1481. D. about 1537. 
 Pescara, Fernando Francesco d'Avalos, marquis of, Italian general in the 
 
 service of Spain. B. about 1492. D. 1525. 
 Peschel, Oskar Ferdinand, German geographer, ethnologist. B. 1826. D. 
 
 1875. 
 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, Swiss educational reformer. B. 1746. D. 
 
 1827. 
 Peter I., the Great, czar of Russia, son of Alexis. B. June 9, 1672. Reigned 
 
 from 1682. (His half-brother, Ivan, joint sovereign till 1689.) D. Feb. 8, 
 
 1725. 
 Peter II., czar of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. B. 1715. Reigned 
 
 from 1727. D. 1730. 
 Peter III., czar of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. B. 1728. Reigned 
 
 from Jan., 1762. Deposed by his wife, Catharine (II.), and murdered 
 
 July, 1762. 
 Peter of Blois, ecclesiastic. D. about 1200. 
 Peter the Cruel. See Pedro the Cruel. 
 Peter the Hermit, French enthusiast, apostle of the first crusade. D. 
 
 1115. 
 Peter Lombard. See Lombard, Peter. 
 Peter Martyr, historian. See Anghiera. 
 Peter Martyr (Pietro Martire Vermigli), Italian Reformer. B. 1500. D. 
 
 1562. 
 Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, English general. B. about 1658. 
 
 D. 1735. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 517 
 
 Petermann, August, German geographer. B. 1822. D. 1878. 
 
 Peters, Christian August Friedrich, German astronomer. B. 1806. D. 1880. 
 
 Peters, Christian Henry Frederick; German-American astronomer. B. 1818. 
 
 D. 1890. 
 Petion, Anne Alexandre Sabes, president of Hayti. B. 1770. D. 18U8. 
 Petion (Pethion), Jerome, French revolutionist. B. 1753. D. 1704. 
 Peto, Sir Morton, English railway contractor. B. 1809. D. 1889. 
 Petofi, Sandor, Hungarian poet. B. 1823. D. probably 1849. 
 Petrarch (Petrarca), Francesco, Italian writer of sonnets. B. 1304. D. 1374. 
 Petrie, W. M. Flinders, English Egyptologist. B. 1853. 
 Petronius Arbiter, Latin author. Middle of first c. a. d. (?). 
 Petrus de Vineis. See Vineis, Petrus de. 
 Petrus Lombardus. See Lombard, Peter. 
 Pettie, John, Scottish painter. B. 1839. D. 1893. 
 Peucer, Kaspar, German Reformer. B. 1525. D. 1602. 
 Peutinger, Konrad, German antiquary. B. 1465. D. 1547. 
 Peyronnet, Charles Ignace de, count, French politician. B. 1778. D. 1854. 
 Pfeiffer, Ida, German traveler. B. 1797. D. 1858. 
 Phaedo (Phaedon), Greek philosopher. Beginning of 4th c. b. c. 
 Phaedrus, Latin fabulist. Early in first c. a. d. 
 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum. Reigned about 570-555 b. c. 
 Pherecydes, Greek philosopher. 6th c. b. c. 
 Phidias, Athenian sculptor. B. about 490 b. c. D. about 432. 
 Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow. B. about 1784. D. 1867. 
 Philemon, Athenian comic poet. B. about 360 b. c. D. 262. 
 Philidor. See Danican. 
 
 Philip II., king of Macedon. B. 382 b. c. Reigned from 359. Assassi- 
 nated 336. Father of Alexander the Great. 
 Philip V., king of Macedon. Reigned 220-179 b. c. 
 Philip the Arabian, Roman emperor. Reigned 244-'9. 
 Philip I., king of France. B. 1053. Reigned from 1060. D. 1108. 
 Philip II. (Philip Augustus), king of France. B. 1165. Reigned from 
 
 1180. D. 1223. 
 Philip III., the Bold, king of France. B. 1245. Reigned from 1270. I). 
 
 1285. 
 Philip IV., the Fair, king of France. B. 1268. Reigned from 1285. D. 
 
 1314. 
 Philip V., the Long, king of France. B. about 1293. Reigned from 1316. 
 
 D. 1322. 
 Philip VI. (of Valois), king of France. B. 1293. Reigned from 1328. D. 
 
 1350. 
 Philip the Handsome, sovereign of the Netherlands, king of Castile, son 
 
 of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, husband of Joan the Mad. B. 
 
 1478. D. 1506. Father of Charles V. 
 Philip II., king of Spain, son of Charles V. B. 1527. King of Naples and 
 
518 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Sicily from 1554. Sovereign of the Netherlands from 1555. King of 
 
 Spain from 1556. D. Sept. 13, 1598. Husband of Mary, queen of Eng- 
 land. 
 Philip III., king of Spain, son of Philip II. B. 1578. Reigned from 1598. 
 
 D.- 1621. 
 Philip IV., king of Spain, son of Philip III. B. 1605. Reigned from 1621. 
 
 D. 1665. 
 Philip V., king of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV. B. 1683. Proclaimed 
 
 king 1700 ; firmly established on the throne 1711. D. 1746. 
 Philip of Swabia, emperor of Germany. Elected 1198. Assassinated (after 
 
 a contested reign) 1208. 
 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, son of John the Good of France. 
 
 Invested with the duchy 1363. D. 1404. 
 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Reigned from 1419. D. 1467. 
 Philip the Magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse. Reigned from 1509. D. 
 
 1567. 
 Philip, King, sachem of Pokanoket. Killed 1676. 
 
 Philippoteaux, Felix Emmanuel Henri, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1884. 
 Philips, Ambrose, English poet, dramatist. B. about 1671. D. 1749. 
 Phillips, Wendell, American orator, abolitionist. B. 1811. D. 1884. 
 Philo Judaeus, Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. First half of first c. a. d. 
 Philopcernen, general of the Achaean League. B. about 252 B. c. D. by 
 
 poison at Messene 183 (beginning of 182 ?). 
 Philostratus, Greek sophist, biographer, writer on art. First half of 3d c. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Philostratus (the younger), Greek writer on art. First half of 3d c. A. d. 
 
 Phips (Phipps), Sir William, American commander, governor of Massachu- 
 setts 1692-'4. B. 1651. D. 1695. 
 
 Phocion, Athenian general. B. about 402 b. c. Condemned to death by 
 the Athenians 317. 
 
 Photius, patriarch of Constantinople. D. about 891. 
 
 Phryne, Athenian hetcera. 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Physick, Philip Syng, American surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1837. 
 
 Piazzi, Giuseppe, Italian astronomer. B. 1746. D. 1826. 
 
 Picard, Jean, French astronomer. B. 1620. D. 1682. 
 
 Piccini, Niccolo, Italian composer. B. 1728. D. 1800. 
 
 Piccolomini, Octavio, Austrian general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1599. 
 D. 1656. 
 
 Pichegru, Charles, French general. B. 1761. D. 1804. 
 
 Pichler, Karoline (born Von Greiner), German novelist. B. 1769. D. 1843. 
 
 Pickens, Andrew, American general. B. 1739. D. 1817. 
 
 Pickering, Timothy, American statesman. B. 1745. D. 1829. 
 
 Pico della Mirandola, Italian scholar. B. 1463. D. 1494. 
 
 Pictet, Francois Jules, Swiss zoologist, palaeontologist. B. 1809. D. 
 1872. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 519 
 
 Pictor, Pabius. See Fabius Pictor. 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, president of the United States 1853-7. B. Nov. 23, 1804. 
 D. Oct. 8, 1869. 
 
 Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, American general. B. 1779. Killed 1813. 
 
 Piloty, Karl von, German painter. B. 1826. D. 188G. 
 
 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, American soldier, statesman, diplomatist. 
 B. 1746. I). 1825. 
 
 Pinckney, Thomas, American diplomatist, general, brother of C. C. Pinck- 
 ney. B. 1750. D. 1828. 
 
 Pindar, Theban lyric poet. B. about 520 b. c. D. about 440. 
 
 Pindemonte, Ippolito, Italian poet. B. 1753. D. 1828. 
 
 Pinel, Philippe, French physician, noted for his reforms in the treatment of 
 the insane. B. 1745. D. 1826. 
 
 Pingre, Alexandre Gui, French astronomer. B. 1711. D. 1796. 
 
 Pinkerton, John, Scottish author. B. 1758. D. 1826. 
 
 Pinkney, William, American lawyer, diplomatist. B. 1764. D. 1822. 
 
 Pinto, Mendez. See Mendez Pinto. 
 
 Pinto, Serpa. See Serpa Pinto. 
 
 Pinzon, Martin Alonso, Spanish navigator. D. 1493. 
 
 Pinzon, Vicente Yafiez, Spanish navigator. Discovered Central America 
 1497. Discovered Brazil early in 1500.* 
 
 Piombo, Fra Sebastiano del, Italian painter. B. 1485. D. 1547. 
 
 Piozzi (Mrs.), Hester Lynch (born Salusbury, married first to Mr. Thrale), 
 Eng. authoress. B. 1741. D. 1821. " Anecdotes of Dr. Samuel Johnson." 
 
 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, Italian engraver, architect. B. 1720. D. 1778. 
 
 Piron, Alexis, French writer of comedy. B. 1689. D. 1773. 
 
 Pisani, Niccold, Venetian admiral. Middle of 14th c. 
 
 Pisani, Vettore, Venetian admiral. D. 1380. 
 
 Pisano, Andrea, Italian sculptor, architect. B. about 1270. D. about 1345. 
 
 Pisano, Giovanni, Italian sculptor, architect. B. about 1240. D. about 1320. 
 
 Pisano, Nicola, Italian sculptor, architect. D. about 1278. 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Usurped the government for the first time 
 560 b. c. D. 527. 
 
 Pitaval, Francois Gayot de, French author. B. 1673. D. 1743. "Causes 
 celebres et interessantes " (" Famous and Interesting Trials "). 
 
 Pitman, Isaac, inventor of a system of phonography. B. in England, 1813. 
 D. 1897. 
 
 Pitt, William, earl of Chatham, English statesman. B. Nov. 15, 1708. 
 Secretary of state and head of the administration from Dec, 1756 to 
 April, 1757, and from June, 1757, to Oct., 1761. Again head of the min- 
 istry as lord privy seal 1766-8. D. May 11, 1778. 
 
 Pitt, William, son of the preceding, prime-minister of England 1783-1801, 
 1804-'6. B. May 28, 1759. D. Jan. 23, 1806. 
 
 * This event is sometimes erroneously placed in Jan., 1499. 
 
520 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Pittacus, ruler of Mytilene, one of the seven wise men of the Greeks, poet. 
 
 13. about 652 b. c. Reigned about 589-579. D. about 569. 
 Pius II. (iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini), pope. B. 1405. Elected 1458. D. 
 
 1464. 
 Pius III., pope. Elected 1503. D. 1503. 
 Pius IV., pope (Giovanni Angelo de' Medici). B. 1499. Elected 1559. D. 
 
 1565. 
 Pius V., pope. B. 1504. Elected 1566. D. 1572. 
 Pius VI., pope. B. 1717. Elected 1775. D. 1799. 
 Pius VII., pope. B. 1742. Elected 1800. D. 1823. 
 Pius VIII., pope. B. 1761. Elected 1829. D. 1830. 
 Pius IX. (Mastai-Ferretti), pope. B. May 13, 1792. Elected June 16, 1846. 
 
 D. Feb. 7, 1878. 
 Pixis, Theodor, German artist. B. 1831. 
 
 Pizarro, Francisco, conqueror of Peru. B. in Spain about 1471. Assassi- 
 nated 1541. 
 Platen, August von, count, German poet. B. 1796. D. 1835. 
 Plato, Greek philosopher. B. about 429 b. c. D. about 348. 
 Platoff, Matvei, count, general of the Cossacks. D. 1818. 
 Plautus, Titus Maccius, Latin comic poet. B. about 254 b. c. D. 184. 
 Playfair, John, Scottish natural philosopher. B. 1748. D. 1819. 
 Playfair, Lyon, British chemist, who has figured conspicuously as a com- 
 missioner of government in matters pertaining to public health, industry, 
 
 &c. B. 1819. 
 Pleyel, Ignaz, German composer. B. 1757. D. 1831. 
 Pliny (Plinius), the elder, Roman naturalist. B. a. d. 23. D. 79. 
 Pliny, the younger, Roman writer. B. A. D. 61 or 62. D. about 113. 
 
 •• Panegyricus." "Epistoke." 
 Plotinus, Neo-Platonie philosopher. B. in Egypt about A. d. 204. D. about 
 
 270. 
 Plowden, Edmund, English jurist. B. about 1517. D. 1584. 
 Plunket, William Conyngham, baron, Irish lawyer, orator. B. 1764. D.- 
 
 1854. 
 Plutarch, Greek biographer. D. about beginning of 2d c. a. d. 
 Pocahontas, Indian heroine. B. about 1595. D. 1617. 
 Pocock, Edward, English orientalist. B. 1604. D. 1691. 
 Pococke, Richard, English traveler. B. 1704. D. 1765. 
 Podiebrad, George, king of Bohemia. Reigned from 1458. D. 1471. 
 Poe, Edgar Allan, American author. B. 1809. D. 1849. "Tales of the 
 
 Grotesque and the Arabesque." " The Raven." 
 Poerio, Carlo, baron, Neapolitan patriot, statesman. B. 1803. D. 1867. 
 Poggendorff, Johann Christian, German physicist, chemist. B. 1796. D. 
 
 1877. 
 Poggio Bracciolini, Giovanni Francesco, Italian classical scholar, author. 
 
 B. about 1380. D. 1459. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 521 
 
 Pogodin, Mikhail, Russian historian, antiquary, Panslavist. B. 1800. D. 
 
 1875. 
 Poisson, Simeon Denis, French mathematician. B. 1781. D. 1840. 
 Pole, Reginald, English cardinal. B. 1500. D. 1558. 
 Polevoi, Nicolai, Russian journalist, historian, dramatist. B. 1796. D. 
 
 1846. 
 Polignac, Jules Auguste Armand Marie de, prince, prime-minister of 
 
 Charles X. 1829-'30. B. 1780. D. 1847. 
 Poliziano, Angelo, Italian classical scholar, poet. B. 1454. D. 1494. 
 Polk, James Knox, president of the United States 1845-'9. B. Nov. 2, 1795. 
 
 D. June 15, 1849. 
 Pollio, C. Asinius, Roman general, author, patron of learning. B. 76 b. c. 
 
 D. a. d. 4. 
 Pollock, Sir George, English general in Afghanistan in 1842. B. 1786. D. 
 
 1872. 
 Pollok, Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1799. D. 1827. " The Course of Time." 
 Polo, Marco, Venetian traveler (Tartary, China, &c). B. about 1254. D. 
 
 about 1324. 
 Polybius, Greek historian. B. about 205 B. c. D. about 122. 
 Polycarp, Saint, bishop of Smyrna. Burned about 168 (?). 
 Polycletus, Greek sculptor, architect. Flourished about 430 b. c. 
 Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. Put to death 522 b. c. 
 Polydore Vergil. See Vergil. 
 
 Polygnotus, Greek painter. Flourished from about 463 b. c. 
 Polysperchon, Macedonian general. D. after 303 b. c. 
 Pombal, Sebastiao Joze de Carvalho, marquis of, Portuguese statesman. B. 
 
 14599. D. 1782. 
 Pomeranus (Pommer). See Bugenhagex. 
 Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, marchioness de, mistress of Louis 
 
 XV. B. 1721. D. 1764. 
 Pompey (Pompeius), Cneius, Roman general, triumvir with Caesar and Cras- 
 
 sus. B. 106 b. c. Murdered 48. 
 Pompey, Cneius, son of Pompey the triumvir. B. between 80 and 75 b. c. 
 
 Slain 45. 
 Pompey, Sextus, son of Pompey the triumvir. B. 75 b. c. Put to death 35. 
 Pomponius Mela. See Mela. 
 Ponce de Leon, Juan, Spanish adventurer, discoverer of Florida in 1513. 
 
 D. 1521. 
 Ponce de Leon, Luis (Fray Luis de Leon), Spanish poet. B. 1527. D. 
 
 1591. 
 Poncelet, Jean Victor, French geometer, mechanical engineer. B. 1788. 
 
 D. 1867. 
 Pond, John, English astronomer. B. about 1767. D. 1836. 
 Poniatowski, -Tozef Antoni, prince, Polish general, marshal of France. B« 
 
 1762. Drowned 1813. 
 
522 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Poniatowski, Stanislas Augustus, king of Poland. B. 1732. Reigned 
 17G4-'95. D. 1798. 
 
 Ponsard, Francois, French dramatist. B. 1814. D. 1867. Best-known 
 productions, " Lucrece " (tragedy) and " L'honneur et l'argent " (comedy). 
 
 Ponson du Terrail, Pierre Alexis de, viscount, French novelist. B. 1829. 
 D. 1871. 
 
 Ponte, Francesco and Jacopo da. See Bassano. 
 
 Pontiac, Indian chief. B. about 1712. D. 1769. 
 
 Pontoppidan, Erik, Danish scholar, author. B. 1698. D. 1764. 
 
 Poole, Matthew, English Biblical scholar. B. 1624. D. 1679. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, English poet. B. May 22, 1688. D. May 30, 1744. " Es- 
 say on Criticism," 1711. " The Rape of the Lock," 1712-14. Transla- 
 tions of the "Iliad " and " Odyssey." "Dunciad," 1728-42. "Essay on 
 Man," 1733. 
 
 Pope, John, American general. B. 1822. D. 1892. 
 
 Poppig, Eduard, German traveler in South America, naturalist. B. 1798. 
 1). 1868. 
 
 Pordenone, II (Giovanni Antonio Licinio), Italian painter. B. about 1483. 
 I), about 1540. 
 
 Porphyry (Porphyrins), Neo-Platonic philosopher. B. about 233. D. about 
 305. 
 
 Porpora, Niccolo, Italian composer. B. 1686. D. about 1767. 
 
 Porsena (Porsenna), Lars, reputed king of Clusium about 500 B. c. 
 
 Person, Richard, English classical scholar. B. 1759. D. 1808. 
 
 Porta, Baccio della. See Bartolommeo, Fra. 
 
 Porta, Giambattista della, Italian physicist. B. about 1540. D. 1615. 
 
 Portalis, Jean Etienne Marie, French jurist, statesman. B. 1745. D. 1807. 
 
 Porter, Anna Maria, English novelist. B. about 1781. D. 1832. 
 
 Porter, David, American naval officer. B. 1780. D. 1843. 
 
 Porter, David Dixon, American naval officer. B. 1813. D. 1891. 
 
 Porter, Fitz John, American general. B. 1822. 
 
 Porter, Jane, English novelist, B. 1776. D. 1850. " Thaddeus of War- 
 saw." " The Scottish Chiefs." 
 
 Porter, Noah, American scholar, philosophical and educational writer. B. 
 1811. D. 1892. 
 
 Porter, Sir Robert K., English painter, traveler. B. about 1775. D. 1842. 
 
 Portland, duke of. See Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish. 
 
 Porus, king in northwestern India. Put to death about 317 b. c. 
 
 Posidonms, Greek philosopher. B. about 135 B. c. D. about 51. 
 
 Potemkin, Grigori, prince, favorite of Catharine II. of Russia. B. 1736 
 or 1739. D. 1791. 
 
 Pothier, Robert Joseph, French jurist. B. 1699. D. 1772. 
 
 Pott, August Friedrich, German philologist. B. 1802. D. 1887. 
 
 Pott, Percival, English surgeon. B. 1713. D. 1788. 
 
 Potter, Louis de, Belgian patriot, author. B. 1786. D. 1859. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 523 
 
 Potter, Paul, Dutch painter. B. 1625. D. 1654 
 
 Poujoulat, Jean Joseph Francois, French historical and religious writer. 
 
 B. 1808. D. 1880. " Histoire de Jerusalem." " Histoire de Saint Augus- 
 
 tin." " Histoire de la revolution franeaise." 
 Poussin, Nicolas, French painter. B. about 1594. D. 1665. 
 Powell, John Wesley, American explorer. B. 1834. 
 Powers, Hiram, American sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1873. 
 Powhatan, Indian sachem. D. 1618. 
 Poynter, Edward John, English painter. B. 1836. 
 Pozzo di Borgo, Carlo Andrea, count, Russian diplomatist. B. in Corsica 
 
 1764. D. 1842. 
 Pradier, James, French sculptor. B. 1792. D. 1852. 
 Pradt, Dominique Dufour, abbe de, French ecclesiastic, diplomatist, political 
 
 writer. B. 1759. D. 1837. 
 Prati, Giovanni, Italian poet. B. 1815. D. 1884. 
 Pratt, Charles. See Camden. 
 Praxiteles, Greek sculptor. Middle of 4th c. b. c. 
 Preble, Edward, American naval officer. B. 1761. D. 1807. 
 Preller, Friedrich, German painter. B. 1804. D. 1878. 
 Prescott, William, American soldier. B. 1726. D. 1795. 
 Prescott, William Hickling, American historian. B. May 4, 1796. D. Jan. 
 
 28, 1859. " History of Ferdinand and Isabella." " Conquest of Mexico." 
 
 " Conquest of Peru." " History of Philip II." 
 Pressense, Edmond Dehoult de, Fr. Prot. divine, author. B. 1824. D. 1891. 
 Preti, Mattia (II Calabrese), Italian painter. B. 1613. D. 1699. 
 Prevost d'Exiles, Antoine Francois, French author. B. 1697. D. 1763. 
 
 " Manon Lescaut" (work of fiction). " Histoire generale des voyages." 
 Prevost-Paradol, Lucien Anatole, French journalist, historical and politi- 
 cal writer. B. 1829. D. 1870. 
 Price, Bartholomew, English mathematician. B. 1818. 
 Price, Bonamy, English political economist. B. 1807. D. 1888. 
 Price, Thomas, Welsh historian. B. 1787. D. 1848. 
 Prichard, James Cowles, English anthropologist, ethnologist, physiologist. 
 
 B. 1786(1785?). D. 1848. 
 Priessnitz, Vimenz, founder of the system of hydropathy. B. in Austrian 
 
 Silesia 1799. D. 1851. 
 Priestley, Joseph, English physicist, chemist, philosopher, theologian. B. 
 
 1733. D. 1804. Discovered oxygen 1774. 
 Prim, Juan, Spanish general, statesman. B. 1814. Assassinated 1870. 
 Primaticcio, Francesco, Italian painter. B. 1490. D. 1570. 
 Pringsheim, Nathanael, German botanist. B. 1823. D. 1894. 
 Prior, Matthew, English poet. B. 1664. D. 1721. 
 Priscian (Priscianus), Latin grammarian. About A. D. 500. 
 Priscillian (Priscillianus), Spanish ecclesiastic. Executed 385. 
 Probus, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor. Reigned 276-282. 
 
524 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Proclus, Neo-Platonic philosopher. B. about 412. D. 485. 
 
 Procopius, Byzantine historian. I), about a. d. 565. 
 
 Procopius, Andrew (the Great), Hussite leader. Slain 1434. 
 
 Procter, Bryan Waller (" Barry Cornwall "), English poet. B. 1787. D. 
 
 1874. 
 Proctor, Richard Anthony, English astronomer. B. 1837. D. 1888. 
 Prokesch-Osten, Anton von, baron, Austrian diplomatist, author. B. 1795. 
 
 1). 1876. 
 Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, Latin elegiac poet. B. about 50 b. c. 
 Protagoras, Greek sophist. D. about 411 b. c. 
 Protogenes, Greek painter. Latter part of 4th c. b. c. 
 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, French socialist. B. 1809. D. 1865. 
 Provence, count of. See Louis XVIII. 
 
 Prudentius (Aurelius Prudentius Clemens), Latin Christian poet. B. 348. 
 Prud'hon, Pierre Paul, French painter. B. 1758. D. 1823. 
 Prynne, William, Puritan political writer. B. 1600.D. 1669. 
 Przhevalski, N., Russian traveler in central Asia. B. 1839. D. 1888. 
 Psaimnetichus (Psamatik) I., king of Egypt. Reigned (at first only over 
 
 a small portion of the country) about 665-610 b. c. 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) Soter (Ptolemy Lagi), founder of the Greek dynasty 
 
 in Egypt. Governor of Egypt from 323 B. c. King from 306. I). 283. 
 Ptolemy Ph.iladelph.us, king of Egypt. Reigned from 285 b. c. (at the 
 
 beginning as the colleague of his father, Ptolemy Soter). D. 247. 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, Reigned 247-222 (221 ?) b. c. 
 Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt. Reigned 222 (221?)-205 (204?) b. c. 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. Reigned 205 (204"?)-181 b. c. 
 Ptolemy Philometor, king of Egypt. Reigned (with intermission) 181- 
 
 146 b. c. 
 Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt. Reigned 146-130, 127-117 b. c. 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. Reigned jointly with his mother 
 
 117-107 b. c; alone, 89-81. 
 Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt. Reigned 80-58, 55-51 b. c. 
 Ptolemy, Claudius, Graeco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer. 2d c. A. n. 
 Piickler-Muskau, Hermann Ludwig Heinrich von, prince, German author. 
 
 B. 1785. D. 1871. Sketches of travel. 
 Pufendorf, Samuel von, baron, German jurist, publicist. B. 1632. D. 1694. 
 
 " De Jure Naturae et Gentium " (" On the Law of Nature and Nations "). 
 Pugatcheff, Yemelyan, Cossack rebel. B. 1726. D. 1773. 
 Pulaski (Pulawski), Casimir, count, Polish soldier. B. 1747. Killed at Sa- 
 vannah 1779. 
 Pulci, Luigi, Italian poet. B. 1431. D. about 1487. "II Morgante 
 
 maggiore" (poem of chivalry). 
 Pulteney, William, earl of Bath, Eng. statesman. B. about 1684. D. 1764. 
 Pumpelly, Raphael, American geologist. B. 1837. 
 Purbach. (Peurbach), Georg, German astronomer. B. 1423. D. 1461. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 525 
 
 Purcell, Henry, English composer. B. 1658. D. 1695. 
 
 Pursh, Frederick, botanist, native of Siberia, of German origin, who de- 
 scribed the flora of North America. B. 1774. D. 1820. 
 
 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, English divine. B. 1800. D. 1882. 
 
 Pushkin, Alexander, Russian poet. B. 1799. Killed 1837. 
 
 Putlitz, Gnstav zu, Ger. poet, dramatist, writer of fiction. B. 1821. D. 1890. 
 
 Putnam, Israel, American soldier. B. 1718. D. 1790. 
 
 Pyat, Felix. French socialist. B. 1810. D. 1889. 
 
 Pym, John, English statesman, who, with Hampden, headed the commons 
 in their attacks upon the government of Charles I. B. 1584. D. 1643. 
 
 Pyrrho, Greek philosopher. Latter part of 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Killed 272 b. c. 
 
 Pythagoras, Greek philosopher. B. about 580 b. c. D. about 497. 
 
 Pytheas, Greek navigator of Massilia (Marseilles). Lived probably about 
 300 b. c. 
 
 g. 
 
 Guarles, Francis, English poet. B. 1592. D. 1644. 
 
 Guatrefages, Jean Louis Armand de, French naturalist, anthropologist. 
 B. 1810. D. 1892. 
 
 Guatremere, Etienne Marc, French orientalist. B. 1782. D. 1857. 
 
 Guatremere de Guincy, Antoine Chrysostome, French writer on art. B. 
 1755. D. 1849. 
 
 Guesnay, Francois, French economist. B. 1694. D. 1774. 
 
 Guesnel, Pasquier, French Jansenist. B. 1634. D. 1719. 
 
 Guetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques, Belgian writer on social science, 
 statistician, astronomer. B. 1796. D. 1874. 
 
 Guevedo y Villegas, Francisco Gomez de, Spanish humorous and satiri- 
 cal writer, poet. B. 1580. D. 1645. 
 
 Gum, James, English actor. B. 1693. D. 1766. 
 
 Guincy, Josiah, American patriot. B. 1744. D. 1775. 
 
 Guincy, Josiah, American statesman, son of preceding. B. 1772. D. 1864. 
 
 Guincy, Quatremere de. See Quatremere de Quincy. 
 
 Gurnet, Edgar, French author. B. 1803. D. 1875. Works on literature 
 and on religion, political and philosophical writings, poems, &e. 
 
 Guintana, Manuel Jose, Spanish patriot, poet. B. 1772. I). 1857. 
 
 Guintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), Roman rhetorician. B. about 
 a. d. 40. "De Institutione Oratoria." 
 
 Guintus Curtius. See Curtius. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabanus (Hrabanus) Maurus, German prelate, theologian. B. about 776. 
 
 D. 856. 
 Rabelais, Francois, French author. D. 1553. " Gargantua et Pantagruel " 
 
 (satirical romance). 
 
526 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Rachel (Elisabeth Rachel Felix), French actress. B. about 1820. D. 1858. 
 
 Racine, Jean, French tragic poet. B. Dec, 1639. D. April, 1699. 
 
 " Andromaque," 1667. " Britannicus." " Berenice." " Bajazet." " Mith- 
 ridate." " Iphigenie en Aulide." "Phedre." " Athalie," 1691. 
 
 Radcliffe, Ann (born Ward), English novelist. B. 1764. D. 1823. " The 
 Mysteries of Udolpho." 
 
 Radetzky, Joseph Wenzel von, count, Austrian general, commander against 
 the Italians in 1848-'9. B. 1766. D. 1858. 
 
 Radowitz, Joseph Maria von, Prussian statesman, political writer. B. 1797. 
 I). 1853. 
 
 Raeburn, Sir Henry, Scottish painter. B. 1756. D. 1823. 
 
 Raff, Joachim, German composer. B. 1822. D. 1882. 
 
 Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford, lieutenant governor of Java, philanthropist, 
 naturalist. B. 1781. D. 1826. 
 
 Rafinesque, Constantine Smaltz, American botanist. B. 1784. D. 1842. 
 
 Rafn, Carl Christian, Danish antiquary. B. 1795. D. 1864. 
 
 Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, Lord, English general in the 
 Crimea. B. 1788. D. 1855. 
 
 Ragotzky. See Rakoczy. 
 
 Ragusa, duke of. See Marmont. 
 
 Raikes, Robert, originator of Sunday-schools. B. in England 1735. D. 
 1811. 
 
 Raimondi, Marc' Antonio, Italian engraver. Early in the 16th c. 
 
 Rakoczy, Ferencz (Francis), prince of Transylvania, leader of the Hunga- 
 rians in their struggle against Austria in 1703-'ll. B. 1676. D. 1735. 
 
 Rale (Rasles), Sebastien, French Jesuit missionary in America. B. 1658. 
 Killed 1724. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, English courtier, navigator, author. B. 1552. Exe- 
 cuted 1618. 
 
 Rambouillet, Catherine de Vivonne, marchioness de, French leader of so- 
 ciety. B. 1588. D. 1665. 
 
 Rameau, Jean Philippe. French composer. B. 1683. D. 1764. 
 
 Rameses II. (the Sesostris of the Greeks), king of Egypt. 14th c. b. c. 
 
 Ramorino, Girolamo (Giovanni Pietro Remorino), Italian revolutionist, gen- 
 eral. B. about 1792. Shot 1849. 
 
 Ramsay, Allan, Scottish poet. B. 1686. D. 1758. " The Gentle Shepherd." 
 
 Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie, British geologist. B. 1814. D. 1891. 
 
 Ramses. See Rameses. 
 
 Ramus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramee), French philosopher. B. about 1515. 
 Killed 1572. 
 
 Ramusio, Giambattista, Italian writer. B. 1485. D. 1557. Author of a 
 collection of ancient and modern travels. 
 
 Randolph, Edmund, American statesman. B. 1753. D. 1813. 
 
 Randolph, John, American statesman, orator. B. 1773. D. 1833. 
 
 Randolph, Peyton, American patriot. B. 1723. D. 1775. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 527 
 
 Ranke, Leopold von, German historian. B. Dec. 20 or 21, 1795. D. May 
 23, 1886. Various works on the history of Europe in the 16th and 17th 
 centuries, the principal being the history of the popes and that of Ger- 
 many in the period of the Reformation ; numerous other works on German 
 history, miscellaneous historical productions, and a universal history. 
 
 Raoul-Rochette, Desire, French archaeologist. B. about 1790. D. 1854. 
 •• Histoire critique de l'etafblissement des colonies grecques." Numerous 
 works on ancient Greek and Roman art, &c. 
 
 Raphael (Ilaffaelle Sanzio d'Urbino), Italian painter. B. 1483. D. April 
 6, 1520. 
 
 Rapoport (Rappaport), Solomon Judah, rabbinical critic, rabbi of Prague. 
 B. 1790. D. 1867. 
 
 Rapp, Georg, founder of the sect of Harmonists in the United States. B. in 
 Germany 1770. D. 1847. 
 
 Rapp, Jean, count, French general. B. 1772. D. 1821. 
 
 Rappaport. See Rapoport. 
 
 Rashi. See Solomon ben Isaac. 
 
 Rask, Rasmus Christian, Danish philologist. B. 1787. D. 1832. 
 
 Raspail, Francois Vincent. French chemist, vegetable physiologist, revolu- 
 tionist. B. 1794. D. 1878. 
 
 Rattazzi, Urbano, Italian statesman. B. 1808. D. 1873. 
 
 Rauch, Christian, German sculptor. B. 1777. D. 1857. 
 
 Raumer, Friedrich von, German historian. B. 1781. D. 1873. " Geschichte 
 der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit." " Geschichte Europas seit dem Ende 
 des 15. Jahrhunderts." 
 
 Ratischer, Joseph Othmar von, Austrian prelate. B. 1797. D. 1875. 
 
 Ravaillac, Francois, assassin of Henry IV. of France. B. about 1578. Put 
 to death 1610. 
 
 Rawdon, Lord. See Hastings, Francis. 
 
 Rawlinson, George, English historian, brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
 B. 1815. " The History of Herodotus." " The Five Great Monarchies of 
 the Ancient Eastern World." " The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy : 
 Parthia." " The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, or the Sassanian or 
 New Persian Empire." " History of Ancient Egypt." 
 
 Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke, English archffiologist, decipherer of cunei- 
 form inscriptions. B. 1810. D. 1895. 
 
 Ray, John, English botanist. B. 1628. D. 1705. 
 
 Rayleigh, John William Strutt, lord, English physicist. B. 1842. 
 
 Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, crusader. D. 1105. 
 
 Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, protector of the Albigenses. B. 1156. 
 D. 1222. 
 
 Raynal, Guillaume Thomas Francois, French historical writer, freethinker. 
 B. 1713. D. 1796. Best known work, " Histoire philosophique et politique 
 des etablissements et du commerce des Europeens dans les deux Indes." 
 
 Raynouard, Francois Juste Marie, Provencal scholar. B. 1761. D. 1836. 
 
528 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Razis. See Rhazes. 
 
 Reade, Charles, English novelist. B. 1814. D. 1884. 
 
 Reade, William Winwood, Eng. African explorer, author. B. 1839. D. 1875. 
 
 Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de, French scientist. B. 1683. D. 1757. 
 
 Recamier, Madame J. F. Julie Adelaide, French leader of society. B. 1777. 
 
 D. 1849. 
 Reclus, Elisee, French geographer. B. 1830. 
 
 Redi, Francesco, Italian naturalist, poet. B. 1636. D. 1698 or 1697. 
 Redwitz, Oskar von, baron, German poet, dramatist, novelist. B. 1823. 
 
 D. 1891. 
 Reed, Joseph, American patriot. B. 1741. D. 1785. 
 
 Regiomontanus (Johann Miiller), German astronomer. B. 1436. D. 1476. 
 Regnard, Jean Francois, French writer of comedy. B. 1655. D. 1709. 
 E,egnault, Henri Victor, French chemist, physicist. B. 1810. D. 1878. 
 Regnault, Jean Baptiste, baron, French painter. B. 1754. D. 1829. 
 Regnier, Mathurin, French satirical poet. B. 1573. D. 1613. 
 Regulus, Marcus Atilius, Roman general in the first Punic War. Middle 
 
 of 3d c. b. c. 
 Rehoboam, king of Judah. Reigned about 953-932 b. c. (Duncker; about 
 
 978-960, common chron.). 
 Reichenbach, Ileinrich Gottlieb Ludwig, German botanist. B. 1793. D. 
 
 1879. 
 Reichenbach, Karl von, baron, German scientist. B. 1788. D. 1869. 
 Reichstadt, duke of. See Boxaparte, Napoleon (Napoleon II.). 
 Reid, Mayne, British writer of books of adventure for boys. B. 1818. D. 
 
 1883. 
 Reid, Thomas, Scottish philosopher. B. 1710. D. 1796. 
 Reimarus, Hermann Samuel, German philosophical writer. B. 1694. D. 
 
 1768. Known chiefly as the author of the " Wolfenbiittel Fragments." 
 Reinhold, Karl Leonhard, German philosopher. B. 1758. D. 1823. 
 Reinkens, Joseph Hubert, German Old Catholic bishop. B. 1821. 1). 1896. 
 Reiske, Johann Jakob, German philologist. B. 1716. D. 1774. 
 Rembrandt, Paul, Dutch painter, etcher. B. about 1607. D. 1669. 
 Remigius (Remy), Saint, bishop of Rheims. B. about 439. D. about 533. 
 Remusat, Charles Francois Marie de, count, French author, statesman. B. 
 
 1797. D. 1875. 
 Remusat, Claire Elisabeth Jeanne Gravion de Vergennes, countess de, 
 
 French writer of memoirs. B. 1780. D. 1821. 
 Remusat, Jean Pierre Abel, French orientalist. B. 1788. D. 1832. Works 
 
 on the languages of China, Mongolia, &c. 
 Renan, Ernest, French author, orientalist. B. 1823. D. 1892. Best known 
 
 by his "Vie de Jesus" and other works on the origins of Christianity. 
 Rene the Good, duke of Anjou and Lorraine, count of Provence, king of 
 
 Naples. B. 1409. Succeeded Joanna II. in Naples 1435 ; dispossessed by 
 
 Alfonso V. of Aragon 1442. D. 1480. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 509 
 
 Reni, Guido. See Guido Reni. 
 
 Rennell, James, English geographer. B. 1742. D. 1830. 
 
 Rennie, George, British engineer. B. 1791. D. 1866. 
 
 Rennie, John, British engineer. B. 1761. D. 1821. 
 
 Renouf, Peter Le Page, British Egyptologist. B. 1824. 
 
 Renwick, James, American writer on mechanics. B. about 1790. D. 1863. 
 
 Reshid Pasha, Turkish statesman, leader of the reform party under 
 Abdul-Medjid. B. 1802. D. 1858. 
 
 Rethel, Alfred, German painter. B. 1816. D. 1859. 
 
 Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, cardinal de, one of the leaders of the 
 Fronde. B. 1614. D. 1679. 
 
 Reuchlin, Johann, German, Greek, and Hebrew scholar, a reviver of clas- 
 sical learning, who did much to pave the way for the Reformation. B. 
 1455. D. 1522. 
 
 Reumont, Alfred von, German historian. B. 1808. D. 1887. Works deal- 
 ing with Italian history. 
 
 Reuter, Fritz, German poet, novelist, writer in the Platt-Deutsch dialect. 
 B. 1810. D. 1874. 
 
 Revere, Paul, American patriot. B. 1735. D. 1818. 
 
 Rewbell, Jean Baptiste (Jean Francois?), member of the French Directory. 
 B. 1747. D. 1807. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, English painter. B. 1723. D. 1792. 
 
 Rhabanus Maurus. See Rabanus Maurus. 
 
 Rhazes, Arabian physician. D. about 932. 
 
 Ribault, Jean, leader of Huguenot colonists in Florida. Killed 1565. 
 
 Ribera, Jose. See Spagnoletto. 
 
 Ricardo, David, English political economist. B. 1772. D. 1823. 
 
 Ricasoli, Bettino, baron, Italian statesman. B. 1809. D. 1880. 
 
 Riccio, Domenico. See Brusasorci. 
 
 Rich, Edmund, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. D. about 1241. 
 
 Richard I., Cceur de Lion, king of England, son of Henry II. B. 1157. 
 Reigned from 1189. Killed 1199. 
 
 Richard II., king of England, son of Edward the Black Prince. B. about 
 1366. Reigned 1377-99. D. 1400. 
 
 Richard III., king of England, brother of Edward IV. B. 1452. Reigned 
 from 1483. Slain 1485. (Previous to his accession styled duke of Glou- 
 cester.) 
 
 Richard de Bury (Richard Aungervyle), English prelate, statesman, patron 
 of learning. D. 1345. 
 
 Richard Plantagenet, earl of Cornwall, emperor-elect of Germany, brother 
 of Henry III. of England. B. 1209. D. 1272. 
 
 Richardson, James, British African explorer. B. 1809. D. 1851. 
 
 Richardson, Sir John, British Arctic explorer, naturalist. B. 1787. D. 1865. 
 
 Richardson, Samuel, English novelist. B. 1689. D. 1761. "Pamela." 
 " Clarissa Harlowe." " Sir Charles Grandison." 
 
530 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Duplessis, duke de, French statesman. B. 
 
 1766. D. 1822. 
 Richelieu, Armand Jean Duplessis, cardinal de, prime-minister of Louis 
 
 XIII. B. Sept. 5, 1585. D. Dec. 4, 1642. 
 Richelieu, Louis Francois Armand Duplessis, duke (marshal de). B. 1696. 
 
 D. 1788. 
 Richmond, countess of. See Beaufort, Margaret. 
 Richmond, earl of. See Hexry VII., king of England. 
 Richmond, Legh, English clergyman. B. 1772. D. 1827. Author of 
 
 " Annals of the Poor," including the story of " The Dairyman's Daugh- 
 ter." 
 Richter, Gustav, German painter. B. 1823. D. 1884. 
 Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich ("Jean Paul"), German author. B. 1763. 
 
 D. 1825. Satirical and philosophical compositions. 
 Richthofen, Ferdinand von, baron, German traveler in China, geologist. 
 
 B. 1833. 
 Ricimer, German military chief, virtual head of the Western Empire. D. 
 
 472. 
 Ridley, Nicholas, bishop of London. Burned 1555. 
 Riedel, August, German painter. B. 1799. D. 1883. 
 Riedesel, Friedrich Adolf von, baron, German general in the British ser- 
 vice in America. B. 1738. D. 1800. 
 Rionzi, Cola di, Roman popular leader. B. about 1312. Killed 1354. 
 Rietschel, Ernst, German sculptor. B. 1804. D. 1861. 
 Righini, Vincenzo. Italian composer. B. 1756. D. 1812. 
 Rinehart, William Henry, American sculptor. B. 1825. D. 1874. 
 Ripley, George, American scholar. B. 1802. D. 1880. 
 Ripon, Frederick John Robinson, earl of. See Goderich. 
 Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of, English statesman, 
 
 viceroy of India, 1880-'84. B. 1827. 
 Ristori, Adelaide, Italian actress. B. 1821. 
 Rittenhouse, David, American mathematician, astronomer. B. 1732. D. 
 
 1796. 
 Ritter, Karl, German geographer. B. 1779. D. 1859. 
 Ritter, Heinrich, German philosopher. B. 1791. D. 1869. "Geschichte 
 
 der Philosophic" 
 Rivarol, Antoine de, count (assumed name), French wit, author. B. 1753. 
 
 D. 1801. 
 Rivas, duke of. See Saavedra. 
 
 Rivington, James, Anglo-American journalist. B. about 1724. D. 1802. 
 Rizzio, David, an Italian, favorite of Mary Stuart. Murdered 1566. 
 Robbia, Luca della, Italian sculptor. D. about 1482 (?). 
 Robert II., king of France. Reigned 996-1031. 
 Robert I., king of Scotland. See Bruce. 
 Robert II., king of Scotland, first of the Stuart dynasty. Reigned 1371-90. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 531 
 
 Robert III., king of Scotland. Reigned 1390-1406. 
 
 Robert I., le D table (the DevilX duke of Normandy, father of William the 
 Conqueror. D. 1035. 
 
 Robert II., Courthose, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror. 
 1). 1134. 
 
 Robert the Wise, king of Naples. Reigned 1309-'43. 
 
 Robert Guiscard, Norman conqueror, duke of Apulia and Calabria. B. 
 about 1015. D. 1085. 
 
 Robert, Louis Leopold, French painter. B. 1794. D. 1835. 
 
 Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas, French painter. B. 1797. 
 
 Roberts, David, British artist. B. 1796. D. 1864. 
 
 Roberts, Sir Frederick S., British general in Afghanistan. B. 1833. 
 
 Robertson, Frederick William, English clergyman. B. 1816. D. 1853. 
 
 Robertson, Thomas William, English dramatist. B. 1829. D. 1871. 
 
 Robertson, William, Scottish historian. B. 1721. D. 1793. " History of 
 Charles V." " History of Scotland during the Reigns of Mary and James 
 VI." " History of America." 
 
 Roberval, Gilles Personne de, French mathematician. B. 1602. D. 1675. 
 
 Robespierre, Maximilien, French revolutionist. B. 1758. Executed 1794. 
 
 Robinson, Edward, American scholar, traveler. B. 1794. D. 1863. " Bib- 
 lical Researches in Palestine." 
 
 Robinson, Therese (" Talvj "), wife of the preceding, daughter of Ludwig 
 Heinrich von Jakob, German authoress, Slavic scholar. B. 1797. D. 
 1870. 
 
 Robinson, John, English Puritan. B. 1575. D. 1625. 
 
 Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor Campbell), Scottish freebooter. B. about 
 1600. D. about 1734." 
 
 Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, count de, French gen- 
 eral in America. B. 1725. D. 1807. 
 
 Rochefort, Henri, French journalist, political agitator. B. 1830. 
 
 Rochefoucauld. See La Rochefoucauld. 
 
 Rochejaquelein. See La Rochejaquelein. 
 
 Rochester, John Wilmot, earl of, English courtier, poet. B. 1647 or 1648. 
 D. 1080. 
 
 Rochette. See Raoul-Rocfiette. 
 
 Rockingham, Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of, prime-minister of 
 England 1765-6, 1782. B. 1730. D. 1782. 
 
 Rodbertus, Karl, German political economist, socialist, politician. B. 1805. 
 D. 1875. 
 
 Rodenberg, Julius (real name, Julius Levy), German poet, novelist, journal- 
 ist, writer of ethnographic sketches. B. 1831. 
 
 Roderic, last Visigothie king of Spain. Slain 711. 
 
 Rodiger, Emil, German orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1874. 
 
 Rodney, George Brydges, Lord, English admiral. B. 1718. D. 1792. 
 
 Roebling, John Augustus, American engineer. B. in Prussia 1806. D. 1869. 
 35 
 
532 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Roebling, Washington A., American engineer. B. 1837. 
 
 Roebuck, John Arthur, English statesman. B. 1802. D. 1879. 
 
 Roemer, Olaf (Olaus), Danish astronomer. B. 1644. D. 1710. 
 
 Roger I. (Roger Guiscard), Norman conqueror, count of Sicily, brother of 
 
 Robert Guiscard. B. 1031. D. 1101. 
 Roger II., king of Sicily. B. about 1097. Count of Sicily from 1101 ; king 
 
 from 1130. D. 1154. 
 Rogers, Henry Darwin, American geologist. B. 1808. D. 1866. 
 Rogers, John, English Reformer. Burned 1555. 
 Rogers, Randolph, American sculptor. B. 1825. D. 1892. 
 Rogers, Samuel, English poet. B. 1763. D. 1855. 
 Rohan, Henri de, duke, Huguenot leader. B. 1579. D. 1638. 
 Rohan, Louis Rene Edouard de, prince, French cardinal, noted in connec- 
 tion with the affair of the diamond necklace. B. 1734. D. 1803. 
 Rohlfs, Gerhard, German traveler in Africa. B. 1831. D. 1896. 
 Rokitansky, Karl, Austrian physician. B. 1804. D. 1878. 
 Roland, Prankish warrior. Slain 778. 
 
 Roland (Rolande de la Platiere), Jean Marie, Girondist. B. 1734. D. 1793. 
 Roland, Marie (or Manon) Jeanne Philipon, Madame, Girondist. B. 1754. 
 
 Executed 1793. 
 Rollin, Charles, French historian. B. 1661. D. 1741. " Histoire ancienne." 
 
 " Histoire romaine." 
 Rollo, Norwegian viking, first duke of Normandy. D. about 931. 
 Romagnosi, Gian Domenico, Italian jurist. B. 1761. D. 1835. 
 Romanes, George John, British naturalist. B. 1848. D. 1894. " Mental 
 
 Evolution in Animals." " Mental Evolution in Man." 
 Romano, Giulio. See Giulio Romano. 
 Romantzoff. See Rumiantzeff. 
 
 Romilly, Sir Samuel, English lawyer, statesman. B. 1757. D. 1818. 
 Romney, George, English painter. B. 1734. D. 1802. 
 Romulus, reputed founder of Rome in 753 B. c. 
 Romulus Augustulus, Roman emperor. Reigned 475-6. 
 Ronge, Johannes, founder of the sect of German Catholics. B. 1813. D. 1887. 
 Ronsard, Pierre de, French poet. B. 1524. D. 1585. 
 Rooke, Sir George, English admiral. B. 1650. D. 1709. 
 Roon, Albrecht von, count, Prussian general and minister of war. B. 1803. 
 
 D. 1879. 
 Rosa, Francisco Martinez de la. See Martinez de la Rosa. 
 Rosa, Salvator, Italian painter. B. 1615. D. 1673. 
 Rosamond, favorite of Henry II. of England. D. 1177. 
 Rosas, Juan Manuel de, Argentine dictator. B. 1793. Ruled 1829-52. 
 
 D. 1877. 
 Roscher, Wilhelm, German political economist. B. 1817. D. 1894. 
 Roscius, Quintus, Roman comedian. D. about 62 b. c. 
 Roscoe, Henry Enfield, English chemist, spectroscopist. B. 1833. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 533 
 
 Roscoe, William, English historian. B. 1753. D. 1831. Histories of Loren- 
 zo cle' Medici and Leo X. 
 
 Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of, prime-minister of England 
 1894-5. B. 1847. 
 
 Rosecrans, William Starke, American general. B. 1819. 
 
 Rosen, Friedrich August, German orientalist. B. 1805. D. 1837. 
 
 Rosenkranz, Karl, German philosopher. B. 1805. D. 1879. 
 
 Rosenmuller, Ernst Friedrich Karl, German Biblical scholar, orientalist. 
 B. 17G8. D. 1835. 
 
 Rosini, Giovanni, Italian novelist, literary critic, writer on Italian art. B. 
 1776. D. 1855. 
 
 Rosmini-Serbati, Antonio, Italian philosopher. B. 1797. D. 1855. 
 
 Rosny. See Sully. 
 
 Ross, Sir James Clark, Eng. Arctic and Antarctic explorer. B. 1800. D. 1862. 
 
 Ross, Sir John, British Arctic explorer. B. in Scotland 1777. D. 1856. 
 
 Ross, Robert, British general in America. B. about 1770. Killed 1814. 
 
 Rosse, William Parsons, earl of, British astronomer. B. 1800. D. 1867. 
 
 Rossel, Louis Nathaniel, French Communist. B. 1844. Executed 1871. 
 
 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, English artist, poet, son of Gabriele Rossetti. B. 
 1828. D. 1882. 
 
 Rossetti, Gabriele, Italian poet, commentator of Dante. B. 1783. D. 1854. 
 
 Rossi, Ernesto, Italian actor. B. 1829. D. 1896. 
 
 Rossi, Giovanni Battista de', Italian archaeologist. B. 1822. D. 1894. 
 
 Rossi, Pellegrino, count, Italian statesman. B. 1787. Killed 1848. 
 
 Rossini, Gioacchino, Italian composer. B. 1792. D. 1868. 
 
 Rostoptchin, Fedor, count, Russian soldier. B. 1765. D. 1826. 
 
 Roth, Rudolf, German Sanskrit scholar. B. 1821. D. 1895. 
 
 Rothe, Richard, German Protestant theologian. B. 1799. D. 1867. 
 
 Rothschild, Mayer Anselm, German-Jewish banker, founder of the pros- 
 perity of the Rothschild family. B. 1743. D. 1812. 
 
 Rotteck, Karl von, German writer on universal history. B. 1775. D. 1840. 
 
 Rottmann, Karl, German painter. B. about 1797. D. 1850. 
 
 Rouge, Olivier Charles Camille Emmanuel de, viscount, French Egyptolo- 
 gist. B. 1811. D. 1873. 
 
 Rouget de Lisle, Claude Joseph, author of the " Marseillaise." B. 1760. 
 D. 1836. 
 
 Rouher, Eugene, French politician, chief minister of Napoleon III. B. 
 1814. D. 1884. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Baptiste, French poet. B. 1670. D. 1741. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, French author. B. in Geneva, June 28, 1712. 
 D. July 2, 1778. "Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloi'se," 1760. " Emile, ou 
 de l'education," 1762. "Le contrat social," 1762. '"Les confessions," 
 posthumous. 
 
 Rousseau, Philippe, French painter. B. 1816. D. 1887. 
 
 Rousseau, Theodore, French painter. B. 1812. D. 1867. 
 
534 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Rovigo, duke of. See Savary. 
 
 Rowe, Nicholas, English dramatist. B. 1674. D. 1718. 
 Rowland, Henry Augustus, American physicist. B. 1848. 
 Royer-Collard, Pierre Paul, Fr. statesman, philosopher. B. 1763. D. 1845. 
 Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish painter. B. 1577. D. May 30, 1640. 
 Rubini, Giovanni Battista, Italian singer. B. 1795. D. 1854. 
 Rubinstein, Anton, Russian pianist, composer. B. 1830 (1829 ?). D. 1894. 
 Rucellai, Giovanni, Italian poet. B. 1475. D. about 1525. " Le Api " 
 
 (" Bees," didactic poem). 
 Riickert, Friedrich, German poet. B. 1788. D, 1866. Especially noted for 
 
 his translations of oriental poetry and original poems referring to the 
 
 East. " Die Weisheit der Brahmanen " (" The Wisdom of the Brahmins," 
 
 didactic poem). 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg * (Rudolph I.), emperor of Germany, founder 
 
 of the present house of Austria. B. 1218. Elected emperor 1273. D. 
 
 1291. 
 Rudolph II., emperor of Germany, archduke of Austria, king of Hungary 
 
 and Bohemia. B. 1552. Succeeded his father, Maximilian II., 1576. I). 
 
 1612. 
 Ruffini, Giovanni Domenico, Italian patriot, novelist (writings in English). 
 
 B. about 1807. D. 1881. 
 Rufinus, minister of Arcadius. Murdered A. D. 395. 
 Ruge, Arnold, German revolutionist, author. B. 1802. D. 1880. 
 Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, American physicist, philanthropist, 
 
 administrator in the Bavarian service. B. 1753. D. 1814. 
 Rumiantzeff (Romantzoff), Petr, count, Russian general. B. 1725. D. 
 
 1796. 
 Runeberg, Johan Ludwig, Swedish poet. B. in Finland 1804. D. 1877. 
 Runjeet Singh, Sikh ruler. D. 1839. 
 Rupert (Ruprecht) of the Palatinate, emperor of Germany. Reigned 
 
 1400-1410. 
 Rupert, prince, nephew and general of Charles I. of England. B. 1619. 
 
 D. 1682. 
 Rurik, Varangian leader, who laid the first foundations of the Russian Em- 
 pire. D. 879. 
 Rush, Benjamin, American physician. B. 1745. D. 1813. 
 Rush, Richard, American statesman. B. 1780. D. 1859. 
 Ruskin, John, English writer on art. B. 1819. 
 Russell, John, earl, English statesman, prime-minister 1846-'52, 1865-'6. 
 
 B. Aug. 18, 1792. D. May 28, 1878. 
 Russell, John Scott, British nautical engineer. B. 1808. D. 1882. 
 Russell, William, Lord, English statesman. B. 1639. Executed 1683. 
 
 * The castle of Hapsburg was located in what is now the canton of Aargau, in Switzer- 
 land. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 535 
 
 Russell, William, British historian. B. 1741. D. 1793. "History of 
 
 Modern Europe." 
 Russell, W. Clark, English novelist. B. 1844. " The Wreck of the Gros- 
 
 venof," and other seafaring novels. 
 Russell, William Howard, British journalist, author. B. 1821. 
 Rustow, Wilhelm, German military writer. B. 1821. D. 1878. 
 Rutledge, John, American statesman. B. 1739. D. 1800. 
 Ruysdael, Jacob, Dutch painter. B. about 1625. D. 1682. 
 Ruyter, Michael Adriaanszoon de, Dutch admiral. B. 1607. Killed 1676. 
 Rydberg, Victor, Swedish novelist, poet, scholar. B. 1829. D. 1895. Best 
 
 known by his "Last of the Athenians" (depicting the struggle between 
 
 paganism and Christianity). 
 
 S. 
 
 Saadi, Persian poet. B. about 1190. D. 1291. "Gulistan" ("Flower Gar- 
 den "). " Bostan " (" Fruit Garden "). 
 Saadia ben Joseph, Jewish philosophical and exegetical writer, translator 
 
 of the Old Testament into Arabic. B. in Egypt 892. D. about 941. 
 Saavedra, Angel de, duke of Rivas, Spanish statesman, poet. B. 1791. D. 
 
 1865. 
 Sabellius, African ecclesiastic. 3d c. 
 
 Sabine, Sir Edward, British scientist, chiefly distinguished in the field of 
 • terrestrial magnetism. B. 1788. D. 1883. 
 
 Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, Austrian novelist. B. about 1835. D. 1895. 
 Sacheverell, Henry, English clergyman. B. about 1672. D. 1724. 
 Sachs, Hans, German poet, B. 1494. I). 1576. 
 
 Sackville, George, viscount, English soldier, statesman. B. 1716. D. 1785. 
 Sackville, Thomas, earl of Dorset, English statesman, writer. B. 1536. D. 
 
 1608. 
 Sacy, Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de, baron, French orientalist. B. 1758. D. 
 
 1838. 
 Sacy, Samuel Ustazade Sylvestre de, French polit. writer. B. 1801. D. 1879. 
 Sadi. See Saadi. 
 
 Sadoleto, Jacopo, Italian ecclesiastic, author. B. 1477. D. 1547. 
 Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo, Spanish statesman. B. 1827. 
 Said Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, Reigned 1854-'63. 
 Saint-Andre, Jacques d'Albon de, marshal, French Catholic leader. Killed 
 
 1562. 
 Saint-Arnaud, Jacques Leroy de, French general. D. 1854. 
 Saint Clair, Arthur, American general. B. 1734. D. 1818. 
 Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion. See Gouvion St. Cyr. 
 Sainte-Aldegonde, Philip van Marnix, baron de, Flemish patriot, B. 1538. 
 
 D. 1598. 
 Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin, French literary critic, poet. B. 1804. D. 
 
 1869. " Tableau historique et critique de la poesie francaise et du theatre 
 
536 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 francais aii XVI e siecle." " Causeries du Lundi " and " Nouveaux Lun-> 
 
 dis " (literary criticisms). " G-alerie des femmes celebres." " Critiques et 
 
 portraits litteraires." " Histoire de Port Royal." 
 Sainte-Claire Deville, Charles, French geologist, meteorologist. B. 1814. 
 
 D. 1870. 
 Sainte-Claire Deville, Henri Etienne, French chemist. B. 1818. D. 
 
 1881. 
 Saint-Germain, count de, adventurer, impostor. D. 1784 (according to 
 
 some about ten years later). 
 Saint-Hilaire, Barthelemy. See Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire. 
 Saint-Hilaire, Auguste de, French botanist. B. 1799. D. 1853. 
 Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy. See Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. 
 Saintine (pseudonym of Joseph Xavier Boniface), French writer of fiction, 
 
 dramatist. B. 1798. D. 1865. Best known by his story of " Picciola." 
 Saint John, Bayle, English author. B. 1822. D. 1859. 
 Saint John, Henry. See Bolingbroke. 
 
 Saint John, James Augustus, English author. B. 1801. D. 1875. 
 Saint- Just, Antoine, French revolutionist. B. about 1767. Executed 1794. 
 Saint-Lambert, Jean Frangois de, marquis, French poet philosopher. B. 
 
 1716. I). 1803. 
 Saint-Marc Girardin, Francois Auguste, French author, journalist. B. 
 
 1801. L>. 1873. Writings on French literature, on dramatic literature, 
 
 politics, &e. 
 Saint-Pierre, Charles Irenee Castel, abbe de, French writer on politics and 
 
 social reform. B. 1658. D. 1743. 
 Saint-Pierre, J. H. Bernardin de, French author. B. 1737. D. 1814. Best 
 
 known by his tale of " Paul et Virginie. " 
 Saint-Saens, Camille, French composer. B. 1835. 
 
 Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de. count, French socialist. B. 1760. D. 1825. 
 Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroi, duke de, French writer of memoirs. B. 
 
 1675, D. 1755. 
 Saint-Victor, Paul de, French dramatic and art critic. B. 1827. D. 1881. 
 Sala, George Augustus Henry. English author, journalist. B. 1828. D. 1895. 
 Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. B. 1137. D. 1193. 
 Saldanha, Joao Carlos, duke of, Portuguese statesman. B. 1791. D. 1876. 
 Sales, Francis de. See Francis de Sales. 
 Salieri, Antonio, Italian composer. B. 1750. D. 1825. 
 Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of. See Cecil. 
 Salisbury, Robert Cecil, marquis of, English statesman. B. 1830. Prime 
 
 minister June, 1885— Jan., 1886, July, 1886— Aug., 1892, and since 1895. 
 Sallet, Friedrich von, German poet. B. 1812. 1). 1843. 
 Sallust (Caius Sallustius Crispus), Roman historian. B. about 86 B. c. D. 
 
 34. Histories of the conspiracy of Catiline and the Jugurthine war. 
 Salmasius (Claude de Saumaise), Fr. classical scholar. B. 1588. D. 1653. 
 Salvandy, Narcisse Achille de, count, French statesman, author. B. 1795. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 537 
 
 D. 1856. "Don Alonzo, ou l'Espagne, histoire contemporaine." "His- 
 
 toire de Pologne avant et sous le roi Jean Sobieski." 
 Salvator Rosa. See Rosa. 
 
 Salviati, Antonio, Italian mosaic painter. B. 1816. D. 1890. 
 Salvini, Tommaso, Italian actor. B. 1829. D. 1896. 
 Samuel, Hebrew prophet. 11th c. b. c. 
 Sancho the Great, king of Navarre. D. 1035. 
 Sancta Clara, Abraham a. See Abraham a Sancta Clara. 
 Sand, George. See Dudevaxt. 
 
 Sandeau, Jules, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1811. D. 1883. 
 Sandoval, Prudencio de, Spanish historian. B. about 1560. D. 1621. 
 Sandys, George, English poet. B. 1577. D. 1644. Paraphrases of various 
 
 books of the Old Testament. Translation of Ovid's " Metamorphoses." 
 Sangallo, Antonio da, Italian architect. B. about 1482. D. 1546. (Another 
 
 architect of the same name flourished somewhat earlier.) 
 San Martin, Jose de, Argentine patriot leader. B. 1778. D. 1850. 
 Sanmicheli, Michele, Italian architect. First half of 16th c. 
 Sannazaro, Jacopo, Italian poet. B. 1458. D. 1530. " Arcadia " (pastoral 
 
 in prose and verse). 
 Sansovino (Andrea Contucci), Italian sculptor, architect. D. 1529. 
 Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti), Italian sculptor, architect. B. about 1479. D. 
 
 1570. 
 Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, president and dictator of Mexico, general. 
 
 B. about 1795. Governed 1833-'6, 1839, 1841-4, 1846-7, 1853-'5. D. 
 
 1876. 
 Santerre, Antoine Joseph, French revolutionist, commander. B. 1752. D. 
 
 1809. 
 Santillana, Marquis of. See Mexdoza, Ixigo Lopez de. 
 Sapor (Shapur) I., king of Persia. Reigned from about 240. D. about 271. 
 Sapor II., the Great, king of Persia. B. about 309. Reigned from his 
 
 birth. D. about 380. 
 Sappho, Greek poetess. 600 b. c. 
 
 Sarcey, Franeisque, French journalist, dramatic critic. B. 1828. 
 Sardanapalus (Assur-bani-pal), king of Assyria. Reigned from 668 b. c. 
 
 D. about 626 (?). 
 Sardou, Victorien, French dramatist. B. 1831. 
 Sargent, John Singer, American painter. B. 1856. 
 Sargon, king of Assyria. Reigned 722-705 b. c. 
 Sa,rmiento, Domingo Faustino, president of the Argentine republic 1868-'74. 
 
 B. 1811. D. 1888. 
 Sarpi, Paolo (Fra Paolo), Venetian ecclesiastic, historian. B. 1552. D. 1623. 
 
 History of the council of Trent. 
 Sars, Mikkel, Norwegian naturalist. B. 1805. D. 1869. 
 Sarti, Giuseppe, Italian composer. B. 1729. D. 1802. 
 Sarto, Andrea del, Italian painter. B. about 1486. D. 1531. 
 
538 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Saul, kinj; of the Jews. Slain about 1033 B. a (Dwncker ; 1058, Oppert). 
 Saulcy, Louis Felicien Joseph Caignart de, French antiquary, numismatist, 
 
 B. 1807. D. 1880. Noted for his researches in the field of Jewish antiqui- 
 
 t ies. 
 Saurin, Jacques, French Protestant preacher. B. 1G77. D. 1730. 
 Saussure, Eorace Benedict de, Swiss geologist, meteorologist, naturalist. 
 
 B. 1740. I). 171)9. " Voyages dans les Alpes." 
 Sauveur, Joseph, French natural philosopher. B. 1G53. D. 171G. Noted 
 
 for his discoveries in musical acoustics. 
 Savage, Richard, English poet. B. 1698. I). 1743. " The Bastard." "The 
 
 Wanderer." 
 Savary, Anne Jean Marie Item', duke of Rovigo, French general. B. 1774. 
 
 I), is:;:;. 
 Savigny, Friedrich Karl von, German jurist, authority on Roman law. B. 
 
 1779. I). L861. 
 Savile (Saville), George, marquis of Halifax, English statesman. B. about 
 
 I <>::<>. 1). 1695. 
 Savonarola, Girolamo, Italian monk, who denounced the corruptions of 
 
 I he church and I he vices of society, and sought to reform the Florentine 
 
 slate. I!. 1452. Pul to death 1498. 
 Saxe, John Godfrey, American humorous poet. B. 1816. D. 1887. 
 Saxe, Maurice, count, de, French general, illegitimate son of Augustus the 
 
 Strong of Saxony. B. in Germany 1696. I). 1750. 
 Saxo Grammaticus, Danish historian. D. about 1204. 
 Say, .lean Baptiste, French political economist. 15. 17(57. D. 1832. 
 Say, Leon, French statesman, financier. B. 182G. I). 1896. 
 Say, Thomas, American naturalist. B. 1787. I). 1834. 
 Sayce, Archibald Henry, English Assyriologist. B. 184G. 
 Scaliger, Joseph Justus, French critic, chronologist, son of J. C. Scaliger. 
 
 P.. 1510. I). 1609. 
 Scaliger, Julius Cicsar, Italian classical scholar, critic. B. 1484. I). 1558. 
 Scanderbeg (George Castriota), Albanian ruler, warrior. D. 14G8. 
 Scarlatti, Alessandro, Italian composer. 15. 1G49. D. 1725. 
 Scarlatti, Domenico, Italian pianist, composer. 15. 1688. I), about 1757. 
 Scarpa, Antonio, Italian anatomist. 15. 1747. I). 1832. 
 Scarron, Paul, French burlesque writer. B. 1010. D. 1060. 
 Scaurus, Marcus JEmilius, Roman general, consul, senator. B. about 100 
 
 I!. ('. 
 
 Scaurus, Marcus JEmilius, a Roman noted for his extravagant expenditure. 
 Curule sedile 58 b. c. 
 
 Schack, Adolf von, count, German poet, translator from the Spanish and Per- 
 sian. B. 1815. I). 1894. 
 
 Schadow, Priedrich Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1789. D. 1862. 
 
 Schadow, Johann Gottfried, German sculptor. 15. 17G4. T). 1850. 
 
 Schafarik, Paul Joseph, Slavic scholar. B. in Hungary 1795. D. 1861. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 539 
 
 Schafer, Heinrich, German historian. 13. 1704. D. 1869. Histories of 
 
 Portugal and Spain. 
 Schaff, Philip, American divine. B. 1819. D. 1893. 
 Scheele, Karl Wilhelm, Swedish chemist. B. 1742. D. 1786. 
 Scheffel, Joseph Victor von, German poet. B. 1820. D. 1886. 
 Scheffer, Ary, French painter. B. L795. D. 1858. 
 Schelling-, Priedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, German philosopher. B. Jan. 27, 
 
 1775. D. Aug. 30, L854. 
 Schendel, Petrus van, Belgian painter. B. 1806. D. 1870. 
 Schenkel, Daniel, German Protestant theologian. B. 1813. D. 1885. 
 Scherer, Edmond, French theological writer, critic. 15. 1815. D. 1889. 
 Scherr, Johannes, German historical writer, literary historian, novelist. B. 
 
 1817. D. 1886. 
 Scherzer, Karl von, Austrian traveler. B. 1821. 
 Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, Italian astronomer. B. 1835. 
 Schiller, Priedrich von, German poet, dramatist, historian. B. Nov. 10, 
 
 1759. 1>. May9,1805. Dramas: "Die RSuber " (published 1781), " Fiesco," 
 
 "Cabale und Liebe," "Don Carlos," " Wallenstein," " Maria Stuart," "Die 
 
 Jungfrau von Orleans," " Die Braut von Messina,"" Wilhelm Tell " (1804). 
 Most, famous lyric poem, " Das Lied von der Glocke" ("The Song of the 
 Bell"). Historical works: "Geschichte des Abfalls der Vereinigten 
 Niederlande" ("History of the Revolt of the United Netherlands"), 
 "Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Kriegs" (" History of the Thirty Years' 
 War "). 
 
 Schilling, Johannes, German sculptor. B. 1828. 
 
 Schimper, Wilhelm Philipp, Alsatian botanist. B. 1808. D. 1M80. Dis- 
 tinguished in the field of bryology and in that of vegetable palaeontology. 
 
 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, German architect. 15. 1781. I). 1841. 
 
 Schlagintweit, Adolf, German traveler in the Himalaya, Thibet, ami Tar 
 tary. 15. 182!). Murdered 1S57. 
 
 Schlagintweit, Eermann, German traveler in the Himalaya and Thibet. 
 15. 1826. D. 1882. 
 
 Schlagintweit, Robert, German traveler in the Himalaya and Thibet. 15. 
 is:;::. I). 1885. 
 
 Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, German poet, critic, translator of Shakes- 
 peare, Calderon, and other writers. B. Sept. 8, 1767. D. May 12, is 15. 
 
 Schlegel, Friedrich von, German author, critic, philosopher. 15. March It), 
 1772. D. Jan. 11, 1829. "Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und 
 Romer." "Geschichte der alten und neuen Literatur." "Philosophic 
 des Lebens" ("Philosophy of Life"). Philosophic der (Jeschichte." 
 
 Schleicher, August, German philologist. 15. 1821. D. 1868. 
 
 Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1804. D. 
 1881. 
 
 Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst, German theologian, preacher, 
 philosopher. B. 1768. D. 1834. " Reden iiber die Religion "(" Discourses 
 
540 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 on Religion "). " Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre " 
 
 (" Outlines of a Critique of all Past Systems of Ethics "). " Der christliche 
 
 Glaube " (" The Christian Faith "). 
 Schliemann, Heinrich, German archa?ologist. B.1822. D.1890. "Trojanisehe 
 
 Alterthiiroer" ('"Trojan Antiquities"). "MykenaB." "llios." "Troja." 
 Schlosser, Friedrich Christoph, German historian. B. 1776. D. 1861. 
 
 "Weltgeschichte" ("Universal History"). "Gesehichte des 18. Jahr- 
 
 hunderts." 
 Schlozer, August Ludwig von, German historian, political writer. B. 1735. 
 
 D. 1809. 
 Schlozer, Kurd von, German diplomatist, historian. B. 1822. D. 1894. 
 Schliiter, Andreas, German sculptor, architect. B. about 1664. D. 1714. 
 Schmerling, Anton von, Austrian statesman. B. 1805. D. 1893. 
 Schmidt, Friedrich, Viennese architect. B. 1825. D. 1891. 
 Schmidt, Julian, German critic, literary historian. B. 1818. D. 1886. ' 
 Schnaase, Karl, German writer on art. B. 1798. D, 1875. 
 Schneider, Johann Gottlob, German Greek scholar. B. 1750. D. 1822. 
 Schnorr von Karolsfeld, Julius, German painter. B. 1794. D. 1872. 
 Schcelcher, Victor, French politician, author. B. 1804. D. 1893. 
 Schoffer, Peter, German printer. D. about 1503. 
 Scholten, Johannes Hendrik, Dutch theologian, New Testament critic. B. 
 
 1811. D. 1885. 
 Schomberg, Frederick, Protestant soldier in the service of Louis XIV. and 
 
 subsequently of William III. B. about 1616. Killed 1690. 
 Schomberg, Henri de, count, French general. D. 1632. 
 Schomburgk, Sir Robert Hermann, explorer of British Guiana. B. in 
 
 Prussia 1804. D. 1865. 
 Schonbein, Christian Friedrich, German chemist. B. 1799. D. 1868. 
 Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, American writer, authority on the American 
 
 Indians. B. 1793. D. 1864. 
 Schopenhauer, Arthur, German philosopher. B. 1788. D. I860- 
 Schrader, Everhard, German Assyriologist. B. 1836. 
 Schrader, Julius, German painter. B. 1815. 
 Schrevelius, Cornelius, Dutch classical scholar. B. about 1615. D. about 
 
 1664. Greek-Latin dictionary. 
 Schreyer, Adolf, German painter. B. about 1828. 
 Schroekh, Johann Matthias, German church historian. B. 1733. D. 
 
 1808. 
 Schroder, Friedrich Ludwig, German actor. B. 1744. D. 1816. 
 Schroder, Sophie (born Burger), German actress. B. 1781. D. 1868. 
 Schroder-Devrient, Wilhelmine, German singer. B. 1804. D. 1860. 
 Schrodter, Adolf, German painter. B. 1805. D. 1875. 
 Schubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel, German poet. B. 1743 (1139?). D, 
 
 1791. 
 Schubert, Franz, German composer. B. 1797. D. 1828. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 541 
 
 Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich von, German scientific writer, psychologist, 
 mystic. B. 1780. D. 1860. 
 
 Schucking, Levin, German author, chiefly distinguished as a novelist. B. 
 1814. D. 1883. 
 
 Schulte, Johann Friedrich von, German Catholic theologian, writer on 
 canon law. B. 1827. 
 
 Schultze, Max, German anatomist, especially noted for his investigations 
 regarding protoplasm. B. 1825. D. 1874. 
 
 Schultz-Schultzenstein, Karl Heinrich, German vegetable and animal 
 physiologist. B. 1798. D. 1871. 
 
 Schuize, Ernst, German poet. B. 1789. D. 1817. Best known by " Die 
 bezauberte Rose" ("The Enchanted Rose"). 
 
 Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann, German statesman, organizer of working- 
 men's co-operative associations. B. 1808. D. 1883. 
 
 Schumann, Clara, German pianist, wife of R. Schumann. B. 1819. D. 1896. 
 
 Schumann, Robert, German composer. B. 1810. D. 1856. 
 
 Schurz, Carl, American statesman, biographer. B. in Prussia 1829. 
 
 Schuyler, Eugene, American traveler in Turkestan, author of a history of 
 Peter the Great. B. 1840. D. 1890. 
 
 Schuyler, Philip, American general. B. 1733. D. 1804. 
 
 Schwab, Gustav, German poet, B. 1792. D. 1850. 
 
 Schwanthaler, Ludwig, German sculptor. B. 1802. D. 1848. 
 
 Schwartz, Marie Sophie (born Birath), Swedish novelist. B. 1819. D. 1894. 
 
 Schwarz, Bert hold, German monk, chemist, reputed to have invented gun- 
 powder. First half of 14th c. 
 
 Schwarz, Karl, German Protestant theologian. B. 1812. D. 1885. 
 
 Schwarzenberg, Felix von, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1800. D. 1852. 
 
 Schwarzenberg, Karl Philipp von, prince, Austrian general, commander- 
 in-chief of the allies in the campaign against Napoleon in 1813-14. B. 
 1771. D. 1820. 
 
 Schwegler, Albert, German author. B. 1819. D. 1857. "Das nacha- 
 postolische Zeitalter" ("The Post- Apostolic Age"). "Gesehichte der 
 griechischen Philosophie." "Gesehichte der Philosophic." 
 
 Schweinfurth, Georg, German traveler in central Africa. B. 1836. 
 
 Schweinitz, Lewis David von, American botanist. B. 1780. D. 1834. 
 
 Schwerin, Kurt Christoph von, count, Prussian general. B. 1684. Killed 
 1757. 
 
 Schwind, Moritz Ludwig von, German painter. B. 1804. D. 1871. 
 
 Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, surnamed Asiaticus, Roman general. Vanquished 
 Antiochus the Great 190 b. c. 
 
 Scipio, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, Roman general, hero of the 
 second Punic War. B. about 234 b. c. D. about 183. 
 
 Scipio (Scipio iEmilianus), Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus (Minor), 
 Roman general, commander in the third Punic War. B. about 185 B. c. 
 Murdered 129. 
 
542 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Scipio, Quintus Csecilius Metellus, partisan of Pompey. Put an end to hia 
 
 own life 46 b. c. 
 Sclopis, Federico, count, Italian jurist, statesman, historian. B. 1798. D. 
 
 1878. 
 Scopas, Greek sculptor. 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Scoresby, William, English navigator. B. 1760. D. 1829. 
 Scoresby, William, English Arctic navigator. B. about 1789. D. 1857. 
 Scott, Sir George Gilbert, English architect. B. 1811. D. 1878. 
 Scott, Michael, Scottish sage, writer, reputed magician. D. about 1290. 
 Scott, Sir Walter, Scottish poet, novelist. B. Aug. 15, 1771. D. Sept. 21, 
 
 1832. " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," 1805. " Marmion," 1808. " The 
 
 Lady of the Lake," 1810. " Rokeby," 1812. " Waverley," 1814. " The 
 
 Lord of the Isles," 1815. "Guy Mannering," 1815. "The Antiquary," 
 
 1816. "Rob Roy," 1817. "The Heart of Mid-Lothian," 1818. "The 
 
 Bride of Lammermoor," 1819. " Ivanhoe," 1819. " Kenilworth," 1821. 
 
 "Quentin Durward," 1823. "Life of Napoleon," 1827. "Tales of a 
 
 Grandfather," 1827 (first series). 
 Scott, Winfield, American general. B. June 13, 1786. D. May 29, 1866. 
 Scotus, Duns. See Duns Scotus. 
 Scotus, John. See Erigena. 
 
 Scribe, Eugene, French dramatist. B. 1791. D. 1861. 
 Scudery (Scuderi), Georges de, French author. B. about 1601. D. 1667. 
 Scudery, Madeleine de, French authoress, sister of the preceding. B. 1607. 
 
 D. 1701. Best known by her romances. 
 Sealsfield, Charles (pseudonym of Karl Post]), German novelist. B. 1793. 
 
 D. 1864. 
 Sebastian, Dom, king of Portugal. B. 1554. Reigned from 1557. Slain 1578. 
 Sebastiani, Francois Horace, count, French general, diplomatist, statesman. 
 
 B. 1772. D. 1851. 
 Secchi, Angelo, Italian astronomer. B. 1818. D. 1878. 
 Seckendorf, Friedrich von, count, German general. B. 1673. D. 1763. 
 Seckendorf, Veit Ludwig von, German statesman, author. B. 1626. D. 
 
 1692. " Commentarius Historicus et Apologeticus de Lutheranismo." 
 
 " Deutscher Fiirstenstaat." 
 Sedaine, Michel Jean, French dramatist, B. 1719. D. 1797. 
 Sedgwick, Adam, English geologist. B. about 1786. D. 1873. 
 Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, American novelist. B. 1789. D. 1867. 
 Sedgwick, John, American general. B. 1813. Killed 1864. 
 Sedley, Sir Charles, English poet, dramatist. B. 1639. D. 1701. 
 Seebach, Marie, German actress. B. 1834. D. 1897. 
 Seeley, John Robert, English author. B. about 1834. D. 1895. "Ecce 
 
 Homo : The Life and Work of Jesus Christ." " Life and Times of Stein." 
 Seemann, Berthold, German-English naturalist. B. 1825. D. 1871. 
 Seguin, Edouard, Franco- American physician, authority on idiocy and 
 
 insanity. B. 1812. D. 1880. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 543 
 
 Segur, Louis Philippe de, count, French author. B. 1753. D. 1830. His- 
 torical and political writings, dramas, memoirs. 
 Segur, Paul Philippe de, count, French historian. B. 1780. D. 1873. 
 
 '• Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande armee pendant l'annee 1812." 
 Sejanus, favorite of Tiberius. Put to death A. D. 31. 
 Selborne, Lord. See Palmer, Roundell. 
 Selden, John, English statesman, juridical writer, celebrated for his " Table 
 
 Talk." B. 1584. D. 1654. 
 Seleucus Nicator, Macedonian general, founder of the kingdom of the 
 
 Seleucidse (kingdom of Syria). B. about 358 b. c. Assassinated 280. 
 Selim I., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1512-20. 
 Selim II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1566-74. 
 
 Selim III., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1789-1807. Put to death 1808. 
 Selkirk, Alexander, a Scottish sailor, who led a solitary life on the island of 
 
 Juan Fernandez from Sept., 1704, to Feb., 1709. 
 Semler, Johann Salomo, German Pi-otestant theologian. B. 1725. D. 
 
 1791. 
 Semmes, Raphael, Confederate naval officer. B. 1809. D. 1877. 
 Semper, Gottfried, German architect. B. 1803. D. 1879. 
 Semper, Karl, German traveler in the Philippine Islands, naturalist. B. 
 
 1832. 
 Seneca, Lucius Annanis, Roman philosopher. D. a. d. 65. 
 Seneca, Marcus Annaeus, Roman rhetorician. B. about 60 b. c. D. about 
 
 a. d. 35. 
 Senefelder, Aloys, inventor of lithography, a German by birth. B. 1771. 
 
 D. 1834. 
 Senior, Nassau William, English political economist. B. 1790. D. 1864. 
 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, son of Sargon. Reigned 705-681 b. c. 
 Septimius Severus. See Severus. 
 
 Sepulveda, Juan Ginez de, Spanish historian. B. about 1490. D. about 1574. 
 Serpa Pinto, Alexandre Alberto, Portuguese traveler in Africa. B. 1846. 
 Serrano, Francisco, duke de la Torre, Spanish statesman, general. B. 1810. 
 
 D. 1885. 
 Sertorius, Quintus, Roman general. B. about 121 b. c. Killed 72. 
 Servetus, Michael, Reformer. B. in Spain about 1509. Burned in Geneva 
 
 1553. 
 Servius Tullius, king of Rome. Reputed to have reigned from about 578 
 
 to about 534 b. c. 
 Cesostris. See Rameses II. 
 Seti I., king of Egypt. About 1400 b. c. 
 Severus, Alexander. See Alexander Severus. 
 Severus, Septimius, Roman emperor. Reigned from 193. D. 211. 
 Severus, Sulpicius. See Sulpicius Severus. 
 
 Sevigne, Madame Marie de, French epistolary writer. B. 1626. D. 1696. 
 Seward, Anna, English poetess. B. 1747. D. 1809. 
 
544 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Seward, William Henry, American statesman, secretary of state under Lin- 
 coln and Johnson. B. May 16, 1801. D. Oct, 10, 1872. 
 
 Sextus Empiricus, Greek philosopher. First half of 3d c. a. d. 
 
 Seydlitz, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Prussian general. B. 1721. D. 1773. 
 
 Seyffarth, Gustav, German Egyptologist, Biblical ehronologist. B. 1796. 
 D. 1886. 
 
 Seymour, Edward. See Somerset. 
 
 Seymour, Horatio, American statesman. B. 1810. D. 1886. 
 
 Seymour, Jane, third wife of Henry VIII. D. 1537. 
 
 Sforza, Francesco, Italian warrior, duke of Milan. Reigned 1450-'66. 
 
 Sforza, Ludovico (il Moro), duke of Milan. Virtual ruler from 1480. Duke 
 1494-1500. D. about 1510. 
 
 'Sgravesande. See Gravesande. 
 
 Shad well, Thomas, English dramatist. B. 1640. D. 1692. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, English statesman. B. 1621. 
 I). 1683. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, English philanthropist. B. 
 1801. D. 1885. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Cooper, English moralist, B. 1671. D. 1713. Col- 
 lected works published under the title of " Characteristics of Men, Man- 
 ners, Opinions, and Times." 
 
 Shah Jehan, Mogul emperor. Reigned 1628-58. D. 1666. 
 
 Shakespeare, William, English dramatist. B. April (23 ?), 1564. D. April 
 23, 1616. 
 
 Shamyl, Caucasian chieftain. B. about 1796. D. 1871. 
 
 Sharp, Granville, English abolitionist, B. 1734. D. 1813. 
 
 Sharpe, Samuel, English Egyptologist, Biblical scholar. B. 1799. D. 1881. 
 
 Shaw, Henry ("Josh Billings"), American humorist. B. 1818. D. 1885. 
 
 Shays, Daniel, leader of a rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786-7. B. 1747. 
 D. 1825. 
 
 Sheffield, John, earl of Mulgrave, marquis of Normanby, duke of Bucking- 
 ham or Buckinghamshire, English statesman, poet. B. 1649. D. 1721. 
 
 Sheil, Richard Lalor, Irish orator. B. 1791. D. 1851. 
 
 Shelburne, William Petty, earl of (marquis of Lansdowne), English states- 
 man, prime-minister 1782-'3. B. 1737. D. 1805. 
 
 Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, English writer of fiction, biographer, daughter 
 of William Godwin and wife of P. B. Shelley. B. about 1797. D. 1851. 
 
 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet. B. 1792. D. 1822. "Queen Mab." 
 •' Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude." " The Revolt of Islam." " Prome- 
 theus Unbound." " Adonais." " Address to the Skylark." 
 
 Shenstone, William, English poet, B. 1714. D. 1763. Elegies, odes, 
 pastorals. " The Schoolmistress." 
 
 Shere Ali, ameer of Afghanistan. B. 1825. The throne left to him by 
 his father, Dost Mohammed, 1863. His authority established 1889. D. 
 1879. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 545 
 
 Sheridan, Philip Henry, American general. B. 1831. D. 1888. 
 
 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, statesman, dramatist. B. in Ireland 1751. D. 
 1816. " The Rivals." " The School for Scandal." 
 
 Sherman, Roger, American statesman. B. 1721. D. 1793. 
 
 Sherman, William Tecumseh, American general. B. 1820. D. 1891. 
 
 Shir Ali. See She re All 
 
 Shishak (Sheshonk), king of Egypt. Expedition against Judah under- 
 taken about 949 b. c. (Duncker ; about 973, common chronology). 
 
 Shore, Jane, mistress of Edward IV. 
 
 Shuvaloff, Petr, count, Russian diplomatist, B. 1827. D. 1889. 
 
 Sibour, Marie Dominique Auguste, archbishop of Paris. B. 1792. Murdered 
 1857. 
 
 Sicard, Roch Ambroise Cucurron, abbe, French instructor of deaf-mutes. 
 B. 1742. D. 1822. 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von, German soldier. B. 1481. Killed 1523. 
 
 Siddons, Sarah (born Kemble), English actress. B. 1755. D. 1831. 
 
 Sidgwick, Henry, English author. B. 1838. " The Methods of Ethics." 
 " Principles of Political Economy." 
 
 Sidi Mohammed, emperor of Morocco. Reigned from 1859. D. 1873. 
 
 Sidmouth, viscount. See Addixgton. 
 
 Sidney, Algernon, English statesman. B. about 1622. Executed 1683. 
 
 Sidney, Sir Philip, English author, soldier. B. 1554. Killed 1586. " Arca- 
 dia " (pastoral romance in prose and verse). " Defence of Poesie." 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, Latin Christian poet. B. about 431. D. about 485. 
 
 Siebold, Karl Theodor Ernst von, German physiologist, comparative anato- 
 mist, zoologist. B. 1804. D. 1885. Noted for his researches in the 
 natural history of the lower animals. 
 
 Siebold, Philipp Franz von, German traveler, naturalist, explorer of Japan. 
 B. 1796. D. 1866. 
 
 Siemens, Sir Charles William, German-English physicist, inventor, manu- 
 facturer (regenerating furnace, electric appliances). B. 1823. D. 1883. 
 
 Siemens, Ernst Werner, German physicist, inventor, manufacturer (electric 
 appliances). B. 1816. D. 1892. 
 
 Siemering, Leopold Rudolf, German sculptor. B. 1835. 
 
 Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph, abbe, French revolutionist. B. 1748. D. 1836. 
 
 Sigismund, king of Hungary, emperor of Germany, king of Bohemia, 
 brother of Wenceslas. B. 1368. Emperor from 1411. D. 1437. 
 
 Sigismund I., king of Poland. Reigned 1506-'48. 
 
 Sigismund II. Augustus, king of Poland. Reigned 1548-72. 
 
 Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland and Sweden. Reigned in Poland 1587- 
 1632. King of Sweden 1592-9. D. 1632. 
 
 Signorelli, Luca, Italian painter. B. about 1441. D. about 1524. 
 
 Sigourney, Lydia (Huntley), American authoress. B. 1791. D. 1865. 
 
 Silliman, Benjamin, American physicist, chemist, geologist. B. 1779. D. 
 1864. 
 
546 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Silliman, Benjamin, American chemist, physicist. B. 1816. D. 1885, 
 
 Simeon Stylites, Syrian ascetic. D. about a. d. 460. 
 
 Simms, William Gilmore, American novelist, poet, historical writer. B. 
 1806. D. 1870. 
 
 Simnel, Lambert, pretender to the English crown. B. about 1472. Attempt 
 to dethrone Henry VII. made 1487. 
 
 Simon, Jules, French statesman, philosophical and political writer. B. 
 1814. D. 1896. 
 
 Simon, Richard, French Biblical critic. B. 1638. D. 1712. 
 
 Simon de Montfort. See Mont fort. 
 
 Simon Maccabeeus, leader of the Jews. Assassinated 135 b. c. 
 
 Simonides, Greek poet. B. about 556 b. c. D. about 467. 
 
 Simpson, Sir James Young, Scottish physician. B. 1811. D. 1870. 
 
 Simpson, Thomas, English mathematician. * B. 1710. D. 1761. 
 
 Simrock, Karl, German scholar, poet. B. 1802. D. 1876. Translator of 
 mediaeval German and Scandinavian poetry. 
 
 Sims, James Marion, American surgeon. B. 1813. D. 1883. 
 
 Sinclair, Sir John, Scottish economist. B. 1754. D. 1835. 
 
 Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de, French historian, political 
 economist. B. in Geneva May 9,1773. D. June 25,1842. "Histoire 
 des republiques italiennes du moyen age." " La litterature du midi de 
 l'Europe " (" The Literature of the South of Europe"). "Histoire des 
 Francais." 
 
 Sixtus IV., pope. Elected 1471. D. 1484. 
 
 Sixtus V., pope. Elected 1585. D. 1590. 
 
 Skeat, Walter William, English scholar. B. 1835. " Etymological Diction- 
 ary of the English Language." 
 
 Skobeleff, Mikhail, Russian general. B. about 1844. D. 1882. 
 
 Skoda, Joseph, Austrian physician. B. 1805. D. 1881. 
 
 Skrzynecki, Jan Boneza, Polish general. B. 1786. D. 1860. 
 
 Sleidan (Philippson), Johann, German publicist, historiographer of the Smal- 
 cald League. B. 1506. D. 1556. " De Statu Religionis et Reipublicae, 
 Carolo Quinto Csesare, Commentarii." 
 
 Slidell, John, American politician. B. 1793. D. 1871. 
 
 Sloane, Sir Hans, English physician, naturalist. B. 1660. D. 1753. 
 
 Smart, Christopher, English jioet, translator of Horace. B. 1722. D. 1770 
 or 1771. 
 
 Smeaton, John, English engineer. B. 1724. D. 1792. 
 
 Smibert (Smybert), John, Scottish-Amer. painter. B. about 1684. D. 1751. 
 
 Smiles, Samuel, British author. B. about 1812. Works on famous engi- 
 neers, on conduct, on duty, &c. 
 
 Smirke, Sir Robert, English architect. B. 1780. D. 1867. 
 
 Smith, Adam, Scottish political economist, philosopher. B. June 5, 1723. 
 D. July 8, 1790. "Theory of Moral Sentiments," 1759. "Inquiry into 
 the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 547 
 
 Smith, Albert, English humorous writer, author of dramatic "entertain- 
 ments." B. 1816. D. 1860. 
 
 Smith, Alexander, Scottish poet. B. 1830. D. 1867. 
 
 Smith, George, English Assyriologist. B. about 1840. D. 1876. 
 
 Smith, Gerrit, American abolitionist. B. 1797. D. 1874. 
 
 Smith, Horace, English humorous writer, novelist. B. 1779. D. 1849. 
 Chiefly known as the author, jointly with his brother James, of " Rejected 
 Addresses," parodying the principal British poets of the day. 
 
 Smith, James, English humorous writer. B. 1775. D. 1839. " Rejected 
 Addresses." (See Smith, Horace.) 
 
 Smith, Sir James Edward, English botanist. B. 1759. D. 1828. 
 
 Smith, John, principal founder of the colony of Virginia. B. 1579. D. 
 1631. 
 
 Smith, Joseph, founder of the sect of Mormons. B. 1805. Killed 1844. 
 
 Smith, Robert Payne, English Syriac scholar. B. 1818. D. 1895. 
 
 Smith, Seba, American writer. B. 1792. D. 1868. Best known as the 
 author of humorous political letters. 
 
 Smith, Sydney, English clergyman, writer, celebrated for his wit. B. 1771. 
 D. 1845. One of the founders of the " Edinburgh Review " ; author of 
 " Letters on the Subject of the Catholics, by Peter Plymley." 
 
 Smith, Thomas Southwood, English physician, author. B. 1788. D. 1861. 
 
 Smith, William, English geologist. B. 1769. D. 1839. 
 
 Smith, William, Eng. classical and Biblical scholar. B. about 1813. D. 1893. 
 
 Smith, W. Robertson, British orientalist, Biblical scholar. B. 1846. D. 1894. 
 
 Smith, Sir W. Sidney, English admiral. B. 1764. D. 1840. 
 
 Smithson, James, English scientist, bequeather of the fund with which the 
 Smithsonian Institution was founded. B. about 1765. D. 1829. 
 
 Smollett, Tobias George, British novelist, historian. B. 1721. D. 1771. 
 " The Adventures of Roderick Random." " The Adventures of Pere- 
 grine Pickle." " The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom." " The 
 Expedition of Humphrey Clinker." " History of England." 
 
 Smyth, William Henry, English naval officer, geographer, hydrographer. 
 B. 1788. D. 1865. 
 
 Snell, Willebrord, Dutch mathematician. B. 1591. D. 1626. 
 
 Snorri Sturlason (Snorre Sturluson), Icelandic historian, author of part 
 of the younger Edda. B. 1178. Murdered 1241. 
 
 Snyders, Frans, Flemish painter. B. 1579. D. 1657. 
 
 Sobieski, John, king of Poland. Reigned from 1674. D. 1696. 
 
 Socinus, Faustus, Italian theologian. B. 1539. D. 1604. 
 
 Socinus, Lselius, Italian theologian. B. 1525. D. 1562. 
 
 Socrates, Athenian philosopher. B. about 470 b. c. Condemned to death 
 399. 
 
 Sodoma, II (Giovanni Antonio Bazzi), Italian painter. D. middle of 16th c. 
 
 Sohn, Karl Ferdinand, German painter. B. 1805. D. 1867. 
 
 Solander, Daniel Charles, Swedish-English naturalist. B. 1736. D. 1782. 
 36 
 
548 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Soliman. Sec Solyman. 
 
 Solis, Antonio de, Spanish historian, dramatist, B. 1(>10. I). 1080. "Ilis- 
 
 toria de la conquista de Mexico." 
 Solis, .In.'ui Diaz de, Spanish navigator. Killed L516. 
 Solomon, king of the Hebrews. Reigned about 998-958 it. o. (Dv/nck&r; 
 
 1017-978, Oppert). 
 Solomon ben Gabirol (Avicebron), Jewish poet,, philosopher, B. about 
 
 1020. D.about L075. 
 Solomon ben Isaac (Kashi), Jewish Biblical and Talmudical commentator. 
 
 !'.. about 1040. I). 1105. 
 Solon, Athenian lawgiver. B. about 688 n. c. I), about 550. 
 Solovieff, Sergei, Russian historian, 15. 1820. 1). 1870. Best known by 
 
 his history of Russia. 
 Solyman II., the Magnificent, Turkish sultan. B. about 1405. Reigned 
 
 from 1520. I). Sept. 5, 1566. 
 Somers, John, Lord, English statesman, B. 1652. I). 1710. 
 Somerset, Edward Seymour, duke of (earl of Hertford), general, lord pro- 
 tector of England. Executed 1552. 
 Somerville, Mary, British mathematician, scientist. B. 1780. I). 1872. 
 
 "The Connection Of the Physical Sciences." " Physical Geography." 
 
 Somerville, William, English poet, I). 1742. Principal production, " The 
 
 Chase." 
 Sommering, Samuel Thomas von, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 
 
 1755. I). 1880. 
 Sonnini de Manoncourt, Charles Nicolas Sigisbert, French naturalist. B, 
 
 1751. I). L812. 
 Sontag, Eenriette, German singer. B, 1806. D. 1854 
 Sophia, sister of Peter the Great and regent of Russia during his minority. 
 
 B. 1057. I). 1704. 
 Sophocles, Creek tragic poet. I'., about, 405 b. c. I), probably 400. 
 Sorel, Agnes, mistress of Charles VII. of Prance. B. about 1400. I). 1 150. 
 Soto, de. See De Soto. 
 
 Soubise, Benjamin de Rohan, seigneur de, Huguenol leader. B. 158:;. I). 
 
 1042. 
 Soubise, Charles de Rohan, prince de, French general. P>. 1715. I). 1787. 
 Soulie, Melchior Frederic, French novelist,, dramatist. B. 1800. I). L847. 
 Soulouque, Faustin, emperor of Hayti. B. about 1782. Elected president 
 
 is I?. Emperor from 1849 to close of L858. D. 1867. 
 Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, dujie of Dalmatia, French general. I». 1700. 
 
 I). 1851. 
 South, Robert, English divine. B. 10:53. I). 1716. 
 Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, prophetess, B. in England about 1750. I). 
 
 1814. 
 Southey, Caroline (born Bowles), second wife of Robert Southcy, English 
 
 authoress. I',. 1780. D. 1854. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 540 
 
 Southey, Robert, English author. II. 177-1. D. L848. "Thalaba, the 
 Destroyer," "The Curse of Keharaa," " Roderick, the Last < > f the Goths," 
 and other poems. Versions of " Amadis de Gaul " and the "Chronicle of 
 the Ciil." Historical anil biographical works (including " History of the 
 Peninsular War "). " Book of the Church." "The Doctor." 
 
 Southwell (Sotwel I), Nathaniel, English Jesuit scholar. I>. 1076. 
 
 Southwell, Robert, English Jesuit, author of religious writings. B. 1500. 
 Executed 1595. 
 
 Southworth, Emma I). E. (born Nevitt), American novelist. B. Inih. 
 
 Souvestre, Emile, French author. B. 1806. I>. 1854. Novels, tales, dramas, 
 historical and literary essays. 
 
 Sowerby, George Brettingham, English conchologist. B. 1788. I>. 1854. 
 
 Sowerby, George Brettingham, English conchologist. B. 1812. I). L884. 
 
 Sowerby, James, English conchologist. B. 1757. I>. 1822. 
 
 Spagnoletto, II (Jose* Ribera), Italian painter. B. in Spain 1588. I>. 1656. 
 
 Spalding, Martin John, archbishop of Baltimore. B. 1810. I>. 1872. 
 
 Spallanzani, Lazaro, Italian naturalist, physiologist, embryologist. B, 
 L729. I). 1799. 
 
 Spangenberg, August Gottlieb, Founder of the Moravian church in Amer- 
 ica. B. in Germany 1704. I). 1792. 
 
 Spanheim, Ezechiel, classical scholar, numismatist, diplomatist. B. in 
 Geneva L629. D. 1710. 
 
 Sparks, Jared, American biographer. B. 1789. I>. I 866. Editor of the 
 correspondence of the Revolution, the writings of Washington, and the 
 works of Franklin. 
 
 Spartacus, Leader of insurgent gladiators in Italy. Slain 71 b. c. 
 
 Speke, .John Banning, English African explorer. I'». 1827. I>. 1864. 
 
 Spence, Joseph, English author. B. L699. I>. 1768. 
 
 Spence, William, English entomologist. B. L788. D. I860. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, English philosopher. B. L820. Principal works in the 
 order of their publication: "Social Sialics" (1851), " Principles of Psy- 
 chology," "Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative," "Firs! Princi- 
 ples of a System of Philosophy," " Principles of Biology," " The Study 
 of Sociology," "The Principles of Sociology," "Ceremonial Institutions," 
 
 '•The Data of EthiCS." 
 
 Spener, Philipp Jakob, German Protestant theologian, founder of the school 
 
 of Pietists. B. 1685. D. 1705. 
 Spenser, Edmund, English poet. B. about 1553. I). 1599. "The Faerie 
 
 Queen." 
 Speranski, Mikhail, count, Russian statesman. I). 1k:j!>. 
 Speusippus, Greek philosopher, Middle of 4th c. is. c, 
 Spiegel, Friedrich, German Iranian scholar. B. 1820. 
 Spielhagen, Friedrich, German novelist. B. IH'>!). 
 Spindler, Karl, German novelist. B. L796. D. 1855. 
 Bpinola, Ambrosio de, marquis, Spanish general. B. aboul L569. I>. 16801 
 
550 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Spinoza, Baruch (Benedict), Dutch- Jewish philosopher. B. Nov. 24, 1632, 
 D. Feb. 21, 1677. 
 
 Spohr, Ludwig, German composer. B. 1784. D. 1859. 
 
 Spontini, Gasparo, Italian composer. B. 1774. D. 1851. 
 
 Spottiswoode, William, English mathematician, scientist. B. 1825. D. 
 1883. 
 
 Sprague, Charles, American poet. B. 1791. D. 1875. 
 
 Sprat, Thomas, English writer. B. 1636. D. 1713. Author of an account 
 of the Rye House Plot, poems, &c. 
 
 Sprengel, Kurt, German writer on medicine, botanist. B. 1766. D. 1833. 
 
 Sprenger, Aloys, German orientalist. B. 1813. D. 1893. "Das Leben 
 and die Lehre des Mohamad." 
 
 Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar, German phrenologist. B. 1776. D. 1832. 
 
 Squier, Ephraim George, American archaeologist, authority on American 
 antiquities. B. 1821. D. 1888. 
 
 Staal, Marguerite Jeanne Cordier de, baroness, French writer of memoirs. 
 B. about 1684. D. 1750. 
 
 Stael (Stael-Holstein), Anne Louise Germaine de, baroness, daughter of the 
 minister Necker, French authoress. B. 1766. D. 1817. "Delphine," 
 " ( \ irinne, on lTtalie " (works of fiction). " De l'Allemagne " (on the litera- 
 ture of Germany). " Dix annees d'exil " (" Ten Years of Exile "). 
 
 Stafford, William Howard, viscount. B. 1612. Executed for alleged com- 
 plicity in the Popish Plot 1680. 
 
 Stahl, Friedrich Julius, German political philosopher. B. 1802. D. 1861. 
 
 Stahl, Georg Ernst, German chemist. B. 1660. D. 1734. 
 
 Stahr, Adolf, German author. B. 1805. D. 1876. Works on Italy and on 
 ancient art, literary studies, life of Lessing, &c. 
 
 Stahremberg. See Starhemberg. 
 
 Stair, earl of, viscount of. See Dalrymple. 
 
 Stambuloff, S., Bulgarian statesman. B. 1853. Murdered 1895. 
 
 Standish, Miles, Puritan soldier in New England. B. about 1584. D. 1656. 
 
 Stanhope, Charles, earl, English inventor, statesman. B. 1753. D. 1816. 
 
 Stanhope, Lady Hester, granddaughter of the earl of Chatham, noted for 
 her eccentric career in Syria. B. 1776. D. 1839. 
 
 Stanhope, James, English general, statesman. B. 1673. D. 1721. 
 
 Stanhope, Philip Henry, earl (Lord Mahon), English historian, statesman. 
 B. 1805. D. 1875. Works on Spanish and English history. " Life of 
 William Pitt " (the younger). 
 
 Stanislas Augustus. See Poniatowski. 
 
 Stanislas Leszczynski, king of Poland. B. 1677. Reigned 1704-'9. 
 Duke of Lorraine from 1737. D. 1766. 
 
 Stanley, Lord. See. Derby. 
 
 Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. dean of Westminster, ecclesiastical writer. B. 
 1815. D. 1881. Best known works, " Sinai and Palestine " and " Lectures 
 on the History of the Jewish Church." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 551 
 
 Stanley, Henry M., African explorer. B. in Wales 1841. 
 
 Stanley, Thomas, English writer on philosophy, poet, editor of iEschylus. 
 
 B. 1625. D. 1678. 
 Stanton, Edwin McMasters, American statesman, secretary of war under 
 
 Lincoln and Johnson, 1862-8. B. 1814. D. 1869. 
 Starhemberg (Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger von, count, defender of Vienna 
 
 against the Turks in 1683. B. 1635. D. 1701. 
 Starhemberg, Guido von, count, Austrian commander. D. 1737. 
 Stark, John, American soldier. B. 1728. D. 1822. 
 Statius, Caecilius. See C^citius Statius. 
 Statius, Papinius, Latin poet. D. about a. d. 100. 
 
 Staunton, Sir George Thomas, English writer on China. B. 1781. D. 1859. 
 Stedman, Edmund Clarence, American poet, critic. B. 1833. 
 Steele, Sir Richard, British author. B. 1672. D. 1729. Comedies. Essays 
 
 in the " Tatler," •' Spectator," and " Guardian." 
 Steell, Sir John, Scottish sculptor. B, 1804 D. 1891. 
 Steen, Jan, Dutch painter. D. 1679 (1689 ?). 
 
 Steevens, George, English Shakespearean scholar. B. 1736. D. 1800. 
 Steffens, Heinrich, German philosopher, author. B. in Norway 1773. D. 
 
 1845. 
 Stein, Frau Charlotte von, friend of Goethe. B. 1742. D. 1827. 
 Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, baron, Prussian statesman. B. 1757. 
 
 D. 1831. 
 Stein, Lorenz von, German writer on political economy, finance, and govern- 
 ment. B. 1815. D. 1890. 
 Steinle, Johann Eduard, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1886. 
 Steinthal, Heymann, German philologist B. 1823, 
 Stendhal. See Beyle, 
 Stephen, king of England, grandson of William the Conqueror. Reigned 
 
 from 1135. D. 1154. 
 Stephen I., Saint, king of Hungary. Reigned from 997 (with the title of 
 
 king, from 1000). fx 1038. 
 Stephen III. (II.), pope. Elected 752. D. 757. 
 Stephen X. (IX.), pope. Elected 1057. D. 1058. 
 Stephen Bathori. See Bathori. 
 
 Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. Reigned from 1331. D. close of 1355. 
 Stephen, Sir James, English statesman, historian. B. 1789. D. 1859. 
 Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames, English jurist. B. 1829. D. 1894. " Lib- 
 erty, Equality, and Fraternity." 
 Stephen, Leslie, English author. B. 1832. " Hours in a Library." " English 
 
 Thought in the Eighteenth Century." " The Science of Ethics." 
 Stephens (Etienne, Estienne), the name of a French family of printers in 
 
 the 16th and 17th c. 
 Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, vice-president of the Confederate States. 
 
 B. 1812. D. 1883. 
 
552 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Stephens, John Lloyd, American writer of travels. B. 1805. T). 1852. 
 Stephenson, George, perfecter of the locomotive engine. B. in England 
 
 1781. D. 1848. 
 Stephenson, Robert, English engineer, son of George Stephenson. B. 
 
 1803. D. 1859. 
 Sterling, John, English poet, novelist, essayist. B. 1806. D. 1844. 
 Stern, Daniel. See Agoult. 
 Sterne, Laurence, English author. B. 1713. D. 1768. " Tristram Shandy." 
 
 " The Sentimental Journey." Sermons. 
 Sternhold, Thomas, English translator of the Psalms. .D. 1549. 
 Stesichorus, Greek poet. D. about 555 b. c. 
 Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von, baron, Prussian officer who fought on the 
 
 American side in the Revolution. B. 1730. D. 1794. 
 Stevens, Edwin Augustus, American nautical engineer, endower of the 
 
 Stevens Institute of Technology (Iloboken). B. 1795. D. 1868. 
 Stevens, George Alexander, English burlesque writer. D. 1784. "The 
 
 History of Tom Fool." 
 Stevens, John, American mechanical engineer, conspicuous in the history of 
 
 steam navigation. B. 1749. I). 1838. 
 Stevens, Robert Livingston, American nautical engineer. B. 1788. D. 1856. 
 Stevens, Thaddeus, American statesman, abolitionist. B. 1793. D. 1868. 
 Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour, British novelist. B. 1850. D. 1894. 
 Stewart, Balfour, British physicist. B. 1828. D. 1887. 
 Stewart, Charles William, marquis of Londonderry, Earl Vane, British 
 
 general, statesman, diplomatist. B. 1778. D. 1854. 
 Stewart, Dugald, Scottish philosopher. B. 1753. D. 1828. 
 Stieglitz, Heinrich, German poet. B. 1803. D. 1849. 
 Stilicho, a Vandal in the Roman service, minister and general of Honorius. 
 
 Executed a. d. 408 
 Stille, Alfred, American physician. B. 1813. 
 Stillingfleet, Edward, English theologian. B. 1635. D. 1699. 
 Stimpson, William, American naturalist. B. 1832. D. 1872. 
 Stirling, Lord. See Alexander, "William. 
 Stobaeus, Joannes, Greek compiler. About 5th c. a. d. 
 Stockmar, Christian Friedrich von, baron, friend and adviser of Prince Albert 
 
 and Queen Victoria, author of memoirs. B. in Germany 1787. D. 1863. 
 Stockton, Francis Richard, American writer of fiction. B. 1834. 
 Stockton, Robert Field, American naval officer. B. 1795. L>. 1866. 
 Stoddard, Richard Henry, American poet. B. 1825, 
 Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, British mathematician, physicist. B. 1819. 
 Stolberg, Christian von, count, German poet. B. 174y. D. 1821. 
 Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold von, count, German poet. B. 1750. I). 1819. 
 Story, Joseph, American jurist. B. 1779. D. 1845. Best known by his 
 
 commentaries on the constitution of the United States. 
 Story, William Wetmore, American sculptor, author. B. 1819. D. 1895. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 553 
 
 Stowe, Harriet (Beecher), American authoress. B. 1811. D. 1896. "Uncle 
 
 Tom's Cabin." 
 Strabo, Greek geographer. D. about A. d. 24. 
 
 Strack, Johann Heinrich, German architect. B. about 1805. D. 1880. 
 Stradella, Alessandro, Italian composer. B. about 1645. Assassinated 
 
 1678. 
 Stradivari, Antonio, Italian violin-maker. B. 1644. D. 1737. 
 Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, adviser of Charles I. B. 1593. 
 
 Executed 1641. 
 Strange, Sir Robert, British engraver. B. 1721. D. 1792. 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning, viscount, English diplomatist. 
 
 B. 1788. D. 1880. 
 Strauss, David Friedrich, German theological and philosophical writer. B. 
 ' 1808. D. 1874. " Das Leben Jesu." " Ulrich von Hutten." " Der alte 
 
 und der neue Glaube " (" The Old and the New Faith "). 
 Strauss, Johann, Viennese composer. B. 1804. D. 1849. 
 Strauss, Johann, Viennese composer. B. 1825. 
 Street, Alfred Billings, American poet. B. 1811. D. 1881. 
 Street, George Edmund, English architect. B. 1824. D. 1881. 
 Strickland, Agnes, English authoress. D. 1874. Principal production, 
 
 " Lives of the Queens of England." 
 Strong, James, American Biblical scholar. B. 1822. D. 1894. 
 Strousberg, B. H., German speculator, builder of railways. B. 1824. D. 1884. 
 Struensee, Johann Friedrich von, count, minister of Christian VII. of Den- 
 mark. B. 1737. Executed 1772. 
 Strutt, Joseph, English author, artist. D. 1802. Works on the manners, 
 
 customs, dress, sports, &c, of the English people in past times. 
 Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von, German-Russian astronomer. B. 
 
 1793. D. 1864. 
 Struve, Gustav von, German revolutionist, author. B. 1805. D. 1870. 
 Struve, Otto Wilhelm von, Russian astronomer. B. 1819. 
 Stuart, Arabella, cousin of James I. of England B. about 1575. D. 1615. 
 Stuart, Charles Edward. See Charles Edward Stuart. 
 Stuart, Gilbert, Scottish historical writer, critic. D. 1786. Works on the 
 
 British constitution, the Scottish Reformation, the progress of society in 
 
 Europe, &c. 
 Stuart, Gilbert Charles, American painter. B. 1755. D. 1828. 
 Stuart, James, English antiquary. B. 1713. D. 1788. "Antiquities of 
 
 Athens." 
 Stuart, James E. B., Confederate general. B. about 1833. Killed 1864. 
 Stuart, James Edward. See James Edward Stuart. 
 Stuart, Moses, American Biblical critic. B. 1780. D. 1852. 
 Stubbs, William, English historian. B. 1825. "The Constitutional His- 
 tory of England." 
 Stiller, August, German architect. B. 1800. D. 1865. 
 
554 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Sturlason. See Snorri Sturlason. 
 
 Sturt, Sir Charles, English Australian explorer. D. 1869. 
 
 Stuyvesant, Peter, director general of New Netherland 1647-'64. B. 1602, 
 
 D. 1682. 
 Suarez, Francisco, Spanish Jesuit. B. 1548. D. 1617. 
 Suchet, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, French general. B. 1770. D. 
 
 1826. 
 Suckling, Sir John, English poet, dramatist. B. about 1609. D. about 
 
 1642. 
 Sucre, Antonio Jose de, South American patriot leader. B. 1793. Assassi- 
 nated 1830. 
 Sue, Eugene, French novelist. B. 1804. D. 1857. "Les mysteres de 
 
 Paris." " Le Juif errant " (" The Wandering Jew "). 
 Suess, Eduard, Austrian geologist, palaeontologist, politician. B. 1831. 
 Suetonius (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus), Roman historian. B. about A. D. 
 
 72. Lives of the twelve Caesars. 
 Suetonius Paulinus, Roman general. Commander in Britain 59-62. 
 Suidas, Greek lexicographer, encyclopaedist. About 11th c. a. d. 
 Suleiman Pasha, Turkish general. B. about 1840. D. 1892. 
 Sulla (Sylla), Lucius Cornelius, Roman general, dictator. B. 138 B. c. D. 78. 
 Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour, English composer. B. 1842. 
 Sullivan, John, American general. B. 1740. D. 1795. 
 Sullivant, William Starling, American botanist, B. 1803. D. 1873. 
 Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, duke de (baron de Rosny), minister of Henry 
 
 IV. of France. B. 1560. D. 1641. 
 Sully, Thomas, American painter. B. 1783. D. 1872. 
 Sulpicius Severus, Latin ecclesiastical historian. B. about 363. 
 Sumarokoff, Alexander, Russian dramatist. B. 1727. D. 1777. 
 Sumner, Charles, American statesman, abolitionist. B. 1811. D. 1874. 
 Sumter, Thomas, American general. B. 1734. D. 1832. 
 Sunderland, Charles Spencer, earl of, English statesman. B. 1674. D. 
 
 1722. 
 Sunderland, Robert Spencer, earl of, English statesman. B. about 1641. 
 
 D. 1702. 
 Surajah Dowlah, nawaub of Bengal. Put to death 1757. 
 Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, English poet, commander. B. about 1516. 
 
 Executed 1547. 
 Suso, Heinrich, German monk, author. D. 1365. 
 Sussex, duke of. See Augustus Frederick. 
 
 Suvaroff (Suvoroff), Alexei, count, Russian general. B. 1729. D. 1800. 
 Swainson, William, English naturalist. B. 1789. D. about 1856. 
 Swammerdam, Jan, Dutch entomologist, anatomist, physiologist. B. 1637. 
 
 I), about 1680. 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel, Swedish philosopher, theosophist. B. 1688. D. 
 
 1772. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 555 
 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark. Reigned from 985. D. 1014. King of England 
 1013-'14. 
 
 Swieten, Gerard van, Dutch-Austrian physician. B. 1700. D. 1772. 
 
 Swift, Jonathan, dean of St. Patrick's (Dublin), political writer, satirist. B. 
 1007. D. 1745. Most famous productions, "The Tale of a Tub " (satire 
 on the Catholics and dissenters) and " Gulliver's Travels." 
 
 Swift, Lewis, American astronomer. B. 1820. 
 
 Swinburne, Algernon Charles, English poet. B. 1837. Songs and ballads. 
 " Atalanta in Calydon," " Erechtheus " (tragedies on the Greek model). 
 " Chastelard," "Bothwell," " Mary Stuart" (forming together a dramatic 
 trilogy). "Songs before Sunrise." "Songs of the Springtides." 
 
 Sybel, Heinrich von, German historian. B. 1817. D. 1895. Works on the 
 first crusade, on German history, and on the period of the French Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 Sydenham, Thomas, English physician. B. 1624. D. 1689. 
 
 Sylla. See Sulla. 
 
 Sylvester I., Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 314. D. 335. 
 
 Sylvester II. (Gerbert), pope. Elected 999. D. 1003. 
 
 Sylvester, James Joseph, English mathematician. B. 1814. D. 1897. 
 
 Sylvius, ^Eneas. See Pius II. 
 
 Syme, James, Scottish surgeon. B. 1799. D. 1870. 
 
 Symmachus, Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 498. D. 514. 
 
 Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius, Roman orator, writer. D. about a. d. 410. 
 
 Symonds, John Addington, English author. B. 1840. D. 1893. Princi- 
 pal production, "History of the Renaissance in Italy." 
 
 Synesius, Neo-Platonic philosopher. D. early in the 5th c. 
 
 Syphax, Nuinidian prince. D. about 201 b. c. 
 
 Szalay, Laszlti, Hungarian historian. B. 1813. D. 1864. 
 
 Szechenyi, Istvan, Hungarian statesman. B. about 1791. D. 1800. 
 
 TaafFe, Eduard von, count, Austrian statesman. B. 1833. D. 1895. 
 Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, Roman historian. D. probably after A. n. 117. 
 
 "Germania." "Agricola." " Historine " (what is extant treating of the 
 
 period 69-70). " Annales " (beginning with the accession of Tiberius). 
 Tacitus, Marcus Claudius, Roman emperor. Reigned 275-276. 
 Tadema. See Alma Tadema. 
 
 Tagliacozzi (Taliacotius), Gasparo, Italian surgeon. D. 1599. 
 Taglioni, Maria, dancer, daughter of Philip Taglioni. B. in Sweden 1804 
 
 D. 1884. 
 Taglioni, Paul, dancer, composer of ballets, son of Philip Taglioni. B. in 
 
 Vienna about 1809. D. 1884. 
 Taglioni, Philip, ballet-master, composer of ballets. B. in Italy about 1777. 
 
 D. 1871. 
 
556 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Taillandier, Saint-Rene, French writer on history and literature. B. 1817. 
 
 D. 1879. 
 Taine, Ilippolyte Adolph, French author. B. 1828. D. 1893. " Histoire 
 
 de la litterature anglaise." " Voyage en Italie." " Philosophie de l'art 
 
 en Italie " and other works on art. " Notes sur l'Angleterre." " Les 
 
 origines de la France contemporaine " (embracing " L'ancien regime" and 
 
 " La revolution "). 
 Tait, Archibald Campbell, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1811. D. 1882. 
 Tait, Peter Guthrie, British physicist, mathematician. B. 1831. 
 Talbot, John, earl of Shrewsbury, English general. B. about 1373. Killed 
 
 1453. 
 Talbot, William Henry Fox, one of the inventors of photography, scholar, 
 
 author. B. in England 1800. D. 1877. 
 Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon, English writer of tragedy. B. 1795. D. 1854. 
 Taliacotius. See Tagliacozzi. 
 
 Tallard (Tallart), Camille de, French general. B. 1652. D. 1728. 
 Talleyrand (Talleyrand - Perigord), Charles Maurice de, prince, French 
 
 diplomatist. B. 1754. D. 1838. 
 Tallien, Madame. See Chimay. 
 
 Tallien, Jean Lambert, French revolutionist. B. 1769. D. 1820. 
 Talma, Francois Joseph, French actor. B. 1763.' D. 1826. 
 Talvj. See Robinson, Therese. 
 
 Tamerlane (Timour), Mongol conqueror. B. about 1336. D. 1405. 
 Tancred, Norman crusader, nephew of Robert Guiscard. B. 1078. D. 
 
 1112, 
 Taney, Roger Brooke, chief justice of the United States 1836-64. B. 1777. 
 
 D. 1864. 
 Tarleton, Bannastre, English soldier in America. B. 1754. D. 1833. 
 Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), king of Rome. Reputed to have 
 
 reigned from about 616 to about 578 b. c. 
 Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), last king of Rome. Reputed 
 
 to have reigned from about 534 to about 510 b. c. 
 Tartini, Giuseppe, Italian violinist, composer. B. 1692. D. 1770. 
 Tasman, Abel Janssen, Dutch navigator, discoverer of Tasmania 1642. 
 Tasso, Bernardo, Italian poet. B. 1493. D. 1569. Most celebrated produc- 
 tion, " L'Amadigi " (heroic poem). 
 Tasso, Torquato, Italian poet, son of Bernardo Tasso. B. March 11, 1544. 
 
 D. April 25, 1595. Greatest productions, " Gerusalemme liberata " (epic 
 
 poem on the first crusade) and " Aminta" (pastoral drama). 
 Tassoni, Alessandro, Italian poet. B. 1565. D. 1635. 
 Tate, Nahum, British poet. B. 1652. D. 1715. "Miscellanea Sacra, or 
 
 Poems on Divine and Moral Subjects." " Panacea, a Poem on Tea." 
 
 Version of the Psalms (prepared jointly with Brady). 
 Tatius, Achilles. See Achilles Tatius. 
 Tauler, Johann, German mystic. B. about 1290. D. 1361. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 557 
 
 Tausig, Karl, German pianist. B. 1841. D. 1871. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard. American traveler, author. B. 1825. D. 1878. Books of 
 
 travel, poems, works of fiction, translation of Goethe's " Faust." 
 Taylor, Brook, English mathematician. B. 1(385. I). 1731. ■ 
 Taylor, Sir Henry, English poet, essayist, B. 1800. D. 1886. Principal 
 
 production, " Philip van Artevelde " (dramatic poem). 
 Taylor, Isaac, English philosophical and religious writer. B. 1787. D. 
 
 1805. 
 Taylor, Isaac, English philologist. B. 1829. " Etruscan Researches." "The 
 
 Alphabet; an Account of the Origin and Development of Letters." 
 Taylor, Jane, English authoress, sister of the elder Isaac Taylor. B. 1783. 
 
 D. 1824. " Original Poems " and " Hymns " for children (written jointly 
 
 with her sister, Ann). " Contributions of Q. Q." (essays). 
 Taylor, Jeremy, English religious writer, distinguished as an advocate of 
 
 toleration. B. 1613. D. 1667. 
 Taylor, John, English poet. B. about 1580. D. 1654. 
 Taylor, Richard (" Dick "), Confederate general, son of President Taylor. 
 
 B. 1826. D. 1879. 
 Taylor, Thomas, English translator of Greek classics. B. 1758. D. 1835. 
 Taylor, Tom, English dramatist. B. 1817. D. 1880. 
 Taylor, Zachary, American general in the Mexican war, president of the 
 
 United States 1849-'50. B. 1784. D. July 9, 1850. 
 Tchaikovski, Petr, Russian composer. B. 1840. D. 1893. 
 Tchernyshevski, Nikolai, Russian author. B. 1828. D. 1889. Best known 
 
 by his Nihilistic novel "What is to be done?" 
 Tchikatcheff, Petr, Russian traveler, naturalist. B. 1812. D. 1890. 
 Tecumseh, Indian chief. B. about 1768. Killed 1813. 
 Tegetthoff, Wilhelm von, Austrian admiral. B. 1827. D. 1871. 
 Tegner, Esaias, Swedish poet. B. 1782. D. 1846. Best known work, 
 
 " Frithiofs Saga." 
 Tejada, Lerdo de. See Lerdo de Tejada. 
 
 Teleky, Liiszlu, count, Hungarian statesman. B. 1811. D. 1861. 
 Telford, Thomas, British engineer. B. 1757. D. 1834. 
 Tellez, Gabriel (" Tirso de Molina "). Spanish dramatist. D. 1648. 
 Temple, Sir William, English diplomatist, author. B. 1628. D. 1699. 
 Tencin, Claudine Alexandrine Ghierin, marchioness de, French leader of soci- 
 ety, novelist. B. 1681. D. 1749. 
 Tenerani, Pietro, Italian sculptor. B. 1789. D. 1869. 
 Teniers, David (the elder), Flemish painter. B. 1582. D. 1649. 
 Teniers, David (the younger), Flemish painter. B. 1610. D. 1690. 
 Tennant, William, Scottish poet. B. 1785. D. 1848. 
 Tennemann, Wilhelm Gottlieb, German historian of philosophy. B. 1761. 
 
 D. 1819. 
 Tennent, Sir James Emerson, British author. B. 1804. D. 1869. Works 
 
 on Greece and Ceylon. 
 
558 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, English poet. B. 1809. D. Oct. 0, 1892. " The 
 May Queen," 1833. "Locksley Hall." "The Princess." "In Merao- 
 riam." "Maud." "Idyls of the King." "Enoch Arden." "Queen 
 Mary, a Drama." 
 
 Tenterden, Lord. See Abbott, Charles. 
 
 Terburg, Gerard, Dutch painter. B. 1608. D. 1681. 
 
 Terence (Publius Terentius Afer), Roman comic poet. B. about 190 b. c. 
 D. about 159. 
 
 Terpander, Greek musician, poet. Flourished about 670 B. c. 
 
 Tertullian, Latin father of the church. B. about middle of 2d c. 
 
 Tetzel, Johann, German monk, vender of indulgences. D. 1519. 
 
 Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt 1879-92, son of Ismail. B. 1852. D. 1S92 : 
 
 Thackeray, William Makepeace, English novelist. B. 1811. D. Dec. 24, 
 1863. " Vanity Fair," 1846-'8. " The Book of Snobs." " Pendennis." 
 " Henry Esmond." " The Newcomes." " The Virginians." 
 
 Thaer, Albrecht. German writer on agriculture. B. 1752. D. 1828. 
 
 Thais, Greek hetrera. Second half of 4th c. b. c. 
 
 Thalberg, Sigismond, pianist. B. in Geneva 1812. D. 1871. 
 
 Thales, Greek philosopher. B. about 640 B. c. D. about 546. 
 
 Theiner, Augustin, Catholic scholar, author of documentary ecclesiastical 
 compilations, &c. B. in Germany 1804. D. 1874. 
 
 Themistocles, Athenian statesman, commander. D. about 460 b. c. 
 
 Thenard, Louis Jacques, French chemist. B. 1777. D. 1857. 
 
 Theobald of Champagne and Navarre, troubadour. See Thibaud. 
 
 Theobald, Lewis, English Shakespearean critic. D. 1744. 
 
 Theocritus, Greek bucolic poet. About 270 b. c. 
 
 Theodore, king of Abyssinia. D. by his own hand 1868. 
 
 Theodoret, Syrian ecclesiastical historian. B. about 390. D. about 457. 
 
 Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Reigned from 475. D. 526. 
 King of Italy from 493. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, Roman emperor. Reigned over the eastern portion 
 of the Roman Empire from 379 ; became undisputed master of the whole 
 394. D. 395. 
 
 Theodosius II., Byzantine emperor. B. 401. Reigned from 408. D. 450. 
 
 Theognis, Greek poet. Second half of 6th c. B. c. 
 
 Theophrastus, Greek philosopher, writer. B. about 372 B. c. D. about 
 287. Principal extant work, " Moral Characters." 
 
 Theopompus, Greek historian. B. about 378 B. c. D. after 305. 
 
 Theramenes, Athenian commander, demagogue, one of the Thirty Tyrants. 
 Condemned to death 404 B. c. 
 
 Theresa (Teresa), Saint, Spanish nun, religious writer. B. 1515. D. 1582. 
 
 Theroigne de Mericourt, Anne Josephe, " amazon of the French Revolu- 
 tion." B. 1762. D. 1817. 
 
 Thespis, reputed founder of Greek tragedy. Second half of 6th c. B. c. 
 
 Thevenot, Jean de, French traveler in the East, author. B. 1633. D. 1067. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 559 
 
 Thevenot, Melchisedech, French scholar, historian of travels. B. about 
 1620. D. 1092. 
 
 Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne, king of Navarre, crusader, 
 troubadour. D. 1253. 
 
 Thibaut, Anton Friedrich Justus, German jurist. B. 1774. D. 1840. 
 
 Thierry, Amedee, French historian. B. 1797. D. 1873. Histories of the 
 Gauls, of Gaul under the Romans, and of Attila and his successors. 
 
 Thierry, Augustin, French historian, brother of Amedee Thierry. B. 1795. 
 D. 1856. Histories of the Norman conquest of England, of the Mero- 
 vingians, and of the rise of the Third Estate. 
 
 Thiers, Adolphe, French statesman, historian. B. April 16, 1797. Prime- 
 minister under Louis Philippe in 1836 and 1840. President, of France 
 1871-'3. 1). Sept. 3, 1877. " Ilistoire de la revolution francaise." " His- 
 toire du consulat et de l'empire." 
 
 Thiersch, Friedrich Wilhelm, German Hellenist, B. 1784. D. 1860. 
 
 Thirlwall, Connop, English historian, bishop of St. Davids. B. 1797. D. 
 1875. " History of Greece." 
 
 Tholuck, Friedrich August Gotttreu, German Protestant theologian. B. 
 1799. D. 1877. 
 
 Thomas, Charles Louis Ambroise, French composer. B. 1811. D. 1896. 
 
 Thomas, George Henry, American general. B. 1816. D. 1870. 
 
 Thomas, Isaiah, American printer, journalist, B. 1749. D. 1831. 
 
 Thomas, Joseph, American scholar. B. about 1811. D. 1891. "Diction- 
 ary of Biography and Mythology." 
 
 Thomas a Kempis. See Kempis. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas. See Aquinas. 
 
 Thomasius, Christian, furtherer of juridical reform, philosopher. B. in 
 Germany 1655. D. 1728. 
 
 Thompson, Benjamin. See Rumford. 
 
 Thompson, Thomas Perronet, English writer, noted for his advocacy of the 
 abolition of slavery and the repeal of the Corn Laws. B. 1783. D. 1869. 
 
 Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville, British naturalist. B. 1830. D. 1882, 
 
 Thomson, James, British poet. B. Sept. 11, 1700. D. Aug. 27, 1748. 
 " The Seasons." " The Castle of Indolence." 
 
 Thomson, Thomas, British chemist, B. 1773. D. 1852. 
 
 Thomson, William, Lord Kelvin, British physicist. B. 1824. 
 
 Thoreau, Henry David, American author, naturalist, B. 1817. D. 1862. 
 Works descriptive of his hermit life at Concord, Mass., and of his ram- 
 bles through the country. 
 
 Thombury, George Walter, English author. B. 1828. D. 1876. 
 
 Thornhill, Sir James, English painter. B. 1676. D. 1734. 
 
 Thornycroft, W. Hamo, English sculptor. B. 1850. 
 
 Thorpe, Benjamin, English Anglo-Saxon scholar, writer on northern my- 
 thology. B. about 1782 (t). D. 1870. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Bertel, Danish sculptor. B. Nov. 19, 1 770. D. Mar. 24, 1844. 
 
 
560 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Thothmes III., king of Egypt. 16th c. b. c. 
 
 Thou, Jacques Auguste de, French statesman, historian. B. 1553. D. 1617. 
 
 History of his own time (in Latin). 
 Thrale. See Piozzi. 
 
 Thrasybulus, Athenian patriot, commander. Killed 390 b. c. 
 Thucydides, Athenian historian. B. about 471 b. c. D. about 400. His- 
 tory of the Peloponnesian War. 
 Thunberg, Karl Peter, Swedish botanist. B. 1743. D. 1828. 
 Thurloe, John, English statesman. B. 1616. D. 1668. 
 Thurlow, Edward, Lord, lord chancellor of England. B. about 1732. D. 
 
 1806. 
 Thurn, Heinrich Matthias von, count, Bohemian patriot, soldier. B. 1580. 
 
 D. 1640. 
 Tibaldi, Pellegrino. See Pellegrini. 
 Tiberius, Roman emperor, step-son of Augustus. B. 42 b. c. Reigned 
 
 from A. d. 14. D. 37. 
 Tibullus, Albius, Latin elegiac poet. B. about 56 b. c. 
 Tickell, Thomas, English poet. B. 1686. D. 1740. "The Prospect of 
 
 Peace." " The Royal Progress." " Elegy on the Death of Addison." 
 Ticknor, George, American author. B. 1791. D. 1871. " History of 
 
 Spanish Literature." 
 Tidemand, Adolf, Norwegian painter. B. 1814. D. 1876. 
 Tieck, Christian Friedrich, German sculptor. B. 1776. D. 1851. 
 Tieck, Ludwig, German poet, novelist, critic, translator of Shakespearean 
 
 plays and of " Don Quixote." B. 1773. D. 1853. 
 Tiedemann, Dietrich, German philosopher. B. 1748. D. 1803. 
 Tiedemann, Friedrich, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 1781. D. 1861. 
 Tiedge, Christoph August, German poet. B. 1752. D. 1841. Best known 
 
 production, " Urania " (didactic poem on the immortality of the soul). 
 Tighe, Mary, Irish poetess. B. 1773. D. 1810. Principal poem, " Psyche." 
 Tiglath-pileser II., king of Assyria. Reigned 745-727 b. c. 
 Tigranes I., king of Armenia. Reigned from about 96 to about 55 b. c. 
 Tilden, Samuel Jones, American lawyer, politician. B. 1814. D. 1886. 
 Tillemont, Sebastien le Nain de, French historian. B. 1637. D. 1698. 
 
 Best known as a writer on the early history of the church. 
 Tillotson, John, English prelate. B. 1630. D. 1694. 
 Tilly, Johann Tserclaes, count, general of the Catholic League in the Thirty 
 
 Years' War. B. 1559. Killed 1632. 
 Timoleon, Corinthian general, who delivered Syracuse from Dionysius the 
 
 Younger. D. 337 b. c. 
 Timon the Misanthrope, an Athenian. Toward close of 5th c. B. c. 
 Timotheus, Athenian commander. D. about 354 b. c. 
 Timour. See Tamerlane. 
 
 Tindal, Matthew, English religious writer. B. about 1657. D. 1733. 
 Tindale, William. See Tyndale. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 501 
 
 Tinne, Miss Alexine, Dutch traveler in Africa. B. 1839. Murdered 1869. 
 Tintoretto, 11 (Jacopo Iiobusti), Italian painter. B. 1518. D. 1594. 
 Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore. B. 1749. Killed 1799. 
 Tiraboschi, Girolarno, Italian author. B. 1731. D. 1794. "Storia della 
 
 letteratura italiana." 
 Tirso de Molina. See Tellez. 
 
 Tischbein, J. Heinrich Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1751. D. 1829. 
 Tischbein, Johann Heinrich, German painter. B. 1722. D. 1789. 
 Tischendorf, Constantin von, German Biblical palaeographer and editor. 
 
 B. 1815. D. 1874. 
 Tissaphernes, Persian satrap. Put to death 395 b. c. 
 Tissot, Simon Andre, Swiss physician. B. 1728. D. 1797. 
 Tisza, Kalman, Hungarian statesman. B. 1830. 
 
 Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), Italian painter. B. 1477. D. Aug. 27, 1576. 
 Titus, Roman emperor, son of Vespasian. B. A. D. 40 or 41. Took Jerusa- 
 lem 70. Reigned from 79. D. 81. 
 Tocqueville, Alexis de, French statesman, political philosopher. B. 1805. 
 
 D. 1859. " La democratic en Amerique." Works on the history of 
 
 France in the eighteenth century. (See Beaumont, Gustave de.) 
 Todhunter, Isaac, English mathematician. B. 1820. D. 1884. 
 Todleben, Franz Eduard, Russian military officer. B. 1818. D. 1884. 
 Togrul Beg, founder of the Seljuk empire. D. 1063. 
 Tokolyi (Tokoli), Inire, leader of the Hungarians in a struggle against the 
 
 house of Austria. B. 1656. D. 1705. 
 Toland, John, British author. B. about 1670. D. 1722. "Christianity not 
 
 Mysterious." "Life of Milton." "Anglia Libera " (on the succession to 
 
 the throne of England). 
 Tollens, Hendrik Corneliszoon, Dutch poet. B. 1780. D. 1856. 
 Tolstoi, Alexei, count, Russian poet, dramatist. B. 1817. D. 1875. 
 Tolstoi, Dmitri, count, Russ. statesman, minister of pub. instruction under 
 
 Alexander II., of the interior under Alexander III. B. 1823. D. 1889. 
 Tolstoi, Leo, count, Russian novelist. B. 1828. 
 Tommaseo, Niccolo, Italian patriot, scholar, commentator of Dante. B. 
 
 about 1803. D. 1874. 
 Toniomi Iwakura, Japanese statesman. D. 1883. 
 Tompkins, Daniel D., American statesman. B. 1774. D. 1825. 
 Tonstall (Tunstall), Cuthbert, English prelate. B. about 1475. D. 1559. 
 Tonty, Henry de, companion of La Salle. D. 1704. 
 Tooke, J. Home, English politician, philologist. B. 1736. D. 1812. 
 Tooke, Thomas, English political economist. B. 1774. D. 1858. 
 Tooke, William, English writer on Russia. B. 1744. D. 1820. 
 Toombs, Robert, American politician, Secessionist. B. 1810. D. 1885. 
 Toreno, Jose Maria, count of, Spanish statesman, historian of the Peninsular 
 
 War. B. 1786. D. 1843. 
 Torfaeus (Thormodr Torfason), Icelandic historian. B 1636. D. 1719. 
 
562 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Torlonia, Alessandro, prince, Italian capitalist, philanthropist, art-collector, 
 
 drainer of Lake Fucino. B. 1800. D. 1886. 
 Torquemada, Tomas de, inquisitor general of Spain. B. about 1420. D. 
 
 1498. 
 Torrey, John, American botanist. B. 1796. D. 1873. 
 Torricelli, Evangelista, Italian physicist, mathematician, inventor of the 
 
 barometer. B. 1608. D. 1647. 
 Torstenson, Lennart, Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1603. 
 
 D. 1651. 
 Toschi, Paolo, Italian engraver. B. 1788. D. 1854. 
 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths. Slain 552. 
 
 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, French botanist. B. 1656. D. 1708. 
 Tourville, Anne Hilarion de Cotcntin, count de, French admiral. B. 1642. 
 
 D. 1701. 
 Toussaint l'Ouverture, Francois Dominique, Ilaytian Negro general. B. 
 
 about 1743. D. 1803. 
 Townshend, Charles, viscount, English statesman. B. about 1674. D. 1738. 
 Townshend, Charles, English statesman. B. 1725. D. 1767. 
 Tracy, Destutt de. See Destutt de Tracy. 
 Trajan (Trajanus), Roman emperor. B. a. d. 52 (53 ?). Reigned from 98. 
 
 D. 117. 
 Tredgold, Thomas, English engineer. B. 1788. D. 1829. 
 Trcgelles, Samuel Prideaux, English Biblical scholar. B. 1813. D. 1875. 
 Troitsclike, Heinrich Gotthard von, German historical and political writer, 
 
 politician. B. 1834. D. 1896. 
 Tremouille (Tremoille), Louis de la, French general. B. 1460. Killed 1525. 
 Trench, Richard Chenevix, archbishop of Dublin, author. B. 1807. D. 
 
 1886. Various works relating to the New Testament. "The Study of 
 
 Words." " English, Past and Present." 
 Trenck, Franz von der, baron, Austrian soldier. B. 1711. D. 1749. 
 Trenck, Friedrich von der, baron, Prussian soldier. B. 1726. Guillotined 
 
 1794. 
 Trendelenburg, Adolf, German philosopher. B. 1802. D. 1872. 
 Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold, German naturalist. B. 1776. D. 1837. 
 
 " Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur." 
 Treviranus, Ludolf Christian, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1779, 
 
 D. 1864. 
 Tribonian (Tribonianus), Roman jurist. D. a. d. 545. 
 Tricoupis, Spiridion, Greek historian. B. 1791. D. 1873. 
 Trivulzio, Gian Giacomo, Italian general in the service of France. D. 1518. 
 Trochu, Louis Jules, French general, commander of Paris during the siege 
 
 by the Germans. B. 1815. D. 1896. 
 Trollope, Adolphus, English author, brother of Anthony Trollope. B. 1810. 
 
 D. 1892. Best known as a writer on Italy. Principal production, "His- 
 
 torv of the Commonwealth of Florence." 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 563 
 
 Trollope, Anthony, English novelist. B. 1815. D. 1882. 
 
 Trollope, Frances (born Milton), English novelist, writer of sketches of 
 
 travel, mother of Anthony and Adolphus Trollope. B. about 1780. D. 
 
 18G3. " Domestic Manners of the Americans," 1832. 
 Tromp, Cornells van, Dutch admiral. B. 1629. D. 1G91. 
 Tromp, Maarten Harpertzoon, Dutch admiral. B. 1597. Killed 1653. 
 Troplong, Raymond Theodore, French jurist. B. 1795. D. 1869. 
 Troyon, Constant, French painter. B. 1810. D. 1865. 
 Trumbull, John, American satirical poet. B. 1750. D. 1831. 
 Trumbull, John, American painter. B. 1756. D. 1843. 
 Trumbull, Jonathan, American statesman, patriot. B. 1710. D. 1785. 
 Trumbull, Jonathan, American statesman. B. 1740. D. 1809. 
 Tryon, William, colonial governor of North Carolina and of New York (the 
 
 last of New York), British general in the War of the Revolution. D. 
 
 1788. 
 Tschirnhausen, Ehrenfried Walter von, count, German mathematician, 
 
 philosopher, noted for his improvements in the manufacture of lenses 
 
 and porcelain. B. 1651. D. 1708. 
 Tschudi, ^Egidius, Swiss historian. B. 1505. D. 1572. 
 Tschudi, Friedrich von, Swiss naturalist. B. 1820. D. 1886. 
 Tschudi, Johann Jakob von, Swiss traveler in South America, naturalist. 
 
 B. 1818. D. 1889. 
 Tucker, Abraham, English philosopher. B. 1705. D. 1774. 
 Tuckerman, Henry Theodore, American author. B. 1813. D. 1871. Va- 
 rious works on art and literature, biographical essays, &c. 
 Tudor, Owen, husband of Catharine of Valois, the widow of Henry V. of 
 
 England, and grandfather of Henry VII. Killed 1461. 
 Tull, Jethro, English agriculturist. D. 1740. 
 Tullius, Servius. See Servius Tullius. 
 
 Tulloch, John, Scottish ecclesiastical writer. B. 1823. D. 1886. 
 Tullus Hostilius, reputed third king of Rome, about 672-640 B. c. 
 Tunstall. See Tonstall. 
 Tupper, Martin Farquhar, English poet. B. 1810. D. 1889. "Proverbial 
 
 Philosophy." 
 Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, viscount de, French general. B. 
 
 Sept, 11, 1611. Killed July 27, 1675. 
 Turgeneff, Ivan, Russian novelist, B. Nov. 9, 1818. D. Sept. 3, 1883. Espe- 
 cially distinguished as a delineator of the social aspects of contemporary 
 
 Russia. 
 Turgot, Robert Jacques, French controller general of finance 1774-'6. B. 
 
 1727. D. 1781. 
 Turner, Joseph Mallord W T illiam, English painter. B. 1775. D. 1851. 
 Turner, Sharon, English historian. B. 1768. D. 1847. Best known by his 
 
 " History of the Anglo-Saxons." 
 Turner, William, English naturalist. D. 1568. 
 
564 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Turretin (Turretini), Francois, Swiss theologian. B. 1623. D. 1687. 
 
 Turretin, Jean Alphonse, Swiss theologian. B. 1671. D. 1737. 
 
 Tusser, Thomas, English georgic poet. I), about 1580. 
 
 Twain, Mark. See Clemens. 
 
 Twiss, Sir Travers, English jurist. B. 1809. D. 1897. 
 
 Tychsen, Olaus Gerhard, German oriental scholar. B. 1734. D. 1815. 
 
 Tyler, John, president of the United States from April 4, 1841 to 1845. B. 
 
 March 29, 1790. D. Jan. 17, 1862. 
 Tyler, Wat. See Wat Tyler. 
 Tyndale (Tindale), William, English Reformer, Biblical translator. Put to 
 
 death 1536. 
 Tyndall, John, Brit, physicist. B. in Ireland Aug. 21, 1820. D. Dec. 4, 1893. 
 Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill, earl of, Irish insurgent leader. D. 1616. 
 Tyrtaeus, Greek poet. 7th c. b. c. 
 
 Tyrwhitt, Thomas, English critic, classical scholar. B. 1730. D. 1786. 
 Tytler, Alexander Fraser (Lord Woodhouselee), Scottish author. B. 1747. 
 
 D. 1813. " Elements of General History." " Memoirs of the Life and 
 
 Writings of Henry Home, Lord Karnes." 
 Tytler, Patrick Fraser, Scottish historian, biographer. B. 1791. D. 1849. 
 
 " History of Scotland." 
 Tzschirner, Heinrich Gottlieb, German Protestant theologian. B. 1778. 
 
 D. 1828. 
 
 U. 
 
 TJccello, Paolo (Paolo di Dono), Italian painter. B. about 1397. D. about 
 
 1475. 
 TJdall, Nicholas, English playwright. B. about 1505. D. 1556. 
 Ueberweg, Friedrich, German historian of philosophy. B. 1826. D. 1871. 
 Uggione, Marco da. See Oggione. 
 TJgolino della Gherardesca. See Gherardesca. 
 TJhland, Ludwig, German poet. B. 1787. D. 1862. 
 TJjfalvy, Charles Eugene, traveler in Central Asia, ethnologist, a native of 
 
 Vienna, of Hungarian extraction, settled in France. B. 1842. 
 TJlfilas (Wulflla), Gothic Biblical translator. B. about 311. D. about 381. 
 Ullmann, Karl, German Protestant theologian. B. 1796. D. 1865. 
 TJlloa, Antonio de, Spanish savant, naval commander. B. 1716. D. 1795. 
 TJlpian (Domitius Ulpianus), Roman jurist. Killed A. d. 228. 
 Ulrici, Hermann, German philosopher, critic. B. 1806. D. 1884. 
 Umbreit, Friedrich Wilhelm Karl, German Protestant theologian. B. 1795. 
 
 D. 1860. 
 XJncas, sachem of the Mohegans. D. about 1682. 
 linger, Franz, Austrian botanist, palaeontologist. B. 1800. D. 1870. 
 linger, William, German engraver. B. 1837. 
 Upham, Thomas Cogswell, American philosophical and religious writer. B. 
 
 1799. D. 1872. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 565 
 
 Urban II., pope. Elected 1088. D. 1099. 
 
 Urban VI., pope. Elected 1378. D. 1389. 
 
 Urban VIII. (Maffeo Barberini), pope. Elected 1623. D. 1644. 
 
 Ure, Andrew,. Scottish chemist. B. 1778. D. 1857. " Dictionary of Chem- 
 istry." " Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines." 
 
 Urquhart, David, British author. B. 1805. D. 1877. " The Spirit of the 
 East." 
 
 Urquiza, Justo Jose de, Argentine general, statesman. B. 1800. Assassi- 
 nated 1870. 
 
 Usher (Ussher), James, archbishop of Armagh, Biblical chronologist. B. 
 1580. D. 1656. 
 
 Uvaroff, Sergei, count, Russian statesman, scholar. B. 1785. D. 1855. 
 
 Uzziab, king of Judah. Reigned about 792-740 B. c. (Duncker; 8U-75S, 
 Oppert). 
 
 \ V. 
 
 Vaca, Cabeca de. See Nunez, Alvar. 
 
 Vacherot, Etienne, French philosophical writer. B. 1809. 
 
 Vaga, Perino del (Pietro Buonaccorsi), Italian painter. B. 1500. D. 1547. 
 
 Valckenaer, Lodewijk Casper, Dutch classical scholar, B. 1715. D. 1785. 
 
 Valdez. See Melendez Valdez. 
 
 Valenciennes, Achille, French naturalist. B. 1794 D. 1865. Chiefly 
 
 noted for his work on fishes. 
 Valens, emperor of the East. Reigned 364-378. 
 Valentin, Gabriel Gustav, German physiologist. B. 1810. D. 1883. 
 Valentinian (Valentinianus) I., emperor of the West. Reigned 364-375. 
 Valentinian II., emperor of the West. Made the associate of his brother, 
 
 Gratian, 375, when little more than an infant. On Gratian's overthrow 
 
 became sovereign of part of the Empire of the West 383. Sole emperor 
 
 of the West from 388. Murdered 392. 
 Valentinian III., emperor of the West. Reigned from 425. Murdered 455. 
 Valera, Juan, Spanish novelist, critic, diplomatist. B. 1824. 
 Valerian (Valerianus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 254 to about 260. 
 Valerius Corvus, Marcus, Roman general. B. about 371 b. c. D. about 271. 
 Valerius Flaccus, Cuius, Latin poet. D. about a. d. 90. 
 Valerius Maximus, Latin author. First half of first c. A. d. " Factorum 
 
 et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri IX." 
 Valette, Jean Parisot de la, grand-master of the Knights of Malta. B. 
 
 1494. D. 1568. 
 Valla, Lorenzo, Italian classical scholar. D. about 1460. 
 Vallauri, Tommaso, Italian Latin scholar, literary historian. B. 1805. 
 Valle, Pietro della, Italian traveler in the East. B. 1586. D. 1652. 
 Valliere, duchess de la. See La Valliere. 
 Vallisnieri (Vallisneri), Antonio, Italian naturalist, embryologist. B, 1661. 
 
 D. 1730. 
 
56G BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Vambery, Armin, Hungarian traveler in Central Asia, author of various 
 
 works on the East, philologist. B. 1832. 
 Vanbrugh, Sir John, English dramatist, distinguished also as an architect. 
 
 B. 1666. D. 1726. 
 Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States 1837-41. B. Dec. 5, 
 
 1782. D. July 24, 1862. 
 Vancouver, George, English navigator. D. 1798. 
 Vandamme, Dominique Joseph, French general. B. 1770. D. 1830. 
 Van der Goes. See Goes. 
 Van der Heyden. See Heyden. 
 
 Vanderlyn, John, American painter. B. 1776. D. 1852. 
 Van der Meer. See Meer. 
 Van der Meulen. See Meulen. 
 
 Vandervelde, Adriaan, Dutch painter. B. 1639. D. 1672. 
 Vandervelde, Willem (the elder), Dutch painter. B. 1610. D. 1693. 
 Vandervelde, Willem (the younger), Dutch painter. B. 1633. D. 1707. 
 Vandyke (Van Dyck), Sir Anthony, Flemish painter. B. March 22, 1599. 
 
 D. Dec. 9, 1641. 
 Vane, Sir Henry, English statesman. B. about 1612. Executed 1662. 
 Van Erpen. See Erpenius. 
 Van Eyck. See Eyck. 
 Van Helmont. See Helmont. 
 
 Vanini, Lucilio, Italian philosopher. B. about 1585. Burned 1619. 
 Vanloo, Charles Andre, French painter. B. 1705. D. 1765. 
 Vanloo, Jean Baptiste, French painter. B. 1684. D. 1745. 
 Vannucci, Pietro. See Perugino. 
 Van Oost. See Oost. 
 Van Oosterzee. See Oosterzee. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, Stephen, American statesman. B. 1765. D. 1839. 
 Van Schendel. See Schendel. 
 Van Swieten. See Swieten. 
 
 Vanvitelli, Luigi, Italian architect. B. 1700. D. 1773. 
 Vargas, Luis de, Spanish painter. B. 1502. D. 1568. 
 Varnhagen von Ense, Karl August, German author. B. 1785. D. 1858. 
 
 Biographical sketches ; writings dealing with his own life and times ; 
 
 works relating to his highly gifted wife, Rahel. 
 Varro, Caius Terentius, Roman general. Consul 216 b. c. 
 Varro, Marcus Terentius, Roman scholar, author. B. 116 B. c. D. about 
 
 28 b. c. Only works extant, " De Re Rustica " and " De Lingua Latina " 
 
 (the latter in part). 
 Varro, Publius Terentius, Roman poet. B. 82 b. c. D. 37 b. c. 
 Varus, Publius Quintilius, Roman general. Slain A. D. 9. 
 Vasa, Gustavus. See Gustavus Vasa. 
 Vasari, Giorgio, Italian painter, architect, biographer of the Italian artists. 
 
 D. 1574. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 567 
 
 Vasco da Gama. See Gama. 
 
 Vattel, Emmeric de, Swiss publicist. B. 1714. D. 1767. "Le droit des 
 
 gens." 
 Vauban, Sebastien Leprestre de, French military engineer. B. 1633. D. 
 
 1707. 
 Vaucanson, Jacques dej French inventor of automata. B. 1709. D. 1782. 
 Vaughan, Robert, English historian, divine. B. 1795. D. 1868. Works 
 
 treating of the history of England under the Stuarts and Cromwell, a life 
 
 of Wycliffe, &c. 
 Vaulabelle, Achille Tenaille de, French historian. B. 1799. D. 1879. 
 
 " Histoire des deux restaurations.'' 
 Vauquelin, Louis Nicolas, French chemist. B. 1763. D. 1829. 
 Vautier, Benjamin, Swiss painter. B. 1829. 
 Vega, Garcilaso de la. See Garcilaso de la Vega. 
 Vega, Lope de. See Lope de Vega. 
 Veh.se, Karl Eduard, German historian. B. 1802. D. 1870. " Geschichte 
 
 der deutschen Hofe seit der Reformation " (" History of the Gen nan 
 
 Courts since the Reformation "). 
 Veit, Philipp, German painter. B. 1793. I). 1877. 
 Vela, Vincenzo, Italian sculptor. B. 1822. D. 1891. 
 Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, Spanish painter. B. 1599. D. 
 
 1660. 
 Velde, van der, painters. See Vander velde. 
 Velde, Franz Karl van der, German novelist. B. 1779. D. 1824. 
 Velleius Paterculus. See Paterculus. 
 
 Velpeau, Alfred Armand Louis Marie, French surgeon. B. 1795. D. 1867. 
 Vendome, Cesar, duke de, illegitimate son of Henry IV. of France. B. 
 
 1594. D. 1665. 
 Vend6me, Louis Joseph, duke dc, French general. B. 1654. D. 1712. 
 Venedey, Jakob, German political and historical writer, member of the 
 
 Frankfort Parliament, B. 1805. D. 1871. 
 Ventura, Gioacchino, Italian preacher, theologian. B. 1792. D. 1861. 
 Verboeckhoven, Eugene Joseph, Belgian painter. B. about 1799. D. 1881, 
 Vercingetorix, Gallic leader. Put to death about 45 B. c. 
 Verdi, Giuseppe, Italian composer. B. 1813. 
 Vereshtchagin, Vasili, Russian painter. B. 1842. 
 Vergennes, Charles Gravier, count de, French statesman. B. 1717. D. 
 
 1787. 
 Vergil, Polydore, Italian ecclesiastic (holding dignities in England), writer. 
 
 B. about 1470. D. 1555. " Historia Anglica." " De Rerum Inventori- 
 
 bus " (history of inventions). 
 Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien, Girondist leader. Executed 1793. 
 Vermigli. See Peter Martyr. 
 Verne, Jules, French author. B. 1828. Phantastic works of fiction, dealing 
 
 with the wonders of nature. 
 
568 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Vernet, Carle (Antoine Charles Horace), French painter. B. 1758. D. 1836. 
 
 Vernet, Horace, French painter. B. 1789. D. 1863. 
 
 Vei-net, Joseph, French painter. B. 1714. D. 1789. 
 
 Vernon, Edward, English admiral. B. 1684. D. 1757. 
 
 Veronese, Paul. See Cagliari. 
 
 Verplanck, Gulian Crommelin, American author. B. 1786. D. 1870. 
 
 Verrazzani, Giovanni, Italian navigator, pirate. Executed 1527. 
 
 Verrocchio, Andrea del, Italian sculptor, painter. B. about 1432. D. 1488. 
 
 Verus, Lucius, colleague of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. B. 130. D. 
 
 about beginning of 169. 
 Vesalius, Andreas, anatomist. B. in Brussels 1514. D. 1564. 
 Vespasian (Vespasianus), Roman emperor. B. a. d. 9. Proclaimed 69. 
 
 L>. 79. 
 Vespucci, Amerigo, Italian navigator. B. about 1452. D. 1512. 
 Vestris (Vestris-Allard), Auguste, French opera dancer. B. 1760. D. 1842. 
 Vestris, Gaetano Apoliino Baldassare, French opera dancer. B. in Italy 
 
 1729. D. 1808. 
 Veuillot, Louis, French Ultramontane journalist. B. 1813. D. 1883. 
 Viardot, Louis, French writer on art, historian. B. 1800. D. 1883. 
 Viardot-Garcia, Pauline, singer, wife of Louis Viardot. B. 1821. 
 Vicente, Gil. See Gil Vicente. 
 
 Vico, Giovanni Battista, Italian author, founder of the science of the phi- 
 losophy of history. B. about 1668. D. 1744 (1743 f>. 
 Victor (Victor-Perrin), Claude, duke of Belluno, French general. B. 1764. 
 
 D. 1841. 
 Victor Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, king of Sardinia. B. 1666. Reigned 
 
 1675-1730 (as king of Sardinia, from 1720). D. 1732. 
 Victor Emanuel, king of Italy, son of Charles Albert. B. 1820. King of 
 
 Sardinia from 1849; of Itaiy, from 1861. D. Jan. 9, 1878. 
 Victoria, queen of England, daughter of the duke of Kent, brother of 
 
 William IV. B. May 24, 1819. Succeeded to the throne June 20, 1837. 
 
 Styled empress of India since 1876. Married in 1840 to Albert, prince of 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 1861. 
 Vida, Marco Girolamo, Italian Latin poet. B. about 1485. D. 1566. 
 Vidocq, Eugene Francois, French detective. B. 1775. D. 1857. 
 Vien, Joseph Marie, French painter. B. 1716. D. 1809. 
 Vieta (Francois Viete), French mathematician. B. 1540. D. 1603. 
 Vieuxtemps, Henri, Belgian violinist. B. 1820. D. 1881. 
 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, Italian architect. B. 1507. D. 1573. 
 Vigny, Alfred Victor de, French poet, B. 1799. D. 1863. 
 Villani, Giovanni, Florentine historian. B. about 1280. D. 1348. 
 Villars, Claude Louis Hector de, duke, French general. B. 1653. D. 1734. 
 Villegas, Esteban Manuel de, Spanish poet. B. about 1596. D. 1669. 
 Villehardouin, Geoffroy de, historian of the fourth crusade, native of 
 
 France. D. about 1213. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 569 
 
 Villele, Joseph de, count, French statesman, financier. B. 1773. D. 1854. 
 
 Villemain, Abel Francois, French writer on literature, historian, statesman* 
 B. 1790. D. 1870. " Histoire de Gregoire VII." 
 
 Villemessant, Jean Hippolyte de, French journalist. B. 1812. D. 1879. 
 
 Villeroi, Francois de Neufville, duke de, French general. B. 1644. D. 
 1730. 
 
 Villers, Charles Francois Dominique de, French author. B. about 1765. 
 I). 1815. " L'esprit et l'influence de la reformation de Luther." " La 
 philosophic de Kant." 
 
 Villoison, Jean Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de, French classical scholar. B. 
 about 1750. D. 1805. 
 
 Vincent de Paul, Saint, founder of the order of Lazarists. B. in France 
 1576. D. 1660. 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, Italian painter, distinguished also as a sculptor, archi- 
 tect, engineer, scientist, and musician. B. 1452. D. May 2, 1519. 
 
 Vineis, Petrus de (Pietro delle Vigne), chancellor of the emperor Frederick 
 II. D. 1249. 
 
 Vinet, Alexandre Rodolphe, Swiss theologian, literary historian. B. 1797. 
 D. 1847. 
 
 Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel, French architect, writer on architec- 
 ture. B. 1814. D. 1879. 
 
 Viotti, Giovanni Battista, Italian violinist, composer. B. 1753. D. 1824. 
 
 Virchow, Rudolf, German pathologist, political loader. B. 1821. 
 
 Virgil (Publius Virgilius, or more properly Vergilius, Maro), Latin poet. B. 
 70 b. c. D. 19 b. c. " iEneid." " Georgica " (didactic poem on agri- 
 culture). " Bucolica " (" Eclogues "). 
 
 Viriathus, Lusitanian leader. Assassinated 140 or 139 b. c. 
 
 Visconti, Azzo, lord of Milan. B. 1302. D. 1339. 
 
 Visconti, Ennio Quirino, Italian archaeologist. B. 1751. D. 1818. 
 
 Visconti, Filippo Maria, duke of Milan, last of the dynasty of Visconti. B. 
 1391. D. 1447. 
 
 Visconti, Giovanni, archbishop and lord of Milan. D. 1354. 
 
 Visconti, Giovanni Galeazzo, first duke of Milan. D. 1402. 
 
 Visconti, Louis Tullius Joachim, French architect. B. 1791. D. 1853. 
 
 Visconti, Matteo, the Great, lord of Milan. D. 1322. 
 
 Visconti, Ottone, archbishop and lord of Milan. D. 1295. 
 
 Vitellius, Roman emperor. Raised to the throne a. d. 69. Murdered the 
 same year. 
 
 Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), Roman writer on architecture. Latter 
 part of first c. b. c. 
 
 Vives (Ludovicus Vivus), scholar, author. B. in Spain 1492. D. 1540. 
 
 Viviani, Vincenzo, Italian mathematician. B. 1622. D. 1703. 
 
 Vivien de Saint-Martin, Louis, French geographer. B. 1802. 
 
 Vladimir the Great, grand-prince of Russia. Reigned 980-1015. 
 
 Vogel, Eduard, German African explorer. B. 1829. Put to death 1856. 
 
570 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Vogt, Karl, German naturalist. B. 1817. D. 1895. 
 
 Voiture, Vincent, French poet, epistolary writer. B. 1598. D. 1648. 
 
 Volkmann, Alfred Wilhelm, German physiologist. B. 1801. D. 1877. 
 
 Volney, Constantin Francois de Chasseboeuf, count de, French writer. B. 
 1757. D. 1820. Author of " Les mines, ou meditations sur les revolu- 
 tions des empires," of an excellent account of Egypt and Syria, and of 
 other works. 
 
 Volta, Alessandro, Italian physicist. B. 1745. D. 1827. 
 
 Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de, French poet, philosopher, historian, 
 satirist. B. Nov. 21, 1694. D. May 30, 1778. " CEdipe," " Zaire," " Ma- 
 homet," " Merope," " Tancrede," and other tragedies ('■ GMipe," the earli- 
 est, first performed 1718 ; best production, " Zaire "). " Henriade " (epic 
 poem). " Candide " (prose fiction). — " Lettres philosophiques " (" Lettres 
 sur les Anglais "). — " Histoire de Charles XII." " Le siecle de Louis 
 XIV." (" The Century of Louis XIV."). " Essai sur les mceurs et l'esprit 
 des nations " (" Essay on the Manners and Genius of Nations "). — " La 
 pucelle " (mock heroic poem). 
 
 Volterra, Daniele da (Ricciarelli), Italian painter. B. 1509. D. about 1566. 
 
 Vondel, Joost van den, Dutch poet. B. 1587. D. 1679. 
 
 Vorontzoff, Mikhail, count, Russian statesman. B. 1710. D. 1767. 
 
 Vorontzoff, Mikhail, prince, Russian general. B. 1782. D. 1856. 
 
 Vorosmarty, Mihaly, Hungarian poet. B. 1800. D. 1855. 
 
 Vos, Martin de, Flemish painter. D. about 1603. 
 
 Voss, Johann Heinrich, German poet, translator of the Homeric poems and 
 other classical works. B. 1751. D. 1826. Principal original production, 
 " Luise " (idyl). 
 
 Vossius (Gerard Johannes Voss), Dutch rhetorician, grammarian, classical 
 scholar. B. in Germany 1577. D. 1649. 
 
 Vossius, Izaak, Dutch classical and Biblical scholar. B. 1618. D. 1689. 
 
 Vouet, Simon, French painter. B. 1590 (?). D. 1649 (?). 
 
 Vulpius, Christian August, German author. B. about 1763. D. 1827. 
 Best known by his robber romance " Rinaldo Rinaldini." 
 
 W. 
 
 Waagen, Gustav Friedrich, German writer on art. B. 1794. D. 1868. 
 Wace, Eustace (Robert), Anglo-Norman poet. D. about 1180. 
 Waddington, William Henry, French statesman, archaeologist. B. 1826. 
 
 D. 1894. 
 "Wagner, Adolf, German political economist. B. 1835. 
 Wagner, Alexander, painter. B. in Hungary 1838. 
 
 Wagner, Moritz Friedrich, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1813. D. 1887. 
 Wagner, Richard. German composer. B. May 22, 1813. D. Feb. 13, 1883. 
 Wagner, Rudolf, German physiologist, comparative anatomist. B. 1805. 
 
 D. 1864. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 571 
 
 Wagner, Rudolf Johannes von, German chemist, technologist. B. 1823. 
 D. 1880. 
 
 Waitz, Georg, German historian. B. 1813. D. 1886. 
 
 Waltz, Theodor, German psychologist, anthropologist. B. 1821. D. 1864. 
 
 Wakefield, Gilbert, English theologian, classical scholar. B. 1756. D. 
 1801. 
 
 Wakefield, Priseilla (born Trewman), English authoress. B. about 1751. 
 D. 1832. 
 
 Walckenaer, Charles Athanase, baron, French author. B. 1771. D. 1852. 
 Geographical account of Gaul ; a history of travels ; works on La Fon- 
 taine, Madame de Sevigne, and Horace. 
 
 Walewski, Alexandre Florian Joseph Colonna, count, French statesman. 
 B. in Poland 1810. D. 1868. 
 
 Walker, Amasa, American political economist. B. 1799. D. 1875. 
 
 Walker, Francis Amasa, Am. statistician, polit. economist. B. 1840. D. 1897. 
 
 Walker, John, English lexicographer. B. 1732. D. 1807. 
 
 Walker, William, American filibuster. B. 1824. Shot 1860. 
 
 Wallace, Alfred Russel, English naturalist, who enunciated simultaneously 
 with Darwin the theory of the origin of species by natural selection. B. 
 1822. " The Malay Archipelago." " On the Geographical Distribution of 
 Animals." " Island Life, or the Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas 
 and Floras." 
 
 Wallace, Sir William, Scottish patriot. Executed 1305. 
 
 Wallace, William, British composer. B. 1814. D. 1865. 
 
 Wallenstein (Waldstein), Albrecht von, duke of Friedland, Austrian general 
 in the Thirty Years' War. B. Sept. 24* 1583. Assassinated Feb. 25, 
 1634. 
 
 Waller, Edmund, English poet. B. 1605. D. 1687. Panegyric on Crom- 
 well ; ode on the death of Cromwell ; ode to Charles II. 
 
 Wallis, John, English mathematician. B. 1616. D. 1703. 
 
 Wallon, Henri Alexandre, French author, statesman. B. 1812. 
 
 Walpole, Horace, earl of Orford, English author, son of Robert Walpole. 
 B. 1717. D. 1797. "Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors." "Anec- 
 dotes of Painting in England." "The Castle of Otranto" (novel). His- 
 torical memoirs. Letters (on which the writer's reputation largely rests). 
 
 Walpole, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, prime-minister of Great Britain 
 1715-17, 1721-'42. B. 1676. D. 1745. 
 
 Walsingham, Sir Francis, English statesman. B. about 1536. D. 1590. 
 
 Walter, John, founder of the London " Times." B. about 1739. D. 1812. 
 
 Walther von der Vogelweide, German minnesinger. D. about 1228. 
 
 Walton, Brian, English divine. B. 1600. D. 1661. Chiefly noted for his 
 polyglot "Bible. 
 
 * The date Sept. 14, universally assigned for the hirth of Wallenstein, is according to 
 old style. See Hallwich, "Heinrich Mathias Thtirn" (Leipsic, 1883). 
 
572 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Walton, Izaak, English author. B. 1593. D. 1683. " The Complete An- 
 gler." 
 
 Wappaus, Johann Eduard, German statistician, geographer. B. 1812. D. 
 1879. 
 
 Wappers, Gustave, baron, Belgian painter. B. 1803. D. 1874. 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin, pretender to the throne of England, who asserted that he 
 was Richard, duke of York, the younger of the two princes put to death 
 in the Tower in 1483. Executed 1499. 
 
 Warburton, Peter Egerton, British Australian explorer. First journey 
 undertaken 1857. 
 
 Warburton, William, bishop of Gloucester, divine, critic. B. 1698. I). 1779. 
 
 Ward, Artemus. See Brownk. Charles Farrar. 
 
 Ward, Edward Matthew, English painter. B. 1816. D. 1879. 
 
 Ward, Mrs. Humphry (Mary Augusta Arnold), British novelist. B. 1851. 
 
 Ward, James, English painter. B. 1769. D. 1859. 
 
 Ward, John Quincy Adams, American sculptor. B. 1830. 
 
 Warner, Susan (" Elizabeth Wetherell "), Amer. novelist. B. 1818. D. 1885. 
 
 Warren, Joseph, American patriot. B. 1741. Killed June 17, 1775. 
 
 Warren, Samuel, English novelist, writer on law, &c. B. 1807. I). 1877. 
 
 Warton, Thomas, English critic, poet. B. 1728. D. 1790. "History of 
 English Poetry." 
 
 Warwick, Ambrose Dudley, earl of. See Dudley. 
 
 Warwick, Richard Neville, earl of, " the king-maker." Slain 1471. 
 
 Washington, George. B. Feb. 22, 1732. President of the United States 
 1789-'97. D. Dec. 14, 1799. 
 
 Waterloo, Antoni, Dutch artist. D. about 1662. 
 
 Waterton, Charles, English naturalist, traveler in America. B. 1782. D. 
 1865. 
 
 Watson, James Craig, American astronomer. B. 1838. D. 1880. 
 
 Watt, James, perfecter of the steam engine. B. in Scotland 1736. D. 1819. 
 
 Watteau, Jean Antoine, French painter. B. 1684. D. 1721. 
 
 Watts, George Frederick, English painter. B. about 1820. 
 
 Watts, Isaac, English sacred poet. B. 1674. D. 1748. 
 
 Wat Tyler, English rebel. Killed 1381. 
 
 Wauters, Emile Charles, Belgian painter. B. 1846. 
 
 Wayland, Francis, American author. B. 1796. D. 1865. "Elements of 
 Moral Science." " Elements of Political Economy." " Limitations of 
 Human Responsibility." " Intellectual Philosophy." 
 
 Wayne, Anthony, American general. B. 1745. D. 1796. 
 
 Weber, Albrecht, German orientalist. B. 1825. " Indische Studien." 
 
 Weber, Ernst Heinrich, German physiologist, anatomist. B. 1795. D. 1878. 
 
 Weber, Georg, German historian. B. 1808. D. 1888. " Universal History." 
 
 Weber, Karl Maria von, baron, German composer. B. 1786. D. 1826. 
 
 Weber, Max Maria von, baron, German railway engineer, writer on rail- 
 ways. B. 1822. D. 1881. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 573 
 
 "Weber, Wilhelm, German physicist, B. 1804. D. 1891. Noted for his in- 
 vestigations regarding wave motion and especially distinguished in the 
 
 field of terrestrial magnetism. 
 Webster, Daniel, American statesman, orator. B. Jan. 18, 1782. D. Oct. 
 
 24, 1852. 
 Webster, John, English dramatist. Flourished first quarter of the 17th 
 
 century. 
 Webster, Noah, American lexicographer. B. 1758. D. 1843. 
 Wedderburn, Alexander, Lord Loughborough, earl of Rosslyn, British 
 
 lawyer, statesman. B. 1733. D. 1805. 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, English potter. B. 1730. D. 1795. 
 Weert, Jean de. See Werth, Johann von. 
 
 Weil, Gustav, German orientalist, historian. B. 1808. D. 1889. " Moham- 
 med." " Geschichte der Khalifen." 
 Weilen, Joseph von, German dramatic poet. B. 1830. D. 1889. 
 Weimar, Bernhard, duke of. See Bernhard. 
 Weishaupt, Adam, founder of the order of the Illuminati. B. in Germany 
 
 1748. D. 1830. 
 Weismann, August, German naturalist. B. 1834. 
 Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb, German writer on the mythology, literature, 
 
 and art of the Greeks. B. 1784. D. 18G8. 
 Welcker, Karl Theodor, German writer on constitutional law, political 
 
 leader. B. 1790. D. 1809. 
 Wellesley, Arthur. See Wellington. 
 Wellesley, Richard Colley, marquis Wellesley, British statesman, governor 
 
 general of India 1797-1805, lord lieutenant of Ireland 1821-'8. B. 1760. 
 
 D. 1842. Brother of Wellington. 
 Wellhausen, Julius, German Biblical critic. B. 1844. " Geschichte Israels." 
 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, duke of, British general. B. in the spring 
 
 of 1769. Prime-minister of Great Britain 1828-'30. D. Sept, 14, 1852. 
 Wells, David Ames, American political economist. B. 1828. 
 Wenceslas (Wenzel), emperor of Germany, king of Bohemia, son of Charles 
 
 IV. B. 1361. Reigned from 1378. Deposed in Germany 1400. D. 1419. 
 Wergeland, Henrik Arnold, Norwegian poet. B. 1808. D. 1845. 
 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, German mineralogist, father of the science of 
 
 geology. B. 1750. D. 1817. 
 Werner, Anton von, German painter. B. 1843. 
 Werner, Karl, German painter. B. 1808. D. 1894. 
 Werner, Zacharias, German dramatist, poet. B. 1768. D. 1823. 
 Werth, Johann von (Jean de Weert), Catholic general in the Thirty Years' 
 
 War, native of the Netherlands. D. 1652. 
 Wesley, Charles, English Methodist, brother of John Wesley. B. 1708. D. 
 
 1788. 
 Wesley, John, founder of Methodism. B. in England June 17, 1703. D. 
 
 March 2, 1791. 
 
574 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 West, Benjamin, American-English painter. B. 1738. D. 1820. 
 
 Westmacott, Sir Richard, English sculptor. B. 1775. D. 1856. 
 
 Westmacott, Richard, English sculptor. B. 1799. D. 1872. 
 
 "Wette, de. See De Wette. 
 
 Weyprecht, Karl, Austrian Arctic explorer. B. 1838. D. 1881. 
 
 Wharton, Francis, American jurist. B. 1820. D. 1889. 
 
 Wharton, Philip Wharton, duke of, son of Thomas Wharton. B. 1698. 
 
 D. 1731. 
 Wharton, Thomas, Lord Wharton, English politician. B. about 1640, D. 
 
 1715. 
 Whately, Richard, English prelate, author. B. 1787. D. 1863. Various 
 
 religious writings. " Elements of Logic." " Elements of Rhetoric." 
 Wheaton, Henry, American writer on international law. B. 1785. D. 
 
 1848. 
 Wheatstone, Sir Charles, English physicist. B. 1802. D. 1875. Noted 
 
 for his investigations regarding vision and as one of the inventors of the 
 
 electric telegraph. 
 Whewell, William, English philosopher, scientist. B. 1794. D. 1866. 
 
 " Astronomy and Physics considered with Reference to Natural Theolo- 
 gy." " History of the Inductive Sciences." " The Philosophy of the 
 
 Inductive Sciences founded upon their History." Writings on moral 
 
 philosophy. 
 Whipple, Abraham, American naval officer. B. 1733. D. 1819. 
 Whistler, James Abbott M'Neill, American-English painter. B. 1834. 
 Whiston, William, English divine. B. 1667. D. 1752. 
 White, Gilbert, English naturalist. B. 1720. D. 1793. "Natural History 
 
 of Selborne." 
 White, Henry Kirke, English poet. B. 1785. D. 1806. 
 White, Joseph Blanco, English author. B. in Spain 1775. D. 1841. 
 White, Richard Grant, American Shakespearean scholar, writer on the uses 
 
 of words in the English language. B. 1822. D. 1885. 
 Whitefield, George, founder of the sect of Calvinistic Methodists. B. in 
 
 England 1714. D. 1770. 
 Whitelocke, Bulstrode, English statesman. B. 1605. D. 1676. 
 Whitfield, George. See Whitefield. 
 Whitgift, John, English prelate. B. 1530. D. 1604. 
 Whitman, Walt, American poet. B. 1819. D. 1892. 
 
 Whitney, Eli, inventor of the cotton gin. B. in Massachusetts 1765. D. 1825. 
 Whitney, Josiah Dwight, American geologist. B. 1819. D. 1896. 
 Whitney, William Dwight, American philologist. B. 1827. D. 1894. 
 Whittier, John Greenleaf, Ainer. poet. B. Dec. 17, 1807. D. Sept. 7, 1892. 
 Wickliffe. See Wycliffe. 
 Wied, prince of. See Neuwied. 
 
 Wiedemann, Gustav Heinrich, German physicist. B. 1826. 
 Wieland, Christoph Martin, German poet, romance writer. B. 1733. D. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 575 
 
 1813. "Oberon " (romantic epic), 1780. "Agathon" (romance), 176G-'7. 
 Humorous tales in verse. Translations of Shakespeare, Horace (epistles 
 and satires), and Lucian. 
 
 Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, Belgian painter. B. 1806. D. 1865. 
 
 Wilberforce, William, English philanthropist, who had a leading share in 
 the movement for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies. B. 
 1759. D. 1833. 
 
 Wilbrandt, Adolf, German dramatist, novelist. B. 1837. 
 
 Wilhelmj, August, German violinist. B. 1845. 
 
 Wilibald Alexis. See Haring. 
 
 "Wilkes, Charles, American naval officer. B. 1801. D. 1877. 
 
 Wilkes, John, English politician. B. 1727. D. 1797. 
 
 Wilkie, Sir David, Scottish painter. B. 1785. D. 1841. 
 
 Wilkins, Sir Charles, English Sanskrit scholar. B. 1749. D. 1836. 
 
 Wilkinson, James, American general. B. 1757. D. 1825. 
 
 Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, English Egyptologist. B. 1797. D. 1875. 
 
 William. I., the Conqueror, king of England. B. 1027 (?). Succeeded his 
 father, Robert le Diable, as duke of Normandy 1035. Reigned in Eng- 
 land from 1066. D. 1087. 
 
 William II. (William Rufus), king of England, son of William the Con- 
 queror. B. about 1056. Reigned from 1087. D. 1100. 
 
 William III. (prince of Orange), king of Great Britain, stadtholder of the 
 Netherlands. B. 1650. Ruled in the Netherlands from 1672. Ascended 
 the thrones of England and Scotland jointly with his wife, Mary, daugh- 
 ter of James II., 1689. Mary d. 1694. William d. 1702. 
 
 William IV., king of Great Britain, brother of George IV. B. 1765. 
 Reigned from 1830. D. 1837. (Previous to his accession duke of Clarence.) 
 
 William I., king of Prussia, emperor of Germany, son of Frederick 
 William III. and Queen Louisa, and brother of Frederick William IV. 
 B. March 22, 1797. King of Prussia from Jan. 2, 1861 ; proclaimed 
 emperor Jan. 18, 1871. D. March 9, 1888. 
 
 William II., king of Prussia, emperor of Germany, son of Frederick III. 
 and Victoria, daughter of Queen Victoria. B. Jan. 27, 1859. Began to 
 reign 1888. 
 
 William, count of Holland, king of Germany. B. about 1227. King of 
 Germany in opposition to Frederick II. and Conrad IV., 1247-'54; sole 
 head of the empire 1254-'6. Slain 1256. 
 
 William, prince of Orange, founder of the Dutch Republic. B. 1533 
 Assassinated 1584. 
 
 William I., king of the Netherlands. B. 1772. Assumed supreme power in 
 Holland close of 1813. King of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium) 
 from 1815. Deposed in Belgium 1830. Abdi'd Dutch throne 1840. I). 1843. 
 
 William II., king of the Netherlands, son of William I. B. 1792. Reigned 
 from 1840. D. 1849. Father of William III. 
 
 William III., king of the Netherlands. B. 1817. Reigned from 1849. 
 D. 1890. 
 
576 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 William L, king of Wiirtemberg. B. 1781. Reigned from 1816. D. 1864. 
 William I., elector of Hesse-Cassel. B. 1743. Reigned as landgrave 
 
 (as such styled William IX.) 1785-1803; as elector, 1803-0, 1813-21. D. 
 
 1821. 
 William II., elector of Hesse-Cassel. B. 1777. Reigned from 1821. D. 
 
 1847. 
 William I., the Bad, king of Sicily. Reigned 1154-'66. 
 William II., the Good, king of Sicily. Reigned 1166-89. 
 William the Lion, king of Scotland. Reigned 1165-1214. 
 William of Champeaux. See Cuampeaux, Guillaume de. 
 William of Malmesbury. See Malmesbury, William of. 
 William of Wykeham, English statesman. B. 1324. D. 1404. 
 Williams, Sir Monier, English Sanskrit scholar. B. 1819. 
 Williams, Roger, founder of the colony of Rhode Island. B. about 1599. 
 
 I). 1683. 
 Williams, Samuel Wells, American Chinese scholar. B. 1812. D. 1884. 
 Willis, Nathaniel Parker, American author. B. 1806. D. 1867. Poems, 
 
 light sketches (suggested by travels abroad), &c. 
 Willis, Thomas. English physician, anatomist. B. 1621. D. 1675. 
 Willoughby, Sir Hugh, English Arctic navigator. D. 1554. 
 Willughby, Francis, English naturalist. B. 1635. D. 1672. 
 Wilson, Alexander, Scottish-American ornithologist. B. 1766. D. 1813. 
 Wilson, Sir Erasmus, English dermatologist. B. 1809. D. 1884. 
 Wilson, Henry, American statesman. B. 1812. D. 1875. 
 Wilson, Horace Hayman, English Sanskrit scholar. B. 1786. D. 1860. 
 Wilson, John ("Christopher North "), Scottish author, professor of moral 
 
 philosophy at Edinburgh. B. 1785. D. 1854. "The Isle of Palms," 
 
 "The City of the Plague" (poems). "Lights and Shadows of Scottish 
 
 Life " (tales). "The Trials of Margaret Lindsay." " Noctes Ainbrosia- 
 
 nae " (papers on literary and political topics contributed to "Blackwood's 
 
 Magazine"). " Recreations of Christopher North " (from " Blackwood's 
 
 Magazine "). 
 Wilson, Richard, English painter. B. about 1714. D. 1782. 
 Wilson, Sir Robert Thomas, English soldier, military writer. B. 1777. D. 
 
 1849. 
 Wilson, Sir Thomas, English writer on logic and rhetoric. D. 1581. 
 Winchell, Alexander, American naturalist. B. 1824. D. 1891. 
 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, German writer on ancient art. B. 1717. 
 
 Murdered 1768. 
 Windham, William, English statesman, orator. B. 1750. I). 1810. 
 Windischgratz, Alfred, prince, Austrian commander. B. 1787. I). 1862. 
 Windthorst, Ludwig, German ultramontane leader. B. 1812. I). 1891. 
 Winkelried, Arnold of. See Arnold of Winkelried. 
 Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony. B. 1595. D. 1655. 
 Winslow, Forbes Bcnignus, English physician. B. 1810. D. 1874. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 577 
 
 Winslow, Jacques Benigne, French anatomist. B. in Denmark 16G9. D. 
 
 1760. 
 "Winslow, John A., American naval officer. B. 1811. D. 1873. 
 Winter, Peter von, German composer. B. about 1755. D. 1825. 
 Winterhalter, Franz Xaver, German painter. B. about 1806. D. 1873. 
 Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts. B. 1588. 1). 1649. 
 Winthrop, John, governor of Connecticut. B. 1606. D. 1G7G. 
 Wirt, William, American lawyer, author. B. 1772. D. 1834. "Letters of a 
 
 British Spy." " Life of Patrick Henry." 
 Wiseman, Nicholas, English cardinal, author. B. 1802. D. 1865. 
 Wishart, George, Scottish Reformer. Burned 1546. 
 Wither (Withers), George, English poet. B. 1588. D. 1667. 
 Witt, Johan de. See De Witt. 
 
 Witte, Karl, German Dante critic. B. 1800. D. 1883. 
 Witte, Pieter de. See Candido. 
 Wittikind (Wittekind), leader of the Saxons. Subdued by Charlemagne 
 
 785. 
 Wladimir. See Vladimir. 
 
 Woffington, Margaret (Peg), Irish actress. B. about 1720. D. 1760. 
 Wohler, Friedrich, German chemist. B. 1800. D. 1882.. 
 Wolcott, John (" Peter Pindar "), English satirist. B. 1738. D. 1810. 
 Wolf (Wolff), Christian von, baron, German philosopher. B. 1679. D. 
 
 1754. 
 Wolf, Friedrich August, German classical scholar. B. 1759. D. 1824. 
 Wolfe, Charles, Irish poet. B. 1791. D. 1823. Best known by his " Burial 
 
 of Sir John Moore." 
 Wolfe, James, English general in America. B. 1727. Killed 1759. 
 Wolff, Albert, German sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1892. 
 Wolff, Einil, German sculptor. B. 1802. D. 1879. 
 Wolff, Wilhelm, German sculptor. B. 1816. D. 1887. 
 Wolfram von Eschenbach, German minnesinger. D. about 1225. 
 Wollaston, William Hyde, English chemist, physicist. B. 1766. D. 
 
 1828. 
 Wollstonecraft, Mary. See Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft. 
 Wolowski, Louis Francois Michel Raymond, French political economist. 
 
 B. in Poland 1810. D. 1876. 
 Wolseley, Lord Garnet Joseph, British general. B. 1833. 
 Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, minister of Henry VIII. B. 1471. D. 1530. 
 Woltman, Alfred, German writer on art. B. 1841. D. 1880. 
 Wolzogen, Karoline von, German authoress. B. 1763. D. 1847. 
 Wood, Robert, British archaeologist. B. 1716. D. 1771. "The Ruins of 
 
 Palmyra." " The Ruins of Balbec." " Essay on the Genius of Homer." 
 Woodhouselee, Lord. See Tytler, Alexander Fraser. 
 Wool, Joint Ellis, American general. B. 1784. D. 1869. 
 Woollett, William, English engraver. B. 1735. D. 1785. 
 
578 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Woolner, Thomas, English sculptor. B. 1825. D. 1892. 
 
 Woolsey, Theodore Dwight, American scholar, writer on international law, 
 
 government, and religion. B. 1801. D. 1889. 
 Worcester, Edward Somerset, marquis of, inventor of a rudimentary form 
 
 of the steam engine. B. about 1G01. D. 16G7. 
 Worcester, Joseph Emerson, American lexicographer. B. 1784. D. 1865. 
 Worde, Wynkin de, English printer. D. about 1534. 
 Worden, John Lorimer, American naval officer. B. 1818. D. 1897. 
 Wordsworth, Christopher, English ecclesiastical writer. B. 1774. D. 
 
 184G. 
 Wordsworth, Christopher, English divine, author. B. 1807. D. 1885. 
 Wordsworth, William, English poet. B. April 7, 1770. D. April 28, 1850. 
 
 " Lyrical ballads," sonnets, odes, poems descriptive of the beauties of na- 
 ture. Most important single production, " The Excursion." 
 Woronzoff. See Vorontzoff. 
 Worsaae, Jens Jacob Asmussen, Danish antiquary, archaeologist. B. 1821. 
 
 D. 1885. 
 Worth, William Jenkins, American general. B. 1794. D. 1849. 
 Wotton, Sir Henry, English author. B. 1568. D. 1639. 
 Wouverman, Philip, Dutch painter. B. 1619. D. 1668. 
 Wrangel, Karl Gustaf, count, Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 B. 1613. D. 1676. 
 Wrangell, Ferdinand von, baron, Russ. Arctic explorer. B. 1796. D. 1870. 
 Wrede, Karl Philipp, Bavarian general. B. 1767. D. 1838. 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, English architect. B. 1632. D. 1723. 
 Wright, Thomas, English antiquary. B. 1810. D. 1877. Works dealing 
 
 with the literary history and the life of the English people. Histories of 
 
 Ireland and France. " Narratives of Sorcery and Magic." " History of 
 
 Caricature in Literature and Art." " Uriconium." 
 Wundt, Wilhelm, German physiologist, psychologist. B. 1832. 
 Wurmser, Dagobert von, count, Austrian general. B. 1724. D. 1797. 
 Wurtz, Charles Adolphe, French chemist. B. 1817. D. 1884. 
 Wyatt, Sir Matthew Digby, English architect, writer on art. B. 1820. D. 
 
 1877. 
 Wyatt, Richard James, English sculptor. B. 1795. D. 1850. 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, English diplomatist, poet. B. 1503. D. 1542. 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, English rebel leader, son of the preceding. B. about 
 
 1520. Executed 1554. 
 Wycherly, William, English dramatist. B. about 1640. D. 1715. 
 Wycliffe (Wickliffe), John de, English religious reformer. B. about 1324. 
 
 D. 1384. 
 Wykeham, William of. See William of Wykeham. 
 Wyman, Jeffries. American comparative anatomist. B. 1814. D. 1874. 
 Wyndham, Sir William, English statesman. B. 1687. D. 1740. 
 Wyttenbach, Daniel, Dutch scholar. B. in Switzerland 1746. D. 1820. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 579 
 
 Xavier, Francis, Saint (Francisco de Xavier), Jesuit, missionary in India, 
 Malacca, and Japan. B. in Navarre 150G. D. in China 1552. 
 
 Xenocrates, Greek philosopher. B. 396 b. c. D. 314. 
 
 Xenophanes, Greek philosopher. Flourished latter part of 6th c. B. c. 
 
 Xenophon, Athenian writer. D. about 350 b. c. " Anabasis " (an account 
 of the retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks, which was conducted by 
 Xenophon). " Cyropaedia " (political romance). " Hellenica " (history 
 of Greece in the author's time). " The Memorabilia of Socrates." 
 
 Xerxes, king of Persia, son of Darius Hystaspis. Reigned 486-465 b. c. 
 
 Ximenes, Francisco, Spanish prelate, statesman. B. 1436. D. 1517. 
 
 Yaroslav, grand-prince of Kiev. Reigned 1019-'54. 
 
 Yarrell, William, English naturalist. B. 1784. D. 1856. 
 
 Yates, Edmund Hodgson, English novelist, journalist. B. 1831. D. 1894. 
 
 Yeames, William Frederick, English painter. B. 1835. 
 
 Yonge, Charlotte Mary, English novelist, historical writer. . B. 1823. 
 
 York, Frederick, duke of, second son of George I£[., general. B. 1763. D. 
 1827. 
 
 York, James Stuart, duke of. See James II., king of England and Scotland. 
 
 York von Wartenburg, Hans David Ludwig von, count, Prussian general. 
 B. 1759. D. 1830. 
 
 Yorke, Charles, English lawyer, statesman. B. 1722. D. 1770. 
 
 Youatt, William, English veterinary writer. B. 1777. D. 1847. 
 
 Youmans, Edward Livingston, American scientific writer. B. 1821. I). 1887. 
 
 Young 1 , Arthur, English writer on agriculture. B. 1741. D. 1820. 
 
 Young-, Brigham, head of the Mormons. B. 1801. D. 1877. 
 
 Young, Charles Augustus, American astronomer. B. 1834. 
 
 Young, Edward, English poet. B. 1681 (?). D. 1765. Most celebrated pro- 
 duction, " Night Thoughts." 
 
 Young, James, Scottish chemist, who introduced the distillation of petro- 
 leum from coal. B. 1811. D. 1883. 
 
 Young, Thomas, English physicist, also distinguished as an Egyptologist. 
 B. 1773. D. 1829. 
 
 Ypsilanti, Alexander, initiator of the insurrection of the Greeks against 
 Turkish rule in 1821. D. 1828. 
 
 Ypsilanti, Demetrius, Greek revolutionary leader. B. 1793. D. 1832. 
 
 Yriarte, Ignacio, Spanish painter. B. 1620. D. 1685. 
 
 Yriarte, Tomas de, Spanish poet. B. 1750. D. 1791. " Fabulas literarias." 
 " La musica." 
 
 Yule, Henry, British scholar, author. B. 1820. D. 1889. Geographical 
 writings relating to various portions of Asia. Translation of Marco Polo. 
 38 
 
580 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Zach, Franz Xaver von, baron, German astronomer. B. 1754. D. 1832. 
 
 Zachary, pope. Elected 741. D. 752. 
 
 Zagoskin, Mikhail, Russian novelist, dramatist. B. 1789. D. 1852. 
 
 Zamacois, Eduardo, Spanish painter. B. about 1840. D. 1871. 
 
 Zamojski (Zamoyski), Jan, Polish statesman. B. 1541. D. 1605. 
 
 Zapolya, John, waywode of Transylvania, king of Hungary. D. 1540. 
 
 Zechariah, Hebrew prophet. About 520 b. c. 
 
 Zedekiah, last king of Judah. Reigned 597-586 b. c. (Duncker ; 598-587, 
 
 Opperf), 
 Zeller, Eduard, German philosophical and theological writer. B. 1814. 
 
 Noted for his works on the history of philosophy. 
 Zeno, Greek philosopher. B. about 490 b. c. 
 Zeno, Greek philosopher, founder of the Stoic school. B. about 358 b. c. 
 
 D. about 260. 
 Zeno, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 474-491. 
 Zeno, Apostolo, Italian poet, critic. B. 1668. D. 1750. 
 Zeno, Niccolo, Venetian navigator. I), about 1400. 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Reigned from about 266. Dethroned 273. 
 Zephaniah, Hebrew prophet. 2d half of 7th c. b. c. 
 Zetterstedt, Johan Wilhelm, Swedish naturalist. B. 1785. D. 1874. 
 Zeuxis, Greek painter. B. about 450 b. c. 
 Zhukovski, Vasili, Russian poet. B. 1783. D. 1852. 
 Ziem, Felix, French painter. B. 1821. 
 
 Ziethen, Hans Joachim von, Prussian general. B. 1699. D. 1786. 
 Zimisces, John. See John Zimisces. 
 
 Zimmermann, Albeit, German painter. B. 1809. D. 1888. 
 Zinimermann, Clemens von, German painter. B. about 1788. D. 1869. 
 Zimmermann, Johann Geoi"g von, Swiss physician, author. B. 1728. D. 
 
 1795. " Ueber die Einsamkeit " (" On Solitude "). " Vom National- 
 
 stolze " (" On National Pride "). " Von der Erfahrung in der Arznei- 
 
 kunst " (" Experience in Medicine "). 
 Zingarelli, Niccolo, Italian composer. B. 1752. D. 1837. 
 Zingis Khan. See Genghis Kahn. 
 Zinkeisen, Johann Wilhelm, German historian. B. 1803. D. 1863. "Ge- 
 
 schichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa." 
 Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von, count, bishop of the Moravians. B. 
 
 1700. D. 1760. 
 Ziska (Zizka), John, Hussite leader. B. about 1360. D. 1424. 
 Zoega, Georg, Danish archteologist. B. 1755. D. 1809. Catalogue of 
 
 Roman coins struck in Egypt ; work on obelisks. 
 Zoilus, Greek critic. 3d or 4th c. B. c. 
 Zola, Emile, French novelist, B. 1840. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 581 
 
 Zollner, J. K. Friedrich, German physicist, astronomer, philosopher. B. 
 
 1834. D. 1882. 
 Zonaras, Joannes, Byzantine historian. Beginning of 12th c. 
 Zorilla, Manuel Ruiz, Spanish statesman. B. 1834. D. 1895. 
 Zorrilla y Moral, Jose, Spanish poet. B. 1817. D. 1893. 
 Zosimus, Greek historian. 5th c. A. d. 
 Zrinyi, Miklos, count, Hungarian hero, defender of Sziget against the 
 
 Turks. B. 1508. Killed 1566. 
 Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel, German-Swiss author. B. 1771. D. 
 
 1848. Novelist, historical writer (Swiss history), author of a famous 
 
 devotional work, " Stunden der Andacht " (" Hours of Meditation "). 
 Zuccaro, Pederigo, Italian painter. B. about 1543. D. 1609. 
 Zuccaro, Taddeo, Italian painter. B. 1529. D. about 1566. 
 Zumbusch, Kaspar, German sculptor. B. 1830. 
 
 Zumpt, August Wilhelm, German classical scholar. B. 1815. D. 1877. 
 Zumpt, Karl Gottlob, German classical scholar. B. 1792. D. 1849. 
 Zunz, Leopold, Jewish scholar. B. in Germany 1794. D. 1886. 
 Zurbaran, Francisco, Spanish painter. B. 1598. D. 1662 (?). 
 Zurita, Geronimo, Spanish historian. B. 1512. D. 1580 (1581 f). 
 Zwingli, Ulric, Swiss Reformer. B. Jan. 1, 1484. Slain Oct. 11, 1531. 
 Zwirner, Ernst Friedrich, German architect. B. 1802. D. 1861. 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Abbey, Edwin Austin, American artist. B. 1852. 
 
 Abdul- Aziz, emperor of Morocco since 1894. B. 1878. 
 
 Aberdeen, John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of, governor-general of 
 Canada since 1893. B. 1847. 
 
 Alexander, king of Servia since 1889, son of Milan. B. 1876. 
 
 Allen, James Lane, American writer of fiction. B. 1849. 
 
 Annunzio, Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist. B. 1863. 
 
 Austin, Alfred, English poet, critic, journalist. B. 1835. 
 
 Ayrton, W. E., English electrician. B. 1847. 
 
 Baden-Powell, Sir George Smyth, English writer on colonial affairs, econo- 
 mist. B. 1847. 
 
 Banville, Theodore de, French poet, dramatist, writer of fiction. B. 1823. 
 D. 1891. 
 
 Barnard, Edward Emerson, American astronomer. B. 1857. 
 
 Barrie, James Matthew, Scottish writer of fiction. B. 1860. 
 
 Barrili, Anton Giulio, Italian novelist. B. 1836. 
 
 Barrios, Rufino, president of Guatemala 1873-85. B. 1835. Killed in bat- 
 tle 1885. 
 
 Baumbach, Rudolf, German poet. B. about 1840. 
 
 Bayard, Thomas F., American statesman. B. 1828. 
 
 Bazalgette, Sir Joseph William, English engineer. B. 1819. D. 1891. 
 
 Bazan (Pardo Bazan), Emilia, Spanish novelist. B. 1857. 
 
 Bebel, Ferdinand August, German socialist. B. 1840. 
 
 Behring, Emil Adolf, German bacteriologist, who, simultaneously with 
 Dr. Roux, discovered the method of treating diphtheria by inoculation. 
 B. 1854. 
 
 Bellamy, Edward, American socialistic writer. B. 1850. 
 
 Beneden, Pierre Joseph van, Belgian naturalist. B. 1809. D. 1894. 
 
 Besnard, Paul Albert, French painter. B. 1849. 
 
 Bizet, Georges, French composer. B. 1838. D. 1875. 
 
 Bleibtreu, Georg, German painter. B. 1828. D. 1892. 
 
 Boldini, Giovanni, Italian painter. B. 1845. 
 
 Bonghi, Ruggero, Italian classical scholar, journalist, political and histor- 
 ical writer. B. about 1828. D. 1895. 
 
 583 
 
584 SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Bourget, Paul, French novelist, poet, critic. B. 1852. 
 
 Bradlaugh, Charles, English Radical reformer. B. 1833. D. 1891. 
 
 Brink, Bernhard ten, German critic, literary historian (English and Anglo- 
 Saxon literature). B. in Holland 1841. D. 1892. 
 
 Brink, Jan ten, Dutch critic, writer of fiction and sketches of Dutch Indian 
 life. B. 1834. 
 
 Brinton, Daniel Garrison, American ethnologist, archaeologist. B. 1837. 
 
 Brozik, Vaclav (Wenceslas), Bohemian painter. B. 1851. 
 
 Bruch, Max, German composer. B. 1838. 
 
 Briill, Ignaz, Viennese composer. B. 1846. 
 
 Brunetiere, Ferdinand, French critic. B. 1849. 
 
 Burdett-Coutts, Baroness Angela Georgina (wife of William Ashmead- 
 Bartlett), English philanthropist. B. 1814. 
 
 Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, English painter. B. 1833. 
 
 Burroughs, John, American writer (outdoor life and nature). B. 1837. 
 
 Cain, Auguste, French sculptor. B. 1822. D. 1894. 
 
 Caine, T. II. Hall, English writer of fiction. B. 1853. 
 
 Campoamor, Ramon de, Spanish poet, philosophical writer. B. 1817. 
 
 Carman, Bliss, Canadian poet. B. 1861. 
 
 Carmen Sylva. See Elizabeth (queen of Roumania). 
 
 Carroll, Lewis. See Dodgson. 
 
 Cavalotti, Felice, Italian dramatic and lyric poet. B. 1842. 
 
 Cazin, Jean Charles, French painter. B. 1841. 
 
 Cernuschi, Enrico, Italian-French political economist. B. 1821. D. 1896. 
 
 Chamberlain, Joseph, English statesman. B. 1836. 
 
 Chapu, Henri Michel Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1833. D. 1891. 
 
 Charcot, Jean Martin, French physiologist, neurologist. B. 1825. D. 1893. 
 
 Charles, Elizabeth (Rundle), English novelist. B. about 1826. D. 1896. 
 
 Cheruel, Pierre Adolphe, French historian. B. 1809. D. 1891. 
 
 Cheyne, Thomas Kelly, English Biblical critic. B. 1841. 
 
 Christie, William Henry Mahony. English astronomer. B. 1845. 
 
 Clark, Alvan, Amer. manufacturer of telescopic lenses. B. 1804. D. 1887. 
 
 Coloma, Luis, Spanish novelist. B, 1851. 
 
 Constant, Benjamin, French painter. B. 1845. 
 
 Cooley, Thomas Mclntyre, American jurist. B. 1824. 
 
 Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal Adolphe Jean, French painter. B. 1852. 
 
 D'Albert, Eugene, pianist, composer. B. in Scotland 1864. 
 
 De Gubernatis, Angelo, Italian Sanskrit scholar, writer on mythology, 
 dramatist, literary historian. B. 1840. 
 
 Dekker, Eduard Douwes (" Multatuli "), Dutch writer of fiction, poet, 
 dramatist, satirist. B. 1820. D. 1887. 
 
 Denning, William Frederic, English astronomer. B. 1848. 
 
 Deus, Joao de, Portuguese poet. B. 1830. 
 
 De Vere, Sir Aubrey, Irish poet. B. 1788. D. 1846. 
 
 De Vere, Aubrey Thomas, Irish poet. B. 1814. 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 585 
 
 De-war, James, British chemist, physicist. B. 1842. 
 
 Dicey, Albert Venn. English jurist. B. 1835. 
 
 Dicey, Edward, English journalist, political writer. B. 1832. 
 
 Dobson, Henry Austin, English poet, literary critic. B. 1840. 
 
 Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge (" Lewis Carroll "), English writer, author of 
 '• Alice in Wonderland." B. about 1832. D. 1898. 
 
 Dorpfeld, Wilhelm, German archaeologist. B. 1853. 
 
 Drachmann, Holger, Danish poet, writer of fiction. B. 1846. 
 
 Drummond, Henry, English author. B. 1851. D. 1897. "Natural Law 
 in the Spiritual World." " Tropical Africa." " The Greatest Thing in 
 the World." " Pax Vobiscum." 
 
 Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson, English artist, writer of fic- 
 tion. B. 1834. D. 1896. 
 
 Duse, Eleonore, Italian actress. B. about 1860. 
 
 Echegaray, Jose, Spanish dramatist. B. about 1832. 
 
 Eggleston, Edward, American writer of fiction, historical writer. B. 1837. 
 
 Elgin and Kincardine, Victor Alexander Bruce, earl of, viceroy of India 
 since 1893. B. 1849. 
 
 Elizabeth, queen of Roumania, poet ("Carmen Sylva"), daughter of Her- 
 mann, prince of Wied. B. 1843. 
 
 Emma, widow of William III. of Holland and regent for her daughter Wil- 
 helmina. B. 1858. Daughter of George Victor, prince of Waldeck. 
 
 Farina, Salvatore, Italian novelist. B. 1846. 
 
 Ferrel, William, American meteorologist. B. 1817. D. 1891. 
 
 Fiske, John, American historian, writer on evolution. B. 1842. "Out- 
 lines of Cosmic Philosophy." " The American Revolution." " The Dis- 
 covery of America." 
 
 Fitzgerald, Edward, English poet, translator of the " Quatrains " (Rubaiyat) 
 of Omar Khayyam. B. 1809. D. 1883. 
 
 Flammarion, Camille, French astronomer. B. 1842. 
 
 Floquet, Charles Thomas, French statesman. B. 1828. D. 1896. 
 
 Flower, Sir William Henry, English naturalist, anatomist, biologist. B. 1831. 
 
 Foerster, Wilhelm, German astronomer. B. 1832. 
 
 Fogazzaro, Antonio, Italian poet, novelist. B. 1842. 
 
 Fonseca, Deodoi^o da, head of the Brazilian Republic 1889— '91. D. 1892. 
 
 Fontane, Theodor, German poet, writer of tales, military histories, sketches 
 of travel, &c. B. 1819. 
 
 Fonvielle, Wilfrid de, French aeronaut, writer on science. B. about 1828. 
 
 Forbes, Archibald, British journalist. B. 1838. 
 
 France, Anatole, French poet, humorist, satirist, critic. B. 1844. 
 
 Francis, Joseph, Amer. inventor (life-saving appliances). B. 1801. D. 1893. 
 
 Fraser, Alexander Campbell, Scottish philosopher. B. 1819. 
 
 Fulda, Ludwig, German dramatist, poet. B. 1862. 
 
 Fuller, Melville Weston, chief-justice of the United States since 1888. B. 
 1833. 
 
586 SUPPLEMENT TO TOE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Fustel de Coulanges, Nuraa Denis, French historian. B. 1830. D. 1889. 
 
 " La cite antique." " Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne 
 
 France." 
 Gabelentz, Hans Georg Conon von der, German philologist, Chinese scholar. 
 
 B. 1840. D. 1893. 
 Gaidoz, Henri, French scholar, author (religion, mythology and folk-lore of 
 
 the Celts). B. 1842. 
 Gairdner, James, British historian. B. 1828. 
 
 Geikie, James, Scottish geologist, brother of Sir Archibald Geikie. B. 1839. 
 Gill, David, British astronomer. B. 1843. 
 Gil y Zarate, Antonio, Spanish dramatist. D. 1861. 
 Goldmark, Karl, Austrian composer. B. about 1830. 
 Gontcharoff, Ivan, Russian novelist. B. about 18 L2. D. 1891. 
 Graham, Sir Gerald, English general. B. 1831. 
 
 Greely, Adolphus W., American arctic explorer, meteorologist. B. 1844. 
 Greif, Martin (Friedrich Hermann Frey), German poet, dramatist. B. 1839. 
 Grieg, Edvard Hagerup. Norwegian composer. B. 1843. 
 Groth, Klaus, German (Platt-Deutsch), poet. B. 1819. 
 Gubernatis. See De Gubernatis. 
 
 Guerrini, Olindo (" Lorenzo Stecchetti "), Italian poet. B. 1845. 
 Haggard, Henry Rider, English novelist. B. 1850. 
 Hall, Asaph, American astronomer. B. 1829. 
 Hanslick, Eduard, Viennese musical critic. B. 1825. 
 Harpignies, Henri, French painter. B. 1819. 
 
 Harris, Joel Chandler, American author (negro folk-lore). B. 1848. 
 Harrison, Frederic, English jurist, sociologist, essayist. B. 1831. 
 Hauptmann, Gerhart, German dramatist. B. 1862. 
 Henner, Jean Jacques, French painter. B. 1829. 
 Heredia, Jose Maria de, French poet. B. in Cuba 1842. 
 Hermite, Charles, French mathematician. B. 1822. 
 Hertz, llcinrich Rudolf, German physicist. B. 1857. D. 1894. 
 Hildebrandt, Eduard, German painter. B. 1818. D. 1868. 
 Hirsch, Baron Maurice de, Jewish financier, philanthropist. B. in Bavaria 
 
 1831. D. 1896. 
 Hobart, Garret Augustus, vice-president of the United States. B. 1844. 
 Hommel, Fritz, German Orientalist. Biblical scholar. B. 1854. 
 Hopfen, Hans von, German novelist, poet, dramatist. B. 1835. 
 Hopkinson, John, English electrician. B. 1849. 
 Humperdinck, Engelbert, German composer. B. 1854. 
 Israels, Joseph, Dutch painter. B. 1824. 
 Ito Hirobumi, count, Japanese statesman. B. 1840. 
 Jablokhkoff, Pavl, Russian electrician. D. 1894. 
 Jebb, Richard Claverhouse, British Greek scholar. B. 1841. 
 Jensen, Wilhelm, German novelist. B. 1837. 
 Jewett, Sarah Orne, American novelist. B. 1849. 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 587 
 
 Johnston, Sir Henry Hamilton, English traveler in Africa. B. 1858. 
 Jurien de la Graviere, Jean Pierre Edmond, French naval commander, 
 
 writer on naval history. B. 1812. D. 1892. 
 Kate, Jan Jacob Lodewijk ten, Dutch poet. B. 1819. D. 1889. 
 Keller, Gottfried, German (Swiss) poet, writer of fiction. B. 1819. D. 1890. 
 Keyser, Nicaise de, Belgian painter. B. 1813.- 1). 1887. 
 Krafft-Ebing, Richard, baron, German neurologist, alienist. B. 1840. 
 Kriiger, Stephanus Johannes Paulus, president of the South African Re- 
 public (Transvaal) since 1883. B. 1825. 
 La Farge, American painter, sculptor, painter on glass. B. 1835. 
 Langley, Samuel Pierpont, American astronomer, physicist. B. 1834. 
 Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, Canadian statesman. B. about 1841. 
 Lavigerie, Charles Martial Allemand, French cardinal, distinguished by 
 
 his labors in behalf of the suppression of the African slave-trade. B. 
 
 1825. D. 1892. 
 Lazarus, Moritz, German-Jewish philosophical writer, psychologist. B. 1824. 
 Leconte de Lisle, Charles Marie, French poet. B. 1818. D. 1894. 
 Lecoq, Alexandre Charles, French composer. B. 1832. 
 Lemaitre, Jules, French critic, dramatist. B. 1853. 
 Liebermann, Max, German painter. B. 1849. 
 Li Hung Chang, Chinese statesman. B. about 1821. 
 Lingg, Hermann, German poet. B. 1820. 
 Linton, Sir James Drumgole, English painter. B. 1840. 
 Linton, William James, engraver. B. in England 1812. D. 1897. 
 Lombroso, Cesare, Italian criminologist, alienist. B. 1836. 
 Loti, Pierre. See Viaud. 
 
 MacDowell, Edward Alexander, American pianist, composer. B. 1861. 
 Maclaren, Ian. See Watson, John. 
 
 Maeterlinck, Maurice, Belgian poet, dramatist. B. about 1864. 
 Mahaffy, John Pentland, Irish Hellenist, writer on philosophical subjects. 
 
 B. 1839. 
 Mahan, Captain Alfred Thayer, American writer on naval history. B. 1840. 
 Manet, Edouard, French painter. B. 1833. D. 1883. 
 Marryat, Florence (Mrs. Lean), English novelist, daughter of Captain Mar- 
 
 ryat. B. 1837. 
 Marshall, Alfred, English political economist. B. 1842. 
 Martinez Campos, Arsenio, Spanish soldier, statesman. B. 1834. 
 Mascagni, Pietro, Italian composer. B. 1863. 
 Massenet, Jules, French composer. B. 1842. 
 Masters, Maxwell Tilden, English botanist. B. 1833. 
 Maurer, Georg Ludwig, German jurist, author of works dealing with the 
 
 history of German administrative law, etc. B. 1790. D. 1872. 
 Maxim, Hiram, American inventor. B. 1840. 
 Melville, Herman, American author (narratives of seafaring adventures, 
 
 etc.). B. 1819. D. 1891. 
 
588 SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 MendeleyefF, Dimitri, Russian chemist. B. 1834. 
 
 Menelek, Negus of Abyssinia since 1889. B. about 1844. 
 
 Meredith, George, English novelist, poet. B. about 1828. 
 
 Meyer, Konrad, Ferdinand, German (Swiss) poet, writer of tales. B. 1825. 
 
 Miles, Nelson Appleton, American general. B. 1839. 
 
 Miquel, Johann, German statesman, Prussian minister of finance since 1890. 
 
 B. 1829. 
 Mitchell, Silas Weir, American physician, author. B. 1829. 
 Monier-Williams, Sir Monier, English Sanskrit and Hindostani scholar, 
 
 writer on Brahmanism and Buddhism. B. 1819. 
 Moraes Barros, Prudente de, president of Brazil since 1894. B. about 1845. 
 Moseley, Henry Nottige, English anatomist, naturalist. B. 1844. D. 1891. 
 Moszkowski, Moritz. German pianist, composer. B. 1854. 
 Mueller, Sir (Baron) Ferdinand von, botanist (flora of Australia). B. in 
 
 Germany 1825. D. 1896. 
 Murray, Alexander S., British archaeologist. B. 1841. "History of Greek 
 
 Sculpture." 
 Mutsu-Hito, emperor of Japan since 1867. B. 1852. 
 Nansen, Fridtjof, Norwegian arctic explorer. B. 1861. 
 Newton, Alfred, English naturalist. B. 1829. 
 
 Nicholson, Henry Alleyne, English naturalist, palaeontologist. B. 1844. 
 Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, German philosopher. B. 1844. 
 Nordau, Max, German author. B. 1849. Works dealing with the frailties 
 
 and evils of modern society. 
 Nubar Pasha, Egyptian statesman. B. 1825. 
 Ohnet, Georges, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1848. 
 Oncken, Wilhelm, German historian, whose principal works deal with the 
 
 history of Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. B. 1838. 
 Paderewski, Ignace, Polish pianist, composer. B. 1860. 
 Paris, Gaston, French philologist, distinguished as an authority on the his- 
 tory of the French language and of early French literature. B. 1839. 
 Parkes, Sir Henry, Australian statesman. B. in England 1815. 
 Parry, Charles Hubert Hastings, English composer. B. 1848. 
 Passini, Ludwig, Austro-Italian painter. B. 1832. 
 Pater, Walter, English essayist. B. 1839. D. 1894. 
 Patrnore, Coventry, English poet. B. 1823. D. 1896. 
 Peixoto, Floriano, president of Brazil 1891-'94. B. 1842. D. 1895. 
 Pereda, Jose Maria de, Spanish novelist. B. 1834. 
 
 Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart (Mrs. Ward), American writer of fiction. B. 1844. 
 Pickering, Edward Charles, American astronomer. B. 1846. 
 Preyer, Wilhelm Thierry, German physiologist. B. 1841. 
 Quental, Anthero de, Portuguese poet. B. 1842. 
 Ramsay, William, British chemist. B. 1852. 
 
 Bassam, Ilormuzd, archaeologist. B. at Mossul (on the Tigris) 1826. 
 Ratzel, Friedrich, German geographer. B. 1844. 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 589 
 
 Reinach, Salomon, French archaeologist. B. 1858. 
 
 Remsen, Ira, American chemist. B. 1846. 
 
 Rhodes, Cecil, English capitalist, South African administrator. B. 1853. 
 
 Richepin, Jean, French poet, dramatist, novelist. B. 1849. 
 
 Ristitch (Ristic), Yovan, Servian statesman. B. 1831. 
 
 Ritchie, Mrs. Richmond (Anna Isabella Thackeray), English essayist, writer 
 
 of fiction. B. about 1837. 
 Riviere, Briton, English painter. B. 1840. 
 
 Rod, Edouard, French (Swiss) novelist, critic, philosophical writer. B. 1857. 
 Rontgen, Wilhelm Konrad, German physicist. B. 1845. 
 Rosegger, Peter (Petri Kettenfeier), Styrian writer of tales, poet. B. 1843. 
 Roux, Pierre Paul Emile, French bacteriologist, who, simultaneously with 
 
 Dr. Behring, discovered the method of treating diphtheria by inoculation. 
 
 B. 1853. 
 Rudini, Antonio, marquis di, Italian statesman. B. 1839. 
 Sachs, Julius von, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1832. D. 1897. 
 Saint Gaudens, Augustus, American sculptor. B. 1848. 
 Saintsbury, George Edward Bateman, English critic. B. 1845. 
 Sanders, Daniel, German lexicographer. B. 1819. D. 1897. 
 Schouler, James, American historian. B. 1839. "History of the United 
 
 States under the Constitution." 
 Scudder, Horace Elisha, American author. B. 1838. Juvenile and histor- 
 ical writings. 
 Sherman, John, American senator, financier, secretary of state. B. 1823. 
 Sisnkiewicz, Ilenryk, Polish novelist. B. about 1846. 
 Simon, Sir John, English sanitarian. B. 1816. 
 
 Smetana, Bedrich (Frederick), Bohemian composer. B. 1824. D. 1884. 
 SoltikofF, Mikhail (" Shtchedrin "), Russ. satirist, novelist. B. 1826. D. 1889. 
 Spofford, Harriet (Prescott), American novelist, poet. B. 1835. 
 Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, English preacher. B. 1834. D. 1892. 
 Steenstrup, Johannes Japetus Smith, Danish naturalist. B. 1813. D. 1897. 
 Steinthal, Heymann, German-Jewish philologist, philosopher, Biblical critic. 
 
 B. 1823. 
 Stephan, Heinrich von, postmaster-general of the German Empire. B. 1831. 
 
 D. 1897. 
 Stevenson, Adlai E., vice-president of the United States 1893-'97. B. 1835. 
 Storm, Theodor, German poet, writer of tales. B. 1817. D. 1888. 
 Strauss, Richard, German composer. B. 1864. 
 Strossmayer, Joseph Georg, Catholic prelate, one of the leaders of the 
 
 Croatian national party. B. 1815. 
 Sudermann, Hermann, German dramatist, novelist. B. 1857. 
 Sully, James, English psychologist. B. 1842. 
 
 Sully-Prudhomme, Rene Francois Armand, French poet. B. 1839. 
 Suppe, Franz von, Austrian composer. B. 1820. D. 1895. 
 Suttner, Bertha von (nee Kinsky), Austrian writer of fiction. B. 1843. 
 
590 SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ten Brink. See Brink. 
 Tenniel, John, English artist. B. 1820. 
 Tesla, Nikola, Croatian-American electrician. B. about 1857. 
 Thackeray, Anna Isabella. See Ritchie. 
 Thaxter, Celia (Leighton), American poet. B. 1835. D. 1894. 
 Theuriet, Andre, French writer of fiction, poet. B. 1833. 
 Thompson, Joseph, English African explorer. B. 1858. D. 1895. 
 Thumann, Paul, German painter. B. 1834. 
 Tilgner, Victor, Viennese sculptor. B. 1844. D. 1896. 
 Tristram, Henry Baker, English writer on the physical geography, topog- 
 raphy, and natural history of the Holy Land.. B. 1822. 
 Trueba, Antonio de, Spanish poet. B. 1821. D. 1889. 
 Tsai-thien (Kwangsu), emperor of China. B. 1872 (1871 ?). Succeeded to 
 
 the throne 1875. Assumed the government 1889. 
 Tseng, Marquis, Chinese diplomatist. B. 1839. D. 1890. 
 Turner, Sir William, English anatomist. B. 1832. 
 TJhde, Fritz von, German painter. B. 1848. 
 Verga, Giovanni, Sicilian writer of fiction. B. 1840. 
 Verlaine, Paul, French poet. B. 1844. D. 1896. 
 Viaud, Julien (" Pierre Loti "), French novelist, writer of sketches of travel, 
 
 etc. B. 1850. 
 Vischer, Friedrich Theodor, German writer on aesthetics. B. 1807. D. 1887. 
 Waite, Morrison Remich, chief-justice of the United States 1874-'88. B. 
 
 1816. D. 1888. 
 Wallon, Henri Alexandre, French historian, statesman. B. 1812. 
 Warner, Charles Dudley, American author. B. 1829. 
 Watson, Henry William, English physicist. B. 1827. 
 Watson, John (Ian Maclaren), British writer of fiction. B. 1850. 
 Watson, William, English poet. B. 1858. 
 Wattenbach, Wilhelm, German scholar. B. 1819. D. 1897. Distinguished 
 
 by his researches regarding the literary monuments of mediaeval German 
 
 history and by his works on palaeography. 
 Whymper, Edward, English Alpine traveler, author. B. 1840. 
 Wildenbruch, Ernst von, German dramatist. B. 1845. 
 Wilkins, Mary Eleanor, American writer of fiction (New England life and 
 
 character). B. about 1862. 
 Wilson, Sir Daniel, British archaeologist, anthropologist. B. 1816. D. 1892. 
 Winsor, Justin, American historian. B. 1831. D. 1897. Writings on 
 
 American history. 
 Zangwill, I., English-Jewish author. B. 1864. " Children of the Ghetto." 
 
 THE END. 
 
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