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THE AMERICAN COLLEGES 
 
 AND UNIVERSITIES IN 
 
 THE GREAT WAR 
 
 1914-1919 
 
 A HISTORY 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING, Litt.D., LL.D. 
 President of Western Reserve University 
 
 jBett) gotk 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1920 
 
 AXl right* reserved 
 

 COPYEIGHT, 1920, 
 
 bt the macmillan company 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published, September, 1920 
 
 GOT 28 !220 
 ©CI,A601148 
 
TO 
 FRANCIS WENDELL BUTLER-THWING, 
 
 ANDOVER, HARVARD, AND 
 
 NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD 
 
 CAPTAIN. COLDSTREAM GUARDS 
 
PKEFATORY NOTE 
 
 The lack of adequate interpretation of the part 
 which the American colleges, both Northern and 
 Southern, played in the Civil War has long seemed 
 to me a public and an academic misfortune. The 
 possibility of filling this lack lessens with each pass- 
 ing year. The share which the American college 
 and university had in the World's War was at least 
 as significant and impressive as that which the Civil 
 War represents. Early, therefore, in the great strug- 
 gle, I began to collect materials for its academic his- 
 tory. These materials include evidences furnished 
 directly by hundreds of institutions, as well as the 
 more typical sources of books, pamphlets, and news- 
 papers., To each college officer, who has thus gra- 
 ciously and generously aided me, I am grateful. 
 
 This history, concerned with a small social and 
 educational group, has yet largest relations. For it 
 helps to prove that the higher education, in the per- 
 son of its teachers and students of successive genera- 
 tions, trains men for the service of the nation. While 
 higher education may in certain respects be justly 
 charged with narrowness, it yet, be it affirmed, uses 
 
Prefatory Note 
 
 its narrowness for an increase of all human forces 
 and for a worthy bettering of all that makes for the 
 welfare of men. I trust that, from the reading of 
 these pages, one may come, as I come from their 
 writing, with a lordlier hope for the race and for 
 the races. 
 
 c. r. T. 
 
 Western Reserve University, 
 Cleveland, 
 1st January, 1920. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Prefatory Note vii 
 
 I Motives for Entering the Service ... 1 
 
 II Before the Entrance of the United States 14 
 
 III Financial Kelations of the Colleges ... 40 
 
 IV The Students' Army Training Corps ... 55 
 V The Enlisted 85 
 
 VI College Officers in War Service .... 92 
 
 VII The Spirit of the Student Soldier ... 99 
 
 VIII The Sciences and the Scientists .... 115 
 
 IX The Women's Colleges 140 
 
 X The Religion op the Student Soldier . . 151 
 
 XI Poetry as an Interpretation op the War . 167 
 
 XII International Relations 180 
 
 XIII The Fallen 210 
 
 XIV The Commencements op the War Period . 231 
 
 XV Some Enduring Effects of the War on the 
 
 Colleges and the Universities .... 245 
 
 XVI Academic Memorials 261 
 
 Index 271 
 
THE AMERICAN COLLEGES 
 
 AND UNIVERSITIES IN 
 
 THE GREAT WAR 
 
 MOTIVES FOE ENTERING THE SEEVICE 
 
 The conditions belonging to the college man create 
 the motives inspiring him to enter his country's 
 service in time of war. 
 
 Of these conditions perhaps the most obvious is the 
 college man's age. He is, on entering as a freshman, 
 about eighteen years old. This age and the following 
 four years form the close of the period of his emo- 
 tional, and the beginning of his mature intellectual, 
 growth. The feelings are strong, easily stirred, 
 readily moving toward the gTeat, the sublime, the 
 commanding. With emotionalism is associated the 
 faculty of imagination. This youth thinks in pic- 
 tures. If the developing and enriched intellect fur- 
 nishes material and content of these pictures, the 
 feelings move the hand of imagination to paint them 
 in brightly glowing colors. The sense of adventure 
 
2 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 fascinates. The possibilities which the adventure 
 holds forth stir the soul. The glory of the adventure, 
 even if it be touched with the probability of death, 
 beckons. The highest ambition of this manly youth 
 — human liberation — gets hold of every part of his 
 being. I can — I will — I must — he cries. Of 
 course, to a certain extent, such feelings and imagina- 
 tions belong to every young man. Enrollment in the 
 army or navy by the student is only a part of the 
 heroism of youth. But such feelings do at least seem 
 to rise to a higher level, to a whiter crest, and to as- 
 sume more brilliant coloring, on the brow and in the 
 bosom of the college man. 
 
 Another condition belonging to the student is his 
 sense of democracy. He is a member of a little group 
 in which equals moving with equals represent the 
 common lot. These men are a part of the great third 
 estate. They are as pebbles flung together on the 
 same beach by the hand of destiny to be rounded and 
 polished by the same forces. The differences which 
 divide men outside academic walls have a certain 
 value; but the value is much smaller than ordinary 
 humanity assigns. Wealth, social distinction, herit- 
 age of a noble name, militate quite as much against 
 as for the student's timely advantage. The group as 
 seen in a fraternity house represents the par inter 
 pares. The floor of the classroom is built on one 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 3 
 
 level, and that floor has only a few square feet. The 
 college chapel, the table in the reading room, the 
 benches in the chemical, and the physical, laboratory 
 represent a community and an equality of interest. 
 The gridiron and diamond stand for brotherhood and 
 cooperation. These forces, outwardly and materially 
 visible, are only the sign of the inward forces which 
 unite. College men think together, even if not 
 alike. They are moved by similar ambitions and 
 stirred by like motives and ideals, even if the con- 
 summate achievement be not alike. A thousand or 
 a hundred hearts beat as one. Therefore, a wave of 
 patriotism touches segregated and separated indi- 
 vidualities, and combines them into unities. One 
 bugle call is heard by a thousand ears; one flag is 
 seen by a thousand eyes. As Oliver Wendell Holmes 
 said at a commencement of his Alma Mater, in the 
 midst of the Civil War in 1863,—" The hero in his 
 laurels sits next to the divine rustling in the dry gar- 
 land of his Doctorate. The poet in his crown of bays, 
 the critic, in his wreath of ivy, clasp each other's 
 hands, members of the same happy family. This is 
 the birthday feast for every one of us whose fore- 
 head has been sprinkled from the font inscribed 
 Christo et Ecclesiae. We have no badges but our 
 diplomas, no distinctions but our years of gradua- 
 tion. This is the Kepublic carried into the Univer- 
 
4 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 sity; all of us are bom equal into this great fra- 
 ternity." ^ The response, the reaction, the patriotic 
 stimulus, work on the feeling of each and of every 
 other man, reenforcing, increasing, magnifying, de- 
 veloping it. Excitement begets excitement. Thrill 
 stirs thrill. Each man goes where others go, and 
 the others go where each goes. The democracy of 
 the group promotes the martial enrollment. 
 
 This essential quality of democracy seems not to 
 have suffered under the conditions of the modern 
 college. The college of the early and middle dec- 
 ades of the Nineteenth Century was a college of pe- 
 culiarly united interests. Students of the same class 
 studied the same subjects. Year by year, the prog- 
 ress was regular and general. The two ancient lan- 
 guages, mathematics, with certain excursions, more 
 or less brief, into English, philosophy, the modem 
 languages, science, and history, formed the founda- 
 tion of the orderly academic structure. With a few 
 minor exceptions, each student did what the other 
 did. Of the modern college, however, diversity, sepa- 
 rateness, individualism, is the distinctive mark. 
 Students of the same class are divided by many and 
 diverse interests. Members of different classes are 
 usually joined together in the same subjects of 
 
 1 Address before the Association of the Alumni of Harvard 
 College, 16th July, 1863, 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 5 
 
 study. The elective system stands for individuality 
 of choice. Each man pursues his own will under the 
 general supervision of college officers. Yet, despite 
 these individualisms, the college spirit is still one, 
 the college atmosphere one, and the general aim one. 
 The democratic movement and condition of equality 
 is still regnant. 
 
 The democracy of war and the democracy of edu- 
 cation are impressively alike. For war makes 
 equals. War promotes equality between men of the 
 same grade or kind. If it create differences and 
 distinctions between different grades of service, it 
 yet makes men of the same order equal. All pri- 
 vates in the ranks are alike. Exterior distinctions 
 are lost. The titled are as obscure as the obscure; 
 the obscure as distinguished as the titled. The 
 poor are as rich as the rich and the rich are as poor 
 as the poor. A boy of distinguished ancestry and 
 education, brought up in peculiarly exclusive sur- 
 roundings, was serving at the front as a private. In 
 a letter to his mother he told about two of his special 
 chums. One of them was Erine O' Callahan and the 
 other Billie Sweeny. He wrote to his mother — 
 " You can't beat those boys on the face of the earth. 
 I want you to call upon their mothers." Education 
 is likewise democratic — a common obedience for 
 all men, themselves personally equal or unequal, and 
 
6 Colleges and Universities in the Or eat War 
 
 a common opportunity. It lias been said tliat in 
 Germany there were no equals — only superiors or 
 inferiors. In America one might, with equal truth, 
 say, there are only equals. America holds open one 
 educational gateway. It paves one road to learning, 
 and that not royal. It points out one goal which it 
 inspires each to reach. Autocracy in education is 
 narrow and narrowing, inclined to accept social 
 stratification. Democracy in education is broad, as 
 broad as human nature. Autocracy in education is 
 prone to being materialistic. Democracy is idealis- 
 tic. Aristocracy in education is liable to forget hu- 
 manity's hard, complex problems. Democracy in 
 education is sympathizing and inspiring of every 
 worthy endeavor. 
 
 A further motive for enrollment, and also its 
 origin, is the fundamental element of patriotism, 
 both historical and personal. The college man loves 
 his country for the reason which leads the mature 
 civilian to love it, the reason found in his birth 
 within its borders and in its beneficence to him and 
 to his. But also the college man loves it because 
 of a peculiar sense of possession. It is his country. 
 He belongs to it, and it belongs to him. With this 
 sense is often joined the sense of her peril and also 
 the sense that she may have suffered or be in danger 
 of suffering an insult. It is his place to retaliate or 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 7 
 
 to defend. His patriotism is rather a love of her 
 than a movement of the will, although the heart's 
 love proves itself in overt acts. The patriotism does 
 show itself in the college songs and the commemora- 
 tion odes of all countries. 
 
 Is there any poem of the war in which this spirit 
 is more fully voiced than in Winifred M. Letts' 
 " The Spires of Oxford " ? 
 
 I saw the spires of Oxford 
 
 As I was passing by, 
 The gray spires of Oxford 
 
 Against a pearl gray sky. 
 My heart was with the Oxford men 
 
 Who went abroad to die. 
 
 The years go fast in Oxford, 
 
 The golden years and gay. 
 The hoary Colleges look down 
 
 On careless boys at play. 
 But when the bugles sounded war 
 
 They put their games away. 
 
 They left the peaceful river. 
 
 The cricket field, the quad. 
 The shaven lawns of Oxford 
 
 To seek a bloody sod — 
 They gave their merry youth away 
 
 For country and for God. 
 
 God rest you, happy gentlemen. 
 Who laid your good lives down. 
 
8 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Who took the khaki and the gun 
 
 Instead of cap and gown. 
 God bring you to a fairer place 
 
 Than even Oxford town. 
 
 These lines are a confirmation of Lowell's Com- 
 memoration Ode of fifty years ago. 
 
 The motive of the college man is also manifest in 
 what might be called interpatriotism. The student 
 loves his owm country and his fellow citizens much. 
 He loves all countries and his human brothers more. 
 In the Great War French students fought for France 
 and British students too fought for France. They 
 also fought for liberty and fraternity, for all. Ox- 
 ford, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh men died for Eng- 
 land and Scotland, but they also died for ravaged 
 Belgium and for damaged humanity. American 
 college students enrolled and served in danger-zones 
 long before America entered the war. They made 
 the great sacrifice for other people than their own. 
 As President Eliot, speaking to the Harvard men at 
 the time of the Spanish War, said : " What are the 
 fundamental and legitimate motives . . . which lead 
 one to enlist? There are two which seem to me 
 very weighty ; and these two really make but one, but 
 that one how strong ! The first is the sense that every 
 member of human society is mainly indebted for his 
 own character, resources and happiness to the slowly 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 9 
 
 developed qualities and slowly accumulated resources 
 of the particular society into which he was born. 
 Society gives the individual everything which makes 
 his life valuable to him ; he, in return, owes his life 
 and his all to society whenever its interests are im- 
 perilled. This principle applies in a tribe of sav- 
 ages, but with greatest force in the most civilized so- 
 ciety." ^ The first members of the Harvard broth- 
 erhood who were laid in their gTaves in Erance were 
 saluted in these words : " Ce sera une date his- 
 torique, cette journee d'automne ou nous avons en- 
 seveli en terre de France nos amis, conduits au petit 
 cimetiere avec un piquet de soldats frangais et 
 americains, les corps converts du Star Spangled Ban- 
 ner et du Tricolore. Sur leur tombe, notre colonel 
 prononga ces simples mots : ' je vous salue, enfants 
 d'une noble race ; reposez dans cette terre de France 
 oil vous etes tombes pour la plus belle cause ! ' " 
 
 There is a still more fundamental motive dwelling 
 in the bosom of the student. It is hard to interpret 
 this motive. It should not be called the longing for 
 adventure. Such a motive is more or less unworthy. 
 It may be called the sense of duty. It is rather more 
 than an imperative. It may be called spiritual un- 
 rest, but it is more than an emotion. It is rather a 
 yearning for life, — for life fuller, richer, more com- 
 
 1 Boston Herald, May 21st, 1898. 
 
10 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 manding, more consuming. It is a feeling that one 
 must have experience — an experience that touches 
 all life, even the universal and the eternal. It is 
 the cosmic sense, urging and moving in the young 
 soul. To this motive Alan Seeger gave voice: 
 " Suddenly the world is up in arms. All mankind 
 takes sides. The same faith that made him sur- 
 render himself to the impulses of normal living and 
 of love, force him now to make himself the instru- 
 ment through which a greater force works out its in- 
 scrutable ends through the impulses of terror and 
 repulsion. And with no less a sense of moving in 
 harmony with a universe where masses are in con- 
 tinual conflict and new combinations are engendered 
 out of eternal collisions, he shoulders arms and 
 marches forth with haste." -"^ 
 
 Akin to this cosmic sense is shown the spirit of 
 supreme sacrifice and of moral passion, which be- 
 longs to all youth, but belongs especially to the stu- 
 dent. This sense of sacrifice and of passion has 
 been peculiarly significant in this war. The break- 
 ing and crushing of the morals and the morale of 
 life by Germany awakened the keenest indignation 
 in the soldier student. He did not count the cost. 
 He felt somewhat as Pascal says of Jesus Christ on 
 the cross : " I must add my wounds to his." The 
 
 1 Letter: The New Republic, 22nd May, 1915. 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 11 
 
 crusader is the youth, and he rejoices to venture all. 
 
 " For my purpose holds 
 To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths 
 Of all the Western Stars, until I die." 
 
 In deep contrast to such a worthy motive, two 
 more and very personal conditions emerge. The 
 student is free from domestic responsibility and from 
 vocational engagements. JSTeither wife nor child 
 looks to him for daily bread. JSTeither professional 
 duty nor industrial nor commercial service com- 
 mands him. He is foot-free. Indeed, he is in- 
 clined to believe that a military training may prove 
 to be a very acceptable preparation for the business 
 which he finally may choose. 
 
 In all these motives and conditions, too, one fur- 
 ther great movement is evident. It may be called — 
 the instinct of the spiritual in man. It is the im- 
 pulse to rescue, to help, to serve. It is a fundamen- 
 tal feeling. It is found in every worthy bosom. It 
 constitutes the gentleman. It is not a matter of or 
 for argument, not a balancing of advantages and dis- 
 advantages. It may not be even a part of that great 
 Anglo-Saxon service, which we denominate duty. 
 Why did you enlist ? — Why shouldn't I enlist ? — 
 is the questioning answer — One cannot do other. 
 Such feelings are instinctive in all good men, but 
 
12 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 are especially instinctive in the bosom of tlie college 
 man. 
 
 For as an Oxford don says : " The beauty of life 
 lies not in living, nor in health and vigor of body, 
 nor in the flash and speed of the mind, but in living 
 with a noble energy, which enlists and mobilizes the 
 noble nature for the doing of noble things. To rise 
 to the measure of a man and to attain to the just 
 beauty of a full humanity consists in gaining con- 
 version of the soul and in entering the service of 
 mankind. He who has turned his eyes to an ideal 
 good which is more worth while than life itself has 
 found life; for he has become a living soul, con- 
 verted to the light. He who has entered the 
 service of mankind in order to realize among men 
 and for men the ideal good which he has seen 
 has entered into the only perfect joy of living; for 
 he has hid his life with that of his fellows in the 
 common life which is the only true life of man." ^ 
 
 In all these lifting and moving sentiments there 
 were present two other feelings deserving recogni- 
 tion. Students were inclined to depreciate their own 
 place and function. They did not wish to be " made 
 much of." They despised eulogy. They couldn't 
 bear laudation, as if their acts were unusual. They 
 
 1 " Mothers and Sons in War Time," by Ernest Barker, 
 pages 4, 5. 
 
Motives for Entering the Service 13 
 
 had wit and humor to realize their conditions. In 
 serious hours too they thought of being afraid of 
 death as death. They did have a questioning 
 whether when the crisis of a great command might 
 be heard, they would prove true. It was the quick- 
 ening question that belongs to a gentleman. It was 
 inevitable. The answer, too, was equally inevitable. 
 They met their supreme ordeal without flinching. 
 They died with a cheer. 
 
 American college men, students and graduates, 
 moreover, have entered every war which their coun- 
 try has fought. Such enrollment belongs to every 
 nation. Tablets are placed on the walls of the uni- 
 versities of Germany, giving the names of their sons 
 who fell in the War of 1870. Tablets are also set 
 up in the universities of Italy, commemorating the 
 students who fought two generations ago for their 
 once sadly divided, now nobly united, land. The 
 spirit which is felt and the words which are heard 
 in American colleges in the World War, were also 
 manifest in the Civil War of the United, and the 
 Confederate, States. The passion of all college 
 youth for native land and for man seems to be one — 
 lasting as life, broad as the world, deep as the deepest 
 human instincts and emotions, indivisible as human- 
 ity itself. 
 
II 
 
 BEFOEE THEl ENTEANCE: OF THE TNITED STATES 
 
 Under the spell of such motives, college men, both 
 graduate and undergraduate, entered and served in 
 the war. Their service began at the very beginning. 
 The kind of service, offered from August and Sep- 
 tember of 1914 up to the month of April, 19 lY, was, 
 of course, in many respects unlike that given after 
 the entrance of the United States. The earlier serv- 
 ice was manifestly far less important and far less 
 general. It was, however, of diverse sorts, and also 
 it took on many elements of the picturesque as well 
 as of the heroic. 
 
 The kinds of particular service were no less than 
 five in number. These five were the American Vol- 
 unteer Motor Ambulance Corps, the American Ambu- 
 lance Hospital in Paris, Hospital Units outside of 
 Paris like that of or for Servia, the American Dis- 
 tributing Service, and, most picturesque of all, the 
 Foreign Legion. There were, in addition, not a few 
 services of miscellaneous, and even individualistic, 
 character. The United States embassies, aiding 
 
 14 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 15 
 
 American citizens' relief committees, serving in can- 
 teens, giving help in relief work in Belgium and 
 Prance, represent the more important of such miscel- 
 laneous and individual work. 
 
 The American Volunteer Motor Ambulance Corps 
 was formed and directed by Richard ISTorton, son of 
 Charles Eliot ISTorton of Harvard. The work of this 
 Corps, as described by Norton himself, in February, 
 1916, was of three sorts. One was what he calls the 
 risky and very hard work done during a battle, in 
 rescuing the wounded and bearing them back to sta- 
 tions where surgical attention could be given. There 
 was, also, what l^orton calls, " Our regular job " : 
 " the post duty, the daily going and coming from 
 certain stations just back of the line to the hospitals 
 with the occasional casualties. During the winter 
 months one carries more sick and sorry than one 
 does wounded, but there is a never-ending trickle of 
 these latter. . . . We sat down for the winter, and 
 posts were arranged to which the wounded are 
 brought. Just who picks out these posts I have 
 never discovered, but the general rule is that they 
 should be as near the actual fighting line as the con- 
 dition of the Toads and general safety permit the 
 cars to go. "We have served two such posts. One 
 was all right, though, owing to the mud which pre- 
 vented the close approach of our cars, the stretcher 
 
16 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 bearers had a weary long walk with their painful 
 burden. The other, however, was to my mind most 
 quaintly placed, as it was on the crest of a ridge and 
 in plain view of the enemy. Though the doctors' 
 tents and dug-outs were sheltered by a cluster of 
 pines, the coming and going of the cars were per- 
 fectly obvious and daily drew the fire of one of the 
 enemy batteries. ... At both posts the men did 
 duty for twenty-four hours at a stretch, and had 
 tents pitched under the trees in which they cooked 
 their picnic meals and took what rest they could. 
 Most of the time it rained, and it was always cold. 
 To my way of thinking a tent is a beastly thing. A 
 considerable portion of my life has been passed in 
 them, and no one can convince me they are anything 
 but disgusting. . . . However, they are better than 
 sitting in the mud, so at the posts we sit and get damp 
 till the relief comes, and then hustle back to the base 
 camp, where there are no satisfactory means of get- 
 ting dry, but where you mop yourself up and steam 
 over any form of fire you or your friends can pro- 
 duce. You see, there is not much in that kind of life 
 but plain, hard, uncomfortable work. So any one 
 who thinks he is coming out here to wander over the 
 stricken field doing the Sir Philip Sidney act to 
 friend and foe alike, protected from harm by the mys- 
 tical light of heroism playing about his hyacinthine 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 17 
 
 locks, had better stay home. This hero business will 
 only win him the Order of the Wooden Cross. What 
 one really does is to look like a tramp who has passed 
 the night in a ditch and feels as though he were doing 
 ten days ' hard ' for it. That is what the ordinary 
 work is." ^ 
 
 There is a third kind of work of the Motor Am- 
 bulance Corps which Mjr. JSTorton calls " en repos." 
 
 " 'No corps can go on indefinitely at the front. 
 The men get worn out and the cars get out of order. 
 During the early part of this winter our cars stood 
 in the open where the mud was so bad that we often 
 had to pull them out in the morning with the lorry 
 before we could start. There was so little water that 
 sometimes there was insufficient for the radiators. 
 Under such circumstances cleaning the cars was en- 
 tirely out of the question, and any but absolutely es- 
 sential repairs had to wait till we could move some- 
 where else. When, finally, we were relieved by a 
 French convoy, only one-third of our cars could go, 
 and several of the men were working on their 
 nerve." -^ 
 
 The second general form of service lay in what 
 
 was known as the American Ambulance, or Amer- 
 
 1 " The Harvard Volunteers in Europe," by Howe, pages 
 193-196. 
 
 2 Ibid., pages 196-197. 
 
18 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 lean Hospital, in Paris. The opportunity for med- 
 ical service in Paris was opened in the spring of 
 1915. The first medical unit to be represented was 
 that of Western Reserve University and of its affil- 
 iated hospital, Lakeside, which served from January 
 to April. The Harvard Medical School provided a 
 surgical unit, also, for three months of this year. 
 
 Outside and beyond the most outstanding surgical 
 service of Paris was the service rendered in Servia in 
 the first year of the war. This contribution, given 
 under the American Bed Cross Sanitary Commis- 
 sion, and under the leadership of Doctor Richard P. 
 Strong, Professor of Tropical Medicine in the Har- 
 vard Medical School, was of the utmost significance. 
 Soon after his arrival, in April, Doctor Strong or- 
 ganized an International Health Commission in or- 
 der to promote the enforcement of medical and surgi- 
 cal orders in all parts of Servia, and also to coordi- 
 nate the work of the British, the French, the Rus- 
 sians, the Americans, as well as of the Servians, in 
 promoting the health of the people. In this work 
 were engaged public health physicians, sanitary engi- 
 neers, sanitary inspectors, and laboratory experts of 
 various types. To stamp out contagious diseases, 
 and especially typhus fever, was the great purpose of 
 the Commission, and this purpose was fulfilled with 
 extraordinary efficiency. 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 19 
 
 Another form of work in whicli the college men 
 had a primary part, and which has received little 
 mention, is the American Distributing Service. Un- 
 der this general union, many sorts of work were 
 done and under different organizations. Perhaps 
 the chief part of its work was in giving instant relief 
 to the most obvious necessities of French hospitals. 
 Supplies were gathered up, some coming from Amer- 
 ica, and delivered at the hospitals according to their 
 need. Sorting out and delivering hospital socks and 
 slippers, bales of underclothes, bolts of cloth, surgical 
 instruments, represent types of the diversity of the 
 work. In the month of August of the year 1915, 
 more than forty-four thousand articles were given 
 out, which included material for operating rooms, as 
 surgical instruments, sterilizing apparatus, bandages 
 and linen. The hospitals thus helped numbered 
 more than seven hundred. 
 
 But perhaps the most picturesque, as certainly the 
 best known of all these forms of service, lay in the 
 Foreign Legion of the French Army. It was a most 
 democratic organization. A member has written of 
 it, saying: — 
 
 " Many of the men are educated, and the very low- 
 est is of the high-class workman type. In my room, 
 
 for instance, there are ' Le Petit Pere U ,' an 
 
 old Alsatian, who has already served fourteen years 
 
20 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 in the Legion in China and Morocco; the Corporal 
 
 L , a Socialist well-known in his own district; 
 
 E , a Swiss cotton broker from Havre; D 
 
 C , a newspaper man, and short-story writer, 
 
 who will not serve in the English Army because his 
 family left England in 1Y45, with the exception of 
 his father, who was captain in the Eoyal Irish Fusi- 
 liers ; S , a Fijian student at Oxford, ' the blond 
 
 beast' (Vide Zarathustra) ; von somebody, another 
 Dane, very small and young; B , a Swiss car- 
 penter, born and bred in the Alps, who sings, when 
 given a half liter of canteen wine, far better than 
 most comic-opera stars and who at times does the 
 
 ranz-des-vaclies so that even Petit Pere U claps ; 
 
 the brigadier M , a little Russian, two or three 
 
 Polish Jews, nondescript Belgians, Greeks, Rouma- 
 nians, etc." -^ 
 
 In the Foreign Legion were found not a few col- 
 lege men among whom Victor Chapman, Harvard 
 '13, and Alan Seeger, Harvard '10, stand forth in 
 moving worthiness, — both of whom made the great 
 sacrifice. 
 
 The number of college graduates and undergrad- 
 uates who entered this quintette of services was not 
 large. But the spirit, the enthusiasm, the devotion 
 of those who thus enrolled themselves was of the 
 
 ilbid., pages 145-146. 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 21 
 
 highest and deepest character. It was a service both 
 individual and human. It was not supported by 
 love of America in the degree which the later service 
 inspired. It was a service rendered out of a love 
 for humanity and in the desire to be of individual 
 worth. The element of camaraderie was not present 
 as it was in the college halls of the years '17 and 
 '18. But the sense of individual duty, privilege, 
 devotion, rose to its highest red-crested level. The 
 college men of America never showed themselves 
 more heroic than in services thus rendered in the 
 months and years previous to the first week of April 
 of the year 191Y. 
 
 As moving and inspiring a spectacle as was fur- 
 nished by any set of college men is found in the 
 Rhodes scholars who gave themselves to the service 
 in Belgium. About four hundred Americans have 
 availed themselves of Cecil Rhodes' foundation, since 
 its establishment in 1902, in becoming students at 
 Oxford. About three hundred of the^m entered the 
 service. The beneficence of their presence and work 
 in Belgium in the days of the German occupation is 
 a part of the great contribution which was rendered 
 under the direction and inspiration of Herbert Clark 
 Hoover. Mr. Hoover, himself a graduate of Leland 
 Stanford University, was, by reason of his experi- 
 ence, as well as because of the highest personal quali- 
 
22 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ties, abundantly qualified to guide and to inspire his 
 fellow graduates of American colleges who them- 
 selves had been at Oxford. Of them the great inter- 
 preter of Belgium, in the years of its Inferno, Mr. 
 Brand Whitlock, has said: 
 
 " They came as volunteers, to work for no other re- 
 ward than the satisfaction of helping in a great human- 
 itarian cause. The work never could have been done 
 without them, or half so well by men who had been 
 paid for their labor. I suppose tiie world has never 
 seen anything quite like their devotion; it used to 
 amuse, when it did not exasperate, us, to see the Ger- 
 mans so mystified by it ; they could not understand it, 
 and were always trying to find out the real reason for 
 their being there. ... It was, in fact, as fine an exam- 
 ple of idealism — American idealism — as, in its ulti- 
 mate organization and direct management, it proved to 
 be of American enterprise and efficiency. The young 
 men were under the heaviest adjurations from all of us 
 to maintain a strict neutrality, and this they all did. 
 JSTot one of them was ever guilty of an indiscretion, not 
 one of them ever brought dishonor upon the work, 
 or upon their nation, or its flag, or upon the various 
 universities whose honor they held in their keeping 
 and on which they reflected such credit." ^ 
 
 1 " Belgium," by Brand Whitlock, United States Minister to 
 Belgium, I., pages 409-410. 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 23 
 
 Men of such character, of course, would be secured 
 under the conditions laid down by Mr. Rhodes' trus- 
 tees. In the first circular issued by the trustees, it 
 was said that they desired " as Scholars students of 
 power and promise, and representative types of the 
 manliness, culture, and character of the communities 
 from which they come." ^ 
 
 Such devotions, more individual than institutional, 
 were contemporaneous with movements which were 
 rather institutional than individualistic. 
 
 A significant development of the last and of the 
 present generation of academic life lies in the associa- 
 tion and cooperation of the colleges and universities. 
 This academic development is a microcosm of what 
 has occurred in the nations of the world. Among 
 these educational societies are found the Association 
 of State Universities, the Association of American 
 Universities, the Association of American Colleges, 
 the Association of Urban Universities, the American 
 Association of University Professors, the Association 
 of American Law Schools, the Association of Ameri- 
 can Medical Colleges, and the American Association 
 of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. 
 
 These associations, — a list to which, long as it is, 
 several others might fittingly be added, — created a 
 spirit of co-working and of inter-institutional service 
 
 i"The Rhodes Scholarships," by Parkin, page 114. 
 
24 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 which, in the three years preceding the American 
 declaration of war, were devoted to the welfare of 
 the nation and of the world. The common devotion 
 thus secured in and through the colleges for the na- 
 tion and for the nations becomes the more marked 
 when seen in contrast with the lack of academic co- 
 operation prevailing in the period of the Civil War. 
 In that period each college gave richest service but 
 gave it largely as an individual unit of society. 
 
 The various organizations and agencies, new and 
 old, established . for making the services of the col- 
 leges effective in the great war were both general and 
 special, transient and lasting. Some of them were 
 clearing houses of activities, while others were di- 
 rectly operating forces. 
 
 In point of time the first of these organizations was 
 the Intercollegiate Intelligence Bureau. This Bu- 
 reau was an agency set up' for the purpose of assign- 
 ing places in the government service to college men 
 and women. With headquarters in Washington, its 
 chief officer and, in a sense, its founder, was Dean 
 William McClellan of the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania. On its establishment in February, 1917, 
 Secretary Baker said that the organization was " a 
 gift to the nation, a gift of preparedness, alike for 
 service in war and in peace." In making a report 
 reviewing the work. Dean McClellan wrote : — " We 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 25 
 
 have spent a busy, and, we believe, a useful year in 
 trying to fulfill our obligations and living up to our 
 ideals. We have organized branches at about two 
 hundred colleges, technical and agricultural schools 
 throughout the country and city committees, com- 
 posed of representative graduates, in the larger cen- 
 ters of the ISTation. Using entirely a decentral- 
 ized system and responding to the definite 
 calls made upon them by our Division of Serv- 
 ice Calls at our office here, these branches have 
 had the satisfaction of knowing that about four 
 thousand of the men and women nominated by them 
 have been appointed to positions of responsibility in 
 the service of the N^ational Government. All of 
 these positions called for highly trained specialists 
 in professional and technical fields. Roughly speak- 
 ing, about 50 per cent, of them represented commis- 
 sions in the Army or IsTavy. Every nomination ac- 
 cepted and also the many nominations made in good 
 faith which did not result in appointments, were 
 thoroughly investigated before being sent in both by 
 our branches and by us, and we have the satisfaction 
 of sincerely believing that no finer body of loyal cit- 
 izens can be found than the men who are now serving 
 the country and who found their proper places 
 through the agency of this Bureau." 
 
 The second event in the earlier academic history 
 
26 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 was found in a conference held in Washington on 
 May fifth of the same year of 1917. In Continental 
 Hall on that day, about one hundred and fifty repre- 
 sentatives of the leading colleges and universities as- 
 sembled. They were called together by President 
 Hollis Godfrey, of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 
 serving as chairman of one of the committees of the 
 Advisory Commission of the Council of National De- 
 fense. This conference, after prolonged and warm 
 discussion, issued a statement which voiced the feel- 
 ing of the college officers of that critical time. The 
 members declared that their single thought and desire 
 were to summon their every resource and to give the 
 nation, without reservation, all their facilities, dedi- 
 cating themselves to the supreme ideals out of which 
 both their institutions and the nation were born. In 
 particular they afiirmed that they were willing to 
 change courses of studies and their calendar-year in 
 such ways as would most effectively fill the needs of 
 the nation. They asked that plans be made and 
 published for the closest cooperation between the gov- 
 ernment and the universities. They expressed a 
 wish for information regarding the methods of the 
 government in carrying on the war in order that their 
 own forces might be the more thoroughly mobilized. 
 They also intimated a desire to know the methods 
 which are adopted by colleges and universities of the 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 27 
 
 allied countries in meeting the conditions of the war. 
 This conference was of the utmost value in uniting, 
 solidifying and energizing college sentiment respect- 
 ing the seriousness of the condition and the rights 
 and the duties of the higher institutions of learning 
 in the prosecution of the war. 
 
 A third organization relating to the colleges bore 
 the name of the ISTational Advisory Committee for 
 Aeronautics. This organization was in its constitu- 
 tion in part only academic. But in it six outstand- 
 ing institutions, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
 ogy, Cornell University, Ohio State University, Uni- 
 versity of Texas, University of Illinois, and Uni- 
 versity of California, had the prevailing and controll- 
 ing interest. In and through these schools were 
 trained aviators to the number, at times, of about a 
 thousand a month. As aviation is primarily a sci- 
 entific work it was fitting that those following this art 
 should be trained in schools of science. 
 
 A fourth item in this academic martial interpreta- 
 tion related to the War Department Committee on 
 Classification of Personnel in the Army. This com- 
 mittee, organized largely by Professor Walter Dill 
 Scott of N^orthwestem University, had for its pur- 
 pose the classification of men of draft age and con- 
 dition on the basis of education and other allied qual- 
 ities. This body made a distinct contribution in 
 
28 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 impressing upon the governmental authorities the 
 value of scientific training as a military factor. In 
 creating this factor it was made plain that the ef- 
 ficiency of the scientific and other schools in train- 
 ing graduates and undergraduates as officers, was 
 most important. 
 
 Mention should also be made of a further educa- 
 tional force although this force belonged less to the 
 higher learning than did several other agencies. It 
 was the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 
 This Board, originally organized under the Smith- 
 Hughes act, was concerned largely with the training 
 of mechanics and technicians. 
 
 The sixth agency, and one of the more important, 
 was the American Council on Education. The 
 American Council on Education represented some 
 fifteen educational Associations of the United States, 
 and was formed primarily to aid the government in 
 meeting certain needs of the war conditions. It also 
 served to unite these educational bodies in a com- 
 mon purpose and to interpret the aims and the meth- 
 ods of each to the other, ^ot only was a better un- 
 derstanding thus established between the Associa- 
 tions themselves, but the government was enabled to 
 use efficiently an instrument which proved of inval- 
 uable service. The Associations, too, were benefited 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 29 
 
 by a leadership, the lack of which, in their relation 
 to national work, had been keenly felt. 
 
 The purpose of the American Council on Educa- 
 tion, or the Emergency Council on Education, is best 
 stated in a paragraph taken from one of its own 
 records : 
 
 " To place the educational resources of the country 
 more completely at the service of the ^National Gov- 
 ernment and its departments, to the end that, through 
 an understanding cooperation, the patriotic services 
 of the public schools, colleges and universities may 
 be augmented ; that a continuous supply of educated 
 men may be maintained ; and greater effectiveness in 
 meeting the educational problems arising during and 
 following the war may be secured." 
 
 The American Council on Education had charge of 
 the Publicity Campaign for the Students' Army 
 Training Corps. Directors were appointed in every 
 state, the cooperation of all colleges, universities, pub- 
 lic schools, and other institutions and organizations, 
 was sought, a great amount of " literature " was is- 
 sued, and a large correspondence carried on. 
 
 Because of the urgent need of nurses, at the re- 
 quest of the Surgeon General of the War Depart- 
 ment, the Council took upon itself the duty of ar- 
 ranging for courses of twelve weeks' duration, for 
 
30 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 the preliminary training of nurses in colleges and 
 universities. So well did the Council succeed in this 
 task that, at the signing of the armistice, over fifty 
 institutions had pledged to offer such courses. A 
 campaign, too, had been arranged to secure women 
 of essential fitness for nursing, — ten thousand of 
 whom the Council had promised to obtain and to 
 have their training completed before the 1st of July, 
 1919. 
 
 Through its efforts scholarships for French women, 
 scholarships for invalided French men, and for Rus- 
 sian soldiers were established. Over two hundred 
 French women, under its auspices, came to the 
 United States to enter its colleges and universi- 
 ties, — the college fees of whom were met by the in- 
 stitutions receiving them. Forty invalided French 
 men were brought to this country under conditions 
 similar to those obtaining in the case of the women. 
 
 The Council had charge of the visits to the United 
 States of the British Educational Mission and of the 
 French Educational Mission. 
 
 These facts indicate only a few of the great services 
 given by the American Council on Education. That 
 its work will be of vital importance in the future is 
 assured. It already has outlined for itself a course 
 of activities which include International Educational 
 Kelations, Educational Information and Standards, 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 31 
 
 Educational Policy and Organization, Education for 
 Citizenship, and the Training of "Women for Public 
 Service. 
 
 The National Research Council was fittingly 
 named as an agency of the higher military education. 
 
 It was established by the Academy of Sciences in 
 the year 1916, as a measure of preparedness in the 
 event of war. In 1918, the Council was taken over 
 by the government of the United States, and, after the 
 armistice, in the spring of 1919 it was reorganized as 
 a permanent institution. 
 
 In an executive order of the President of the 11th 
 of May, 1918, its work was made to have a six-fold 
 relation: (1) the quickening of research in the sci- 
 ences and in their application to the useful arts, in 
 order to increase knowledge, to strengthen national 
 defense, and to contribute in other ways to the public 
 welfare; (2) the surveying of the larger possibilities 
 of science, the forming of comprehensive projects of 
 research, the developing of proper means for utilizing 
 scientific and technical resources of the country in 
 conducting these projects; (3) the promotion of co- 
 operation in research, at home and abroad, to secure 
 concentration of effort, and so on, but, at the same 
 time, to encourage individual initiative as being of 
 fundamental importance to the advancement of sci- 
 ence ; (4) to bring American and foreign investigators 
 
32 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 into active cooperation with the scientific and tech- 
 nical service of the War and ISTavy Departments, as 
 well as those of the civil branches of the Government ; 
 (5) to call the attention of scientific and technical 
 investigators to the importance of military and indus- 
 trial problems in connection with the war, and to the 
 furthering of the solution of these problems by spe- 
 cific researches ; (6) the gathering and collating of all 
 scientific and technical information, in cooperation 
 with Governmental and other agencies, rendering 
 such information available to duly accredited per- 
 sons.^ 
 
 Associated in the Council were representatives of 
 national scientific and technical societies, of the 
 United States Government, of other research organ- 
 izations, and of people specially trained, and by na- 
 ture fitted, to promote its plans and purposes. 
 
 The Council was and is composed of a central 
 governing body, an Executive Board, and of thirteen 
 divisions. These thirteen divisions were divided 
 into two classes. Divisions of General Relations and 
 Divisions of Science and Technology. Under the 
 first heading were included the Government Division, 
 the Division of Foreign Relations, the Division of 
 
 1 Announcement of the Division of Educational Eelations, 
 The National Research Council, published at Washington, 
 D. C, August 15, 1919. 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 33 
 
 States Relations, the Division of Educational Rela- 
 tions, the Division of Industrial Relations and the 
 Research Information Service. In the Divisions of 
 Science and Technology were the Division of Physi- 
 cal Science, the Division of Engineering, the Divi- 
 sion of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, the Di- 
 vision of Geology and Geography, the Division of 
 Medical Sciences, the Division of Biology and Agri- 
 culture, and the Division of Anthropology and Psy- 
 chology. The men forming each division were 
 chosen from every field of knowledge and training 
 which fitted them for the special work. 
 
 The Division of Educational Relations made a 
 survey of all American educational institutions and 
 of all educational conditions in general, in America, 
 to learn of the possibilities for scientific research, and 
 to encourage, to inspire and to train men having the 
 proper qualifications for this most important service. 
 It was and is the aim of the Council to cooperate 
 with the universities in establishing favorable condi- 
 tions, and in seeking out and stimulating men to un- 
 dertake scientific research. 
 
 Perhaps the most important of all these diverse 
 agencies and institutions was the organization known 
 as the Committee on Education and Special Training. 
 The nature of this agency is well indicated in a letter 
 of the Secretary of War written February 20, 1918, 
 
34 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 and addressed to the presidents of educational insti- 
 tutions : — 
 
 " The exigencies of the War have emphasized very 
 strongly the value of the educational institutions of 
 the nation in connection with our military effort. 
 The schools and colleges of the country have with ad- 
 mirable spirit placed their resources at the disposal 
 of the War Department and other branches of the 
 Government. Much splendid work has already been 
 done in training men for the Army, for example — 
 in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, the Aviation 
 Ground Schools, the Ordnance Stores courses and in 
 the training of various kinds of specialists. 
 
 " The desirability of having a single agency in the 
 War Department to deal with the many problems of 
 education and training which continually arise has 
 been made evident. For the purpose of organizing 
 and coordinating all of the educational resources of 
 the country with relation to the needs of the Army, 
 I have, therefore, appointed a new committee of the 
 General Staff to be known as the ' Committee on Ed- 
 ucation and Special Training.' A copy of the Gen- 
 eral Order naming this committee and defining its 
 functions is enclosed. It will be the function of this 
 committee to represent the War Department in its 
 relations with the educational institutions of the 
 country and to develop and standardize policies 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 35 
 
 as between the schools and colleges and the War De- 
 partment. 
 
 " The war has developed a demand for large num- 
 bers of technically trained men. Until recently this 
 demand has been felt especially for men of advanced 
 training. I^ow, however, it extends to men with ele- 
 mentary training, as mechanics of various kinds. In 
 order to avoid unnecessary disturbance to essential 
 industries through withdrawal of skilled men an 
 effort will be made to give large numbers of men 
 entering the service intensive elementary training 
 along vocational lines. In the task of training these 
 men the schools and colleges can be of the greatest 
 assistance. It will be one of the first duties of the 
 Committee on Education and Special Training to 
 formulate definite plans in cooperation with schools 
 and colleges for training these men." 
 
 Under this order were inaugurated various meth- 
 ods for the training of mechanics and technicians, but 
 in particular and more important for the present pur- 
 pose was thus established what is historically the most 
 unique development of the martial academic life — 
 the Students' Army Training Corps. To this organ- 
 ization a following chapter is devoted. 
 
 In the paragraphs that have been concerned with 
 these eight forces and agencies the writer has yet not 
 forgotten the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. The 
 
36 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Reserve Officers' Training Corps was established in 
 about one-tbird of all tbe colleges and universities. 
 A dire need of tbe American Army was of properly 
 trained officers. To tbe colleges tbe government 
 turned for tbe filling of tbis need. Among tbe gen- 
 eral principles noted in tbe Act of June 3, 1916 is: 
 " It sbould be tbe aim of every educational institu- 
 tion to maintain one or more units of tbe Reserve 
 Officers' Training Corps in order tbat in time of na- 
 tional emergency tbere may be a sufficient number of 
 educated men, trained in military science and tactics, 
 to officer and lead intelligently tbe units of tbe large 
 armies upon wbicb tbe safety of tbe country will de- 
 pend. Tbe extent to wbicb tbis object is accom- 
 plisbed will be tbe measure of tbe success of tbe Re- 
 serve Officers' Training Corps." In carrying out 
 tbese principles a tborougb course of training was or- 
 ganized wbicb included botb tbe theoretical and prac- 
 tical parts of tbe making of a soldier. Tbe course of 
 study embodied topics as remote and diverse as tbe 
 international relations of America from tbe day of 
 Columbus to tbe present day, tbe intimate relation- 
 ship between the statesman and tbe soldier, and train- 
 ing in horsemanship and target practice. The gen- 
 eral course was comprehensive of military education, 
 uniting many and diverse subjects. 
 
 Tbe education that was thus given for a period of 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 37 
 
 two years in certain colleges proved to be of great 
 worth in the subsequent training of the camp and in 
 the active operations of the field. Merged for a time 
 in the Students' Army Training Corps, the Reserve 
 Officers' Training Corps was reestablished soon after 
 the demobilization under authority of an act of the 
 twenty-third of ISTovember, 1918. The subsequent 
 value in times of peace of military training in the 
 colleges belongs to a later part of academic history. 
 
 As one considers the list of organizations founded 
 by, for or among the colleges and universities sev- 
 eral reflections emerge. 
 
 The first remark concerns the diversity of function 
 rendered by these academic forces. This diversity 
 extended from the training of officers and of privates 
 for military, naval, and aerial service to the discov- 
 ery and publication of knowledge, from the hearten- 
 ing of professors and students in the individual col- 
 lege to the mobilizing of all the forces, intellectual 
 and administrative, athletic and social, of all colleges 
 and universities. The second remark concerns the 
 importance of these diverse functions in a nation 
 which, by history, tradition, and preference, is a non- 
 military power. It was to the men of liberal educa- 
 tion and association that the government turned for 
 material for counselors, for leaders and for officers. 
 West Point and Annapolis were, of course, great re- 
 
38 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 sources. But it was recognized that the material for 
 oificers furnished by the colleges was, in many re- 
 spects, quite as adequate as that offered by these spe- 
 cial schools. Liberal learning was again proved to 
 be a first-rate foundation and force for technical 
 training and for military efiiciency. 
 
 It is also plain, in the third place, that the divers- 
 ity of these functions and the energy thus employed 
 sprang out of the desire and the power of the college 
 to do its utmost for the welfare of the nation and 
 of humanity in the great crisis. Trustees, teachers, 
 students, recognized that the supreme and fundamen- 
 tal purposes of the higher education, — purposes in- 
 carnated in its own history, — were at stake. They 
 were therefore prepared and quickened to give their 
 all. 
 
 A fourth reflection is found in the pleasant judg- 
 ment that in this variety of services, services not in- 
 frequently crossing each other in methods and means, 
 occurred a smaller waste of force, both material and 
 human, than would easily be believed possible. 
 There was so much to do, so few to do the much, the 
 time was so short, and the emergency so critical, that 
 the temptation to waste, to jealousy, or to inefficiency, 
 was slight. If one bureau found itself superfluous, 
 it could easily disband or change its function, trans- 
 ferring to another agency its special duty. Often 
 
Before the Entrance of the United States 39 
 
 the very success of a board promoted its dissolution. 
 The history of the war could in a sense be measured 
 by the making and the unmaking of the forces which 
 had accomplished their individual tasks. 
 
Ill 
 
 FINANCIAL EELATIONS OF THE COLLEGES 
 
 Throughout the academic year of 191 6-1 Y, the 
 colleges and universities were in a condition of un- 
 certainty. The world crisis betokened a crisis aca- 
 demic. This uncertainty and critical condition 
 showed itself in manifold forms. ISTo form was more 
 insistent; or more alarming, than that relating to 
 income and to the number of students attending as 
 a basis of income. The picture which the academic 
 authorities were obliged to present to themselves in 
 the year 1916-17 regarding finance was of extreme 
 significance. The picture was composed of both fact 
 and inference, of general truth and of its immediate 
 application. 
 
 The colleges and universities of the United States 
 possess several sources of income. One of the more 
 natural and normal is found in the fees paid by the 
 students for instruction. One source, also natural 
 and normal, is the income from endowment — en- 
 dowment which is the result of gift or of bequest, and 
 
 is invested usually in good bonds and first-rate stocks. 
 
 40 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 41 
 
 In certain institutions the endowment is invested at 
 least in part in revenue-producing real estate. 
 
 In addition to these three sources, certain institu- 
 tions receive special grants or gifts. The State uni- 
 versities are the beneficiaries of their respective Com- 
 monwealths and are largely supported by grants 
 made, annually or biennially, by special act or gen- 
 eral statutes by the Legislature. Certain municipal 
 universities, likewise, are the beneficiaries of the tax- 
 duplicate of their respective cities. Some denomina- 
 tional colleges are the recipients, too, of donations 
 from the churches of which they are a part, more or 
 less integral. It is also further to be noted that prac- 
 tically all institutions find in their trustees and other 
 friends benefactors who, with a certain degree of reg- 
 ularity, and usually with great generosity, give to the 
 support of the educational trust to which they are 
 committed. ' 
 
 But, omitting the State universities, it is to be said 
 that the two first-named sources, fees and income 
 from endowment, are the principal reservoirs whence 
 flow the support of the typical American college and 
 university. These two sources are, at the present 
 time, about equal in amount, and it is not a little re- 
 markable how nearly equal these two amounts have 
 maintained themselves in the last four or five dec- 
 ades, a period which covers the time in which insti- 
 
42 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 tutions of the higher learning have made the furthest 
 and most rapid progress. 
 
 In the year 187Q, 49 per cent, of the income of our 
 colleges was derived from fees paid by the students, 
 and 51 per cent, from the revenue of the endowment. 
 Twenty years after, in 1896, the proportion paid by 
 the students had risen to 60 per cent., and that pro- 
 vided by capital had fallen to 40 per cent. In the 
 year 1916 the proportion had so moved up and moved 
 down that it had reached almost the middle point be- 
 tween the extremes of 1876 and 1896, 55 per cent, 
 being paid by students and 45 per cent, being drawn 
 from the income of endowment. 
 
 The steadiness of these proportions seems to be all 
 the more remarkable when one recalls the vast in- 
 crease of these two items. For in 1876 the income 
 from productive funds was $2,060,182 and the in- 
 come from fees was $1,984,811. In 1896 the in- 
 come from productive funds had become $6,191,204 
 and the income paid by the students $9,585,772. 
 But in 1916 the income from productive funds had 
 lifted itself to $18,246,427 and the income from stu- 
 dents to the stupendous sum of $23,603,919. In 
 forty years the increase in the gross amounts had, in 
 the case of endowment, been multiplied ninefold and 
 in the case of fees about twelvefold, and yet the pro- 
 portional percentage had remained pretty steady. 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 43 
 
 It is interesting, moreover, to note and to compare 
 the different amounts received by colleges in the dif- 
 ferent parts of the United States from students and 
 from the annual endowment income. In the report 
 of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1916, 
 in the North Atlantic States about 58 per cent, of the 
 income was derived from students' fees and about 42 
 from the income of endowment. In the South At- 
 lantic States about QQ per cent, of the income was de- 
 rived from students' payments and 34 per cent, from 
 the income of endowment. In the Southern Central 
 States about 42 per cent, was derived from the fees 
 paid by students and about 58 per cent, from the in- 
 come of endowment; and in the Western States 45 
 per cent, was derived from the fees paid by students 
 and about 55 from the income of endowment. 
 
 The facts regarding a few representative colleges 
 and universities regarding the proportional amount 
 of income drawn from students and from endowment 
 become yet more interesting as the facts become more 
 definite. In the year 1916 Harvard University drew 
 $859,819 from the fees of students and $1,374,6Y7 
 from the income of endowment; Yale University, 
 $557,941 from the fees of students and $827,254 
 from the income of endowment; Stanford Univers- 
 ity, $98,273 from the fees of students and $836,527 
 from the income of endowment; the University of 
 
44 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Chicago, $708,175 from the fees of students and 
 $1,094,254 from the income of endowment; Prince- 
 ton, $221,220 from the fees of students and $267,643 
 from the income of endowment; Columbia, $987,559 
 from the fees of students and $1,255,619 from the 
 income of endowment; Johns Hopkins University, 
 $125,477 from the fees of students and $322,516 
 from endowment; Amherst, $59,957 from the fees of 
 students and $139,982 from the income of endow- 
 ment; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, $429,- 
 963 from the fees of students and $101,280 from the 
 income of endowment; Williams College, $95,918 
 from the fees of students and $83,156 from the in- 
 come of endowment; Cornell University drew $622,- 
 575 from the fees of students and $675,347 from 
 the income of endowment. 
 
 In a, preceding paragraph I deferred the consid- 
 eration of the State universities in respect to their 
 sources of income. For these universities form a 
 class. They are supported out of the public chest. 
 They are an integral part of the system of public 
 education of each Commonwealth. The amounts 
 drawn from the fees of their students and from the 
 income of their endowments are usually relatively 
 small. The larger share of the revenue lies in grants 
 made from the public exchequer. The sums thus de- 
 rived form pleasant and inspiring reading. In the 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 45 
 
 year 1916-17 the University of California received 
 from students the sum of $292,102 and from the 
 State of California for current expenses $1,339,999 ; 
 the University of Illinois, from students $236,150 
 and from the State $1,636,500; the University of 
 Indiana, from students $41,000 and from the State 
 $534,000; the University of Iowa, from students 
 $80,498 and from the State $519,Y00 ; the University 
 of Kansas, from students $99,91Y and from the State 
 $560,500 ; the University of Michigan, from students 
 the large sum of $457,411 and from the State $1,- 
 026,800 ; the University of Minnesota, from students 
 $248,719 and from the State $1,415,663; the Uni- 
 versity of Missouri, from students $114,725 and 
 from the State $553,084; the University of 'Ne- 
 braska, from students $85,214 and from the State 
 $622,648; Ohio State University, from students 
 $222,480 and from the State $868,361; the Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin, from students $452,090 and 
 from the State $1,666,723. 
 
 This record is indeed of inspiring force to one 
 measuring the progress of a people in terms of intel- 
 lectual instruction or of intellectual power. 
 
 I have referred to the crisis which the colleges were 
 facing in the academic year of 1916-17. Certain 
 financial facts which helped to constitute this crisis I 
 have stated, and other facts perhaps need no state- 
 
46 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ment. But one simple fact cannot be stated with too 
 great emphasis. It is the fact of the uncertainty of 
 revenue which arose from the doubt attending the 
 number of students who should be enrolled in these 
 more than five hundred colleges and universities. 
 The revenue was uncertain because the students, who 
 normally would furnish about one-half of the rev- 
 enue, formed a very doubtful quantity. Taking the 
 whole country, there were about twenty per cent, 
 fewer S'tudents in the colleges in the year 1917-18 
 than in 191 6-1 Y. The proportion differed in many 
 institutions. These differences are shown in the 
 
 following table : 
 
 Enrollment Enrollment 
 
 Name of College 1917-18 1916-17 
 
 Allegheny 352 403 
 
 Amherst 367 505 
 
 Bates 428 473 
 
 Boston College 638 675 
 
 Boston University 2,801 2,525 
 
 Bowdoin 341 434 
 
 Brown 916 1,136 
 
 Bryn Mawr 484 447 
 
 Clark 115 167 
 
 Colby 360 422 
 
 Colgate 434 581 
 
 Columbia 5,914 6,566 
 
 Cornell 3,859 5,264 
 
 De Pauw 874 930 
 
 Conn. College for Women 237 200 
 
 Dartmouth 1,020 1,501 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 47 
 
 Enrollment Enrollment 
 
 Name of College 1917-18 ■ 1916-17 
 
 Goucher 701 612 
 
 Hamilton i 200 220 
 
 Harvard 2,998 4,976 
 
 Holy Cross.. 621 592 
 
 Indiana University 1,656 2,008 
 
 Iowa State University 2,475 2,896 
 
 Knox 603 724 
 
 Lafayette 442 634 
 
 Lehigh 650 805 
 
 Massachusetts Agricultural 495 695 
 
 Mass. Institute of Tech 1,670 1,937 
 
 Middlebury 288 372 
 
 Mount Holyoke 850 824 
 
 New Hampshire 552 653 
 
 New York University 6,937 7,476 
 
 Norwich 181 196 
 
 Ohio State University 4,187 5,077 
 
 Oberlin 930 1,023 
 
 Pennsylvania State 2,073 2,352 
 
 Princeton 866 1,555 
 
 Purdue 1,644 2,136 
 
 Eadcliffe 603 675 
 
 Ehode Island State 249 336 
 
 Simmons 1,054 1,088 
 
 Smith 1,946 1,917 
 
 Stanford 1,555 1,991 
 
 Syracuse 3,150 4,088 
 
 Trinity 166 246 
 
 Tufts 1,667 1,737 
 
 University of California 5,660 6,460 
 
 University of Cincinnati 2,068 2,131 
 
 University of Illinois 4,851 5,876 
 
48 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Enrollment Enrollment 
 
 Name of College 1917-18 1916-17 
 
 University of Maine 816 1,195 
 
 University of Michigan 4,722 5,976 
 
 University of Nebraska 3,586 4,362 
 
 University of Pennsylvania 6,620 8,832 
 
 University of Rochester 526 564 
 
 University of Vermont 580 672 
 
 University of Virginia 738 1,059 
 
 University of Wisconsin 4,098 5,020 
 
 Vassar 1,125 1,102 
 
 Wellesley 1,612 1,572 
 
 Wesleyan 397 504 
 
 Western Reserve University 1,417 1,583 
 
 Williams 424 548 
 
 Worcester Polytechnic 425 639 
 
 Yale 2,129 3,262 
 
 Total 102,353 123,327 
 
 Regarding the reduction in the number of students 
 for the year and years following the academic period 
 of 1917-18 what prophet would have dared to fore- 
 tell? It seemed probable that the draft age would 
 be lowered below twenty-one. Most boys enter col- 
 lege about the age of eighteen and one-half years. 
 One argued that they would not be called to the col- 
 ors. The increase of pay, moreover, for work was 
 compelling. The actual need of workers was rather 
 persuasive to the conscientious youth. The boy of 
 eighteen, ineligible for service, might yet take the 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 49 
 
 place of a brother of twenty-four who had gone to 
 France. A general dislocation of forces and values, 
 intellectual, commercial, industrial, turned the atten- 
 tion of youth from forces academic. In times of 
 war scholarship is in peril of being silent. 
 
 What, therefore, were the colleges to do in arrang- 
 ing their scale of expenditures for the forthcoming 
 year and years ? That was the question with which 
 boards of trustees, faculties, and academic executives 
 were deeply concerned in the closing months of the 
 academic year of 1917-18. 
 
 In answer it was said that there were certain meth- 
 ods of a negative sort worthy at least of consideration. 
 One of the more impressive developments of the last 
 decade and decades is the vast increase in numbers of 
 the teaching staff. Such a development, in a condi- 
 tion like that obtaining in 1917-18, almost inevitably 
 ceases. With this ceasing also ceases a certain in- 
 crease in the expense side of a budget. Along with 
 this limitation may arise a material limitation in 
 the stopping of the erection of new buildings or of 
 additions to equipment. Of course, such a negative 
 action is simply analogous to the method pursued in 
 any business of cutting down cost. 
 
 A second method of a more or less negative type 
 was found in the lessening of expenses through the 
 enlistments of teachers in the national service. In 
 
50 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 not a few colleges the names of scores of men were 
 borne on the official registers and catalogues as absent 
 on leave in the national service. Some of these men 
 received no, or small, pay from the Government. 
 They were serving for a " dollar a year." In the 
 case of others a certain moderate stipend was derived 
 from the Government, and from the Government 
 only., In the case of others — a large number — the 
 Governmental pay was augmented by an amount 
 made up by the individual college which still bore 
 the enlisted men upon its official registers. The de- 
 sign in this case usually was to make the pay derived 
 from both the college and the Government equal to 
 that formerly derived from the college. In still 
 other instances, the amount of compensation was de- 
 termined not by uniform principle or method, but 
 by individual arrangement made between the person 
 engaged in the national service and his college. 
 
 A third method lay in the sad measure of cutting 
 down the salaries of the teaching staff and of admin- 
 istrative officers. This measure was seldom suffered. 
 Such a reduction would not only have hurt most de- 
 serving members of a most important profession, but 
 it would have also damaged the profession in the eyes 
 and heart of the public. Such a damage would have 
 been nothing less than a disaster to the whole com- 
 munity as well as to the profession itself. The dis- 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 51 
 
 aster would have become even more disastrous in 
 view of the increasing cost of living. 
 
 A fourth method of reduction opened. It con- 
 sisted in the suspension, for the time being, of de- 
 partments, either by complete elimination or by 
 union with other departments. Latin and Greek 
 were, be it said with deep regret, declining forces in 
 the academic curriculum. Greek had, much to the 
 sorrow of a large part of the older thinking members 
 of the community, approached the vanishing point of 
 Hebrew. Latin each year had been comimanding a 
 smaller clientele. These two literatures and lan- 
 guages might for the hour be united in their teaching. 
 The same method might be pursued with French and 
 German, as they had been formally united in an early 
 academic period, under the general head of " Mod- 
 ern Languages." German in the year 1917-18 was 
 elected by only one-half of the number of students 
 who chose it in the year preceding. The number of 
 students in French was about doubled. In this rela- 
 tion many small sections of students — and the num- 
 ber of such sections was and is more numerous than 
 usually believed — might be reduced or entirely elim- 
 inated. Large classes are not effective as educational 
 conditions. But for the time being they might be 
 suffered. 
 
 Turning now to the positive method, it was said 
 
52 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 that income miglit be increased througli tlie gifts of 
 trustees and of friends, gifts made for immediate 
 expenditures. Sucli a method was and is normal. 
 Trustees are bound to protect and to promote trusts 
 entrusted to them. The war was to end some time. 
 The demand for educated men was to be vast at the 
 end of the war. The colleges were to give such men 
 to the community. A vision of duty, of privilege, 
 cannot but influence trustees to hold together the com- 
 plex and serious agencies which contribute to the 
 higher education. They are ever to be prepared to 
 advance these agencies whenever the door of opportu- 
 nity opens. They are to be at once conservative and 
 progressive. They are to conserve, to save, to cause 
 to endure, to hold fast all that the past offers. They 
 are also to go on, to advance into new realms of en- 
 larging opportunity. ISTever is a board of trustees 
 to sound retreat in any institution which ought to 
 live. 
 
 This method of raising money for the immediate 
 need was better, in my judgment, inexpressibly bet- 
 ter, than the method of borrowing to meet emergen- 
 cies. The method of borrowing, I am sorry to say, 
 certain colleges did adopt. For debts are to be paid. 
 It was recognized that the future would lay special 
 demands upon the American college, and that the 
 
Financial Relations of the Colleges 53 
 
 meeting of these subsequent demands would be inter- 
 fered with by the paying of old debts. 
 
 Boards of trustees, to whom are primarily com- 
 mitted the financial interests of American colleges 
 and universities, as to the faculties are committed the 
 scholastic concerns, are, as a rule, composed of men 
 high in purpose, able in intellect, sensitive to public 
 needs, and devoted to their academic duty. They are 
 frequently not well informed regarding the place of 
 the higher education in a democracy. But such lack 
 of information and of consequent sympathy is quite 
 as often due to an inefficient president as to any other 
 cause. Yet as a body they have vision — though not 
 often a far-off one — and they also have what is of 
 greater and of greatest importance, capacities for con- 
 certed and high resolution and action whenever the 
 occasion strongly calls. The closing months of the 
 war in the history of American institutions of the 
 higher learning were apparently to constitute such an 
 occasion and the occasion was continued in the fol- 
 lowing years. These bodies of trustees did prove able 
 to do their own great duties, and to quicken other men 
 to do their duties likewise in the crisis. 
 
 To the taking of risks (though not too boldly), 
 to the making of sacrifice, and to the upholding of 
 intellectual standards in an industrial age, in a 
 
54 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 period of necessary and glorious military force, these 
 boards of trustees gave themselves willingly, fear- 
 lessly, and triumphantly. Tor such self-giving, peo- 
 ple ultimately receive richest rewards : — the con- 
 sciousness that in a time of public doubt, anxiety, 
 and fear, they have helped to transmute things ma- 
 terial through personal devotion into truth and into 
 righteousness. 
 
IV 
 
 THE STUDENTS AHMY TEAINING COEPS 
 
 The montlis of the spring and early summer of the 
 year 1918 were black for the cause of the allies. 
 Germany had made her peace with Russia. The 
 Prussian spirit had revived not only in Prussia but 
 throughout the German Empire. The transfer of 
 troops from the Eastern to the Western front had 
 been made. The British Empire with the backs of 
 her soldiers to the wall, as Haig said, was being put 
 to the test. America had begun to send her troops 
 over, but not in the numbers or having the training 
 which the terrible seriousness of the cause demanded. 
 The westward rush of German divisions threw doubt 
 only on one point whether the contest would reach 
 its early consummation in the capture of Paris or in 
 the capitulation of the channel ports. Among all 
 the allies it was a time of deep questioning; among 
 some a time of racking doubt; and among a few, a 
 time of paralyzing dismay. The fate of the individ- 
 ual nations and of a democratic world was trembling 
 
 in the balances of war. 
 
 55 
 
56 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 It was under sucli circumstances and in such a 
 mood that the United States began to consider the 
 question of a larger participation through her forces 
 in the world's conflict. Chief among the measures 
 debated was the increase of her man power. 
 
 The Act of Congress putting down the draft age to 
 eighteen instinctively and inevitably laid a condition 
 on the students of the college of unexampled serious- 
 ness. This seriousness was intimated in a circular 
 issued by the Committee on Education and Special 
 Training in the month of March, 1918 : 
 
 " The college student body constitutes a great military- 
 asset if fully developed. Many are material for junior 
 officers and non-commissioned officers. One hundred thou- 
 sand young men systematically instructed say twelve 
 hours a week during the college year, and with summer 
 training camps, would produce at the end of each sum m er 
 during the period of the war a body of trained young men 
 who would be of immense value in forming larger armies 
 if the wax', as now seems likely, is much prolonged. In 
 our judgmenx the military value of training all the college 
 students of the country is alone more than sufficient to 
 justify such a plan. 
 
 At the same time a well-conceived and comprehensive 
 training system would make the students feel that they 
 were doing their share in a manner approved by the Gov- 
 ernment, and were justified in continuing their studies." ^ 
 
 1 Committee on Education and Special Training, War De- 
 partment Circular, March 28th, 1918. 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 57 
 
 The average age of entering college is eighteen 
 plus. The average age of graduation, therefore, is 
 twenty-two. The proposed conscription, therefore, 
 immediately and inevitably led or would lead to the 
 emptying of all college classes into the army, and also 
 of preventing most men from entering college at all 
 in the academic year of 1918-119. In order to 
 forestall such a catastrophe the Act establishing the 
 Students' Army Training Corps was passed. The 
 Act of Congress, approved May 18th, 1917, an Act 
 commonly known as the Selective Service Act, was 
 amended by the Act of August 31st of the following 
 year. It was of the utmost significance. It author- 
 ized the raising and maintaining by voluntary induc- 
 tion and draft, of a Students' Army Training Corps, 
 and authorized the Secretary of War to form such 
 Corps in educational institutions. The purpose in 
 establishing these units was to utilize the plant, 
 equipment and organization of the colleges for select- 
 ing and training candidates for office, and technical 
 experts for service. Colleges and professional schools 
 formed the body of the institutions in which such 
 units were authorized. Their number was about five 
 hundred, representing colleges and schools of almost 
 every grade and condition. The colleges became, like 
 the railroads, essentially government institutions. 
 All students who entered the American colleges in 
 
58 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 the autumn of 1918, either as freshmen or as upper- 
 classmen, being eighteen years of age and of physical 
 fitness, became by their entrance, soldiers of the 
 United States. 
 
 These students pursued a course of study which 
 was either military or colored by military conditions. 
 ISTo less than eleven hours of each week were assigned 
 for drill and work therewith connected. In addition 
 fourteen hours of lectures and recitations were pro- 
 vided from subjects which had or might have a cer- 
 tain relationship to military affairs. These subjects 
 included English, French, German, mathematics, 
 physics, chemistry, biology, geology, mineralogy, 
 geometry, meteorology, topography and map-drawing, 
 asitronomy, descriptive geography, hygiene, sanita- 
 tion, psychology, mechanical and free-hand drawing, 
 surveying, economics, accounting, history, interna- 
 tional law, military law and government. From this 
 score of subjects the student made such selection as 
 the college officials thought fitting. One course, 
 however, was required of every member of the Stu- 
 dents' Army Training Corps, generally known as the 
 underlying ideas of the war ; but this course was in- 
 terpreted generously as standing for a course in the 
 aims of the war, or in history, government, econom- 
 ics, philosophy or modern literature. It is to be 
 jioted that Latin or Greek or Biblical literature was 
 
The Students' Army Training Corps 59 
 
 not included in the course ; and that German was in- 
 cluded. 
 
 An essential military camp was established on 
 every campus. The Campus Academicus became the 
 Campus Martins. 
 
 All of these soldier students, or student soldiers, 
 were required to live in barracks provided by the col- 
 lege and to have their meals at a common mess. The 
 program of each day was essentially arranged as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 6:45 A.M. Reveille 
 
 Y :00 Mess 
 
 7:30— 9:30 Drill 
 9:30 — 12:00 Recitation and Study 
 12:15 P.M. Mess 
 
 1:00— 4:30 Study and Recitation 
 4 :30 — • 5 :30 Athletics and recreation 
 5 :30 Mess 
 
 Mess to 7:30 At student's disposal 
 7 :30 — 9 :30 Study under supervision 
 10 :00 Taps 
 
 The requirements of the Government, moreover, 
 went beyond the order of each day. It concerned 
 the whole academic year as well. Each year was di- 
 vided into four terms of three months each, begin- 
 ning with the 1st of October. Each term was usually 
 to be made a distinct unit of instruction by each 
 college. 
 
60 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 In the development of the Students' Army Train- 
 ing Corps the Federal Government approached more 
 nearly than by any other method or measure to the 
 German procedure of the control of the higher educa- 
 tion. The distance was indeed immense, for the con- 
 trol of education by the State was and is a permanent 
 Teutonic method. The State directs the course of 
 study. The State determines the emphases in teach- 
 ing and learning. The State appoints the professors. 
 The State recognizes the truth of Bismarck's remark 
 — " that he who controls the schools, controls the 
 future." The German State is the educational di- 
 rector. To the State the university teacher takes the 
 oath of allegiance. His professional patriotism is a 
 method of professorial advancement. For disobedi- 
 ence the State punishes him by removal or degrada- 
 tion or other penalty. Freedom of teaching is a 
 somewhat ridiculous professorial liberty interpreted 
 in the light of the State's directorship. For the gen- 
 eration previous to the outbreak of the war, history 
 was made the tool of German patriotism and of the 
 depreciation of other nations. Geography was trans- 
 muted into a scheme of colonial enlargement and ag- 
 grandizement. Anthropology became a method of 
 eulogizing the racial Germanic dominance. Biog- 
 raphy, essay, poem, was made a means of projecting 
 Germanic ideals. The atmosphere of the schoolroom 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 61 
 
 and of university aula was the atmosphere of pan- 
 Germanism. 
 
 Such was the German autocracy in education, 
 which, however, was thoroughly unlike the strictness 
 and orderliness of American education. 
 
 The pecuniary provision made by the Government 
 for each soldier student was generous. The Govern- 
 ment paid tuition fees, provided lodging in the college 
 barracks, board in the college mess, and uniforms, and 
 gave him $30.00 a month as wages. The charge for 
 tuition differs in different colleges, but assuming that 
 this charge is $150.00 a year, the Government prom- 
 ised to pay for each student, $150.00 for tuition, 
 $360.00 for lodging and board or $510.00, his wages 
 of $360.00 and the cost of his uniform, making a total 
 of at least $900.00. This arrangement formed the 
 most generous provision ever made in the history of 
 liberal education for the education of a great body of 
 student soldiers. It had no precedent. 
 
 Four distinct groups of citizens were immediately 
 and generally concerned with this academic revolu- 
 tion. They were the college faculty, the college trus- 
 tees, the students, and the public. To this revolution 
 the college faculties assented, if not with alacrity, at 
 least with willingness and in cooperation. It was 
 not, be it also said, the willingness of compulsion, 
 but a willingness based on the assurance that this 
 
62 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 method represented one of the most effective forces 
 for the winning of the great war. Facilities recog- 
 nized as one of the advantages of the system the fact 
 that the students felt a certain obligation to work, 
 which under the individualistic system of the former 
 time was somewhat foreign to certain groups. 
 
 Trustees too, shouldered the financial and adminis- 
 trative responsibility for housing and feeding these 
 men with the same generosity with which they as pri- 
 vate citizens gave to the " Y. M. C. A." or bought 
 Liberty Bonds. The student, moreover, took, for a 
 time, to this new life of the old and the new work, 
 under unique conditions, with an enthusiasm bom of 
 a generous and direct interest. But be it added that 
 the enthusiasm somewhat cooled after a few weeks. 
 The number of students, too, was large. In fact, 
 the enrollment in the freshman classes of the best col- 
 leges was far greater than had ever been known. It 
 may be added that the cause of this increase was not 
 to be interpreted as slackness. For these men as 
 college students were subject to the same general 
 terms — of either hope or fear, and far more fre- 
 quently hope — of being drafted as if they had dwelt 
 outside the college gateway. 
 
 The fourth group concerned with this revolution 
 was the people themselves. The people responded to 
 this change with an enthusiasm akin to that of the 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 63 
 
 boys. Education has become the great buman inter- 
 est, and tbe American people recognized that this 
 unique development of tbe bigber form of tbis inter- 
 est was fraugbt witb tbe most tremendous potentiali- 
 ties for knowledge, rigbteousness, and power, indi- 
 vidual and national. 
 
 In causing tbis transformation in tbe bigber edu- 
 cation, tbe Government was moved by at least tbree 
 considerations. First, tbe giving of relief from over- 
 crowding in tbe cantonments. Second, tbe promo- 
 tion of efficiency. Tbe efficiency was promoted by 
 tbe elimination of tbe unfit and tbe discovering of 
 tbe fit, and of tbe fittest for special jobs. For after 
 a period, eacb man was assigned to military duty in 
 one of tbe following forms : 
 
 (a) Transferred to a central officers' camp. 
 
 (b) Transferred to a non-commissioned officers' 
 training scbool. 
 
 (c) Transferred to a scbool for intensive work in 
 a specified line. 
 
 (d) Transferred to a technical training scbool. 
 
 (e) Transferred to a cantonment to serve as a 
 private. 
 
 A tbird motive of tbe Government was tbe sav- 
 ing of tbe colleges from disruption. Tbe draft 
 would bave gone a long ways toward at least tbe tem- 
 porary dissolution of tbe colleges. ISTo favoritism 
 
64 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 could or should have been shown by the government 
 to the academic class. These men could not and 
 should not have been made the subjects of exemption, 
 as medical students were made, and properly made. 
 Most men, too, would have declined to enter a col- 
 lege that thus exempted them. They would have felt 
 the implied shame of cowardice. The men who 
 joined the college were still open to conscription as 
 were men without the academic walls. They were 
 allowed to stay in college for a time, just how long 
 that time would be no one knew. It might have been 
 for a single quarter or term. It might have been for 
 several quarters; but whether the time were long or 
 short, many men would in that time have succeeded 
 in getting the college touch and the college vision 
 would have dawned upon their eyes. 
 
 In an effort to serve the college and in the purpose 
 of the college to serve the nation a campaign for 
 students was undertaken in each of the states. Con- 
 ventions of college officers were called to promote gen- 
 eral enthusiasm and to consider academic conditions. 
 High school principals and superintendents were 
 called on to quicken the interest of students in going 
 on with their education. Parishes and churches 
 were requested by the United States Committee on 
 Education to present to their congregations the im- 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 65 
 
 portance of both the higher education and of military 
 service. Parents were encouraged to make all sacri- 
 fices necessary to keep their sons and daughters in 
 school. Series of letters were printed by the news- 
 papers interpreting and emphasizing the advantages 
 of the higher education. State and local superin- 
 tendents of schools employed the agency of their office 
 in arguing for the value of an education of an ad- 
 vanced type. " It's patriotic to go to college " — be- 
 came the common educational war-cry. 
 
 Many and diverse were the arguments used in this 
 campaign for the entrance of young men into the col- 
 lege, and subsequently, into the United States army. 
 The War Department issued special circulars urging 
 entrance and enlistment. It was declared that engi- 
 neers, chemists, physicists and geologists were as im- 
 portant as riflemen. Liberal education and scientific 
 training help, it was affirmed, to develop the qualities 
 of research which are as necessary as narrow military 
 efficiency. The entrance into college would prevent 
 premature enlistment and would offer a proper outlet 
 for patriotic zeal. The standards of education would 
 be maintained and efficiency in winning the war pro- 
 moted. The education and training thus given, ef- 
 fective in war, would also become precious assets in 
 the time of peace. The individual student would be 
 
Q6 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 made fit for service in the world, not only in the ensu- 
 ing months but for his entire lifetime. Said the 
 Commissioner of Education : 
 
 " Not only is it necessary for the welfare of the country 
 and the safety of our democracy when the war is over; it 
 is equally important for the strength of our country while 
 the war continues. We would all hope that the war may 
 end soon, but it may be very long, and in war a people 
 must prepare for every possibility. If the war should be 
 long, there will be a great need in all the Allied countries 
 for large numbers of men and women of the best college 
 and university training for service both in the Army and 
 in the industries directly connected with the war, and 
 the colleges and universities of the United States must 
 supply this need to a large extent for all the Allied 
 countries. In some fields, as chemistry and the various 
 forms of civil and industrial engineering, the demand for 
 the trained men and women is already much greater than 
 the supply. It is, therefore, a patriotic duty for young 
 men and women who are prepared to enter college to do 
 so and for those now in college to remain until their 
 courses are completed, unless they are called for some serv- 
 ice which can not be rendered so effectively by others. 
 They should be encouraged to exercise that high form of 
 self-restraint which will keep them at their studies de- 
 spite all temptations for some more immediate service un- 
 til they are prepared for the expert work without which 
 the devotion and efforts of millions will be of little value. 
 
 When the war is over and the days of reconstruction 
 come, the call upon this country for men and women of 
 the highest and best training for help in rebuilding the 
 world will be large and insistent. For our own good and 
 
Tlie Students Army Training Corps 67 
 
 for the good of the world we should be able to respond 
 generously. Conditions in this country and our position 
 among the peoples of the world will require of us a higher 
 level of intelligence and civic righteousness than we or 
 any other people have ever yet attained. This must be 
 insured largely through the education of our schools." ^ 
 
 The curriculum into which the student was intro- 
 duced on his entrance into college was one of much 
 detail. The program was in no small degree based 
 upon the age of the students at the time of the open- 
 ing of the colleges. The supposition was common 
 that the war would continue for at least one year, and 
 possibly for three or four. It was, therefore, de- 
 termined that the older students of more than twenty 
 years should remain in college only one term of 
 twelve weeks ; those who had reached the age of nine- 
 teen, two terms of twelve weeks each ; and those of a 
 younger age would possibly be allowed to remain for 
 three terms. For those whose outlook was of the 
 briefest or briefer duration, the subjects prescribed 
 were of a narrower sort, being quite entirely military, 
 embracing subjects determined by the service pro- 
 posed. It might include air service, ordnance, en- 
 gineering, military law and practice, surveying and 
 map drawing and motor transportation. The curric- 
 ulum was held to professional subjects. For men, 
 
 1 Letter from the Department of the Interior, Bureau of 
 Education, Washington, August 15, 1918. 
 
68 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 however, of the earlier age of eighteen, a somewhat 
 different program was prescribed of a broader type, 
 but even in this broader type courses in military in- 
 struction and war issues were included.^ 
 
 While these teachings were being given to no less 
 than one hundred and fifty thousand men in about 
 
 1 The breadth of the instruction in history for instance is 
 illustrated in a pamphlet issued by the Bureau of Education 
 in 1917, entitled, "Opportunities for History Teachers — The 
 Lessons of the Great War in the Classroom." In one paragraph 
 of that work it is said : " The training of young people, and 
 of the parents through the pupils, to take an intelligent part 
 in the decision of public questions is important enough at any 
 time; but it is peculiarly so in this war, whose meaning for 
 the individual citizen is not so easily brought home. In 1823 
 and 1824, when the Monroe Doctrine was under discussion, 
 Daniel Webster referred to the people who thought that Amer- 
 icans had no interest in the European system of mutual in- 
 surance for hereditary rulers against popular movements. 
 What, they said, have we to do with Europe ? ' The thunder, 
 it may be said, rolls at a distance. The wide Atlantic is be- 
 tween us and danger; and, however others may suffer, we 
 shall remain safe.' Webster's answer to this question was 
 strikingly similar to some of the utterances of President 
 Wilson : ' I think it is a sufficient answer to this to say that 
 we are one of the nations of the earth. . . , We have as clear 
 an interest in international law as individuals have in the 
 laws of society.' That was said long before the steamship, 
 the ocean cable, the submarine, and the wireless had broken 
 down still further our ' splendid isolation.' To-day we are 
 fighting for our own rights, but over and above those special 
 rights of our own are fighting for international law itself, 
 without which no nation can be safe, least of all those demo- 
 cratic governments which are less effectively organized for 
 war than for peace." 
 
The Students' Army Training Corps 69 
 
 five hundred colleges, the gains and losses of this mil- 
 itary-academic program became apparent. The 
 gains, and there were gains, and losses, and there 
 were losses, academic and personal, educational and 
 administrative, occurred under an authority that was 
 divided. The original college officers had charge of 
 the regular academic work. The military officers 
 were in supreme control of the military side. These 
 two administrations were going forward upon the 
 same campus and at the same time. Authority was 
 divided. It was only because of the mutual respect 
 of those concerned, that collisions were so few and 
 so slight. Academic standards were arbitrarily set 
 aside; academic methods were contemned; military- 
 standards, manners and methods were installed. Be- 
 cause of the exigency college presidents and faculties 
 were inclined to give up to the military dominance. 
 The officers who embodied these conditions were us- 
 ually young men, themselves students in college, other 
 than the college to which they were assigned. They 
 were immature, without experience, unable to under- 
 stand relationships and naturally inclined to the ar- 
 bitrary enforcement of rules and orders. The War 
 Department sought to avoid confusion and collision; 
 but confusion was inevitable and collisions not un- 
 common. The command from the War Department 
 that the officers should assist the educational authori- 
 
70 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ties in securing from all men a full performance of 
 their academic work iiad small meaning. Some of- 
 ficers were unfit to do tlieir duty and they therefore 
 did it with inefficiency, and with but little regard 
 to either student or teacher. 
 
 While this work of military training, and of a cer- 
 tain type of liberal education, was going on, the ar- 
 mistice was signed. The stopping of induction was 
 ordered ISTovember 14th, and a few days after, 'No- 
 vember 26th, a general demobilization of the one 
 hundred and fifty thousand soldier students enrolled 
 was ordered. The order for demobilization came as 
 a surprise quite as great, and quite as disintegrating 
 for the students as for the college itself. The sud- 
 denness was somewhat disastrous. The harm done 
 by the issuance of the order was well indicated by Ex- 
 President Taft: — 
 
 " No institutions in our country have been more helpful 
 to the Government in carrying on the war than the uni- 
 versities and colleges. From their students and recent 
 graduates the War and Navy Departments have filled their 
 training camps and recruited their officers. The greatest 
 difficulty in making a republican army is in securing offi- 
 cers. The wonderful adaptability of the American college 
 boy saved the situation for the first two millions. When 
 the second two millions had to be raised and officered the 
 Government in effect commandeered every collegiate 
 school of learning and made it into a military school, an 
 
The Students' Army Training Corps 71 
 
 associate West Point or Annapolis. Rigid discipline was 
 enforced under army or naval officers. Curricula and 
 faculties were arranged to accord with the purpose, and 
 the whole academic character of the institutions was aban- 
 doned to aid the Government in the war. Thousands and 
 thousands of cadets have been launched on a year's train- 
 ing that would have made good material for young com- 
 missioned officers in the army. They have now completed 
 nearly a third of the school year. The colleges and uni- 
 versities have made their plans for a full year. 
 
 With the armistice and the coming of peace, the mili- 
 tary departments of the Government, it is said, propose 
 to discharge these cadets and to break up the plans to 
 which the whole college system of the country has com- 
 mitted itself for a year at great expense of time and money 
 and effort. In the middle of the school year the cadets 
 are to be thrown out of their courses and to be left with- 
 out discipline and without definite aim or plan until next 
 fall. This is greatly to be regretted. It is not fair to the 
 colleges. They cannot resume their academic courses and 
 life before next fall. It will leave them crippled and 
 struggling for nine months. Mere money compensation, 
 if forthcoming, will not be adequate. It is not fair to the 
 cadets. A year's training of the kind already begun would 
 be good for the boys and good for the country. It would 
 be a useful step in beginning a system of universal train- 
 ing. It would save the country from demoralization of 
 its higher educational work. 
 
 The cost to the Government of continuance until June 
 would be small as compared with the waste involved in 
 this sudden break up. It is not too much to say that the 
 announcement from Washington is received with dismay 
 by college authorities throughout the country. It may 
 lead to a protest from them that the Administration will 
 do well to heed. 
 
72 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 If the unfortunate policy is adhered to, it will give well- 
 grounded support to the charge that the Administration is 
 afraid to do what it knows it ought to do, because it wishes 
 to escape the demagogic and cheap criticism that it favors 
 unduly those seeking a college education." ^ 
 
 The colleges liad not only revolutionized tlieir cur- 
 ricula, they had also expended large amounts of 
 money in the construction of barracks and of mess 
 halls for their soldier students, these costing from a 
 few thousand dollars up to sums as large as at least 
 $200,000. These structures v^ere paid for out of the 
 funds of the colleges themselves, under the assurance 
 that the Government would finally compensate the 
 colleges for such expenditures. After some months 
 of delay, in some cases of more than a year, delays in 
 many cases inevitable, however, the Government fin- 
 ally adjusted these accounts and usually to the satis- 
 faction of the colleges concerned. 
 
 As one reviews this unique educational movement 
 it is not difficult to count up its gains and its losses. 
 
 Among the gains is to be noted an increase in the 
 formal courtesy and good manners of the students. 
 The uniform may or may not be becoming to the in- 
 dividual taken by himself, yet, it is becoming and 
 certainly impressive when it is seen upon a hundred 
 or a thousand men. The manners of these men be- 
 
 1 A Grave Injustice to American Colleges, published in 
 many papers, November, 1918. 
 
The Students' Army Training Corps Y3 
 
 came more constantly such as belong to gentlemen. 
 Salutations were given witli gTeater constancy and 
 freeness, — not that these items are at all of primary 
 sigTiificance, but they do have at least some value, 
 value inward as well as outward. For good manners 
 in the college yard make the ordinary doings of life 
 a bit more easy, and they, moreover, increase genuine 
 self-respect. 
 
 It is also clear that the regular habits of the stu- 
 dent camp tended to promote health. The habits of 
 the older college men are not habits. They are, 
 rather, violations, eccentricities, irregularities, con- 
 scious or unconscious. The college man sleeps at all 
 hours or no hours at all. He eats at all hours or does 
 not eat at all, and eats, when he does eat, what he 
 likes. He exercises in such ways as please him and 
 too often it pleases him not to exercise at all. He 
 studies much or he studies little, and at such times 
 and places as suit his daily and hourly convenience. 
 Though such an interpretation appears to be a little 
 too general, yet, there are scores of college men in 
 every hundred to whom it can be fittingly applied. 
 Contrast with such disorderliness a program such as 
 obtained at most colleges : in which from the reveille 
 at 6:45 and breakfast at 7:00, with drill at 7:30, 
 every hour till taps at ten o'clock was occupied ! 
 Such a program promotes health. 
 
74 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Among these advantages was a third gain, to wit, 
 students were well looked after by the military col- 
 legiate authorities. The authorities knew where each 
 student was, and how he was, and what he was doing 
 with his time and with his own personal self. Super- 
 vision was constant and detailed. Such vigilance 
 was quite unlike the old academic laissez faire. I 
 know very well the advantages and disadvantages of 
 each method. Laissez faire, improperly applied, de- 
 velops rashness, waste, intellectual, ethical and not 
 infrequently utter wreckage. Supervision, properly 
 used, promotes economy in spending one's complete 
 forces. Supervision, improperly used, applied too 
 constantly or too closely, tends to promote the infan- 
 tile mind and will, without vigor or directness of per- 
 sonality. It protects innocence ; it kills achievement. 
 I venture to say that the older colleges or at least 
 many colleges of the older time, erred on the side of 
 giving too little supervision or too great freedom. 
 They thought the student was a man. He was, but 
 he was not quite so much of a man as they were in- 
 clined to believe. Therefore, the faculty gave him 
 an independence which he could not use well, and he 
 wasted himself. 
 
 The military college may be inclined to use vigi- 
 lance too constant or too exact, but the reaction from 
 the older system was not unfitting. And this vigi- 
 
The Students Army Training Corps T5 
 
 lance of academic conduct and bearing produced in 
 the year 1918 good results. 
 
 Such watchfulness insured another gain. It was 
 the gain of industriousness. The college man, made 
 into a soldier, worked. He labored at his studies 
 some eight hours a day or forty-eight hours a week. 
 He labored at his drill some ten hours a week. 
 Happy man! If he were poor, or semi-poor, in 
 purse, he was not obliged to earn his living at 25 cents 
 an hour. He was in the pay of the Government, and 
 he was able to study. If he were rich, or half -rich, he 
 had no leisure in which to spend money or to loaf. 
 His mood was — Attention. The college man 
 worked, and to teach men how to work effectively is 
 also a chief end of higher education. It was proved 
 that more work was done, and better work. This 
 gain was both quantitive and qualitative. Yet, it is 
 to be added, that this gain was vitiated by the 
 interruption of the day's routine and also by a certain 
 excitement under which the soldier student constantly 
 labored. 
 
 Closely connected with this advantage was the ad- 
 vantage of obedience. The first duty of the soldier, 
 whether that soldier be a student or an infantry man, 
 is obedience. He is not under rules; he is under 
 commands; he takes orders. The contrast between 
 the directness and the apparent arbitrariness of the 
 
Y6 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 camp and the graciousness of a college of gentlemen 
 is deep and wide. This obedience is to be prompt 
 and absolute. Such a life is good for the soldier 
 student for at least a time. It is well for him to be 
 the subject or victim of penalty, and not to be the 
 writer of excuses for absences. Indifference to law 
 is an American failing. It is good for college men to 
 obey law with promptness and exactness. 
 
 A further gain was also apparent in the increase 
 in the democracy of the college. The soldier's uni- 
 form is typical. One of the first things which the 
 authorities did to the men on their induction into the 
 Students' Army Training Corps was to take from 
 them their fraternity pins. One oath was adminis- 
 tered, one mess was spread, one camp life was pro- 
 vided, one drill was required, one set of tactics was 
 learned and practiced, one comprehensive duty was 
 imposed. Of course, official individualities were re- 
 spected. Of course, the life of the officer was made 
 unlike the life of the man of the ranks. The distinc- 
 tion between the officer and the private was empha- 
 sized with a stress which the civilian does not under- 
 stand, but such distinction was declared to be neces- 
 sary for orderliness. Yet, the general zones and 
 strata of social demarcations which, in some colleges 
 have been too characteristic, were either wholly cut 
 down or largely wiped out. 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 11 
 
 I also wish to refer to two more gains lying in a 
 different plane from the gains accruing to the student 
 body. One of the gains was found in the evidence 
 which this transformation offered concerning the ad- 
 justability of the college teacher. Too often has this 
 teacher been looked upon as unbending in his meth- 
 ods, fixed in his devotion to his scholastic ideas, and 
 stiff in his interpretations of the means to be used in 
 achieving results. Such has been the interpretation 
 of the public. Those of us who live all our lives 
 with college teachers have recognized that this inter- 
 pretation was not so true as was commonly believed. 
 The revolution proved that it was even more false 
 than seemed possible. College teachers of Greek be- 
 came chairmen of committees on building barracks 
 and on running mess halls. Teachers of philosophy 
 instructed in elementary French, and distinguished 
 professors of Latin became interested in purchasing 
 supplies for a post canteen. The professorial mind 
 is not an unbending bar of steel, but rather, like 
 water, it adjusts itself to the vessel which bears it. 
 
 A further advantage was also of a similar sort. 
 It was the impression of the public that the college is 
 remote from human concerns. The public has often 
 assumed that the college was separated from human 
 affairs, and that the academic mind was quite foreign 
 to common interests. Of course, the belief was false, 
 
Y8 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 so false was it, that it seemed unworthy to speak of 
 it, mueli less to attempt to remove it. But the revo- 
 lution proved to all who would receive evidence, that 
 every interest lying outside of the academic gate- 
 ways is of deep concern to the teachers dwelling 
 within these gateways. The college student and the 
 college teacher responded to the call of the colors and 
 of the nation as no other body responded, — and I do 
 not depreciate any response, — and such response the 
 community not only recognized as normal and nat- 
 ural, but also eulogized as belonging to the human 
 order of the heroic. 
 
 Such were some of the gains resulting from the aca- 
 demic revolution, and they were gains of great worth. 
 
 But there were losses also found in this academic 
 revolution. These losses may be very largely put 
 into the singular number. For the sum of them was 
 a single loss. It was the loss of the higher education 
 itself ; it was the loss of culture ; it was the loss of in- 
 tellectual breadth ; it was the loss of liberal learning. 
 Various may be the names and diverse the expressions 
 used to indicate the loss. It is the loss of a sense of 
 relationships^ of a certain intellectual freedom in 
 knowing and in judging subjects, movements, men. 
 A well-roundedness and balance, a power of reason, 
 judgment, and large humanness, a sense of considera- 
 tion for contrary principles and motives, means and 
 
The Students' Army Training Corps 79 
 
 methods, a willingness to listen and to reflect, a power 
 of weighing evidence and of assessing truths and 
 facts at a just value, a genuine intellectual altru- 
 ism : — these are and ever are the qualities and marks 
 of the higher education which were brought into 
 jeopardy. The higher education helps to make each 
 citizen of the nation a freeman of the intellectual 
 realm. Of course, breadth may easily become vague- 
 ness and liberty, looseness, — as easily as individual- 
 ity may become eccentricity; but to preserve the 
 value of breadth and of liberality without narrow- 
 ness, is the goal of the higher education. Yet it may 
 be at once said that culture or cultivation is secured 
 as much by the teacher as by the subject taught, be 
 the subject even the great literatures or philosophies. 
 For a boor may so teach Greek as to create boorish- 
 ness; and a scholar may so teach carpentry as to 
 promote scholarship and to nourish scholars. It is 
 easy to believe that several of the required military 
 subjects, taught with a sense of relationships, would 
 always tend to develop men of great thoughtfulness 
 and appreciation, of genuine education and culture. 
 Though this comprehensive loss was chief, yet 
 there occurred also two minor disadvantages. One 
 was the lack of initiative, and the slightness of op- 
 portunity for individual study and for personal inde- 
 pendence. Each day, as I have said, was a program 
 
80 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 through which the students marched with the regular- 
 ity of soldiers. To vary from the system, save for 
 an exceptional and imperative reason, was impos- 
 sible. Good as this system was for some men of the 
 loose intellectual type and of moral laziness, it was 
 for others, the worst possible process. It made the 
 lock-step in education. 
 
 Another disadvantage lay in a wholly different 
 realm. It was the lack of that culture and inspira- 
 tion which comes from the formal services of religion. 
 Of course, the camp had its religious rights and soci- 
 eties. Every regiment has a chaplain or chaplains. 
 The " Y. M. C. A." in many and diverse ways per- 
 forms a great service. Yet that place which the col- 
 lege chapel fills in the usual academic order was 
 lacking in the military college. Religion in college 
 should represent the broadest teachings. It should 
 embody at least these four principles : love as the law 
 of life ; the perf ectability of the race ; the personality 
 of God; and the immortality of the individual soul. 
 The atmosphere which clusters about a proper daily 
 chapel service, the military college lacks, and cannot 
 do otherwise than lack. Such a service represents 
 not only religion as such, but also religion as an in- 
 spiring part of culture and a necessary element in the 
 character of the noblest individual man. 
 
 I should perhaps refer to one further condition 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 81 
 
 which resulted from the academic transformation, 
 which may be said to lie in the educational " No 
 Man's Land." It is found in the condition of the 
 ordinary undergraduate undertakings. These un- 
 dertakings had become in the earlier time too numer- 
 ous and too compelling. Avocations had displaced 
 the vocation of the college undergraduate, yet, the 
 avocation had and has its functions to perform. The 
 college newspaper and magazine, daily, weekly, 
 monthly, the musical and dramatic clubs, the debat- 
 ing and literary societies, the athletic associations, 
 these and many similar organizations and forces 
 ceased to be, or at least ceased to live a vigorous life. 
 To some students these informal forces formed and 
 form the best of the college. To others they serve as 
 leeches, drawing away the real academic blood. But 
 whether for good or for ill, they practically ceased 
 to function in the Students' Army Training Corps. 
 
 Chief among such academic by-products is found 
 the college fraternity. 'Next to the organization of 
 the individual class, these societies of the students 
 are the most important of all associations. They 
 form a cross section of the academic life. The fra- 
 ternity includes freshmen as well as seniors. It 
 also goes beyond the day of graduation. Its alumni 
 associations form an important part of its organiza- 
 tion, giving counsel and support, financial and per- 
 
82 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 sonal, to the undergraduate chapter. With the 
 establishment of the Students' Army Training Corps 
 the fraternities closed their houses or at any 
 rate, curtailed their activities. The requirements 
 that the soldier students should live in barracks for- 
 bade the use of houses for dormitory purposes. The 
 few members not eligible for the training course by 
 reason of age or of physical disability, used them; 
 and in the few free hours of the day the men in khaki 
 came to them as a place of refreshing. But for the 
 first months of the college year of 1918-1919, they 
 became rather a liability than an asset. On demobil- 
 ization they resumed their normal functions. It 
 may now be said that the fraternities in the Ameri- 
 can colleges have, as fraternities, taken a great part 
 in the war, no less than one-fourth of all the mem- 
 bers of some fraternities being enrolled. If their 
 members went forth as students and undergraduates 
 of individual colleges, they also found deep inspira- 
 tion and cause of hearty gratitude in their fraternity 
 association. In their quarterly and other journals, 
 the fraternities kept in close relationship with their 
 brethren over-seas. 
 
 A proper summary of all the comprehensive and 
 diverse conditions establishing the Students' Army 
 Training Corps is found in a personal letter, and yet 
 not so personal as to forbid its present use, written 
 
The Students Army Training Corps 83 
 
 a few days after the demobilization of the larger 
 share of the corps, by the Secretary of War. Mr. 
 Baker says : 
 
 " The Students' Army Training Corps was, of course, 
 primarily organized for military uses, but I was especially 
 happy that such an arrangement turned out to be feasible 
 because it seemed to me to be a way of keeping a large 
 number of our American colleges from entire dissolution, 
 and gave some promise of continuing academic traditions 
 of the country during the war. It seemed to me that if 
 the war was to go on for several years we would come to a 
 situation in this country of having almost no academically 
 trained men over a period of three or four years. Serious 
 as this loss would have been in itself, a still more serious 
 consequence of it would have been the break in the pursuit 
 of the liberal studies, for the released army would un- 
 doubtedly have gone eagerly to scientific and the so-called 
 more practical courses, while the liberal studies of lan- 
 guage and literature would have had a struggle to regain 
 their places. 
 
 " I think there are some compensations of the kind you 
 suggest. Our Army experience has taught a good deal 
 about the health of young men, and while I am by no 
 means clear that we can get the same sort of zeal among 
 college students for military training in times of peace as 
 we got when there was an immediate war objective ahead 
 of the men, I still feel that there are some things for the 
 colleges to learn from the training camps, and they are 
 particularly the things implied in the soldier's motto of 
 keeping one's self ' fit to fight.' I share your feeling, too, 
 that the discipline and courtesy of the military establish- 
 ment are handsome attributes in the normal relation of 
 
84 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 young men to one another and to their instructors, and 
 I hope it will be found possible for tis to retain some of 
 these habits as a permanent gain." ^ 
 
 In a further letter written July 19th, 1919, Secre- 
 tary Baker gives a benediction to the colleges : — 
 
 " The settlements recently completed between your insti- 
 tution and the United States Government terminate the 
 contractual relations entered into last autumn for the pur- 
 pose of carrying into effect the plan of the Students' 
 Army Training Corps. While that plan was a logical if 
 not imperative step at the time when it was undertaken, 
 when a long war appeared to be in prospect, and when it 
 was necessary to mobilize the entire energies of the nation, 
 the signing of the armistice on November 11 prevented 
 it from ever being fully carried into effect. The abrupt 
 termination of the S. A. T. C. before sufEcient time had 
 elapsed for its complete development, the interruptions 
 due to the influenza epidemic and to other conditions in- 
 cident to the early stages of organization, created diffi- 
 culties which could not fail seriously to disturb the order 
 of academic life. I am, therefore, glad of this oppor- 
 tunity to express to you my recognition of the patience, 
 devotion and skill with which both teachers and execu- 
 tives played the parts which they were asked to play. 
 The proposals of the War Department almost invariably 
 met with a prompt and cordial response, and a willing- 
 ness to make very genuine sacrifices where these seemed 
 to be required by the nation's military need." 
 
 1 Letter of December 30, 1918. 
 
V 
 
 THE ENLISTED 
 
 While the Students' Army Training Corps was 
 performing its important functions on the college 
 campus, undergraduates and graduates were en- 
 listing in the service at home and overseas, and 
 were doing the duties which belong to enlisted 
 men on training ground and in camp. They 
 had, also, for a year and a half, been already enlist- 
 ing. The numbers of such enrolled from the alumni 
 and students of each college and university it 
 is impossible to learn with fullness and accuracy. 
 Indeed the number of such men is not usually 
 kno^vn to the colleges themselves. For graduates 
 enlist and fail to inform the college; and even 
 if colleges are informed, records are behind the 
 facts of enrollment and of service. But from re- 
 ports made by colleges and universities it is estimated 
 that not far from 180,000 graduates and under- 
 graduates were enrolled in the service of the United 
 States outside and beyond the Army Training Corps 
 
 of the autumn of 1918. They were found in all 
 
 85 
 
86 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 branches of the service.^ Of course the infantry 
 included the largest share, but the artillery called 
 out a peculiarly commanding response in the men of 
 trained brain. Of this number of 180,000, about 
 one^third were undergraduates. The 120,000 who 
 had received their degrees formed about one-third of 
 all living graduates. The proportion enrolled was 
 simply immense, especially as one considers the num- 
 ber of graduates who were ineligible by reason of age 
 or of physical disabilities. From no section of Amer- 
 ican society was poured forth so large a proportion of 
 soldiers. The reasons for an oifering so magnificent 
 are intimated in the first chapter. 
 
 The number of college men, however, both un- 
 
 1 The military and naval service is a general term, vrhich 
 applied to specific instances of service, might result in con- 
 fusion. At a meeting of representatives of colleges, held at 
 New Haven, May 10th, 1918, a definition of service, military 
 and naval, vras adopted. By this definition such service 
 includes : 
 
 " 1. Men who have voluntarily enlisted or who have been 
 drafted and mustered into the service; and 
 
 " Men who have been commissioned and who have accepted 
 the commission and have been called into service. 
 
 " 2. Men who are actually engaged in service in Europe with 
 the army or navy as workers under the direction of the Y. M. C. 
 A., the Knights of Columbus, the Hebrew Y. M. A., or the Red 
 Cross. 
 
 " This is to be interpreted as including men engaged in am- 
 bulance service, whether serving directly as part of the mili- 
 tary organization, or in some semi-independent unit as the 
 Norton-Harjes unit." 
 
The Enlisted 87 
 
 dergraduate and graduate, who entered tlie service it 
 is impossible to state with accuracy. The following 
 table is based largely on figures approved by the sev- 
 eral hundred colleges and universities concerned, and 
 also in part on estimates furnished by the institutions 
 themselves, or by others knowing the academic con- 
 ditions. For it is to be acknowledged that many col- 
 leges themselves are ignorant of the number of gradu- 
 ates or former students who were enrolled. The in- 
 stitutions of each State gave the following quotas : — 
 
 Alabama 1,514 Maryland 2,138 
 
 Arizona 271 Massachusetts 14,157 
 
 Arkansas 863 Michigan 9,726 
 
 California 7,037 Minnesota 3,499 
 
 Colorado 2,262 Missouri 4,378 
 
 Connecticut . 9,758 Montana 1,281 
 
 Delaware 264 Nebraska 2,487 
 
 District of Colum- Nevada 298 
 
 bia 855 New Hampshire . . . 1,668 
 
 Florida 606 New Jersey 4,261 
 
 Georgia 2,190 New Mexico 169 
 
 Hawaii 41 New York 14,635 
 
 Idaho 426 North Carolina 2,855 
 
 Illinois 8,885 North Dakota 1,019 
 
 Indiana 5,817 Ohio 10,143 
 
 Iowa 5,994 Oklahoma 1,548 
 
 Kansas 3,069 Oregon 1,340 
 
 Kentucky 2,979 Pennsylvania 14,423 
 
 Louisiana 1,095 Porto Rico 19 
 
 Maine 1,735 Rhode Island 1,396 
 
88 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 South Carolina 1,281 Washin^on 4,618 
 
 Tennessee 3,065 West Virginia 1,343 
 
 Texas 2,325 Wisconsin 3,837 
 
 Utah 1,608 
 
 Vermont 1,684 Grand total 178,824 
 
 Virginia 4,071 
 
 These tables serve to call out certain impressive 
 inferences. 
 
 The statistics prove the active loyalty of college 
 students and of college graduates. They give no in- 
 timation of a fugitive and cloistered virtue. They 
 convey no suggestion of remoteness from human con- 
 cerns or of indifference to human problems or of con- 
 tempt for human sufferings. They disprove the oc- 
 casional and loudly expressed belief, or the quietly 
 held suspicion, that the college youth of America are 
 characterized by gilded superficiality (and not a very 
 deep gilding either), by contemptuous thoughtless- 
 ness, and by unreasoning selfishness. They prove 
 that the college heart, the college mind, the college 
 conscience, are as sound as oak, as true as steel, as 
 pure as the best diamond. 
 
 The statistics also give evidence of the worth of 
 the American system of the higher education. This 
 system has been passing through transformations. 
 From the classical to the scientific, from the ancient 
 linguistic to the modem linguistic foundation, from 
 
The Enlisted 89 
 
 the natural sciences to the social sciences, has pro- 
 ceeded the academic movement. Content has been 
 altered, emphasis transferred, methods changed. 
 But the purpose has remained deep and permanent. 
 The moving spirit has suffered no " sea " or other 
 " change." To educate their mind to think, to pro- 
 mote reflectiveness as a mood, to transmute knovs^l- 
 edge into vi^isdom, to train the heart unto tenderness 
 without gushingness, to give a sense of aspiration 
 without visionariness, to make sympathy broad with- 
 out becoming thin or artificial, to give delicacy to the 
 moral nature without over-refinement, to discipline 
 resistance without stubborness and firmness without 
 obstinacy, to give to character graciousness without 
 obsequiousness, to the gentleman aggressiveness with- 
 out obtrusiveness — such are some intimations of the 
 purpose of the higher education. These purposes 
 have been maintained. The higher education has 
 kept watch to insure the integrity of the individual 
 conscience and the soundness of the individual in- 
 tellect. The result is superb. 
 
 A further inference, of a broader and more im- 
 mediate sigTiificance, relates to the essential worthi- 
 ness of the American society whence are drawn these 
 youths. They are in a sense picked youth. They 
 represent a saving remnant of a long educational 
 process of their generation and of generations pre- 
 
90 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ceding. Each of theni is perhaps one in thirty of 
 the companions who began their primary school with 
 them. Yet they are in fact part and parcel of the 
 whole community. From their integrity we have a 
 right to infer the integrity of the whole group 
 whence they have been drawn. 
 
 One further inference is to be added. It is the 
 inference that the governors of the American colleges 
 may, in modesty, give to themselves heartiest con- 
 gratulations. The teacher in the American college, 
 in becoming a teacher, gives up many of the prizes 
 of life which allure not a few of his contemporaries 
 and comrades. He surrenders every hope of wealth. 
 He knows he is to be contented with a simple com- 
 petency. He crushes out any desire, even if he ever 
 had one, of general public distinction. Yet he does 
 put before himself the belief that he is, in quietness, 
 educating men to think clearly, that he is inspiring 
 men to make a life rather than a livelihood, and that 
 he is training leaders for the more public concerns 
 which he is not privileged to undertake. These re- 
 wards are more precious than rubies. His class room 
 becomes a gateway to the field of broad service. His 
 chapel talks may be recalled in straightening out a 
 battle line or in obeying a military command. His 
 personal counsel may aid in planning a campaign, 
 civil or military. These and similar rewards of the 
 
The Enlisted 91 
 
 college teacher — tlie real force in the American col- 
 lege — are also rewards which belong in their proper 
 share to every trustee and benefactor. They are re- 
 wards, moreover, which are given to all who are 
 privileged to aid in making the American college a 
 teacher of wisdom in and for a democratic govern- 
 ment and a creator of forces for service on land and 
 sea, under the sea, and in the air. 
 
VI 
 
 COLLEGE: OF'FICEKS IN WAE, SEEVICE 
 
 The service offered by the officers of the colleges was 
 quite as impressive as that rendered by the students 
 and graduates. The enrollment was made up of 
 professors of each department and by deans, presi- 
 dents and other executives of every order. Of all 
 departments, the medical naturally furnished the 
 greatest proportion. Of every one hundred officers 
 who entered the service more than one-half were 
 found to be medical — physicians, surgeons and 
 teachers. The assignment to their new work was 
 usually made on the basis of their special training 
 and preferences. Teachers of surgery became heads 
 of surgical units in the field or in base hospitals. 
 Teachers of bacteriology and of public health were 
 enrolled as health commissioners in Roumania and 
 Servia. Teachers of pathology set up their labora- 
 tories at Rouen. Teachers of ophthalmology were 
 drafted as special examiners in the office of the 
 surgeon general. Teachers of nervous diseases cared 
 
 92 
 
College Officers in War Service 93 
 
 for large areas of distressing illness in American 
 camps and French cities. Teachers of dermatology 
 gave their wisdom in criminal and other most serious 
 problems. Teachers of pharmacology found abun- 
 dant opportunities for the compounding of drugs. 
 Teachers of pediatrics were busy with the problems 
 which war creates in children. Teachers of physiol- 
 ogy and psychology found the crises made by shell- 
 shock most compelling. Teachers of preventive 
 medicine were required to inspect drinking water 
 and other health conditions as presented in many 
 camps. In other fields than the medical, equally 
 important services were given. Professors of botany 
 were drafted into the examination of botanical war 
 products and into work for the United States Agri- 
 cultural Department. Professors of chemistry were 
 called into chemical research ; professors of physics 
 into the study of methods for submarine protection; 
 professors of transportation into work for the War 
 Board ; professors of anthropology into the laying out 
 of camps; professors of forestry into experimenting 
 on farms and in forests ; professors of law into serv- 
 ice as judge advocates; professors of politics and 
 government into lecturing on patriotism; professors 
 of lumbering into estimating the cost of building 
 ships and camps ; professors of French into teaching 
 conversational French to nurses and doctors. Such 
 
94 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 assignments were normal, natural and were also 
 proved to be effective. 
 
 But other assignments were made, wliicli were in- 
 deed less normal and proved to be far less effective. 
 It is not bard to present examples. Professors of 
 geology were commandeered as inspectors of fabrics. 
 Professors of astronomy were made instructors in 
 language. Professors of economics were selected as 
 instructors in military science. In the early stages 
 of the war, in Prance, under the democratic influence, 
 discrimination of ability for duty was not practiced. 
 A French professor of chemistry, the recipient of a 
 l^obel prize, was in one instance made the guardian 
 of a bridge. But in general, be it said, assignments 
 were made with discrimination. It is to be added, 
 moreover, that the power and worth manifested in one 
 department of teaching and research often seemed 
 to prepare the worker for service in a department 
 apparently quite unlike or unrelated. The method 
 of learning and of teaching was proved to be more 
 important than the content of instruction. A mind 
 well educated is able to turn itself with ease and ef- 
 fectiveness unto problems lying in other fields than 
 those of its own peculiar cultivation. The higher 
 education consists less in having learned than in 
 ability to learn. 
 
 Both in the camp and on the campus, college 
 
College Officers in War Service 95 
 
 officers usually manifested a spirit of cooperation. 
 This cooperation belonged, not only to members of 
 their own class, but also to the class unacademic. 
 Professors are usually individualists. In the war 
 professors learned the art of team play, as thor- 
 oughly as the football team learns it on the gridiron. 
 Professors are usually experts in their own field, 
 and in no other. In the war they learned that their 
 own scholarly attainments were to be united with the 
 equally scholarly attainments of other experts. They 
 learned to deal with all sorts and conditions of men : 
 to be patient with both presumption and stupidity, to 
 be forebearing with ignorance, to work with laziness, 
 to be gracious toward selfishness, — in order to get 
 the best results out of conditions favorable or un- 
 favorable to one's immediate or remote purpose. 
 
 The duties thus assigned were usually done with 
 both judgment and enthusiasm. One teacher, a pro- 
 fessor in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 wrote : " Am very busy, with nothing but engines, 
 gears and cranks and wheels from morning to night. 
 It is easily the most interesting work I ever did. 
 Ah, but this is the life. I am beginning to realize 
 that I never lived before — and I may not live much 
 longer. You don't know how it sets a man to think- 
 ing, when a heavy T. IST. T. bomb drops near him in 
 the night time in the streets of a great city. It does 
 
96 
 
 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 not make him afraid ; it simply makes him lose his re- 
 spect for mankind. 
 
 " But it is all for Liberty." ^ 
 
 Another teacher having charge of French refugees 
 wrote : " But men may come and men may go, the 
 stream of ^ Rapatries ' goes on forever, with all its 
 joy and pathos. Some 1,500 per day hereafter be- 
 ing absorbed into France and cared for tenderly by 
 weary, plucky, courageous France, who has not be- 
 gun to get to the limit of her resources, in my judg- 
 ment, and would fight on for ten years, if necessary, 
 paying whatever price is necessary for victory. . . . 
 The French people go right on absorbing at the rate 
 of 1,000 to 1,500 a day, the lame, the blind, the halt, 
 the sick, the young and the old and the insane that 
 Germany is sending them, including many other fine 
 people, but no able-bodied men and very few able- 
 bodied women, except those with small children. 
 Have carried eighty-four people so far to-day, one 
 hundred yesterday and more the day before." ^ 
 
 In the midst of this outpouring of loyal and of 
 royal service on the part of the colleges and of in- 
 dividual teachers, were heard occasional notes of 
 either rebelliousness or of indifference. Suspicions 
 
 1 Letter from Professor Riley of the Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology. 
 
 2 Wilmot V. Metcalf, Fish University News, February, 1918, 
 pages 18 and 19. 
 
College Officers in War Service 97 
 
 of disloyalty on the part of teachers were, though in- 
 frequently, held. Such suspicions gave the govern- 
 ment reason for watchfulness. In certain instances, 
 these suspicions proved to be unfounded. In other 
 instances the evidence was sustained. Hugo Mun- 
 sterberg, Professor of Psychology in Harvard Uni- 
 versity since the year 1892, a man bom in Germany 
 and educated in German institutions, at one time a 
 professor in the University of Freiburg, was under 
 constant surveillance. His death has not removed 
 certain evidence of his cooperation with the Kaiser's 
 government. The only instance that has come into 
 the public notice, of the removal of a college execu- 
 tive, was found in the presidency of Baldwin-Wallace, 
 a college of OhiO'. After an investigation, made by 
 a special committee of Methodist bishops — the col- 
 lege itself being of that denomination — the presi- 
 dent was removed from office. The purpose of the 
 removal was at least two-fold, to serve as a warning 
 to academic executives and professors and also as a 
 guarantee of the patriotism of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church. 
 
 In general, however, it is to be firmly said that 
 the officers in the American college who remained at 
 their desks and their duties were as loyal, and, some 
 of them at least, as useful by address and essay, as 
 well as by conferences and conventions, as their 
 
98 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 brothers who went forth into the field, or who worked 
 directly in their laboratories on munition formulas. 
 They kept the academic home fires burning. They 
 gave wisdom in counsel, strength to the will, and cour- 
 age to the heart of the individual and of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 The contribution thus made by men and women, 
 teachers in American colleges, was as diverse as the 
 forces and conditions that constitute warfare or that 
 compose the American college. The devotion thus 
 given was of the highest quality. It stood at once 
 for duty and for honor. Like their younger sons, 
 they held not their own lives dear unto them. Some 
 did not return to their desks or their books, and 
 some of those who did return bear in body and in 
 spirit the lasting marks of their inferno. 
 
VII 
 
 THE SPIRIT OF THE STUDENT SOLDIER 
 
 The spirit of the student soldier who entered the 
 service was one of intellectual understanding. He 
 appreciated the issues personal, national and inter- 
 national, which were wrapped up in his enrollment 
 and commitment. To this understanding and ap- 
 preciation was added a willingness to do all and to 
 be all essential to the securing of the war's ultimate 
 purpose. One would hesitate to say that these great 
 comprehensions were the property of the student 
 only. They belonged to all citizens, yet it would not 
 be unjust to intimate that the understanding made 
 by him was at least as definite and considerate as that 
 belonging to many. Of course the simple element 
 of heroic enthusiasm and devotion is an integral 
 part of all true and worthy men. Such a deposit 
 is a common part of our common humanity. 
 
 In the mind and heart of the collegian was found 
 a mighty determination to fight until the proper vic- 
 tory was won. The purpose was well put into some 
 singing verses by a graduate of Western Reserve 
 
 99 
 
100 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 University near tlie time of America's entrance. 
 Edward Bushnell wrote these lines whicli were sung 
 in many army camps : — 
 
 "UNCLE SAM" 
 
 1 
 So you've drawn your sword again, Uncle Sam! 
 You're lined up with fighting men, Uncle Sam! 
 
 For, when freedom is at stake. 
 
 You will fight for honor's sake; 
 
 And you'll fight till tyrants quake, Uncle Sam. 
 
 2 
 
 We know war is not your game. Uncle Sam. 
 'Twas at peace you made your fame, Uncle Sam. 
 
 And 'tis always with regret 
 
 That you make a war-like threat; 
 
 But they've never whipped you yet. Uncle Sam. 
 
 3 
 
 We will sail on all the seas. Uncle Sam, 
 Without saying " if " or " please," Uncle Sam. 
 We'll not wear the Kaiser's tag, 
 And we'll fly no checkered rag. 
 For Old Glory is our flag, Uncle Sam. 
 
 4 
 
 Let the Eagle flap his wings. Uncle Sam. 
 
 These are sorry days for kings. Uncle Sam. 
 And the Kaiser and his crew 
 Will be missing, when they're through 
 With the old Red, White and Blue, Uncle Sam. 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 101 
 
 5 
 
 We are ready now to serve, Uncle Sam. 
 
 We have money, men and nerve, Uncle Sam. 
 
 We will stick through thick and thin, 
 
 Till we show them in Berlin 
 
 That with God we're going to win. Uncle Sam. 
 
 Such verses were expressive of the grip of the will of 
 the college man to fight it through whether it took 
 all summer or all winter. 
 
 Both before and after enlisting the simple de- 
 mocracy of the army was made plain. This democ- 
 racy belonged in the first place to the privates in 
 the ranks. Of course, a lack of democracy charac- 
 terized the relationship between the officers on the 
 one hand and the privates on the other; but equality 
 and fraternity did distinguish those of similar mili- 
 tary condition. Among the men in the ranks, the 
 human was the chief note of their song. A British 
 mother wrote in the preface to " A Midshipman's 
 Log " saying, that among those who are fighting for 
 their country and for the triumpb of right and jus- 
 tice, there could be no class or distinction. The 
 members of the privileged class were privileged only 
 in being leaders — first in the field, and foremost at 
 the post of danger.i^ 
 
 A son, too, of distinguished American parentage 
 
 1 " From Dartmouth to the Dardanelles — A Midshipman's 
 Log" — 'edited by his mother, page viii. 
 
102 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 bore out of his experience similar testimony. Vic- 
 tor Chapman wrote in September of the year 1914 
 saying : " The people I am thrown with are, for the 
 moment, Polish in majority, for they are a crowd 
 which came together from Cambrai. But they are 
 of almost all nationalities and all stations and ages 
 of life. I am most friendly with a little Spaniard 
 from Malaga. He has been a newspaper reporter 
 in London and got tired of doing nothing there, so 
 he enlisted here. So far as I have seen I am the 
 only American (the others having been sent to Eouen 
 a day or two before I enlisted), but I have seen a 
 couple of negroes. There are about thirty Alsatians, 
 a few Russians and a few Belgians, one or two Ger- 
 mans, a Turk, and even a Chinaman arrived this 
 morning. There are Greeks and Russian Jews, and 
 probably many I have not noticed." ^ His experi- 
 ence illustrates the remark in the ISTew Testament 
 that God " hath made of one blood all nations of men 
 for to dwell on all the face of the earth." 
 
 The whole college order was also pervaded by 
 great sympathy for the suffering, the sorrowing, the 
 afflicted; and not only with those who were thus 
 sadly conditioned, but also for all men as men. 
 With this sympathy was united a mighty desire for 
 
 1 " Victor Chapman's Letters from France " with Memoir by 
 John Jay Chapman, page 45. 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 103 
 
 power to serve. Deep emotional excitement may 
 atrophy, in weak natures, the force of the will. Such 
 a cutting of the nerves is not liable, however, to 
 occur in the experience of college men ; for they have 
 been tempered in the schools not only of learning, 
 but also of observation, of suffering, and of re- 
 joicing. An American schoolmaster wrote from an 
 American hospital in France of his routine : " I 
 begin every night at eight and work twelve hours 
 without stopping a moment. I wouldn't miss it for 
 the world. We've taken everything in the way of 
 wounded, mostly Americans, but also French, Moroc- 
 cans, Malays, • and all conditions from slightly 
 wounded to the pitifully maimed remnants of hu- 
 man life, wrecked beyond all hope.. I have been 
 stretcher bearer, have helped undress and bathe the 
 wounded, taken them to the X-ray room, and to the 
 operating table, held their hands while ether was 
 administered, and at the bedside, getting them ready 
 for the rest camps farther back. In all this labor 
 of love, which is real work, I have heard not one 
 murmur of complaint, only words of enthusiasm and 
 a desire tO' get back into the gamei. People say they 
 are ' magnificent,' but we have no word yet coined to 
 describe the spirit of our fighting and wounded sol- 
 diers. It is beyond analysis and almost divine. It 
 makes you want to drop on your knees and thank 
 
104 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 God for the power he puts into his children to bear 
 their suffering with such fortitude and courage. 
 One longs for arms of limitless extent to take the 
 whole blessed lot of them next to his heart and tell 
 them how proud is America and the whole world of 
 their valor and strength, and how all of us love 
 them and are determined that they shall win. I 
 have learned to pray as I never prayed before for 
 power to see this glorious work through to the end, 
 power to be of the utmost service to our men and 
 their brothers whose ideals are ours, and but for 
 whose tremendous sacrifice and heroic defense the 
 human wolves would have been at our own doors. 
 Folks at home do not realize that the war is on, 
 but here in a military hospital ! Oh God, it's here 
 we get the taste ! I am going every night till I leave 
 the front. 
 
 " School teaching isn't in it with this work. To 
 kneel before a hero and untie his shoes, and to get a 
 smile from a wounded man lying between sheets for 
 the first time in seven months; to get a word of 
 thanks from one to whom you have given a tin cup 
 of black coffee, is a greater reward than all the pay 
 that all the combined schools in the United States 
 could give. We are all working our very heads and 
 feet off. I can't write more now, though I am so 
 full of it I am nearly bursting. I must get some 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 105 
 
 rest for the long night ahead." Such a union of 
 sympathy with a power to relieve the wounded and 
 to give succor to the dying was the not infrequent 
 experience of the best college soldiers. 
 
 The simple joy and exultation of it all seemed to 
 belong with a peculiar rapture to the college man. 
 One of distinguished name wrote to his sister : " I 
 hadn't realized until lately what a wealth of thrill, 
 and tense joy, I had been missing in the tame student 
 days. Whenever a flare or star shell lights up ISTo 
 Man's Land at night, turning every twig and stone 
 into crystal, sharply outlined against a jet black 
 sky and ground, it gives me a feeling of wonder and 
 throbbing excitement that is different from anything 
 else. I hope it will not become ordinary too soon." 
 
 Yet, in this exultation of the soldier, the student 
 easily habituated himself to things as they come and 
 go. He became a worshiper at the altar of the God 
 of things as they are. The outer service seemed to 
 transform the inner man. He is not what he was. 
 The following confession of a Harvard man, pur- 
 posely made anonymously, is almost as representative 
 as it is impressive : " Until last winter I was, I 
 suppose, what most of the world calls a rich young 
 man. That is to say, I had enough money to avoid 
 worry about the ordinary luxuries of life. A great 
 many doors of society were open to me by reason of 
 
106 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 long-formed family associations. I went to a very 
 fashionable boarding-school, and afterwards to a 
 large university. 
 
 " My chief interests were aesthetic ones, and my 
 college days, aside from the friendships of them, 
 were valued accordingly. I studied hard enough to 
 keep a keen interest in these things, and what I didn't 
 know, I ' bluffed.' Society is gullible. I talked 
 about Zuloaga twice before I saw his paintings. 
 With beautiful fluency and complete ignorance I dis- 
 cussed thci ' Agamemnon ' of Aeschylus, the ' Thoen- 
 issae ' of Euripedes, hydraulic machinery, the Shinto 
 religion, St. Paul, the Russian government. It 
 made no difference; I knew a little, I bluffed su- 
 perbly, and I revelled in the joy of ' holding ' dinner 
 tables. So you see how it was — everything to look 
 forward to, little to regret. Life was good ; friends 
 were many. 
 
 " When the war came I was considering literature 
 as a profession. I tried for a commission immedi- 
 ately, but unfortunately missed it. Influence didn't 
 work. So now I'm a ' buck ' private. 
 
 " I sleep in a tent, stand in line in any weather 
 for ' chow.' I dress, because my work demands it, 
 most of the time in overalls, and I do what I'm told. 
 I have emptied garbage cans and cuspidors, chopped 
 wood, shovelled coal, dug holes, done clerical work 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 107 
 
 and carpentering work. I have been yelled at by 
 irate ' non-coms ' for being a fool. 
 
 " They were quite right. A fool is one who is 
 ignorant, you see. I can tell you things about the 
 meals at Agathon's house, when Socrates dined, and 
 drank from the wine cooler, but I had no idea until 
 quite recently how to do a great many of the jobs 
 I've mentioned. I remember reading, by the way, 
 F. W. Taylor's ' Principles of Scientific Manage- 
 ment.' It tells you among other things, how to 
 shovel with a minimum of effort and for a maximum 
 of results. But when you are one of three men who 
 are getting coal out of a freight-car that must be 
 moved in two hours and a half, you forget what he 
 said or wonder if he ever shovelled. Of course, I 
 drilled awkwardly too. They were quite right — I 
 was a fool. 
 
 " The physical hardships of such a life one quickly 
 becomes used to. If it is cold, you learn to sleep 
 with your clothes on. If there is no chance to bathe, 
 why, of course, you don't bathe. If you get wet, you 
 curse a bit, and remark to your nearest neighbor that 
 you are ' out of luck.' This phrase embodies almost 
 the complete philosophy of enlisted men. It's not so 
 unsatisfactory; it has the virtue of truth. And if 
 you're not fatalistic enough to accept the verity that 
 you are, and are going to be, either in or out of 
 
108 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 luck, the remark may be used perfectly correctly as 
 a consolatory, flattering, or challenging comment — 
 or simply as a pleasantry. Indeed life is reduced 
 to almost a purely physical basis. Obedience is re- 
 quired, but intellect sufficient only for obedience. 
 
 " The ethics of the men in the ranks are a fair 
 enough sort. They do not allow much meanness; 
 they preach generosity and obligingness. But they 
 do include, not necessarily of course, blasphemy, foul- 
 ness, intoxication. It's up to the gods, the average 
 soldier thinks, whether you are what can fairly be 
 termed a good man. As long as you do what you're 
 told, your morale may be what you please, Calig- 
 ulan or Christian. Of course there is little of the 
 spiritual in camp. You may have loved Dante's 
 ' Inferno/ but you read wireless code-books or Cap- 
 tain Parker's notes. You realize that Dante lived a 
 very long time ago; and that he is dead. You re- 
 member arguments you had in college, near some 
 hospitable fire, about Plato's idea of the Abstract 
 or Thomas Aquinas's of Immortality. Omar's line 
 comes back to you — you did ' come out by the same 
 door that in you went.' The four brown walls of 
 canvas are still around you. The concrete remains. 
 It doesn't matter if you would like to go to the little 
 French restaurant with so-and-so, and talk about 
 ' Comus ' or what a shabby way Bacon treated Essex. 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 109 
 
 ' Fall Out.' You proceed to do so, and are armed 
 with a shovel, or a bucket or a monkey-wrench." ^ 
 
 This spirit of adjustment is a part of the Ameri- 
 can quality, but the American quality is much more. 
 It is a quality of exultation and exhilaration. The 
 American spirit is the intellectual quality touched 
 by enthusiasm. A student who was accepted by the 
 Foreign Legion of the French Army, writes to a 
 professor in his college : " Your poilu has burst his 
 cocoon and stands glittering before the world — an 
 Aspirant. He is proud of himself — and more at 
 peace than ever before in his life. . . . 
 
 " You ask me to tell you the commonest events of 
 my life. I doubt whether that will be possible, for 
 I have chosen a 75 attacking battery, but I shall keep 
 a moment-to-moment journal for you and for others 
 to whom I am not afraid to reveal myself. If I get 
 through safely we'll laugh over it — and if I pass 
 out, it will be sent to you. 
 
 " Before this reaches you I shall be at the front. 
 I regret that it will not be with my own. . . . They 
 are wonderful, and Europe is breathing a new air be- 
 cause of them. They have the vision — and the 
 dreams of old men are coming true. I wish I could 
 tell you the great pride and faith and elation the 
 
 1 Notes of a "Buck" Private — Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 
 14th Feb., 1918. 
 
110 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 recognition of their spirit gives us. To be an Ameri- 
 can is to-day the proudest thing in the world. But 
 even when one is not fighting as one of them — even 
 though he wears another color, he is fighting with 
 the American spirit and the American dream. Do 
 you wonder that I am perfectly at peace with my- 
 self? 
 
 " It is with such emotions that I go to the front. 
 Think of me as having believed something passion- 
 ately enough not to have accepted rejections, as hav- 
 ing found a place for myself when it was refused 
 me time and again, as going into the fire with head 
 up and laughing lips because I am an officer of 
 France and an American. And if I'm killed don't 
 call me ' poor fellow.' I shall deserve better than 
 that." 1 
 
 Such enthusiasm is representative, interpretative, 
 and contagious. It might give the impression of 
 being transient like the white crest of the break- 
 ing wave, but it was really more sustaining and 
 proved to be more permanent than seemed possible. 
 The student soldier took the long look and also did 
 the nearest duty. A l^orth Carolina student wrote 
 to the president of his university, Dr. Graham, a 
 beloved president who died recently, saying : " I 
 
 1 Letter from an officer of France and an American to Pro- 
 fessor Charles T. Copeland, Harvard University. 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 111 
 
 am about to leave for France, aware what going 
 there means, and glad to go. Before I go I want 
 to send my love to you. and Carolina, because you 
 two both send me and at the same time make me 
 hate to go, because I cherish you with the same love 
 I bear my parents. I am not a single-purposed man ; 
 if I have one dominant desire I don't recognize it. 
 But the resultant of all my desires to live and to 
 serve is a purpose to fit myself to come back and 
 serve through Carolina. This purpose I have, of 
 course, subordinated to what the army may require 
 of me until peace is won. But I am fighting to stop 
 Germany, and not for the joy of fighting. I hate 
 war and its whole stupid machinery as much as I 
 love its opposite — the free creative life of Carolina. 
 I don't intend to run from the fact that war is wrong 
 any more than I intend to run from war itself be- 
 cause it is painful. 
 
 " Therefore, while I am glad to serve in this war, 
 I still maintain that peace is right and that it must 
 be developed by training and organizing man for 
 peace even better than he is now trained and organ- 
 ized for war." 
 
 The spirit of the American student soldier was 
 quite akin to the spirit of the men of Oxford and 
 other British universities, of the University of Paris, 
 and of the provincial universities of France. All 
 
112 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 were touched by the same patriotic enthusiasms, by 
 the same sense of romance and of freedom. These 
 sentiments were, be it confessed, like unto the senti- 
 ments of the German university students in their 
 love of " Patherland." But how remote were these 
 enthusiasms from the Germanic in their sense of 
 freedom ! For the Anglo-Saxon has been trained in 
 a school of personal honor and of truth-telling. The 
 English and the Americans have been taught to hate 
 spying and lying and to despise the spy and the liar. 
 The English and Americans have been trained to 
 play games and to take part in sport, not simply as 
 hygienic conditions, but for and of manliness. They 
 have been educated in the atmosphere of freedom; 
 and the German student has been trained in the 
 prison house of unquestioning obedience to the state. 
 It was a great spirit which dwelt in the heart of 
 the soldier student and which prompted him to 
 noblest action. It was a spirit of intellectual under- 
 standing and of emotional appreciation of the issues 
 of the war. It was also a spirit of willingness to 
 make the ultimate sacrifice to win its victory, '^o 
 determination was mightier than to stay in the serv- 
 ice until barbarism was put down and civilization 
 again enthroned. In this determination was found 
 the spirit of democracy strong and regnant, a democ- 
 racy not American only, but also human. In this 
 
The Spirit of the Student Soldier 113 
 
 sense of equality and of liberty was found not only a 
 tender sympatky with the suffering and sorrowing, 
 but also a sympathy which did not weaken the will 
 for hardest service. In this sympathy lay also a 
 peculiar rapture, an exultation in the opportunity 
 to serve ; and with this rapture went along a capacity 
 for transformation of the lower manhood into the 
 higher, a transformation characteristic of the best 
 natures. The enthusiasm also, although not always 
 keeping itself at white heat, seems to have been con- 
 sistent with a prophetic outlook into humanity's fu- 
 ture. The college man was in the ranks, as in the 
 class-room, primarily the man of thought and of 
 thoughtfulness. Putting on the uniform, he did not 
 divest himself of his intellectual habit. 
 
 In this spirit of exultation, both emotional and 
 intellectual, the student soldier lent himself to the 
 primary element, military discipline. He gave him- 
 self to this process with more ease than the untrained 
 man of his adolescent years. For, the college course 
 itself was a process more disciplinary than the process 
 of the home. Discipline represents not only obedi- 
 ence, but also the sinking of one's own individuality 
 into a mass of individualities. ISTot always with ease, 
 but with less of rebellion than usually exists, he sub- 
 mitted to the rules and regulations of the camp by 
 day and by night. !N^ot only to obedience as a first 
 
114 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 duty, but also to cleanliness, to honesty, to sobriety, 
 to self-respect and other of the principal elements of 
 discipline, he found himself in not unhappy accord. 
 Of course, the soldier students, in many instances, 
 became officers. As officers, they bore themselves 
 as gentlemen. War is a brutalizer. The processes 
 preparatory for and following the battle are bru- 
 talizing. Officers are inclined to be coarse in lan- 
 guage, severe in their manners, abrupt and harsh in 
 general relationships to the private. Such methods 
 and manners were, on the whole, foreign to the stu- 
 dent soldier. He had a sense of altruism above men 
 unschooled. This sense, of course, he exercised with- 
 out the peril of softness or of favoritism. He could 
 be at once gracious and commanding, kind and se- 
 vere, sympathetic and disciplinary. He was not in- 
 clined to create that most common element of the 
 army, the element of fear. For fear as an inspiring 
 force, he used the proper substitutes of pride in one's 
 regiment or one's battalion, idealism, and enthusiasm 
 for the cause. Comradeship, too, he cultivated, and, 
 that element of the soldier in every man, hero-wor- 
 ship, he inspired, not so much for himself, of course, 
 as for the highest commanders. 
 
VIII 
 
 THE SCIENCES AND THE SCIENTISTS 
 
 The war was a war waged by scientists and 
 through the sciences. The principles of the sci- 
 ences were its principles. The methods of the sci- 
 ences were its methods. The conditions attending 
 research and applications of the results of research 
 were its conditions. The two chief new forms of 
 attack, the submarine and the airplane, had their 
 origin in the science of physics, and the use of these 
 machines was determined by the laws of physics. 
 Every gun of a battery was loaded with compounds 
 made according to the laws of chemistry, and it was 
 aimed and discharged in accordance with the laws 
 of trigonometry. The making of every trench and 
 the explosion of every mine was settled by the laws 
 of geology and of other sciences. The manufacture 
 of every gas followed the principles of chemical ac- 
 tion and reaction, and the methods of protection 
 against the perils of gas were determined by chem- 
 ical and physical investigations. Even the healing 
 of the wounds on the arm, back, and chest was meas- 
 ured, and a prognosis made, to a certain degree by 
 
 115 
 
116 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 the laws of mathematics., Such a fundamental use 
 of scientific principles belonged quite as much to 
 Germany as to the United States and the Allies. In 
 fact, in certain relations, as in the use of gas, Ger- 
 many anticipated her enemies. She mobilized her 
 professors of chemistry and of physics in her mili- 
 tary service much earlier than did the Allies, as 
 she mobilized her troops ahead of her foes. But the 
 scientists of Great Britain, France, and the United 
 States were, when the summons came, no less prompt, 
 no less efficient, and no less enthusiastic, than the 
 professors of Berlin and Leipsic. For the very- 
 first time, the chemists, the physicists, the mathema- 
 ticians, the geologists were given an opportunity of 
 devoting all their technical skill and scientific re- 
 sources to the service of their nation and humanity. 
 They sprang as one strong man to meet the demand 
 and to embrace the opportunity. 
 
 The scientists who thus threw their personalities, 
 their services and their laboratories into the war, 
 were usually teachers in American colleges and uni- 
 versities. Members of the research staff in industrial 
 plants were no less eager in their offers, no less pa- 
 triotic in their self-sacrificing contributions, and their 
 number was large. But directly as well as indi- 
 rectly the college teachers formed the gTeat bulk of 
 the scientific army, who in permanent laboratories or 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 117 
 
 extemporized plants worked for their government. 
 
 In the work of the scientists were found two funda- 
 mental and comprehensive elements : — first, the ele- 
 ment of the formation of groups of scholars for re- 
 search, and, second, the cooperation of these groups. 
 Perhaps the most important of all the research groups 
 was that which was composed of scholars like Merritt 
 of Cornell, Mason of Wisconsin, Wilson of Rice In- 
 stitute, Pierce and Bridgman of Harvard, Bumstead, 
 ^Nichols and Zeleny of Yale, and Michelson of Chi- 
 cago.^ These outstanding professors were asked to 
 find devices for avoiding many dangers, of which 
 the submarine peril was the most serious. This 
 service, — the cost of which amounted to more than 
 one million dollars — had so proved its value that 
 after a few months it was taken over by the ISTavy 
 Department. 
 
 This group and similar groups associated them- 
 selves with other bodies engaged also in scientific 
 exploration and discovery. The Science and Re- 
 search Division and the Signal Corps, the Bureau of 
 Aircraft Production, the Meteorological Section of 
 the Science and Research Division, are names which, 
 important in themselves, represent the cooperation 
 of highly trained specialists, formed largely of col- 
 
 1 The New Opportunity in Science, Professor E. A. Millikan, 
 published in Science, No. 1291, page 288. 
 
118 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 lege men, who worked together uiito great results. 
 
 Such groups and such cooperation were not, by any 
 manner of means, confined to the United States. 
 The French, English, and Italian scientists were in 
 constant cooperation, both in person, by post and by 
 cable, over devices which proved to be of the highest 
 worth. 
 
 Of all the sciences, however, chemistry was in 
 this war the first well equipped scientific force in 
 the field. It was an epoch-making day in the history 
 of the war and in the history of applied chemistry, 
 when the Chemical Service Section was formed as 
 a unit of the National Army. The foundation was 
 laid in Washington, soon after the formal entrance 
 of the United States, at a conference of members of 
 the General Staff, Medical Corps and War College, 
 with ]^avy and civilian chemists. Its chief was 
 Lieutenant Colonel W. H. Walker of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology. It chose for its colors, 
 the colors of the American Chemical Society, — co- 
 balt blue and gold, and it adopted for its insignia the 
 traditional alembic of alchemy joined with the ben- 
 zene ring. 
 
 Thus organized the chemists served in many rela- 
 tions. They became members of the General Staff 
 and were in charge of all forms of the gas warfare, 
 which included research, manufacturing and testing. 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 119 
 
 Tkey were made members of the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment. In this relationship they were concerned with 
 the solving of problems touching explosives from the 
 moment of the beginning of making to the moment of 
 testing and of discharge. This service was rendered 
 at many points from the Atlantic coast to the Mis- 
 sissippi. Cooperation was had with laboratories of 
 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, of the 
 University of Michigan and of other institutions. 
 The chemists also had a share in the work of the 
 office of the surgeon general. Questions of food, of 
 nutrition and of sanitation were committed to them. 
 At the Harriman Laboratory, the spoiling of meat was 
 a special problem considered. At the University of 
 Rochester, the effect of temperature on desiccated 
 vegetables was made a particular question. 
 
 These services were rendered to the Army on the 
 land. The service rendered through chemists to 
 the ISTavy were also as significant, even if the num- 
 ber engaged was smaller. In the Ordnance Bureau 
 of the ]^avy about one hundred chemists were en- 
 rolled. In the War Trade Board, the Shipping 
 Board, the Food Administration Board, the Tariff 
 Commission, were also found chemists giving the 
 unique service which each department demanded. 
 
 In hundreds of chemical laboratories on the cam- 
 pus of as many colleges, professors were enrolled un- 
 
120 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 der govemment direction, pursuing researches which 
 might add to the power of the government as a fight- 
 ing machine. These researches covered in an inci- 
 dental way many of the problems which were com- 
 prehensively examined in the formal laboratories of 
 the government. While professors were pursuing 
 their work in a more or less regular way as members 
 of the teaching staff, they were also practically en- 
 rolled as soldiers of the ^National Army. 
 
 It is ever to be remembered that the thousands of 
 men engaged formally and informally in the chem- 
 ical branch of the war, were originally trained in the 
 colleges and that many of them were permanent 
 members of faculties. They represented no small 
 share of the contribution made to the war by the 
 higher education. 
 
 A similar interpretation belongs to the yet broader 
 field of physics. In this field physicists, teachers in 
 American colleges, bore an equally important part. 
 In the multitude of instances one selects representa- 
 tive examples. One conspicuous example is found 
 in the airplane. An American scholar and teacher 
 has personally said : 
 
 " At the outbreak of the war the airplane was a toy op- 
 erated by an engine which was none too reliable and which 
 could develop only 80 horse-power; to-day we have an air- 
 plane which is a piece of engineering driven by one or 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 121 
 
 more engines each capable of developing 400 horse-power; 
 and this modern wonder is capable of carrying 50 passen- 
 gers while another now building will carry 100. During 
 the war the airplanes flew from London to Constantinople 
 and back, on bombing raids, making non-stop flights of 
 over 1,000 miles ; during the year 1918, 16,000 Liberty en- 
 gines were produced : a special cotton fabric and a thin 
 sheet steel were developed to take the place of the linen 
 formerly used on the wings; speeds up to 140 miles per 
 hour have been recorded and the unheard of height of 
 29,000 feet reached which latter achievement, by the way, 
 opens up new possibilities in the study of meteorology. 
 The monthly fatality average has been one fatality for 
 each 3,200 hours flown. 
 
 " Much progress has been made with the dirigible type of 
 airship thanks to the discovery of a cheap non-inflammable 
 gas as a substitute for the dangerous hydrogen. This gas, 
 helium, first discovered on the sun, was produced before 
 the war at a cost of $1,500-$1,600 per cubic foot ; it is now 
 found in such large quantities in the natural gas of some 
 of the southwestern states that the cost of production per 
 cubic foot is about $100; if this supply continues to hold 
 out there is a great future for the airship. 
 
 " It goes without saying that the theory of aviation has 
 been placed upon a much better foundation because of the 
 thousands of experiments it has been possible to make; 
 efforts at stabilizing are meeting with success and consid- 
 erable improvement in the various instruments used has 
 been made." 
 
 Another American physicist, Professor Joseph S. 
 Ames of Johns Hopkins University, writing before 
 the signing of the armistice, of two great additions 
 to the weapons of attack said : 
 
122 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 " There are two main probleras in connection with the 
 submarine, first, to locate it, second to destroy it. Meth- 
 ods of destruction are at hand in the shape of depth 
 bombs ; but methods of detection so far have not been emi- 
 nently successful. From an airplane one can see through 
 the water only to a limited depth, never more than twenty 
 feet, and so the main reason why the sea-planes have been 
 so successful in destroying submarines is not due to the 
 fact that the observer in the airplane discovers his prey, 
 but is that his machine has such great speed, three times 
 that of a destroyer, that when news is flashed that a vessel 
 is being attacked by a submarine it can often reach the 
 spot in time to drop its bomb effectively. The detection 
 of the presence of a submarine is a definite physical prob- 
 lem ; and it is not an exaggeration to say that at least one- 
 fourth of the physicists of note in England, France and 
 this country have been engaged in the attempt to solve 
 it. What lines of attack upon it are open? Not many. 
 The submarine in motion emits certain sounds; can they 
 be heard ? It is a solid body ; can one obtain an echo from 
 it? It is made of iron; can this fact help through some 
 magnetic action? These are the obvious lines of ap- 
 proach, but one should not hastily conclude that there 
 are not others. Without stating, and I may not, how far 
 successful these efforts of the physicists have been, I may 
 note that the method which is now being tested by our 
 Navy is one elaborated by a distinguished professor of 
 mathematical physics." ^ 
 
 There were, moreover, certain special adaptations 
 
 or applications of physics which proved to be of great 
 
 1 Annual address before the Phi Beta Kappa Society, Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, 1918, Science, 25th Oct., 1918. 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 123 
 
 worth. The whole art of surveying was changed by 
 the war. An operator with a camera in an airplane 
 can, it was proved, in less than a minute make a 
 complete map of a section of country, even at as great 
 a height as four miles. In meteorology, it was 
 proved that balloons can be made to have a speed of 
 even a hundred miles an hour and fly a distance of 
 more than a thousand miles. The Research Division 
 of the Meteorologists proved that the upper regions 
 of the air can be measured and mapped out, — facts 
 that are of the utmost value to the aviator. 
 
 Physicists, too, accomplished great results in the 
 art of signalling. In this complex and unique art 
 special use was made of the infra-red and the ultra- 
 violet rays, which are invisible. Great improve- 
 ments were also made in the wireless telegraph and 
 the wireless telephone. The sound waves from the 
 guns of the enemy were used to locate their position, 
 within one per cent, of the true place. Physicists 
 were also concerned with the development of armor 
 plate, with the art of camouflage, with improvements 
 in photography, and with the discovery and applica- 
 tion of the German methods for the production of 
 dye stuffs, and in the making of optical glass. 
 
 The physicists who thus contributed to the winning 
 of the war were usually members of the teaching 
 
124 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 staffs of American colleges, and, like the cliemists, 
 they represented the personal contribution which the 
 cause of higher learning offered. 
 
 Less superficially evident, but no less fundamen- 
 tally useful, than the services of the mathematician, 
 of the chemist and of the physicist was the service 
 of the geologist and the geographer. Their work 
 comprised several groups of activities. Such ac- 
 tivities were of course given by British and French 
 scholars as well as by American. They were ad- 
 visers of the Military Staff of the British armies in 
 Palestine, at Gallipoli and in Greece. The German 
 army early in the war installed geologists in the army 
 organization. Geologists served as consultants on 
 the topographic conditions touching strategy. They 
 were made explorers for water. To find this supply 
 became as hard and as important a problem in densely 
 peopled Flanders as it was in Palestine and Syria. 
 They offered counsel regarding proper conditions for 
 excavations and mining operations, kept close watch 
 of underground waters (always liable to rise or 
 fall), a constant problem, not only in wet weather 
 but also in drouth. It has been said that it was the 
 skill of the geologists who planned the location of 
 fifty or more mines placed in the Messines Ridge, 
 which resulted in their successful explosion. They 
 were consultants for supplies of material for roads, 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 125 
 
 rogarding foundations for positions for the artillery 
 and regarding proper conditions of camp sanitation. 
 
 The United States Geological Survey in coopera- 
 tion with the War Industries Board, Bureau of 
 Mines, Shipping Board, Bureau of Standards and 
 other organizations gave invaluable aid in promot- 
 ing research and advancing various activities, both 
 large and of detail. The finding of manganese ore, 
 the importation of which had ceased, and of sulphuric 
 supplies, high grade clay for special purposes, chro- 
 mite, potassium, pyrite for making sulphuric acid, 
 represented this important and diverse service. 
 
 Geologists and geographers were also employed in 
 many training camps in making and reading maps, 
 and in teaching students in these arts. In the liter- 
 ary field reports on the topography and geology of 
 each cantonment were made, not only for immediate 
 information, but also for the purpose of training 
 officers to secure similar knowledge for the future 
 location of camps. The literary service of the geogra- 
 phers, physiographers and cartographers was of 
 such great value that at least a quartet of them were 
 made members of the Paris Peace Council.^ 
 
 As in the case of other scientists, the credit for 
 
 1 Professor J. E. Hyde, of Western Keserve University, has 
 contributed many facts regarding the service of geologists and 
 geographers. 
 
126 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 tlie contribution offered by geologists was ultimately 
 due to the colleges. The colleges trained these men 
 for their great service and in the colleges not a few 
 of them were permanent teachers. 
 
 Of all the offerings made by the American uni- 
 versities to the great cause, the contributions of the 
 medical schools were, if not more useful, at least more 
 impressive. 
 
 The service, of course, had its foundation in the 
 professional training given for decades previous to 
 1917, as well as in the training of the years cov- 
 ering the war itself. The service rendered was sup- 
 ported by the great improvement of the medical 
 schools in the decade preceding the outbreak of the 
 war. This improvement was greater than had oc- 
 curred in the preceding half century. Regarding the 
 medical service of the war and in the education lying 
 behind this service, a competent interpreter has 
 written : — 
 
 " The most important factor in the efficiency of a 
 medical school is the maintenance of an efficient per- 
 sonnel in the teaching staff. Hence, in addition to 
 oversight of distribution of medical practitioners to 
 care for the health of the civilian population, and the 
 securing of medical officers to care for the sick and 
 wounded of the army, the surgeon general must 
 maintain effective teaching staffs in all those medical 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 12Y 
 
 scliools which were serving as training schools for 
 the future medical officers. 
 
 " However it was necessary to secure the service in 
 the army of every competent and physically fit med- 
 ical man who could be spared from the care of the 
 civilian population and from the training of students. 
 The army had need of highly trained experts in many 
 fields of medicine, especially in hospital and camp 
 laboratories and in certain of the medical and surgi- 
 cal specialties. It was well known before the war, 
 and was more apparent after the war began, that 
 on the whole the best men in their various lines were 
 on the teaching staffs of some medical school. This 
 was true because the medical school in each com- 
 munity seeks the best men of that community and 
 also because medical men who are teaching are stimu- 
 lated to greater effort to become more expert, both by 
 study and by investigation, than are the men in 
 practice who are deprived of the stimulus of being 
 associated with students and a teaching institution. 
 
 " It soon became apparent that if the army were 
 permitted to take all the experts it desired, then the 
 schools would be stripped of a large part of their 
 best teachers, and as a result the members of the 
 Medical Enlisted Reserve Corps who were left in the 
 schools for the sole purpose of being adequately 
 trained for future service in the army would get an 
 
128 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 inefficient training because of the lack of experi- 
 enced good teachers. 
 
 " Hence the War Department diminished its early 
 efforts to bring into the army men who were teach- 
 ers in medical schools. This did not solve the prob- 
 lem, for it was soon apparent that the best teachers 
 were extremely patriotic and desired to serve their 
 country and further, that they believed they should 
 go into the army rather than remain as teachers in 
 the medical schools. The psychology of the situa- 
 tion was evident, especially when emphasized by the 
 public attitude toward able-bodied men who were not 
 in uniform. Some plan was needed whereby the 
 teaching staffs of the medical schools should not be 
 impaired to such extent that there would be a result- 
 ing deterioration in the training of the students." ^ 
 
 As a result the government allowed each medical 
 school to retain the teachers who were essential to 
 the carrying on of the school. Such men were re- 
 garded as serving their nation quite as effectively as 
 if they had gone to a hospital in France. The con- 
 tribution of the medical schools, through their gradu- 
 ates, teachers, and students, made to the winning of 
 the war, represented no less than 30,000, physicians 
 and surgeons. Of this great number, about one- 
 
 1 Personal letter from Professor Frederick C. Waite, of 
 Western Reserve University Medical School. 
 
The Sciences mid the Scientists 129 
 
 half graduated within the decade preceding their en- 
 trance, about 10,000 between the years 1899-1908, 
 and 5,000 before the year 1899. Essentially they 
 were all young men. The contribution which the 
 medical schools thus made was of course of the ut- 
 most worth. In numbers the thirty thousand enroll- 
 ments represented slightly more than one-fifth of all 
 the practicing physicians.-^ 
 
 In the development of the American medical serv- 
 ice no less than six university base hospital units 
 were established in France. In fact, as early as 
 December 28th, 1914, a body of surgeons, nurses, 
 and anesthetists from Western Reserve University 
 and its allied Lakeside Hospital sailed for France to 
 serve with the Allied forces, and, after the declara- 
 tion of war in 19 lY, it was a similar body which 
 was ordered into similar service. Later, King 
 George, at Buckingham Palace, addressing this unit, 
 said, " We greet you as the first detachment of the 
 American Army which has landed on our shores since 
 your great Republic resolved to join in the world- 
 struggle for the ideals of civilization. We deeply 
 appreciate this prompt and generous response to our 
 needs. It is characteristic of the humanity and 
 chivalry which has ever been evinced by the Ameri- 
 
 1 For the U. S., the whole was 147,812, and for the Depen- 
 dencies, 1,319. 
 
130 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 can nation that the first assistance rendered to the 
 Allies is in connection with the profession of heal- 
 ing and the work of mercj." 
 
 The officers of these various university units gave 
 most efficient service at the front, as well as behind 
 the lines. A single one of these university hospital 
 units cared for more than sixty-eight thousand sick 
 and wounded men. IsTot only was such personal, 
 direct care given, but also scientific research groups 
 were formed among the surgeons and physicians and 
 their associates. The causes and the prevention of 
 the diverse diseases and sicknesses to which the sol- 
 diers were subjected received careful attention. 
 Every wounded man became a specific problem. The 
 comparative value of different methods of treatment 
 was the object of constant inquiry. The study of 
 shock and exhaustion occupied no small share of the 
 attention of the research staff. The shielding of the 
 ear against the effect of explosives, the defensive use 
 of gasses, the sterilization of water in all the camps, 
 the saving of soldiers from the constant peril of 
 typhoid fever — a peril which was specially virulent 
 for the first men of the war — are examples of the 
 diverse service given by medical professors. 
 
 In every branch of the service, the element of in- 
 dustrial fatigue played an important part. The 
 scarcity of labor of every sort made it of extreme im- 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 131 
 
 portance that each laborer be permanently kept at his 
 highest efficiency. The physiologist was therefore 
 constantly called upon to quicken those who were un- 
 derworking and to restrain those who were guilty of 
 overwork. 
 
 " It would appear," says Doctor George W. Crile, 
 to whom I am indebted for certain of these inter- 
 pretations, " that the service of the medical depart- 
 ments of our universities during the great war would 
 justify a permanent organization whereby the mem- 
 bers of our university medical schools would become 
 a permanent part of our national defense. Our 
 eighty university schools thus organized would cover 
 the hospital needs of an army of approximately 
 3,200,000. By means of such an organization it 
 would be possible for the Surgeon General to es- 
 tablish his military point of view in the training of 
 all worthy medical men. By such a collective effort 
 an American medical force could be established 
 ready for practical application in time of national 
 need." 
 
 And yet the experiences of the medical schools in 
 the war time gave ground for the interpretation that 
 there are serious deficiencies in these schools, and 
 consequently in their graduates. The war proved 
 that the schools had not educated their students in 
 what is known as physical diagnosis, and also the 
 
132 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 war proved that there is a great ignorance of hygiene 
 and of the fundamental conditions of public health. 
 It was also shown that no small share of the physi- 
 cians, who claimed to be specialists, had not received 
 adequate training. But, despite these facts, the con- 
 tribution made was a necessary part of the great ef- 
 fort for winning the war. 
 
 The service of the medical schools was by no means 
 confined to the traditional conditions of caring for 
 the sick and the wounded and of the promotion of 
 good hygienic forces in the battle area. The medical 
 schools, directly or indirectly, provided men and 
 equipment for important commissions to devastated 
 lands. These commissions were concerned with 
 Servia, Russia, with the Balkan Provinces, including 
 Roumania, and with the countries of the near East. 
 They bore offerings beneficent, as well as unique, of- 
 ferings which in their origin were made by the 
 schools of medicine and their affiliated hospitals. 
 The needs which these commissions filled were of 
 inexpressible value. 
 
 A member of the delegation, which went to Rou- 
 mania in the year of 191 Y, Doctor Roger G. Perkins 
 of "Western Reserve University, has indicated the 
 seriousness of the condition in Roumania. He says : 
 
 " Everything tangible in the way of supplies had 
 been commandeered for military purposes, all physi- 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 133 
 
 cians up to the age of sixty-five had been mobilized, 
 and most of the assistants in the civil hospitals had 
 been taken into war service. As a result of this 
 one-sided arrangement, fairly active measures were 
 being taken among the troops in the way of delousing, 
 isolation of patients, and so forth, so that the actual 
 incidence in the war zone was low. Among the civil 
 population, however, there was practically nothing 
 being done except in the larger centers, and these 
 were so frightfully overcrowded that even the best 
 of intentions were unable to accomplish much. The 
 city of Jassy, for instance, with a normal population 
 of sixty thousand, was housing nearly three hundred 
 thousand, and other towns were crowded in similar 
 proportion. There were insufficient food and insuf- 
 ficient clothing and insufficient hospital supplies and 
 drugs, and when anything was at hand, the best of it 
 went to the military. In the rural districts which 
 were most removed from the fighting lines, things 
 were comparatively normal, though the insufficiency 
 of food and clothing was evident. ITearer the fight- 
 ing lines, however, on account partly of the great 
 difficulties of transportation, the conditions were very 
 serious. In addition to the armies of defense, there 
 was a large number of refugees from the occupied 
 districts and also a number of persons evacuated 
 from homes on the Allied side which were under 
 
134 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 German fire. For the care of these people, there was 
 practically no provision whatever, and, although the 
 season was still early and the weather warm enough 
 to prevent the crowding together, which occurs al- 
 ways in the winter periods, cases of typhus were be- 
 ing noted sporadically all over the country. It was 
 clear that, with the onset of colder weather and with- 
 out active measures, there was a chance for a repeti- 
 tion of the previous epidemic in which 100,000 were 
 said to have died." 
 
 To meet such conditions, the commission adopted 
 the following methods : 
 
 " First, to make all military baths, hospitals, and 
 disinfectors available for civil as well as military 
 population; second, to detach from military service 
 a sufficient number of physicians with previous ex- 
 perience in civil work to have a special care of the 
 civil population of the country; third, that as far as 
 the epidemic went, a man should be appointed with 
 proper experience who should be in general control of 
 the entire work and have accessibility to all supplies 
 whether civil or military." 
 
 The methods adopted were proved, after more 
 than a year of their application, to have been ef- 
 fective. For, despite difficulties and hindrances and 
 constant appeals, it was made evident that thousands 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 135 
 
 were saved from typhus infections and that the na- 
 tion was spared a heavy toll of death. 
 
 Lamentable as was the condition of Eoumania, the 
 condition of Servia was still more pitiable. To 
 Servia, near the close of the war, a commission was 
 sent, composed of professors in medical schools who, 
 through one of their number, made the following 
 report : 
 
 " There never had been enough doctors in the 
 country, a large number of these had been killed dur- 
 ing the war, and in 1919 there were so few that 
 many parts of the country had one physician to 
 75,000 or more persons. With the difficulties of 
 transportation made much worse by the destruction 
 of roads and bridges during the war, this meant that 
 the greater part of Servia was totally without med- 
 ical service of any sort. 
 
 " It was accordingly arranged to establish small 
 groups of doctors and nurses, as far as possible in 
 association with relief stations, and to have these 
 units care for emergency medical work with the dis- 
 tinct understanding that they should give, as far as 
 possible, primary education in public health matters. 
 ISTo elaborate program was possible on account of 
 the lack of education and the impossibility of any 
 intensive propaganda. On this basis, some twenty- 
 
136 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 five stations were establislied throughout Servia 
 manned with American personnel. They were 
 everywhere most heartily welcomed, and every fa- 
 cility which the war-ridden country could furnish 
 them was put at their disposal. To have left the 
 country and abandoned the work at the end of June, 
 1919, as was originally planned, would have been a 
 serious error for the Eed Cross and a misfortune 
 for the people. After consulting with the Servian 
 authorities and with the heads of the Balkan Com- 
 mission and the Commission for Europe, the Red 
 Cross decided to retain about half of these stations 
 for a period of at least a year, under American per- 
 sonnel. This action was necessary because the Serv- 
 ians actually lacked physicians and obviously could 
 not obtain more without leaving several years for 
 their instruction, unless they had assistance from out- 
 side. In Roumania and Greece, on the other hand, 
 the actual possible supply of medical men was ade- 
 quate if properly distributed. The pathetic appre- 
 ciation of our efforts in the medical line and the 
 friendly feeling towards America in the villages to 
 which our work was accessible, constituted probably 
 the greatest potential influence for good of any of 
 the relations between the Red Cross and the Balkan 
 people." 
 
 In the service of science in prosecuting and win- 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 137 
 
 ning the war, the function of agriculture was con- 
 stant and vital. In this field the work done through 
 the so-called " Land Grant Colleges " established by 
 the Morrill Act of 1862 was of tremendous signifi- 
 cance. This pregnant Act together with subsequent 
 legislation of the ISTational Congress had caused a 
 vast development in agriculture throughout the West. 
 Of the conditions the Secretary of Agriculture, David 
 Y. Houston, wrote : 
 
 '' The Land-^ant Colleges and experiment stations are 
 without parallel. They are 67 in number, have a total 
 valuation of endowment, plant, and equipment of $195,- 
 000,000 ; and income of more than $45,000,000, with 5,900 
 teachers; a resident student body of over 75,000, and a 
 vast number receiving extension instruction. Their great 
 ally, the Department of Agriculture, is unquestionably the 
 greatest practical and scieT>tific agricultural organization 
 in the world. It has a staff of more than 20,000 people, 
 many of them highly trained experts, and a budget of 
 approximately $65,000,000." ^ 
 
 And further Dr. Houston said : — 
 
 " The department and its great allies, the Land-grant 
 Colleges, immediately proceeded to redirect their activities 
 and to put forth all their energies in the most promising 
 directions. In a conference of the agricultural leaders of 
 the nation in St. Louis, called just before the United 
 States entered the war, a program for further organiza- 
 tion, legislation and action with reference to production, 
 
 1 Science, September 13, 1918, page 260. 
 
138 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 conservation and marketing was drawn up, the principle 
 features of which have been enacted into law without sub- 
 stantial change or have been put into effect. This prompt 
 and effective handling of the situation was made possible 
 by reason of the fact that the American people, genera- 
 tions before, had wisely laid the foundations of many agri- 
 cultural institutions and had with increasing liberality 
 supported their agricultural agencies." ^ 
 
 The scientific contributions therefore, made by 
 Great Britain, France and the United States for the 
 winning of the war were as broad, diverse, and fun- 
 damental as the cause of science itself. The pro- 
 fessors in academic faculties became officers of the 
 l^ational Army. The equipment in chemistry, geol- 
 ogy, physics and other sciences were, so far as neces- 
 sary, transferred to the government. The coopera- 
 tion of teachers of these sciences was marked. Their 
 co-working in making airplanes and in methods of 
 signalling was peculiarly significant. ISTew labora- 
 tories were built and manned by college teachers. 
 Researches in manifold fields were instituted. Sci- 
 ence became, in a word, mobilized in the service of 
 democracy and of humanity. The part that science 
 played in former wars had been slight. The place 
 that science may fill in future wars is unknown. 
 It is probable that through biology and bacteriology 
 a greater function will be performed, but the place 
 
 ilbid., page 261. 
 
The Sciences and the Scientists 139 
 
 of science in at least five of its great divisions in the 
 great war is secure. Its contributions stand forth 
 fostered and nourished by the college as of unique 
 significance and imperishable value. 
 
IX 
 
 THE; WOMEN S COLLEGES 
 
 Florence Nightingale remains as the type of the 
 war-time nurse. But a broader and more important 
 form of women's service this war brought forth 
 than the " Lady with the Lamp " could ever picture. 
 The American college for women represented and 
 embodied this service. 
 
 The number of colleges open to women of the three 
 ordinary types, co-educational, co-ordinate, separate, 
 is about five hundred. The co-educational and the 
 coordinate colleges made first-rate contributions, but 
 the colleges for women alone, by reason of their more 
 individual organization, gave a service yet more dis- 
 tinctive. Throughout the far-flung crisis, the gradu- 
 ates, the officers and the students of these colleges 
 rendered several types of service. 
 
 Be it at once said that the colleges for women, like 
 the colleges for men, directly on the outbreak of the 
 war, put themselves on a war basis. They respected 
 food regulations, they observed meatless and wheat- 
 less days, they established economies of many sorts. 
 
 140 
 
The Women's Colleges 141 
 
 One college saved coal by having no heat during 
 October of the year 1918. Students abolished their 
 parties, like Junior " Proms.," Class Days and Class 
 Plays. " ISTo frills and frippery " was a motto 
 adopted at Vassar. 
 
 The colleges themselves formally offered courses 
 of instruction designed to educate and to train women 
 for special war-time activities. Some provided 
 courses in agriculture and horticulture. The at- 
 tendance of women at the ordinary schools of agri- 
 culture increased. Several colleges offered courses 
 in occupational therapy designed to train students 
 to become teachers of wounded soldiers in various 
 handicrafts. Applied psychology, chemistry, wire- 
 less telegraphy, map-making and map-reading, home 
 economics, drafting, typewriting, Prench with em- 
 phasis on such conversation as might be necessary in 
 canteens, the mechanism of the motor car, first aid, 
 surgical dressings, home nursing, war cookery: all 
 of these and many more courses represented the war- 
 time instruction. Students felt themselves impelled 
 toward such training; and the college officers with 
 much enthusiasm, threw themselves into the giving 
 of such instruction. The value of such courses was 
 both psychological and practical. 
 
 The colleges also gave themselves to what may be 
 called the military avocations of academic life. 
 
142 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Chief among them were found the activities of the 
 Ked Cross. Most diverse were the services thus 
 rendered by both younger and older gTaduates and by 
 students. They all gave themselves to the executive 
 work of the Ked Cross. They became teachers in 
 the JSTavy Department and censors in the post-office, 
 "^ publicity workers in the Women's Council of JSTa- 
 tional Defense, and psychological examiners of can- 
 didates in the aviation service. They did welfare 
 work in factories. They served at home and abroad 
 as telephone operators and superintendents. Indi- 
 vidual colleges offered individual services. 
 
 Reed College, Oregon, formed a military organiza- 
 tion for knitting, which was divided into thirteen 
 companies. Vassar's students provided more than 
 25,000 pieces of work done for soldiers. The 
 " Sopho-Militia," at Randolph-Macon, helped to fur- 
 nish a hostess house at Camp Lee. The agricultural 
 unit of Vassar and of other colleges helped to over- 
 come the shortage of farm labor in the spring of 
 1918. The Patriotic League of one college sent out 
 six thousand pieces of mail addressed to soldiers. 
 Financial campaigns, like Liberty Bonds and friend- 
 ship funds, were carried forward; and in one col- 
 lege, the Western Reserve College for Women, the 
 amount secured in one Liberty Loan through stu- 
 dents was more than one-half million dollars. The 
 
The Women's Colleges 143 
 
 faculty and students of Vassar College raised 
 $182,000 for war service. Many nurses of hundreds 
 of Young Women's Christian Associations in the col- 
 leges were mobilized for instant and constant serv- 
 ice. The typical college came to have fun and sport 
 in planning work for the comfort of the men at the 
 front and in the camps. Such were some of the 
 campus and near-campus activities of the students 
 and graduates. In a still wider radius were found 
 many other activities. These activities came to their 
 fullness in the summer of the year 1918. ISTo one of 
 these services proved to be more commanding than 
 that found in the Vassar I^urses' Camp in the so- 
 called vacation months of that year. This camp was, 
 in fact, a " Woman's Plattsburg." It gave an in- 
 troductory training to women who proposed to adopt 
 nursing as a profession. About one hundred and 
 fifteen colleges were represented by graduates or stu- 
 dents, coming from many states, in which Ohio and 
 iN'ew York were first. Most of these students en- 
 tered the regular training schools of hospitals with 
 the season of 1918-1919. 
 
 Wellesley college, at the request of the " Woman's 
 Land Army of America," established an experiment 
 station on and near its beautiful grounds. It was 
 rather an experiment station than a training school. 
 Its numbers were limited to thirty, who came them- 
 
144 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 selves from several colleges and who were already 
 teachers, housekeepers, farmers and holders of good 
 business places. It was in part a camp for farmers. 
 Expert instruction was also given in hygiene, sani- 
 tation and first aid. 
 
 In this diverse work Smith College in cooperation 
 with the Boston Psychopathic Hospital conducted a 
 small school for psychiatric association work, having 
 in mind the special purpose of giving aid to shell- 
 shocked sufferers. Bryn Mawr provided special 
 service in training leaders in industrial plants, and 
 Mount Holyoke in educating groups of workers to 
 aid women employed in factories to secure good hy- 
 gienic and moral conditions. 
 
 At the tip-end of Cape Cod at Provincetown the 
 Association of Collegiate Alumnae established a 
 Home Clubhouse for the men serving on patrol boats 
 and at the radio stations. It gave an opportunity 
 for recreation in a home atmosphere. 
 
 But the services of graduates of the colleges for 
 women were not confined to the home shores. The 
 record of their work, though narrow in scope and 
 confined to small numbers, is most impressive. Por 
 the first time in history college women had a definite 
 share in the activities of war or in the repair of 
 war's damages. For it is ever to be remembered that 
 the college for women is a distinctively new crea- 
 
The Womens Colleges 145 
 
 tion. The first outstanding institutions did not offer 
 instruction until tlie close of tlie Civil War in Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 A division for oversea service was first made by 
 Smith. College.. Its relief workers were among the 
 first of American Associations to carry help to devas- 
 tated I^orthern and Eastern France. Composed of 
 nurses trained and untrained, equipped with the 
 proper medical staff, it bore healing to the sick and 
 the wounded, sight to the blind, feet to the lame, 
 bread to the hungry, a sense of home to the homeless, 
 and cheer to all. To the unit was committed no less 
 than sixteen villages of two thousand people, to whom 
 its members were to become friends. Expelled from 
 their habitat in the spring retreat of 1918, and in 
 peril of capture by the enemy, they yet persevered in 
 season and out of season, in every place open to their 
 service. Their worth in the work of reconstruction 
 was within its field most efficient. 
 
 A similar Red Cross unit was commissioned by 
 Wellesley. Among the conditions for membership 
 were besides sound character, a minimum age limit 
 of twenty-five years, a certificate of enduring health, 
 physical and nervous, ability to speak, read and 
 write easy French, a training in medicine or nurs- 
 ing or social service. The unit contained members 
 of diverse facilities: physicians, nurses, dieticians, 
 
146 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 social experts, executives and secretarial workers 
 were enrolled. One division had no less than one 
 hundred and fifty members. Its special field of 
 work was found among the rapatries. 
 
 Two units were sent from Vassar College, one for 
 canteen service and one for reconstruction. The 
 work done by Vassar graduates is typical of work 
 done by graduates of all colleges. A worker in a 
 canteen unit assigned to the Bordeaux district wrote 
 of her doings : " In those first days I used to visit 
 the camp hospital every morning with writing paper 
 and tobacco and chocolate. In the afternoons I 
 would sell things at the canteen and soon I began to 
 make lemonade, l^ext I got up some French classes 
 which the boys seem to enjoy. ... In this last 
 month, I have been made chairman of the en- 
 tertainment committee and I am responsible for 
 seeing there is something happening at the hut 
 every night. We have an inside and an outside stage 
 and when I can, I try to have two entertainments 
 going on at the same time, as one cannot begin to 
 take care of all the men who flock to the ' Y ' in the 
 evenings. Of course every so often they send us en- 
 tertainers from Bordeaux but not nearly so often as 
 we could wish, so we try to discover the talent that 
 passes through this camp. I have had two signs 
 made: 
 
The Women's Colleges 14Y 
 
 CAN YOU ENTERTAIN? 
 
 If you dance, sing, tell a funny story or do any kind of 
 stunt, let us have your name here. We want you to be 
 part of our Camp Hunt theatrical troupe. 
 
 ..." It isn't really possible to give much idea in 
 a report of this kind of all the miscellaneous things 
 that crop up for one to do in the course of a week. 
 There are endless wearying details to the arranging 
 of nightly programs — tramping from one barracks 
 to another to interview your ' talent,' going to com- 
 manders to secure cooperation, the getting of ' de- 
 tails ' of men to help you with the actual labor of 
 decorating a ha.ll or gathering materials, hunting up 
 men to draw posters to advertise your parties, and 
 multitudes of other things that have to be done. 
 Sometimes you get discouraged with the enormity of 
 the task and the little headway you seem to be mak- 
 ing but soon after something will happen — if it's 
 no more than some boy's exclamation, ' Gee, a real 
 American girl ! ' — to make you realize that the kind 
 of thing the women over here are doing can't be tested 
 for tangible results." ^ 
 
 It is not the primary function of the historian to 
 
 draw inferences, but it is fitting for him to say that 
 
 the record of gTaduates and students of American 
 
 1 Letter from Irma Waterhouse, October 31, 1918 — Vassar 
 Quarterly, February, 1919, pages 117-118. 
 
148 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 colleges for women, serving in tlie war, at iiome and 
 abroad, proves that their hearts have the same pa- 
 triotic beat as the hearts of their brothers. The half 
 century of their college education gives conclusive 
 evidence that they are the saviors of the race quite 
 as truly as their fathers, brothers, husbands and chil- 
 dren. Their strength has been tried and found not 
 to be wanting in any crisis to which that strength has 
 been applied. Their education creates a new asset 
 for and in humanity. The higher education has in 
 the past been the subject of many fears.. Among 
 the fears was the apprehension lest this education 
 would tend to make women remote in feeling from 
 the world and unconscious of its hard, perplexing 
 problems. A dread was felt that education might 
 tend to nourish morbidity and unworthy self-con- 
 sciousness ; and that this self -consciousness might 
 create vanity and a spirit of disdain and contempt 
 for the weaker classes. For many years before the 
 outbreak of the war these fears seemed to fair-minded 
 observers to be groundless. The war has conclusively 
 and lastingly proved that women are able to stand 
 in their places, doing their simple duty, whatever 
 that duty might be. These college graduates have 
 been decorated for bravery under fire. The number 
 thus honored is small. But in conditions demanding 
 heroism quite as great and endurance quite as severe, 
 
The Women's Colleges 149 
 
 without resulting decorations of war crosses or orders 
 of merit, they have proved themselves to be the 
 worthiest. 
 
 In the period in which such service was rendered 
 abroad, women at home, still students in the colleges, 
 were seeking to do their duty. Despite " alarums 
 and excursions," despite Ked Cross calls, despite the 
 demands of the manifold war work, despite the perils 
 of infantile paralysis, and the devastating and dis- 
 ruptions of influenza of the autumn of 1918, the col- 
 leges for women kept steadily at their daily and 
 weekly tasks. Students continued to go on their way 
 toward their academic goal. An example of such 
 steadiness and progress is found in the oldest of the 
 great colleges for women. The President of Vassar 
 College, writing in his annual report, said : 
 
 " It is recorded in the Dean's report for the cur- 
 rent academic year that, while in June, 1917, there 
 were 689 who had never had a deficiency, of the 1060 
 students now in college 742 have never had a condi- 
 tion, and 85 per cent, of the student body are above 
 our well defined requirements of the graduation 
 grade." ^ 
 
 Such testimony has great value as evidence that, 
 
 1 Vassar College Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 4, Reports of the) 
 President and the Treasurer for the year ending June 30, 
 1919, page 4. 
 
150 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 though the college girl was moved by the far-off con- 
 ditions of the world's suffering, yet she was faithful 
 to the immediate duty. 
 
THE EELIGIOISr OF THE STUDENT SOLDIER 
 
 The American college is a religious institution 
 and agency. Historically it had its origin in the 
 Christian church. The religious atmosphere of its 
 beginning has continued in succeeding decades and 
 centuries. The State University is as religious as 
 the commonwealth of which it is a part — no more — 
 no less. In institutions of both types, the privately 
 endowed and the publicly supported, the religion pre- 
 vailing is a large and free form of the Christian faith. 
 The sectarian note is at present less outspoken than 
 in the early time, and the reality of religious belief 
 still continues. 
 
 The prevailing type of religion is one which is 
 represented in Micah's sententious interpretation of 
 doing justice, loving mercy, and walking humbly 
 with God. Micah's interpretation is continued in 
 Christ's two great commandments and in the Beati- 
 tudes of his Sermon on the Mount. It is a type 
 which does not invite pious or frequent exhortation 
 
 but lays emphasis on doing right, and inspires a 
 
 151 
 
152 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 feeling of abhorrence of that which is not honorable 
 and square. 
 
 It has been affirmed that these student soldiers, 
 possessing a sense of reality, were more religious than 
 they thought themselves to be. They believed in 
 goodness which, someway, they did not quite associ- 
 ate with God. Whether they knew, or did not know, 
 of Matthew Arnold's definition of God, they some- 
 Vv^ay believed in a power not themselves which made 
 for righteousness. They were in a sense pantheists. 
 But their pantheism was of a very personal kind. 
 One cannot say that they were " God-intoxicated." 
 But one can say that they found the soul of goodness 
 within themselves which was reenforced in its striv- 
 ings and struggles by the spirit of goodness without. 
 In fact, the spirit of badness, which was manifest to 
 eye, to ear, and to heart, may itself have given em- 
 phasis to the beneficent soul within their own bosoms. 
 
 This type of religion was especially pervasive. 
 The thoughts of students on the campus and in camp 
 were turned Godward. Face to face with what are 
 called the eternal realities, each man sought to ad- 
 just himself to the realities in feeling, in reflection, 
 and in choice. The endeavor for self -adjustment 
 was not as active or as timely for the soldier 
 student on the campus or in the camp as for the 
 student soldier on the firing line; but for both the 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 153 
 
 eternal motive was insistent and vital. Perhaps the 
 strongest note in this endeavor was the note of un- 
 conscious self-sacrifice. The men gave themselves 
 freely, largely, exultantly. So complete was the ex- 
 ultation that the sacrifice was not at all interpreted in 
 terms of sacrifice. The college student in his re- 
 flectiveness desired to help humanity, to enlarge and 
 to enrich the agencies of human betterment, to pre- 
 serve ideals in a world sordid and mean, to ennoble 
 and to make lasting a high civilization. In the se- 
 curing of these lofty purposes he was willing to share 
 in the last and supreme act of devotion. 
 
 The work which the college did in the cause of re- 
 ligion was usually done through the Young Men's 
 Christian Association and the Knights of Columbus. 
 Of course, chaplains commissioned by the govern- 
 ment were in the service and not a few of them won 
 great results. But the chaplain not infrequently 
 stood for individualism, and individualism in this 
 war did not have the opportunity for usefulness 
 which it possessed in former wars. Yet not a few 
 clergymen gave a personal service of unspeaka,ble 
 worth. 
 
 The chaplain in both the American and English 
 armies seems to have had a job, perhaps no harder 
 than other wars offer, but it was surrounded by con- 
 ditions which were especially trying. Writing of the 
 
154 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Englisli chaplains, tlie author of " A Private in the 
 Guards " has said : 
 
 " They could not preach the Sermon on the Mount 
 because they thought loving your enemies contrary 
 to the spirit of the war. They could not inveigh 
 against lust because the medical officer was of opinion 
 that l^ature's needs must be satisfied. They could 
 not attack bad language because it was accepted as 
 manly. They could not attack drunkenness because 
 it was the men's relaxation, and a good drinker was 
 considered a good fighter. What was there for a 
 poor padre to say to the men ? " ^ 
 
 But, despite these limitations, the value of personal 
 character in the army as manifest in the chaplain was 
 of primary worth.i If he represented the best quali- 
 ties of manhood, virile and sympathetic, kind without 
 softness, laborious and sacrificing, determined 
 to help every man, fearing no peril and accepting no 
 favor, he was a force at once commanding and per- 
 suasive. But if he were cowardly and selfish, the 
 soldiers had no respect for him, and gave no respon- 
 sive hearing to his words. His advice did not com- 
 mand their regard, and his character received merited 
 contempt. Yet be it said comprehensively that the 
 American, like the English chaplain, deserves the bet- 
 1 " A Private in the Guards," by Stephen Graham, page 243. 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 155 
 
 ter interpretation whicli Mr. Graham gives of the 
 English : 
 
 " I met whilst I was in France some ten or twelve 
 chaplains. They all had pleasant personalities, and 
 it was a relief to converse with them after the rough- 
 and-ready wit of the men. I saw them from a differ- 
 ent angle from that in which they were seen by the 
 officers. What struck me most about them was the 
 extraordinary way they seemed to make their minds 
 fit to the official demands made upon opinion. They 
 always rapidly absorbed the official point of view 
 about the war, and often the officers' point of view 
 as well." ^ 
 
 It was, however, the Young Men's Christian Asso- 
 ciation which, through service religious and social, 
 secured the best results. The college contributed of 
 its students, of its professors as well as of its grad- 
 uates, to this enrollment. The " hut " became a 
 unique place in every camp, both at home and abroad. 
 This hut to the soldier stood for his home. It gave 
 not only shelter, but also recreation, friendliness, 
 comfort. It represented an ideal, realized to the sol- 
 dier, of human well being. It also helped to main- 
 tain morale as well as to give happiness. The work 
 was established as a large human work. Whatever 
 
 1 Ibid., page 244. 
 
156 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 related to the welfare of the soldier as an individual 
 or of the group was regarded as its function. It was 
 recreational service in the largest sense. It con- 
 sisted in managing a canteen, or a camp post, in sell- 
 ing cigarettes, chocolate, and whatever might min- 
 ister to the soldier's happiness, in talking to wounded 
 men in hospital, in writing letters for those who could 
 not write, in recommending books to those who were 
 indifferent, in arranging boxing bouts for exercise 
 and for fun, in getting instruments for a brass band 
 and in organizing the players. Such work did not 
 supplement sermons, yet, the sermons were not neg- 
 lected. The traditionally religious side of the serv- 
 ice might seem to be neglected, but the religious im- 
 pulse was consciously, or unconsciously, at the base of 
 the life of many student soldiers. 
 
 There arose toward the close of the war criticism. 
 
 The criticism of the Young Men's Christian Asso- 
 ciation touched both personnel and method. First: 
 Unworthy men were selected as secretaries or field 
 executives. Second: The work was commercial- 
 ized, or was not made properly Christian. In its 
 commercial relation goods were sold, it was charged, 
 at a higher price than the costs warranted. The an- 
 swer to these criticisms was made, that in an en- 
 rollment of executives numbering several thousand 
 men, it was to be expected that some would be found 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 157 
 
 either incompetent or dishonest, or both. The second 
 charge, of a lack of the religious element, was met by 
 the interpretation that the conditions did not allow, 
 or did not at least provide for, religious presentations. 
 One chaplain said to me that the charge could not 
 have been made if the word " Christian " had been 
 struck out of the corporate name. In all these di- 
 verse services college men held a large share. Col- 
 lege teachers of French became teachers to American 
 soldiers. College graduates of all callings became 
 executives and undergraduates helped in many and 
 diverse fields.^ 
 
 1 The following examples are typical of the variety of the 
 services to which college men gave themselves: 
 
 A bishop's VAKIED SUNDAY 
 
 " The Protestant Episcopal bishop of Erie, Pa., is having the 
 time of his life over here among the soldiers. He is one of 
 those who have made good as a speaker to the soldiers, and 
 he itinerates among the huts, visiting with the men by day 
 and addressing meetings at night. His everyday vestments 
 are a uniform, and the fact that he is a bishop means a deal 
 less to the boys than that he is ' a good Scout.' Naturally 
 on Sunday the bishop administers the communion at least 
 once, for the soldiers show a desire for the sacrament greater 
 than they display at home. Recently after the first large ac- 
 tion in which the Americans were independently engaged, the 
 bishop held two communion services for the men on Sunday 
 morning — and in the afternoon he sold cigarettes and candy 
 over the counter of the ' Y.' And everybody who knows the 
 conditions here believes that the latter action was also a 
 Christian ministry. 
 
 OTHEB VARIETIES OF " Y " WORKERS 
 
 " The personnel of this many sided work for the troops is an 
 
158 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Perhaps the most distinctive work, religious or 
 semi-religious, done by the colleges through their 
 students was found in the contribution of money made 
 for the relief of prisoners of war, for men in the 
 
 exhaustive topic, A Standard Oil magnate was over here 
 looking into things and getting a sample of what the Y. M. 
 C. A. ministry is. On his first night at the front, when his 
 truck had heen under the German fire, the supply of gasoline 
 gave out, as if in mockery of the oil man's presence, and he 
 had to walk several miles through the night to get to the 
 base. Then he went oflf to a difficult front-line hut, where 
 he learned how to work without being able to call upon a 
 secretary or a staff of assistants, and to his credit be it said 
 he did good service for the soldiers, none of whom knew that 
 he was not a preacher or other professional Y. M. C. A. 
 worker. 
 
 ENJOYMENT IN HABD, DANGiaiOUS WORK 
 
 " These Y. M. C. A. men got farther to the front than even 
 the correspondents. Three have been wounded thus far, and 
 one woman worker has been killed by shell fire. It is almost 
 a daily experience for the drivers of the trucks to pass through 
 the fire zone, and I noticed that the Red Triangle on one of 
 the trucks had been dented by shrapnel. These men carry gas 
 masks as naturally and as inevitably as the cowboys used to 
 carry pistols. A steel helmet is a part of every driver's 
 equipment. 
 
 " All this quickly becomes a matter of course. On the front 
 above Toul I have met repeatedly a business man of Colum- 
 bus, O., who has left his store and banks and other interests, 
 and is out here in the fire zone, working night and day upon 
 the task of organizing and directing the business end of sup- 
 plying the soldiers with the incidentals which can be got only 
 through the ' Y.' It is the hardest work this man has ever 
 done, but never has he enjoyed anything more. 
 
 " In one of the base cities, where there are many American 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 159 
 
 armies, and for tlie wounded in the war zones. Over 
 a million dollars was given by the students and offi- 
 cers of the American colleges for this beautiful and 
 unique purpose. The amount contributed by differ- 
 ent colleges is significant and impressive. N^orth- 
 western University, $12,000 ; University of Chicago, 
 $15,427; University of Illinois, $27,563; Purdue 
 University, $18,960; Iowa State College, $23,000; 
 tJniversity of Michigan, $23,000; University of 
 Minnesota, $27,500; University of l^ebraska, $21,- 
 057; Ohio State University, $17,407; Western Ke- 
 serve University, $12,961 ; University of Wisconsin, 
 $21,000. The money thus raised was called a 
 Friendship Fund. It was spent, as I have said, in 
 aiding prisoners and in promoting the efficiency of all 
 the causes in which the students were interested. 
 The worth of the service thus rendered overseas was 
 great ; the worth of the work done for the givers them- 
 selves was even greater. Above all else it proved the 
 
 troops, there ia a Western physician, with his two adult 
 daughters, who is running a Y. M. C. A. caf6 and concert hall 
 for the men, at his own charge. Few American families, out- 
 side of actual military service, are doing so much for the 
 cause as he. 
 
 " Upwards of 2000 ' Y ' workers are now in France. Seventy- 
 five per cent, of them have ' made good.' But as many more 
 beyond draft age, are needed. They have to stand in the 
 stead of mother and father and home and church to an entire 
 army of boys." William T. Ellis in Boston Transcript, Jime 
 Ist, 1918. 
 
160 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 unity of the hearts of all students with each other, 
 and the unity of their hearts with all men in distress. 
 
 The training given to the Young Men's Christian 
 Association workers was entrusted in certain cases 
 to members of the college faculties. Members of the 
 Princeton faculty, in the spring of 1918, served as 
 teachers for one hundred and fifty men who were 
 about to go abroad. Courses in conversational 
 French were perhaps the most common, but also the 
 teaching took on a larger relationship, being con- 
 cerned with Erench life, ideals, manners and cus- 
 toms. In this service the teachers of Romance in 
 all colleges of America felt a deep interest. ]^ot a 
 few of them volunteered themselves, but also they 
 promoted the going of their students. Through ad- 
 dresses and through their writings they quickened 
 the interest of thoughtful men in the service to be 
 rendered by colleges through the Y. M. C. A. in 
 France, in England, and wherever was found the 
 American soldier. 
 
 In the broad interpretation of religion, it is also 
 to be said that the American college, through the 
 same Association and by other methods, did much in 
 the promotion of the moral purity of the life of the 
 American soldier. Without doubt the American 
 Army was the cleanest of all armies. Toward this 
 result not only the religious and the ethical impulse 
 
The Eeligion of the Student Soldier 161 
 
 was directed, but also medical science and medical 
 cooperation. The peril of venereal disease was con- 
 stantly impressed upon soldiers; and in official and 
 unofficial ways the duty of clean-mindedness and of 
 clean living were enforced.^ Another special form 
 of religious and social work was found in the ambu- 
 lance field service. This service, beginning before 
 the formal entrance of the United States into the 
 war, enrolled not far from two thousand men. 
 These students went straight from their class-rooms 
 to Elanders Fields and Vosges Mountains. Toward 
 this number Harvard sent more than three hundred ; 
 Yale and Princeton about two hundred men each. 
 It was the service of the good Samaritan rendered 
 
 1 An American college professor, Lieutenant Eaymond V, 
 Phelan, issued a note entitled — " Our New Morality " : — 
 
 " Sexually speaking, one of three courses will be followed by 
 every American soldier entering France. ( 1 ) He will practice 
 the sexual continence that his commander is expected to teach, 
 and enforce by scrupulously moral conduct on his own part. 
 (2) He may take where opportunity offers dastardly advan- 
 tage of the moral women of the French nation. (3) He may, 
 at the cost of future disease and misery in America, patronize 
 the unfortunate woman. Many and many a soldier has with 
 evident honesty and sincerity of purpose assured the writer 
 that he has lived a clean life in the army and will continue 
 to do so. If the question of sexual morality is pursued by 
 commanders with vigor and determination, may not the Amer- 
 ican soldier manfully respond, and give us as one of the 
 many splendid products of the war a greatly improved stand- 
 ard of moral conduct among American men ? " 
 
162 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 under perils far more perilous by day and by nigbt, 
 near front-line trenches and in shell-swept areas, than 
 the good Samaritan ever dreamed of. 
 
 Service of the same glorious type was given by the 
 men of Oxford and of other British Universities. 
 Writing near the close of the year 1916, an Oxford 
 lecturer said: 
 
 " It is two years now since they began to go over 
 to Belgium and the occupied territories of France; 
 and there, setting themselves between the hammer 
 and the anvil, among suspicion and surveillance, in 
 unremitting toil and with patient organization, they 
 labored to relieve the destitute and to visit the needy 
 in their affliction. Such work became, as it seemed, a 
 part of their Oxford course; and each new student 
 who came from America, after staying a little while, 
 crossed over, as if in duty bound, for his term of 
 service on the other side. As time went on new doors 
 were opened and new duties were undertaken. 
 When the bombardment of Verdun was fiercest, and 
 the sleet of iron and fire drove with the deadliest in- 
 tensity against its walls, the American Ambulance 
 was there, and American students were with the am- 
 bulance of their country. Turning chauffeurs and 
 mechanics — chauffeurs and mechanics of an infinite 
 resource and sagacity — they drove thousands of 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 163 
 
 the wounded soldiers of France, along icebound, slip- 
 pery roads, from the field of battle to their haven of 
 rest ; and if their cars broke down, as American cars 
 would sometimes do, they set them triumphantly to 
 rights by the roadside, and in a few hours were driv- 
 ing quietly forward again to their base. ISFor were 
 their goings and doings only in Belgium and in 
 France ; they went even farther afield, and there were 
 some who, seeking the farthest bounds of the far-flung 
 battle line, went out to find ways of service and 
 ministration in India, or in Africa, or in Mesopo- 
 tamia," ^ 
 
 The general effect of war and its circumstance on 
 the religious beliefs and practice of college men was 
 at least sixfold. 
 
 First : the war served to exalt the student's and the 
 graduate's sense of patriotism and of humanitarian- 
 ism into a religion, or, — to change the point of view, 
 — it served to incarnate the chief expression of his 
 religion in his love for country and for man. If re- 
 ligion be defined as the relation which man holds to 
 God, the college man's religion in the course of the 
 war soon passed out of this definition into a faith in 
 and a loyalty to his country and to all men. 
 
 1 " Mothers and Sons in War Time," by Ernest Barker, 
 pages 60 and 61. 
 
164 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Second : Such a religion was therefore essentially 
 an ethical system and interpretation of the relation 
 of men to each other. The soldier student believed, 
 and practiced, not only that he should love his neigh- 
 bor as himself, but even more than himself. He 
 should be prepared, and be glad, to die for his neigh- 
 bor. The willingness to die for one's neighbor has, 
 of course, tens of thousands of illustrations, and, what 
 is perhaps more important, the willingness to endure 
 pain, dreaded more than death itself, has hundreds 
 of thousands of illustrations. These examples are 
 equally common among college men and among those 
 who dwell without academic walls. An English 
 chaplain tells of his entering a dugout just taken 
 from the Germans and of finding himseK stifled with 
 the foul air. He said something sympathetic to 
 the man who lay on a bed of clay beside him. The 
 man's answer was, " ' This ! This is paradise to 
 what we've been through before we took the ridge.' " 
 Continuing, Dr. Kelman says, " Add to this the con- 
 stant call to face atrocious danger, and the pain of 
 wounds while they lay untended on the field. Then 
 remember the thousands who have gone with open 
 eyes to certain death, to hold an outpost or to save a 
 company ; and the many instances of officers and men 
 who have thrown themselves upon live bombs that 
 they might save their neighbors by the sacrifice of 
 
The Religion of the Student Soldier 165 
 
 their own lives, or in other ways have deliberately 
 given their lives for others." ^ 
 
 Third : The third effect lay in what may be said to 
 be the realm of the imagination. Yet this imagina- 
 tion was rather a force than a field of the college 
 man's religion. It stood for the intellectual way in 
 which religion made its appeal. It lay in the sense 
 that one is living a great life, doing a great work, 
 inspired by a great motive, measuring up to the great- 
 est possibilities within his bosom. It is keeping step 
 with one's fellow soldier in life's march. It is the 
 sense of music in one's soul. It is the meaning of 
 the lump in the throat. 
 
 Fourth : But while this sense of imagination was a 
 method of interpretation of the student's relation to 
 God, this religion was also to him a deep and ever in- 
 creasing sense of loyalty. The gospel of sincerity, of 
 truthfulness to the fact, was dear to him. He de- 
 tested sham, pretense, counterfeit. He hated the 
 false as the devil holy water. His hatred was col- 
 ored through and through with scorn and contempt. 
 This sense of reality caused him to turn with confi- 
 dence to the men who as clergymen, as priests, or as 
 Christian Association secretaries called out his belief 
 in their integrity and honesty. This sense of reality 
 
 1 " The War and Preaching," by Rev. Dr, John Kelman, 
 page 86. 
 
166 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 touched both his assent to truth and his friendship 
 for the individual. 
 
 Fifth: This same sense of reality inevitably re- 
 sulted in a simplicity of religious beliefs. The col- 
 lege man's creed M^as short. The Fatherhood of 
 God was its first, and chief, article, and perhaps its 
 last also and this article had phrases which possibly 
 belonged quite as much to the heart as to the reason. 
 It was interpreted in the terms of the emotions and 
 sentiments quite as often, and always as deeply, as 
 in terms of the intellect. It recognized, often uncon- 
 sciously, Pascal's truth that the heart has its reasons 
 of which the reason knows not. 
 
 Sixth: Such a simple creed, of course, led to an 
 elimination of the great sectarian divisions which 
 now afflict the church. ^NTot only were the minor 
 Protestant distinctions wiped out, but also the Jew- 
 ish, the Roman Catholic and the Protestant faiths 
 were in certain foundations united. Over the grave 
 of a brave soldier, the rabbi, the priest and the minis- 
 ter offered a common prayer to one God. The ele- 
 mental and fundamental realities, the suffering and 
 the fellowship of life and of death, joined men to- 
 gether in religious faith and act. 
 
XI 
 
 POETEY AS AN INTEKPEETATION OF THE WAE 
 
 Literature, as a force and form of life, has its 
 fount and origin in the college, and it is continued 
 by the academic tradition. The literature of the war 
 has already taken on several forms, — history, essay, 
 letters, poetry. Of course, these writings are only 
 the beginning of interpretations which will go on for 
 unnumbered centuries. But, at the present moment, 
 the poetry, which the war inspired, is probably the 
 most significant contribution of a literary kind, made 
 by the graduate or student. For, in all definitions of 
 poetry, feeling and imagination are the true con- 
 stants, and feeling and imagination are most domi- 
 nant in the heart and mind of youth, and possibly 
 most completely dominant in the heart and mind 
 of the youth of the academic plane trees. Yet it 
 should at once be said that the contribution, made 
 by American college students and graduates to the 
 poetry of the war, is slight. Compared with the 
 contribution made by the graduates of British uni- 
 versities, it is small in amount and meager in quality. 
 
 167 
 
168 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 An examination of the larger share of all poems 
 written by college men of both nations necessitates 
 the conclusion that they do not represent the full tide 
 of English song. The reason is perhaps evident 
 enough for the American paucity. 
 
 Although, in a real human sense, the war was Amer- 
 ica's from August, 1914, — in a technical, govern- 
 mental sense, it was not America's until almost three 
 years after. The period of America's participation 
 was brief. The war was also three thousand miles 
 away. It was farther away from the majority of the 
 American people and of most college men than three 
 thousand miles of distance would intimate. For re- 
 moteness in relationship added to remoteness in dis- 
 tance. It was not until the declaration of war was 
 made that the academic flags were unfurled or the 
 college bugle sounded. Therefore the poet was 
 dumb, as the government seemed to some numb. 
 
 The English poetry of the war, coming from either 
 Oxford or Cambridge, from Scottish or Midland Uni- 
 versity, was unlike the typical war songs. It had 
 none of the martial glory of the " Charge of the Light 
 Brigade." It was likewise remote from Campbell's 
 " Songs of Battle," " The Battle of the Baltic," " ITa- 
 poleon and the British Sailor," and " The Power of 
 Russia." Such were not the themes of which the Ox- 
 ford poet dreamed. The English verse of the war 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 169 
 
 was rather moral than martial, rather psychological 
 than patriotic, rather human than national or even 
 international. It was indeed concerned with the di- 
 vine quite as much as with the human. 
 
 The poem of both the American and the British 
 student was the poetry of the inner life. It was what 
 the philosophers call subjective. It might be named 
 romantic, in case one substitutes man for nature in 
 the usual definition. It was an aspiration, like 
 Gothic architecture. Little, or none, of the complete- 
 ness of the classical type did it have. Many of these 
 verses are like the Hebrew Psalms, poems of the per- 
 sonal life, of character, of struggle,, of resignation, of 
 victory. They remind one of George Herbert's 
 precious verse. The typical poem was concerned 
 with righteousness and honor, with endurance of 
 heart and will, with hopefulness in darkness and in 
 days of despair, with the glory of sacrifice, with the 
 broodingness of mystery, with the belief that the un- 
 seen is the eternal and that the unseen means the 
 right, with sympathy for the sorrowing and with ex- 
 ultation for the glorified, with hatred of despotism 
 and with the beauty of the new republic of man, with 
 the heroism of our common humanity, with the maj- 
 esty of concerted and cooperative obedience, with 
 patience in the dies irae, with the constant presence 
 of the dead and of their imperishable life. 
 
170 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Illustrations of these sentiments are more easily 
 found in English than in American verse. Captain 
 Charles Hamilton Sorley, who died in October, 1915, 
 at the age of twenty years, cries out : 
 
 " And let me stand so and defy them all. 
 The martyr's exultation leaps in me, 
 And I am joyous, joyous ! " ^ 
 
 Captain Richard Dennys, who was killed at the 
 Somme, exclaims : 
 
 " My day was happy — and perchance 
 The coming night is full of stars." ^ 
 
 Rifleman S.. Donald Cox, in his song " To my 
 Mother," says: 
 
 " If I should fall, grieve not that one so weak and 
 poor as I should die, but say 
 
 ' I too had a son ; 
 He died for England's sake ! ' " 3 
 
 Lieutenant Mackintosh, of the Seaforth Highland- 
 ers, before his death in action, in ISTovember, 1917, 
 writes : 
 
 iThe South Atlcmtic Quarterly/, April, 1918, "The Spirit 
 of Youth in Arms," by Walter Graham, page 91. 
 2 Ibid., page 92. 
 S Ibid. 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 111 
 
 "If I die to-morrow 
 I shall go happily. 
 With the flush of battle on my face 
 I shall walk with an eager pace 
 The road I cannot see." ^ 
 
 Sucli examples could be continued to the number 
 of almost three score of those who fell singing. If 
 Germany had her Korner, friend of Goethe and 
 Schiller, student at Leipsic, whose last poem was 
 written the very day of his last battle — a song to his 
 bride, his sword, who, at less than twenty-two years 
 of age, fell fighting for the cause of liberty, England 
 and America had their singing sons who died also on 
 the field of honor. Their years were few. Their 
 poems were also few. But the great experience 
 brought into vivid, and often powerful, expression 
 what would have required many years of the daily 
 round and common task to effect. 
 
 Of all the English singers, the poems of Thomas 
 Hardy and of Rupert Brooke perhaps give the richest 
 promise of lastingness. Rupert Brooke's five son- 
 nets go down the deepest and reach up the highest. I 
 cannot deny myself the right of quoting the familiar 
 and ever moving lines entitled, " The Soldier " : — 
 
 1 In making these quotations, I wish specially to acknowledge 
 the great service which my associate, Walter Graham, has 
 given. 
 
172 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 If I should die, think only this of me : 
 
 That there's some corner of a foreign field 
 That is forever England. There shall be 
 
 In that rich earth a richer dust concealed; 
 A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware, 
 
 Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam, 
 A body of England's, breathing English air. 
 
 Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home. 
 
 And think, this heart, all evil shed away, 
 A pulse in the eternal mind, no less 
 
 Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England 
 given ; 
 Her sights and sounds ; dreams happy as her day ; 
 And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness. 
 In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.^ 
 
 With Rupert Brooke, I associate an American, a 
 son of Harvard, Alan Seeger. 
 
 Brooke and Seeger were alike in age, alike in gen- 
 eral educational condition, although one came from 
 the American and the other from the English Cam- 
 bridge, alike in a desire to know and to feel experi- 
 ence, alike in that to each life was a cup which each 
 willed to drink, both to its fullness and to its depths, 
 alike in binding to themselves friendships, not with 
 hoops of steel, but with willovsry bands of mutual 
 love, alike in wide travel, and alike in romantic 
 
 1 " The Collected Poems of Rupert Brooke," John Lane Com- 
 pany, with Introduction by George Edward Woodberry, 
 page 111. 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 173 
 
 vision and power and promise. They were also alike 
 in coming into and in giving up life, within a few 
 months of each other, in its early years, while still 
 the victory was seen only by the eye of faith. Of the 
 two, the Englishman is undoubtedly the greater. An 
 assured place he holds in the gallery of song. But 
 Seeger is also sure of a lasting place, even if not so 
 high. His " I have a Rendezvous with Death " and 
 his " Ode in Memory of the American Volunteers 
 Fallen for France " are to endure as bronze. I 
 wish to write out " I have a Rendezvous with Death," 
 as standing for the most moving poem written by an 
 American college graduate who served as a soldier. 
 
 I have a rendezvous with Death 
 At some disputed barricade, 
 When Spring comes back with rustling shade 
 And apple-blossoms fill the air — 
 I have a rendezvous with Death 
 When Spring brings back blue days and fair. 
 
 It may be he shall take my hand 
 And lead me into his dark land, 
 And close my eyes and quench my breath — 
 It may be I shall pass him still. 
 I have a rendezvous with Death 
 On some scarred slope of battered hill, 
 When Spring comes round again this year 
 And the first meadow-flowers appear. 
 
 God knows 'twere better to be deep 
 Pillowed in silk and scented down, 
 
1Y4 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Where Love throbs out in blissful sleep, 
 Pulse nigh to pulse, and breath to breath. 
 Where hushed awakenings are dear, . . . 
 But I've a rendezvous with Death 
 At midnight in some flaming town. 
 When Spring trips north again this year, 
 And I to my pledged word am true, 
 I shall not fail that rendezvous.^ 
 
 It must not, however, be inferred that all the 
 poetry of college soldiers, or of soldiers of any type, 
 was of the heroic couplet only. All experiences of 
 the camp, of the march, of the mess, of the drill, came 
 into view. Some of the resulting verses were witty, 
 some were humorous, some were profane — sinlessly 
 and properly profane! Yfet the quantity of happy 
 verse was small, and its general quality was that of 
 doggerel. Perhaps the most popular of all such verse 
 was a burlesque of Kipling's " Gunga Din " which, 
 under the title of " Hunk o' Tin," was dear to sol- 
 diers both at home and overseas.^ The simple truth 
 
 1 " Poems by Alan Seeger," with an Introduction by William 
 Archer, page 144. 
 
 2 The paint is not so good 
 And no doubt you'll find the hood 
 Will rattle like a boiler shop en route; 
 The radiator may boil 
 And perhaps she's leakin' oil, 
 Then often times the horn declines to toot. 
 But when the night is black 
 And there's blesses to take back 
 And they hardly give you time to take a smoke; 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 175 
 
 is that life and death, suifering and shock, and all ex- 
 periences, actual or imagined, were altogether too 
 common and too somber to invite the light touch. I 
 have sought among many pages of verse to find ex- 
 amples of quickened pleasure and merriment in the 
 writer. One of the few, which I do venture to quote, 
 seems to bear in its spirit the ring of some of Kip- 
 ling's lines. Kipling ever appeals to the soldier's 
 soul. It has the title of " The Song of the Dead Am- 
 bulance Men." 
 
 We're sick of your harps and your haloes, of your well- 
 kept heavenly things. 
 
 Of your roads without even a shell-hole (we'll be damned 
 if we'll use your wings). 
 
 We're sick and tired of smoking when cigarettes flow so 
 free 
 
 That we throw the butts half-burnt beside your Pearly 
 Sea. 
 
 We know that we died like heroes for the lives of the men 
 who fell. 
 
 It is mighty good to feel 
 
 When you're sitting at the wheel, 
 
 She'll be running when the bigger cars are broke. 
 
 Oh it's Din Din Din. 
 
 If it happens there's a ditch you've skidded in 
 
 Don't be worried but just shout 
 
 Till some poilu boosts you out 
 
 And you're glad she's not so heavy Hunk o' tin. 
 Dedicated to the Memory of Car No. 423, S. S. U. 13 Mort 
 May 8th, 1917, by C. O. Battershell. From Weekly pub- 
 lished in Paris. 
 
1Y6 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 But that's no smitten reason why we have to grow fat as 
 
 hell! 
 Say, give us the ghost of an ambulance and let us drive 
 
 away 
 Somewhere, where there's an angel-fight, and there, by the 
 
 Lord, we'll stay.^ 
 
 These numerous quotations may tend to give the 
 impression that it was only the college men v^^ho fell 
 fighting who v^rrote great odes. 'No impression could 
 be further from the fact. Though the toll of singers 
 was heart-breaking — some fifty in number, of 
 American and of English birth — yet there were 
 singers who were not able to wear khaki, or, if they 
 wore it, who did not fall, whose voices will last for 
 the decades or the centuries. The psychological im- 
 agination may interpret war quite as deeply in the 
 college yard and lawn as in the trench, or in the hos- 
 pital. The only question is whether the writer does 
 possess the imagination of a poet. The actual par- 
 ticipation in the battle, if adding to the historic im- 
 pressiveness of the scene, may yet serve to congest 
 and to stifle the imagination. In order to discover 
 war poems which were not written with the point of 
 the sword dipped in the blood of the writer, one need 
 not go beyond Tennyson's " Ode on the Death of the 
 Duke of Wellington," or Whitman's " Drum Taps." 
 
 1 Field Service Bulletin, June 22, 1918, published weekly at 
 Paris, " The Song of Dead Ambulance Men," by S. L. Conklin. 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 177 
 
 ISTeither tlie Englishman nor the American singer 
 stood on the firing line. 
 
 These poems, and numberless others which might 
 be gathered up, are, on the whole, as was said at the 
 beginning of this chapter, poems of the inner life. 
 They are essentially studies of the soul. Being 
 studies of the soul, they are impressively alike. They 
 are sung in many meters and to many tunes. But 
 they do serve to illustrate Shelley's remark when he 
 speaks of " That great poem which all poets, like the 
 cooperating thoughts of one great mind, have built 
 up since the beginning of the world." 
 
 Seeger, Brooke, and their fellow singers, like 
 Keats, Shelley, and Byron, died young. In few 
 years, and brief, they experienced much and lived 
 deeply. They had passion and thought and reflec- 
 tion. Both of them had vision, vision of the heart, as 
 well as of the poetic imagination. 
 
 \Vhat Brooke or Seeger would have produced had 
 they lived to the age of forty, or of fifty, is as vain 
 as to ask to what heights Keats would have soared 
 had he lived to twice his score and six years. One 
 recalls that the life of Tennyson and of Browning be- 
 gan in or near the first, and closed in or near the last, 
 decade of the nineteenth century. One does not for- 
 get either that Pope, of a wholly unlike order, had at- 
 tained, in his three decades, a secure place in Eng- 
 
178 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 lish. poesy. But Brooke belonged to an order of sing- 
 ers of the inner life which is as capable of as endless 
 a development and of as diverse attainment as are 
 the depths and variations of the human soul. One 
 must be content in reverently and sorrowfully think- 
 ing with one greater than either the young Ameri- 
 can or the young English singer, " For Lycidas is 
 dead, dead ere his prime." 
 
 Without doubt the Commemoration Ode of James 
 Russell Lowell still remains as the most quickening 
 of all war poems written in America. Bold would 
 be the prophet who should declare that as great an 
 ode would be inspired to commemorate the world 
 war. Standing next to it, though at a distance, is 
 a sonnet of a friend and disciple of Lowell, Wood- 
 berry : — 
 
 " I pray for peace; yet peace is buft a, prayer. 
 How many wars have been in my brief years ! 
 All races and all faiths, both hemispheres. 
 My eyes have seen embattled everywhere 
 The wide earth through ; yet do I not despair 
 Of peace, that slowly through far ages nears. 
 Though not to me the golden morn appears; 
 My faith is perfect in time's issue fair. 
 
 For man doth build on an eternal scale. 
 
 And his ideals are framed of hope deferred; 
 
 The millennium came not ; yet Christ did not fail. 
 Though ever unaccomplished is His word; 
 
Poetry as an Interpretation of the War 1T9 
 
 Him Prince of Peace, though unenthroned, we hail, 
 Supreme when in all bosoms He be heard." ^ 
 
 The poet is he who sees into the inmost heart of 
 things. The history of the war in its realities, in its 
 dismays, in its despairs and distresses, in its heroisms 
 and victories, in its partings and sorrows, in its 
 glories and exultations, will ever find imperishable 
 symbols and tokens in the poems of college men. 
 They are a moving interpretation of the experiences 
 of the nations and of all men. 
 
 " Across the calm, clear sky of God 
 A great white glory gleams. 
 The young men find the altar-stairs 
 Of world-rapt hopes and dreams. 
 The Beast shall crumble into dust. 
 The blood-stained crown will fall 
 Before the shining armies 
 Of the Lord, the God of AH." 2 
 
 1 Sonnets written in the Fall of 1914, by George Edward 
 Woodberry. 
 
 2 American Field Service Bulletin, Paris, May 18, 1918; 
 " Dawn/' by Sherman L, Conklin, 
 
XII 
 
 IJSTTEKJS'ATIOlSrAL EEiLATIONS 
 
 As the war was an international war, so the rela- 
 tions of American colleges to other nations and to 
 their educational forces hecame significant. These 
 relations assumed several forms. Among these forms 
 was a study of the language and literature of differ- 
 ent peoples and especially of France, the reception by 
 the colleges of academic commissions from these 
 countries; the offering and the acceptance of hos- 
 pitality to American teachers in foreign capitols ; the 
 transfer of college education under American condi- 
 tions to the camps in France; and the entrance of 
 American student soldiers into British and French 
 universities. It was a unique record of diverse ex- 
 periences, of gracious courtesies and of forceful ef- 
 ficiency. 
 
 Early in the great conflict the antagonistic feeling 
 of the American college toward Germany became 
 manifest. The forcefulness of the command or the 
 wisdom of the counsel of the president to maintain 
 neutrality was not sufficiently strong to prevent most 
 
 180 
 
Intemaiional Relations 181 
 
 colleges from indicating their sympathy with the 
 cause of the Allies. The pro-German expressions 
 were far less numerous and less compelling than the 
 great number of American teachers educated in Ber- 
 lin, Leipsic and Munich would have given ground 
 for expecting. As the war advanced, however, the 
 antagonism became more ardent; and at the time of 
 America's entrance, the German cause found few 
 friends in American institutions of the higher educa- 
 tion. 
 
 The international relation took on in a striking de- 
 gree the linguistic form. In a special way it at once 
 came to be related to the abolition of German as a 
 study in the public schools and colleges. On one side 
 the demand was strong and insistent that all associa- 
 tion with the language and the literature of a people 
 commonly believed to be so inhuman and bestial 
 should cease. This demand was heard in such vig- 
 orous paragraphs as these: 
 
 " The sound of the German language or the sight of a 
 printed page in German, reminds us of the murder of a 
 million helpless old men, unarmed men, women and chil- 
 dren; the driving of about 100,000 young French, Belgian 
 and Polish women into compulsory prostitution for Ger- 
 many's soldiers; . . . the destruction of many hospital 
 and relief ships, and the crucifixion of Canadian soldier 
 prisoners. 
 
 " Henceforth in all English speaking countries, the Ger- 
 
182 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 man language will be a handicap to every person who uses 
 it. In America, in England and all British dependencies, 
 the German language now is a dead language! All those 
 who speak it or read it will in self-defense conceal that 
 fact. Never again will it be needed anywhere in the 
 Western Hemisphere, save as a reference language. Ger- 
 man * science ' now is just as loathsome as German mili- 
 tarism. What is more, it will long remain so." ^ 
 
 Under such emotional excitement many cities and 
 towns eliminated German from their course of study. 
 In Wisconsin the number of schools offering studies 
 in German fell from two hundred and eighty-five to 
 forty-eight. The colleges, however, were not moved, 
 under emotional stress to action so drastic. Yet, the 
 colleges did find that the students, taking the matter 
 into their own hands, were cutting out German from 
 their list of electives. Institutions excused about 
 one-half of their professors of German, having little 
 teaching for them to give, and the number of stu- 
 dents of German fell in some colleges to a tenth of 
 the former enrollment.. 
 
 But councils saner and safer came to prevail in 
 most colleges and universities in the autumn of the 
 year in which the armistice was signed. It was re- 
 membered and remarked that industrial relations 
 would finally be reestablished with Germany and that 
 
 1 " Throw Out the German Language and All Disloyal 
 Teachers," published by American Defense Society, Inc., New 
 York, pages 1 and 2. 
 
International Relations 183 
 
 a knowledge of the language would aid in such re- 
 establishment. It was pointed out that the technical 
 and scientific writings of Germany were valuable. 
 It was arg-ued that the history of Germany and its 
 philology shed light on English history and research. 
 It waSj of course, declared that Goethe and Schiller 
 are universal interpreters. The persuasiveness of 
 the arguments received emphasis from the extent to 
 which German was studied in the schools of England 
 and of France. The number of schools studying the 
 language in England in the year 1918 was practically 
 equivalent to the number studying it in the year 
 1911. France likewise was pursuing a wiser policy 
 than was pursued in the schools in certain American 
 states and capitols. The antagonism to everything 
 German that was manifested in France in the first 
 months of the war had largely passed away by the 
 year 1916. The Minister of Public Instruction un- 
 der the influence of normal popular opinion was able 
 to say that from one-fourth to one-third of all pupils 
 enrolled in French schools were studying the lan- 
 guage, which two years before had been tabooed. It 
 was argued by the Ministerial Commission in a re- 
 port made to the Ministry of War, that France should 
 not be ignorant of the German language. Every 
 manifestation of her activities should be watched. 
 Her veneer of innocent goodness naturally demanded 
 
184 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 special insight of the watchmen. The wisest method 
 and strongest force for securing such knowledge lay 
 in a knowledge of the German tongue. 
 
 Yet, though the study of the German language was 
 declining in American colleges, as well as the force of 
 German arms in France, the language of France it- 
 self was advancing, as well as the French arms, in 
 the autumn of 1918. If the number of German stu- 
 dents was divided by four or a larger figure, the num- 
 ber of French students was multiplied also by at 
 least four. The teachers of the Romance languages 
 in seventeen American universities addressed a let- 
 ter to other co-workers in the country, in which in 
 moving paragraphs it was said : 
 
 " The heart and the mind of America are turning, as 
 never before, to France. To us the signs of this new in- 
 terest appear in the increased enrollments in Ftench re- 
 ported by many schools and colleges. It is for us to guide 
 and develop this interest, to make it intelligent, to satisfy 
 it, to give it permanence. 
 
 " If we have taught willingly before, we should teach 
 now with a whole-hearted enthusiasm. We are the inter- 
 preters of France to America. Let us, in comment and in 
 choice of books, select for emphasis just those elements 
 of French life and French thought that our own country 
 most needs: resolute clearness, keen analysis, respect for 
 the idea, open-mindedness, reference to universal stand- 
 ards, the acquisition of liberty through discipline. 
 
 " In our linguistic courses there is need for the confirma- 
 
International Relations 185 
 
 tion and the extension of new purposes and new methods. 
 In years past the main object of our work, both secondary 
 and collegiate, was to enable the student to understand 
 printed French. Recently the rights of spoken French 
 have received increasing recognition. Now, as a result of 
 the war, those rights are evident. For there is now, and 
 there will be in the time of peace, a mingling of the two 
 peoples, the French and the American, such as there has 
 never been before. Of those whom we teach many will 
 have cause to go to France, many will welcome Frenchmen 
 here. Our former pupils as a whole, have not received 
 a speaking knowledge of French; and those among them 
 who are facing service abroad are painfully conscious of 
 the lack. The students in our enlarging classes to-day 
 want spoken French, and they are entitled to have the 
 want supplied. 
 
 " In the Italian courses there is need for the same 
 change in linguistic plan, and for similar discrimination 
 in critical emphasis. We may well seek the broad vision 
 of life from the mount of the centuries, the patience, the 
 delight in fine intellectual achievement, the scrutiny of 
 fundamental truth, that mark the compatriots of Dante. 
 And the service of the interpreter is even more necessary 
 in this case, for Italy, past and present, is still unduly un- 
 familiar to our countrymen. 
 
 " The greatest immediate values of the study of Spanish 
 seem to lie in the possibility of developing an intelligent 
 acquaintance and a sound mutual respect between the 
 Spanish-speaking republics and our own." ^ 
 
 A service cooperative between French homes and 
 
 1 Circular Note " To Teachers of the Romance Languages in 
 the United States of America." Page 1. 
 
186 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 schools and American institutions was found in a 
 delegation of French girls assigned to American col- 
 leges. Through the Association of American Col- 
 leges, it was arranged for about one hundred and 
 fifty French girls to become American students. In 
 advance of their departing from their own shores, 
 they had accepted a grant of free scholarships, — in- 
 struction, board and rooms, — in some seventy-five 
 institutions. Of this method of international coop- 
 eration, Professor Cestre, Exchange Professor in 
 Harvard University, has said: 
 
 " Nothing can touch the heart of the French nation more 
 deeply than the steps taken by the Association of Ameri- 
 can Colleges to open scholarships in American Girls' Col- 
 leges to one hundred French women students. There is 
 such warm-heartedness in the offer that the French will 
 see in it one of the readiest and most significant proofs 
 of America's friendship toward France. Such sanguine 
 response of a whole country's feeling to the behavior of 
 another country was never recorded in history. Indeed, 
 there is something changed in the world when for the old- 
 time indifference or aloofness between nations one sees 
 substituted such enthusiastic loving-kindness as thus man- 
 ifested by America toward France. A firm and durable 
 basis for international amity and peace is definitely 
 planted when so noble expressions of idealistic admira- 
 tion and so liberal movement of collective generosity are 
 possible. I say it emphatically in the name of my coun- 
 trymen: as the men of France were rewarded for their 
 gacrifice when President Wilson declared that the restora- 
 
International Relations 187 
 
 tion of Alsace-Lorraine to France was a question of right 
 in which the whole world was interested, so the women of 
 France are repaid for their unflinching devotion and 
 steadfastness under the greatest strain in the history of 
 nations by this moving and chivalrous purpose of America. 
 " Some of these French girls will be led by their altered 
 circumstances, or tempted by the hold this American life 
 will lay on them, or induced by the appeal of apostleship, 
 to stay in this country as teachers of French in schools 
 and colleges. They will be the permanent, living wit- 
 nesses of the shameful treatment inflicted by Germany 
 on her neighbors, and also the token-bearers and the 
 thanks-givers testifying to the generous friendship of 
 America and to the undying gratefulness of France. 
 They will supply, to some extent, the need of good French 
 teachers in this country after the war, preventing (let us 
 devoutly hope) the greatest evil which might befall Amer- 
 ican education, namely, that the teaching of French, out 
 of misplaced, good-natured slackness, should be passed 
 over to the Germans, male or female, turned idle by the 
 discrediting of German classics by American children. 
 How many of such German teachers know French? And 
 in what spirit would they interpret la douce France, even 
 if they sincerely tried to do justice to her humane civiliza- 
 tion and gentle sociability ? " 
 
 It should be added that the high hopes thus enter- 
 tained have been realized by the presence of these 
 young women in American colleges. They have 
 fitted well into the social and academic life. If they 
 have received much, they have also given much. 
 Their presence has brought a foreign world near to 
 the isolated American student. This international 
 
188 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 transmigration is one of the happiest of the minor ele- 
 ments in current international scholastic history. 
 The first delegation was followed by a second and 
 smaller one, and with equally satisfactory results. 
 
 The international relations took on also the recep- 
 tion of educational commissions from Great Britain 
 and from France. The most important of these 
 commissions was the British University Mission 
 which visited American colleges in the autumn of 
 1918. Its members represented the older universi- 
 ties, the newer universities of the Midlands and the 
 University of London. The Chairman was Doctor 
 Arthur E. Shipley, Master of Christ's College and 
 Vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He wrote 
 soon after the conclusion of the service : — 
 
 " For more than sixty days we went up and down 
 this vast country, traveling many thousands of miles 
 and seeing so many universities and colleges and so 
 many presidents and professors that those amongst us 
 who had not hitherto had the privilege of visiting the 
 United States formed the idea that all its cities are 
 university cities and that all the inhabitants are pro- 
 fessors, an idea very awful to contemplate ! " ^ 
 
 The results directly flowing from the presence 
 
 1 " The Voyage of a Vice-Chancellor," by Arthur E. Shipley, 
 Master of Christ's College and Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge 
 University, England, in Scribner's, March, 1919, page 307. 
 
International Relations 189 
 
 of this Mission were, if not of commanding im- 
 portance, at least informing and inspiring. It was 
 proved that there exists a certain fundamental fellow- 
 ship between British and American universities. 
 Friendliness and cooperation were constant keynotes. 
 Through the addresses of the members of the Mis- 
 sion and many personal conferences, hundreds of 
 students were informed of the opportun^ities for 
 graduate study found in England, and be it said the 
 members of the Mission became acquainted with the 
 activities of the higher education in the new world. 
 
 The impression made by the Mission on Amer- 
 ican thought and feeling, in the opinion of American 
 educators, was of the highest value. Doctor Capen, 
 of the Bureau of Education, said : 
 
 " A result, which ought to be of great benefit to 
 American education, is the presentation of the view 
 that intellectual achievement cannot properly be 
 measured by mechanical devices." ^ 
 
 Professor Kirsopp Lake (Lincoln, '91) now of 
 Harvard University wrote, in a similar spirit: 
 " Will the powers that be at Oxford remember with 
 sufficient vividness that in education, as in other 
 things, machinery is less important than the object for 
 which it is designed ? " ^ 
 
 1 The American Oxonian, January, 1919, page 2. 
 
 2 Ibid., page 4. 
 
190 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Professor Schelling, of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, affirmed : " The war must bring many 
 changes, to our universities as elsewhere. If among 
 many other things, it shall bring us into closer bonds 
 of educational and intellectual union with those who 
 speak our tongue, are ruled by laws descended from 
 the same laws which govern us, vitalized by the same 
 love of liberty and of free institutions which sustain 
 us, we can assuredly count these things as momentous 
 gains." ^ 
 
 The Chairman of the Mission, Vice-Chancellor 
 Shipley, later said : " The American people are de- 
 termined to have education, and from experience of 
 thirty-two years of America I have come to the con- 
 clusion that Americans generally get what they set 
 out for. What they mean by education is not in all 
 cases clear to themselves. They are apt to be a little 
 uncritical and apt to be a little influenced by long 
 and uncommon words. Prom Massachusetts to 
 Texas and from Minneapolis to Charlottesville we 
 have found the same .high hopes of the power of edu- 
 cation in developing the best qualities of the young. 
 
 " However, the instructions of the British Govern- 
 ment to us were to do what we could to bring the two 
 Anglo-Saxon nations together, and the most effec- 
 tive way of doing this seems to be by means of the 
 
 ilbid., page 10. 
 
InievTiaUonal Relations 191 
 
 young. We hope to exchange both persons and ideas. 
 
 "(1) With regard to the persons, we hope that a 
 certain number of students will come from Great 
 Britain to the United States, just as a limited num- 
 ber of American students now come to Great Britain 
 under the Rhodes Trustees. With regard to stu- 
 dents, and here I may speak for myself, I think that 
 we should not exchange students with rare exceptions, 
 until they have graduated. It is the young A, B. in 
 my opinion who would most benefit by visiting an- 
 other country, and I think it is unfortunate to take a 
 man away from his own university until he has com- 
 pleted his course. (2) I would emphasize the fact 
 here that man includes woman. (3) I think the 
 students should be selected not by a competitive ex- 
 amination but by some such board as used to select 
 the Kino; Edward VII German scholars and which 
 now selects the members of the Egyptian and Sou- 
 danese Government service. (4) The student when 
 selected should have absolute liberty of choice as to 
 the university or professor he wishes to study at or 
 under. He should not be confined, as is the case 
 with Rhodes Scholars, to one university." ^ 
 
 The members of the Mission and the professors 
 and presidents in American colleges agreed in the 
 primary element that the exchange of students and 
 
 ilbid., pages 22-23. 
 
192 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 of teachers, between the universities of the two 
 branches of the English-speaking race, should be 
 heartily promoted. For this purpose, all wise and 
 proper machinery should be set up. 
 
 Aside from the personalities of this Mission 
 and of other commissions, messages of various sorts 
 were frequently exchanged between the universities 
 of the N"ew and of the Old World which are illustra- 
 tive of a most important increase of fellowship. 
 The Rector of the University of Athens, for instance, 
 addressed the universities of America with reference 
 to the damages wrought by the Bulgarians in Eastern 
 Macedonia. He wrote: 
 
 " Incendiarism, slavery, wholesale deportations, tor- 
 ments and excesses of all sorts, these are the means used by 
 the Bulgar — in order to exterminate Hellenism, a be- 
 havior worthy of hordes, such as appeared in the darkest 
 times of history." 
 
 The students, too, of the colleges of the Yugo-Slavs, 
 addressed a letter to their fellow students in the 
 United States, in which they said : — 
 
 " All the Yugo-Slavs are convinced that the deadly 
 struggle in which they are engaged in conjunction with 
 their grand Allies will result in a just and lasting peace, 
 and bring them to that which they are justly entitled, 
 viz : — the unity and independence of their nation. 
 
 " The Yugo-Slavs are proud to number among their Al- 
 
International Relations 198 
 
 lies the great American democracy, and we, representing 
 the Yugo-Slav students, as well as those fighting in the 
 Servian Army as those who are enrolled against their will 
 in the armies of the enemy or who are languishing in Ger- 
 man or Hungarian prisons, address to you, dear fellow 
 students, our cordial and affectionate greetings." ^ 
 
 It is also worthy of note that the nefarious letter 
 addressed by the ninety-three professors in the Ger- 
 man universities to their colleagues of other na- 
 tions, in the first months of the war, awoke the sever- 
 est condemnation in American college halls. The 
 lack of logic in this communication made a deep 
 impression upon both the reason and the heart of 
 American teachers. The presumptuousness indi- 
 cated in the simple declarations of the infamous doc- 
 ument seemed to be one of the surest evidences of 
 the subordination of the professorial to the military 
 authorities. It was one of the hardest blows ever 
 inflicted upon the belief current among American 
 teachers, that the German university system stood 
 for freedom of teaching. As President Butler of 
 Columbia University said : " That appeal was an 
 unmixed mass of untruths, and the stain which it 
 placed upon the intellectual and moral integrity of 
 German scholars and men of science will forever re- 
 
 1 Letter from Central Committee of the Federated Societies 
 of Servian, Croatian and Slovene (Yugo-Slav) college students 
 in Switzerland. 
 
194 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 main one of the most deplorable and discouraging 
 events of tlie war -which German militarism and 
 Prussian autocracy forced upon the peaceful and lib- 
 erty-loving nations of the world." ^ 
 
 This letter, after a year following the declaration 
 of the armistice, was made the subject of a half -apol- 
 ogetic note by several of its signers. It was con- 
 fessed that pressure was exerted by the German gov- 
 ernment to secure its issue and that professors were 
 urged by their colleagues to append their names. 
 Both despite and because of thesei confessions, it still 
 remains one of the dark and sinister blots on the Ger- 
 man university system. 
 
 But this species of unreasonable and impetuous 
 propaganda was only a microcosm of the principles 
 and methods which German universities and profes- 
 sors had been following for more than forty years. 
 In the preaching and teaching of the older academic 
 and imperial gospel, great professors like Mommsen, 
 Droyser, Sybel and Treitschke were far-resounding 
 voices and potent personalities. They helped to 
 make history as well as to write it. They worked 
 both with the chancellories and with the general staif . 
 They were apologists for the Ems dispatch. Pro- 
 fessor Delbruck pronounced on that dispatch a benedic- 
 
 !• Letter addressed to the rector of the University of Up- 
 sala by Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia Uni- 
 versity, April 15, 1919, page 3. 
 
International Relations 195 
 
 tion — " Blessed be the hand that traced those lines." 
 They represented the height and depth of Chauvin- 
 ism. From his chair in the University of Berlin 
 Treitschke spoke not only to the thousands of vigor- 
 ous, virile and volatile students, but also through 
 them to the whole German people. He was an apt 
 pupil of the great Frederick's teaching. A world 
 dominion won by military power was the compre- 
 hensive and consummate text. Such was the foreign 
 and home Gospel which was designed to unite and to 
 Prussianize all Germany. The voice was indeed the 
 voice of Treitschke, but the Gospel was the Gospel of 
 Frederick the Great. The state was the real com- 
 mander and personality. That the end justifies the 
 means, that the stronger should triumph over the 
 weak, that the small nations should yield to the large, 
 that material force, and not conscience, rules and 
 should rule mankind : — these were among the beati- 
 tudes of the academic gospel. The state first made 
 the university and then the university helped to 
 make the state, — the state universal, omnipotent, 
 omnipresent. 
 
 Among the unique and the more important of in- 
 ternational relations was that foundation which be- 
 came known as the American University Union. 
 Established in Paris in the midsummer of 1917, it 
 had for its purpose, " To meet the needs of American 
 
196 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 university and college men and their friends who 
 were in Europe for military or other service in the 
 cause of the Allies." Its more specific purpose was : 
 
 "1. To provide at moderate cost a home with the 
 privilege of a simple club for American college men 
 and their friends passing through Paris or on fur- 
 lough : the privilege to include information bureau, 
 writing and newspaper room, library, dining-room, 
 bed-rooms, baths, social features, opportunites for 
 physical recreation, entertainments, medical advice, 
 etc. 
 
 " 2. To provide a headquarters for the various 
 bureaus already established or to be established in 
 France by representative American universities, col- 
 leges and technical schools. 
 
 "3. To cooperate with these bureaus when estab- 
 lished, and in their absence to aid institutions, pa- 
 rents, or friends, in securing information about col- 
 lege men in all forms of war service, reporting on 
 casualties, visiting the sick and wounded, giving ad- 
 vice, serving as a means of communication with them, 
 etc." 
 
 About one hundred and fifty American colleges 
 were formally enrolled; and no less than thirty- 
 five thousand men registered at its offices.. Its head- 
 quarters was established in the Royal Palace Hotel. 
 Branches were afterwards opened in London and in 
 
International Relatiorvs 197 
 
 Rome. The Union proved to be not only a social 
 club, but also an organization for war relief. It 
 served as an important bond of union between the 
 United States and the Allies. Its usefulness did 
 not cease with the ending of hostilities. It is still, 
 under somewhat changed conditions, serving the col- 
 lege men of the United States residing abroad. 
 
 Of the international academic activities and rela- 
 tions of the American Expeditionary Forces the 
 American University in France was perhaps the 
 first in importance as it was the last in time. This 
 educational service was at its beginning under the 
 charge of the Young Men's Christian Association. 
 It had for its special executives, Professor John Er- 
 skine of Columbia University, Dr. Frank E. Spauld- 
 ing. Superintendent of the Cleveland public schools, 
 and Dr. Kenyon L. Butterfield, President of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Agricultural College. It was a foundation 
 designed to give a higher education to American sol- 
 diers, serving in France who had been made free 
 from certain military duties. It was placed in 
 Beaune, Cote d'Or. One reason for the choice of 
 this location lay in the fact that hospital buildings, 
 already erected, were unoccupied, and were sufficient 
 to serve some eight thousand students and teachers. 
 The University was administered by military au- 
 thority, Colonel Ira L. Reeves, formerly President 
 
198 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 of ]Srorwicli University, Vermont, being made presi- 
 dent. 
 
 The University was composed of as many and as 
 different departments as a College of Agriculture, a 
 College of Arts, a College of Business, a College of 
 Education, a College of Engineering, a College of 
 Journalism, a College of Law, a College of Letters, 
 a College of the Medical Sciences, a College of Music, 
 a College of Science, an Art Training Center at Bel- 
 levue, the Farm School of Allerey, and the Division 
 and Post Schools at Beaune. 
 
 The teachers, numbering about one thousand, were 
 drawn from the army and from the list of civilians, 
 and were usually graduates of American schools and 
 universities. The courses of instruction offered were 
 those usually found in American academic curricula. 
 
 The students were likewise of diverse origins. 
 They represented the usual scholastic training re- 
 quired for admission to the Freshman year of the or- 
 dinary college. IsTot a few of them had already been 
 college students. They numbered about ten thou- 
 sand, and the number credited to each state ran from 
 seven — who claimed JSTevada as their place of resi- 
 dence — to seven hundred seventy-one — who came 
 from Pennsylvania. Seven hundred sixty-six were 
 from the state of ISTew York, and seven hundred and 
 twelve from Illinois. The State of Ohio contributed 
 
International Belations 199 
 
 four hundred eighty men, Texas four hundred fifty- 
 two, Michigan three hundred fifty-nine, Minnesota 
 three hundred forty-nine, Indiana three hundred sev- 
 enty-seven, every state in the Union being represented. 
 
 The Farm School at AUerey proved to be the most 
 attractive, in which twenty-three hundred were en- 
 rolled, although in the more formal School of Agri- 
 culture, about seven hundred were registered. Fol- 
 lowing closely the Farm School was the College of 
 Business, in which a number slightly below two 
 thousand were matriculated. The College of Let- 
 ters registered about a thousand, the College of Sci- 
 ences, six hundred forty, the College of Engineering, 
 six hundred sixteen, the College of Law, one hundred 
 fifty-nine, and the College of Journalism, one hun- 
 dred thirty-eight. 
 
 Dr. Kenyon L. Butterfield, an Educational Di- 
 rector, has written, regarding the worth of this 
 service : — ■ 
 
 " I am satisfied that its work was of very great 
 value indeed. It had to be built hurriedly; it had 
 to utilize material at hand ; it had to adapt itself to 
 unusual and changing conditions — but it ' worked.' 
 Men were reached intellectually and spiritually. 
 Technical information, knowledge of foreign condi- 
 tions and languages, and great incentives were flower 
 and fruit of the educational effort. It was all very 
 
200 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 much worth while, and particularly because it was 
 being done for American young men. It was a joy 
 to work with them, to see them at close range, to real- 
 ize their capacity for leadership." ^ 
 
 Significant details of the work of American stu- 
 dents at Beaune and in the universities of France 
 have been given me by another member of the Edu- 
 cational Commission, Dr. Frank E. Spaulding. He 
 has said : — 
 
 "... I think the most significant and the most 
 valuable part of the result of this work in the French 
 universities will be found not in what was actually 
 learned in the classroom, not in the results which we 
 look for in the classroom, although they were indeed 
 very considerable and significant, but the most val- 
 uable result will indeed be found in the association 
 of these intelligent, educated, chosen, selected young 
 men, with the French students and with the people of 
 the French communities where these universities 
 were located. Without exception, the citizens of 
 these French university towns gave great thought and 
 constant care to make the life of our American stu- 
 dents pleasant and agreeable and profitable. . . . 
 
 " As was to be expected, the American students de- 
 veloped very quickly many of the characteristic ac- 
 
 'i- School Life (Department of the Interior), September 1st, 
 1919. 
 
International Relations 201 
 
 tivities of the American university and college. I 
 think that, without exception, every group of Amer- 
 ican students at once began to issue some kind of col- 
 lege paper. In two or three instances, at least, they 
 entered into an arrangement with some local paper 
 whereby they published one edition a week at least, 
 in cooperation with the local authorities. For in- 
 stance, the first paper of that kind that I recall see- 
 ing was published at the University of Montpelier. 
 In fact most of the four-page sheet was American — 
 one side entirely, which was the front page — the re- 
 verse was French, also a front page. There was a 
 similar publication at Dijon. I presume there may 
 have been others, with the characteristic types of 
 American journalism, including advertising and 
 everything else. Such things as that entered into the 
 spirit in which they did anything. It was, I think, 
 of great value and made a lasting impression both on 
 the American students and the French people con- 
 cerned. There was also a system of personal ex- 
 changes among these men. Each American student 
 was yoked up with some French student for the sake 
 of the language, and intimate intercourse and asso- 
 ciation." 
 
 American soldier students, moreover, to the num- 
 ber of more than two thousand, were also enrolled in 
 the universities of England, Scotland, Wales and 
 
202 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 Ireland. They came from each of the states, Penn- 
 sylvania furnishing the largest number, one hundred 
 aeventy-six ; ISTew York, one hundred fifty-nine ; Illi- 
 nois, one hundred twenty-six; and Ohio, one hun- 
 dred twenty-four. In more than three hundred 
 American colleges, these men had previously been 
 enrolled. Though they were scattered in a dozen 
 different universities, the Student Detachment main- 
 tained a good degree of unified academic life. In- 
 ter-university visits, correspondence, and, in partic- 
 ular, a journal, " The American Soldier Student," 
 served to join together these men in a foreign land. 
 The paper, quite similar to the weekly paper pub- 
 lished in hundreds of American colleges, in its num- 
 ber of June 25th, 1918, summed up the impressions, 
 of three or more months, of British education: — 
 
 " ]N"o academic world," it is stated, " ever flung 
 open its doors with greater hospitality than did this 
 island one. . . . The great outstanding fact is that, 
 in spite of the effects of the war upon faculty and 
 fabric, the British institutions absorbed over two 
 thousand American students as well as great numbers 
 of Colonials in the third term of the academic year, 
 and did it in a manner that will make it stand 
 long as a high-water mark of academic hospitality. 
 . . . But we did not confine our studies to books, 
 or our steps to the limits of our college. Even before 
 
Iniemaiiondl Relations 203 
 
 we had time to explore our college town we were 
 sought out by friends of the Entente, and civilian 
 hospitality vied with the academic. ... To a greater 
 or less extent all of us availed ourselves of the count- 
 less opportunities afforded to enter into the life of 
 our respective communities. We were not put off 
 with one or two large formal affairs, we were taken 
 into the home, and we were made to feel at home. 
 Soon we began to go further afield. We made the 
 whole kingdom our campus. We were scattered 
 from Cambridge to Galway, and Bristol to Aberdeen ; 
 in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Most all 
 of us visited the other fellow's diggings, and took in 
 every place of interest on the way. IsTever perhaps 
 in the history of the world has a body of students 
 traveled so much in a limited period of time as we 
 did. We made the so-called ' wandering students ' 
 of the Middle Ages look like hermits. Stratford-on- 
 Avon, Loch Lomond, the Wye Valley, Blarney, and 
 the Lakes of Killarney ; is there any one who has not 
 visited most if not all of these ? And these are only 
 the beginning of a long list which takes us to every 
 corner of the two main islands and to some of the 
 smaller ones. We were to be found in the tin, coal, 
 and iron mines in Cornwall, Wales, and the Mid- 
 lands; in the great textile, and iron and steel indus- 
 tries of Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, and Birming- 
 
204 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ham; in the shipyards on the Clyde; at the stock 
 farms in Scotland, and on Jersey and Guernsey, — 
 but the list is endless. We met all kinds of people, 
 rich and poor, educated and uneducated, and every- 
 where we were welcomed with a warmth such as we 
 would give our own. Most of us have told one an- 
 other that we have learned a lot and unlearned a lot 
 more about the British. We have learned that they 
 and we have fundamentally the same outlook on life, 
 the same aims and the same ideals. Altogether we 
 found them much more like ourselves than we had 
 thought. This suggests a way in which we can do a 
 little to show our appreciation of a hospitality that 
 we cannot repay. N^ow that we have had our earlier 
 impressions of the British modified and rectified, let 
 every one of us see to it that those with whom we 
 come in contact at home benefit by our experiences 
 here." 
 
 The final word was a word of duty and of quicken- 
 ing for themselves returning to their homes and their 
 colleges. 
 
 " Returning to our homes in all corners of the 
 Union, we can be a power in the realm of Anglo- 
 American relationships if we help our neighbors to 
 see and understand the British people as we do now. 
 If we do this, the interesting educational experiment 
 we are now completing will have proved to be a sue- 
 
International Relatione 205 
 
 cess, even if not a single one of us ever ' cracked a 
 book.' " 1 
 
 Apparently the impression which was made by the 
 American students at Oxford was in turn pleasant 
 and grateful. They entered with earnestness into all 
 sides of the Oxford life, teaching, athletic, personal. 
 They seemed rather more eager to know the teachers 
 than to know the subjects taught. The courses they 
 took represented variety rather than consistency, and 
 these courses were determined largely by the interest 
 which the lecturer, or teacher, himself awakened. 
 Oxford idling — be it ever so profitable — appar- 
 ently had less attractiveness for them than it has 
 for the regular Oxford man. Out of the condition, 
 every student apparently, by his own confession, re- 
 ceived a good deal of intellectual quickening. This 
 quickening was in no small part colored by a personal 
 relationship, a relationship which, by the testimony 
 of Oxford dons, was pleasant to them also. 
 
 In numbers of slight, but in significance, of great, 
 
 value is a fact connected with the American Rhodes 
 
 Scholars of Oxford. Since the inauguration of this 
 
 symbol of English speaking fellowship in 1904 four 
 
 hundred men have gone from the American states 
 
 and colleges to Oxford. Of this number about three 
 
 1 The American Student Soldier, No. 7, June 25, 1919. 
 Published in London by the Student Detachment of the U. S. 
 Army in Great Britain, 
 
206 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 hundred were enrolled in the service, and twelve of 
 this number died. 
 
 In the international relationships of the American 
 college, it is never to be forgotten that, after all, schol- 
 arship is one of the comprehensive and enduring 
 bonds of internationalism. An American teacher, 
 Professor William Henry Hulme of Western Reserve 
 University in an address, given to the Modern Lan- 
 guage Association of America, in the year 1916 
 said: 
 
 " In a practical way, scholarship has performed 
 wonders in the matter of drawing nations closer to- 
 gether during the last one hundred years. The 
 studies of history, philology, philosophy and science 
 have in that time all ceased to be national — have 
 become international. How much have history and 
 philology done, working along ethnical, anthropologi- 
 cal lines, to familiarize people everywhere with the 
 close kinship of nations in language, laws, political 
 and social institutions, as well as in racial qualities, 
 character, and temperament! And the sciences of 
 biology and geology have revealed the marvelous 
 unity and harmony that exists among all the crea- 
 tures and objects of animate and inanimate nature. 
 The names of many of the famous scholars of the past 
 have become in the international sense household 
 words. The Grimm brothers not only created the 
 
International Relations 207 
 
 science of comparative grammar, but they opened a 
 great new world of folk-lore and fable, in which mil- 
 lions and millions of children from every part of the 
 story-loving universe have dreamed and reveled for 
 almost a century and will continue to do so to the 
 end of time. The study of ancient and mediseval 
 mythology from the comparative point of view has 
 under the guidance of such scholars as Miillendorf, 
 Meyer, and Bugge laid students in every part of the 
 world under the greatest obligations. The debt of 
 the world to the epoch-making discoveries in the field 
 of science which Charles Darwin made and described 
 is incalculable. The names and fame of those inspir- 
 ing teachers and eminent scholars, Paul Meyer and 
 Gaston Paris, have reached and helped students of 
 mediseval literature in every corner of the globe." ^ 
 
 The personal international relation, — and after all 
 the personal is more important than the literary, — is 
 well intimated in a tribute paid to the oldest Ameri- 
 can college by a patient in the 22nd General Hos- 
 pital of France. The oldest American college pro- 
 vided supplies to the sisters and doctors of that hos- 
 pital. 
 
 1 The chairman's address delivered December 27, 1916, at 
 Chicago, Illinois, at the twenty-second annual meeting of the 
 Central Division of the Modern Language Association of Amer- 
 ica, by William Henry Hulme — entitled " Scholarship as a 
 Bond of International Union," pages xciv and xcv. 
 
208 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 A kindly word, 
 
 A gentle touch, 
 Little things 
 
 That mean so much. 
 
 Laughter, bright 
 
 As cheery lays, 
 Chasing gloom 
 
 On dreary days. 
 
 A pleasant smile 
 
 As she goes by. 
 Can you really 
 
 Wonder why? 
 
 The boys all love 
 
 The Sisters, who 
 So help a fellow 
 
 When he feels "blue." 
 
 Buck him up 
 
 In spite of pain, 
 Make him feel 
 
 A man again. 
 
 Harvard ! 'Twas 
 
 A splendid deed 
 When you supplied 
 
 A vital need. 
 
 And sent us aid 
 
 To " carry on," 
 Promising more 
 
 Till wars are won. 
 
International Relations 209 
 
 A noble work 
 
 For a worthy end, 
 England thanks you, 
 
 Harvard — Friend.^ 
 
 lA Noble Work by Gilbert Ridge — Harvard Alumni Bul- 
 letin, 1918, page 247. 
 
XIII 
 
 THE FALLElN 
 
 On that last great day of the war, the day of the 
 celebration of victory in Paris, the 14th of July, 
 1919, which was also Bastille Day, a large, deep cas- 
 ket was placed beneath the Arch of Triumph. It 
 was in commemoration of the fallen. On the surface 
 was an austere figure of winged Victory bearing a 
 palm branch. By day and by night a noble guard 
 of honor watched the memorial. Past its side there 
 filed for hours out of the great line of march, a 
 procession of those families who had lost a member. 
 These mourners clothed in black might possibly have 
 seemed to see lying at the bottom of the casket, the 
 face of husband, son, brother. Each family that had 
 made the supreme sacrifice of a member was allowed 
 to throw into the cenotaph a single flower. Soon the 
 huge casket was filled with memorial blossoms. 
 Prance gave up more than a million and three hun- 
 dred thousand of her sons in the consummate strug- 
 gle. 
 
 By the last summary the United States had given 
 210 
 
Th& Fallen 211 
 
 up less than eighty thousand. The figures on July 
 
 14th, 1919, were as follows: ^ 
 
 Previously Reported 
 
 Reported July 14th Total 
 
 Killed in action 33,901 7 33,908 
 
 Lost at sea 734 . . 734 
 
 Died of wounds 13,618 16 13,634 
 
 Died of accident 23,479 25 23,504 
 
 Died of disease 5,090 14 5,104 
 
 76,822 76,884 
 
 Of these numbers less than ten per cent, were col- 
 lege men. Although the casualty list will increase 
 for years to come, yet, it is safe to say that about six 
 thousand, five hundred of the hundred and seventy 
 thousand of college men who enlisted died in the 
 service. 
 
 The list that follows includes teachers, graduates, 
 and former students. It does not include, be it said, 
 the members of the Students' Army Training Corps. 
 The percentage, therefore, of those who have lost 
 their lives in the service is about four. This per- 
 centage is practically identical with the percentage 
 of the men who fell, who were members of the Ex- 
 peditionary Force. 
 
 The tables which follow are composed of reports 
 made in most cases from statements furnished by the 
 institutions themselves. ISTecessarily they are imper- 
 iThe New York Times, July 14th, 1919. 
 
212 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 feet. Every week changes the facts. Men will con- 
 tinue to die from the eifect of the war for years to 
 come. Reports, too, of men who died months or 
 even years ago are delayed in reaching their colleges. 
 But the statements are the fullest that can now be 
 offered, and substantially the changes to be made in 
 them in the future will not fundamentally alter the 
 present compilations. 
 
 Died of 
 State Wounds 
 
 Alabama 5 
 
 Arizona 5 
 
 Arkansas 4 
 
 California 34 
 
 Colorado 31 
 
 Connecticut 98 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 18 
 
 Georgia 43 
 
 Idaho 11 
 
 Illinois 88 
 
 Indiana 40 
 
 Iowa 55 
 
 Kansas 27 
 
 Kentucky 18 
 
 Louisiana 7 
 
 Maine 28 
 
 Maryland 25 
 
 Massachusetts 87 
 
 Michigan 31 
 
 Minnesota 52 
 
 Mississippi 5 
 
 Missouri 41 
 
 Died of 
 
 Total (from 
 
 Diseases 
 
 all causes) 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 245 
 
 35 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 458 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 27 
 
 77 
 
 19 
 
 33 
 
 102 
 
 319 
 
 77 
 
 270 
 
 100 
 
 163 
 
 31 
 
 174 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 64 
 
 18 
 
 51 
 
 107 
 
 601 
 
 24 
 
 284 
 
 38 
 
 106 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 78 
 
The Fallen 213 
 
 Died of Died of Total (from 
 
 State Wounds Diseases all causes) 
 
 Montana 8 10 19 
 
 Nebraska 43 43 99 
 
 Nevada 3 8 13 
 
 New Hampshire 24 35 82 
 
 New Jersey 92 53 169 
 
 New Mexico 1 5 6 
 
 New York 199 172 632 
 
 North Carolina 33 11 61 
 
 North Dakota 12 9 22 
 
 Ohio 73 112 231 
 
 Oklahoma 2 18 
 
 Oregon 23 50 93 
 
 Pennsylvania 77 94 191 
 
 Ehode Island 21 21 51 
 
 South Carolina 2 7 9 
 
 South Dakota 14 22 50 
 
 Tennessee 23 22 50 
 
 Texas 57 37 101 
 
 Vermont 14 12 30 
 
 Virginia 57 76 150 
 
 Washington 27 43 80 
 
 West Virginia 4 10 18 
 
 Wisconsin 27 25 56 
 
 Wyoming 4 5 9 
 
 5,419 
 
 These facts are most significant. They enlighten 
 the understanding as well as move the heart. But the 
 comparative relation of the number of the fallen to 
 the number of the enlisted becomes mightily more sig- 
 nificant. Let me give some examples : 
 
 ISTew York University, from all its departments, 
 
214 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 gave 1,476 men, graduates and students, of whom. 36 
 died, or 2.4 per cent. 
 
 The University of Rochester enrolled 653 gradu- 
 ates and students in the service, of whom 11 died, or 
 1.68 per cent. 
 
 Columbia University sent between 8,000 and 9,000 
 into the service, of whom 188, or more, did not re- 
 turn, or 2.08 per cent. 
 
 Syracuse University gave 2,400 to the service, of 
 whom 90 died, or 3.8 per cent. 
 
 Union University, from its undergraduate depart- 
 ment, enrolled 876, graduates and students, in the 
 service, of whom 26 died, or 3.08 per cent. 
 
 Hamilton College sent 761 into the service, of 
 whom 13 did not return, or 1.7 per cent. 
 
 Fordham University, from its undergraduate de- 
 partment graduates and students, gave 493, and 
 from its professional departments, 1001, of whom 60' 
 did not return, or 4 per cent. 
 
 Williams College sent 2,229 into the service, of 
 whom 49 did not return, or 2.2 per cent. 
 
 Massachusetts Agricultural College gave 1,330 to 
 the service, of whom 50 died, or 3.75 per cent. 
 
 Worcester Polytechnic Institute sent 673 into the 
 service, of whom 16 died, or 2.38 per cent. 
 
 Harvard University sent 9,009 men into the serv- 
 ice, of whom 322 died, or 3.6 per cent. 
 
The Fallen 216 
 
 Lafayette College enrolled 1,056 men, graduates 
 and students, and 9 faculty members, in the service, 
 of whom 32 did not return, or 3.09 per cent. 
 
 Pennsylvania College (not University) sent 285 
 into the service, of whom 12 died, or 4.2 per cent. 
 
 The University of Pittsburgh, from its under- 
 graduate and professional departments, enrolled 
 2,559, graduates and students, and from its faculty 
 members, 167, of whom 63 have fallen, or 2.3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Swarthmore College, from its undergraduate de- 
 partment, sent 286 graduates and students into the 
 service, of whom 3 died, or 1 per cent. 
 
 Dickinson College, from both its undergraduate de- 
 partment and professional classes sent out 558 gradu- 
 ates and students, of whom 16 died, or 2.85 per 
 cent. 
 
 Franklin and Marshall College, from its gradu- 
 ates and students enrolled 345 men, of whom 13 died, 
 or 3.8 per cent. 
 
 Ohio Wesleyan University, from its undergrad- 
 uate department, sent 460 graduates and students 
 into the service, of whom 16 have fallen, or 3.5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Miami University, from its undergraduate depart- 
 ment, gave 5Y5 to the service, of whom 7 died, or 
 1.2 per cent. 
 
216 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Trinity College (Connecticut), from its under- 
 graduate department, gave 523 graduates and stu- 
 dents to the service, of whom 20 died, or 3.8 per cent. 
 
 Wesleyan University (Connecticut), sent 1,291 
 men into the service, of whom 27 have fallen, or 2.1 
 per cent. 
 
 Yale University, from its graduates and students, 
 sent 7,000 into the service, of whom 220 died, or 3.1 
 per cent. 
 
 Princeton University, from all departments, en- 
 rolled 6,050, graduates and students, in the service, 
 of whom 147 did not return, or 2.4 per cent. 
 
 Rutgers College gave 854 to the service, of whom 
 23 did not return, or 2.7 per cent. 
 
 Johns Hopkins University, from all its depart- 
 ments, sent 1,255 into the service, of whom 24 died, 
 or 1.9 per cent. 
 
 St. John's College (Maryland) enrolled 400, of 
 whom 24 made the supreme sacrifice, or 6 per cent. 
 
 The University of Michigan gave over 10,000, 
 graduates and students, from its undergraduate and 
 professional departments, and 200 from its faculties, 
 of whom 222 did not return, or 2.2 per cent. 
 
 Michigan Agricultural College, from its under- 
 graduate department, enrolled 730 graduates and 
 students, of whom 25 did not return, or 3.4 per cent. 
 
The Fallen 217 
 
 Kalamazoo College gave 212 men to the service, of 
 whom 9 died, or 4.2 per cent. 
 
 Alma College enrolled 177 in the service, of whom 
 9 did not return, or 5.08 per cent. 
 
 Hope College enrolled 120 in the service, of whom 
 1 died, or .8 per cent. 
 
 The University of Illinois gave 4,993 graduates 
 and students to the service, of whom 167 died, or 
 3.34 per cent. 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan University, from its undergrad- 
 uate department gave 91, and from its professional 
 departments gave 80, graduates and students, to the 
 service, of whom 11 died, or 6.4 per cent. 
 
 Lake Forest College, from its undergraduate de- 
 partment, sent 115 graduates and students into the 
 service, of whom 1 did not return, or .8 per cent. 
 
 Dartmouth College, from its undergraduate de- 
 partment gave about 1,200 graduates and students 
 to the service, of whom 90 did not return, or 7.5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Rhode Island State College, from its undergrad- 
 uate department, enrolled 146, of whom 8 died, or 
 5.5 per cent. 
 
 Brown University sent 2,048 into the service, of 
 whom 42 did not return, or 2 per cent. 
 
 Purdue University, from its undergraduate de- 
 
218 Colleges and Universities in the Oreat War 
 
 partment, gave 2,639 graduates and students to the 
 service, of whom 54 did not return, or 2 per cent. 
 
 Leland Stanford Jr. University, from its under- 
 graduate department, gave 1,300 graduates and stu- 
 dents to the service, of whom 59 died, or 4.5 per cent. 
 
 The University of California, from all its depart- 
 ments, enrolled 4,037 graduates and students, and 
 from its faculties, 121, in the service, of whom 98 
 did not return, or 2.35 per cent. 
 
 St. Louis University, from its undergraduate de- 
 partment, enrolled 1,330, from its professional de- 
 partments, 1,170, and from its faculty members, 77, 
 of whom 39 did not return, or 1.5 per cent. 
 
 Lawrence College, from its undergraduate depart- 
 ment enrolled 305 members, graduates and students, 
 in the service, of whom 11 died, or 3.6 per cent. 
 
 The University of Washington, including members 
 from the undergraduate and professional depart- 
 ments, graduates and students, and from the faculty, 
 enrolled 2,238 in the service, of whom 37 did not re- 
 turn, or 2.6 per cent. 
 
 The University of Virginia, including undergrad- 
 uate and professional departments, enrolled 2,875 in 
 the service, of whom GQ died, or 2.3 per cent. 
 
 risk University (colored), from all its depart- 
 ments, gave 145 to the service, of whom 7 did not re- 
 turn, or 4.55 per cent. 
 
The Fallen 219 
 
 The University of Georgia, from all its depart- 
 ments, gave 1,693 to the service, of whom 42 died, or 
 2.5 per cent. 
 
 Bowdoin College, from its undergraduate and med- 
 ical departments, enrolled 1,215 in the service, of 
 whom 29 did not return, or 2.4 per cent. 
 
 The University of !North Dakota, from its under- 
 graduate department and professional departments, 
 gave 826 graduates and students, and from its fac- 
 ulties, 35, of whom 33 died, or 3.8 per cent. 
 
 These records and proportions are both significant 
 and moving; and possibly more moving to the heart 
 than to the mind. For, one ever remembers, in ten- 
 derness and gratitude, as President Faunce, of Brown 
 University, has said in reference to the fallen of his 
 own University: 
 
 " These young men were dear to their own house- 
 holds, but hardly less dear to Alma Mater. Some of 
 them were leaders on the campus in former days. 
 They sang the old songs and played the old games and 
 dreamed of a long, bright future. Sooner than any 
 thought have their dreams come true. Their faces 
 vanish, but their souls are marching on. 
 
 " ' Taps ' has sounded for them ; ' reveille ' for us. 
 Heaven helping us, we will be worthy of our unseen 
 comrades." ^ 
 
 1 " Brown University in the War," page 16. 
 
220 Colleges and Universities in the Or eat War 
 
 Upon the fallen and upon the survivors, many hon- 
 ors and decorations were bestowed. The record for 
 the University of California is representative : — 
 
 " Six countries awarded decorations to Calif orni- 
 ans who served in various capacities and places dur- 
 ing the war. Fourteen of these men were recipients 
 of two decorations ; one received three. 
 
 " The most prized decoration, the Distinguished 
 Service Cross, awarded for conspicuous bravery, was 
 given to eleven men. Three others received the Dis- 
 tinguished Service Medal, given for highly valuable 
 services. 
 
 " Other decorations and honors awarded are : — 
 France; Legion of Honor, 7; Croix de Guerre, 36; 
 Medaille Sante, 1 : Belgium ; Order of the Crown, 9 ; 
 Order of the Cross, 5 : British decorations, 3 : Italian 
 decorations, 5 : Servian, 1." ^ 
 
 If one were to attempt to make mention of special 
 cases of bravery, these pages would become too nu- 
 merous. And yet I cannot refrain from quoting cer- 
 tain instances which, precious and moving in them- 
 selves, are still only illustrative. 
 
 A. member of the Class of 1915 in the University 
 of California was awarded the Croix de Guerre and 
 D. S. C. " for extraordinary heroism in action near 
 
 1 From " The University of California Honor KoU," page 14. 
 
The Fallen 221 
 
 the Meuse River. When the company on his left 
 was checked by heavy machine gun fire he led a pla- 
 toon forward and surrounded a large number of the 
 enemy, capturing 155 prisoners and seventeen ma- 
 chine guns. Pushing on, he took the town of Mim 
 St. Georges and many machine gun positions. Al- 
 though painfully wounded he refused to be evacuated 
 and remained with his men for two days until he was 
 ordered to the rear." 
 
 Another member, of the class of 1916, was cited 
 " for bravery and coolheadedness in bringing his 
 plane safely to earth after it had caught fire at 3,000 
 m, altitude and making a good landing in a strange 
 field and extinguishing the fire without help." 
 
 A member of the following class was awarded D. 
 S. C. " for displaying conspicuous leadership. He 
 led his platoon against an enemy battery while it was 
 in action. Through his skillful maneuvering forty- 
 two prisoners, ten pieces of artillery and five machine 
 guns were captured." 
 
 A member of the class of 1918 was awarded the 
 Croix de Guerre with palms by France at the battle 
 of the Meuse, " for extraordinary heroism in ac- 
 tion." He " displayed the highest qualities of cour- 
 age and leadership in leading his platoon through to 
 its objective under a heavy barrage of machine-gun 
 
222 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 and artillery fire without flank support. He held his 
 objective under murderous artillery and machine-gun 
 fire until relieved." ^ 
 
 The percentage of American college men who 
 gave up their lives in the Civil War is much 
 larger than the proportion of those who made the 
 great sacrifice in the present. In round numbers, 
 Harvard sent 9,000 into the war, of whom about 
 322 died, or 3.6 per cent. To the Civil War 
 she gave 1,232 men, of whom 138 died, or 11.2 per 
 cent. To the Civil War also, Yale sent 832 men into 
 the J^orthem service, of whom 100 died, or 12 per 
 cent. Of the colleges of the South sending men into 
 the Civil War, the University of Virginia and the 
 University of ISTorth Carolina stand forth preemi- 
 nent. ISTo less than 200 students of the University 
 of Virginia gave up their lives defending their State. 
 Of the University of ITorth Carolina, 312 died, which 
 was about 40 per cent, of the graduates for the forty 
 years preceding the attack on Et, Sumter. It would 
 probably be fair to say that the percentage of the 
 number of college students, graduates and teachers 
 losing their lives in the Civil War was four times 
 greater than the percentage of the number losing their 
 lives in the World War. 
 
 Of course, the reason is not far to seek. The Civil 
 
 1 Ibid., pages 15-16. 
 
The Fallen 223 
 
 War occupied four years. The Civil War made a 
 more mighty appeal to the colleges of the I^orth than 
 did the present war, and the appeal made to the col- 
 leges of the South in the great civil struggle was of 
 incomparable intensity. 
 
 Inspiring and thrilling as was the record made by 
 American college men in the present war, it was yet 
 not so great as that made by the colleges of the Allies. 
 The universities of Canada sent forth a far greater 
 proportion of their sons than did the colleges and uni- 
 versities of the nation south of the line. The Uni- 
 versity of Toronto, for instance, contributed about 
 6,400 men from students' bench and professors' chair, 
 of whom 604 gave up their lives, or somewhat more 
 than 10 per cent. McGill University, at Montreal, 
 offered a like record. 
 
 The entrance of the graduates and undergraduates 
 of the English universities was at least as moving as 
 the enlistment of the American college men. The 
 English came into the war earlier by almost three 
 years ; and the war to them meant a richer sacrifice, 
 almost as much more sacrificial as the English Cam- 
 bridge is nearer to the Mame than is the American 
 city on the Charles. The great human motives, how- 
 ever, were alike, influencing and inspiring both bodies 
 of academic youth. The conditions of simplicity, of 
 quietness, of naturalness, of high resolve, of spiritual 
 
224 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 exultation, and of honor mark both sets of students. 
 A sense of humanity, of patriotism, and the instinct 
 of doing one's duty were alike present. As with a 
 garment, that Anglo-Saxon sense of duty clothed the 
 American student and the English. ISTelson's call 
 has entered the academic cloister. Of this condi- 
 tion no worthier interpreter could be found than the 
 Master of Magdalene at Cambridge, who writing of 
 the enrollment of Cambridge men said : 
 
 " What I would make clear, above everything, is 
 the extreme simplicity of it all. It is just the steady 
 setting of a great current of emotion in one direction. 
 It is not a question of argument or motive or excite- 
 ment, or even of indignation; it is not even a con- 
 scious sense of duty or honor. It is something 
 stronger and finer than all these, a passion of citizen- 
 ship and humanity, which, so far from growing dim 
 and faint in long peace and prosperity, seems to 
 have been nurtured into a freshness and spontaneity 
 which no imagination could have foreseen. English- 
 men are often accused of individualism and an almost 
 fantastic personal independence ; it is all true, so far 
 as the smaller things of life are concerned. But the 
 war has revealed that when once a national need 
 stands out, there is no sacrifice, no endurance, no loss 
 which the Englishman is not prepared to face; and 
 not to persuade himself into it, or to trample upon 
 
The Fallen 225 
 
 one part of his nature, but to mingle with the stream, 
 to flow with it, and to find in this prodigious unity 
 the satisfaction of his best hopes and desires." ^ 
 
 In a similar spirit. Sir Herbert Warren, the Presi- 
 dent of Magdalen, Oxford, wrote: 
 
 " ISTo city in England is more changed by the War 
 than Oxford. ISTone speaks its effect more elo- 
 quently than this fair, mournful witness. It is with 
 the eloquence of her sad, mute self, but the . figures 
 given below of the Oxford ' Roll of Service ' are also 
 eloquent. Eleven thousand old Oxford men have 
 passed into the service of their country. Over 1,400 
 have already fallen; 100 more are missing — 1,500 
 in all, among them many of the best scholars, the fin- 
 est athletes, the leaders of their years. But this does 
 not bring home the absolute devastation and desola- 
 tion of what may be called actual living Oxford as she 
 was before the War. There should be well over 
 3,000 undergraduates at this moment in residence. 
 In June, 1914, every college was full to overflow- 
 ing. Step into any one to-day ! If it is full at all, 
 it is full of young soldiers in khaki ! When they are 
 out it is empty. The remnant of undergraduates, 
 the invalid, the crippled, the neutrals, make abso- 
 
 1 Article by Dr. Arthur C. Benson, Master of Magdalene, 
 Cambridge University — British Universities and the War — 
 page 9. 
 
226 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 lutely no show at all. They can hardly be discov- 
 ered. Colleges which before the War contained 150 
 now contain half a dozen. Emptiness, silence reign 
 everywhere. The younger teachers are gone too." ^ 
 
 A similar record is the history of the Scotch uni- 
 versities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and 
 Edinburgh. St. Andrews, the oldest and the small- 
 est of the quartette, sent 55 members of its staff en- 
 rolled, 498 graduates and former students, and 258 
 undergraduates, or a total of 811 into the service. 
 Of this number llT fell. 
 
 Glasgow, the second in age gave no less than 3,363 
 of students and graduates to the naval and military 
 service, of whom no less than 2,650 held commis- 
 sions. Of this number, 525 were killed or died of 
 their wounds. The number of the missing exceeded 
 600. 
 
 A similar report belonged to the University of 
 Aberdeen. 2,786 members and alumni were engaged 
 in all branches of the service, of which 295 did not 
 return. 
 
 The Roll of Honor of the University of Edin- 
 burgh was yet more conspicuous, although no more 
 worthy. The total enrollment was 5,162, of whom 
 649 died. 
 
 1 Article by Sir Herbert Warren, K. C. "V. O., President of 
 Magdalen, Oxford University — British Universities and the 
 War — 'page 3. 
 
The Fallen 22Y 
 
 The list of honors that belonged to each of these 
 universities is long, distinguished, thrilling. In 
 Edinburgh it included 500 names, in Aberdeen, more 
 than 300, in St. Andrews more than 100. And in 
 Glasgow, more than 600. The Scotch universities, 
 always the home of patriotism, have never more glori- 
 ously proved their valor. 
 
 The newer Midland universities manifested the 
 same spirit of patriotic devotion. The number of the 
 students was in some instances reduced to one-fourth 
 of the usual enrollment. They especially devoted 
 themselves to scientiiic research, and of many kinds. 
 Professors of chemistry and of mining, of course, 
 made important contributions. Electrical engineers 
 were engaged on wireless telegraphy and telephone 
 equipment. Pathological professors were busy in 
 hospitals. Individual universities made unique of- 
 ferings. The coal, gas and fuel industry depart- 
 ments of Leeds were assigned to the duty of testing 
 high explosives and of analyzing coal tar. The 
 leather industry department gave attention to the 
 leather equipment of the forces. The engineers 
 tested metals in aeroplane spars and gave instruc- 
 tion in elementary machine work for munition work- 
 ers. The textile industry department examined 
 army cloth and aeroplane fabrics. And the color 
 chemistry department took an active part in scien- 
 
228 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 tific researcli respecting the making of dyes. Each 
 university of the liidlands mobilized every force for 
 the winning of the war. Never was there an experi- 
 ence in their history which commandeered so com- 
 pletely all faculties and every facility. 
 
 But perhaps a yet more moving presentation is 
 found in the contribution made by French students 
 and teachers. JSTo less than 259 professors of litera- 
 ture, science, medicine and law of the University of 
 Paris or of the provincial universities gave up their 
 lives, and the number of teachers, schoolmasters and 
 professors in the various schools and colleges of 
 France, who sacrificed all for their beautiful land 
 reaches the great total of 6,000. The University of 
 Paris writes 6-35 names on its roll of honor. The 
 story of the student patriot and of the patriot student 
 touches the depths of the grateful heart. The great- 
 ness of the offering becomes the more impressive when 
 it is remembered that at the beginning of the year 
 1914 the number of students in the French Universi- 
 ties was only 42,000. 
 
 The record of the college men in the war of all 
 nations is a record which thrills. I would not say it 
 is a record more glorious than that of non-college 
 men, but it is certainly at least as glorious. Hun- 
 dreds of them have been cited for heroism. Each in- 
 dividual instance bears its own form of bravery, but 
 
The Fallen 229 
 
 all are alike in certain great respects. Alike are the 
 records in contempt of danger ; alike in the endurance 
 of pain ; alike in the force of will overcoming physical 
 weakness ; alike in showing poise and calmness when 
 the temptation was to lose one's head and one's 
 nerves ; alike in risking life to save a comrade ; alike 
 in supporting the morale of the line when it was in 
 danger of breaking; alike in throwing away leave 
 tickets and returning to the charge; alike, when one 
 was wounded in leg or thigh, hopping and crawling, 
 delivering messages. It was the brain as well as the 
 heart and the will that did the duty of the hour and 
 of the day. The record belongs alike to the air, to 
 the sea, and to the land. It belongs quite as much 
 to the wounded who recovered, as to the wounded and 
 the dead. It really belongs quite as much and essen- 
 tially to the college men who wanted to go overseas 
 and over the top, and were not able, as to those who 
 did venture and sacrificed all. 
 
 The mood in which all was borne was such as be- 
 cometh the gentleman. The college man fought at 
 Cambrai and Chateau Thierry, and with determina- 
 tion, discrimination, and exultation. He bore his 
 wounds in hospital wards with a stoic patience which 
 does not belong to impulsive youth. He wore his 
 crown of thorns, as one has said, as if it were cap and 
 bells. He was at once careless and serious, frivo- 
 
230 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 lous and religious, living in the full for to-day, and 
 not forgetting the forthcoming to-morrow; free from 
 hate for his enemy, but determined to punish him for 
 all his ill doings, serving his native land, yet remem- 
 bering he was a soldier of humanity; true to the 
 human brotherhood, yet not forgetting the divine 
 Father. 
 
 It is a ghostly procession, too, which the pious im- 
 agination beholds. The dead college men go march- 
 ing by. It is a motley, young, silent throng. Some 
 wear the scholar's gown and the student's cap, some 
 the track, and some the rowing, uniform, but all do 
 wear the khaki. All are watchful and strong, reso- 
 lute and happy. Hope shines on their foreheads. A 
 smile breaks on their faces, and a sense of freedom 
 swings along in their march. With a lithe step and 
 strong stride, they move steadily up their via sacra, 
 keeping time to songs which seem half college and 
 half patriotic. They have gone west, but their sun 
 of remembrance shall never set in the college halls 
 where once they walked, and on the walls of which, 
 their names, cut in bronze, shall be held in lasting 
 love. 
 
 " They gave their manly youth away for country and for 
 
 God." 
 " The dead do not die 
 
 Who fall in the cause that angels uphold; 
 
 For the Right will be Right while the stars sail the sky." 
 
XIV 
 
 THE COMMENCEMENTS OF THE WAR PERIODS 
 
 The three conunencements which fell in the Amer- 
 ican war period were each of unique impressiveness. 
 They also showed fundamental differences in em- 
 phasis as in time. In the commencement of the year 
 1917, less than three months after the declaration of 
 war, the martial note could be plainly heard, and 
 it was heard quite as much in the voice of prophecy 
 as of affirmation, quite as much as an expression of 
 hope or of fear as of achievement. In the com- 
 mencement of 1918 a different spirit prevailed. 
 Strength, determination, assurance, the glory of sac- 
 rifice, the value of duty, the absolute certainty of 
 fighting the war unto victory, were the key-notes of 
 address and oration. In the commencement of 1919 
 a still further change was seen and heard. Victory 
 had been won. America was in tears, and was also 
 glad and grateful. 
 
 The commencements of 1918 and of 1919 were 
 
 impressive in the depleted classes that came up for 
 
 their degrees. In one college at least, Hobart, in 
 
 231 
 
232 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 1918, no commencement was held. In even the 
 Civil War period the usual commencement had been 
 observed, but in 1918 only three members of the 
 senior class remained and barely thirty-five students 
 of the whole, though small, enrollment. In 1918i 
 Brown University gave only fifty-one degrees to men ; 
 Princeton only sixty-five; Yale only three hundred 
 to all graduates rather than the usual number of eight 
 hundred; Amherst sixty-four; and Harvard eight 
 hundred and nineteen of which two hundred and 
 forty-seven represented the Bachelor degree. Har- 
 vard also gave three hundred and twenty-one certifi- 
 cates or qualified degrees to men who had entered the 
 military and naval service of the United States or of 
 the Allies. In 1919 Dartmouth conferred one hun- 
 dred and seventy-five degrees, and thirteen men of 
 the class had fallen in the service. Bates, conferred 
 one hundred degrees on both men and women, the 
 University of Vermont one hundred and seven, also 
 on both men and women, Bowdoin sixty-seven and 
 several certificates of honor to men who were still in 
 the service in France. Cornell in 1919 conferred 
 only three hundred and thirty-three degrees, the 
 smallest number for many years. 
 
 The academic festivities too witnessed a curtail- 
 ment commensurate with the lessened numbers. The 
 customary functions were abridged or united. Sim- 
 
The C ommencemenis of the War Periods 233 
 
 plicity prevailed. Unnecessary expense was avoided. 
 Spreads were few and guests also were few. Grad- 
 uates' reunions were not lield or were held in a very 
 sober manner. Many alumni did not lend themselves 
 to festivities in whicli their hearts could not be gay. 
 Hilarity lessened. One purpose was to save money 
 and to give the money thus saved to the Red Cross 
 or other war activities. 
 
 In all festivities formal and informal, however les- 
 sened, certain key-notes were struck, in Baccalaureate 
 sermon and Presidential address, and in the speeches 
 of representative students and alumni. Chief among 
 these notes were loyalty to the nation, leadership, 
 vision, public service, the uses of victory won or to be 
 won, respect for the humanistic classics, faith in the 
 future, the world's reconstruction. 'Not imfamiliar 
 are such sentiments to commencement audiences, but 
 the war being fought or the war having been won, 
 gave to these topics peculiar emphasis. Graduation 
 offered unique opportunities for their application. 
 Occasionally a voice was heard proclaiming that there 
 were other causes in the world besides the war, or its 
 origin, conduct and results. But these dissentient 
 intimations were both few and rather inaudible. 
 
 Mr. Herbert Hoover at the Harvard commence- 
 ment of 191Y, having received a degree, said : " The 
 Belgian relief was not my labor ; it was the labor o£ 
 
234 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 two hundred American university men. . . . This 
 army of civilians is an army of specialists, and they 
 can be officered only by the men from their own ranks 
 — from the commercial body of the nation who have 
 knowledge and experience in all of the multitvidinous 
 branches of their production and labor; and in this 
 officership from the industrial ranks is the security of 
 democracy. These men must have authority and 
 power to act. We give power to direct, and even that 
 of life and death over our citizens, to the officers of 
 our regular army. These powers have the restraint 
 only of law and public opinion. Is it more wrong to 
 give the right to direct the use of property to the offi- 
 cers of this civilian army, subject also to law and pub- 
 lic opinion ? Has this country descended to a level 
 of materialism that leads it to force its sons to the 
 trenches and to demand immunity for its property? 
 If we are to cling to luxury and profit, our sons and 
 the sons of the allies will die in vain." ^ At the same 
 college the President of the Alumni Association in 
 the commencement of the following year. Dr. George 
 A. Gordon said : " The war that fills our minds to- 
 day is the war of the preservation of humanity. 
 Nothing less is at stake than the integrity of the 
 jnoral life of the race, the moral fellowship of man- 
 1 ff award Alumni Bulletin, page 749 and 750 of 1916-1917. 
 
The C ommencerrienis of the War Periods 235 
 
 kind, the reality of justice among men and nations, 
 the right of all peoples, great and small, to express in 
 freedom their individual genius, upon that portion of 
 the earth's surface which they call their own; a por- 
 tion of the earth made beautiful by family life, the 
 mystic influence of an extended ancestry, and the hal- 
 lowing power of an immemorial fellowship in toil, in 
 joy, and in hope. 
 
 " When faith between man and man, nation and 
 nation ceases, faith between man and the Infinite 
 ceases or remains only as a withered and sickening 
 hypocrisy. The origins of our Christian civilization 
 are in a moral league with the Eternal, supported, 
 made sincere and availing, by a moral league among 
 human beings. Our highest possessions, and our best 
 hopes for mankind are the fruit of this double fun- 
 damental faith. 
 
 " Here our country claims our utmost homage ; she 
 is indeed illustrious in the character that she has won. 
 If she had thought meanly of herself she could have 
 evaded this war. If she had been willing to make a 
 league with death and a covenant with hell, she might 
 have added to her wealth and ease. She would not, 
 she could not play the role of betrayer to the human- 
 ity of man. At her own cost, and for no vulgar gain, 
 she has gone forth the soldier of humanity. There- 
 
236 Colleges and Universities in the Oreai War 
 
 fore, slie stands before the world witli clean hands and 
 a pure heart." ^ 
 
 At the commencement of Yale in 1918, President 
 Hadley, speaking to the Alumni on What War Had 
 Done for Yale, said : " The war has thus far proved 
 on the whole a source of strength rather than weak- 
 ness to the college. Tor the hrst time m many years 
 it has had a dominant motive that it could set before 
 its students ; a motive which, in spite of frequent dif- 
 ficulties and occasional backslidings, took hold of the 
 student body as a whole. 
 
 " We have always spoken of Yale as a place de- 
 voted to public service. We have tried to make pub- 
 lic service the distinctive idea and purpose of Yale 
 education. 'Now for the first time we have been able 
 to give this word ' public service ' a concrete mean- 
 ing which the students understand. The uniform of 
 the Army or ISTavy which they wear is a visible sym- 
 bol of the purpose for which they come. The Yale 
 student of to-day is no longer here to have a good 
 time. He is here to prepare himself for something 
 — Army, ISTavy, engineers ; or if disqualified from all 
 these, for helping to win the war at home. This 
 gives to academic study the zeal and spirit which was 
 formerly reserved for professional study. Trigo- 
 1 Harvard Alumni Bulletin, page 759 of 1917-1918. 
 
The Commencements of the War Periods 23 Y 
 
 nometry has a new meaning wlien it serves as a basis 
 for practical work in navigation or for firing data. 
 Many a man who is unable to appreciate mathematics 
 for its own sake becomes surprisingly proficient when 
 he finds that it will enable him to hit his enemy at 
 three miles' distance. What is true of mathematics is 
 true of French and is true of history. Each study 
 gains new life when it prepares a man to take part in 
 war problems. 
 
 " ISTot only do the students feel that they are en- 
 gaged in a work of preparation; they have gone far 
 enough to see that they have accomplished something. 
 They no longer have to take the word of their instruc- 
 tors that the curriculum of the Yale Field Artillery 
 School, or the somewhat more elastic course of the 
 Yale ISTaval Training Unit, will prepare them for 
 service. They have visible signs before them that 
 it does prepare them. Seventy line commissions in 
 the ISTavy out of seventy-one men sent up by Yale is a 
 visible and tangible object lesson to those who stay 
 at home as to the direct connection between what they 
 do here and what they will be able to do hereafter- 
 ward. The readiness of the Government to take all 
 our artillerists, of every age, into Government camps 
 is perhaps an even clearer object lesson, because it 
 comes directly home to each boy, whether he is of 
 
238 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 draft age or not, and shows liini that the Government 
 needs men who understand trigonometry even more 
 than men who know the manual of arms." ■'■ 
 
 At the commencement of the University of Mich- 
 igan, Dean Keppel of Columbia, serving as Third 
 Assistant Secretary of War, said : 
 
 " What have we learned ? In the first place, we 
 have learned that as a nation, we possess the power to 
 see a big job through, and we possess it because we 
 have the qualities of youth — enthusiasm, learning, 
 capacity, energy, elasticity, initiative — the pioneer- 
 ing spirit. We have the shortcomings of youth also 
 ■ — impatience, superficiality, improvidence, cock- 
 sureness — but when the test came we strengthened 
 our virtues and to a large extent overcame our fail- 
 ings. 
 
 " In the second place, we have learned that to see 
 the job through we need all of the nation, men and 
 women, not merely the professional arms and the niys- 
 terious powers of finance — we need all of every one. 
 We need them not as individuals, but as a team and 
 we have learned that we can develop team play. 
 
 " Our easiest jobs were the raising of our men and 
 our money; our hardest, the molding of the whole 
 into an organic unity. 
 
 " We should never again face a great national 
 
 1 Boston Transcript, June 19tli, 1918. 
 
The Commencements of the War Periods 239 
 
 crisis with nearly one-tliird of our men of military- 
 age unfit for hard physical work. We need cam- 
 paigns of physical education and social hygiene, and 
 we need to apply the lesson in human salvage which 
 the army has learned during the war. 
 
 " In the third place, we have learned that to ac- 
 complish a good result, we need the leadership of 
 those who know, and who know vividly and construc- 
 tively. Our experience has shown that in certain 
 fields, finance, science, manufacturing in quantity 
 production, welfare work, we had a supply of those 
 who knew. In other fields, in intimate knowledge 
 of foreign conditions and foreign languages, for ex- 
 ample, we had not. At first we didn't know where 
 our leaders were, and in many cases we began by fol- 
 lowing false prophets. 
 
 " The vital importance of a thorough knowledge of 
 where the man we need is to be found can be shown 
 by an example: A code message from Germany, di- 
 recting the dismantling of the German ships which 
 lay in our American ports, was intercepted. If we 
 had known that there was a professor of English in 
 the University of Chicago, who in the pursuit of his 
 mediaeval researches had developed the power of read- 
 ing ciphers almost at sight, that cable from Germany 
 could have been promptly deciphered, the sabotage 
 forestalled, and something like six months in the use 
 
240 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 of these ships for the transport of troops and muni- 
 tions could have been gained. 
 
 " The fourth lesson of which I wish to speak is that 
 a high aim and ideal is what counts most of all, and 
 what lifts the individual up from selfishness and 
 sloth. What bound the country together and made 
 the transformation which still seems miraculous, was 
 the noble national aim, the complete dedication to the 
 task before us, the utter absence of any selfish or self- 
 seeking factor in the whole enterprise. The conduct 
 of our soldiers, their submission to a discipline to 
 which most of them were completely unused was, I 
 think, in a large measure due to this recognition." ^ 
 
 At the Commencement of Cornell University of 
 1919, Ex-Governor Charles E. Hughes said: 
 
 " With the world in ferment, we are appraising 
 the steadying and conserving influences and we look 
 to the university for something more than the dis- 
 charge of its primary and distinctive function in in- 
 struction. What aid may we expect to counteract 
 the destructive aims of those who would wreck free 
 government and enthrone the tyranny of class hat- 
 red ? Democracy cannot be saved by arms, our vic- 
 tory has preserved the opportunity to have democ- 
 racy. But it remains for the testing days of peace to 
 determine whether democracy itself can be preserved. 
 
 1 Detroit Free Press, 26th of June, 1919. 
 
The C ommencemenis of the War Periods 241 
 
 The success of the endeavor must be the result of 
 many cooperating forces, preeminent among which 
 will be the sentiment and convictions of men trained 
 in the higher institutions of learning. 
 
 " The battle of free government is never com- 
 pletely won. It is an age-long struggle against foes 
 without and more insidious and dangerous foes 
 within. ISlow, with tyrants overthrown and autoc- 
 racy destroyed in its last citadel, we must fight anew. 
 Where in democracy should we look for the cham- 
 pions of the fundamental principles of liberty, if 
 not in the students of history — to those who have 
 pondered over the long contests for equal rights ? " ^ 
 
 These lengthy extracts and many others which 
 might be added voice the general and highest senti- 
 ments of the human soul. They are the sentiments 
 of youth and of age, of the one who believes in Amer- 
 ica first, and the one who believes in the Allies first. 
 They touch the deepest elements of humanity and 
 they ascend to the utmost limits of the imagination of 
 man. 
 
 Among the significant elements of the commence- 
 ments and especially of that of 1919, were the hon- 
 orary degrees given to those who were engaged in the 
 war or in service connected with the war. Vermont 
 gave to Admiral Mayo the degree of LL.D. in 1919, 
 
 1 Boston Transcript, June 2l8t, 1919, 
 
242 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 and Bates tlie same degree to Major General Hersey. 
 Princeton, Yale and other colleges gave to Davidson, 
 President of the Red Cross, the degree of LL.D. 
 Holy Cross College of Worcester gave to William 
 Mulligan, Director of the Knights of Columbus War 
 Activities, also an LL.D. In the commencement of 
 that year also. Rear Admiral Sims received an LL.D. 
 from both Yale and Harvard. The University of 
 Pennsylvania conferred on Brigadier General At- 
 terbury, the degree of LL.D. in 1919. 
 
 In this same relationship also is heard the key- 
 note of internationalism. For both Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge conferred on General Pershing a degree in 
 1919, and Oxford gave a D.C.L. to Herbert Hoover 
 in the same year. Lord Reading received an LL.D. 
 at several American universities. Columbia gave an 
 LL.D. to Secretary Lansing in 1918, and Wisconsin 
 gave one to Marcel Knecht of the French High Com- 
 mission in recognition of his work in promoting 
 friendly relations and mutual understanding between 
 the people of the United States and his own nation. 
 Amherst in 1918 gave the degree of LL.D. to Lieu- 
 tenant General, Sir James Wilcox, the Governor of 
 Bermuda. 
 
 It may also be said that Brown University, at its 
 one hundred and fiftieth annual commencement, took 
 away the degree which had been previously conferred 
 
The Commencements of the War Periods 243 
 
 upon Ambassador Bemsdorff. The vote annulling 
 the honor declared that while he was Ambassador of 
 the Imperial German Government to the United 
 States, and while the two nations were still at peace, 
 he was guilty of conduct unworthy of a gentleman 
 and a diplomat. 
 
 Certain degrees that might be called war degrees 
 were also conferred upon students who had entered 
 the national service from the college and had not re- 
 turned. These degrees took various forms and were 
 based upon different foundations. It may in general 
 be said that the degree of Bachelor of Arts and the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science were conferred upon 
 students of several colleges who had finished at least 
 three of the four years of college residence. The cus- 
 tom begun in American colleges in the Spanish- 
 American War to substitute in a formal way, service 
 in the Army or ISTavy for academic study was thus 
 continued and ennobled. The feeling was common 
 throughout every commencement in every college, 
 that no recognition could be too honorable for those 
 who had laid aside the academic gown and had put on 
 the uniform. The following examples are represen- 
 tative : — 
 
 At Knox College, those who were in war service 
 during the first semester, and who returned and com- 
 pleted satisfactorily courses of not less than fifteen 
 
244 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 hours each week in the second semester, received 
 credit for one year's work. Those who left in the 
 second semester of their Junior year received their 
 degrees the following year upon completing fifteen 
 hours. Trinity shortened the Easter vacation, placed 
 Commencement later than usual, rushed the classes a 
 little faster than usual, and endeavored to graduate 
 with a year's credit those who returned to college 
 during the winter term, after national service. 
 Johns Hopkins gave a full year's credit to those who 
 returned from the service in the middle of the year. 
 Union College, by starting new courses and by ad- 
 mitting men to classes for which they were perhaps 
 not altogether qualified, attempted to make it pos- 
 sible for men to get a year of credit for two terms' 
 work. 
 
XV 
 
 SOME ENDURING EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON THE COL- 
 LEGES AND THE UNIVERSITIES 
 
 To write of the enduring effects of the war on the 
 colleges and the universities is to laj aside in part the 
 function of the historian and to assume, in an equal 
 degree, the function of the prophet. But, if one 
 were to await the full knowledge of the enduring 
 effects of any cause or force, in order to write its his- 
 tory, no history would be written. At the present 
 time, however, certain effects, which apparently are 
 to continue, have become more or less manifest. 
 
 One effect which is not occurring, be it first said, 
 relates to the seriousness of the depletion of the forces 
 of educated American manhood. The number of 
 college men killed is small as compared to the losses 
 suffered by the universities of Great Britain and of 
 France. I^Teither is the American loss at all com- 
 parable to the losses suffered by the Southern States 
 in the Civil War. For fifty years, the share of the 
 Southern people in the development of American so- 
 ciety was unworthy of their earlier history. The 
 
 245 
 
246 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 natural leaders in the later decades of tlie nineteenth 
 century, while these decades were passing, were rest- 
 ing in thir graves. No similar condition will pre- 
 vail in the whole United States in the middle decades 
 of the twentieth century. 
 
 In a further prefatory way, it should be said that 
 two temporary results became manifest when the col- 
 leges opened their doors for the first complete post- 
 war year of 1919-1920. The Freshmen, who en- 
 tered in September of that year, came up with a less 
 adequate fitness than the beginning classes of preced- 
 ing years. Tor the necessities which the war laid on 
 high school and academic students had sent them out 
 from their classrooms onto the farms as ploughmen 
 and vine dressers in the foregoing spring months. 
 They had thus been allowed to shorten their prepara- 
 tory years of study in order to raise grain for the 
 nations. They had also suffered an interruption of 
 their senior year by reason of the influenza of the 
 autumn of 1918. These two conditions affected the 
 colleges themselves no less than the high schools. 
 The men of the first complete year following the war 
 found the doing of their college work difficult by rea- 
 son of inadequate preparation and impaired physical 
 vigor, — and this work was not on the whole well 
 done. 
 
 This scholastic effect had relationship to the morale 
 
Some Enduring Effects of the War 247 
 
 of students reentering college: students, in the 
 year following the war, were less studious. Their 
 studies made a less strong appeal to them, and the 
 appeal was less strongly answered. For, while they 
 were engaged in service over-seas, they were called 
 upon to be obedient soldiers. Their wishes were not 
 consulted. Their duties were diverse and compel- 
 ling. Their wills and their bodies performed the 
 chief functions of daily discipline. Their intellects 
 had small share in the concerns of the camp. The 
 return to the college, therefore, was a return from 
 affairs volitional and physical to affairs intellectual. 
 The return was not an easy one to make. The trans- 
 fer of interest from obedient doing to critical, con- 
 sistent, and continuous thinking was difficult. The 
 result, in consequence, was general unrest, emotional 
 dissatisfaction, and mental dissipation. The right to 
 complain against the national, and to bo rebellious 
 against the college, government was recognized as al- 
 most a duty ! But, as the college months passed, these 
 elements became less evident, and in the progress of 
 the year, they were found to be vanishing. 
 
 An effect, also, which may not be permanent, but 
 which will certainly continue for at least several 
 years, is found in the vast increase of students. The 
 increase is general, covering all colleges. It repre- 
 sents an enlargement of numbers of about one-third. 
 
248 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 ENROLLMENT FIGURES FOR 1919-20, 1918-19, 1916-17 
 
 Name of College 1919-20 1918-19 1916-17 
 
 Allegheny 515 
 
 Amherst 503 
 
 Bates 472 
 
 Boston College 700 
 
 Boston University 5,396 
 
 Bowdoin 453 
 
 Brown 1,295 
 
 Bryn Mawr 444 
 
 Clark 202 
 
 Colgate 545 
 
 * Columbia 15,828 
 
 Connecticut College 305 
 
 Cornell 5,152 
 
 Dartmouth 1,733 
 
 Depauw 853 
 
 Goucher 783 
 
 Hamilton 299 
 
 Harvard 5,204 
 
 Holy Cross 702 
 
 Indiana State 2,347 
 
 Johns Hopkins 3,200 
 
 Knox 500 
 
 Lafayette 700 
 
 Lehigh 1,100 
 
 Leland Stanford 2,443 
 
 Mass. Agricultural 742 
 
 Mass. Inst, of Technology 3,092 
 
 Middlebury 479 
 
 Mt. Holyoke 815 
 
 New Hampshire 806 
 
 * New York University 9,695 
 
 Northwestern 5,732 
 
 Norwich 270 
 
 Oberlin 1,535 
 
 571 
 
 395 
 
 387 
 
 505 
 
 402 
 
 473 
 
 591 
 
 675 
 
 3,162 
 
 2,917 
 
 372 
 
 434 
 
 964 
 
 1,140 
 
 472 
 
 447 
 
 203 
 
 153 
 
 371 
 
 581 
 
 9,910 
 
 14,229 
 
 300 
 
 204 
 
 3,480 
 
 4,746 
 
 772 
 
 1,501 
 
 897 
 
 740 
 
 706 
 
 612 
 
 259 
 
 220 
 
 3,894 
 
 5,656 
 
 650 
 
 560 
 
 2,029 
 
 1,131 
 
 1,976 
 
 2,782 
 
 508 
 
 506 
 
 462 
 
 634 
 
 800 
 
 775 
 
 1,507 
 
 2,012 
 
 440 
 
 695 
 
 1,821 
 
 1,957 
 
 386 
 
 372 
 
 874 
 
 824 
 
 607 
 
 666 
 
 5,470 
 
 7,719 
 
 3,693 
 
 5,078 
 
 241 
 
 196 
 
 1,410 
 
 1,496 
 
8ome Enduring Effects of the War 249 
 
 Name of CJoUege 1919-20 1918-19 1916-17 
 
 Pennsylvania State 3,065 2,496 2,472 
 
 Princeton 1,658 884 1,410 
 
 Eadcliffe 625 527 675 
 
 Khode Island State 343 255 336 
 
 Simmons 1,269 1,027 1,088 
 
 Smith 1,998 2,103 1,917 
 
 * Syracuse 4,800 4,033 4,088 
 
 Trinity 227 282 246 
 
 Tufts 2,003 1,727 1,751 
 
 Univ. of California 9,208 6,087 6,467 
 
 Univ. of Chicago 4,424 3,387 3,718 
 
 Univ. of Illinois 8,076 5,617 7,023 
 
 Univ. of Maine 1,193 1,137 1,276 
 
 * Univ. of Michigan 9,800 7,517 6,600 
 
 * Univ. of Pennsylvania 10,321 4,934 8,761 
 
 Univ. of Rochester 677 533 509 
 
 Univ. of the South 255 208 188 
 
 Univ. of Vermont 844 658 672 
 
 Univ. of Virginia 1,453 957 1,067 
 
 Univ. of Washington 5,056 3,352 3,215 
 
 Univ. of Wisconsin 6,949 4,413 5,020 
 
 Vassar 1,105 1,120 1,102 
 
 Wellesley 1,526 1,594 1,572 
 
 Western Reserve 1,925 1,448 1,583 
 
 Williams 555 377 552 
 
 Yale 3,461 3,064 3,262 
 
 Worcester Polytechnic 567 474 539 
 
 Totals 158,816 111,177 130,630 
 
 * Includes summer school registration. 
 
 (Boston Evening Transcript, 29th Nov., 1919; collected by 
 the competent college editor, Henry T. Claus.) 
 
 The cause of the increase was fourfold. One 
 
 cause was that many boys and girls had been delayed 
 
250 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 in coming to college. The war interrupted the 
 achievement of their educational purposes. They 
 were now able to begin to realize an aim for their edu- 
 cation which would have been realized in the normal 
 processes, two or three years earlier. 
 
 A second cause lay in the fact that money was 
 more abundant. Prices had vastly increased. But 
 the college fees had, in certain colleges, not at all in- 
 creased, and in others seldom more than twenty-five 
 per cent. In relation to other values, the cost of 
 education was and is the lowest of all utilities. It is 
 the only instance in modern life in which one is re- 
 ceiving many fold more than the expenditure. 
 
 The third reason of the increase lay in the great 
 service which the colleges rendered in the war. This 
 service touched every interest of modern life. The 
 loyalty of students and graduates, a mighty sense of 
 unity and fellowship, the outpouring of vast enthusi- 
 asms, devotion to duty, represent the normal results 
 of academic training. These results have had a mov- 
 ing influence upon the community. The younger 
 boys and girls wanted to enter into such a life. 
 
 The fourth cause was found in the fact that men's 
 minds had been impressed with the worthiness of 
 things intellectual and spiritual. They had learned 
 that these are the eternal values. They had also 
 learned that the things seen are material and that 
 
Some Eriduring Effects of the War 251 
 
 these things are temporal. They were eager in their 
 idealism to possess the enduring values. 
 
 A further result, rather circumstantial than es- 
 sential, which gave and gives lasting assurance to 
 the friends of higher education, was found in the 
 new evidence offered by the war of the worthiness 
 of the American university and college. The Mid- 
 dle Ages gave to the modem world, either as original 
 or mediating forces, three institutions: — the Em- 
 pire, the Papacy, and the University. The Empire 
 was finally dissolved by ISTapoleon. The Papacy en- 
 dures, yet shorn of much of its political power and 
 prestige. The University alone comes forth, with 
 each succeeding decade, with power increased and 
 prestige augmented. The university has not only 
 proved to be humanistic, but, what is far more im- 
 portant, human. It is patriotic and interpatriotic, 
 national and international. Its teachers are not re- 
 mote from human concerns. They are easily respon- 
 sive to all human ideals. Its students are kindled, 
 by simple words and deeds, unto flaming devotions. 
 
 The war also gave a higher appreciation of that 
 simple but fundamental element, the value of phys- 
 ical health. The returned soldier student returned 
 carrying a more vigorous body. His manlier bear- 
 ing, his fuller chest, his larger and harder muscles, 
 his clearer eye, his greater robustness, proved, as 
 
252 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 these qualities themselves manifested, his firm and 
 usually firmer health. These results were the nor- 
 mal effects of regular life, lived under proper disci- 
 pline in the open. These results were, according to 
 the military commander, necessary causes and forces 
 for the carrying forward of the normal movements 
 of warfare. The hospital is not a tool of aggressive 
 conflict. The soldier learned that about one-third of 
 all drafted men were rejected by reason of physical 
 deformities or deficiencies. He learned also the un- 
 speakable peril and penalties of venereal disease. 
 Out of all these diverse conditions and causes, the 
 student, coming from the ranks, came to the college 
 bearing in his body an illustration of the value of 
 health which gave silent and impressive lessons to 
 all his associates. 
 
 Closely associated with the resulting appreciation 
 of the value of good health was the element of mili- 
 tary training in the colleges. Many college ofiicers 
 and college students who were engaged in the service 
 in France, and college graduates who did or who did 
 not go over-seas, have, as a result of the training of 
 and in and for the war, come to hold opinions opposed 
 to military training as a constituent part of the col- 
 lege course. It was and is recognized by all that mil- 
 itary training in the college may represent a certain 
 cooperative citizenship. It also represents obedi- 
 
Some Enduring Effects of the War 253 
 
 ence, which is the first duty of the soldier and, in cer- 
 tain respects, the first duty of the student. It stands 
 also for the control of appetites and the curbing of 
 passion. It does, or should, mean the eliminating or 
 the curing of obscure physical weaknesses and the 
 promotion of physical strength. Properly pursued, 
 it might help to form permanent habits of good phys- 
 ical exercise. It also embodies the progressive ele- 
 ment in such exercise; for military training passes 
 on from the simple to the less simple, from the less 
 simple to the complex, and from the complex to the 
 more complex. 
 
 But also it has been recognized that military train- 
 ing in the college is not usually interesting. To the 
 Freshmen it may have some fascination. It is new 
 and pulsates with a touch of the world of vision and 
 of glory. But, as the months or the years pass, its 
 interest vanishes. The students of one college peti- 
 tioned for a military training course to be intro- 
 duced. Within less than twelve months, not less 
 than seventy-five per cent, of the enrollment peti- 
 tioned for its abolition. Most students are rebellious 
 against accepting it as a required academic course. 
 In its lack of interest, it is not so recreative as it 
 should be, and whatever recreation it does possess 
 is rather of a stilted and mechanical form, without 
 imagination or a sense of fun. It has also been 
 
254 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 proved that it is difficult to fit it into the other ele- 
 ments of the curriculum. Evidence is not lacking 
 that it does not adjust itself so w^ell to the physical 
 and other needs of the student as a more diversified 
 form of exercise. Variations from its standards are 
 few and infrequent. The attempts, therefore, made 
 to establish the Reserve Ofiicers' Training Corps in 
 the colleges have not met with a general degree of suc- 
 cess. The spirit of rebelliousness to it is not quite so 
 marked as the spirit of opposition to the more 
 ordinary type of military training. But the 
 rebelliousness is still marked. It has come to 
 be felt by many college officers that the best prep- 
 aration for the service of a soldier consists in giving 
 him a strong, vigorous body, facile and forceful, 
 united with a strong, vigorous mind, also' facile and 
 forceful. Such a body and such a mind united in 
 one person, distinguished military officers say, can be 
 formed, in the course of a brief time, into the stuff 
 for a good soldier, and even into first-rate material 
 for service as an officer. 
 
 A further effect was manifest in the greater seri- 
 ousness pervading the ranks of students. The play 
 element was lessened. Silly self-indulgence was 
 curbed. The religious service of the college chapel 
 commanded fuller attendance, closer attention, and 
 an attitude of deeper worship. Snap courses became 
 
Some Enduring Effects of the War 256 
 
 less popular. Studies that serve well in life's strug- 
 gles were more generally elected. Teachers who in- 
 spire and quicken were more constantly sought. The 
 presence of the soldier, wounded or unwounded, con- 
 tributed to this result. The man on crutches, with a 
 happy face peering up and out between the bars, and 
 the man who had been gassed, with a face worn, thin, 
 pale, greatly added to this feeling of seriousness. 
 
 This feeling of seriousness arose in part from a 
 broader and more intimate knowledge of the Euro- 
 pean world. To the men who had been in Europe in 
 the wartime, history was made more vital. America 
 is a new country, and Americans do not possess the 
 long and rich historic background. Their conditions 
 necessitate such ignorance. Living for months, or 
 years, in France serves to impress upon a man of the 
 new world, the significance of a long historic yester- 
 day. The present American conditions also became 
 through foreign residence more visible and more im- 
 pressive. Problems, national, international, individ- 
 ual, were seen more clearly in their outlines and con- 
 tent. Under such conditions, the returned soldier 
 student inevitably became more serious in thought 
 and feeling. 
 
 This academic effect had relation to a further re- 
 sult. It was the result of the acceptance on the part 
 of the students of a deeper responsibility for the com- 
 
256 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 miinity. The college man came to know that he 
 should assume, — always, of course, in humility, — 
 the spirit of leadership of the community. His 
 power of insight into conditions is keener and 
 broader, his appreciation of the worth of the forces 
 of the commonwealth is more adequate, and his abil- 
 ity to apply these forces is greater, than belong to the 
 ordinary membership. Such conditions were es- 
 pecially strong in the years following the war. 
 
 The enhanced appreciation, which the community 
 gained, of the higher education was also the result of 
 a deeper appreciation of themselves by the colleges. 
 Colleges are always responsive to the feelings and 
 judgments of the community to a degree which 
 neither the college nor the community realizes. The 
 colleges learned, through the war, that the education 
 they offer is worthy of humanity, that the disciplined 
 mind which they create by a formal training is the 
 most effective force in the world, and that the rich 
 and full-orbed character which they foster is the best 
 product of civilization. The war, directly or indi- 
 rectly, increased the stipends of the college teacher. 
 But this result was of no worth in comparison with 
 the ennobled self-confidence, always humble and sel- 
 dom arrogant, which the American university and 
 college came to possess. 
 
 A further effect concerns the permanent condition 
 
Some Enduring Effects of the War 257 
 
 of the humanities as a subject of study. It is the so- 
 cial humanities which have become more securely es- 
 tablished in the academic curriculum. The antique 
 humanities have suffered a constant elimination. 
 The natural and physical sciences, despite the high 
 and useful function they filled in the war, have not 
 gained in subsequent popularity or influence. The 
 philosophical and psychological courses, notwith- 
 standing the value of psychology in the waging of the 
 war and in removing certain resulting distress, have 
 likewise not secured a more commanding following. 
 But the studies, called social, dealing with men in 
 relation to each other, — history, economics, govern- 
 ment, political science, sociology, — have been lifted 
 to places higher and broader in the academic order. 
 The students elected, and still elect, such courses 
 more fully ; and to teachers of such courses students 
 were, and are, inclined to pay a more loyal loyalty. 
 The reason is not far to seek. In the war men learned 
 that the relations of men to each other are the chief re- 
 lations. If men are enemies, enemies should be in- 
 telligently understood. Opposing points of view 
 should be examined, and the grounds of antagonism 
 carefully weighed. If men are friends and co-work- 
 ers, — political, commercial, industrial, — their mu- 
 tual rights and duties, activities and conditions, 
 should be recognized and considered. At all events, 
 
258 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 men are citizens, and all relations to one's nation are 
 of compelling significance. Moreover, each nation 
 bears relationsliips to other nations, and therefore the 
 facts of international history, the doctrine of ex- 
 changes, financial and of commodities, diplomatic 
 and consular arrangements and adjustments, are all 
 quickening influences upon the academic mind. The 
 student vision, therefore, has come to see beyond the 
 college walls, even if one stands on their top. The 
 students have come to feel the w^orld's throbs and in- 
 terests, and these interests influence them to select 
 those subjects of study which touch, more and most 
 directly, upon those interests. 
 
 Of course, such directness of topic and immediacy 
 of method involve a certain intellectual loss. The 
 loss is a lessened sense of intellectual relationships. 
 The loss means a thinner background, a shallower re- 
 flectiveness, a narrower perspective and outlook. 
 The loss is a loss in culture, in appreciation of general 
 values, in depths and richness of thinking and feel- 
 ing. But, along with the loss runs a gain, a gain in 
 directness and in efficiency, in pursuit of ends, an ef- 
 ficiency which, in a world of service and in a lifetime 
 whose working period is so brief, is of unspeakable 
 preciousness. 
 
 I also believe that the war gave to the university 
 student and teacher a deeper desire to use his learn- 
 
Some Enduring Effects of the War 259 
 
 ing and his lecturing for the public welfare. A 
 stronger and deeper altruistic note was heard in the 
 academic song. Of course universities have always 
 been devoted to the service of their nations, be the 
 government of a particular nation monarchical or 
 democratic. In the ]\Iiddle Ages, kings found their 
 ministers of state and their diplomats among the 
 university-trained graduates. The newer democratic 
 communities have usually called to their offices, — 
 legislative, executive, judicial, — men of academic 
 training. The modern record is of a significance 
 even more commanding than the mediseval. The 
 American student and teacher, therefore, have become 
 impressed in a peculiar way with the duty they owe 
 to the mind and the movements of their own genera- 
 tion outside of academic gateways. The obligation 
 of the stronger to help the weaker, the value of unity 
 of thought, of feeling, of action, the appreciation of 
 individual and corporate sympathy, the worth of loy- 
 alty to great ideas, the missionary motive as applied to 
 intellectual forces, have become common sentiments 
 of mighty motive and movement. The student as- 
 sents to the truth of Huxley's remark, " So far as 
 we possess the power of bettering things, it is our 
 permanent duty to use it, and to train all our intel- 
 lect and energy for this supreme service to our kind." 
 Institutions change slowly. That mediaeval and 
 
260 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 modem institution, the "university, with the church, 
 is the most conservative of all the great foundations 
 made by the mind of man. The students of the twen- 
 tieth century in the American institution are singu- 
 larly akin to the students of the fifteenth century in 
 Oxford and Leipsic. But, although changing slowly, 
 and by slight degrees, the academic mind does change. 
 The results I have noted are already beginning to 
 affect the body of the students and the movements of 
 academic life. It now seems probable that these re- 
 sults will endure among the students of many follow- 
 ing generations. 
 
XVI 
 
 ACADEMIC MEMORIALS 
 
 In the funeral oration whicli Thucydides puts into 
 the mouth of Pericles, at the close of the first year 
 of the Peloponnesian war, the great statesman and 
 orator says: 
 
 " For the whole earth is the sepulchre of famous 
 men; not only are they commemorated by columns 
 and inscriptions in their own country, but in foreign 
 lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of 
 them, graven not on stone but in the hearts of men." ^ 
 
 The sentiments expressed in Greece, twenty-three 
 hundred years and more ago, are felt likewise in 
 America in the year 1920. The whole earth is filled 
 with memorials of our college boys. But, in addi- 
 tion, it is fitting, natural, and almost commanding to 
 the soul, that individual memorials be raised. 
 
 Commemorative accounts, events, tokens, tablets, 
 medals, foundations, buildings are a normal and nat- 
 ural consequence of noble achievements. The found- 
 ing of a memorial in recognition of great deeds is al- 
 most instinctive to man. The desire seems to belong 
 
 1 Thucydides' History, Jowett's translation, I. 133. 
 261 
 
262 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 to the early impulses of the race, as is witnessed in the 
 cairns on the lonely mountain peak where a hero did 
 a brave deed. Civilization has not eliminated this 
 primitive instinct, but has rather seemed to augment 
 and to discipline it. 
 
 An academic memorial, like every other, should ap- 
 peal to the sense of idealism in humanity. It should 
 touch the imagination, move the sense of the poetic, 
 and incarnate in the visible and the tangible the 
 highest aspirations of the human spirit. It should 
 create a certain solidity of thrilling impulses, which 
 it should elevate and broaden and deepen. Every 
 noble feeling should be stirred by its vision or recol- 
 lection. It should be a permanent festival of the 
 dead. It should with ever increasing force appeal 
 to the eternal and the universal in the human soul. 
 In it the elements of a materialistic utility should 
 be given little or no place. It may help man to do 
 his daily work more thoroughly, to bear his anxiety 
 more calmly, to fulfill life's functions more com- 
 pletely. But these results it wins by its appeal to 
 'the highest and the lordliest and the divine in his be- 
 ing. A worthy memorial is still the sky and the star 
 and the far-off sun in man's character and life. It 
 is still the token, the evidence, the proof of the etern- 
 ally free spirit in man as the child of the universal 
 and the everlasting. 
 
Academic Memorials 263 
 
 Sucii should be the characteristics of every me- 
 morial. In particular a college memorial should pos- 
 sess them in fullest degree. For it is for such ideals 
 that the college youth died. These ideals are the 
 highest. They embody not simply a national pur- 
 pose, but rather one international, and not simply an 
 international one, but rather that power which un- 
 derlies humanity, Divinity. 
 
 Memorials have, for more than two thousand years, 
 taken on a great variety of forms. Pericles rebuilt 
 parts of Athens as a memorial of the Persian Wars. 
 The city of Alexandria forever commemorates a 
 world-conqueror. St. Sophia, Constantinople, still 
 stands a token of the victory of the cross. Through- 
 out the Middle Ages abbeys were founded as memor- 
 ials, and likewise in the Renaissance period, colleges 
 and schools. Within the last hundred years, Water- 
 loo Bridge and the Nelson Column of London bear 
 their own commemorative purpose. 
 
 Among other great memorials in material form are 
 the Taj Mahal, the Arch of Triumph in Paris, Tra- 
 jan's Arch, the Victor Emmanuel pile in Rome, the 
 Washington Monument on the banks of the Potomac, 
 and the Robert Gould Shaw tablet on Boston Com- 
 mon. Similar forms in marble or stone or bronze, 
 college memorials might fittingly assume. Of these 
 memorials the Robert Gould Shaw bronze has the 
 
264 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 dearest meaning to the heart of the college youth. It 
 is in a sense a college emblem. If only such a tablet 
 could be set up on every college campus ! But a like 
 memorial, though of quite unlike esthetic conception 
 or execution, might have a quickening meaning. For 
 throughout the villages of many an American state, 
 on common, or on public square is erected a simple 
 figure in granite of the American soldier of the Civil 
 War. His clothes do not fit him. The expression of 
 his face is stolid. His poise is neither civil nor mili- 
 tary. On the foundation stone or on the sides of the 
 column are cut his name and the names of his fallen 
 comrades. Gettysburg, Antietam, Fredericksburg 
 are also inscribed. Despite its lacks and incongrui- 
 ties, it is always moving to the mind and the heart of 
 the beholder. Such a figure set up in bronze or mar- 
 ble in college halls or on college grounds is a fitting 
 memorial. 
 
 Buildings may also form a memorial likewise fit- 
 ting. But in academic buildings imagination should 
 ever be given full freedom. To the college men 
 fallen in the Civil War are erected several memorials 
 of this type. Conspicuous among them are the Me- 
 morial Hall at Chapel Hill, of the University of 
 North Carolina, the Memorial Hall at Bowdoin, and 
 the memorial part of a great hall at Harvard. Build- 
 ings are sure to be built in scores of colleges, com- 
 
Academic Memorials 265 
 
 memorative of the men fallen in the Great War. 
 
 Gateways form also a most fitting type. They 
 largely eliminate by their very condition, the element 
 of materialistic utility. Already several college 
 classes have considered the building of such a me- 
 morial to their unreturning members and in apprecia- 
 tion of the service of all of their members. 
 
 Three outstanding athletic captains of Yale lost 
 their lives in the war. It has been proposed to asso- 
 ciate their names with the Bowl, and other athletic 
 structures. Such association is more fitting than a 
 superficial interpretation might suggest. For the 
 men, trained in the academic sports, through that 
 very training, were made more efficient in the war. 
 Discipline, intellectual and ethical, power of initia- 
 tive, team-work, are the qualities alike valuable in the 
 sports, in the service and in life. 
 
 But beyond and above such physical forms, com- 
 memorative foundations in gifts of funds or of li- 
 braries have peculiar significance. Professorships, 
 scholarships, lectureships, each devoted to the pur- 
 poses held dear by those who died, are fitting. They 
 touch the imagination. They serve by their teaching 
 to elevate the mind, to purify the heart, to give a 
 sense of grandeur and sublimity to man's highest 
 choices. They also endure, as the college itself is 
 among the most enduring of the creations of man. 
 
266 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Buildings may crumble and must, but tbe inamate- 
 rial foundation standeth sure. Already such me- 
 morial foundations are being laid. 
 
 A Harvard man, of the class of 1919, who was 
 mortally wounded in 1918, has been commemorated 
 by a scholarship founded by his family in Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, which is to be held by an Amer- 
 ican student nominated by the President and Fel- 
 lows of Harvard. A scholarship also in his honor 
 has been established at Harvard which is to be 
 awarded to a student from France. Another father 
 has given a scholarship in memory of his son, Wil- 
 liam H. Meeker, of the class of 1917 of Harvard, 
 killed in France, and has also given his son's library 
 to the Harvard Crimson. The gift of the library 
 is carrying out one of the last wishes of the boy, that 
 if anything should happen to him while in France, 
 his library should be given to the college in which he 
 had been enrolled. The University of Toronto has 
 raised a large sum for commemorative scholarships. 
 Princeton has already founded ten such scholarships. 
 Similar memorials have been established in other 
 colleges and will continue to be founded for the next 
 decade. 
 
 Beneath the material form and the immaterial of 
 memorials may lie certain natural associations. A 
 row or a group of trees illustrates and embodies such 
 
Academic Memorials 267 
 
 a commemoration. IsTew Hampsliire College at Dur- 
 ham has planted a grove of trees in honor of eigh- 
 teen of her graduates who fell. 
 
 Many memorials, as these paragraphs intimate, 
 have been established by the parents of the dead stu- 
 dent soldiers. Their foundation will yet go on for 
 generations. Be it said that the mothers and 
 fathers have borne, and still bear, and will continue 
 to bear, their griefs with a sense of bravery equal to 
 that of their fallen sons. They have learned the les- 
 son which Professor Poulton, of Oxford, learned in 
 the death of his son, Ronald, that " to be weakened 
 by grief is the poorest tribute to our dear ones, and 
 that it might be so is the thought that would have 
 pained them most. ' At the time of Ronald's death I 
 was numb with despair until, in a few days, this 
 thought arose in my mind, and since then the comfort 
 of it has never failed me; if any there be who have 
 not yet found it, I am sure it will never fail them.' " ^ 
 
 A distinct form of memorial for the living, as well 
 as for the dead, was created by Williams College. It 
 consisted of what is known as " The Williams 
 Medal." The obverse of the bronze shows " a line 
 of steel-helmeted doughboys, rifles in hand, with bay- 
 onets fijxed, about to go over the top." The reverse 
 is an imaginary portrait of the founder of the college, 
 iThe British Weekly, December 25, 1919, 
 
268 Colleges and Universities in the Great War 
 
 Colonel Ephraim Williams, on horseback, wearing 
 the uniform of a continental officer. The legend, 
 " For humanity 1918," appears on the obverse side, 
 and the legend, " E Liberalitate E Williams Armi- 
 geri 1793," is on the upper circumference of the re- 
 verse. Wesleyan University and Union have also 
 given similar tokens to their sons. 
 
 These and other forms, college memorials are to 
 take on in the next years. Whatever special shape 
 they assume they will embody the spirit which stirred 
 the soul of the soldier student who went forth pre- 
 pared to die. The spirit has been movingly set forth 
 in many a poem and noble paragraph. But in no 
 verse written by college man for college man has the 
 spirit been more fittingly embodied than the verses 
 which Lieutenant White wrote of his Bowdoin friend, 
 Eorbes Rickard, Jr., who was killed in action in the 
 summer of 1918. 
 
 " For firelight, and true books and candle-glow. 
 And dear imagination that can find 
 Behind the present and the passing hour 
 The plan of One who has the will to grow 
 Upon the frailest stock, the fairest flower — 
 And let it wither in a wintry wind; 
 
 " For that warm friendliness of soul's embrace 
 When man meets man and knows him for a friend; 
 For all the little signs which must betray 
 Man's loyalty to love — for all the grace 
 
Academic Memorials 269 
 
 Of Beauty which adorned his dawning day. 
 He battled with clean heart until the end. 
 
 " For these he fought — for love of life he died, 
 A willing sacrifice to that High Faith 
 Which bade him gird the young man's armor on 
 And fling the shining truth at those who lied — 
 Boasting that Power was Right — that that new dawn 
 Which reddened in the sky was but a wraith. 
 
 " He is a part of all he fought to save — 
 And he has lent his soul to every breeze 
 That cools the brow of Vision — seeing folk, 
 And passing, sings of Hope, * Be strong, be brave, 
 The new day dawns behind the tyrant's cloak — 
 Lo, Freedom rises from the misty seas ! ' " i 
 
 1 Poem by Lieutenant H. S. White, A. E. F., as a tribute to 
 Forbes Rickard, Jr., killed in action July, 1918, 
 
INDEX 
 
 Age of students, 1-2. 
 
 Agriculture, service of, 137 ff. 
 
 Alma College, enrollment and 
 casualties, 217. 
 
 American (Council on Educa- 
 tion, 28 ff. 
 
 American Distributing Serv- 
 ice, 19. 
 
 American University in 
 France, 197 ff. 
 
 American University Union, 
 195 ff. 
 
 American Volunteer Motor 
 Ambulance Corps, 15 ff. 
 
 Ames, Professor J. S., quota- 
 tion from, 121-22. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, allusion to, 
 152. 
 
 Association of Collegiate 
 Alumnae, allusion to, 
 144. 
 
 Athens, University of, rector 
 of, and Bulgarians, 192. 
 
 Baker, Secretary, quotations 
 from, 33 ff., 83-84. 
 
 Baldwin-Wallace College, al- 
 lusion to, 97. 
 
 Barker, Ernest, quotations 
 from, 12, 162-63. 
 
 Benson, A. C, quotation from, 
 224-25. 
 
 Bernsdorf, degree of, with- 
 drawn, 242-43. 
 
 Bowdoin College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 219. t 
 
 British University Mission, 
 
 188 ff. 
 Brooke, Rupert, sonnets of, 
 
 171 ff. 
 Brown University, enrollment 
 
 and casualties, 217. 
 in the war, 219. 
 Bryn Mawr College, allusion 
 
 to, 144. 
 Bushnell, Edward, poem of, 
 
 100-101. 
 Butler, N. M., on German 
 
 professors' letter, 193-94. 
 Butterfield, Kenyon L., and 
 
 the American University 
 
 in France, 197 ff. 
 quotation from, 199-200. 
 
 California, University of, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 218. 
 honors for students of, 
 220 ff. 
 
 Capen, Dr., quotation from, 
 189. 
 
 Cestre, Professor, quotation 
 from, 186-87. 
 
 Chaplains, army, 153 ff. 
 
 Chapman, Victor, allusion to, 
 20. 
 
 Chemistry in war, 118 ff. 
 
 Civil war, world war, losses 
 in, contrasts of, 223-24. 
 
 College officers in serviQe, 
 92 ff. 
 
 271 
 
272 
 
 Index 
 
 Colleges, financial relations 
 
 of, 40 ff. 
 income of, 40 ff. 
 Columbia University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 214. 
 Commencements of the war 
 
 period, 231 ff. 
 Commissioner of Education, 
 
 circular from, 66-67. 
 Conklin, S. L., quotations 
 
 from, 176 ff. 
 Continental Hall Congress, 
 
 26 ff. 
 Cooperation of scientists, 
 
 117 ff. 
 Copeland, C. T., letter to, 
 
 109 ff. 
 Cox, S. Donald, quotation 
 
 from, 170. 
 Crile, Dr. G. W., quotation 
 
 from, 131. 
 
 Dartmouth College, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 217. 
 
 Degrees given at war com- 
 mencements, 241 ff. 
 
 Democracy, in army, 101 ff. 
 of students, 2 ff. 
 of war and of education 
 alike, 5-6. 
 
 Dennys, E., quotation from, 
 170. 
 
 Dickinson College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 215. 
 
 Education, worth of, 88-89. 
 Effects of war on colleges, 
 
 245 ff. 
 Eliot, President, quotation 
 
 from, 8-9. 
 Ellis, William T., q^UQtatiQn 
 
 from, 157 ff. 
 
 English poetry, 168 ff. 
 
 Enrollment of students, 46 ff., 
 85 ff. 
 
 Erskine, John, and the Ameri- 
 can University in France, 
 197 ff. 
 
 Fatigue, indvistrial, 130-31. 
 
 Faunce, President, quotation 
 from, 219. 
 
 Federal, Board for Vocational 
 Education, 28. 
 government and the S. A. 
 T. 0., 60-61. 
 
 Financial Relations of Col- 
 leges, 40 ff. 
 
 Fisk University, enrollment 
 and casualties, 218. 
 
 Fordham University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 214. 
 
 Foreign Legion of French 
 Army, 19 ff. 
 
 Franklin and Marshall Col- 
 lege, enrollment and cas- 
 ualties, 215. 
 
 French, policy concerning 
 study of German, 183 ff. 
 students in American col- 
 leges, 185 ff. 
 universities and the war, 
 228. 
 
 Gains of the S. A. T. C, 72 ff. 
 
 Geographers in war, 124 ff. 
 
 Geologists in war, 124 ff. 
 
 Georgia, University of, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 219. 
 
 German, language, lessened 
 study of, 181. 
 professors' letter of 1914, 
 193. 
 
Index 
 
 273 
 
 Gordon, George A., remarks 
 
 of, at Harvard, 234 ff. 
 Graham, of North Carolina 
 
 University, allusion to, 
 
 110-11. 
 Graham, Stephen, quotations 
 
 from, 154-55. 
 Graham, Walter, allusion to, 
 
 170-71. 
 
 Hadley, President, remarks of, 
 236 ff. 
 
 Hamilton College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 214. 
 
 Hardy, Thomas, allusion to, 
 171. 
 
 Harvard University, allusion 
 to, 207-10. 
 enrollment and casualties, 
 
 214. 
 Medical School, allusion to, 
 
 18. 
 memorials, 266. 
 
 Herbert, George, allusion to, 
 169. 
 
 Holmes, O. W., quotation 
 from, 3-4. 
 
 Hoover, Herbert, remarks of, 
 at Harvard, 233 flf. 
 service of, 21-23. 
 
 Hope College, enrollment and 
 casualties, 217. 
 
 Houston, Secretary, quota- 
 tions from, 137 ff. 
 
 Hughes, Charles E., at Cor- 
 nell commencement, 240. 
 
 Hulme, W. H., on scholarship 
 as an international tie, 
 206-07. 
 
 Hyde, Professor J. E., allu- 
 sion to, 125. 
 
 Illinois, University of, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 217. 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan University, 
 enrollment and casualties, 
 217. 
 
 Income of colleges, 40 ff . 
 
 Industrial fatigue, 130-31. 
 
 Intercollegiate Intelligence 
 Bureau, 24 ff. 
 
 International relations, 180 ff. 
 
 Interpatriotism of students, 
 8-9. 
 
 Johns Hopkins University, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 216. 
 
 Kalamazoo College, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 217. 
 
 Kelman, Dr. John, quotation 
 from, 164-65. 
 
 Keppel, Dean, remarks of, at 
 Michigan, 238 ff. 
 
 Kipling, allusion to, 175. 
 
 Knights of Columbus, 153 ff . 
 
 Korner, allusion to, 171. 
 
 Lafayette College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 215. 
 
 Lake Forest College, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 217. 
 
 Lake, Professor K., quotation 
 from, 189. 
 
 Lawrence College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 218. 
 
 Leland Stanford, Jr., Univer- 
 sity, enrollment and cas- 
 ualties, 218. 
 
 Letts, Spires of Oxford, 7-8. 
 
 Losses of S. A. T. C, 78 if. 
 
 Lowell, Commemoration Ode, 
 allusion to, 8. 
 
2T4 
 
 Index 
 
 Mackintosh, quotation from, 
 170. 
 
 Mass. Agricultural College, 
 enrollment and casual- 
 ties, 214. 
 
 Mass. Institute of Technology, 
 quotation from professor 
 in, 95-96. 
 
 McClellan, Dean, quotation 
 from, 24. 
 service of, 24. 
 
 McCracken, President, of Vas- 
 sar College, quotation 
 from, 149. 
 
 Medical fatigue, 130-31. 
 schools in war, 126 S. 
 defects of, 131-32. 
 
 Memorials, academic, 261 ff. 
 
 Metcalf, W. V., quotation 
 from, 96. 
 
 Miami University, enrollment 
 and casualties, 215. 
 
 Michigan, Agricultural Col- 
 lege, enrollment and cas- 
 ualties, 216. 
 University of, enrollment 
 and casualties, 216. 
 
 Midlands imiversities and the 
 war, 227. 
 
 Military training in colleges, 
 252 fiF. 
 
 Motives of students for enter- 
 ing service, 1 ff. 
 
 Mt. Holyoke College, allusion 
 to, 144. 
 
 Miinsterberg, allusion to, 97. 
 
 ment and casualties, 213- 
 14. 
 
 Nightingale, Florence, allu- 
 sion to, 140. 
 
 North Dakota, University of, 
 enrollment and casual- 
 ties, 219. 
 
 Norton, Richard, quotation 
 from, 15 ff. 
 
 Ohio Wesleyan University, 
 enrollment and casual- 
 ties, 215. 
 
 Oxford and the war, 225-226. 
 
 Patriotism of studentS;, 6 ff., 
 88. 
 
 Pennsylvania College, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 215. 
 
 Perkins, Roger C, quotation 
 from, 132 ff. 
 
 Phelan, R. V., quotation from, 
 161. 
 
 Physics in war, 120 ff. 
 
 Pittsburg, University of, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 215. 
 
 Poetry as interpreting the 
 war, 167 ff. 
 
 Poulton, Professor, reference 
 to, 267. 
 
 Princeton University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 216. 
 
 Purdue University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 
 217-18. 
 
 National Advisory Committee 
 for Aeronautics, 27. 
 
 National Research Council, 
 31 ff. 
 
 New York University, enroll- 
 
 Randolph-Macon College, allu- 
 sion to, 142. 
 
 Reed College, Oregon, allu- 
 sion to, 142. 
 
 Reeves, Ira L,, and the Amer- 
 
Index 
 
 275 
 
 ican University in 
 
 France, 197-98. 
 Relations, international, 180 
 
 ff. 
 Eeligion of students, 151. 
 Reserve Officers' Training 
 
 Corps, 35 flf . 
 Rhode Island State College, 
 
 enrollment and casual- 
 ties, 217. 
 Rhodes' scholars, service of, 
 
 21flf. 
 Rickard, Forbes, Jr., poem to, 
 
 by Lieut. H. S. White, 
 
 268-69. 
 Rochester, University of, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 
 214. 
 Romance languages, study of, 
 
 184 ff. 
 Roumania, commission to, 
 
 132 ff. 
 Rutgers College, enrollment 
 
 and casualties, 216. 
 
 St. John's College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 216. 
 
 St. Louis University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 218. 
 
 Schelling, Professor, quota- 
 tion from, 190. 
 
 Sciences and scientists, 115 ff. 
 
 Scotch universities and the 
 war, 226 ff. 
 
 Seeger, Alan, allusion to, 20, 
 172 ff. 
 quotations from, 10. 
 
 Servia, commission to, 135 ff. 
 
 Shipley, Vice Chancellor, quo- 
 tations from, 188, 190 ff. 
 
 Smith College, allusions to, 
 144, 145. 
 
 Sorley, C. H., quotation from, 
 
 170. 
 Spaulding, Frank E., and the 
 American University in 
 France, 197 ff. 
 quotation from, 200-201. 
 State universities, allusion to, 
 
 41 ff. 
 Strong, Dr. Richard P., serv- 
 ice of, 18. 
 Students, age of, 1-2. 
 democracy of, 2 ff. 
 enrollment of, 46 ff., 85 ff. 
 increase of, 247 ff. 
 killed, 210 ff. 
 motives of, for entering 
 
 service, 1 ff. 
 religion of, 151. 
 spirit of, 99 ff. 
 Students' Army Training 
 Corps, 55 ff. 
 gains and losses of, 72 ff. 
 Swarthmore College, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 215. 
 Syracuse University, enroll- 
 ment and casualties, 214. 
 
 Taft, W. H., quotation from, 
 70 ff. 
 
 Thucydides, quotation from, 
 261 ff. 
 
 Treitschke, allusion to, 194- 
 95. 
 
 Trinity College (Conn.), en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 216. 
 
 Trustees of colleges, duties of, 
 53-54, 62. 
 
 Union, American University, 
 195 ff. 
 
2T6 
 
 Index 
 
 Union University, enrollment 
 and casualties, 214. 
 
 United States, and the war, 
 14 ff. 
 casualties, 211. 
 
 Vassar College, allusions to, 
 142 ff., 146. 
 
 Virginia, University of, en- 
 rollment and casualties, 
 218. 
 
 Waite, Professor F. C, quota- 
 tion from, 126 ff. 
 
 War Department, circular of, 
 56. 
 
 Committee on Personnel, 27- 
 28. 
 
 Warren, Sir Herbert, quota- 
 tion from, 225-26. 
 
 Washington, University of 
 ( Seattle ) , enrollment and 
 casualties, 218. 
 
 Waterhouse, Irma, quotation 
 from, 146-47. 
 
 Wellesley College, allusions 
 to, 143-4, 145. 
 
 Wesleyan University ( Conn. ) , 
 
 enrollment and casual- 
 ties, 216. 
 
 Western Reserve University, 
 allusion to, 18. 
 College for Women of, al- 
 lusion to, 142. 
 
 White, Lieut. H. S., poem to 
 Forbes Rickard, Jr., 268- 
 69. 
 
 Whitlock, quotation from, 22. 
 
 Williams College, enrollment 
 and casualties, 214. 
 memorial, 267-68. 
 
 Women's Colleges, 140 ff. 
 
 Woodberry, G. E., quotation 
 from, 178. 
 
 Worcester Polytechnic Insti- 
 tute, enrollment and cas- 
 ualties, 214. 
 
 Yale University, in the war, 
 236 ff. 
 enrollment and casualties, 
 216. 
 
 Young Men's Christian Asso- 
 ciation, 153 ff. 
 
 Yugo-Slav students, 192 ff. 
 
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