Class - 1. I ' Book COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT BRIEF BUT COMPLETE HISTORY England, France and Germany, GIVING THE CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS, LITERARY CHARACTERS AND SOCIAL PROGRESS OF EACH CENTURY, THE ROMAN CONQUEST THE PRESENT DAY. By MARY E. KELLY MULTUM IN PARVO. AUG S6 \881 . PHILADELPHIA : E. CLAXTON & CO , PUBLISHERS, 930 MARKET STREET. 1881. C> Entered according to Act of Congress in the year l8Sl, by MISS M. E KELLY, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. PRESS OF JOHN D. AVIL & CO., TELEPHONE PRINTING HOUSE, 4032 MARKET STREET, HlbZ PREFACE. I lay claim to but little originality in this work, though the plan and a good portion of the rendering of historic facts "j'e my own. It was written only for my own pupils, with no thought of publication, and used for their beneiit in the manuscript form. It grew out of the desire to place in their hands a history, which would give a clear, definite idea of the reigns of con- temporaneous sovei'eigns, and yet keep the mind free from confusion, wlien the history of one of these nations involved others of which they were ignorant. A work was also desired which would give the progress in the refinements of social life, IS well as the prominent literary characters for each century, and furthermore a knowledge of the 19th century down even to our own day. These ends were k(;pt steadily in view in writing it. I made use of any reliable information that came within my reach. If any portion was familiar I placed it on paper just as it came to mind. If it was not familiar, I informed myself by reading and research. At otlier times I made extracts, sometimes copious ones, from authentic works. This was all done without any idea of offering it for publication. I have, however, found it so useful in furthering tlie ends for which it was undertaken, that I feel confident it will be of use to others. If teachers into whose hands this work may fall shall find their arduous labors lightened by its use, and if pupils shall find that the knowledge it gives them of events which have but just passed into history, awakens their interest in those which are weaving daily a history for the future, I shall be more than satisfied. The names of authors to whom I have referred are given below. Mackenzie's " Nineteenth Century," and McGarthy's " Histoiy of Our Own Times," both English works, published by Harper & Brothers, furnished most of the material for the last chaptei-. Russell's " Modern History," issued by the same firm, " History of the Revolutions in Europe, " translated from the French of Christopher William Koch, by M. Schaell, and Frost's " Pictorial History of the Middle Ages," pulilished by Thomas Cowperthwaite & Co., Philadelphia, each afforded much assistance. I referred also to Thalheimer's " Mediaeval and Modern History," issued by Wilson, Hinkle & Co., New York- Lord's " Modern History," issued ))y Thomas, Cowperthwaite &Co., Philadelphia, and Wilson's " Outlines of History," issued by Ivison, Pliinney & Co., New York. Mart E. Kelly. INTRODUCTION. A few introductory lines relative to the Roann Empire seem uecessary, since from t!ie decline of that power the real history of England, France, and even Germany commences. At the liirth of Christ, during the reiga of tiie Emperor Augus- tus Cfesar, the Roman Empire might have properly been called " the world," since it eml)raced within its limits all or nearly all the world that was then known. It comprehended the finest portions of Europe and Asia, with Egypt and all the northern part of Africa. At the death of Augustus Cissar, A. D. 14, it was bounded by the Rhine and the Danube on the north, by the Euphrates on the east, by the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa on the south, and l)y the Atlantic ocean on the west. It comprised 5,400,000 square miles of territory, and its population was estimated at 120,000,000. Nearly all the modern kingdoms of Europe have sprung fiom the fragments into which this vast empire was bi-oken. Its greatness was not the achievement of one or a few con(iuerors, but the work of ages. For nearly two hundred years, Rome and Carthage disputed between themselves the emi)ire of the world. The conquest of Carthage, and conse- quent supremacy of Rome, took place' about 146 B. C. This victory, together with the reduction of Greece, Egypt, and the Asiatic kingdoms made an entire change in the manners and government of the Romans. While it gave them posses- sion of the arts and institutions of the conquered territories, it also introduced among them riches and luxury, to which they had never been accustomed, and which eventually caused their ruin. Julius Cajsar, who was the head of what was called " The First Triumvirate," and who was the first of the twelve Cfesars, possessed all the attributes and all the power of a sovereign, though he was not nominally king. It was during his rule that Britain and Gaul (France) were invaded by the Roman arms, and annexed to the Roman dominion. He had enjoyed his elevation to power only a few years, when he was assassinated by a band of con- spirators, at the head of whom was Brutus, whom Csesar had previously befriended. He was followed as ruler by his adopted son, Augustus Cssar, who formed one of another triumvirate for the management of the government, and whose reign as first emperor of Rome continued till A. D. 14, and was ended by his death. Distinguished literary characters during the fifty years pre- ceding the Christian era. Virgil, Poet. Horace, " Sallust, Philosopher and Historian. Cicero, Orator and Historian. Varro, one of the most learned Romans. He was eighty yeai-s old when he wrote his De Re Rudica. Distinguished characters during the one hundred and fij'ty years following the Christian era. Livy, Prince of Roman Historians. Strabo, Historian. Seneca, Philosopher and Moralist. Pliny, the Elder, earliest writer on natural history whose works are extant. Pliny, the Younger, Consul. Quintilian, a celebrated advocate and the greatest writer on oratory whose works are extant. Plutarch, Biographer, REIGNING FAMILIES. Sovereigns of England. tSa.von Line. Alfred. Edwy. Edward I. Edgar. Athelstau. Edward II. Edmund I. Ethelred II. Edred. Edmund Ironside Dan 1 s7i Line. Sweyii. Harold I. Canute. Hardirauute. Saxon Line a(/ain. Edward the Confessor. JVorman IJne. William I. William II. Henry I. Houne of Blois. Stephen. Plantagenet Line. Henry 11. Richard I. John. Henry ill. Edward I. Edward II. Edward III. Riehai'd II. Sovereigns of France. The Merovingian line extended from Clevis to Charlematiiu'. C 'arlorinyian Line. Charlemagne. Hugh. Louis I. Charles the Simple. Charles the Bald. Robert. Louis II. Ralph. (Stammerer.) Ixmis IV. Loin's III. Lotluirins. (Carloman.) Louis V. Charles the Fat. Capefian Line. Hugh Ca])et. Robert the Pious. Henry I. Philip I. Louis VI. (the Gross.) Louis VII. Philip II. (Augu.stus.) Louis VIII. Louis IX., St. Philip III. (Bold). Philip IV. (Fair.) Louis X., King of Navarre. Philip v., King of Navarre. Charles IV. Sovereigns of Germany. V(irlnvin(/i((ii l)ynaijditio>j and Literary Att.\jnments m these Countries During the First Eleven Centuries. During this period the European nations were literally shut up to darkness and ignorance. Charlemagne and Alfred the Great succeeded in bringing a little order out of the chaos and throwing the light of a little learning among their re- spective subjects, but the good they accomplished disappeared with them, and ignorance more obstinate, and darkness more impenetrable than ever settled over these as well as otiier nations of Europe. About the middle of the tenth cen- tury the feudal* system became universal and gave rise to terrible disorders. Force decided everything. Europe was one vast battle field where the weak struggled for freedom, aud the strong for dominion. The people in the community who wei'e the most useful were either actual slaves or exposed to so ninny miseries from pillage and oppression that many who might have retained their liberty, made a voluntary surrender of it for bread and protection. Chivalry* which as time advanced sprang up naturally from this state of society, was very effective in softening the feelings and refining the manners of the people. Yaloi', Imiiianity, courtesy, justice and honor were the characteristics of chivalry. War was carried on with less violence when humanity was considered an ornament to knighthood, and courtesy the most amiable of knightly virtues. In these countries a love for religious seclusion resulted in the founding of monas- teries. Multitudes of men and women of all conditions, but especially of the higher ranks, crowded into cloisters or re- tired to mountains and deserts, where, closing all the avenues of the soul to external allurements, they affected a re- ligious austerity that gained them universal admiration. ENGLAND. The English is eminently a composite language — made up of contributions from the Celtic, the Latin, the Anglo- Saxon, the Danish and the Norman French. During the Anglo-Sason period both a vernacular and a Latin literature were cultivated, the most flourishing era being the eighth centui-y, FRANCE. The French language began to be developed about the time of the con- quest of Constantinople by the French crusaders. The earliest literature of France is that of the troubadours* and Trouveres. The former wrote in the soft southern tongue, and produced short lyrical [* See .^pjieudix.] GERMANY. German literature received its first impulse from the fondness of the early Germans for celebrating in song the fabulous and heroic associations of their traditions and Iiistory. The British missionaries established cloisters and brotherhoods in Germany between the sixth and eighth centuries, and laid the 13 ENGLAND. in which the names of Aldhelm, Bede, etc., are prominent. Bede was an English ecclesiastic of the eighth century. His greatest work was his English ecclesiastical liistory in Latin, translated hy Alfred the Great. On the day of his death he was dic- tating a translation of the Gospel of St. John to his amanuensis. " Master," said the young man as he raised his eyes, " there is but one more sentence wanting." Bede bade him write rapidly, and when the scribe said " It is done," he replied " It is indeed done," and in a few moments expired. The philosopher Alcuin, a native of England, flourished in the eighth cen- tury. He was a light in the dark ages, and famous for encouraging learning and science. He founded the Univer- sity of Paris, by order of Charlemagne. The monasteries of England and Ireland sent forth many scholars cele- brated at that time for learning. The Norman conquest almost aliol- ished the use of the Anglo-Saxon lan- guage in writing, and for more than a century the prevalent literature of England was either in Latin or in Anglo- Norman. Lafranc and Anselm, who were attracted to England from France by the Conqueror, and became succes- sively archbishops of Canterbury, re- vived the scholastic philosophy, the treatises on which were in Latin. [* See Appendix.] PRANCE. effusions on love or matters of trivial import The Trouveres* in their narra- tive poems treated of great national subjects and celebrated the heroic actions of kings and knights. There were as yet no books in genuine French. A few fragments of the Bible date before 1100. Before the conquest of England by William I., English youths were sent to be educated in I'rance. A kind of romance was common at that period. Some were poems illus- trating the deeds of Charlemagne and his descendants, others were tradition- ary legends connected with old Britain and the achievements of Norman war- riors. Still others were poems on which recollections of Greece and Rome were strangely mixed with chivalric ideas and legends of faii-y lands. [* See Appendix ] GERMANS. foundation of that system of education, which in the eighth and ninth centuries was perfected by Charlemagne. Metrical translations of the Gospel appear in the old high and low German dialects. A translation of the Psalms by Nothen, which dates from about the same period, is regarded as one of the best specimens of old High German literature. The earliest monument however of the ecclesiastical literature of Germany, is a translation of almost the whole Bible by Bishop Ulfiias, in the fourth century, composed in the Gothic lan- guage. Many eminent Latin chroniclers and poets abounded in the ninth century and later; also a Latin poetess, Ros- witha or Helena von Rossow, who wrote Latin religious plays. CHAPTER II. Twelfth Century. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. Heury I. 1100 Steplieu . 1135 Henry II. (Plantageuet) . 1154 Richard I. . 1189 John . . 1199 to 1216 William Rufus was killed in the year 1100, and, as he died unmarried, the throne -would, by right, fall to his bro- ther Robert, Duke of Normandy, but he was off ou a crusade. He did not return till a month after his brother's death, and by that time Henry had placed the crown on his o^vn head. During the same year Henry, as a politic measure, to conciliate his Saxon subjects, married Matilda, a Saxon prin- cess, daughter of Malcolm III. of Scot- land. He also remedied many of the op- pressive measures of his father and bi'other. Robert, having claimed the crown as his right, made preparations to take it by force, in which step he was encouraged by many discontented Normans in England. Peace was, however, secured between tliem by treaty, but it was of short du- ration. Jealousy and suspicion gave rise to continual disputes, until finally PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Philip I. . . . 1060 to 1108 Louis VI. (the Gross) . .1108 Louis VII 1137 Philip II. (Augustus) . 1180 to 1223 Philip I. was only eight years of age when he came to the throne, and was fifteen when he assumed the reins of government. Philip committed the great sin of marrying Bertrand de Montford while her husband and his own cjueen were living. For this crime he wa.s ex-com- municated by Pope Urban II. a circum- stance which weakened his authority, and augmented his domestic troubles. It was not till the death of his own queen and the accession of a new pope that he was absolved from the sentence, but he found it impossible to wipe the stain from his tarnished honor or to re- gain his lost autliority. Even the nobility insulted him. In order to remedy these evils, he associ- ated his son Louis in the government, and with the consent of the nobility de- clared him his successor. He died in 1108, after a reign of 48 years. Louis VI. was thirty years of age GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Henry IV. . . 1056 to 1106 Henry V 1106 Lotharius II., the Saxon, . 1125 Conrad III. . . . 1138 Frederic 1 1152 Henry VL . . . . 1190 Philip and Otho IV. 1198 to 1212 Until the time of Henry IV. of Ger- many, the emperors had exercised the right of confirming the popes, and even of deposing them should there be occa- sion ; but by a strange reverse of pre- rogatives the popes now arrogated to themselves the confirmation of the em- perors, and even the right of dethron- ing them. Various causes conspired to produce this result, the principal one springing from the constitution of the German emjjire, which was faulty in itself. A great empire, to preserve its ascendency, and hence to prolong its durability, requires j'erfect unity of Ijower, which can act with dispatch and facility from one extremity to the other ; an armed force constantly on foot and capable of maintaining public tran- quillity ; frontiers well protected against hostile invasion, and revenues propor- tioned to the exigencies of the State. 15 ENGLAND. Hemy, jjartly by force and partly by intrigue, obtained possession of Nor- mandy, and sent his unfortunate brother a prisoner to England, where he died, a captive, at the end of 28 years. In 1120 the king conveyed his young son Henry to Normandy, to receive the homage of the barons of that Duchy as their future king ; but on his return the vessel was wrecked, and the young prince drowned. He however endeavored to secure the succession of the crown in his own line by marrying his daughter Matilda to Geoffrey Plantagenet, eldest son of the Count of Aujou, and by having her recognized as heiress of all his domin- ions. His joy was complete when, after six years, she gave birth to a son, who received the name of Henry. Young Henry was three years old when his grandflither died (1135), leav- ing Matilda heiress to all his dominions. The aversion of the feudal barons to female succession prepared the way for the usurpation of Stephen, a grandson of William the Conqueror. In order to secure himself upon the throne, he granted unusual privileges to diiferent orders of the state. The nobility and clergy were al- lowed, without appeal, to exercise every act of jurisdiction, and the in- ferior gentry found no protection either FRANCE. when his father died. He was in all respects the reverse of his father, affa- ble, generous, and free from the vices incident to youth. Shortly after his accession he engaged in a war with Henry I., who, being in possession of Normandy, was a powerful va.ssal,whom it was his interest to humble. A treaty was finally concluded between them, and Louis ever after devoted him- self to the internal prosperity of his kingdom. He died in 1137, in the sixtieth year of his age, leaving his son Louis to succeed him. Louis VII. was no sooner seated on his throne than he became involved in a civil war, an evil which often resulted from the feudal system then existing in France. He made himself master of the town of Vibri, and ordered it to be set on fire. In consequence of this or- der 1,300 persons, who had taken refuge in a church, perished in the flames. In atonemement for this cruel act Louis departed on a crusade to the Holy Land. Soon after his return, sus- pecting his Queen Eleanor of infidelity, he annulled his marriage with her. She immediately married his power- ful English rival and vassal, Henry II. This marriage gave the fine provinces of Guienne and Poitou to England. Philip, son of Louis VIL, falling sick GERMANY. All these requisites were wanting in the German empire. There were neither permanent armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor any regular system of finance. The government was incapa- ble of keeping in subjection its remote provinces. The emperors had continual wars with Italy, the climate of which country laid many noble German fami- lies in foreign graves. The natural result of these things was a decline of royal authority and an in- crease of the power of the nobility. The dukes and counts took advantage of the weakness of the emperors to ex- tort new privileges and to usurp pre- rogatives before reserved alone for sov- ereigns. The landed proprietors fol- lowed the example of the dukes, and began to play the part of royalty. At length fiefs became hei-editaiy, feudal- ism was established, and it brought with it the distraction of imperial authority and the ruin of the empire. A new and powerful monarchy rose on its ruins, that of the Roman Pon- tiff's, which monopolized both spiritual and temporal dominion and extended its influence over all other kingdoms. This supremacy was the work of Pope Gregory VIL, a man as remarka- ble for his genius as for the boundless reach of his ambition. To succeed in this matter it was necessary to replace 16 ENGLAND. from the laws or their natural chief- tains. Things were in this state when David, King of Scotland, Matilda's uncle, came to her aid. The quarrel continued many years, and much blood was shed. Finally a cessation of hos- tilities was brought about by a treaty giving the throne to Stephen during his lifetime. He died the next year, and Henry, son of Matilda, came into power. Previous to this time Henry II. had married the divorced wife of Louis VII., of France. This marriage greatly increased the power of the Knglish king. His French dominions exceeded by far the immediate possessions of tlie French King himself. The conflict between chui'cli and state PRANCE. and likely to die, his father made a pil- grimage in his son's liehalf to the tomb of Thomas a Becket, who while living had been the intimate friend of the French king, and had fled to France for his protection from the wrath of Henry II., of England. His son recovered, as it was sup- posed, through the intercession of Becket, but the king himself, soon after his return was struck with apoplexy, which so shattered his mind that his son took upon himself the administration, though only fifteen years of age. His father's death, which occurred the next year, opened his way to the throne, and he proved the greatest monarcli of France since tlie age of Charlemagne. The reign of Philip II. (Augustus) opens the 1 3th century. came to its height during the reia'n of Henry II. (Plantagenet). The king found that the money which flowed into tlie royal treasury, by all the methods of puljlic supply, vvas not equal to the revenue to the priest for the absolution of sin. The ecclesiastics disclaimed all subordination to tlie civil autliority themselves, and at the same time claimed the ]>ower and right to absolve sins on the part of any for a certain amount of money. Hence the clerical habit was not only a great protection for crime, but an encouragement to it. Henry, anxious to abridge these privileges of the clergy, exalted his Chancellor, Thomas, a Becket, on con- dition of his aid in this affair, to the Archbishopric of Canterbury. In tliis he was disappointed, for Becket, when elevated to tiie primacy, openly oi)posed the king, and by the help of the Pope succeeded in defeating all his measures. The king, greatly incensed, began a violent persecution of Becket for delinquencies while he was Chancelloi". The quarrel waxed stronger and more violent, until Becket fled for protection to France. Louis VII., of France, whose divorced GERMANY. the government of kings, which had lost its power, by a new authority, whose restraints might restore the vigor of the laws and impose a reverence on all by the sanctity of its origin. This au- thority was the supremacy of the Pope. As supreme head of the church he claimed a right of inspection over all kings and their governments. In this capacity he acted towards Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, who enjoyed the rights of sovereignty over Rome and the Pope. He summoned Henry to Rome for the purpose of answering accusations which the Saxon nobles, engaged in disputes with Henry, had referred to the Pope. Burning with indignation and hurried on by the iinjietuosity of youtli, the emperor instantly convoked an as- sembly of bishops at Worms, and there caused the Pontiff to be deposed. The news no sooner reached Rome than the Pope entered upon a step till then unheard of He immediately addressed to St. Peter a sentence of excommunication and deposition against the emperor. In humbling the Emperor the Pope might hope that all other sovereigns would bend before him. However irregular this step might be, it produced the desired effect. In an assembly of the imperial 17 ENGLAND. •queen Henry liad married, and who was jealous of his power, was glad of an op- portunity to further these disturbances. He honored Becket with the higliest marks of distinction. A residence was assigned him in the abbey of Pontigny, where he lived some years in great magnificence, partly by the revenues of the abbey and partly by the generosity of the French king. Difficulties were at length settled and Becket was allowed to return to England. The Primate however, iii revenge, renewed his opposition with more violence than ever. Henry in a moment of passion at one time exclaimed, " Who shall rid me of this ti-oublesome priest? " Four knights of the king's liousehold, thinking to gratify the king, went to Canterbury and assassinated Becket. The result of this act was an unconditional surrender to the Pope on the part of Henry, and a series of penances, among which were frequent pilgrimages to the tomb of Becket, who was considered by the church as a martyred saint. Henry's son. Prince Henry, married the daughter of Louis VII. of France, and Louis instigated him to take up arms against his father for the duchy of Normandy. William the Lion, King of Scotland, and many other princes, joined in the quarrel, and also the other sons of the English king. Henry II. gained a victory over the Scots, and compelled the captive King William to acknowledo-e his feudal supremacy ; but his sons, encouraged by the King of France, con- tinued their opposition. Henry was so unsuccessful in the conflicts with his chil- dren that he finally made many concessions and granted to them the most advan- tageous terms. Among the conditions of his treaty with his son Eiehard was a pardon to all of Richard's associates. When he received a list of their names, he found upon it the name of his favorite son, John. The ingratitude of his children threw him into a fever which terminated his life (1189) at the age of fifty-eight. It was during the reign of Henry that Ireland was annexed to the English crown. Two of his sons died during his lifetime ; the other two occupied the throne in succession. Richard I. was son and successor of Henry II. Of the ten years he wore the crown he passed but four months in England. His first act on coming to the throne was to relea.se the people of Scotland from the oaths of homage they had made to his father, for 10,000 marks, and to embark at once on a crusade in company with Philip II. of France, leaving his brother John as regent. Richard and Philip pledged to each other mutual fidelity, each promising GERMANY. states Henry could only secure post- ponement of the election of a new emperor on condition of his submitting himself to the Pope and being absolved from the sentence of excommunication. In consequence of this decision he crossed the Alps in the middle of the winter to obtain reconciliation with the Pope. Absolution was granted him only on the most humiliating condi- tions. He was compelled to do penance in an outer court of the castle, in a woolen shirt and barefooted, for three succes- sive days, and afterwards to sign what- ever terms the Pontiff chose to pre- scribe. From that time the Pope re- garded the empire as a fief of his church, but the trouble was not ended. Henry afterwards convoked an as- sembly of bishops who resolved that the Pope owed obedience to the Em- peror, and who elected the Archbishop of Ravenna as Pope. He took the name of Clement III. Henry, being determined to place the new Pope in the papal chair, be- sieged Rome. The siege lasted two years and the city was at length taken by assault. Gregory was not there, having retired to a castle. Tlie new Pope was consecrated with the usual ceremonies. Gregory died soon after, and Henry was again crowned as emperor. 18 ENGLAND. neither to invade the other's dominions nor to allow any subject to do so during the crusade. Philip, however, becoming jealous of Richard's military renown, left Palestine to return home. On his way thither he remained at Rome long enough to be released by the Pope from his vow to Richard, and at once com- menced a series of machinations against him, — among other things, seducing his brother John from his allegiance to him. Richard, on his return, was taken prisoner by Leopold, Duke of Austria, and retained two years, when his English subjects purchased his ransom for 150,000 marks of silver (about 300,000 Bbs.). As soon as Philip heard of Richard's release he wrote to John of England, — " Take care of yourself, the Devil is let loose." Richard Avas received with great joy in England, and the ceremony of coronation was again performed. In revenge to Philip for his treachery, he went to war with him, which resulted in his own death while besieging a castle, A. D. 1199. As he left no issue, the throne came into the hands of his brother John, whose reign will be given in the l-3th century. GERMAN y. But a new trial sprang up in the re- bellion of his son Henry, who, taking advantage of his father's troubles with the Pope, roused opposition to him and finally had him again deposed (1106), and the crown placed upon his own head. He was proclaimed king as Henry V. Henry IV. died soon after. The struggle for supremacy was con- tinued between Henry Y and the Ro- man Pontiffs during his whole reign, and finally was settled by a concession on tlie part of both. Thus ended one of the most bloody quarrels that ever desolated Christendom. Henry died not long after, (1125) leaving no issue. Lothario, Duke of Suppleinbourg, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in the twelfth year of his reign. Conrad, nephew to Henry V. was unanimously elected emperor on the death of Lothario, but his right was disputed by Henry, duke of Bavaria. Both parties re- sorted to arms. The Imperial army was commanded l)y Frederic, the emperor's brother. Henry and his party were besieged in the castle of Weinsberg, and were obliged to surrender. The emperor, Conrad III., generously granted the duke and his oificers permission to retire from the castle unmolested. The duchess, who knew the emperor was a bitter enemy of her husband, suspected him of treachery, and therefore begged that she and the other women in the castle might come out with as much as each of them could carry, and be conducted to a place of safety. The request was granted and the emperor and his army, who expected to see every lady loaded with jewels, gold and silver, beheld, to their astonish- ment, the duchess and her fair companions staggering beneatli the weight of their husl>ands. Tears ran down Conrad's cheeks, and a compromise between the parties was the result of this act of female heroism. Conrad afterwards went off on a crusade. After his return the loss of his oldest son, prince Henry, so affected him that he died himself soon after. Frederic, duke of Suabia, was then unanimously elected, and began to reign under very auspicious circumstances. He was soon however involved in difficulty. Frederic, like his predecessors, went to Rome to be crowned by the Pope. Adrian, afraid of giving himself a master, required of him the most humiliating terms, namely : to prostrate himself before the Pope, kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the holy father's white palfrey Ijy the bridle at the distance of nine Roman paces. His reign was one of constant trouble with Italy and the pope. He died while off on a crusade A. D. 1190. He was succeeded by his son, Henry VI., who marched with an army at once into Italy, to be crowned by the pope. The pope, who was then in his eighty -sixth year, had no sooner placed the crown on his brows than he kicked it off again, as evidence of his power to make and unmake eniperors. Henry reigned only eight years. He died A. D. 1198. The reign of Philp and Otho IV. belong to the 13th century. CHAPTER III. Thirteenth Century. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. John . . . 1199 to 1-216 Henry III 1216 Edward I. . . 1272 to 1307 John ascended the throne in 1199, and immediately Arthur, Duke of Brit- tany, son of Richard's deceased brother Geoffrey, attempted to gain possession of it. He was assisted by Philip of France, but was taken jjrisoner by John. His assassination soon followed, and it was believed to be the work of the king, which caused a rebellion among his subjects, who made war upon him in revenge for the murder. John, about this time, had a quarrel with Pope Innocent III., on the subject of investitures in his kingdom. On this account the Pope alisolved his subjects from their oath of alle- giance to him, and a sentence of ex- communication and deposition was is- sued against him. But as this last sentence required an armed force to execute it, the Pontiff chose Philip II. of France to accom- plish the work, promising him, besides the remission of his sins, endless spirit- ual benefits and the kingdom of Eng- land as his reward. Philip, glad of the chance, immediately collected a FRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Philip II. (Augustus) . 1180 to 1223 Louis VIII. Louis IX. (Saint) . Philip III. (Bold) Philip IV. (the Fair) 1223 . 1226 1270 1285 to 1314 Philip IT., on coming to the throne, emljraced every opportunity to harass and humble the sovereign power in England. He encouraged the sons of Henry II. in their rebellion to their father. He used intrigue, war and ne- gotiation against the dominions and per- son of the unfortunate Richard I., while that king was in prison loaded witli chains, offering immense bribes to Hen- ry, of Germany, to induce him to de- liver the royal prisoner into his hands, and now we find him, during the reign of John, giving countenance to the dis- affected nobles. The barons had car- ried their complaints before Philip and demanded justice for the murder of young Arthur. Philip received the application with pleasure. He sum- moned John, as his vassal, to stand trial before him and his peers, and on his non-appearance, he was declared guilty of felony and parricide, and all his for- eign dominions were adjudged forfeited to the crown of France. Nothing now GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Philip, and Otho IV. . 1198 to 1212 Frederic II. ... 1212 Conrad IV. . . . 1250 William of Holland . .1254 Richard of Cornwall . . 1257 Rodolph of Hapsburgh . . 1273 Adolphus of Nassau . . 1292 Albert I. of Austria . 1298 to 1308 Frederic, sou of Henry VI., having been declared king of the Romans, be. came emperor on the death of his father. As he was yet a minor, the adminis- tration was committed to his uncle Philip, duke of Suabia. both by the will of Henry and by an assembly of German princes. Other princes, who were incensed at seeing an elective monarch become he- reditary, held a new diet and chose Otho, Duke of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion. These two elections divided the empire into two powerful factions, and involved all Germany in ruin and desolation. Innocent III., a sworn en- emy to the House of Suabia, supported the election of Otho. Otho was also patronized by his uncle, king of Eng- land, and this led France to grant him encouragement. Germany was deso- lated by the horrors of civil war. Mean- 20 ENGLAND. fleet of 1,700 vessels in the seaports of Normandy and Picardy. John pre- pared to meet him. The Pope, how- ever, sent a legate into England to ne- gotiate "Hfith John for a cessation of hostilities on condition of being ab- solved and received again into the bosom of the church. John consented, and theucefoi-th was to hold his kingdom a vassal to the Pope. Philip, who was waiting im- patiently to put to sea, when informed that he must not attack England, was enraged at being thus duped, and would have pushed the matter had not his fleet been destroyed by that of England. The Emperor, Otho of Germany, en- tered into an alliance with John against France. They were aided by a bro- ther of John's, the Earl of Salisbury, seven German princes, and a force su- perior to the enemy. Philip advanced to meet them with 50,000 chosen men, commanded by the chief nobility of France, including 1,200 knights. The allies of John were completely routed, and the bodies of 30,000 Germans cov- ered the battle-field. Thus the glory of Philip was permanently established, and security given to all his dominions. A truce was concluded between France and England. But John was destined to have trou- ble. His weakness was seen by the Nor- FRANCE. remained but the execution of this sen- tence to complete the triumph of Philip, who had long borne the neighborhood of such a powerful vassal with impa- tience. The defection of John's subjects ren- dered every enterprise against him very easy, and Philip soon reunited to the crown of France all of John's French territories. We have learned in Eng- lish history how Philip's son, Louis VIII. attempted to dethrone John of England. Soon after the return of Louis VIII. from this vain attempt, his father died (1223), and Louis VIII. as- cended the throne of France. Louis VIII. did not enlarge the mon- archy. His short reign of three years was spent chiefly in a crusade against the Albigenses, in the prosecution of which he died (1226). Louis VIII. was succeeded by his son, Louis IX. (Saint). During his mi- nority, according to the will of his father, his mother, Blanche, was regent. She conducted matters with so much prudence that her son took undisputed possession of the throne. Louis, how- ever, falling sick, was so alarmed that he made a vow, if he recovered, to lead an army against the infidels. Neither his mother nor any of her counselors could divert him from his purpose. He decided to attack Egypt. Louis and his army were transported in 1,800 GERMANY. while the Empress Constantia remained in Sicily, where all was peace, as re- gent and guardian of her infant son, Frederic. At length Philip came ofi" conqueror, and Otho was obliged to take refuge in England. Philip, elated with suc- cess, got his election confirmed by a new coronation, and proposed an ac- commodation with the Pope as a means of establishing his throne. Before the accommodation, however, he fell a sac- rifice to private revenge. Otho, on the death of Philip, returned to Germany, married Philip's daughter, and was crowned at Rome by Pope Innocent III. on condition of yielding to the Pope the inheritance of the Countess Ma- tilda, and confirming the rights and privileges of the Italian cities. These concessions were made, but only as a matter of policy. As soon as Otho found himself in condition to act offensively he withdrew his grant and made hostile incursions into Italy. From this point we may date his ruin. The ]jope excommuni- cated him ; and Frederic was elected emperor by a Diet of German princes. Otho, however, thirsting to humble his adversaries by superior force, en- tered into an alliance with his uncle, John, King of England, against Philip III. of France. This unfortunate battle completed 21 ENGLAND. man barous, aud they began to clamor for the privileges which they possessed under William the Conqueror, but of which they had been strijiped. With arms in their hands, they laid waste his domains, and demanded of him the old privileges for the clergy. He was obliged to humble himself. He appointed a conference at Runny- mede, near Windsor, and there, on the 19th of June, 1216, signed and sealed the Magna Charta. This deed granted very important jjrivileges to every order of men in the kingdom, and is justly regarded by the English as the founda- tion of their free institutions. After signing the great charter, John dismissed his foi-ces and promised to govern according to its provisions ; but he was so false to his promises that he soon became involved in another quar- rel with his barons. Prince Louis, of France, son of Philip II., took part in the struggle, invaded England, aud attempted to take the throne. John was about to make a final eifort to protect his crown when death ended his career, in the 49th year of his age, and the 18th of his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Henry III., a child of nine years of age. The Earl of Pembroke was chosen protector, and, by his conciliatory measures, suc- FRANCE. ships, and landed near the city of Da- mietta, which was abandoned to them. He received fresh succor from France aud found himself in the plains of Egypt at the head of 60,000 men, the flower of his kingdom, by whom he was both obeyed and loved. Yet this crusade terminated in sorrow and disappointment. Part of his troops fell a prey to sickness, aud a part were defeated. One of his brothers was killed, and he himself, with two other brothers, was taken prisoner. He at leugth made his escape by treaty with them. He, however, continued his war till he was taken off by a contagious dis- ease, which had broken out in the army, A. D. 1270. He was followed on the throne by his son, Philip the Bold, or Philip III. He reigued 15 years, and was succeeded by his son (A.D. 1285) Philip IV., or the Fair. The reign of Philip the Fair (IV.) forms an era in the history of France, Tjy the civil and political regulations to which it gave birth : the institution of the supreme tribunals called parlia- ments, and the formal admission of the Commons iuto the general assembly of the nation. Philip had many contentions with Pope Boniface VII. The pontiff pro- hibited the clergy in general from GERMANY. the fate of Otho. He attempted to retreat into Germany, but was pre- vented by young Frederic, who had marched into the empire at the head of a powerful army. Frederic II., now universally ac- kno\vledged emperor, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle with great magnifi- cence, and, in order to preserve the favor of the pope, he made a vow at the time of his coronation, to go in person to the Holy Land, About this time Pope Innocent HI. died, and was succeeded by Honorius III., who expressed great eagerness in forwarding the crusade. The emperor excused himself from the performance of his vow, until he should have regu- lated the affairs of Italy. He con- tinued however to postpone it, to the chagrin of the pontiff; and it was not till the accession of a new pope that he departed for the Holy Land. Frederic, on his return from his cru- sade, which he made to remove trouble from himself, and in contempt for the Church, found his reign one continual quarrel with the popes, and the empe- ror's life was several times in danger from plots of poison and a.ssassination. Frederic retired to his kingdom in order to recruit his army, and there died of a fever, A. D. 1250, in the 55th year of his age. From the death of Frederick to the ENGLAND. ceeded in changino- the feelings of aver- sion and resentment the barons had for Henry II. into those of compassion for his son. Loyalty revived, and the army of Prince Louis of France, which was still in tlie field against them, was de- feated. Henry III. married Eleanor, daugh- ter of the Count of Provence, which led him to keep many foreigners about liis ])erson, much to the dissatisfaction of the English barons. He was con- stantly engaged in various disputes with tlie Norman liarons, who, under De Montfort, Earl of Leicester, and brother-in-law of the king, compelled him by force of arms to grant them all the privileges they desired. By them the E;u-1 of Leicester was j invested with supreme power, and Henry was compelled to sell a portion of French territory, including Norman- dy, to the French. For fear of his nobles he shut himself up in the Tower of London. Leicester became very oppressive, and treated the nobles with insolence. In 1265 he summoned a new Parlia- ment, on a basis differing from any that preceded, and which was the first rude outline of what is now termed the British House of Commons. He retired for support on the lower classes, and finally the noljles, for want of a leader, jjlaced Prince Edward, the FRANCE. granting aid or subsidies to princes without his leave. . Philip, who was no less haughty than the pope; thought the clergy, who were the richest orders in the state, ought to contribute to the wants of the crown, M'hen affairs made it necessary, without an application to Rome. He therefore encountered the pope's bull by an edict forbidding any of the French clergy to send money abroad without the royal permission. The pope then sent as legate to France a bishop who had re- belled against the king, named Bernard Saisetti. This legate was authorized to threaten Philip's kingdom with an interdict. A layman M-ho had Ijehaved in such a manner would have been punished with death, but the king was satisfied with delivering him into the hands of his metropolitan. Pope Boniface, en- raged at the confinement of his legate, issued a bull declaring " that the Vicar of Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of the earth," and the clergy of France at the same time received an order to repair to Rome. A French archdeacon car- ried this bull and these orders to the the king, commanding him on pain of excommunication to acknowledge the pope as his temjjoral sovereign. Philip ordered the pope's bull to be thrown into the fire, and prohibited the GERMANY. election of Rodolph of Hapsburf/h the German Empire could not properly be said to have a head. For more than twenty years, disorder and anarchy had prevailed. Rodolph, however, as soon as he found himself at the head of affairs, employed his authority in bring- ing about order, and in establishing the security of the government. He destroyed sixty castles that were the retreats of banditti, and ordered ninety-nine highwaymen to be hanged in the city of Erfurt at one time. He assembled a Diet at Meutz, where he gave new privileges to some cities and confirmed those v>hich had been granted by his predecessoi's. He gave the govei'ument of Austria and its appendages to his eldest sou, Count Albert. Hence the rise of the House of Austria. Rodolph spent the latter part of his reign in seeking _to establish the grandeur of his family in Austria. He granted privileges to the clergy ; bestowed new dignities upon the noble- men ; diminished the taxes ; built and repaired public edifices, and behaved with so much generosity and modera- tion as won the hearts of all men. But, notwithstanding his popularity, he was not able to have his son Albert, who was Duke of Austria, elected King of the Romans. This disappointment, together with the death of his son Ru- 23 ENGLAND. son of the iiiiprisoued kiug, at their head, and with a force suificieut to cou- quer him. Leicester was shiiu and his forces routed. Henry then resumed the goverumeut, but soon died at West- minster, worn out with the cares of the kingdom. Before this time, however, Prince Edward had gone on an expedition to the Holy Laud. Henry, laboring under the iufirmities of age, urged his return. He started ; but before he reached England the king expired, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and forty-fifth of his reign. Edward re- turned from the crusade with ideas of conquest, and determined to reduce to subjection to the English government both Wales and Scotland. Heretofore these provinces had successfully main- tained their independence. His first efforts were aimed at the subjection of Wales, and in this he was successful. Just at this time there were two claim- ants for the throne of Scotland — John Baliol and Robert Bruce. Edward was chosen umpire, and John Baliol was placed on the throne of Scotland on condition of feudal depen- dence on England. Edward, however, became so overbearing, and interfered so constantly with the government,, that Baliol entered into a secret alliance ^vith France against him. The King of England entered Scotland at the head FRANCE. clergy from leaving the kingdom. Forty of them, however, with many of the heads of religious orders, went to Rome, notwithstanding the king's pro- hibition. For this trespass he seized all their secular possessions. Philip now sent an agent into Rome to raise troops. A body of despera- does was suddenly and secretly collected, which surprised the pope at xlnagni, a town in his own territories, and the place of his birth, .exclaiming — " Let the Pope die, and long live the King of France." Boniface, however, did not lose his courage. He dressed him- self in his cope, put the tiara on his head, and holding the keys in one hand and the cross in the other, presented himself with an air of majesty before his conquerors. " Tyrant," exclaimed his enemies, "renounce the pontificate which thou hast dishonored ! " " I am pope," I'eplied Boniface, "and I will die pope." This gallant beha- vior had such an effect that he was at once rescued from his enemies. He was so much aifected by these indignities that he died in a few days. On the death of Boniface the cardi- nals elected another, Avho took the name of Benedict XL He was a mild, good man, and being desirous to promote peace, he revoked the sentence of ex- communication against Philip the Fair. He made efforts to reform the corrui)- GERMANY. dolph, so much chagrined him that he died soon after (1291). After an interregnum of nine months the German princes raised to the throne Adolphus'of Nassau (1292). His short reign of five years was full of trouble. In 1298 he was deposed, and Albert, Duke of Austria, elected. The first years of Albert's reign were disquieted by quarrels with the pope. The most remarkable event of his reign was the rise of the Republic of Swit- zerland. Fortified by their natural situation, surrounded by mountains, torrents, and woods, the Swiss lived happily in this rugged country, suited to men accustomed as they were to a frugal and laborious life. Equality of condition was their basis of govern- ment. They had been free from time immemorial, and when any of their own nobility attempted to tyrannize, they were either expelled or reduced within bounds by the people. Though the Swiss were extremely jealous of their liberty, they had always been sub- missive to the empire, on which they depended. AU^ert, when he came to the throne, wanted to govern the Swiss as an abso- lute sovereign, and formed a scheme for erecting their country into a princi- pality for one of his sons. In order to accomplish his purpose, he endeavored to persuade the Cantons of Ury, 24 ENGLAND. of 30,000 foot soldiers and 4,000 liorse, reduced it to subniission, and made Baliol prisoner. The Scots again rose to arms, under the celebrated William Wallace. The English conquered by superiority in numbers and military skill, and Wal- lace was most cruelly put to death. Robert Bruce, grandson of the for- mer competitor for the crown of Scot- land, was then recognized as their king, and M-ar was declared anew. Edward was greatly exasperated, and prepared for a fresh invasion ; but death put an end to his plans, not however before the beginning of the 14th centmy, which opens with Edward I. still on the throne of England. FRANCE. tions of the Church. These proceedings excited the hatred of his licentious countrymen, and he was put to death by poison. He was succeeded by Clement V., who, being a Frenchman and entirely in the interest of Philip, fixed his resi- dence in France. Philip secured the assistance of the pope in an affair that lay very near his heart. The Knights Templars, a religious and military order, had sprung up dur- ing the fervor of the first crusades. These knights had acquired great riches at the time of Philip's reign ; those in France, having become wearied with the fatigues and dangers of their expeditions into Asia, M'ere enjoying in ease their opulent fortunes. They were all men of birth and passed their time in hunting, gallantry and the pleasures of the table. By their indolent and luxurious lives they had lost the popularity that at first raised them to honor. Philip cherished towards this order a cruel and vindictive spirit. Their wealth excited his avarice, and he determined to work their ruin. The severity of the taxes and the maladministration of Philip occasioned a sedition in Paris. The Knights Templars werej accused of being concerned in the tumult. Two knights had been condemned by their superiors to imprison- ment for their vices. Upon hearing this, Philip ordered all the Templars in France to be imprisoned in one day. They were charged with crimes of every grade. Over one hundred knights were put to the rack in order to extort a con- fession of their guilt. Some, on account of their agonies, acknowledged whatever was desired of them ; but no sooner were they relieved from their tortures than they disavowed their forced confessions. Philip,|enraged and disappointed, ordered fifty-four Templars to perish by fire. Pope Clement V., in a General Council, held at Vienna, abolished the whole I GERMANY. Schwitz and Unterwald to sulsmit to his dominion. In case of compliance he promised to rule them with great lenity; but finding them tenacious of their independence, and deaf to all his solicitations, he resolved to tame them by rougher methods, and appointed governors who domineered over them in a most arbitrary manner. The tyranny of these governors ex- ceeded all belief. Geisler, Governor of Ury, ordered, it is said, his hat to be fixed upon a pole in the market-place of Altorf, and every j^asser was com- manded, on pain of death, to pay obei- sance to it. The independent spirit of William Tell, who, among others, had projected the deliverance of his coun- try, refused to comply. On this the governor ordered him to be hung, but remitted the punishment ou condition that he should strike an apjile from his son's head with an arrow. Tell, who was an excellent marksman, accepted the alternative, and had the good for- tune to strike off the apple without in- juring his son. Geisler jjerceiviug a second arrow under William's coat, inquired for what purpose that was intended. " It was de- signed for thee, replied Tell, " if I had killed my son." This story is doubted by historians of the present day, but there is nothing in it inconsistent with the spu'it of 25 PRANCE. order. The Templars all over Europe were thrown into prison, and their lands given to knights of a different order. Philip is on the throne of France at the close of the 13th century. GERMANY. despotism that was prevalent at that time. The heroic Swiss, determined on liberty or death, afterwards threw off the power that oppressed tliem, and still enjoy the freedom for which they fought. AllxTt is on the throne at the opening of the l^h century. Progress op Society and Literary Attainments in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Progress in refinement was slow during these centuries, yet some quite important advances were made. Chivalry blended with superstition at the beginning of the twelfth century carried all Europe to arms, and sent vast multitudes, wild with enthusiasm and ready to crush the power of the Saracen, into the heart of Asia. These pilgrimages, called the Cru- sades, exerted a great influence, both politically and commercially. Many ships were needed to transport these vast multi- tudes and to furnish them with provisions. These ships were provided by the Venetians, Pisans and Genoese, who acquired in this way great wealth, and who opened for themselves new sources of gain by importing into Europe the com- modities of Asia. A taste for these commodities became general. The feudal system, which had become so oppressive, now from various causes weakened its hold on these countries. Many of the great barons, especially in France and Ger- many, were glad to sell charters of liberty to towns under their jurisdiction, in order to meet the expense incurred by the Crusades. This practice quickly spread over Europe, and before the close of the 13th century the good efifects were seen and felt. The inhabitants of cities and towns having obtained their pei-sonal freedom, aspired to civil liberty and political power. The sovereigns in most kingdoms utilized these aspirations, by admitting them to a share in the legislature, and thus raising supplies for their governments. The names of master and slave were abolished. The farmer now cultivated for himself the land he had formerly tilled for another. He reaped a share in the fruits of his own labor, and was incited to works of ingenuity and enterprise. Thus numerous classes, who had at the close of the 11th century no political exis- tence, now augmented the forces and wealth of the states. English Literature. French Literature. German Literature. The scholastic writers of the 12th century prided themselves on their epistolary style, and many collections of their letters have been preserved, which are among the most valuable illustrations of the history of the time. A new kind of versification in which The Fabliau, a kind of ancient tale in verse, and several lighter kinds of poe- try were cultivated by the troubadours and trouveres of the 12th century; Butebeuf excelled in Fabliau in the reign of St. Louis. Abelard of the 12th century is celebrated for his songs. The From the ninth to the thirteenth cen- turies Germany possessed a higher mental cultivation, than any other country of Europe ; but it was on the whole of a Latin and ecclesiastical cast, and the people had no share in it. In the 12th and 13th centuries poetry 26 ENGLAND. rhymes took the place of ancient metres was introduced. This kind of poetry became exceedingly popular. The earliest Anglo-Norman compositions ex- tant are supposed to belong to the early part of the 12th century, Saxon chroni- cles had been written in obscure mon- asteries to the year 1154. Fifty years later there apj)eared a workwrittenin the Anglo-Saxon so modi- fied by Trench that it is usually accounted' the beginning of English Literature. This was Sagamon's translation of Wace's Roman de Brun, which was followed in the 13th century by a multitude of translations from Latin to Anglo-Nor- man. These were followed l)y the metrical pieces of Robert jManning, a monk of Bourne. Roger Bacon, an English monk of the 13th century, was gifted witli great talents. He made many discoveries in the sciences. During the 13th century houses in London were still thatched with straw, with windows of lattice or paper, and sometimes horn scraped till it was semi- transparent. Houses were also wiih- out chimneys. Chimneys and glass win- dows were introduced in 1300. Spectacles, glass mirrors invented in 13th century by Roger Bacon. Candles of tallow so expensive a lux- ury in England, that splinters of wood were used fui- light, by the common people, A.D. 1300. No idea of wax candles until long afterwards. FKANCE3. i:>rog'ress of prose was slower than that of poetry, but the 13th century presents two speclriiens showing that it had ac- cpiired a certain degree of power and polish. These are the " Chronicle of the Conquest of Constantinople," by Ville- hardouin and the " Memoires,'" in which Joinville tells us of the heroic deeds and private virtues of good King Louis, IX. GERMANY. passed from the monasteries and eccle- siastical schools to the palaces of princes and castles of noljles. Most of the poets who came forM^ard were nobles by birth and many of them princes. Hein- rich von Veldeke was regarded as the originator of the heroic minstrel song, though he is far surpassed in genius, elevated thought and depth of feeling by Wolfram von Eochenbach. Love was their principal theme, but from a sense of delicacy the name of the lady who was special object of adora- tion was never mentioned. The respect which the German had for woman, even in the days of deepest barbarism, con- tributed to make their love songs more reverential than those of the French trouliadours. Didactic poetry was culti- vated with some success in the 13th century. Poetry passed now from the abodes of knights and princes to tlie homes of burghers and the workshops of artisans, and instead of Minnesaen- ger we hear of Meister-Sanger, as the plebeian songsters were called. The 13th century, so rich in poetical productions, was uufruitftd for the cause of learning. CHAPTER IV. Fourteenth Century. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. Edward I. . . 1272 to 1307 Edward II. . . . . 1307 Edward III 1327 Richard II. . . . 1377 Hemy IV. . . ' 1399 to 1413 Edward I. was on the throne till 1307. He died while preparing for an invasion of Scotland. With his dying breath he cliarged his son, Prince Ed- ward, to prosecute the war with Scot- iand. Edward II, executed the wishes of his father, and entered Scotland with nearly 100,000, but was defeated by Robert Bruce with only 30,000, in the famous battle of Bannockburn. The independence of Scotland was se- cured and Bruce established on the throne. His defeat of the English was the greatest they had experienced since the Norman conquest. Edward II. found little favor with the English', on account of his defeat in Scotland, and also because of his great favorite, Spen- ser, who was overbearing and cruel. The great barons looked upon Spen- ser as their rival, and formed plans for his ruin. Charles IV. of France, bro- ther of Edward's queen, taking advan- tage of the troul)les in England, seemed FRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Philip IV. (the Fair) . 1285 to 1314 Louis X., King of Navarre, . 1314 Philip v.. King of Navarre, 1316 Charles IV., (Fair) King of Navarre, '22 Philip VI., (Fortunate) . 1328 John I., (Good) . . .1350 Charles V., (Wise) . . 1364 Charles VI. . . 1380 to 1422 Philip IV. (the Fair) died in the 30th year of his reign, and 47th of his age, in 1314. His son and successor, Louis X., reigned but two years. On the death of Louis X. a dispute arose in regard to the succession. The" king left one daughter, Margaret of Bur- gundy. The opinion had long prevailed in France that tlie crown could never descend to a female. On account of this opinion, Philip V., brother to Louis X., was proclaimed king. The Duke of Burgundy, uncle of Margaret, opposed this step. The states, therefore, by a solemn and deli- berate decree, excluded her, and de- clared all females forever incapable of succeeding to the crown of France. According to this law no foreigner can ever become king of France by mar- riage. The reigns of Philip V. and his bro- GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Albert I., of Austria, . 1298 to 1308 Henry VII 1308 Louis of Bavaria, and Frederic of Austria, . . . 1314 Charles IV. ... 1346 Winceslaus . . 1378 to 1400 Albert I., who was on the throne at the opening of the 14th century, was destined to leave it in a few years. He was assassinated through the instru- mentality of his own nephew, whose hatred he had incurred. The throne continued vacant seven months after his death. • At length the electors assembled at Frankfort and chose Henry, Count of Luxemburg, who was crowned without opposition at Aix- la-Chapelle. The emperors from the time of Frederic II. seemed to have lost sight of Italy. Henry VII., however, as soon as he had settled affairs in the North, resolved to re-establish the imperial authority in that country. With this view, a Diet was held at Frankfort, where proper supplies being, granted for the em- peror's journey, well known by the name of "The Roman Expedition," he set out for Italy, accompanied by the Dukes of Austria and Bavaria, Arch- 28 ENGLAND. desirous of confiscating Edward's for- eign dominions. The Earl of Kent had tried in vain to adjust matters with her brother, and queen Isabella went to Paris with that object in view. She there found a number of English refugees, and their common hatred of Spenser gave rise to a secret friend- ship and correspondence between them and the queen, who envied the favorite his influence with the king. Among these refugees was Roger Mortimer, a powerful Welsh baron, who had been condemned for high treason, and had made his escape from the Tower. His conse(iuence introduced him to the queen, and the graces of his person and address advanced him in her affec- tions. He became her confidant and counsellor in all her measures. Hating now the man whom she had injiu-ed and whom she had never loved, she entered into all Jlortimer's conspir- acies. She succeeded in securing the person of the young prince, her son, and heir of the English throne, and then resolved on the ruin of the king and his favorite. She engaged the help of her brother in her criminal purpose. Her court was filled daily with exiled barons, and a secret correspondence was carried on with the disaffected party in England. Edward, informed of these alarming circumstances, required the return of PRANCE. ther Charles IV. were both short, and neither of them distinguished for any memorable event. On the death of Charles IV., Philip VI., of Valois, ascended the throne. Edward III., of England, considered himself the rightful heir, as his mother was daughter of a French king, and Philip was only a cousin, and a German. He attempted to enforce his claims, and resorted to arms, assisted by his son, who was called the Black Prince, from the armor he wore. He enterred Normandy with 30,000 men. Philip advanced to meet him at the head of 100,000. Edward at first, knowing the strength of the enemy, re- treated, and chose his ground near the village of Cressy, where a battle was fought to the defeat of the French, who lost nearly 40,000, including many of the principal nobility. Edward, on account of the impoverished state of the Eng- lish treasury, was not able to take pos- session of the French crown. Philip VI. died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son John the same year. In 1356 the English army, under the Black Prince, again invaded France. The French army numbered 60,000; the English, only 12,000. They met near Poictiers. The French king, John, was taken prisoner. The generous Black Prince conducted him to his tent with the utmost respect. He also served GERMANY. l)is]iop of Thiers, the Bishop of Liege, the Counts of Savoy and Flanders, and other noblemen ; and the militia of all the imperial towns. Italy was divided by two factions. These factions had originally contested, one for the empire, the other for the priesthood. It was at this time how- ever, a struggle between faction and faction inflamed by jealousies and ani- mosities. Pope Clement V. had been obliged to leave Rome, which was dis- tracted by anarchy. In the midst of these troubles Henry VII. appeared in Italy and caused himself to be crowned King of Lombardy at Milan. He reduced one place after another till he entered Rome, where after much bloodshed he received the imjjerial crown from the hands of the cardinals. He however died at Benevento, of poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of fourteen months, which were employed in the intrigues of Louis of Bavaria, and of Frederic the Hand- some, Duke of Austria. Louis was elected by the greater number of princes ; but Frederic, being chosen by a fac- tion, disputed the empire with him. The result of this opposition was a furious civil war, which desolated both Italy and Germany. At last the two competitors met near Muldorf, and agreed to decide their dispute by thirty champions, fifteen 29 ENGLAND. the queen to England. Isabella replied that she would never set foot in the kingdom till Hugh Spenser was re- moved from his presence and counsels. When afterwards she sailed for Eng- land, she was accompanied by a force of 2,000, and on her arrival was joined by many of the nobles. Every one deserted the unhappy king, who fled to Wales. The people of that region gave him up 10 his enemies, and he was taken prisoner, and confined in Kenil- worth Castle. He was afterwards, in 1327, murdered by the comrades of Mortimer, and at his suggestion, abetted by the queen. Edward III., his son, was proclaimed king, though only fourteen years of age. After the murder of Edward I. a re- action in the feelings of the people took place, and both Mortimer and the queen became objects of public odium. The hatred of the nation daily in- creased against them, Conscious of this, they subjected to tiicir vengeance any one whom they might fear, in order to secure their usurped power. Ed- ward's spirit was at last aroused against the murderer of his father. Mortimer perished by the hands of the hangman, and the queen was confined during life to her house, where she spent twenty- five years in sorrow. Upon the death of Mortimer, Edward assumed the I'eins of government (1330). PRANCE. King John at table, and remained standing in his presence, declaring that he knew well the distance between his own rank and that of a monarch. The Black Prince captured town after town, but for want of means was unable to retain his conquests. Peace was soon after concluded between England and France by a treaty. This treaty provided that certain 2)ortious of the French territory should belong to the king of England, and that Edward should renounce all pre- tensions to the throne of France, to Normandy and other provinces, and that John should pay 400,000 golden crowns as ransom for himself and other prisoners, and that hostages should re- main in England till the sum was paid. The king was set at liberty, but the hostages escaped to France. John therefore returned to England, saying : " If good faith and loyalty were ban- ished from the rest of the world, it ought still to remain in the hearts of kings." He died a captive in 1364. John was succeeded by his son, Charles V., a prince educated in the school of adversity, and well qualified by his prudence and experience to re- pair the losses the kingdom had sus- tained under his predecessors. Contrary to the practice of all great princes in those times, who held no- thing in estimation but military cour- GERJHANY. against fifteen. The champions engaged in the presence of both armies, and fought with such fury that in a short time not one of them was left alive. A general action followed in which the Austiians were worsted. But this victory was not decisive. Frederic soon repaired his loss, and even ravaged Bavaria. The Bavarians assembled a powerful army in opposition and in a battle in which the Duke of Austria, was taken prisoner, fixed the imperial crown on the head of Louis V. It was at this time that the Swiss established their independence, by the memorable battle of Morgart. 1,600 Swiss, from the Cantons Uri, Schwitz and Under- wald, defeated 20,000 Austrians in pass- ing the mountains near Morgart, and drove them out of the country with terrible slaughter. Louis V. had no sooner humbled the Duke of Austria than a new antagonist sprang up in the person of the pope. The contests with the pope continued until the death of Louis in 1346. The reign of Charles IV. presents but little that is of interest to the reader. At his death he was followed by his son Winceslaus, who was only seventeen years of age. During his reign two popes were elected, and the church was divided by disgraceful contests. Winceslaus was unworthy of respect. We ENGLAND. rive a large portion of the reign 30 FRANCE. age, he seems to have hiid it down a.s a maxim never to appear at the head of his armies. Charles died in 1380, having reigned only sixteen years, and left his king- dom to a minor son, Charles VI. GERMANY. He spent his time in drunkenness and debauchery, imposed exorbitant taxes, and treated his subjects with the great- est cruelty. He was finally deposed A. D. 1399, and in his stead Robert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, was elected. His reign opens the next century. of Edward III. in the history of France. His son, the Black Prince, fought under his father at the battle of Cressy, and was a successful warrior at the battle of Poictiers. Both battles are given in the history of the French kings. Edward III. declared war against David Bruce, King of Scotland, and recognized Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, as king, on condition of his fealty to England. Edward III. died a short time after his son, the Black Prince, and his grandson Richard came to the throne at the age of eleven years. Richard was the son of the Black Prince, and a weak sovereign. The country was governed during his minority by his uncles, the Dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester. The wars during the reign of Edward III. had ex- hausted the finances, and, in order to replenish the treasury, a tax was levied on every person, male or female, over fifteen years of age throughout the kingdom. This led to a rebellion, headed by Wat Tyler, a blacksmith. The rebellion was checked and Tyler was slain. The Duke of Gloucester having insinuated himself into popularity at the expense of the king, Richard, on coming of age, had him imprisoned, and he was soon after murdered. The Duke of Lancaster then formed the project of making himself king, as Richard was disliked l)y his subjects. Throno-h his instrumentalitv Richard was dethroned, and imprisoned in Pomfret Castle, where he was soon afterwards murdered. The Duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king under the name of Henry IV. His reign opens the 15th century. Literature of the Fourteenth Century. ENGLAND. Sir .lohn Mandeville is the first prose writer whose name is found in English literature. John Wickliife, who lived in this century, gave to the English na- tion the first translation of the entire Scriptures in the English tongue. John Barbour was the earliest poet of Scotland, and lived at this period. Geoffrey Chaucer was the first poet of decided talent in England, and is called the " Father of English poetry." FRANCE. In French literature we have the name of the historian Froissart. There were two earnest pro,se writers at this time — Christine de Pisan and Alain Chartier. GERMAXY. In this century Germany possessed several mystic theologians, the principal of whom was Johann Tauler, whose sermons and writings aided to open the way to the Reformation. The establishment of the University of Prague, in 1348, was an important event in this century, and had great in- fluence in the development of German literature. It was soon followed by uni- versities in almost all parts of Germany. CHAPTER IV, FOURTEEXTH CeXTURY. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. Henry IV. . . 1399 to 1413 Henry V 1413 Henry VI 1422 Edward IV. . . , 1461 Edward V 1483 Eichard III. . . . 1483 Henry VII. . . 1485 to 1509 The beginning of the reign of Henry IV. was stained by acts of blood and violence. All who opposed his title fell a sacrifice to his resentment. While a subject, he was thought to have im- bibed the principles of Wickliffe, a secular priest, who during the preced- ing reigns had jjreached the doctrine of the Reformation. Henry's title to the throne was a very precarious one, and finding that the clergy called loudly for the punish- ment of Wickliffe, he readily sacrificed principle to policy, and determined to gratify the vengeance of the church on all those who disputed her infallibility. A law accordingly was enacted that when any heretic who refused to abjure his opinions was delivered over to the secular arm by the bishop or his com- missaries, he should be committed to the flames by the civil magistrate, be- fore the whole people. PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Charles VI. . . 1380 to 1422 Charles VII. (the Victor.) . 1422 Louis XI. (the Prudent.) . 1461 Charles VIII. (the Affiible.) 1483 Louis XIL . . 1498 to 1515 Charles VI. being a minor at the time of his father's death, the affairs of the empire were under the control of his uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy. The jealousies between the dukes and the struggle of each for supremacy caused as much disturbance in France as the jealousy between the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester pro- duced in England. The Duke of Anjou died before Charles had arrived at an age fitting him to assume the reins of government, and when at last he took the control of affairs, it was only for a short time. He became insane, and the adminis- tration fell again into the hands of the Dukes of Berri and Burgiuidy, who excluded the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, under 2>retence of his youth, from any shai'e in the government. The Duke of Burgundy being cut off by death, his sou John,^Count of Ne- GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Robert .... 1400 Sigismund .... 1411 Albert II., of Austria, . 1437 Frederic III 1440 Maximilian 1493 to 1519 During the reign of Robert, the church was distracted by differences M'hich the emperor tried in vain to ce- ment. There were two jjopes — one, Gregory XIL, acknowledged in Italy, and the other, Benedict XIIL, who was owned in France. The schism wa-s a cause of debates and disorder and trouble until the car- dinals attempted to depose both popes, and raised to the apostolic chair Alex- ander IV. This increased the trouble, for now there were three popes instead of two. Robert died before he could settle affiiirs, and was succeeded by Sigismund, brother to the deposed Winceslaus, and who was unanimously elected. His first care was to heal the wounds of the church. For this purpose he assembled a council at Constance, with the concur- rence of Po2)e John XXIII, successor to Alexander V. 32 ENGLAND. The clergy soon found occasion to use the weapon placed in their hands. William Sautre, a clergyman of Lon- don, was condemned and suffered pun- ishment by fire, because he could not think as the church directed. But all Henry's ,prudence could not shield him from alarm. An invasion was threatened from France, which was only prevented by the disorders in that country. There were two rebellions in England — one headed by the Earl of Northumberland, and the other by the Arciibishop of York. Both Avere how- ever sujjpressed, and Henry reigned some years in jjeace. At his deatli, in 1413, he was succeeded by his son, Henry V. Henry's first care on coming to the throne was to banish, as much as possi- ble, party distinctions. One party dis- tinction however remained, which he was not able to overcome. The Lol- lards, or disciples of Wickliife, were becoming a formidable body, which appeared dangerous to the church, and even to the civil power. The head of this sect was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, a nobleman who had distin- guished himself by his military talents, and had acquired the esteem of both Henry IV. and Henry V. His high character and his zeal for the new sect pointed him out to Arun- del, Archbishop of Canterbury, as a FRANCE. vers, disputed the administration with the Duke of Orleans, and hoped to govern France as his father had done. The people were divided between these contending princes, and the king, now resuming and now dropping the author- ity as his fits of insanity allowed, kept each at bay. At length the whole kingdom was divided into two parties. The city of Paris was one scene of blood aud violence. The king and royal family were often captives in the hands of the populace, and their ministers were butchered or imprisoned before their eyes. Henry V. of England took advantage of this state of things to carry M-ar into the heart of France. His conquest at the battle of Agin- court and his subsequent treaty have been given in the English history for this period. After the death of the English king, Orleans, which had been besieged by the Duke of Bedford, was saved through the instrumentality of Joan of Arc. She was a young girl fr(im a French village, who believed herself called of God to save her country. She went to Charles VII., who claimed tlie throne as heir of Charles VI., and offered to conduct him toRheims, to l)e crowned after raising the siege, and re- quested to have a consecrated swoi'd which had long been suspended in the Church of St. Catharine. Her request GERMANY. In the first session, the fathers con- cluded nothing could so effectually con- tribute to re-establish the union of the church as the resignation of competitors for the papacy. John XXIIL, who presided in the council, assented, and promised to re- nounce his title, provided Gregory XII. would imitate his example. The resignations accordingly took place. Benedict, however, would not yield, and was afterwards deposed, and a new pope chosen under the title of Martin V. In the mean time, Bohemia had been involved in disorder by the preaching of John Huss, Professor of Divinity in the University of Prague, who had em- braced the opinions of Wicklifi'e, and had been excommunicated by the pope. The publication of this sentence had been followed by trouble. Huss ap- pealed from the judgment of the pope to the Holy Trinity, and wrote to the cardinals, offering to give an account of his faith, in the presence of those who attended his lectures. He had committed the crime of con- verting to his own way of thinking an infinite number of persons of all ranks.. Among others, his doctrines were em- braced by Jerome of Prague, a man of learning, whom he engaged as his col- league, and who propagated the new religion with great zeal. Huss was delivered over to the secu- 33 ENGLAND. suitable victim for ecclesiastical sever- ity. The primate ajiplied to the king, for permission to indict Lord Cobham. Henry's generous nature at first re- coiled from the severe measure pro- posed, but after trying all gentle measures in vain, and finding that noble- man tenacious of his opinions, he gave him over to priestly vengeance. Cob- ham was condemned to the flames, but made his escape before the day ap- pointed for his execution. Provoked by persecution, he was incited to attempt the criminal measures formerly imputed to him. His followers were everywhere persecuted , and he himself hung as a trai- tor and his body burned on the gibbet. The Lollards being thus suppressed. King Henry turned his attention to France, the disorders of which country excited his ambition for conquest. He passed into Normandy, at the head of 30,000 men. After his army had been wasted by disease till it was reduced to 11,000, he met and defeated the French army of 50,000 in the battle of Agin- court, slaying 10.000 of the enemy and taking 14,000 prisoners, among whom were many eminent barons and princes. Henry returned to England for fresh troops, and during his absence from France, the Orleans and Burgundian factions involved the country in civil war. Henry returned, and the crown of France was tendered to him by the FRANCE. was granted and she fulfilled her prom- ise, entered Orleans in triumph, and appeared clad in a suit of armor at the coronation of the king in the cathedral at Rlieims. The Duke of Bedford, regent in France for tlie young King Henry VI., employed every resource to retrieve in some measure his losses. He endeav- ored to revive the declining state of affairs, by having the young King of England crowned and anointed at Paris. But this ceremony was dull and insipid compared with the coronation of Charles, to whom the whole nation were now disposed to give earnest tes- timony of duty and affection. Joan of Arc, having accomplished her desire, was anxious to return to private life ; but she was urged to persevere till the final expulsion of the English. She consented to this, but was soon after taken prisoner. The Duke of Bedford, resolved upon her niin, ordered her to be tried by an ecclesiastical court for sorcery, impiety, idolatry and magic. She was pronounced guilty, and com- mitted to the flames. From this time the English cause weakened daily, and by degrees they lost nearly all that Henry V. had won. Charles VH. was called Charles the Victorious, on ac- count of his triumphs, yet he was not happy. His son Louis, hated him and endeavored to kill him by poison. After GERMANY. lar judge and condemned to be burned. After his execution Jerome, in oi-der to avoid the punishment of fire, abjured the opinions of Wickliffe and Huss. Being ashamed, however to survive his master, or else not deriving the advan- tages he had hoped from his renun- ciation of these doctrines, he pro- fessed them anew, and, like Huss, per- ished in the flames. Sigismund died in 1437, and nomi- nated as his successor in the king- doms of Bohemia and Hungary, Al- bert, Duke of Austria, his son-in-law. The house of Austria from that time till late years held the imperial throne. Albert of Austria reigned but three years, died in 1440, and was succeeded by his cousin Frederic of Austria, as Frederic III. The kingdoms of Hun- gary and Bohemia were settled on Albert's infant son, who was committed to the guardianship of Frederic. The emperor's fii-st care was to heal divi- sions in the ciiurch. This being accom- plished, he went to Italy and took aa oath of strict fidelity to the pope. While in Italy he is crowned King ofLombardy. During the last years of his reign Germany was desolated by a civil war. His son Maximilian, an active, enter- prising young prince, unlike his father, married at twenty years of age Mary of Burgundy, the only daughter of 34 ENGLAND. Burgundian faction with tlie promise of its aid to support liis claim. A treaty was soon concluded, by which it was agreed that Henry should marry Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and succeed to the throne on the death of the king, and in the mean time, govern the kingdom as regent. But just as Henry, reached the summit of his glory and claimed both the thrones of France and England as his own, he was cut off by death, and the helpless, insane Charles survived him only two months. Henry was succeeded by his infant son, who was crowned king at Paris. Henry V. appointed the Duke of Bedford regent in France, and as his infant son was heir to both thrones, the Duke of York was made regent in England. The Duke of Bedford at once laid siege to Orleans, which, as we have stated in French history, was saved by Joan of Arc. From this first loss the good fortune of the English began to decline and they lost by degrees all their French possessions except the town of Calais. These losses alienated the English peo- ple from the house of Lancaster, and as Henry advanced in age their dislike increased by his incapacity and the haughtiness of his wife, Margaret of Anjou. PRANCE. the king discovered the plot, he was afraid to take food, so wasted away and died of hunger. His son Louis XI. succeeded him in 1461. The reign of Louis was made up of intrigues, wars, executions and negotiations. He removed from the court all princes of nobility, and these at once engaged in a league against him, with the principal persons in the kingdom called "ligne du bien pub- lique," or, league for the public good. The King's brother, and Charles, the son of the Duke of Burgundy, and the Dukes of Bretagne and Bourbon, were the chiefs of this party. He, however, In-oke up the league by a treaty, in which he promised to give Normandy to his brother, and to cede some terri- tories to Burgundy. He did not keep his pledges. His brother Charles was removed by poison, and several noblemen lost their lives on the scaffold. He purchased a peace with Edward IV., of England, with a large sum ; but was constantly engaged in war with the Duke of Bur- gundy, who was his rival, and whom he survived six years. His cruelty and perfidy were avenged by horrible sus- picions as he declined in years. He shut himself up in a moat and surrounded himself with cross-bow-men, who shot at every living thing that ap- proached. GERMANY. Chai'les the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. She lirought him into possession of Flanders and all the low countries. Frederic died shortly after, and his son Maximilian I. succeeded him. During the reign of Maximilian, near the close of the 15th century, the Ger- man States made an important change in their condition, by which private wars and feuds were made to give place to regular courts of justice. Op- pression and violence were made to yield to the authority of law, and the pulilic tranquillity was thus for a time in Germany established on a firm basis. Towards the close of the 15th cen- tury, a few years before the accession of Maximilian to the throne, there was born at Eisleben, in Germany, a boy, son of a Saxon miner, who, was des- tined to exert a marked influence over the whole of eastern, middle, and south- ern Europe. Like other poor boys, he earned his bread by singing from house to house. He studied at the University of Erfurt and fitted himself for the pro- fession of law. In 1507 deep religious impressions led him to abandon that profession and become a monk of the order of St. Augustine. Gradually a doubt as to the efficiency of the rites of the church to give peace to the conscience stole into his mind, and these doubts were merged into 35 ENGLAND. At this crisis, Richard, Duke of York, advanced his claiui to tlie throne, and a powerful party rallied to his support. Five years later a civil war broke out in England between the houses of York and Lancaster. The Yorkists wore as the symbol of their party a white rose ; the Lancastrians, a red rose. This contest, called the " wars of the roses," lasted thirty years. Many battles were fought and much blood shed. King Henry was taken prisoner. Richard was slain, also his son, and finally the white rose triumphed, and Edward IV., eldest son of the late Duke of York, became king of Eng- land. Young Edward, now in his twen- tieth year, was an active, enterprising- prince, but hard of heart and severe in his judgments. Hence some of Eng- land's noblest sons perished on the scaffold as well as in the field during his reign. Queen Margaret, wife of Henry VI., who was now in prison, raised an army of 60,000. The King and the Earl of "Warwick hastened to meet her with 40,000 men. The two armies met at Towton and a fierce battle ensued and victory sided with the Yorkists. Mar- garet and her son fled to Scotland. There she collected a small force with which, together with aid from France, PRANCE. He scarcely admitted his own chil- dren. He died in 1483 and his son Charles became king. He was only fourteen years of age, and weak in body and mind. During his minority the government was con- ducted by his elder sister, Anne, whose mental qualities were so much like her father's that she was called '' the least foolish woman in existence." During his reign he invaded Italy and made himself master of Rome. The pope, Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, and Ferdinand and Isabellaof Spain, entered into a league against him and he was driven out of the country. He died in 1498, after a reign of eighteen years leaving no issue, and the throne passed to Louis XII., Duke of Orleans. Louis was thirty-six years of age, and from the moment he became mon- arch of France, he forgot all personal resentments. When some of his court- iers reminded him that some of his for- mer enemies were in his power, he made this reply, " The King of France revenges not the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." He made this maxim the rule of his conduct. Louis laid claim to the kingdom of Naples and invaded Italy for its recovery, but after much labor he was in the end unsuccessful. With the consent of Alexander VI., he was divorced from his wife Joan, GERMANY. certainty by the diligent study of a Latin Bible, which he had found chained in the library, and also by a visit to Rome, where he had been sent on business connected with the order. Before this time, and some years before the death of Maximilian, Luther had been appointed Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg, where his forcible arguments and vigorous style drew crowds of students to his lectures. The esteem in which he was held secured him a respectful hearing. The sale of indulgences was just then attracting attention in Germany. This traffic, from small beginnings, had become by degrees the principal source of income to the papal treasury. At first it was only the remission of tem- poral penalties, but Pope Alexander VI. assumed to remit the penalties of sin in a future life in consideration of money paid or penances performed in this. The tender sympathies, the fears and hopes of the faithful were enlisted by a promise of releasing the souls of their departed friends fi'om the pains of purgatory. "At the moment when the money clinks in the chest, the soul flies upward." Germany was the great market for the sale of these in- dulgences, and immense sums of money were remitted to Rome, on this ac- count. Portions of this revenue were often 36 FRANCE. and afterwards married to Anue, the queen dowager. Afterwards his oldest daughter, Princess Anne, married the Count of Angouleme, first prince of the blood. He made war against Spain, and was also unsuccessful. Henry VIII. having waged a successful war on the French territory, afterwards made peace with Louis and bestowed on him the hand of his sister. While preparing to recover his losses in Italy he died in 1515. ENGLAND. she made another attempt to penetrate into England. But she was met by the brother of the Earl of Warwick, and her army totally routed. Mar- garet, with her son, made her escape imto a forest, where, during the night, she was despoiled of her jewels Ijy robbers and treated with the utmost indignity. Escaping from them while they were quarreling over the booty, she wan- dered about, hungry and fatigued, and ready to sink with terror. In this con- dition she was met by a robber with a drawn sword in his hand. Seeing no means of escape, she tried the expedient of trusting to his generosity. She called him her friend, and committed to him the safety of her son. She was not disappointed in her confidence. By his favor she dwelt concealed in the forest till an opportunity was aflbrded her of escaping to France, where she lived for several years in retirement. Henry was less fortunate. He lay concealed about a year, but was at last de- tected and delivered up to Edward, who threw him into the Tower. The youthful king felt now that all enemies were removed, and tliat his position as monarch was secure. But an enemy sprang up where he least expected it. Tlie Earl of War- wick, whom the king had offended, from being the friend now became his bitter enemy, and determined upon his ruin. Warwick drew over to his own interest the king's second brother, the Duke of Clarence. He also en- tered into a league with Queen Margaret, tlie king's inveterate enemy. On his return to England he was joined by the whole body of Lancastrians. Both parties prepared for battle ; but Henry, finding himself betrayed by one com- mander, and suspicious of the other, fled to Holland. Henry VI. was taken from confinement and placed once more on the English throne. A parliament, called under the influence of Warwick, declared Edward IV. a usurper. But Warwick was no sooner at the head of affairs than his popularity began to de- cline. GERMANY. granted l)y the pope to temporal princes for a limited time. Frederic the Wise obtained the sale of indulgences in Saxony, for the pur- pose of building a Ijridge over the Elbe. The King of Hungary received two- thirds of the proceeds of his kingdom for the prosecution of his war against the Turks. Albert, Elector of Mentz and Primate of Germany, a young and dissolute churchman, had purchased his see at a ruinous price, and was aided by the pope to pay for it by a special sale of indulgences. One John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, but a man of infa- mous character, was his agent, and, traveling through the country, offered not only remission of past sins, but in- dulgence for future transgressions, at a regular, graded tariff of prices. Luther preached against this traffic with great energy. He wrote out ninety-five theses, in which he denounced the papal assump- tions, and declared that every sincere penitent would receive the remission of his sins without the intervention of the church. News of this affair reached Rome ; but the pope at first affected to regard it as a mere monkish quarrel. It being shown, however, that Luther's heresy was identical with that of Huss, he was summoned to Rome. It was decided, however, that he should be 37 ENGLAND. The young king; was emboldened to return. The city of London opened its gates to him. Another battle ensued, Edward was victorious, Warwick slain. Margaret and her son were taken prisoners and brought before Edward, who asked the young prince " how he dared to invade his dominions ? " "I came," re- plied the undaunted youth, " to revenge my father's wrongs and to rescue my just inheritance out of your hands." At these words Edward struck him upon the face, and the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, taking this blow as a signal for further violence, dispatched him with their daggers. Margaret was thrown into prison, where her husband Henry had just expired, and it was believed that he had been murdered. Edward afterwards invaded France, to no purpose. Edward IV. left two sons, the Prince of Wales, now Edward V., in his 13th year; and Eichard, Duke of York, in his 9th. The Duke of Gloucester, their uncle, was appointed regent. At the instigation of their uncle, they were both murdered in the Tower. The Duke of Gloucester then caused himself to be proclaimed king, with the title of Richard III. The claim of the Lancastrian family was again revived by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Henry Tudor was the son of Catharine, Queen of Henry V., of England. After the death of Henry V. she married Owen Tudor, of Wales ; she bore him two sons, one Henry Tudor, created Earl of Richmond, the other Earl of Pembroke. Henry Tudor defeated and slew Richard III. at the battle of Bosworth. The victorious.troops bestowed on their general the title of king, and " Long GERMANY. tried in the Diet of Augsburg. Luther appeared before that assembly and de- clared his readiness to retract all his doctrines, provided they could be proven inconsistent with the teachings of the Holy Scriptures. The cardinal refused all discussion, and also i-ejected Luther's offer to sub- mit his theses to the four universities of Basle, Freiburg, Louvain, and Paris. Finding that a just decision was out of the question, Luther drew up an appeal to the pope, which he affixed to the cathedral at Augsburg, and, leaving that city, returned to his duties at Wit- tenberg. Three-fourths of the German population were now on his side, and the most enlightened men of the age^ — poets, painters, and scliolars — ^joined in doing him honor. Just at this period Maximilian, Em- peror of Germany, died, and was suc- ceeded by his grandson, Charles V. live Henry VII. " resounded from all sides. The crown which Richard wore in battle was placed on Henry's head, and his title confirmed-by Parliament. Henry married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., and thus united the houses of York and Lancaster, in the house of Tudor. Thus ended the Plantagenet line, which had held the throne of England more than 300 years. Henry VII., however, had imbibed a hatred to the house of York, which could not be easily overcome. Instead of abolish- ing party distinctions, he aimed to exalt the Lancastrian party, and depress the retainers of the house of York. "For this reason his queen was treated with contempt, his government grew unpopular, and his reign was filled with plots and re- bellions. One rebellion was headed by Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker, who feigned to be a Plantagenet. The other was led by Perkin Warbeck, who pretended that he was one of the princes they had believed smothered by Richard, the Duke of Gloucester, in the Tower. Many nobleman and others were led into rebellion by these impostors, but finally they were both taken prisoners. War- beck was hanged, with many of his followers, and Simnel was put to washing dishes in the king's kitchen. Henry's oldest 38 ENGLAND. son, Arthur, married Catharine, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Prince Arthur died a few months after- wards, and Henry, desirous of continuing the alliance with Spain, and unwilling to restore Catharine's dowry, ©bliged second son, now prince of Wales, to be betrothed to the Infanta. Henry made all the opposition a youth of twelve years could, but the king was inflexible, and at last the marriage was consummated. The same year Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland ; which marriage in time gave Scotland to England. He died in 1509. Literature of the Fifteenth Century. ^ ENGLAND. From the age of Chaucer to that of Spenser the history of England presents nothing of interest. There was a desolate period of more than one hundred years " when," says an old historian, " the bells of the church steeples were not heard for the sound of drums and trumpets." Till the accession of Elizabeth, a few of the best versifiers were Wyatt, Caxton, and Sackville. FRANCE. During the 15th century, " Mem- oires," by Comines, present a striking delineation of the characters of Louis XI. and his contemporaries. Two poets of some note appeared at this time, Villou and Duke Charl'es of Orleans. GERMANY. Classical literature was stimulated at the opening of the 15th century by the establishment of the College of Deven- ter, by Gerhardt Groot, and the subse- quent establishment of many schools in imitation of it in different parts of Germany. Hegius, Reuchlin, Agricola, and other eminent men, were among the pupils. Johann Miiller was the greatest mathematician of the 15th century. John Guttenberg invented the art of printing in this century. The first types were made of wood. CHAPTEE VI. Sixteenth Centuey. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. Henry, VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. Mary I. Elizabeth . 1485 to 1509 . 1509 1547 . 1553 1558 to 1603 Henry, VII. was on the throne at the opening of the 16th century. He died in 1509 and left the throne to his son, Henry VIII. Henry VIII. found an overflowing treasury, and saw himself possessed of sufficient power to turn the scale in favor of France or Spain as he lent his aid, and for this reason his friendship was courted by the rival monarchs of France and Aus- tria. Each of these monarchs, Francis I., of France, and Charles V., of Ger- many, endeavored to ealist the English monarch in his favor. Both gave a pension to his prime minister, Wolsey, and each had an in- terview with the king. Henry for the time became the natural guardian of the liberties of Europe. He was sen- sible of the consequence of this situa- tion, and proud of his pre-eminence, and knew it was for his interest to keep the balance even between these powers by not joining constantly with either. 1498 to 1515 1515 . 1547 1559 . 1560 1574 1589 to 1610 GERMANY. SOVEr.EIGNS. Maximilian I. . 1493 to 1519 Charles V. . . 1519 Ferdinand I. 1558 Maximilian II. . 1564 Rodolph II. . 1576 to 1612 . PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Louis XII. Francis I. . Henry II. . . , Francis II. . Charles IX. . Henry III. . Henry IV. Charles V. op Germany, and Francis I. of France. The system of political equilibrium or balance of power originated in Italy. That peninsula, separated form the rest of the continent by the sea and the Alps , had outstripped the other countries in the career of civilization. There a multitude of independent states had been formed, unequal in point of power and extent, yet none of them had sufficient strength to resist the united power of the rest or usurp dominion over them, while at the same time none were so con- temptible in point of weakness, as not to be of some weight in the scale. Hence the rivalry and jealousy among them, which was incessantly watching over the progress of their neighbors, and hence, too, a series of wars and confederacies which might preserve equality among them, and also inspire the weaker with courage and confidence. The popes employed all their policy to prevent any foreign power from establishing itself in Italy. The doctrine of equilibrium passed the Alps toward the end of the 15th century. Its fundamental principle was to prevent any one state from acquiring power sufficient to resist the united efforts of all the others. The House of Austria, which had suddenly risen to a high pitch of grandeur, was the first against which its efibrts were directed. This house, which derived its origin from Rodolph of Hapsburg, owed its greatness and elevation chiefly to the different alliances of the imperial family. Maximilian of Austria, son of Emperor Frederic III., married Mary of Burgundy. Thii alli- ance secured to the house of Austria the whole of Burgundy and the " low coww- tries," corresponding to the modern Netherlands. Philip the Fair, son of this 40 ENGLAND. Henrj, however, was vain and resent- ful, and governed more by caprice than principle. His imprudent measures were often the result of the undue in- fluence of his prime minister and favorite. Cardinal Wolsey. This man, the son of a butcher, had risen from the lowest rank to become the bosom friend of the king, and to hold a place next to him in power. Wolsey was vain and extravagant, and catered to the passions and vanity of the king. Francis I., who was well acquainted with the English king and his prime minister, solicited an interview with Henry near Calais, in hopes of being able to attach him more strongly to the interests of France. The interview took place in an open plain, where tlie two kings, with their whole courts and their attendants, displayed so much magnificence and such profuse expense that the place of meeting was called " The Field of the Cloth of Gold." This reckless and wasteful expendi- ture was not gratifying to Henry's English subjects, many of whom suf- fered through the extravagance of Wolsey. The Duke of Buckingham, a noble connected with the Plantagenet line, had expressed disapproval of this affair, and the manner in which it was conducted. Wolsey was an enemy of Buckingham, and Henry had been FRANCE and GERMANY. marriage, espoused the Infanta, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, of Castile. They had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the former of whom, known in his- tory as Charles V., inherited the low countries in right of his father, Philip. On the death of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather, he became heir to the whole Spanish succession, which comprised the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sar- dinia, together with Spanish America. To these vast possessions were added his dominions in Austria, which were transferred to him by his paternal grand- father, the Emperor Maximilian I. About the same time he was made emperor by election, so that, since the time of Charlemagne, Europe had not seen a mon- archy so powerful as that of Charles V. He was at one and the same time King of Spain, King of the Netherlands, King of Bohemia and Hungary, Duke of Bur- gundy, Emperor of Mexico and Peru, and Emperor of Germany. France was the leading power that undertook the labor of regulating the balance against tlie House of Austria. vVhen the imperial throne became vacant on the death of Maximilian, 1519, Francis I. and Charles were competitors for the crown, and on the accession of Charles, the mutual claims of these two princes on each others dominions made them declared enemies. Peace could not long continue between two envious and ambitious princes. Francis was about the same age as Charles, had inherited nearly despotic power, was free from financial embarrassments, and ruled over a united and loyal people. He was therefore a formidable rival, and, besides, he strengthened himself by alliances with the Swiss and Venetians. Charles sought the favor of the pope and of Henry VIII. of England. Henry in the begin- ning was not favorably disposed towards France, and he hoped by his alliance with Charles to recover some of the possessions which his ancestors had lost in France. Being strengthened by this alliance, Charles repaired to Aix-la-Chapelle, and was there crowned in the presence of a more imposing assembly than had ever graced any preceding inauguration. In the mean time Luther's doctrines had been taking root and spreading throughout the empire. He had been protected by the Elector of Saxony. The pope, becoming alarmed, had issued a sentence of excommunication against him, and ordered his books to be burned. This sen- tence had neither disconcerted nor intimidated Luther. He assembled all the professors and students ot the LTniversity of Wittenberg, and with great pomp, 41 ENGLAND. jealous of him on account of his birth and fortune, and both were anxious to fix upon him some crime tliat would bring him to punishment. Buckingliam was arrested, tried and executed for making traitorous prophecies. At this time the doctrines of Martin Luther were making many converts, and Henry VIII., a strong Catholic, made himself notorious for his theo- logical writings against him. These writings secured for him the title of " Defender of the Faith," which was conferred upon him by the Pope. During his father's life, Henry had been affianced to Catharine, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. She was the widow of his brother Arthur, and eight years his senior, but shortly after his accession to the throne, notwithstanding some scruples on his part, the marriage was consummated. As years passed and this queen's beauty faded, the king's scruples as to the lawfulness of tlie marriage in- creased. He consulted his confessor, also the Archbishop of Canterbury, and nearly all the prelates of England, and each and all declared under their hand and seal that they deemed the king's mar- riage unlawful, and he determined on a divorce, which Wolsey opposed. But the real object of all this investigation was the king's desire to marry Anne PRANCE and GERMAN y. and before a vast multitude of spectators, cast the volumes of the canon law, together with the bull of excommunication, into the flames. His example had been imitated in several other cities. Such was the state of tlie Reformation when Charles V. arrived in Germany. No secular princes had eml)raced the new opinions, no change in the established form of worship had been introduced, nor any encroachments made on the jurisdiction of tlie clei-gy ; but the materials were already scattered which produced the conflagration, that afterward spread all over Europe. Charles saw it all, and knew it would be for his interest to please the pope. He therefore cited Luther to appear before the Diet at Worms. Luther did not hesitate to obey, and said to some friends wlio were solicitous for his safety: " I am lawfully called to appear in that city, and thither I will go in the name of the Lord, though as many devils as tiles upon the houses were there assembled against me." His reception at Worms was such as he might have considered a full reward for all his labor. Crowds assembled to see him when he walked 'abroad, and his apartments were daily filled with princes and persons of the highest rank, all of whom treated him with marked re- spect. When before the Diet, Luther acknowledged too much vehemence in his writings, but refused to retract his opinions till convinced of their falsehood, and would not consent to their being tried by any other standard than tlie Scriptures. Some of the fathers were for committing this obstinate heretic to the flames, but Charles was unwilling to stain the early years of his reign by any such measure. Luther was permitted to depart in safety. A few days after he left the city an edict was issued, in the emperor's name, forbidding any prince to harbor him, and requiring all to concur in seizing his person as soon as his safe-conduct had ex- pired. The Elector of Saxony took him again secretly under his protection. Luther in solitude continued to propagate his opinions, and Charles turned his attention to other matters. The history of Europe for nearly half a century is a record of wars between Francis I. and Charles V., and princes who were involved in their contests. The German princes were divided on religious questions, which formed the basis of wars lasting thirty years after the death of Charles, but those between Francis and Charles were only the result of military ambition. It is im- possible, in the space we have, to give all the wars between these two monarchs, and were it possible, it would be tedious to the pupil to read the dry detail of such events. Suffice it to say, that each lost and won by turns. In a battle at Pavia, Italy, Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. He had 42 ENGLAND. Boleyn, one of Queea Catharine's maids of honor. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, who was allied to the chief nol)ility of the kingdom. But before this could be accomplished it was necessary to obtain the consent of the pope, and also a revocation of the bull which had been granted for his marriage with Catharine. Catha- rine was an aunt of Charles V. of Germany, and it was to the interest of Henry to move cautiously since Charles was stronger in wealth and in the ex- tent of his dominions than any sover- eign in Europe. King Henry applied to the Pope, Clement VII., for the dissolution of liis marriage, feeling confident of suc- cess. In this he was disappointed. The decision of the pope was attributed to Wolsey's influence, and caused his ruin. Th'3 groat seal was taken from him and given to Sir Thomas More, a man of great learning and greater virtue. Cardinal Wolsey retired to private life, but he was arrested for high trea- son, and ordered to go to London as a prelude to his trial. On his journey he was seized with a disorder which terminated in dysentery, and it was with much difficulty that he reached Leicester Abbey. He was immediately placed in bed. PRANCE and GERMANY. been imprisoned a year when his life was threatened by an attack offerer. Fran- cis was about to abdicate his throne in favor of the Dauphin, when Charles de- cided, on certain conditions, to release him. The cliief article in the treaty were, that Burgundy, which had been wrested from Charles, should be restored, and that Francis's two eldest sons should be delivered up as hostages for the performance of the stipulated conditions. The exchange was made on the frontiens of France and Spain. The joy of Francis at his release was unbounded, but he immediately violated his oaths, which lie had never intended to keep. The moment he en. tered his own dominions, he mounted a horse and, putting him at full speed, waved his hand above his head, exclaiming aloud several times, "I am yet a king." Wars between Francis and Charles continued two years longer, when both kings desired peace from sheer exhaustion; besides, Charles was anxious to settle troubles in his own kingdom growing out of the Reformation. Hence a treaty of peace was concluded at Cambi-ey in August, 1529, in which Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns for the ransom of his children, and to renounce his claims in the Low Countries and Italy. Charles after this treaty hastened to Italy where he was crowned by tiic pope. He then returned to Germany which needed his presence Ijoth on account of religious dissensions, and also because of an intended invasion of Austria by the Turks. Charles suumioned a Diet, in order to take into consideration the state of re- ligion. The diet issued a decree confirming the edict of Worms, against Luther, and prohibiting the abolishing of Mass. Several cities and princes protested against this, hence they were called Protestants, a name given to all Christian sects who have since separated from the Church of Rome. Charles prepared to employ violence, when the Protestant princes of Germany concluded a defensive league, and having obtained promises of aid from the kings of France, England and Denmark, held themselves ready for comlmt. Just at this point the Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Magnificent, invaded Hun- gary at the head of 300,000 men, and Charles fearing the consequence of a relig- ious war at this juncture, hastened to offer to the Protestants all the toleration they demanded. He drove out the Turks, and then made an invasion into northern Africa against the Moors. On his return he found Francis I. preparing for war against him, and hostilities breaking out at once the Protestant cause was left un- combated, and the rupture between the Catholics and Protestants was delayed twelve years. In 1538 the rival monarchs concluded a truce of ten years, 43 ENGLAND. A little before he expired he exclaimed, " Oh, had I but served my God as diligently as I have served my king. He would not have deserted me in my grey hairs." Henry was afraid of bringing mat- ters to a crisis, fearing a war with Cliarles V., and the anathemas of the pope. He was now free from Wolsey, whom he had considered an obstacle to his inclinations, and being suppoi-ted by many learned men in his kingdom, he called a Parliament in which he was acknowledged " the protector and su- preme head of the church in England," He now resolved to administer eccle- siastical affairs without recourse to Rome, as well as to abide conse- quences, and accordingly privately celebrated his marriage with Anne Boleyn. Cranmer, now Archbishop of Canterbury, soon after annulled the king's marriage with Catharine, and ratified that with Anne, who was pub- licly crowned queen. When the in- telligence reached Rome it produced great rage among the cardinals, who pronounced Henry's marriage with Catharine valid, and he was excommu- nicated. The English Parliament soon after conferred on the king the title of " The only supreme head of the Church of England upon earth." Henry was now separated from the Catholic (jhurch, while he retained all his bitter PRANCE and GERMANY. through the meditation of the pope. A short time after, peace was declared be- tween Francis and Henry of England, who had been at war. Henry and Francis both died the same year. Charles V., Francis I., and Henry IT. Francis was succeeded by hie son Henry XL, who invaded Germany with the avowed purpose of defending the Protestant religion in opposition to the emperor, Charles V. Heniy styled himself the protector of the liberties of Germany and its captive princes. The Protestants took Augsburg and laid siege to Frankfort- on-the-Main. Henry II. entered Lorraine, and made himself master of Metz and other places. The emperor endeavoring to wrest Metz from Henry, Henry committed the de- fence of it to the Duke of Guise, the gallant Francis of Lorraine. The highest nobility and proudest chivalry of France fought as common soldiers under tlie Duke of Guise. The emperor collected an army from Italy and Hungary and, though sick and enfeebled, followed it in a litter and com- manded it at Metz. The Duke of Guise, however, was no ordinary opponent. The winter set in and, the Imperialists being encamped in the snow, great num- bers died in their tents. The emperor arrived before the walls of Metz on the last day of October, 1552, and on the 10th of January following retreated, having lost not less than 40,000 men. Charles was at length obliged to yield, and a treaty was signed at Passau ; but three years later this treaty was changed into a definite peace, by which the free exercise of religion was secured to Protestants throughout Germany. This incensed Pope Paul IV., and he became an enemy to the house of Austria entered into an alliance with the Henry II. of France. The war with France lasted three years longer and proved unfavorable to Charles V. Charles saw his end approaching and abdicated his throne, having resigned the German empire to his brother Ferdinand, and kingdoms of Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy to his son Philip. Philip immediately commenced hostilities against France. He raised a large army, and secured the aid of Henry VIII. of England, through the influence of his wife Mary. Many battles were fought. The French, headed by the brave Duke of Guise, regained the eity of Calais, which had been in the hands of the English for 200 years. A treaty was at length concluded between Henry and Elizabeth, now Queen of Eng- 44 ENGLAND. aversion to Luther and his doctrines. All who denied the king's supremacy or the legitimacy of his daughter Elizabeth, whose mother was Anne Boleyn, or who embraced the tenets of the reformers, were equally objects of his vengeance. Among the former was Sir Thomas More, late chancellor, who refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the king, and died upon the scaffold. The Catholics, especially the monks, were now the king's most dangerous enemies. Monasteries to the number of 376 were suppressed by Parliament, and church property connected with them seized. The king and the nobles were the only gainers by the spoil. Henry's domestic relations are a blot upon his name. Three years after his marriage with Anne Boleyn, he became enamored with Jane Seymour, one of the queen's maids of honor, and in the short period of seventeen days Anne Boleyn expiated the crime of marrying a monster by death upon the scaffold. The day following the execution Henry married Jane Seymour. Her death oc- curred in a little more than a year. In 1540 Henry married Anne of Cleves, on the recommendation of his minister, Cromwell. He hated his new wife, and soon after procured a divorce and married Catharine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk. In time she was brought to the scaffold, and in 1543 PRANCE and GERMANY. land. It was stipulated that the King of France should retain the town of Calais with all its dependencies during eight years, at the end of which time it should be restored to England. Charles V. died in 1558. Henry II. died in 1559, having been killed at a tournament. His son Francis II., a weak prince, became king. He reigned a little more than one year. He married Mary, Queen of Scots. He died at the age of eighteen, leaving France loaded with del)t, and the throne came into possession of Charles IX., son of Henry II. FRANCE. The doctrines of Luther had made some advancement in France during the reign of Francis I. He, had en- deavored to check its progress by per- secution and many were burned at the stake. The persecutions continued under his son Henry II., whose wife was Catharine de Medicis, a bigoted Catholic. Charles IX. was but nine years of age when his father died, and his mother became regent. When Charles came of age, under the influence of his mother and with the co-operation of Philip, he attempted to do what Philip vas striving to do in Germany, namely, to establish the Inqui- sition. The Protestant party in France was at this time headed by the young king of Navarre, a cousin of Charles, the Prince of Conde. Finding the Protestant cause could not be overthrown by open persecution, the king and his mother resorted to treachery. Under the guise of friend- ship, Cliarles gave his sister, Margaret de Valois, in marriage to the King of Navarre, then nineteen years of age. GERMANY. When Charles Y. resigned, he placed the German empire in the hands of his brother Ferdinand I. Paul IV., now pope, refused to con- firm Ferdinand as emperor. He pretended it belonged to the pope alone to nominate a person to the vacant throne. Ferdinand, however, enjoyed his position quite as well with- out the pope's blessing. In 1559 Pope Pius IV. was elevated to the papal chair. He was less obstinate and confirmed the imperial dignity to Ferdinand. He also issued a bull reassembling the Council of Trent, the most notable event during this reign. Finding the Protestants determined in their oppo- sition to the measures adopted at the Council of Trent, Ferdinand resorted to other means to unite the two reli- gious bodies. He presented a remonstrance to tlie fathers of the Council, urging them to reform the abuses among the Catholic clergy of which the Protestants so justly complained. 45 ENGLAND. he n^arried Catharine Parr, who had the pleasure of surviving him. The last objects of his vengeance were the Duke of Norfolk and his son, the Earl of Surrey. The duke was condemned to death, but was saved by the death of Henry in 1547. Henry left the throne to his son Edward, by Jane Sey- mour, then Mary, daughter of Catha- rine of Ari-agon, and finally to Eliza- beth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, to each in succession. In 1547 Henry VIII. was succeeded by the son of Jane Seymour, a boy nine years of age. He was only six- teen when he died, so his reign, so far as to his own right and power to gov- ern, was only in name. His ministers or guardians, sixteen in number, had been appointed by his father, and they were really the rulers. The Duke of Somerset was at the head. Henry VIII. had attempted to unite Scotland and England under one government. The Duke of Somerset therefore invaded Scotland at the head of 18,000 men, but it was a fruitless expenditure of time and means. The most of the clergy took oaths of allegiance to the young king as supreme head of tlie church. Cranmer, during the few years of Edward's reign, succeeded in abolish- ing the remnants of papacy from the religious worship. Edward was in- PRANCE. Admiral Coligny was invited to Paris, although he was one of the Pro- testant leaders, and was treated with marked respect. During the festivities of the marriage at midnight August 23, 1572, the signal was given, and a horrible massacre connnenced. It had been previously arranged that all Catho- lics should make known their principles at that time by a white cross upon the hat. Admiral Coligny was the first to fall, and his head was afterwards sent to the pope by Catliarine de Medicis. Nearly 10,000 persons perished in Paris alone. This was followed by the same cruel slaugliter in the provinces, and 70,000 persons were slain in cold blood. The King of Navarre and Prince of Conde only escaped because of their relationsliip to the king, and by re- nouncing the Protestant religion. Charles IX. died, it was thought, by poison, and he felt deep remorse for the liorrible and cruel work lie had done. He was succeeded by his brother, King of Poland, but who resigned that dig- nity for the French crown. Henry III. began at once a religious war ; nearly all the prominent leaders on both sides were slain. About this time Catharine de Medicis died ; Henry soon followed, having been put to death by a religious fanatic. The throne caipe into the hands of the King of Navarre, under the title of Henry IV. (1589). GERMANY. But the pope would agree to nothing in the way of a reform, and this last assembly of the Council of Trent was finally dissolved in December 1563. Soon after the dissolution of the Council, Ferdinand died (1564). He was succeeded by his son, Maxi- milian II., who at the very beginning of his reign was obliged to make war upon the Turks. He compelled the Turks to retreat from tlie frontiers of his empire. His reign was a pacific one. He died while preparing to support his election to the kingdom of Poland and was succeeded by his son Rodolph II., a prince who inherited the pacific disposition of his father (1576). Rodolph studied astronomy and as- trology under the famous Tycho Brahe, and his empire was governed equitably, though weakly. It enjoyed a long and uninterrupted tranquillity. He is on the throne at the opening of the 17th century. 46 flueuced by tlie Duke of Nortlmni- berland to change the succession to the throne in favor of Lady Jane Grey, daughter-in-law of the duke. Much against her will, she accepted the crown on the death of Edward, but her title to it was so defective that in ten days she was dethroned and imprisoned in the Tower, and in a few months she and her husband, and also the duke, were all beheaded. The throne now passed into the hands of Mary, afterwards called " Bloody Mary." She was a rigid Catho- lic, and as zealous to advance the ENGLAND. Catholic religion as her predecessors had been to extinguish it. The Catho- lics, who had been imprisoned on ac- count of their faith, wore all released, and Ridley, Cranmer, Latimer, and other eminent Protestants were im- prisoned. Shortly after her accession she married Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., Kmperor of Germany. This connection strengthened her in her opposition to the Protestant cause, and she resorted to violent measures. The prisons were filled with victims. Over a thousand ministers were ejected from their livings, and those that es- caped persecution fled to the continent. It is said that no less than 300 were burned for their religious opinions during her reign, among whom were Cranmer, Ridley, Latimer, and others. The last years of Mary's life were miserable. She went to war with France, to no purpose. Her health failed her and she became morose and gloomy. The people of England were glad when her reign was over and her sister Elizabeth became queen (1558). ENGLAND. Tha Catholic Church had nevci sanctioned the marriage of Henry VIIL witii Anne Boleyn, therefore, the claims of Elizabeth to the throne of England, in the estinmtion of tlie Catholic party, was superseded by Mary of Scotland, who was grand niece of Henry VIIL Mary Stuart's father, James V., married a French princess, Mary of Guise, who was an uncompromising Catholic. James died when Mary Stuart was an infant, and her mother became queen regent in Scotland. She sent her daughter to France to be educated, and at sixteen years of age Mary married the Dauphin of France, Francis II. Mary's maternal uncles in France influenced her to assume the arms and title of Queen of England, as well as of Scotland. This false step brought her eventually to the scaffold. Elizabeth of England was a Protestant, and insisted on her supremacy as head of the church, though she re- tained many of the ceremonies of the Catholic Church. The Protestant cause had made great advancement in Scotland, and the doctrines of the reformers, especially of John Knox, had great and still growing influence. The Catholic queen determined to suppress these opinions, but nearly the whole of the Scottish nobility, who were Protestant, fought loyally against the oppressive measures aken against them. Mary sent French troops who landed in Scotland in aid of FRANCE. Henry IV. was 36 years of age when he ascended the throne. He had as a prince contended for the Protestant religion — had been one of the leaders of a Protestant party. As king, he would be required to re- nounce the Protestant faith. This he did, saying, " My kingdom is well worth a mass." He has been blamed for this by all good Protestants. He was ready, how- ever, to grant liberation to Protestants, who were about one-fifth of the popu- lation. Though he made a false step in renouncing his opinions for worldly elevation, yet he was one of the wisest and ablest monarchs that ever sat upon the throne of France. 47 ENGLAND. the queen regent, and the country Tvas ravaged by civil war. Elizabeth's aid was sought and given by her readily, partly from political motives, and partly from her desire to promote the Protestant cause. The Protestant cause was in the ascendant when the queen regent died in 1560. Francis II. died the same year, and Mary returned to her own kingdom, greatly to the joy of her subjects, wliere she found the Protestant religion established. The marriage of Mary to Lord Parnley, a man greatly her inferior, led to an open quarrel l>etween herself and Elizabeth, and also caused much dissatisfaction among her Protestant subjects. Mary soon wearied of her profligate husband, and coldness sprang up between them. Darnley attributed it to a favorite musi- cian, Rizzio, and was instrumental in his death. Sliortly after, the house which Darnley inhabited was blown up and he was buried in the ruins. A few months later Mary married the Earl of Bothwell, the principal author of the crime. These proceedings were followed by an in- surrection of her subjects. Elizabeth influenced Murray, Mary's own brother, to take up arms against his sister, and place himself in power. Mary was defeated and fled to England, where she was taken prisoner and confined in various castles. Mary was a prisoner nineteen years. During her confinement, the Catholics in England formed a conspiracy to assassinate Eliza- beth and restore the Catholic religion. Mary was suspected of being an accom- plice in this plot, and, although it was never proved, she was executed in 1587. Philip II. was at this time King of Spain, a bigoted Catholic. He had allied himself to Catharine de Modicis, mother of Charles IX. of France, for the sup. pression of Protestantism. She provoked the insurrection of Bartholomew, and Philip established the Inquisition in Flanders, over which he had sovereignty. This caused an insurrection, Philip, therefore, sent a General, Duke of Alva, a man as unprincipled and heartless and cruel as it is possible for human nature to become, to overthrow the Protestant cause in the Netherlands. Alva boasted, it is said, at having caused the d6ath at the hands of the executioner of 18,000 per- sons. Elizabeth of England aided the Protestants in the Netherlands, and this pro- voked the anger of Philip II. He was also greatly incensed at the piracies of Sir Francis Drakej which were sanctioned by the English Government. He therefore declared war with England, and made ready what was called the "Invincible Ar- mada," of 130 ships, manned by the noblest troops of Spain. The English collected FRANCE. His first act was the edict of Nantes, by whicli the Huguenots were per- mitted to live quietly and undisturbed in their homes, to exercise freely their religious duties except in the court, in the army, and within five leagues of Paris They were eligible to all pub- lic offices, and the pei'secutions against them ceased. Henry turned his attention to the arts of peace, the happiness of his sub- jects, and the prosperity of his king- dom. No country could have been in a more wretched condition than France when he came to the throne. The crown was loaded with debts and pen- sions, the whole country desolated, the common people poor and miserable, and the nobility unjust and cruel. Henry had a sound head and a bold heart, and his minister, the famous Sully, was equally active and zealous. Under the able administration of Sully, the treasury was replenished and the people found their burdens lightened. In five years Sully's prudence had paid all the debts of the crown, augmented the revenue, and placed $4,000,000 in the treasury, and yet he had con- siderably reduced the taxes. Henry introdiiced the culture and manufac- ture of silk with so much success that before his death he had the satisfaction to see it not only supply home con- sumption, but bring more money into 48 ENGLAND. 191 ships manned by 17,400 seamen. Philip, wlio expected to be victorious, was doomed to disappointment. ' Storms destroyed what were not ruined in battle, so that only 50 of his ships returned to Spain. Philip then aided the Catholics in Ireland, in a rebellion against Elizabeth, and a war of six years was the result, and Elizabeth was finally victorious. Elizabeth had at first sent her favorite, the Earl of Essex, to subdue the Irish. He was not successful, and returned to England without permission from the queen. This gave rise to a diflBculty between them, which ended in his execu- tion. His death was a source of regret and remorse to the queen, and she lived only two years afterwards. She died in 1603, seventy years of age, having reigned forty-five years. PRANCE. the kingdom than any former staple. He also established the manufacture of linen and tapestry with great success. He was a good king, and France ha& always been proud of him. Yet he suffered death by violence. A man by the name of Ravaillac stabbed him while he was sitting in his coach, which had been stopped by some obstacle in the street (1610). Progeess of Society from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Century. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the people of England, France and Germany had come into possession of some of the conveniences of life ; yet they were enjoying what might in this day be considered barely the essentials to a comfortable existence. People no sooner possessed the conveniences of life than they began to reach after its elegancies. About the time of the 14tli century, such a taste became general throughout Europe. The inhabitants of Italy, who carried on trade with India, introduced into their own country manufactures of various kinds, and carried them on with great success. In the manufacture of silk they made such rapid progress that about the middle of the 14th century a thousand citizens of Genoa appeared in one procession, clad in robes of silk. Many new arts were attempted by them, such as taking the imi)ression from engravings on plates of copper ; the manufacture of crystal glass for mirrors ; of paper made from linen rags, and of earthenware in imitation of porcelain. The inventioil of the mariner's compass led to the dis- covery of America, and the islands in the Western Atlantic, and thus nations were brought nearer together, and knowl- edge was more easily diifused. Commerce was not confined to Italy. Flanders had long been famous for the manufacture of linen and woolen cloths. All the wool of England, before the reign of Edward III., except a small quantity wrought into coarse cloths for home consumption, was sold to the Flemings or Lombards, and manufactured by them. It was not till the middle of the 15th century that the English were capable of manufacturing cloths for foreign markets. As commerce flourished, just in that proportion did people adopt the manners of the polished nations with whom they dealt. Towards the end of the 13th century, painting and architecture were revived in Italy, and during the centuries fol- lowing, these arts were carried to perfection, even before the rest of Eurojje, except the Flemings, was furnished with the necessary arts. Ghent, Venice and Genoa were splendid cities, adorned with stately dwellings, while the inhabitants of London and Paris lived in wretched cottages, without so much as a chimney to carry up the smoke. The fire was made on the ground, in the middle of the apartment, and all the fiimily sat round it, like the Laplanders in their huts. 49 This rude method of living continued to be common in considerable towns, both in France and England, as late as the beginning of the 16th century. The erection of schools under lay preceptors was the first permanent step towards the revival of letters. The schools erected by Charlemagne and Alfred the Great were confined mostly to monasteries and churches, and monks were almost the only instructors of youth. The invention of printing, about the middle of the 15th century, gave a fresh impetus to knowledge. Literature op the Sixteenth Century. ENGLAND. Poets. — Thomas More, Wyat, Hey- ward (dramatic), Fletcher, Spenser, Southwell, Chapman. Divines. — Tyudale, Latimer, Cran- raer, Cavendish. Prose Writers. — Sir Philip Sidney, Richard Hooker, Roger Ascham. FRANCE. Pi'ose Writers. — Rabelais, Mon- taigne, Charron, Marot. John Calvin, one of the leaders of the Reformation, during this ceutury, M'as born at Noyon, in France, and was compelled to leave his home during the persecutions of the Protestants under Francis I. He died in Geneva. GERJIANY. The 16th^ century opens with the founding of the University of Witten- berg (1502), and inaugurates, along with the Reformation, a new era in literature, Ity Luther's translation of the Bil)le. This translation M'as ren- dered into German so beautiful and harmonious that, even at the present day, it is considered a luodel of elegant expression. Luthers finest hymns have become classical. Of this period are — Theologiaris. — Weiss, Zwingle, Me- lancthon. Historians. — Frank, Munster. ScientLsts. — Copernicus, Fuchs, Ges- ner, Agricola. Translations from the Italian poets appeared at this time, and Italian writers were becoming known in Ger- many. CHAPTER VII. Seventeenth Century. ENGLAND. sovereigns. Elizabeth . . 1558 to 1603 James 1 1603 Charles 1 1625 Charles 11. . . . 1649 James II 1685 William and Marj . 1689 to 1702 James VI. of Scotland, began his reign as James I. of England, in 1603. He inherited the crown as grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. Margaret married James V. of Scot- land. Her daughter, Mary Stuart, married the Dauphin of France, and became the mother of James VI. of Scotland, and I. of England. Elizabeth also named .James as her heir. Eng- land and Scotland were thus brought under one government, and this put an end to the wars between them, though it was a long time before they could live together as brethren. James was a man of great learning, though with little energy of character. He claimed unlimited power and surrounded him- self with his Scotch favorites, which made him unpopular with his subjects. Although a Catholic, yet his Catholic subjects were disappointed that he PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Henry IV. . . 1589 to 1610 Louis XIII. . . . 1610 Louis XIV. . . 1643 to 1715 Henry IV. was assassinated in 1610. His son, Louis XIII. , inherited the throne. During his minority the coun- try was governed by Mary de Medicis as regent. All the political measures of Henry IV. and his able minister were disre- garded. Sully, finding he could be of no use, returned to private life. Mary de Medicis, when she married Henry IV., brought with her from Italy a lady, who soon after married an Italian courtier named Concini. This couple, botli ambitious and intriguing, acquired great influence over the queen regent. Concini was made marshal of France, with the title of Marshal D'Ancre. The marshal was haughty and repul- sive, and his enemies increased daily. Through his influence the ministry was changed, and Richelieu was made secretary of state. When Richelieu came into power great disorder prevailed. Marshal D 'Ancre, who had aided to GERMA.NY. SOVEREIGNS Rodolph II. 1576 to 1612 Matthias . 1612 Ferdinand 11- 1619 Ferdinand III. . 1637 Leopold I. 1658 to 1705 Rodolph II. died in 1612, and the empire fell to Matthias, Ins brother. Matthias had been very indulgent to the Protestants, though at heart, he was their enemy. He favoi-ed them for his own political aggrandizement. No sooner was he placed upon the throne than he was plied with peti- tions from botli Catholics and Pro- testants. Matthias, no longer needing to mask his designs under the guise of friendship, now convinced the Pro- testants that he was their master. Meanwhile, finding himself advancing in years, in order to strengthen his au- thority, he caused his cousin, Ferdinand de Gratz, whom he intended as his suc- cessor in the empire, to be elected king of Bohemia and also acknowledged in Hungary, neither he nor his lirothers having any children. This compact alarmed the evangelical union, and oc- casioned a revolt in Bohemia and Hungary. 51 ENGLAND. favored the Protestant cause, and a conspiracy was formed to destroy the king and all the members of Parlia- ment. King James having reason to suspect some plot against his life, put parties on the watch. They found a man, Guy Fawkes, in the cellar of the Parliament House, where 36 barrels of gunpowder had been concealed. Fawkes gave the names of 80 of his associates and they were all put to death. This conspiracy was called the " Gunpowder Plot." During the reign of James, Sir Wal- ter Raleigh was brought to trial for conspiring with Cobham and others to place Lady Arabella Stewart on the throne. Raleigh was condemned, but the sentence was respited and he lay twelve years in the Tower. In 1616 he was released and en- trusted with a squadron sent against Guiana. The enterprise failed, and Raleigh's oldest son was killed. When Raleigh returned to England he was arrested and sent to the Tower again. He endeavored to escape, but was taken and sentenced to death. vVas ex- ecuted in 1618. James became so suspicious of his own religious party after the plot to destroy him, that he allowed them but few privileges. No Catholic was per- mitted to appear in London, or within ten miles of it, or to remove more than FRANCE. bring about these evils, was finally put to death by parties employed by the king. The marshal's wife was also ex- ecuted, and his mother, who had been instrumental in bring them into the country, was banished. Richelieu brought about a reconcilia- tion between the king and his mother, in return for which he was made car- dinal. Richelieu possessed very great , talents and unbounded ambition, and soon acquii-ed more power than the king him.=elf. He had before him three great ob- jects, which urged him on to activity. These were the suppression of the Huguenots, the humiliation of the barons, and the reduction of the power of Austria. He laid siege to La Rochelle, a city on the Bay of Biscay, the stronghold of the Huguenots. He succeeded in conquering it by cutting of its commu- nication with the sea, and, being wasted by famine, the people were obliged to surrender. 15,000 people perished during the siege. He succeeded also in humbling the nobility and the House of Austria. He now turned his attention to the internal affairs of the kingdom. He created a navy, protected commerce and industry, and formed the French Academy. Richelieu was more power- ful than any subject before or since his time in France. GERMANY. The Hungarians were appeased, but the Bohemians, whose privileges had been invaded, were joined by the Protestants of Silesia, Moravia, and Upper Austria. Thus a furious civil war was inaugurated, which desolated Germany during thirty years, and was not extinguished till the peace of West- phalia. Amid these disorders Matthias died, without being able to divine the result of the struggle, or who would follow him in the imperial dignity. Ferdinand de Gratz was, however, raised to the vacant throne as Matthias had desired. The election of Ferdinand, instead of intimidating the Bohemians, roused them to more vigorous measures. They formally deposed him and chose Fred- eric v., Elector of Palatine, for their king. Fi-ederic unwisely accepted the crown, in spite of the remonstrances of James L of England, his father-in- law, who used all his influence in per- suading him to reject it, and assured him that he would give no assistance in such a rash step. Frederic was sec- onded by all the Protestant princes ex- cept the Elector of Saxony, was also supported by 2,400 English volunteers which James had permitted to embark in a cause of which he disapproved, and by a body of 8,000 men under Henry of Nassau. 52 ENGLAND. five miles from his home witliout spe- cial license. No Catholic was permitted to prac- tice law, physic or surgery, to act as clerk or ofBcer in any public depart- ment, or to act as executor or guar- dian. Every Catholic who refused to have his child baptised by a Protestant was obliged to pay for each omission jGIOO. Every person keeping a Catholic ser- vant was obliged to pay £10 a month to the government. Besides, every non-conformist was an outlaw in estimation. His house might be broken open, his property destroyed, and his horses and arms taken from him. This unjust persecution was de- fended, by many of the greatest jurists, divines and statesmen in England. A marriage was projected Ijetween Charles, Prince of Wales and the In- fanta of Spain, to arrange which the Duke of Buckingham had been sent to Court of Madrid. The king was bitterly opposed in this plan. It became so odious to the nation that Buckingham, to save his popularity, broke off the negotiations. An alliance was made with France, and Charles married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. James I. died (1625), after a reign of twenty-two years, and his son came to the throne as Charles I. FRANCE. Richelieu controlled tlie king, the queen mother, the brothers of the king, and all the royal family. He was vir- tually emperor of France, and Louis could not have reigned without him. In the midst of his splendor he died, and Louis XIII. survived him only a few month. Louis XIV. ascended the throne of France in 1643, under the regency of his mother Anne of Austria, he being only five years old. The queen mother chose for her minister Mazarin, whose consummate abilities qualified him to be tlie successor of Richelieu. He pursued the same ends, but by different methods, and the enemies of Richelieu were also the enemies of Mazarin, and to the num- ber he added many more, who were great and powerful and who sought his destruction. The jealously felt for Mazarin's power by the nobility, the unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the finances and the oppression of new taxes gave rise to a civil war. Several arrests were made which so ir- ritated the Parisians that they ai-ose in ' all parts of the town, barricaded the streets, killed some of the soldiers, and continued these acts of violence till the prisoners were released. Mazarin, how- I ever, restored quiet, and in the end by his successful policy gained great honor. From this time till his death in 1661 ' GERMANY. Ferdinand was assisted by the Cath- olic princes, by the King of Spain, and the Archduke Albert, and was. more than a match for his enemies. Frede- ric's troops were totally routed, and he himself was degraded from the electoral dignity, which was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria. Ferdinand had at one time aided the king of Poland in a war against Gus- tavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, and now was his time for revenge. Gusta- vus Adolphus was a Protestant. He aimed to humble Austria. He secured allies from Richelieu in France, also from Charles I. of England. The brave Wallcnstein commanded the imperial forces. Gustavus Adolphus gave him battle at Lutzen. During the engagement the King of Sweden was shot by an imperial cavalier, who had approached him unobserved. Falling into the hands of the imperialigts, he was asked who he was. "I am the King of Sweden, and seal, with my blood, the Protestant religion and liberties of Germany." The Swedes came off victorious in this battle, and shortly after Ferdinand II. died (1619), and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. His accession made very little altera- tion in the war. The war was still continued by the Swedes, under the minority of Queen Christina, daughter and heiress of Gustavus Adolphus. 53 ENGLAND. Charles had a more troublesome reign than his father. There were now many Puritans in England. These jjeo- ple were opposed to the Church of England, and to all those ceremonies which had not been cast off when the Roman Catholic religion was abol- ished. They had also by this time begun to think that kings had too much power. They were determined that henceforth the king should not i-eign for his own pleasure ; but for the good of the peo- ple. In the early part of his reign Charles oppressed the Puritans. He would not allow the ministers to preach, or the people to meet for worship, and though he did not dare to burn them as Mary did, he caused them great suffering. Many crossed the ocean and sought reli- gious freedom in New England. John Pym, John Hampden, and Oliver Crom- well were once on the point of leaving, but were prevented by the king, who by that act kept in his kingdom those who eventually wrought his ruin. Charles came to the throne with the same absurb notion relative to the royal prerogative as his father, and was resolved to sustain the absolute power of the crown. He, was however, in- volved in debt, had great needs and was dependent on the House of Com- mons for means to carry on his wars. The Commons refused to vote the sup- plies demanded by the king. The FRANCE. he held sway over the destinies of France. He left at his death an im- mense fortune, and though he came to France an indigent foreigner, he mar- ried seven daughters to French noble- men, and left his nephew Duke of Nevers. Louis determined, on the death of Mazarin, to take the govern- ment into his own hands and command- ed the secretaries of state and chan- cellor to sign no paper but by his per- mission. Louis had spent his life to this period in idleness and extravagance, but he now roused up to ambitious projects. Like most kings he resorted to war as the legitimate method of employing his energies. Having a pique against Holland, he secured the alliance of England in making war upon that territory. He appeared on the banks of the Rhine with an army of 120,000 men, armed with bayonets in every musket. The Hollanders could raise only 30,- 000 to oppose this prodigious army. Prince William, of Orange, placed him- self at their head. Never in the history of war had energies been put forth with more determined resistance than by the Hollanders in this extremity. They opened their dykes and over- flowed their villages and farms. Under their heroic leader, 22,000 men kept the vast army of the enemy at bay. Providence also assisted them. GERMANY. These wars continued until 1647. Sweden, notwithstanding the great success of her arms during eighteen years, was anxious for peace, and the young Queen Christina, so distinguished for her love of learning, was desirious of repose, that she might have leisure to pursue her favorite studies. France had engaged in these wars and continued hostilities sometime lon- ger against the Spanish branch of the House of Austria. She too concluded it was best to make peace with a foreign power, as she was threatened with trouble at home. In consequence of this favorable state of feeling, the Peace of Wesphalia was signed at Mnnster on October 24th, 1648. The dominions of France, Sweden, and Germany were defined in this treaty, and the independence of the United Provinces not only acknowl- edged, but the Republic of Switzerland was declared a free and sovereign state. It was also agreed that the imperial chamber should consist of twenty-four Protestant members and twenty-six Catholics, that the emperor should re- ceive six Protestants into his council, and that an equal number of Protestant and Catholic deputies should be chosen for the Diet, except when it was con- voked for a cause that concerned one of the two religions. All the deputies should be Protest- 54 GERMANr. ants if it related to the Protestant, and Catholics if it concerned the Catholics only. On the death of Ferdinand III., 1658, Leopold I., King of Hungary, was elected to the throne. He had troubles with foreign powers, and it was at this time that Louis XIV. invaded Ger. many. Leopold, however, found means to render the crown hereditary in his family. The 18th century opens with Leopold I. on the throne. ENGLAND. king, therefore, levied taxes, suspended the penal laws of the Catholics and took such steps as caused the ordinary administration of justice to lie neglect- ed. Parliament remonstrated, and op- posed his attempt to absolute power. He finally became so incensed that he dissolved that 1)ody. A second Parliament was as far from acceding to his wishes as the first had been, and that, too, was speedily dis- solved. The third Parliament, called in 1628, demanded the king's sanction to the claims and rights of the English people as given in the Magna Charta. Charles signed the petition they had presented him, but shortly violated the obligations it had imposed, and in a passion dissolved Parliament, resolved never to call another. For ten years he ruled without one. The people were taxed without their consent to bring money into the treasury. These ten years were marked with injustice and misrule. Fines, im- prisonments, and confiscations, every extortion by which money could be procured, was resorted to. At length Charles was shut up to the necessity of calling another Parliament in order to obtain relief. This Parliament immediatelyl set to work to correct abuses. It declared itself indissoluble, and in turn began to en- croach on the king's prerogatives. At length Charles, irritated beyond endurance, caused five members of the Commons to be impeached. Matters grew worse and difficulties thickened, till the quarrel could only be settled by force of arms. FRANCE. The fleets of the French were dis- persed by storms, and their armies driven back by the timely inundation. The states of Europe came to the res- cue of the little republic. Charles II. of England had already been bought over liy Louis, but the Emperor of Germany and the King of Spain declared war against France. These wars continued four years, till Louis was glad to make peace. He had not succeeded in reducing Hol- land, but he had gained some advan- tages. For the . following nine years Europe enjoyed the luxury of peace. During this time, under Colbert, the able minister of finance in France, tiie streets of Paris were lighted and the city much embellished. The Royal Academy was erected, also the Royal Observa- tory, the Hotel of the Invalids, the palaces of the Tuilleries and Versailles. Colbert encouraged all forms of industry and protected the Huguenots. Louis's wife, Maria Theresa, oldest daughter of Philip of Spain, having died, he married the widow of the celebrated comic writer, Scarron, on whom he con- ferred the title of Madame de Maintenon. Under her influence, the king re- voked the famous edict of Nantes, forbade all exercise of the Protestant worship, and banished from the kingdom all clergy who would not renounce their faith. He then closed the ports against the fugitives, and sent to the galleys those who attempted to escape, and confiscated their property. His treatment of these people provoked another war of foreign powers against Louis. Louis, in his old age, saw his kingdom reduced to great distress. He reigned seventy-two years, and the French people grew tired of their grand monarch. He was still on the throne when the 18th century opened. 55 ENGLAND. A civil war broke out. Charles, on one side, was sustained by the clergy of the English Church and many of the Lords of England and Scotland. Parliament was supported chiefly by tlie mechanics, tradesmen, and the common people. The people were divided into two factions called Cavaliers and Roundheads. The leader of the Roundheads was Oliver Cromwell, a man who had risen from an obscure position, and who was to have great influence over the destiny of the unfortunate Charles. This civil war began in 1642. In 1045 the forces of the king were defeated at Naseby, a village in Northamptonshire. Charles placedhimself under the protection of the Scots, who delivered him up to Parliament. Parliament brought the king to trial as a traitor. He was declared guilty and sen- tenced to lose his head. He was executed in front of his palace, at Whitehall, in January, 1649. The English throne was now empty. The king's son, Charles, who by right would have been king, had fled from the country during the trou- bles. There was no king, no lords, no bishops, nothing but the lower House of Parliament, composed of the meanest and most ignorant of the citizens, with Cromwell at tlieir head. All the real power was possessed by Cromwell himself The principal man in this Parliament was called " Praise-God Barebone," hence this assembly was called "Praise-God Barebone Parliament." The Praise-God Barebone Parliament did not last long. At the end of five months they desired to go about their usual business, and requested Cromwell to take the government into his own hands. This was just what he wanted. Cromwell was offered the crown, which he refused, Ijut he was inaugurated Protector of the Com- monwealth, with great ceremony at Westminster, 1653. Cromwell made himself both feared and respected, not only in England, but among foreign nations. He had very bitter enemies, and always wore armor under his clothes, and regarded every stranger with suspicion. He never returned from any place by the same road he went, and seldom slept three successive nights in the same chamber. Cromwell died in 1658. His son was his successor in the Protectorate, but finding popular favor against him, and not having the resolution to de- fend his position, he willingly resigned. The government then became unsettled, and the people began to desire an he- reditary sovereign. Charles II. was therefore invited to return. He entered England in triumph, on the 29th of May, 1660, which was his birthday. Charles II, was a vicious man, and surrounded himself with wicked and profligate com- panions. His first act was one of revenge. The bodies of Cromwell and two others, who had been instrumental in his father's death, were exhumed, dragged to a place of execution, and after hanging for some time, buried under the gallows. He was received with joy by the English, but in time his indolent and wasteful course gave offence. When needing money to prosecute his pleasures he procured it in any unlawful manner. He accepted a bribe of .£200,000 from Louis XIV. of France, on condition of giving his aid in the aggressive wars of Louis against the liberties of Europe. He mar- ried, against his inclinations, Catharine, the Infanta of Portugal, whose portion amounted to £300,000, together with posses- sions in Africa and the East Indies. He carried on war without cause with Holland, other than the hope of large acqui- sitions. One Titus Oates, hoping to advance his own interest, revealed what he pretended was a plot by which the Protes- tants in England were to be massacred by the Catholics. This gave rise to a persecution of the Catholics, and very many noble citizens lost their lives on the scaffold. In 1655 there was a great plague in London, of which nearly 100,000 persons died. The next year a fire laid in ashes two'thirds of the city, leaving 200,000 people destitute, Charles II., before his death, ruled with absolute power, without the aid of a Parliament. He died suddenly in 1685, and his brother, Duke of York, succeeded him as James II, 56 The reign of James was only four years, but long enough to be productive of discord and bloodshed. He attempted to supplant the Protestant religion with the Catholic, and thus incurred the hatred of his subjects. The Duke of Monmouth, son of Charles II., took advantage of the dislike of the people to the king, and hoped through the discontent of his sub- jects to elevate himself to the throne. He was defeated and beheaded, and his accomplices hung. The people of Eng- land soon tired of James II., and sent an invitation to William, Prince of Orange, who had married the king's oldest daughter, to come over and aid them in recovering the liberties which had been taken from them by the king. In No- vember 1688, William landed in England with an army of 14,000. The whole country flocked to the standard of Wil- liam. The nobility, clergy, officers, and even his own servants, deserted James. His daughter, Anne, who had married George, Prince of Denmark, also left him and joined the popular side. " God help me," cried the poor king, " my own children have forsaken me." He finally fled to France where he was received with hearty cheer. The throne now being vacant the people looked about for a successor. William of Orange, had no right to the throne, save what might come to him as the husband of James's daughter. After much debate, it was decided that the Prince and Princess of Orange should reign conjointly, the prince only administering the affairs of the government (1689). During the reign of William and Mary an expedition, headed by the king, was sent out to reduce Ireland. William was an avowed Protestant, and the Irish people were strongly attached to James on account of his religion. They re- garded him as a martyr to his faith, and looked upon his cause as their own. James went from France to Ireland and raised a large but ill-disciplined army, in opposition to William's reign. Hence the occasion of William's entrance with an army into that country. William also went to war with France, which war continued during the greater part of his reign. He died in the 13th year of his reign, from the effects produced by a fracture of his collar-bone. He is on the throne when the 18th century opens. Most Prominent Literary Characters of the Seventeenth Century. ENGLAND. Poets. — Shakspeare, Milton, Donne, Cowley, Leighton, Dryden. Divines. — Jeremy Taylor, George Herbert, Chilliugworth, Thos. Fuller, Collier, Bunyan, Baxter. Philosophers and Prose Writers. — Berkley, Ben Jonson, Bacon, Locke, Sir Walter Raleigh, Joseph Hall, New- ton, Boyle. The continental artists, Holbein, Ru- bens, and Vandyke — Holbein a Swiss painter, Vandyke a native of Antwerp, and Rubens a Flemish artist — practised in England during this century, princi- pally in the department of portraiture. No school of painting was, however, founded in England till the time of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in the next century. FRANCE. Poets. — Moliere, Dramatic. Racine, " Corneille, " Dancoiu't, Boileau, Dufresney. Philosophers. — Bayle, Malherbe, Des Cartes, Malebi-anche, Rochefoucault. Divines. — Bossuet, Flechier, Pascal, Massillon, Fenelon. Historians. — Fleury, Bossuet. GERMANY. At the exjjiratiou of the 15th cen- tury few of the great scholars were left,, and in the early part of the 1 7th cen- tury classical culture declined. The numerous schools and universi- ties which had sprung up were injured by scholastic strifes. Most of the aspi- rants to poetic fame were graduates of the universities, A new school of poe- try was established in this century by Martin Opitos. Paul Fleming and Simon Dach were followers of this school. Novelists. — Klephausen, Lohenstein, Ziegler. Theologians. — Speuer, Reimarius. Seientists.—Ke-pler, Arnold Gottfried,, Leibnitz, Pufendorf. CHAPTER VIII. Eighteenth Century. ENGLAND. SOVEREIGNS. William and Mary . 1689 to 1702 Anue 1702 George 1 1714 George II 1727 George III. . .1760 to 1820 William of Orange died ft-om the effects of an accident, by which his collar-bone was broken. Anne, sister of Mary, succeeded to the throne. She was thirty-eight years of age, and remarkable for her attach- ment to the Church of England. The reign of this queen was of great advantage to England. A short time after her accession she declared war against France. The Duke of Marl- borough, who was placed in command of the English forces, gained many splendid victories over the French. The greater portion of her reign was filled with battles on the continent. Queen Anne reigned twelve years; died, 1714. She was the last of the Stuart family who were sovereigns. The nearest Protestant heir to the throne, after Anne, was the Elector of Hanover, a German prince, whose mo- ther was granddaughter of James I. PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Louis XIV. . . 1643 to 1715 Louis XV 1715 Louis XVL . . . 1774 Republic . . 1792 to 1804 Louis XIV. died in 1715, and his grandson, Louis XV., a child of five years of age, succeeded to the throne. The Duke of Orleans, a pro- fligate and wicked man, became regent. The duke was was grand-nephew of Louis XIV., and, in case of the king's death, would be the next king. The reign of Louis XIV had not prepared the way for a happy and successful reign for his successor. He left behind him a debt of $400,000,000, the inter- est of which was nine times the yearly revenues of the state ; he left an empu'e that had been distracted by the misrule of a bigoted Catholic, who oppressed his subjects if they dared to think freely on religious subjects ; and he left a people made unhappy and discon- tented through the selfishness of their sovereign. The Duke of Orleans came into power while Sir Robert Walpole was Prime Minister of England. Both GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Leopold I. . . 1658 to 1705 Joseph 1 1705 Charles VI 1711 Charles VII., of Bavaria, , 1742 Francis L, of Lorraine, . . 1745 Maria Theresa . . . 1745 Joseph II 1765 Leopold II. ... 1790 Francis II. . . 1792 to 1806 Leopold I. died in 1705, having reigned 46 years. He was a man of pure morals, but narrow and bigoted. He was succeeded by his son, Joseph I., who reigned only six years, during which time he labored to restore tran- quillity to his country. He died of small-pox in 1711. He was succeeded by his brother Charles, under the title of Charles VI. It was shortly after his accession that Austria became again the preponder- ating power in Europe. The treaty of Utrecht restored peace to the wearied powers who had been contending in the great war of the Spanish succes- sion. This treaty extinguished the fears that had been entertained, when he 58 ENGLAND. He was fifty-four years of age, and unacquainted with the English lan- guage, and utterly ignorant of the re- quisites for the successful maintenance of the English government. Parliament was, however, determined to have a Protestant king, so the Ger- man elector was placed on the throne, with the title of George I. During the reign of Queen Anne, Prince James Frederic Edward Stuart, only son of James II., called the Pre- tender, vainly attempted to get a foot- hold in Scotland as heir to the English crown. He had sjient his youth at St. Germaius, the palace which Louis XIV. of France had allowed his father to enjoy. He appeared again during the reign of George I., and with arms and money supplied by the French mon- arch, landed in Scotland determined to prosecute his claim. This insurrection was however suppressed, and it was not renewed for thirty years. George was not a popular sovereign. He cared little for the welfare of his English subjects, and seemed to look ujjon England as a land to be plun- dered. He did not feel at home in the palace of the English kings, and spent much of his time in his native country, leaving his prime minister to manage the affairs of the government. The ministry contained such men as Townshend, Stanhope, Cowper, Sunder- PRANCE. countries were in large measure depen- dent on the efforts of their ministers to bring them safely through the difficul- ties with which they were burdened. England, to redeem herself from financial embarrassment, resorted to a huge speculation in what was ' after- wards called the "South Sea Bub- ble." France, in like manner, was brought to the verge of ruin by the " Mississippi Company." To get rid of the national debt, the regent engaged in a scheme, at the head of which was a Scotch financier named John Law. Law was a private banker, and pi'oposed to increase the paper currency of the country, and in this way supersede the necessity of using the precious metaLs. The regent, never doubting Law's ability as a skillful financier, made his^bauk the royal bank of France. The notes issued were to be secured by shares in the Mississippi Company. For a year, speculation was rife in France. Imagination, inflamed by the prospect of great gain from a scheme, the basis of which was seem- ingly unlimited in extent, led to unlim- ited purchases in the company's stock. Paper was preferred to gold, as the capital of the huge coi-poration was fixed at $100,000,000. The excitement gave rise to emigration, and a city was I founded in Louisiana, deriving its name from the regent who favored this won- I GERMANY. came into power, that the crowns of Spain and Austria would be united in one person. By this treaty Spain remained to Philip of Anjou, on his re- nouncing forever all right of succession to the throne of France ; the Austrian emperor received Naples, Milan, Sar- dinia, and Spanish Flanders, in lieu of Spain. Louis XIV. retained the fort- ress of Lisle and French Flanders, and the Rhine was acknowledged as the frontier on the side of Alsace. Charles VI., having no male issue, succeeded in securing the throne for his daughter, Maria Theresa, by a law- called the "Pragmatic Sanction," which conferred on her all his vast posses- sions. This, however did not give her peaceful possession of the crown. His death had no sooner taken place, than claimants appeared who were ready to enforce their right by a resort to arms. Among these was Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, whose claim was advocated by France. Two French armies, after making conquests in the empire, threatened Vienna, and Maria Theresa was obliged to flee. A Diet which met in 1742, placed the crown on the head of Charles Albert, as Charles VII. The death of Charles in 1745 should have ended the war, but the hatred engendered between the parties pre- vented the restoration of peace. Maria 59 ENGLAND. land and others. Walpole had at the opening of the administration, simply held the office of paymaster-general, but liis superior ability soon elevated him to the iirst rank. Under him Eng- land rapidly advanced in commercial prosperity. Walpole was a strong man politically, and yet, in many respects, he waB a weak one morally. He sometimes sacrificed principle to in- terest, and did not equal others in the ministry in integrity of character. Yet he saved England from bankruptcy by regulating tlie disordered finances, after the wild speculations occasioned by the South Sea Bubble. George I. had domestic trials. He suspected his queen, daughter of the Duke of Zell, of infidelity, and, after having her sup- posed lover put to death, had her im- prisoned. She remained a prisoner thirty-two years. He quarreled with his son on the subject of politics, and also because of his son's attachment to his imprisoned mother. He was an un- natural father, a cruel husband, and yet not a bad sovereign. George I. died while on a visit to Hanover, June, 1727, His son George (Augustus) ascended the throne as George II. During this reign the Pretender made another attempt to secure the English crown. He marched into England with an army of Scotch moun- taineers ; but he was forced to flee, and PRANCE. derful scheme. The company had counted upon a monopoly of trade with Louisiana and Canada. But the bubble exploded ; tliough a large part of the national debt liad been paid off. Those who had thought themselves on the high road to fortune, found, to their sorrow, they had sown to the wind and reaped the whii-lwind. The financier Law was obliged to flee, so great was the bitterness felt towards him by all classes. This affair caused a great prejudice against the 'government, and the duke was suspected of having en- gaged in a fraud to cheat the people. In 1823 Louis assumed the govern- ment, and Orleans resigned. The first minister after he came of age was the Duke of Bourbon, a man unequal to the position. Cardinal Fleury succeeded Bourbon. He had been preceptor of the king, and was a man of gentleness and suavity, but very timid, yet he was superior to the intrigues of the court. His admin- istration was on the whole a peaceful one — the only controversy of import- ance being one between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, a controversy growing out of the disputed questions relating to grace and free-will. Fleury sided with the former. It resulted in the expulsion, of the Jesuits from Italy and France. On the death of Fleury in 1826, Louis took on himself the management of aflairs GERMANY. Theresa's position as empress required all the diplomatic skill and energy she could summon. Her army was small, the treasury empty, and her people were needy. She was harassed also by the movements of Frederic the Great, of Prussia, who invaded Silesia and suc- ceeded in adding it to his own do- minions. The empress was no weak woman, ready to succumb at the first difficulty. She immediately secured the aid of Russia, France, Sweden and Norway, and with an army of 600,000 made ready to overthrow the Prussian mon- arch. The war continued seven years, and in the end was favorable to the Prussian king, though in some respects disastrous. Maria Theresa married (1745) Fran- cis Stephen, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who was co-regent with her in the ad- ministration of the government. Francis died shortly after the peace of Hubertsburg was signed, and his son Joseph II., succeeding to the throne, be- came co-regent with the empress. Joseph was a just man, but was not governed by his own good principles when, in 1764, he united with Austria and Prussia in the base dismemberment of Poland. Maria Theresa, Empress of Germany and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia and Archduchess of Austria, died in 60 ENGLAND. many of his adherents were hanged or beheaded. The victors inflicted the greatest cruelties on these invaders. Castles were destroyed, herds and flocks were driven away and the peo- ple left to starve. A reward of thirty pounds was offered for the head of the offender. It was during the reign of George II. that Maria Theresa, Queen of Germany and Hungary, when her claim to the crown of Germany was disputed by Charles Albert, and when Frederick the Great at the same time made siege to some of her dominions, sought and obtained aid from England under her minister Pelham. The English were victorious over the French, who were opponents in the battle of Dettingen, but they were con- quered at the battle of Tonlenoye. In 1755 another war broke out between the English and French and many of the battles were fought in America, being provoked by the desire of each to obtain an ascendency on the American continent. The city of Que- bec and the Canadas were conquered by the English. During the later years of the reign of George II., William Pitt was Prime Minister of England. It was, in reality, Pitt's military abilities that planned and carried for- ward the operations on the Western Continent, and which secured to the English these and other victories. FRANCE. and declared war against Germany and Hungary. He also endeavored to restore his father-in-law, Stanislaus, to the throne of Poland. Louis XV. cared nothing for the welfare of his subjects, but sought his own selfish pleasure. He intrusted the most important state matters to the direction of un- worthy favorites, and committed to their keeping the greatest state secrets. Among these favorites was Madame de Pompadoiu", a woman given to luxury and self-indulgence, and devoid of prin- ciple, yet possessing great talent. She drew upon the treasury to in- dulge her extravagance till the state was greatly embarrassed. It was through the influence of Madame de Pompadour that the Jesuits were brought into trouble. The extravagance of Louis XIV., and the profligacy and wastefulness of Louis XV., opened the way to the French Revolution and caused the ruin of Louis XVI. Louis XVI. came to the throne in 1744, on the death of his grandfather, Louis XV. He was in his twentieth year. He found a court abandoned to profligacy, and the coun- try burdened with enormous debt. His wife was an Austria princess, Marie Antoinette. Shortly after Louis was crowned the American revolution broke out. The GERMANY. 1780, leaving all her extensive domin- ions to her son. Joseph was a good emperor, and labored for the welfare of his subjects. His virtues exceeded his faults and he was greatly beloved. His humane course and the glorious actions he performed have justly pre- served his name among the great and good rulers of the earth. He adopted measures for the relief of the peasants of Austi-ian Poland ; also abolished the use of the torture. He died in 1790, and was succeeded hj his brother Leo- pold II. The French Revolution was now at- tracting the attention of all Europe and a conference was held at Pilnitz, between the Emperor, the King of Prussia and the Elector of Saxony. Leopold was induced to commence hostilities against France, but his de- signs were terminated by his death in 1792. Francis II. succeeded his father. At the instigation of the King of Prus- sia, he resolved to do his best to restore monarchy in France. This attempt led to the wars which subsequently, under Napoleon, brought defeat and loss to Austria. These wars were on the verge of their opening, under Francis II. of Ger- many and Bonaparte, at the close of the eighteenth century. 61 ENGLAND. When the news reached England of the reduction of Canada there was great rejoicing. Stocks rose, bells rang, and the English were triumphant on all sides. In the midst of these public demonstrations George II. died. He cannot be said to have been a good ruler. He left behind him no record of good deeds done for his subjects. His grandson, George III., followed him in 1760, in the 23d year of his age. In September 1761 he married Char- lotte Sophia, of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the head of a small but sovereign state in the Northwest of Germany. He could not marry a Catholic, and was therefore precluded from marrying into any of the great families of Europe. He had fifteen children, all but two of whom grew up. The new king deter- mined to be a king in fact as well as name, by adopting a system of govern- ment unlike his predecessors. To do this it was necessary that peace should be restored, though the war was very popular, and Pitt, the war minister, was in the height of his power. Mr. Pitt had observed that the Spanish had become extremely partial to the French, notwithstanding professions of neu- trality. He now discovered, by means of spies in foreign courts, that they had entered into a treaty with France (a treaty by the name of family compact), FRANCE. United States conquered in the struggle and declared themselves free and inde- pendent. The people of France took great interest in this war and lent their aid. They were beginning to think a republic better than a monarchy. The plebeians or common people felt the deficit in the treasury. Taxes became a burden, and while the rich and powerful, at the most, laid aside only luxury, the poor gave to the government what was needed for bread. The rage for public discussion became general, and assemblies of every kind were formed throughout the city. The national assembly was controlled by the people, and in the Palais Hoyal the court party held the most animated discussion. Aifairs daily verged toward a crisis. The court wished the king to take refuge in the midst of his army, but the king loved his people and refused to comply. Troops were how- ever collected around Versailles. A feast was given to the officers of some newly arrived regiments in the theatre of Chateau, a place generally reserved for great solemnities. In the midst of this noisy assembly appeared the king and queen, the queen carrying the dauphin in her arms. Their entrance was greeted with shouts of enthusiasm. The news of this banquet spread rapidly through Paris and produced the most violent excitement. The arrival of the regiments, the apprehension of plots against the people, and, more than all, a scarcity of provisions combined to occasion a fearful outlireak of passion. On October 5th a young girl traversed the streets, beating a drum, and shouting, " Bread ! Bread ! " This was a signal for a general outbreak. A crowd of women gathered around her, and the cry was " To Versailles, to Versailles." The mob swelled as it advanced. Lafayette held the furious mob in check for seven hours, but they at length reached Versailles, where their ap- proach had already spread consternation. Lafayette arrived with the national guard and succeeded in restoring tranquillity. He then retired to rest. In the dead of the night some stragglers found one of the gratings of the chateau open, and entered the royal abode. The alarm was given, and a struggle took place between the mob and the guard, many of whom fell, exclaiming, " Save the Queen." Marie Antoinette fled half dressed, and the mob entering her room pierced her bed with bayonets. Lafayette succeeded in clearing the castle of the mob at the expense of his own life. At the suggestion of Lafayette the king showed himself to the mob, and prom- ised to go to Paris, which they had desired. At noon the royal family set out for Paris, escorted liy the bleeding and dejected body-guard. Louis was con- 62 ENGLAND. and he was convinced it would not be long liefoi-e tliey declared war against England. Moved by tliose considerations, he proposed tliat some V)low of signal im- portance should be made in case Spain refused to give instant satisfaction. This proposal was strongly opposed by the other members of the cabinet, all of whom hated liim on account of his ascendency in Parliament, which super- seded the influence of the most wealthy and powerful families. Mr. Pitt and Earl Tem]ile were the only two mem- bers who favored the measure. They both resigned their places, the former as secretary of state, the other as lord privy-seal. That Mr. Pitt might not be suffered to retire from the jrablic without some mark of royal favor as well as national gratitude, a pension of £3,000 a year was settled upon him, and at tlie same time a title was con- ferred upon his wife, who was created Baroness Chatham. The experience of a few months showed that Pitt's suspicions were too well founded, for the conduct of Spain was such that England was compelled to declare war against her in January, 1762. This war was a series of suc- cesses on the part of England. Havana was captured, with a large part of tlie Island of Cuba, and the Philippines reduced. Treasure to the amount of FRANCE. ducted to the Tuilleries, which from this time liecame his palace and his prison. This was in October, 1789. In July of this same year the mob in Paris had torn down the Bastile. This was an old castle where the monarchs of France confined those who offended them. Many an unfortunate victim was confined in this prison never to see the light of day again. \Vhen once the Revolution had commenced and blood began to flow, the im- petuous people knew not where to stop. The royal family lived in the Tuilleries in a condition no way difierent from that of the other prisoners, and being con- stantly disturbed by rumors of insurrections and foreign wars. The National Asscm- hlj made a decree that the king should not remove more than twenty leagues from Paris, and that in case he left the kingdom and refused to return on the invita- tion of the Assembly, he should forfeit the throne. At that time clubs were a powerful medium for acting on the feelings of the populace, and they were re- sorted to. When the National Assembly transferred their sittings from Versailles to Paris, the members met in an old convent of the Jacobins, which gave its name to the Assembly. This was at first only a preparatory meeting, but, being de- sirous of acting on the multitude, it admitted associates who were only citizens. In becoming thus popular, the Jacobin club was abandoned by a part of its founders. Chapilier, Lafayette, La Rochefoucault, and others established one on tlie original plan, and Mirabeau shared their deliberations with them. Mirabeau, worn out with toil and excitement, died in a few days (1791). The death of this great man was a public calamity, since he had no successor in power and popu- larity. The public welfare was endangered at this time also, by the emigrations of the nobles, who were dissatisfied with the Revolution, and who were resolved to seek the intervention of foreign powers. The Emperor of Germany, the King of Prussia, and the Elector of Saxony met for conference, and Count D'Artois, brother of Louis XVI., attended this conference uninvited, and engaged these sovereigns to issue a declaration in favor of the rights of kings. Louis at this time made an efibrt to escape from captivity. He fled from Paris, accompanied by the queen and his children, but was discovered and brought })ack. This attempt caused excitement among the people, and much blood was shed. Assemblies and clubs met to little purpose. The party most favora- ble to the constitution were called Feuillants, a name derived from an old de- serted convent where they assembled. Among these were Dumas, Dupost and 63 ENGLAND. upwards of three millions sterling were taken from Spain. The American revolution, which oc- curred during the latter part of the 18th century, was brought about, we all know, by the oppression of the colo- nies by the English government, and it may be regarded as the harbinger of those revolutions which took place soon after in several of the continental states of Europe. It was during this reign that Ireland became the theatre of several con- spiracies, the design of which was to render it indepeadent. Their leaders acted in unison with the French, who made unsuccessful at- tempts to effect a landing in Ireland. At length, however, as a remedy for this mischief, the union of Ireland with Great Britain was effected, so that both kingdoms should have one and the same Parliament. George III. assumed the title of " King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " July, 1800. The succession of the crown, it was decided, should remain on its present basis, and the Churches of England and Ireland to be united into one church. George III. was on the throne at the beginning of the 19th century. FRANCE. others. Their adversaries were called Girondists, from Gironde, a department in France, the deputies of which were the leaders of this party. The orators of this club were Brissot, Condorcet, and Gaudet. There was a third party,less humane and more revolutionary than the Girondists. Among these were Robespierre, Dan ton, Desmoulins and others. In time the populace became uncontrollable. The foreign troops which had been placed on the frontier, led the people to be- lieve the country endangered. All citizens capable of bearing arms were enrolled, and everything indicated an approaching crisis. Robespierre and his comrades harangued the multitude and inflamed its madness. The leaders of the extreme democracy were Robespierre Danton and Marat. Through their influence affairs reached the crisis, and Louis XVI. was condemned to death. He died upon the scaffold, January 21 1793. He was thirty-nine years of age and had reigned nineteen and a half years, endeavoring to do good. He was the best and the weakest of monarchs. "He was, perhaps," as some writer has said, "the only king who had not even the love of power, and who united the qualities of a good king, the fear of God and the love of his people." France was now without a king, with no settled government, and with none within her borders who were powerful enough to quell at once the disordered condition of her people. The time which elapsed from the execution of Louis XVI. to the consulship of Napoleon, has been called a republic. How far it is de- serving of that name, must be judged from its history. In May, 1793, Charlotte Corday, a beautiful young girl, set out from Caen, resolved to punish Marat, who had been particularly busy in rousing the rabble, the dregs of the people, to in- surrection. She thought to save France by sacrificing herself. She gained ad- mittance to him, while he was in his bath, and while he was listening to the de- tails of some conspiracy, she stabbed Iiim to the heart. When she was guillotined a few days afterwards, a voice from the crowd exclaimed, "She is greater than Brutus." "I have killed," said she, "one man to save a hundred thousand." The close of the republic opens the nineteenth century. 64 Literature of the Sixteenth Century. ENGLAND-. Poets. — Pope, Thompson, Watts, Young, Akenside, Gray, Shenstone, Burns, Goldsmith, Cowper. Essayists. — Burke, Addison, Steele, Swift, Dr. Johnson, Walpole. Philosojjhers. — Berkeley, Boling- broke, Shaftesbury, Stewart. Divines. — Doddridge, Clarke, Wes- ley, Hervey, Butler, Sherlock. Novelists. — Goldsmith, Daniel Defoe, Fielding, Richardson. Historians. — Hume, Gibbon. FRANCE. The eighteenth century in France was an age of skepticism and infidelity. Literature became a means of convey- ing bold opinions or assaulting time- honored institutions. The whole age was swayed by four men of genius :-^— Voltaire, Rousseau, Moutesquieu, Buffon. Voltaire for half a century was king of public opinion. Philosophers. — Condillac, Condorcet, Mably, Helvetius. Novelists. — Le Sage, Bearmarcliais, Bernardin St. Pierre, Madame de Stael, Chateaubriand. This age was not poetical. GERMANY. This century opened with the estab- lishment of the Berlin Academy by Leibnitz. Prose Writers. — Gottsched, Rodmer, Breitinger, Gartner. Critics and Philosojihers. — Herder, Gessuer, Lessing, Kant, Fichte. Poets. — Lessing, Klopstock, Goethe,. Schiller, Wieland, Kleist. CHAPTER IX. Nineteenth Century. ENGLAND. sovereigns. George III. . . 1760 to 1820 George IV 1820 William IV. . . . 1830 Victoria 1837 The loss of America, with other troubles, drove George III. to madness. He became insane in 1788, and re- mained in that condition for several months. He had another attack in 1805. In 1806, William Pitt, the Prime Minister, died, and was followed by Lord Grenville. In 1810 Princess Amelia, the king's youngest and favorite daughter, died. The king's anxiety during her illness brought on another fit of insanity, from which he never recovered. George, Prince of Wales, became regent during this period of his father's reign, which lasted nine years longer. In 1812 England was again involved in war with the United States, originating in the enforced claim of England to the right of searching American vessels, and taking therefrom any sailors whom she chose to suspect were British sub- jects. This war lasted two years and a half, when a treaty of peace was con- cluded. PRANCE. SOVEREIGNS. Republic, Napoleon, Emperor, Louis XVIII., . Charles X., . 1792 to 1804 1804 1814 1824 Louis Philippe I., King, 1830 to 1848 Louis Napoleon, Presi- dent, . . , 1848 to 1852 Louis Napoleon, Em- peror, . . . 1852 to 1870 Republic . 1870 After a time, the revolutionary ty- rants were divided into three parties. At the head of one was Robespierre ; Danton headed the second, and Chau- vette a third. Robespierre was su- preme. Men were arrested on sus- picion, and the blood of royalists and plebeians flowed from the same scaffold. For a period of four months, this power was exercised without restraint. At Paris, among other illustrious vic- tims were Thouret, Chapelier, and finally the angelic sister of Louis XVI. Madame Elizabeth, and Marie Antoi- nette. Fifty persons were dragged daily to execution in Paris alone. At length there was a reaction, and these GERMANY. SOVEREIGNS. Francis I., Emperor of Germany, . . 1792 to 1806 Francis II., Emperor of Austria only, . 1806 to 1815 Napoleon, Protector of a part of Germany, the rest in a state of vas- salage to France, . 1806 to 1815 Francis II., Emperor again of Austria, . 1815 to 1835 Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria, . . 1835 to 1848 Francis Joseph I., Em- peror of Austria, . 1 848 William I., King of Prus- sia and Emperor of Germany, . . 1861 At the opening of the nineteenth cen- tury, Germany was composed of nearly three hundred petty kingdoms, each governed by its own sovereign, of greater or less importance. The two prominent powers were Austria and Prussia, — Prussia containing a popula- tion of eight millions, and Austria of twenty-five millions, embracing not only the inhabitants of her German terri- 66 ENGLAND. lu 1815 Napoleou aud Wellington met near Waterloo, a village in Bel- gium, ten miles from Brussels, where was fought the battle that finally crushed the power of Napoleou. George III. died in 1820, and his son became king, as George IV. George, while Prince of Wales, had married Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick. After living together oue year, during which time their only child, the Prin- cess' Charlotte, was born, they sepa- rated by mutual consent. This daugh- ter died in 1817. In 1820, after he became king, he commenced a persecution of his wife, which was of such a nature as to at- tract the attention of the whole country. The queen finally died from chagrin and suffering. George IV., in liis youth, had plunged into the greatest excesses. He was fond of the turf, and spent large sums for his pleasure in that way. At length, pushed to extremity, he began a system of retrenchment, and reduced the expenses of his whole establish- ment. ' With the assistance of Parlia- ment he extricated himself from diffi- culty. The prime ministers during the last of his reign were Wellington, Sir Rob- ert Peel, and Melville. During the 18th century the Irish FRANCE. miscreants who had put to death so many, were in their turn brought to the scaffold. ^t'hen Robespierre ascended the death-cart, to be taken to the place of execution, an immense crowd gave demonstrations of joy. One woman penetrated the crowd which surrounded him, exclaiming, " Murderer of my kin- dred ! Your agony fills me with joy ; descend to hell, covered with the curses of every mother in France." When he died, France breathed once more — the reign of terror was over. During this time, war broke out on all sides. Austria, Prussia, England, Holland, Spain, and Russia sent armies against France. The French raised a million of men and bade defiance to all Europe. In the French army was a young lieutenant, a native of Corsica, named Napoleon Bonaparte. When the war began, he was an un- known youth, but, by his wonderful mili- tary skill, distinguished himself in every battle, and in every siege, till in a few years his fame was world-wide. When he was only twenty-six years old, he conquered Italy, and the next year he compelled the Emperor of Austria, Francis II., to make peace. In 1798 he invaded Egypt, and fought many battles there. The French had grown tired of being governed by blood-thirsty men. They GERMANS'. tories, but also Flanders, Hungary, Tyrol and Lombardy. Austria being more powerful than any other German state, its monarch exercised, to some extent, authority over the whole. Francis II. was at this time emperor of Germany and Austria, having ascended the throne in 1792. He became in- volved in the wars with Napoleon and suffered terrible defeats. The French under Napoleon were everywhere victorious, and the decisive batile of Austerlitz compelled Francis to conclude an armistice. In 1806, sixteen German princes re- nounced their connection with the Ger- man Empire, aud signed, at Paris, the "Confederation of the Rhine," by which they made Napoleon pi'otector of their territories, containing a population of about sixteen millions. This was followed by the renuncia- tion of the title of Emperor of Germany, by Francis, who assumed simply that of Francis I. of Austria. He publicly ab- solved the German States from their re- ciprocal duties towards the German empire. From this time till 1815, Germany was entirely at the mercy of Napoleon, who deposed the sovereigns and dis- membered their states, in favor of his pets and dependents. He reduced the number of German states from three hundred to forty. He robbed 67 ENGLAND. Parliament, composed of Protestants of an exceedingly l^itter type, had heaped upon the Catholics of Ireland an accu- mulation of the most wicked laws which have ever been expressed in the English tongue. A Catholic could not sit in Parliament, could not hold office under the crown, could not vote at an election, could not be solicitor, or a physician, or a sheriff, or a game- keeper. If his son became Protestant, he was withdrawn from parental custody, and intrusted to Protestant relatives, with a suitable provision' by his father for maintenance. A Catholic was not permitted to own a horse of greater value than £5. If he used a more reputable animal he was bound to sell it for that sum to any Protestant who was disposed to buy. If a younger brother turned Pro- 1;estant, he supplanted the elder brother in his birthright. A Catholic could not inherit from an intestate relative, how- ever near. A Protestant solicitor who married a Catholic was disqualified from following his profession. Mar- riages of Protestants and Catholics, if performed by a priest, were annulled, and the priest was liable to be iianged. Rewards, varying according to the rank of the victim, were offered for the discove'ry of Catholic clergymen. In the early part of the century, a Catholic who was so daring as to enter PRANCE. wanted a ruler of a different stamp, and Napoleon was the man. In 1799, he was made first consul of the republic, and in 1S02, he was elected consul for life. In 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. The Pope went to Paris to crown him and his wife Josephine. A new no- bility was rapidly created, and the relatives and favorites of the emperor received vanquished kingdoms and principalities at his hands ; for in his successful warfare he had added many territories to France. Napoleon, in 1808, deprived the pope who crowned him of his territo- ries. In 1809 he divorced his wife. In 1810 he married Maria Louisa of Austria. Between the commencement of his career and its close, he created three kingdoms, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg. He made his brother Joseph King of Spain, his brother Louis King of Holland, his brother Jerome, King of Westphalia, his brother- in-law, Murat, King of Naples, and his step-son, Eugene, Viceroy of Italy. Napoleon's second marriage gave to his throne the prestige of birth, — the only thing it lacked. He was successful in his contests with foreign powers till his war with Russia. The German army, which had been compelled to fight under Napoleon's GERMANY. Prussia of half her territory, portions of which he bestowed on his German allies, some he retained, and some he erected into the Kingdom of Westphalia, for the benefit of his brother Jerome, For nearly a quarter of a century, the arms of Napoleon devasted Europe. The confederation of the Rhine fell when Napoleon was overthrown at Waterloo. Germany then became a number of petty states with no bond of union. In 1815 the sovereigns of Prussia, Austria, Russia, and the representa- tives of Great Britain (George III. being deranged), with many minor sovereigns, met in Vienna, and under- took to regulate the disorders brought upon all Europe by the ambition of Napoleon. They united thirty-seven German states under the presidency of Austria. This alliance embraced 30,- 000,000 people, and had at its call 300,000 armed men. Not only was Germany, but all the European states that had been sufferers from the wars of Napoleon, placed again, so far as possible, in their origi- nal condition before these wars. This having been done, the congress of sovereigns vainly supposed that they had placed the European powei-s in a condition of permanent tranquillity. Thus, Francis II. controlled once more Germany. Francis desired to ENGLAND. the gallery of the House of Commons •was liable to arrest. A greater part of these laws had been canceled during the century which gave them birth. When, however, the union of Ireland with England was completed, in 1801, there were still laws which forbade the Catholic to be a member of the House of Commons, to hold any important crown ofBce, or a commission in the army, to be guardian to a Protestant, to be a game-keeper, or to have arms in his possession, for sale or otherwise, unless he should first renounce the doc- trine of transubstantiation and the wor- ship of the Virgin Mary, and receive the sacrament from the Church of Eng- land. Ireland for many years lay prostrate under this cruel Orange domination. It gave rise to discontent and frequent insurrection. Many of the Catholics, gentry and traders, quitted the country. William Pitt had ti'ied in vain to remedy these evils, but George III. was obstinate. For years the claims of the Catho- lics were brought before Parliament, and each year with increasing support. In Ireland the agitation was governed by Daniel O'Connell. His eloquence was irresistible. He became at last a power too great to be overcome. FRANCE. standard against Russia, now hoping to humble the conqueror, united with Russia to aid her in a war with France. In the end Napoleon was the loser. He now abdicated ttie throne, after an unsuccessful attempt to commit suicide. He was allowed to retain the title of emperor, and the island of Elba was assigned him as a residence, with a yearly income of £100,000. Four hun- dred French soldiers were given him as a body guard. He lived some months on this island, sixty miles in circumfer- ence. He visited every corner of his dominions, laid out new roads, built palaces, and took possession of an ad- joining island. In the mean time. May, of this same year, 1814, Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., made his entry into Paris. The conduct of the Bourbons did not conciliate the nation. They returned loaded with debt and surrounded by the old noVnlity and clergy, who looked upon the generation of Frenchmen who had risen in their absence as their natural enemies. Before the year closed Napoleon was again in France. The soldiers flocked to his standard. The Bourljons fled and took possession of their lately deserted palaces. The news spread through Europe, and a treaty of alliance was signed between Austi-ia, Russia, Prussia, and England, and preparations at once made to put GERMANY. see his people happy, but his method of promoting this object differed greatly from what they would have proposed, and from what they wished. He al- lowed no liberty of thought or speech. He suppressed the freedom of the press in Austria, and enforced a strict scru- tiny of all printed matter from, abroad. He was supported in all his measures for repressing the intelligence of his subjects by his exacting and despotic minister. Prince Metternich. It was a rule of absolute despotism. Thirty-seven million people held their lives, their property, and their right to express an opinion at the pleasure of the government. In the promotion of industry, commerce, and the arts in- phalia. The 16th century witnessed the cul- mination of German art in Albrecht Dm-er, who was almost equally distin- guished as painter, scholar and en- graver. Other painters of the period were Holbein, Lessing, Bendemann and others, who founded a school at Dusseldorf. To the Flemish school belong the Von Eycks. The most brilliant epoch of the Flemish school was the 17th century, during which time Peter Paul Rubens became distinguished. Paul Rembrandt was a scholar of the Dutch school. During the 15th century the most il- lustrious painters were Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael, who embodied theu* noblest conceptions on the walls of churches and palaces. Leo- nardo da Vinci's chief work was the well-known " Last Supper," executed on the walls of a convent in Milan. Michael Angelo's most famous frescoes adorn the ceiling of the Sistiue Chapel at Rome. Raphael's frescoes exhibit the highest development of Christian art. The most famous are those cov- ering the walls and ceilings of the . Vatican. APPENDIX. Angles and Saxons were neigliboring nations, who figure in history, about the second century, when they were found settled beyond the Elbe. These nations were early distinguished as pirates and freebooters. They made incursions into Britain, after having for a long time infested the coasts of that country. They defeated the Scots, and finally made them- selves masters of Britain. Burgundians, a people originally from the countries between the Oder and the Vistula. About the year 413, we find them established on the Upper Rhine, and in Switzerland. After the dissolution of the Roman Empire, they succeeded in establishing themselves in portions of Ganl. Franks, a nation allied to the Saxon, and, like them, addicted to piracy. They separated from the Saxons, and found their way into Gaul at the time the Saxons penetrated into Britain. Crusades. — Pilgrimages to Jerusalem were in use from the earliest ages of Cliristianity and became very frequent about the beginning of the eleventh century. So long as the Arabs or Saracens were masters of Palestine, they protected these pilgrimages, from which they dei'ived much pecuniary profit. But after the Turks had conquered that country, the pilgrims were exposed to all kinds of insults and indignities. The accounts which they gave of these outrages, on their return to Europe, excited feelings of resentment, and gave birth to the romantic notion of expelling these infidels from the Holy Land. Gregory VII. was the projector of this scheme. He addressed circulars to all the sovereigns of Europe, urging them to take part in a general crusade against the Turks. But the people were more eftectually roused to the work bj Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in Picardy. The Patriarch at Jerusalem furnished him with letteis to the pope ami princes of the west. Armed with these he traversed the whole of Italy, France and Germany, preacliing everywhere, and representing tlie miserable condition of the pilgrims in the Holy Land, and the profanation of the sacred places by the infidels in such a manner, that he roused to activity all Europe. He was seconded by the pope. It became the theme of the pulpit, and it was not long before people of every rank and condition, from the difi"erent countries of Europe, set out, one after anothei', on these expeditions. The three or four first divisions, under their cliiefs, marclied without order or discipline, committing deeds of violence in the countries throuo-li whicli they passed, pillaging, burning, and often putting the inhabitants to the sword. Most of them perished from fatigue, hunger, sickness, or through revenge at the hands of those they exasperated. By deo-rees, liowever, regular armies were set in motion, commanded by experienced officers and powerful princes. There were eight crusades to the Holy Land. The last undertaken by Louis IX. of France. All were either fruitless or wanting in permanent results. Chivalry. The northern nations who settled in the provinces of the Roman Empire, had a respect for the female char- acter and a devotion to the softer sex, which were unknown to the Romans, and they introduced into the west of Europe a