Qass Book IS?6a.. ■• ^'■' ' i^i.^. c ;-.< •^i^li^' Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from Tine Library of Congress littp://www.arcliive.org/details/manualtrainingsoOOIiamc / THE CHICAGO MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. MANUAL TRAINING THE SOLUTION OF SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS. BY CHARLES H/HAM. ILLUSTRATED BY FIFTEEN ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. LONDON: BLACKIE & SON; 49 & 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C. CJLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN. 1886. This hook is published in this country hy arrangement with Messrs. HARPER cfc BROTHERS, New Yorh. By Transfer from U.S. Naval ^' cade my PREFACE. In 1 879 I read a paper before the Chicago Philosophi- cal Society on the subject of " The Inventive Genius ; or, an Epitome of Human Progress." The suggestion of the subject came from Hr. Charles J. Barnes, to whom I desire in this public way to ex2Dress my obligation for an intro- duction to a profoundly interesting study, and one which has given a new direction to all my thoughts. At the conclusion of my labors in the preparation of the paper, I realized the force of Bacon's remark, that "the real and legitimate goal of the sciences is the en- dowment of human life with new inventions and riches." In tracing the course of invention and discovery, I found that I was moving in the line of the progress of civilization. I found that the great gulf between the savage and the civilized man is spanned by the seven hand-tools — the axe,, thts saw, the- plane, the hammer, the square, the chisel, and the file — and that the modern machine-shop is an aggregation of these tools driven by steam. I hence came to regard tools as the great civil- izing agency of the world. "With Carlyle I said, " Man without tools is nothing; with tools he is all." From this point it was only a step to the proposition that, It is through the arts alone that all branches of learning find expression, and touch human life. Then I said. The true definition of education is the development of all the powers of man to the culminating point of action ; and this ])ow- iv PKEFACE. ei* in the concrete, the power to do some useful thing for man — this must be the last analysis of educational truth. These ideas are not new. ' They pervade Lord Ba- con's writings, are admirably formulated in Rousseau's " Emile," and were restated by Mr. Herbert Spencer twen- ty-five years ago. More than this, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel attempted to carry them into practical operation in the school-room, but with only a small measure of suc- cess. It remains for the age of steel to show how pow- erless mere words are in the presence of things, and so to emphasize the demand for a radical reform in educa- tional methods. In 1880 my attention was drawn to the Manual Train- ing Department of the Washington University of St. Louis, Mo. In that school I found the realization of Ba- con's aphorism, " Education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things." I made an exhaustive study of the methods of the St. Louis school, and reached the conclusion that the philos- opher's stone in education had been discovered. The col- umns of the Chicago Tribune were opened to me, and I wrote constantly on the subject for the ensuing three years. Meantime the Chicago Manual Training School (the first independent institution of the kind in the world) was founded and opened, and the agitation spread over the whole country, and indeed over the whole civilized world. This work was commenced two years ago. I found the labor much more arduous than I anticipated, and its completion has hence been delayed far beyond the time originally contemplated for placing it in the hands of a publisher. It may be summarized briefly as consisting of four divisions : 1. A detailed description of the vari- PREFACE. V ous laboratory class processes, from the first lesson to tlie last, in tlie course of three years. 2. An exhaustive ar- gument a posteinori and a fortiori in support of the proposition that tool practice is highly promotive of in- tellectual growth, and in a still greater degree of the upbuilding of character. 3. A sketch of the historical period, showing that the decay of civilization and the destruction of social organisms have resulted directly from defects in methods of education. 4. A brief sketch of the history of manual training as an educational force. To Dr. John D. Runkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the founder of manual training as an ed- ucational institution in this country, I cannot express too strongly my deep obligation for valuable suggestions and constant encouragement. To him also am I indebt- ed for nearly all my illustrations, as also particularly for the excellent portrait of M. Victor Delia Vos, the found- er of the new system of education in Russia. I am also under obligations to Col. Augustus Jacobson, a leading advocate of the new education, for constant counsel and su]3port, as also to Dr. Henry II. Belfield, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School, and Mr. John S. Clark, of Boston. Of the authors consulted, I cannot forbear mention of Lord Bacon, Rousseau, and Herbert Spencer, whoso great works constitute the foundation of the new system of ed- ucation according to nature. Nor can I omit to acknowl- edge, with all the emphasis of which words are suscepti- ble, my obligations to Mr. Samuel Smiles. His works? from the lives of the engineers to the shortest of his bi- ographies, constitute an inexhaustible treasure - house of facts from which I have drawn without stint. Mr. Smiles has traced the springs of English greatness to their true vi PREFACE. source, the workshop. I have attempted to continue his oflSce by showing that the workshop is a great education- al force, and hence that its educational element ought to be incorporated in the system of public instruction. The propositions of the following pages involve an ed- ucational revolution destined to enlighten, and so ulti- mately to redeem manual labor from the scorn of the ages of slavery, and, in the end, to render the skilled la- borer worthy of high social distinction, thus presenting at once a solution not only of the industrial question but of the social question. Chaeles H. Ham. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE CHICAGO MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. Its Situation on the Boulevard.— Its Tall Chimney.— The Whir of Machinery and Sound of the Sledge-hammer.— The School that is to dignify Labor. — The Realization of the Dream of Bacon, Rous- seau, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. — Established by the Commercial Club.— The School that fitly represents the Age of Steel Page 1 CHAPTER II. THE MAJESTY OF TOOLS. Tools the highest Text -books — How to Use them the Test of Scholarship — They are the Gauge of Civilization — Carlyle's Apos- trophe to them. — The Typical Hand-tools — The Automata of the Machine-shop. — Through Tools Science and Art are United. — The Power of Tools — Their Educational Value. — Without Tools Man is Nothing ; with Tools he is All. — It is through the Arts alone that Education touches Human Life 7 CHAPTER III. THE ENGINE-ROOM. The Corliss Engine — A Thing of Grace and Power — The Growth of Two Thousand Years — From Hero to Watt — Its Duty as a School-master. — The Interdependence of the Ages. — The School in Epitome 14 CHAPTER IV. THE DRAWING-ROOM. Twenty-four Boys bending over the Drawing-board. — Analysis and Synthesis in Drawing. — Geometric Drawing. — Pictorial Drawing. — The Principles of Design. — The yEsthctic in Art. — Tlie Fun(hi- viii CONTENTS. mentals — Object and Constructive Drawing. — Drawing for the Exercises in the Laboratories. — The Educational Value of Draw- ing — The Language of Drawing. — Every Student an expert Draughtsman at the end of the Course Page 16 CHAPTER V. THE CARPENTER'S LABORATORY. The Natural History of the Pine-tree — How it is Converted into Lumber, what it is Worth, and how it is Consumed. — Where the Students get Information. — Working Drawings of the Lesson. — Asking Questions. — The Instructor Executes the Lesson. — Instruc- tion in the Use and Care of Tools. — Twenty-four Boys Making Things — As Busy as Bees. — The Music of the Laboratory. — The Self-reliance of the Students 21 CHAPTER VL THE WOOD-TURNING LABORATORY. A Radical Change — From the Square to the Circle; from Angles to Spherical, Cylindrical, and Eccentric Forms. — The Rhythm of Mechanics. — The Potter's Wheel of the Ancients and the Turning- lathe — The Speculation of Holtzapffels on its Origin. — The Greeks as Turners. — The Turners of the Middle Ages.— George III. at the Lathe. — Maudslay's Slide-rest, and the Revolution it wrought. — The Natural History of Black -walnut. — The Practical Value of Imagination — Disraeli's Tribute to it; Sir Robei't Peel's Want of it. — The Laboratory animated by Steam. — The Boys at the Lathes — Their Manly Bearing.— The Lesson 30 CHAPTER YII. THE FOUNDING LABORATORY. The Iron Age. — Iron the King of Metals. — Locke's Apothegm. — The Moulder's Art is Fundamental. — History of Founding. — Remains of Bronze Castings in Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. — Layard's Dis- coveries. — The Greek Sculptors. — The Colossal Statue of Apollo at Rhodes. — The Great Bells of History. — Moulding and Casting a Pulley. — Description of the Process, Step by Step. — The Furnace Fire. — Pouring the Hot Metal into the Moulds. — A Pen Picture of the Laboratory. — Thus were the Hundred Gates of Babylon cast. — Neglect of the Practical Arts by Herodotus. — How Slavery has degraded Labor. — How ]\Ianual Training is to dignify it 45 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER VIII. THE FORGING LABORATORY. Twenty-four manly-looking Boys with Sledge-hammer in Hand — their Muscle and Brawn. — The Pride of Conscious Strength. — The Story of the Origin of an Empire. — The Greater Empire of Mechanics. — The Smelter and the Smith the Bulwark of the Brit- ish Government. — Coal— its Modern Aspects ; its Early History; Superstition regarding its Use. — Dud. Dudley utilizes "Pit-coel" for Smelting— the Story of his Struggles ; his Imprisonment and Death. — The English People import their Pots and Kettles. — "The Blast is on and the Forge Fire sings." — The Lesson, first on the Black-board, then in Red-hot Iron on the Anvil. — Striking out the Anvil Chorus — the Sparks fly whizzing through the Air. — The Mythological History of Iron.— The Smith in Feudal Times — His Versatility. — History of Damascus Steel. — We should reverence the early Inventors. — The Useful Arts finer than the Fine Arts. — The Ancient Smelter and Smith, and the Students in the Manual Training School Page 58 CHAPTER IX. THE MACHINE-TOOL LABORATORY. The Foundery and Smithy are Ancient, the Machine-tool Shop is Mod- ern. — The Giant, Steam, reduced to Servitude. — The Iron Lines of Progress — They couvei-ge in the Shop; its triumphs from the AVatch- spring to the Locomotive.— The Applications of Iron in Art is the Subject of Subjects. — The Story of Invention is the History of Civihzation. — The Machine-maker and the Tool-maker are the best Friends of Man. — Watt's Great Conception waited for Automatic Tools ; their Accuracy. — The Hand-made and the Machine-made Watch.— The Elgin (Illinois) Watch Factory.— The Interdepen- dence of the Arts. — The Making of a Suit of Clothes. — The Ante- room of the Machine-tool Laboratory. — Chipping and Filing. — The File-cutter.— The Poverty of Words as compared Avith Things. — The Graduating Project. — The Vision of the Instructor 78 CHAPTER X. MANUAL AND MENTAL TRAINING COMBINED. The ncAV Education is all-sided — its Effect. — A Harmonious Devel- opment of the Whole Being. — Examination for Admission to the Chicago School. — List of Questions in Arithmetic, Geographv, and 1- X CONTENTS. Language. — The Curriculum. — The Alternation of Manual and Mental Exercises. — The Demand for Scientific Education — its Effect.— Ambition to be useful Page 105 CHAPTER XI. THE INTELLECTUAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. Intelligence is the Basis of Character.- The more Practical the In- telligence the Higher the Development of Character.— The use of Tools quickens the Intellect.— Making Things rouses the Attention, sharpens the Observation, and steadies the Judgment. — History of Inventions in England, 1740-1840.— Poor, Ignorant Apprentices become learned Men. — Cort, Huntsman, Mushet, Neilson, Ste- phenson, and Watt.— The Union of Books and Tools. — Results at Rotterdam, Holland; at Moscow, Russia; at Komotau, Bohemia; and at St. Louis, Mo.— Tlie Consideration of Overwhelming Im- port • 113 CHAPTER XII. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN A PRIME NECESSITY. The Difference between Ancient and Modern Systems of Education. —Plato Blinded by Half-truths. — No place in the present order of things for Dogmatisms.— Education commences at Birth. — The In- fluence of Woman extends from the Cradle to the Grave. — The Crime of Crimes— Neglect to educate Woman. — The Superiority of Women over Men as Teachers — Froebel discovered it. — Nature designed Woman to Teach ; hence the Importance of Fitting her for her Highest Destiny 133 CHAPTER Xni. THE MORAL EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING. Mental Impulses are often Vicious ; but the Exertion of Physical Power in the Arts is always Beneficent — hence Manual Training tends to correct vicious mental Impulses. — Every mental Impres- sion produces a moral Effect.— All Training is Moral as well as Mental. — Selfishness is total Depravity; but Selfishness has been Deified under the name of Prudence.— Napoleon an Example of Selfishness. — The End of Selfishness is Disaster; but PrevaiUng Systems of Education promote Selfishness. — The Modern City an Illustration of Selfishness. — The Ancient City.— Existing Systems of Education Negatively Wrong.— Manual Training supplies the lacking Element. — The Objective must take the Place of the Sub- jective iu Education. — Words without Acts are as dead as Faith without Works 130 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER XIY. THE MIND AND THE HAND. The Mind and the Hand are Allies ; the Mind speculates, the Hand tests its Speculations in Things.— The Hand explodes the Errors of the Mind— it searches after Truth and tinds it in Things.— Mental Errors are subtile ; they elude us, but the False in Things stands self- exposed.— The Hand is the Mind's Moral Rudder. — The Organ of Touch the most Wonderful of the Senses; all the Others are Pas- sive ; it alone is Active. — Sir Charles Bell's Discovery of a " Muscular Sense."— Dr. Henry Maudsley on the Muscular Sense. — The Hand influences the Brain. — Connected Thought impossible without Lan- guage, and Language dependent upon Objects; and all Artificial Objects are the Work of the Hand. — Progress is therefore the Im- print of the Hand upon Matter in Art. — The Hand is nearer the Brain than are the Eye and the Ear. — The Marvellous Works of the Hand , Page 144 CHAPTER XV. THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. The Legend of Adam and the Stick with which he subdued the Ani- mals. — The Stick is the Symbol of Power, and only the Hand can wield it. — The Hand imprisons Steam and Electricity, and keeps them at hard Labor.— The Destitution of England Two Hundred and Fifty Years ago: a Pen Picture. — The Transformation wrought by the Hand: a Pen Picture. — It is due, not to Men who make Laws, but to Men who make Things. — The Scientist and the In- ventor are the World's Benefactors. — A Parallel between the Right Honorable William E. Gladstone and Sir Henry Bessemer. — Mr. Gladstone a Man of Ideas, Mr. Bessemer a Man of Deeds. — The Value of the latter's Inventions. — Mr. Gladstone represents the Old Education, Mr. Bessemer the New 157 CHAPTER XVI. THE INVENTORS, CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MECHANICS OP ENGLAND, AND ENGLISH PROGRESS. A Trade is better than a Profession.— The Railway, Telegraph, and Steamship are more Potent than the Lawyer, Doctor, and Priest. — Book-makers writing the Lives of the Inventors of last Century.— The Workshop to be the Scene of tlie Greatest Triumphs of Mnn. —The Civil Engineers of Enirland the Heroes of English Progress. ii CONTENTS. — The Life of James Brindley, the Canal-maker; his Struggles and Poverty. — TheEoUof Honor. — Mr. Gladstone's Significant Admis- sion that English Triumphs in Science and Art were won without Government Aid. — Disregarding the Common-sense of the Savage, Legislators have chosen to learn of Plato, who declared that "The Useful Arts are Degrading." — How Improvements in the Arts have been met by Ignorant Opposition. — The Power wielded by the Mechanic Page 170 CHAPTER XVII. POWER OP STEAM AND CONTEMPT OF ARTISANS. A few Million People now wield twice as much Industrial Power as all the People on the Globe exerted a Hundred Years ago. — A Revolution wrought, not by the Schools and Colleges, but by the Mechanic. — The Union between Science and Art prevented by the Speculative Philosophy of the Middle Ages. — Statesmen, Lawyers, Litterateurs, Poets, and Artists more highly esteemed than Civil Engineers, Mechanics, and Artisans. — The Refugee Artisan a Pow- er in England, the Refugee Politician worthless. — Prejudice against the Artisan Class shown by Mr. Galton in his Work on " Hereditary Genius." — The Influence of Slavery: it has lasted Thousands of Years, and still Survives 184 CHAPTER XVIir. AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. The Past tyrannizes over the Present by Interposing the Stolid Re- sistance of Habit. — Habits of Thought like Habits of the Bod}' become Automatic. —There is much Freedom of Speech but very little Freedom of Thought : Habit, Tradition, and Reverence for Antiquity forbid it. — The Schools educate Automatically. — A glar- ing Defect of the Schools shown by Mr. John S. Clark, of Boston. — The Automatic Character of the Popular System of Education shown by the Quincy (Mass.) Expenment. — Several Intelligent Opinions to the same Effect. — The Public Schools as an Industrial Agency a Failure. — xl Conclusive Evidence of the Automatic and Superficial Character of prevailing IMethods of Education in the Schools of a large City. — The Views of Colonel Francis W. Parker. — Scientific Education is found in the Kindergarten and the Manual Training School. — "The Cultivation of Familiarity betwixt the Mind and Things." — Colonel Augustus Jacobson on the Effect of the New Education 191 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC HDV- CA.Tl01iven tlieorem is demonstra- THE MIND AND THE HAND. 145 ble in the form of a problem. The hand is, therefore, not only constantly searching after the truth, but is cor stantly finding it.* It is possible for the mind to indulge in false logic, to make the worse appear the better rea- son, without instant exposure. But for the hand to work falsely is to produce a misshapen thing — tool or machine — which in its construction gives the lie to its maker. Thus the hand that is false to truth, in the very act publishes the verdict of its own guilt, exposes itself to contempt and derision, convicts itself of unskilfulness or of dishonesty. There is no escaping the logical conclusion of an in- vestigation into the relations existing between the mind and the hand. The hand is scarcely less the guide than the agent of the mind. It steadies the mind. It is the mind's moral rudder, its balance - wheel. It is the mind's monitor. It is constantly aj^pealing to the mind, by its acts, to " hew to the line, let the chijjs fly where they may." Dr. George Wilson says, " In many respects the organ of touch, as embodied in the hand, is the most wonderful of the senses. The organs of the other senses are pas- sive ; the organ of touch alone is active. . . . The hand selects what it shall touch, and touches what it pleases. It puts away from it the things which it hates, and beck- ons towards it the things which it desires. . . . More- * "In other cases, even by the strictest attention, it is not possible to give complete or strict truth in words. We could not, by any number of words, describe the color of a ribbon so as to enable a mercer to match it without seeing it. But an ' accurate ' colorist can convey the required intelligence at once, with a tint on paper." — ' ' The Laws of Feesole, " Vol. I. , p. 7. By John Ruskin, LL. D. New York: John Wilev & Sons. 1879. 146 - MANUAL TRAINING. over, the hand cares not only for its own wants, but when the other organs of the senses are rendered useless takes their duties upon it. . . . The blind man reads with his hand, the dumb man speaks with it ; it plucks the flower for the nostril, and supplies the tongue with ob- jects of taste. ISTot less amply does it give expression to the wit, the genius, the will, the power of man. Put a sword into it and it will fight, a plough and it will till, a harp and it will play, a pencil and it will paint, a pen and it will speak. What, moreover, is a ship, a railway, a light-house, or a palace — what indeed is a whole city, a whole continent of cities, all the cities of the globe, nay the very globe itself, so far as man has changed it, but the work of that giant hand with which the human race, acting as one mighty man, has executed his will."''"" There is a philosophical exj)lanation of the versatility of the hand so graphically portrayed in the foregoing passage, and it is found in Sir Charles Bell's great discov- ery of a " muscular sense." The principle of this discov- ery is that " there are distinct nerves of sensation and of motion or volition — one set bearing inessages from the body to the brain, and the other from the brain or will to the body. " In his work on the hand, after reviewing the line of argument which led to his discovery, Sir Charles says, "By such arguments I have been in the habit of show- ing that we possess a muscular sense, and that without it we could have no guidance of the frame. We could not command our muscles in standing, far less in walking, leaping, or running, had we not a perception of the con- ■" "The Five Gateways of Knowledge," p. 121. By George "Wil- son, M.D., F.R.S.E. Loudon: Macmillau & Co., 1881. THE MIND AND THE HAND. 147 dition of the muscles previous to the exercise of the will. And as for the hand, it is not more the freedom of its action wliich constitutes its perfection, than the knowl- edge which we have of these motions, and our conse- quent abilit}^ to direct it with the utmost precision."^" On the influence of the muscular sense. Dr. Henrj Maudsley has these pertinent observations : " Those who would degrade the body, in order, as they imagine, to exalt the mind, should consider more deeply than they do the importance of our muscular expressions of feeling. Tlie manifold shades and kinds of expression which the lips present — their gibes, gambols, and flashes of merriment ; the quick language of a quivering nostril ; the varied waves and ripples of beautiful emotion which play on the human countenance, with the spasms of pas- sion that disflgure it — all which we take such pains to embody in art — are simply effects of muscular action. . . . Fix the countenance in the pattern of a particular emotion — in a look of anger, of wonder, or of scorn — and the emotion whose appearance is thus imitated will not fail to be aroused. And if we try, while the features are fixed in the expression of one passion, to call up in the mind a quite different one, we shall find it impossible to do so. . . . "VVe perceive, then, that the muscles are not alone the machinery by which the mind acts upon the world, but that tlieir actions are essential elements in our mental op- erations. The superiority of tlie human over the animal mind seems to be essentially connected with the great- er variety of muscular action of which man is capable ; * "The Hand : its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evinc- ing Design," p. 151. By Sir Charles Bell, K.G.IL, F.RS., L. and E. Harper & Brothers, 1864. 7 148 MANUAL TRAINING. were he deprived of the infinitely varied movements of hands, tongue, larynx, lips, and face, in which he is so far ahead of the animals, it is probable that he would be no better than an idiot, notwithstanding he might have a normal development of brain."''^ It is through the muscular sense that the hand influ- ences the brain. According to Sir Charles the hand acts first. It telegraphs, for example, that it is ready to grasp the chisel or the sledge-hammer, or seize the pen, where- upon the brain telegraphs back precise directions as to the work to be done. These messages to and fro are lightning-like flashes of intelligence, which blend or fuse all the powers of the man, both mental and physical, and inform and inspire the mass with vital force.-f- Through constant use the muscular sense is sharpened to a marvellous degree of fineness, and the hand, perme- ated by it, forms habits which react powerfully upon the mind. If, now, during the period of childhood and youth, the hand is exercised in the useful and beautiful arts, its muscular sense will be developed normally, or in the di- * "Body and Mind," p. 33. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. f The goldsmith's art was one of the finest among the ancients, and so continued far into the Middle Ages. The cutting of cameos, for example, required the highest skill and produced the most ex- quisite results. Mr. Ruskin calls attention to the fact that "all the great early Italian masters of painting and sculpture, without ex- ception, began by being goldsmiths' apprentices;" and that "they felt themselves so indebted to, and formed by, the master crafts- man who had mainly disciplined tJicir fingers, whether in work on gold or marble, that they practically considered him their father, and took Ms name rather than their own." — "Fors Clavigera," Part III., p. 291. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1881. THE MIND AND THE HAND. 149 rection of rectitude, and the reflex effect of this growth upon the mind will be beneficent. It is thus that the trained hand comes at last to foresee, as it were, that a false proposition is surely destined to be exploded. The habit of rectitude gives it prescience. It invariably discovers, sooner or later, that a false prop- osition, when embodied in wood or iron, becomes a con- spicuous abortion, involving in disgrace both the designer and the maker. A false proposition in the abstract may be rendered very alluring ; a false proposition in the concrete is always hideous. One of the chief effects of manual training is, then, the discovcv and development of truth ; and truth, in its broadest siguitication, is merely another name for justice ; and justice is the synonym of morality. It has been shown that thought and speech are dead unless embodied in things. It may also be asserted with confidence that man would lose the power of speech al- most wholly if his words should cease to be realized in things. Mr. Darwin declares that " a complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid of words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use of figures or algebra.""-'^ And Dr. Mauds- ley says, " But neither these instances nor the case of Laura Bridgman can be used to prove that it is possible to think without any means of physical expression. On the contrary the evidence is all the other way. The deaf and dumb man invents his own signs, which he draM'S from the nature of objects, seizing the most striking out- line, or the principal movement of an action, and using * " The Descent of Man," p. 88. By Charles Darwin, M. A. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1881. 150 MANUAL TRAINING. them afterwards as tokens to represent the objects. The deaf and dumb gesticulate also as they think ; and Laura Bridgman's fingers worked, making the initial movements for letters of the finger alphabet, not only during her working thoughts, but in her dreams. If we substitute for 'names' the motor intuitions, or take care to com- prise in language all the modes of expressing thoughts, whether verbal, vocal writing, or gesture language, then it is unquestionable that thought is impossible without language."* As connected thoughts are impossible without words, or signs of words, so words are dependent upon objects for their existence. Says Dr. Maudsley, " Words cannot attain to definiteness save as living outgrowths of reali- ties."f And Heyse says, " Thought is not even present to the thinker till he has set it forth out of himself." It follows that language has its origin not less in ex- ternal objects than in the mind. Objects make impres- sions upon the mind through the senses, and words serve as the means of preserving a record of such impressions and of communicating them to other minds. If, now, the mind should cease to receive impressions, language would no longer be required, since there would be noth- ing to express ; and the occasion for the use of language ceasing to exist, the power of sj)eech would ultimately be lost. The power of speech, then, depends upon a con- * "Pliysiology of the Mind," p. 480. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. f " I therefore declare my conviction," says Max Miiller, "whether right or wrong, as explicitly as possible, that thought iu one sense of the word, i.e., in reasoning, is impossible without language." — "Physiology of the Mind," p. 480. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. THE MINI) AND THE HAND. 151 tiniioiis succession of impressions made upon the mind by its contact, through the senses, with matter in its various forms, whether in nature or in art. It may also be claimed that the i')ower of speech de- pends almost entirely upon the endless succession of fresh objects presented to the mind by the hand. These form the subject as well as the occasion of speech. If the hand should cease to make new things, new words would cease to be required. The principal changes in language arise out of new discoveries in science and new inventions in art, each fresh discovery of science giving rise to many new things in art. Art and science react upon each other.* The growth of a State, its advance in the scale of civilization, depends upon progress in the practical arts. Hence the fact that, when a State ceases to advance, its language ceases to grow, becomes station- ary, stagnates. In such a State there would be no occa- sion for new words. If a constantly diminishing number of objects were presented to the mind, speech would become less and less necessary. If no new objects were presented, no fresh impressions upon the mind would be made, and speech would degenerate into a mere iteration. If the hands should cease to labor in the arts, should cease to make things, should cease to plant and gather, the scope of speech would be still further restricted, would be confined to an expression of the wants of sav- ages subsisting on the native fruits of field and forest. It comes to this, that progress can find expression only * "And the great advances in science have uniform!}^ corresponded with the invention o.f some instrument by which the power of the senses has been increased, or the range of action extended." — "Phys- iology of the Mind," p. 8. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York: D. Appleton&Co., 1883. 153 MANUAL TRAINING. in the concrete. Guttenberg had an idea that he could em- ploy movable types in the production of books. Suppose he had been content with the mere promulgation of his theory in words, and that those who came after him had been similarly content? There would have been no printing-presses down to the present time. Suppose that Watt and Stephenson and Fulton had been content with the declaration, in w^ords, of the discoveries they made in regard to the application of the power of steam to practical purposes, and that those who came after them had been similarly content? There would have been neither railways, nor steamships, nor steam-driven ma- chinery of any kind down to the present time. As w^ords are essential to the processes of thought, so objects are essential to words or living speech. And as all objects made by man owe their existence to the hand, it follows that the hand exerts an incalculable influence upon the mind, and so constitutes the most potent agency in the work of civilization. It was not without good reason that Anaxagoras characterized man as the wisest of animals because of his having hands. And what is it to be wise ? To be wise is " to have the power of dis- cerning and judging correctly, or of discriminating be- tween what is true and what is false ; between what is fit and proper and wdiat is improper." The hand is used as the synonym of wisdom because it is only in the con- crete that the false is sure of detection, and it is through the hand alone that ideas are realized in things.'''" Again we have the hand as the discoverer of truth. * "Let him [the youth] once learn to take a straight shaving off a plank, or draw a fine curve without faltering, or la}^ a brick level in its mortar, and he has learned a multitude of other matters which no THE MIITD AND THE HAND. 153 The assertion of the majesty of the hand by the Ionic philosopher of the fonrth centr.rj B. C. contained the germ of the manual training idea of this latter part of the nineteenth century. Anaxagoras was unconsciously, no doubt, struggling towards the light, towards the in- ductive method of investigation, towards the sole avenue through which it is possible to study the mind, namely, through the body. The ignorance of the ancients on the subject of physiology was so dense as to leave them no resource save speculative philosophy. The progress made in the study of anatomy, and organic and inorganic chemistry at Alexandria, was, however, considerable. The foundations of a systematic physiology were being secure- ly laid by Hippocrates, Herophilus, and their compeers of the medical profession, and tlie way was thus being open- ed to an intelligent study of the mind. It is highly prob- able that this growing disposition to investigate things, together with the increasing importance to civilization of the useful arts, would soon have reacted destructively upon the speculative philosophy of the time had not a series of national disasters, involving the fall of Greece and E-ome, overwhelmed both arts and philosophy in one common ruin. From the fall of Kome to the time of Bacon specu- lative philosophy dominated the world. Progress dates from the beginning of the seventeenth century, but it was very slow until within a hundred years. Philosophy has now, however, found a scientific basis. Instead of speculating about the " theory of vitality," it concerns itself with " the natural phenomena of living bodies, so lips of man could ever leach him." — "Time and Tide," p. 145. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1883. 154 MANUAL TRAINING. far as they are appreciable by the human senses and in- telligence." But the schools have not moved forward with events. Their methods are unscientific ; they are still dominated by the mediaeval ideas of speculative philosophy. One of the ablest educators in this country has well observed that "there has been very little change in the ideas which have controlled our methods of education, and these ideas were formed something like four hundred years ago. Like nearly all the great agencies of modern civilization, the established system of education dates from the Renaissance, and the direction given to the schools at that time has been followed with but slight modification ever since."'^ The justice of this arraignment of the schools for ex- treme conservatism is shown by the remark of a promi- nent educator who opposes the incorporation of manual training in the curriculum of the public schools. He says, " Some even go so far as to regard the fingers as a new avenue to the brain, and think that great pedagogic advantages will be given by the new method, so that boys may make equal attainments in arithmetic, read- ing, and grammar in less time. . . . They [teachers] will still find the eye and ear nearer to the brain than the hand." 'No assumption could be more false than this, that the eye and the ear are more important organs than the hand because they are located, physically, nearer the brain. The attribute of mobility with which the hand is endowed confers upon it not only the jjotency of the * Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent of Schools of the City of Philadelphia, before the American Institute of Instruction at Sarato- ga, July 13, 1882. THE MIND AND THE HAND. 155 closest possible proximity, but each of the countless po- sitions it may assume, together with its flexibility and adaptability, multiplies its powers in the order of a geo- metrical ratio. This disposition to undervalue the hand is an inheri- tance from the speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages, which was based on contempt of the body and all its members. The effect of this false doctrine has been vicious in the extreme. Contempt for the body has gen- erated a feeling of contempt for manual labor, and repug- nance to manual labor has multiplied dishonest practices in tlie course of the struggle to acquire wealth by any other means than manual labor, and so corrupted society. That man should feel contempt for the most efficient member of his own body is, indeed, incomprehensible, since contempt for the hand leads logically to contempt for its works, and its works comprise all the visible results of civilization. To enumerate the works of the hand would be to describe the world as it at present ex- ists in contradistinction to the world in a state of nature. Everywhere we behold with admiration and wonder the marvellous triumphs of the hand, from the iron bridge that spans the torrent of Niagara to the steel microm- eter that measures the millionth part of an inch. It matters not whether the hand is nearer or farther from the brain than the eye and the ear, it is able to afford powerful aid to them. Man would explore the planetary system ; he lifts his longing eyes to the starry vault, but in vain ; it is a sealed book ! The hand fashions the telescope, adjusts it, places it at a convenient angle, and the milky way is resolved into millions of stars, "scattered like glittering dust on the black ground of the general heavens," the 7'"'" 156 MANUAL TRAINING. lunar mountains are measured, and the spots on the sun revealed. Man would study the anatomy and habits of the myriads of insects in whicli the teeming earth abounds. Impossible ! The mechanism of the eye is not adapted to such a delicate oj)eration. But the hand presents the microscope, and a world of hitherto unknown minute ex- istences is revealed with a distinctness which permits the most exhaustive investigation. Thus, through the aid of the hand, the eye now contemplates witli philosopliic interest the ever-changing aspect of the spots on the sun at a distance of ninety miUion miles, and now imprisons the red ant, measuring only -j^ of an inch in length, and studies its physiology, counting its pulsations, classifying its nerves and muscles, and weighing its brain. Man would speak with his friend or business correspondent miles away. ISTeither the voice nor the ear is adapted to the task. But the hand fashions and presents the tele- phone, and the conversation proceeds even in a whisper. It will be said that the mind devises the telescope, the mi- croscope, and the telephone. True, but their construction would be impossible without the hand. And is it at all probable that the mind would have devised these admira- ble instruments if man had been made without hands V'' * "The hand is the most marvellous instrument in the Avorld; it is the necessary complement of the mind in dealing with matter in all its varied forms. It is the hand that ' rounded Peter's dome ;' it is the hand that carved those statues in marble and bronze, that painted those pictures in palace and church, which we travel into distant lands to admire; it is the hand that builds the ships which sail the sea, laden with the commerce of the world ; it is the hand that con- structs the machinery which moves the busy industries of this age of steam; it is the hand that enables the mind to realize in a thousand ways its highest imaginings, its profoundest reasonings, and its most practical inventions." — Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent of Schools of the City of Philadelphia, before the American Institute of Instruclion at Saratoga, July 13, 1883. THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 157 CHAPTER XV. THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. The Legend of Adam and the Stick with -which he subdued the Ani- mals. — The Stick is the Symbol of Power, and only the Hand can wield it. — The Hand imprisons Steam and Electricity, and keeps them at hard Labor.— The Destitution of England Two Hundred and Fifty Years ago ; a Pen Picture. — The Transformation wrought by the Hand: a Pen Picture. — It is due, not to Men who make Laws, but to Men who make Things. — The Scientist and the In- ventor are the World's Benefactors. — A Parallel between the Right Honorable William E. Gladstone and Sir Henry Bessemer. — Mr. Gladstone a Man of Ideas, Mr. Bessemer a Man of Deeds. — The Value of the latter's Inventions. — Mr. Gladstone represents the Old Education, Mr. Bessemer the New. It lias been remarked that man is the wisest of animals because he has hands. It is equally true that he is the most powerful of animals because he has hands. It is with the hand that man has subdued all the animals. Tliere is a legend to the effect that on the day when Adam revolted against his Maker, the animals, in their turn, revolted against him, and ceased to obey him. "Adam called on the Lord for help, and the Lord com- manded him to take a branch from the nearest tree and make of it a weapon, and strike with it the first animal that should refuse to obey him. Adam seized the branch, the leaves fell from it of their own accord, and he found himself furnished with a stick proportioucd to his height. "When the animals saw this weapon in the hands of the man they were seized witli an instinctive fear mingled with wonder, and they did not dare to attack 158 MANUAL TKAINING. him. A lion alone, bolder than the rest, leaped upon him to devour him, but Adam, who stood upon his guard, swift as lightning whirled his stick and felled him to the earth with a single blow ! At this sight the terror of the other animals was so great that they approached him trembling, and in token of their submission licked the stick that he held in his hand.""'^ Throughout all the early ages the stick was both the symbol and the instrument of power ; and it is only the hand that can grasp and wield the stick. The early kings reigned by virtue of the strong arm and the supple hand. They claimed to be descended from Hercules, and their emblem of power was a knotty stick. 'Nor does empire depend less upon the hand now than it did in the morning of time. The hand no longer grasps the knotty stick; it no longer menaces mankind. It wields the mechanical pow- ers. It imprisons steam and electricity, and keeps them at hard labor. It makes ploughs, planters, harvesters, sewing-machines, locomotives, and steamships. It digs canals, opens mines, builds bridges, makes roads, erects mills and factories, constructs harbors and docks, reclaims waste lands, and covers tlie globe with tracks of steel over which the commerce of the world is borne. Two hundred and fifty years ago England was desti- tute of most of these things. It had then no good dirt roads even, no good bridges, no canals, no public works worth mentioning, and scarcely any manufactories of importance. The j^ost-bags were carried on horseback * "The Story of the Stick," p. 2. Translated and Adapted from the French of Antony Real [Pernand Michel]. New York: J. W. Bouton, 1875. THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 159 once a week. The liigliways were besieged by robbers. One-fifth of the community were paupers. Mechaifics worked for from sixpence to a shilling a day. The chief food of the poor was rye, barley, or oats. The people were ignorant and brutal — " masters beat their servants, and husbands beat their wives. Teachers used the lash as the principal means of imparting knowledge. The mob rejoiced in fights of all kinds, and shouted with glee when an eye was torn out or a finger chopped oft" in these savage encounters. Executions were favorite pub- lic amusements. The prisons were full, and proved to be fruitful nurseries of crime." From little better than a wilderness, and almost a state of savagery, England has been transformed into a fruitful field, and its people raised in the scale of civ- ilization. Its public works are the admiration of the world ; its coffers are full of gold ; its strong boxes are piled high with evidences of the indebtedness of other nations ; its ships plough the billows of every sea, and bear the commerce of every land ; and its manufactories of vast extent are monuments of inventive genius, in- dustry, perseverance, and skill, more imposing far than the pyramids of Egj^pt or the temples of Greece and Rome. To whom do the people of England and of the world owe this national progress, this progress in the useful arts on a scale so colossal as, by comparison, to dwarf the achievements of all the earlier epochs of liistory? Not to statesmen or legislators. They neither dig ca- nals, open mines, build railways, lay ocean cables, nor erect factories. The pen in their hands may be mightier than the sword ; but it is no match for the plough and the reaper, the electric battery and imprisoned steam. 160 MANUAL TRAINING. Legislators make laws but mechanics make things. On this subject, after an exhaustive investigation, Buckle says, " Seeing, therefore, that the efforts of government in favor of civilization are, when most successful, alto- gether negative, and seeing, too, that when these efforts are more than negative they become injurious, it clear- ly follows that all speculations must be erroneous which ascribe the progress of Europe to the wisdom of its rulers. This is an inference which rests not only on the arguments already adduced, but on facts which might be multiplied from every page of history. . . . We have seen that their laws in favor of industry have injured industr}^, that their laws in favor of religion have in- creased hypocrisy, and that their laws to secure truth have encouraged perjury. . . . But it is a mere matter of history that our legislators, even to the last moment, were so terrified by the idea of innovation that they re- fused every reform until the voice of the people rose high enough to awe them into submission, and forced them to grant what, without much pressure, they would by no means have conceded."* It is, then, clearly not to the men who make laws that we are indebted for progress in civilization, but to the men who make things. The scientist who discovers a new principle in physics is a public benefactor. The inventor Avho devises a new machine helps forward the cause of progress. Whitney's cotton-gin trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the South. The mechanic who constructs a machine that will make ten or a hun- dred things in the time before required to make one * "History of Civilization in England," Vol. I., pp. 204, 205, 3j61 By Henry Thomas Buckle. New York -. D. Appleton & Co. THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 161 tiling is in the front rank of tlie civilizers of tlie human race.* Inventors, not statesmen, rule tlie world through their machines, which augment man's powers and sharpen his senses. Steam has made all civilized countries prosper- ous and great by vastly increasing man's powers — by making liim hundred-handed. f In 1809 there was born to a distinguished baronet of Liverpool, England, a son. The boy was educated at Eton and Christ Church College, Oxford, graduating in 1831. In 1832 the young man entered Parliament, In 183i he took office under Sir Kobert Peel. The name of the young man who commenced life under such auspicious circumstances is "William Ewart Gladstone. For nearly half a century Mr. Gladstone has been a prom- inent figure in English politics and administration. Dur- ing this long period of time he has been in the eye of the world, so to speak. He has moulded the laws of an em- pire, repealed old statutes and made new statutes, largely influenced both the domestic and the foreign policy of a great nation, and exerted a considerable degree of con- * "Your -wealth, your amusement, your pride, would all be alike impossible, but for those whom you scorn or forget. . . . Tlie sailor wrestling with the sea's rage ; the quiet student poring over his book or his vial ; the common worker, without praise, and neai-ly without bread, fulfilling his task as your horses drag your carts, liopeless, and spurned of all : theso are the men by whom England lives." — " Sesame and Lilies," p. 68. By John Iluskin, LL.D. New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1884. f "The causes which most disturbed or accelerated the normal progress of society in antiquity were the appearance of great men; in modern times they have been the appearance of great inventions." — "History of European ]\Iorals," Vol. I., p. 136. By "William Ed- ward Ilartpole Lecky, M.X. New York : I). Applcton & Co. 162 MANUAL TRAINING. trol over the international affairs of the continent of Europe. In 1813, four years after tlie birtli of Mr. Gladstone, at Charlton, in Hertfordshire, England, Henry Bessemer was born. His father, Anthony Bessemer, had fled to England in 1Y92, a refugee from France. Henry Besse- mer's early training consisted of the rudiments of an ordinary education received in the parish school of the neighboring town of Hitchin. His father was a skilled mechanic and inventor, and Henry inherited the invent- ive faculty. He studied and practised the art of wood- turnery, producing, before arriving at the age of man- hood, the most difhcult patterns known to the art. At the age of eighteen, in the year 1831 — the year in which Mr. Gladstone completed his education — young Bessemer appeared in London, an obscure, unknown stranger. He, however, secured employment as a mod- eller and designer. His attention was soon directed to the imperfections of government stamps, in which there had been no improvement since the time of Queen Anne. He was informed by Sir Charles Persley, of the Stamp- office, that the frauds in stamps probably aggregated one hundred thousand pounds per annum. In the even- ings of a few months he invented and made an im- proved stamp which obviated the objections to the one then in use. The invention was at once adopted by the Stamp-office, and in lieu of a stipulated sum in payment therefor, young Bessemer was asked " whether he would be satisfied with the position of superintendent of stamps, with five hundred or six hundred pounds per annum?" The suggested appointment he agreed to accept. Mean- time, before the contemplated change occurred in the Stamp-office, the young inventor devised a further im- THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 163 proveraent in the new stamp, wliicli not only made it much more perfect, but rendered it unnecessary for the govern- ment to employ a superintendent of stamps. In perfect good faith young Bessemer exhibited to the chief of the Stamp-office his new stamp, which was so palpably an im- provement on the other that it was at once preferred and promptly adopted. What is more, the government not only declined, to appoint the inventor to a place, but de- clined to give him a penny for his invention. Tliis was in 1834, the year in which Mr. Gladstone entered upon his long career as a representative of the British Crown. As young Mr. Gladstone was entering the Treasury, its "jun- ior lord," young Mr. Bessemer was retiring from it an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and toil. He says, " Thus sad. and dis]3iritedj and with a burning sense of injustice overpowering all other feelings, I went my way from the Stamp-office, too proud to ask as a fa- vor that which was indubitably my right."- From this point, both of time and event, there is a very wide divergence in the lives of these great men. The one is a man of ideas, the other a man of deeds. Mr. Gladstone thinks, talks, makes treaties and laws. He is constantly in the public eye, and his name ever on the public tongue. He is regarded as a great financier ; he is certainly a great orator. He sways the multitude with his eloquence. He takes distinguished part in the wordy contests which occur every now and then in Parliament. These debates are much talked of. At the conclusion of one of them there is a vote of want of confidence, and Mr. Gladstone goes out of office and Mr. Dis- * "The Creators of the Age of Steel," p. 20. By W. T. Jeans. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. 164 MANUAL TRAINING. raeli comes in. At the conclusion of another of them there is a vote of want of confidence, and Mr. Disraeli goes out of office and Mr. Gladstone comes in. But whether Mr. Gladstone goes out and Mr, Disraeli comes in, or Mr. Disraeli goes out and Mr. Gladstone comes in, makes very little difference with the trade and commerce of the kingdom. The railway traffic continues in the one event or the other ; the steamers continue to cross and recross the ocean ; the " post " comes and goes ; the electric current continues to act as messenger-boy; the telephone brings us face to face with our business corre- spondent or friend. There is, indeed, no reason why a vote of want of confidence in Mr. Gladstone or Mr. Disraeli should imply a want of confidence in steam or electricity, because neither Mr. Gladstone nor Mr. Disraeli ever have anything to do with the application of these great forces to the uses of man. They are entirely absorbed, the one in promoting the advancement of Liberalism, and the other in promoting the advancement of Toryism. And it is a curious fact, as showing the mutability of political opinion, that Mr. Disraeli entei'ed public life as a Liberal, and subsequently became a great Tory leader ; and Mr. Gladstone entered public life as a Tory, and sub- sequently became a great Liberal leader. For twenty -two years after he had retired empty- handed from, the government Stamp-office Mr. Bessemer continued his career as an inventor and manufacturer, without, however, attracting any great share of public attention. But in 1856 he announced that he had made a discovery of vast importance in the process of steel making.* For a hundred years previously the LTuntsman * " The first patent of Sir H. Bessemer in which air is mentioned THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 165 process had held the field. It yielded excellent steel but was very expensive. Mr. Bessemer announced that he could produce splendid cast -steel at about the cost of making iron. The announcement was received with much incredulity ; but the " Bessemer converter " was exhibited, the new process shown, and the result seemed to confirm the verity of tlie claim of the inventor. Prac- tical difiiculties, however, postponed its complete success till 1860, when the new process supplanted all others. Mr. Bessemer now stood at the head of the inventors of the world, and Mr. Gladstone, as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Palmerston, had come to be re- garded as one of the most skilful governmental financiers in Europe, which meant that he was an adept in devising schemes of taxation calculated to yield the most revenue with the least popular discontent. When it is considered that it is necessary for the English Minister of Finance to draw from the British people more than a million dol- lars every morning of the year, including Sundays, before either the English lord or the English peasant can indulge in a free breakfast, so to speak, the extreme delicacy of the duties devolving upon him will be understood and appreciated. If he proposes the repeal of the soap tax in order to extinguish the slave-trade, he must impose an additional penny in the pound on malt liquors in order to put an end to the vice of drunkenness. He is constantly between Scylla and Charybdis — in keeping as the oxidizing agent is dated October 17, 1855, and other three months were spent in experimenting before the idea of introducing the air from the bottom of a large converter struck him. The patent embodying the latter idea is dated February 11, 1856." — " The Cre- ators of the Age of Steel," note to p. 38. By W. T. Jeans. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. 166 MANUAL TRAINING. off the one he is in danger of being swallowed up in the other. And if he can, at the end of the fiscal year, find a million dollars to apply to the liquidation of the public debt, he is extremely fortunate. From 1836, about the time Mr. Gladstone began his public career, down to ten years ago, the several chancellors of the English Excheq- uer, including Mr. Gladstone, contrived to save, in the aggregate, about thirteen million dollars for this purpose. Let us recur a moment to the subject of the invention of Mr. Bessemer. It went into operation in 1860. The temptation to reproduce Mr. Bessemer's own description of his process, which revolutionized the manufacture of steel, is irresistible. It is as follows : " The converting vessel is mounted on an axis at or near its centre of gravity. It is constructed of boiler- plates, and is lined either with fire-brick, road-drift, or gannister, which resists the heat better than any other material yet tried, and has also the advantage of cheap- ness. The vessel, having been heated, is brought into the requisite position to receive its charge of melted metal, without either of the tuyeres (or air-holes) being below the surface. ISTo action can therefore take place until the vessel is turned up (so that the blast can enter through the tuyeres). The process is thus in an instant brought into full activity, and small though powerful jets of air spring upward through the fluid mass. The air, expanding in volume, divides itself into globules, or bursts violently upward, carrying with it some hundred- weight of fluid metal, which again falls into the boiling mass below. Every part of the apparatus trembles un- der the violent agitation thus produced ; a roaring flame rushes from the mouth of the vessel, and as the process advances it changes its violet color to orange, and finally THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 167 to a voluminous pure white flame. The sparks, which at first were large, like those of ordinary founderj iron, change into small hissing points, and these gradually give way to soft floating specks of bluish light as the state of malleable iron is approached. There is no eruption of cinder as in the early experiments, although it is formed during the process ; the imj)roved shape of the converter causes it to be retained, and it not only acts beneficially on the metal, but it helps to confine the heat, which during the process has rapidly risen from the comparatively low temperature of melted pig-iron to one vastly greater than the highest known welding heats, by which malleable iron only becomes sufficiently soft to be shaped by the blows of the hammer ; but here it becomes perfectly fluid, and even rises so much above the melting point as to admit of its being poured from the converter into a founder's ladle, and from thence to be transferred to several successive moulds." * "What is the value of this process? "What is the ex- tent of the service rendered by Mr. Bessemer to man? It is estimated that in the twenty-one years first elapsing after the successful working of the Bessemer process, the production of steel by it, notwithstanding its necessarily slow progress, amounted to twenty-five million tons. At $200 a ton, the alleged saving in cost as compared with the old process, this represents an aggregate saving of $5,000,000,000. In 1882 the world's production was four million tons, which at the rate named yields a saving of the enormous aggregate of $800,000,000 in a single year. These sums seem almost fabulous, especial- ly so since they result from simply blowing air through * " The Creators of the Age of Steel," p. 71. By W. T. Jeans. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. 168 MANUAL TKAINING. crude melted iron for a quarter of an hour! But tlie radical character of the change wrought in the metal by the air-blowing process is shown by the fact that a steel rail is worth as much as twenty iron rails.^" All the governments of Europe honored Mr. Bessemer for his great invention, some by medals and orders of merit, and others by appropriating without compensa- tion his process of steel-making. Of these latter Prussia stood in the front rank. England alone stood aloof. " A prophet is not without honor save in his own coun- try and among his own kin." From 1860 to 1872 Eng- land continued to load Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli with honors, but not until the latter year did the govern- ment recognize Mr. Bessemer, when the Prince of Wales presented him with the Albert gold medal, and in 1879 he was knighted by the Queen. A comparison between the lives and services to man of two of the most distinguished statesmen of England, with the life and services, to man, of Sir Henry Bessemer, cannot fail to be of great value to every young man who possesses the power of just discrimination. But can just discrimination be expected of any young man entering * "At the Birmingham meeting of the British Association in 1865, Sir Henry Bessemer explained that at Challi Farm steel rails were laid down on one side of the line and iron rails on the other, so that every engine and carriage there had to pass over both steel and iron rails at the same time. When the first face was worn off an iron rail it was turned the other way upward, and when the second face was woru out it was replaced by a new iron rail. When Sir Henry ex- hibited one of these steel rails at Birmingham only one face of it was nearly worn out, while on the opposite side of the line eleven iron rails had in the same time been worn out on both faces. It thus ap- peared that one steel rail was capable of doing the Avork of twenty- three iron ones."— "The Creators of the Age of Steel," p. 93. By W. T. Jeans. New York: Charles Scribner's Sous, 1881 THE POWER OF THE TRAINED HAND. 169 upon the stage of active life when sucli discrimination is not possessed bj the public at large ? For example : The question being propounded, What is the value of tlie combined services to man of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, as compared with those of Sir Henry Besse- mer? ninety-nine out of a hundred men of sound judg- ment would doubtless say, " The value of the services of the two statesmen is quite unimportant, while the value of the services of Mr. Bessemer is enormous, incalcula- ble." But how many of these ninety-nine men of sound judgment could resist the fascination of the applause accorded to the statesmen ? How many of them would have the moral courage to educate their sons for the career of Mr. Bessemer instead of for the career of Mr. Disraeli or of Mr. Gladstone? " l^ot many in the present state of public sentiment. It will be a great day for man, the day that ushers in the dawn of more sober views of life, the day that inaugurates the era of things in the place of words. Mr. Gladstone stands for politics and statesmanship at their best, and his career is the product of the old system of education at its best. Mr. Bessemer stands for science and art united, and his career is the product of the new education. * "If there were two valleys in California or Australia with two different kinds of gravel in the bottom of them, and in the one stream- bed you could dig up, occasionally and by good-fortune, nuggets of gold, and in the other stream-bed, certainly and without hazard, you Qould dig up little caskets containing talismans which gave length of days and peace, and alabaster vases of precious balms which were better than the Arabian dervish's ointment, and made not only the eyes to see, but the mind to know whatever it would — I wonder in which of the stream-beds there would be most diggers ?" — "Time and Tide," p. 100. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1883. 170 MANUAL TRAINING. CHAPTER XVI. THE INVENTORS, CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND, AND ENGLISH PROGRESS. A Trade is better tlian a Profession. — The Railway, Telegraph, and Steamship are more Potent than the Lawyer, Doctor, and Priest. — Book-makers writing the Lives of the Inventors of last Century. — The Workshop to be the Scene of the Greatest Triumphs of Man. — The Civil Engineers of England the Heroes of English Progress. — The Life of James Brindley, the Canal-maker; his Struggles and Poverty. — The Roll of Honor.— Mr. Gladstone's Significant Admis- sion that English Triumphs in Science and Art were won without Government Aid. — Disregarding the Common-sense of the Savage, Legislators have chosen to learn of Plato, who declared that "The Useful Arts are Degrading." — How Improvements in the Arts have been met by Ignorant Opposition. — The Power wielded by the Mechanic. The young man with a meclianical trade is better equipped for the battle of life than the young man with a learned profession. The prizes may not be so dazzling, but they are more numerous, and they are within reach. The skilled mechanic, with industry and prudence, is sure of a cottage, and the cottage may grow into a mansion, while the man of letters struggles so often in vain to mount the steps of a palace. The railroad, the telegraph, and the steamship exert a more potent influence upon the destinies of mankind than the lawyer, the doctor, and the priest. The giants, steam and electricity, which bear the great burdens of commerce, have to be harnessed to enable them to do their work ; and to make this harness, the furnace, the forge, and the shop are brought into INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND. 171 requisition. The railroad alone taxes to the utmost nearly every department of the useful arts. To the construc- tion of the passenger - coach, for instance, more than a hundred trades contribute the varied cunning and skill of their workmanship. This is the age of steel, and he who knows how to mould the king of metals into puissant forms has his hand nearest the rod of empire. Who would not rather be able to construct a Corliss engine than learn the trick of drawing a bill in chancery ? There was a time, not long ago, when inventors and discoverers were little recognized and poorly compen- sated for their splendid achievements. But that time is past. The book-makers of to-day are gro23ing about the old shops where the inventors of last century woi'ked, and the cottages where they lived, in order to tell the simple story of their lives, and write their names in the temple of fame. Huntsman, who emerged from long seclusion over the furnace and crucible, and presented to his fellow -workmen a piece of steel which rivalled that of old Damascus, and drove from the British mar- kets all other steels — how resplendent his name is now ! How every incident in the life of Watt is sought for — • his struggles, his disappointments, and his final success ! And so of Mushet, Neilson, Bramah, Maudslay, Clement Murray, Xasmyth, Stephenson, and Fulton. When Watt had devised his engine he found no workmen expert enough to make it. Then Maudslay, Clement, and Mur- ray invented automatic iron hands and fingers, and en- dowed them with almost human intelligence, and far more than human precision, and Watt's difliculty was removed. The greasy mechanics did more to hasten the world's progress in a century — 1740 to IS-iO — tlian had been ac- S 173 MANUAL TRAINING. complisbed up to that time by all the statesmen of all the dead ages. But those heroes of the workshop had none of the opportunities afforded bj the manual train- ing school of the present age. They toiled many hours each day for a shilling or two, and lived in stuffy hovels and puzzled over the a h c oi mechanics by the light of a tallow-candle. Some of them gained fortunes, while others were robbed of the fruits of genius, and slept in "unknown graves, but all their names are treasured and honored now. The world moves, and in this age it moves always towards a higher a23preciation of the value of the useful arts. This country is destined to become a vast workshop, and in this workshop the best energies, the strongest vital forces of the American people are eventually to be exerted. How necessary, then, to edu- cate the hands as well as the brain of the youth of the country. Mr. Smiles, in his " Lives of the Engineers," has shown us the true s23riDgs of English greatness. In telling the story of the struggles and triumphs of the canal-makers, the bridge-builders, the coal-miners, the millwrights, the road-makers, the harbor and dock makers, the ship-build- ers, the iron and steel makers, and the railway-builders — in telling tliis story of persistence, of nerve, and " pluck,'' he has sketched the career of the real heroes of Eno^lish progress. A brief sketch of the life of James Brindley will serve to show how these noble men wrought, how they suffered, and how they conquered. James Brindley was born in 1716. His parents were poor. His father was a ne'er-do-well. His mother taught him to be honest and industrious. James worked as a common laborer till he was seventeen years of age. In 1733 he became a millwright's apprentice — bound for INVENTOKS A^'D MECHANICS OF ENGLAND. 173 seven years. He was a dull boy, learning slowly, but before the end of liis "bound" term he became the best workman in tlie neigbborliood. Pie helped the now cel- ebrated Wedgwoods out of a difficulty by inventing and constructing iiint- mills for their works. He invented and constructed pumps for clearing the Clifton coal- mines of water — an entirely new device that opened coal chambers which had long been completely drowned out. His compensation for this class of work — the work of genius — was two shillings a day I In 1755 he built a silk-mill, in which he made several imj^ortant improvements in machinsry, etc. But this man, who possessed inventive genius of a high order and large executive ability, could neither write legibly nor spell correctly, and his charge for almost inestimable serv- ices was still, in 1757, only two to four shillings a day. His straggles to improve the steam-engine form a curious chapter in the story of his life. It was to him that the Duke of Brido-ewater owed his success in canal-makino;. The duke was born in 1736. He was a weak and sick- ly child, his mental capacity being apparently defective to a degree sufficient to debar him from his inheritance of the family title and estates. An affair of the heart which resulted unfavorably rendered him morose, and changed his whole course of life. He abruptly quitted the race-track, where he had condescended even to play the role of "jockey," and turned his attention to the im- provement of his estates. They contained coal depos- its, which he undertook to develop through cheapening transportation, and Brindley became his engineer. His first canal, consisting largely of aqueducts, was called "Brindley's castle in the air," and his "river hung in the air." It was this "river hunu: in the air" — the first 174 MANUAL TRAINING. English canal — that made the Manchester of to-day pos- sible. Another canal enterprise of the duke cost more than a million dollars — that connecting Liverpool with Manchester. This latter canal yielded £80,000 per an- num income, and it was constructed by Brindley at a salary of 3^. Qd. a day ! Brindley was obstinate, and often quarrelled with his employer about the methods of construction of great works ; and what is more, the duke always submitted. He humbly submitted to every demand made by his engineer except a demand for compensation. Brindley's "wage" rate during the many years occupied in the duke's great canal enterj)rises was 3^. Qd. per day. This, at all events, is the price named by Smiles in his life of Brindley. In a note to the work it is, however, stated that his stipulated pay was a guinea a day. It is agreed on all hands, nevertheless, that whatever the rate agreed upon was, Brindley was not paid, and that his heirs were begging unsuccessfully for his just dues long after his death. In a word, Brindley's honor as an engineer being at stake, and it being dearer to him than any money consideration, he worked for nothing rather than allow the enterprise to fail. And the duke was parsimonious enough to take the engineer's services for nothing, and his heirs were mean enough to refuse payment for such services when demanded by his widow. In a literary point of view Brindley was ignorant, but in no other respect. This was said of him by one of his contemporaries : "Mr. Brindley is one of those great geniuses whom ISTature sometimes rears by her own force, and brings to maturity without the necessity of cultivation. His whole plan is admirable, and so well calculated that he is never INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND, 175 at a loss ; for if any difficulty arises he removes it -with a facility which appears so much like inspiration that you would think Minerva was at his fingers' ends."'^" The life of Brindley is typical of a score of biogra- phies presented in the "Lives of the Engineers," among which the following are especially worthy of mention: William Edwards, John Metcalf, John Perry, Sir Hugh Myddelton, Cornelius Yermuyden, Andrew Yarranton,f Andrew Meikle, John Rennie, John Smeaton, Thomas Telford, William Murdoch, Dr. D. Papin, Thomas Savery, Dud Dudley, Matthew Boulton, and William Symington. These, and their natural coadjutors, the discoverers of new forces in nature and the inventors of new thing-s in art, the iron-workers and tool-makers — these are the great names in English history. They are the names without which there would have been no English history w^orth writing. Mr. Gladstone once said of them, naming Brindley, Met- calf, Smeaton, Rennie, and Telford, " These men who liave now become famous among us had no mechanics' institutes, no libraries, no classes, no examinations to cheer them on their way. In the greatest poverty, diffi- culties, and discouragements their energies were found sufficient for their w^ork, and they have written their names in a distinguished page of the history of their country." * "Lives of the Engineers.'' By Samuel Smiles. London: John Murray, 1863. Vol. I., "Life of James Brindley." f "He was the founder of English political economy, the first man in England who saw and said that peace is better than war, that trade is better than plunder, that honest industry is better than martial greatness, and that the best occupation of a government is to secure prosperity at home, and let other nations alone." — "Elements of Po litical Science." By Patrick Edward Dove. Edinburgh: 1854. 176 MANUAL TRAINING. The admission of Mr. Gladstone that the great achieve- ments of these heroes of invention and discovery were won without any aid whatever, either from the govern- ment or the people of England, is a pregnant fact. It is the key-note of this work, the reason why it is written and published. The neglect of the useful arts by all the governments of the world, from the dawn of civilization down to the present time, is an impeachment of the common-sense of mankind as shown in the conduct of public affairs. The civilized man might have learned wisdom from the sav- age, who is taught to fight, to hunt, and to fish, the brain, the hand, and the eye being trained simultaneously. But he chose to learn of Plato, who in the "Republic" says to Glaucon, " All the useful arts, I believe, we thought de- grading." And further in the same work: "We shall tell our people, in mythical language, you are doubtless all brethren as many as inhabit the city, but the God who created you, mixed gold in the composition of such of you as are qualified to rule, which gives them the highest value, while in the auxiliaries he made silver an ingredient, assigning iron and copper to the cultivators of the soil and the other workmen. Therefore, inasmuch as you are all related to one another, although your children will generally resemble their parents, yet sometimes a golden parent will produce a silver child, and a silver parent a golden child, and so on, each producing any. The rulers, therefore, have received this in charge first and above all from the gods, to observe nothing more closely, in their character of vigilant guardians, than the children that are born, to see which of these metals en- ters into the composition of their souls ; and if a child be born in their class \\\tl\ an alloy of copper or iron, INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND. 177 they are to have no manner of pity upon it, but giving it the vahie that belongs to its nature, they are to thrust it away into the class of artisans or agriculturists. And if, again, among these a child be born with an admixture of gold or silver, when they have assayed it they are to raise it either to the class of guardians or to that of aux- iliaries, because there is an oracle which declares that the city shall then perish when it is guarded by iron or copper,"'-^ So ingrained in the public mind has this contempt for the artisan and laborer become in the course of ages, that notwithstanding the fact of the admitted kingship of iron among metals, and notwithstanding the fact that without iron the world would almost sink into a state of barbarism, still the opposition to the introduction of tool practice into the public schools is violent, and most vio- lent among those classes who would be most benefited by it. During the pendency of a bill in the Massachu- setts Assembly in 1883, providing for the admission of manual training to the public-school curriculum, an op- ponent of the measure said : " The introduction of the use of tools is only another attempt to dej)rive the poor- er classes of a good education. It is simply an attempt to overload the course of studies in the schools so that children shall not learn anything; so that the poor may be made poorer, while tlie children of the rich having a good time in the public schools may have their thought and health preserved for liigher or special education." This is a repetition of the old answer of the Inquisition to Galileo upon the announcement and defence of his * "The Republic of Plato," p. 114. London: Macmillau & Co., 1881. 178 MANUAL TRAINING. great discovery. He was summoned to Eome, and " ac- cused of having taught that the earth moves, that the sun is stationary, and of having attempted to reconcile these doctrines with the Scriptures." Bruno had been driven to and fro over the face of the civilized world, and finally burned in the year 1600 for teaching the sys- tem of Copernicus. Having the fear of Bruno's fate be- fore his eyes, Galileo recanted, and promised neither to publish nor defend his great discoveries. But his love of science overcame his fear of oppression, and in 1632 he published his " System of the "World." Again he was summoned before the Inquisition, which was des- tined forever after to torment and persecute him. He was driven to his knees before the cardinals, consigned to prison, and tortured to blindness. After his death in prison at the age of seventy-seven years, his right to make a will was disputed, his body was denied burial in con- secrated ground, and his friends were prohibited the priv- ilege of raising a monument to his memory in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. Eighteen hundred years ago a Roman emjDeror refused to sanction the use of improved machinery in the j)i'Ose- cution of a great public work, on the ground that it would deprive the poor of employment. In 1663 a Dutchman erected a saw-mill in England, but the hostility of the workmen compelled its abandon- ment. More than a hundred years elapsed before the second saw-mill was put in operation in England, and that was destroyed by hand-sawyers. The Flemish weavers who introduced improved weav- ing machinery into England in the seventeenth century were met by protests. One of these protests, addressed to Parliament, represented that the Flemish weavers had INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND. 179 "made so bould as to devise engines for working of tape, lace, ribbin, and sueli like, wlierein one man dotli more among them than seven Englishe men can doe, so as their cheap sale of commodities beggereth all our Eng- lishe artificers of that trade and enricheth them." A little more than a hundred years ago, in England, when the Sankey Canal, six miles long, was authorized, it was upon the express condition that the boats plying upon it should be drawn by men only. Illustrations of the vis inerticB of ignorance might be multiplied indefinitely. Ignorance reverences the past. Ignorance never doubts. Ignorance is content ; perfect- ly satisfied with its own knowledge, if the paradox may be allowed, it never seeks to increase it. But it is sus- picious. In every effort to enlighten it discovers a con- spiracy to undermine. Incapable of the intellectual ef- fort of inquiry, it stagnates, and regards as a deadly enemy those who seek to disturb the serenity of its muddy pool. When labor was only another name for a state of slav- ery, to teach men to labor skilfully was merely to raise them to a little higher grade of servitude. Hence it is only at a very recent period that it has occurred to man- kind to teach skilled labor in the schools. All educa- tional systems, our own among the rest, seem to have been intended to make lawj^ers, doctors, priests, states- men, litterateurs, poets. Bat this is the age of steel, the age of machines and machinery. Tremendous forces in nature have been discovered and utilized, and these dis- coveries and their utilization have so multiplied vast en- terprises that the importance of the more ornamental branches of learning is dwarfed in their presence. This is the j^ractical age, and an educational system which is not practical is nothing. AVe shall still have our Tenny- 180 MANUAL TRAINING. sons, and our Longfellows, and our doctors of abstract philosophy ; but there is little time to sentimentalize with the poets or speculate with the philosophers. There is work to do. The mine is to be explored and its treasures brought to the surface; more and more powerful ma- chines are to be constructed to bear the burdens of com- merce ; new elements of force are to be discovered and applied to the constantly increasing wants of mankind.* On the subject of the demand for a more comprehen- sive educational system, Col. Augustus Jacobson says, with great force, "Youth is the expensive period of man's existence. Youth produces nothing and eats all the time. If the youth is not trained there can hardly be a profit to mankind on his existence. As mankind is liable for, and bound to pay, his expenses, he should be 80 trained that he may repay them. He can only become a profitable investment by training. If he is left un- skilled, the money spent on him is wasted. There is no profit on a whole generation of Spaniards or Turks. Mankind should be wise enough to reap the profit there always is in finishing raw material, by making human raw material into a highly finished product." There are millions of " bright, capable " little human beings in the schools of the United States, receiving, * " To know the ' use ' either of land or tools you must know what useful things can be grown from the one and made with the other. And therefore to know what is useful, and what useless, and be skil- ful to provide the one, and wise to scorn the other, is the first need for all industrious men. Wherefore, I propose that schools should be established wherein the use of land and tools shall be taught con- clusively — in other words, the sciences of agriculture (with associated river and sea culture), and the noble arts and exercises of humanity. — ■ "ForsClavigera,"p. 302. Part. III. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1881. INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OP ENGLAND. 181 doubtless, excellent intellectual or mental training. But tliey are not being trained for the actual duties of life as the savage child is taught to fight, to fish, and to hunt. They are not taught to labor with their hands, either skilfully or unskilfully. They are not given instruction in any department of the useful arts, notwithstanding the fact that in the case of a vast majority of them the alternative of earning their bread by the labor of their unskilled hands, or resorting to their untrained wits for a sup23ort, will be presented immediately on their en- trance upon the stage of active life. The apprentice system gave skilled mechanics to England, and her splen- did manufacturing prosperity is the result. The trained English apprentice became an inventor, and his inven- tions and art discoveries studded the island with workshops filled with automatic product-multiplying machinery. The savage of Australia in Captain Cook's time could kill a pigeon with a sj^ear at thirty yards, but he couldn't count the fingers on his right hand. The Southern Es- quimau turns a somersault in the water in his boat with ease. But his more ISTorthern brother has no canoe, and is ignorant of the existence of a boat ; he has no use for a boat, because the sea in the latitude of his home is frozen the entire year. The savage is taught what he needs to know in his condition, and is taught nothing else ; hence his skill in the few avocations he pursues. Tlie civilized boy in school is taught many theories, but is not required to put any of them in practice ; hence he enters upon the serious duties of life unprepared to discharge any of them.* It may be said that he is in * Discussion of the subject of technical education at a meeting of the Society of Arts, London, England, 1885. Dr. Gladstone, F. U.S. : "It should be their aim in [clonipntary 182 MANUAL TRAINING. real danger of the penitentiary until lie learns a profes- sion or a trade. "Of four hundred and eighty -seven convicts consigned to the State Prison for the Eastern Dis- trict of Pennsylvania in 1879, five-sixths had attended pub- lic schools, and the same number were without trades." It is noticeable also that during the same period "not five were received who were what are called mechanics." In the penitentiary of the State of Illinois four out of five of the convicts have no handicraft. The fact that the skilled workman is far more likely than the common laborer to keep out of the penitentiary is a powerful argument in favor of joining manual training to the mental exercises of our common schools. The general adoption of a comprehensive system of mechanical education in the public schools would quickly dispel the unworthy prejudice against labor which taints the minds of the youth of the country. The sj)lendid career which this age opens to the educated mechanic would become clear to the vision of every boy in the land, and he would see, in the tools he was taught to scliools] to give such a notion of the vahie of materials and the use of tools as could afterwards be turned to use in any required direc- tion. There were two great difficulties in the way of doing this. The first and greatest was the inveterate notion that education con- sisted of book-learning. . . . Another difficulty was the ignorance of teachers in this respect. If an endeavor were made to introduce some knowledge of science into schools, they generally found that the teachers had some kind of theoretical knowledge, but it had been obtained mainly from books; and what was chiefly wanted was that things should be taught as well as words and before words." Prof. Guthrie, F.R.S. : "This method of bringing the hand and the mind to work together really lay at the basis of all true tech- nical instruction; where the mind alone was employed the knowl- edge acquired passed away, but when the mind and the hand had been educated together the knowledge was never forgotten." INVENTORS AND MECHANICS OF ENGLAND. 183 handle, the key not only to fair success, but to wealth and fame. Professor Thurston, President of the Ameri- can Society of Mechanical Engineers, thus depicts the tremendous power wielded by the mechanic : " The class of men from whose ranks the membership of this society is principally drawn direct the labors of tiearly three millions of j)i'osperous people in three hun- dred thousand mills, with $2,500,000,000 capital ; they direct the payment of more than $1,000,000,000 in annual Tages ; the consumption of $3,000,000,000 worth of raw material, and the output of $5,000,000,000 worth of man- ufactured products. Fifty thousand steam-engines, and more than as many water-wheels, at their command turn the machinery of these hundreds of thousands of work- shops that everywhere dot our land, giving the strength of three million horses night or day."* * Inaugural address, as President of the American Society of En- gineers, New Tork, November 4, 1880. 184 MANUAL TEAINING. CHAPTER XVII. POWER OF STEAM AND CONTEMPT OF ARTISANS. A few Million People now wield twice as much Industrial Power as all the People on the Globe exerted a Hundred Years ago. — A Revolution wrought, not by the Schools and Colleges, but by the Mechanic. — The Union between Science and Art prevented by the Speculative Philosophy of the Middle Ages. — Statesmen, Lawyers, Litterateurs, Poets, and Artists more highly esteemed than Civil Engineers, Mechanics, and Artisans. — The Refugee Artisan a Pow- er in England, the Refugee Politician worthless. — Prejudice against the Artisan Class shown by Mr. Galton in his Work on "Hereditary Genius." — The Influence of Slavery: it has lasted Thousands of Years, and still Survives. What the civil engineers and mechanics of England have done for that country the same classes here have done for America. It is by these classes that all civilized countries have been made prosperous and great. And the agent through which the power of man has been augmented a thousand-fold is steam. "In the manufact- ures of Great Britain alone, the power which steam ex- erts is estimated to be equal to the manual labor of four hundred millions of men, or more than double the num- ber of males supposed to inhabit the globe."'^ This is the most significant fact of all time, namely, that a few mill- ions of jieople in a small island now wield twice as much industrial power as all the people on the globe exerted one hundred years ago. And it is a fact of the utmost * "Brief Biographies: James Watt," p. 1. Bj"- Samuel Smiles. Cliicago : Belford, Clark & Co., 1883. POWER OF STEAM AND CONTEMPT OF ARTISANS. 185 significance that the public educational institutions of England contributed scarcely anything to this industrial revolution, whose influence now comprehends all civilized countries. The men by whom it was wrought came not from the classic shades of the universities, but from the foundery, the forge, and the machine-shop. There has been very little change in educational methods since the time when Bacon said, " They learn nothing at the univer- sities but to believe." lie proposed that a college be es- tablished and devoted to the discovery of new truth. ISTo such college has, however, been established, but many new truths have been discovered. Suppose all the universities of England, of the United States, and of all other highly civilized countries had, from the time of Bacon, been conformed to his ideas, and devoted to the discovery of new truths ? Such a course would have united science and art, and insured vastly greater progress, no doubt, than that which has actually taken place. The union of science with art has thus far been rendered impossible by reason of the wide prevalence of purely speculative views. The speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages still projects its baleful influence over our institutions of learning. Abstract ideas are still regarded as of inore vital importance than things. Statesmen, lawyers, litte- rateurs, poets, and artists are more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans. Mr. Smiles, in his excellent work on the Huguenots, has shown that England owes to the French and the Flemish immigrants " almost all her industrial arts and very much of the most valuable life-blood of her modern race."* Commentin 196 ' MANUAL TRAINING. rather than rationally is of such vital importance that it should be sustained by the best attainable proof. Strong proof is at hand in the history of the so-called Quincy (Mass.) experiment. In 1878 doubt of the efficiency of the schools of Nor- folk County, long indulged, culminated in action by the Association of School Committees and Superintendents. It was insisted by certain members of the committee that the existing methods were "about as good as human in- telligence could devise," and by others that the people were getting "no adequate returns for the money ex- pended under the system in general use." It was re- solved to institute a searching investigation, and the standard for the measurement of the acquirements of pupils adopted was, " a reasonable degree of ability to read, to write legibly, correctly, and grammatically, and to deal readily with simple mathematics after about eight years of schooling." The association selected Mr. George A. Walton, an experienced educator, to make the examination of the schools of the county, and the number of pupils exam- ined exceeded three thousand. In their preface to Mr. Walton's report the gentlemen of the association say : " Publicity, discussion, and discontent are wholesome things to apply to school management in Massachusetts. That this is a fair sample of the results now accomplished cannot be questioned. But though they may not be flat- tering to our pride, we yet believe that they are as good as can be obtained in any other county in Massachusetts, or, indeed, of any other State where similar tests are applied in a similar manner. If any school authorities elsewhere doubt the truth of this statement, let the ex- periment be tried in the schools of their county. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 197 " The questions naturally arise, What is the cause of this lamentable ignorance ? and what is the remedy ? The answer to the former suggests the reply to the latter. Too much has been attempted in the schools. There has been a slavish adherence to the text-books, and no room given for freedom and originality of thought. Rules have been memorized, and the children taught to recite from the text-book, while they have not had the slightest conception of the true meaning of the subject. . . . " The rules and exceptions in grammar are faithfully committed to memory, and most intricate sentences can be successfully analyzed, the phrases separated, and the modifiers named in true grammatical style, while the pu- pils who have undergone such severe training in this re- spect are unable to present their own thoughts concisely or clearly, or even cor^rectly, upon paper. The memory is cultivated, and the reason allowed to slumber. " In arithmetic the pnpils show a readiness to solve a problem when they are able to fit it to some rule that they have learned ; but when they are given a simple question out of the regular course, they are like a shi^) at sea without rudder or compass." This is the severest and most sweeping criticism ever passed upon our American common-school system, and it emanates from its friends and the friends of universal education. Mr. Walton says of reading, as taught in the ISTorfolk County schools, " As for any systematic analysis by which the pupil learns to make a careful and independent study of his piece, it is but little practised in the schools even of the grammar grade ;" and he declares that reading, without comprehending the ideas of wliich the words are mere signs, " is not merely useless, but dangerous, 198 MANUAL TRAINING. just in proportion to the facility with, which the words are called." Of the results of his examinations in penmanship Mr. Walton sa3^s, " Most of the faults in the writing indicate imperfect teaching." Of his examinations in spelling he says that " the commonest words are misspelled when used in sentences or composition, while words of difficult or- thography are spelled Avith accuracy when dictated for spelling." For example, he says, " The words ' Y\^hose,' ' which,' and ' father,' when spelled orally, were generally correct, but when written in sentences they were fre- quently in many schools, in a majority of cases, errone- ous." No test could more clearly demonstrate the purely mechanical character of the methods of instruction than this of a comparison between the pupils' oral and written spelling. The average of excellence in spelling the three simple words "which, whose, scholar," of the primary grade for the whole county of E'orfolk, as found by Mr. Walton, was the exceedingly low one of 55.9, the basis being 100. The ingenuity in bad spelling of this grade of pupils, who had been at least four years in school, is well illus- trated by the example of the word " carriage," written as follows : " Garage, carrage, craidge, caradg, carege, car- riag, carrige;" and of the word "sleigh," written "salj^, slay, slaig, slaigh, slagh, slaw, sleig, sleugh, sleight, sligh, sley, slew, slave, sleygh ;" and of the word " Tuesday," written " Tusgay, tuestay, toesday ;" and of the word " Wednesday," written " wanesday, wedenyday, Wederns- day, wed nest, Wenday, Wendsday, wensday, wenesday, wensdaw, wenze, Wenzie, AVendsstay, wenstday, Wesday, Whensday, winday, Windday, Winsday," etc. The word "scholar" presented one hundred and sixty AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 199 different erroneous spellings ; that of "depot" fifty, among which were the following : "Deappow, deppowe, deaphow, deapohoe, teapot, doopo," and "bepo." An exercise, in spelling by both grades of pupils, the " primary," com- posed of pupils from eight and a half to ten and a half years old, and the "grammar," composed of pupils from twelve and a half to fifteen and a half years old, showed errors of which the following are examples : Any, spelled ane and enny ; along, alond and alon ; amongst, amunt ; animals, anables ; arithmetic, rithmes ; asTced, asted ; heau- tiful, beuful; heen, ben, bene, and bin; hy-and-hy, bimeby; coat, coot, coth, cote, goat, and coate ; Boston, bostone ; hoy, poy, and bou ; city, sitty ; eggs, ages ; custard- jpie, ousted puy ; coming, comin, commun, gomming, and comming. An exercise in composition developed the following specimen errors : " The was two boys ; They was two boys ; How is all the boys ? Things that was good ; They is not many here I know ; He come to school ; I see liim yesterday ; He asked cyrus what he done that day ; I had saw him ; he had wore a coat," etc. The examinations in mathematics yielded similar re- sults to those developed in reading, writing, spelling, and composition. Mr. Walton says, " If instead of this [the routine method of the school] the pupil should be com- pelled to deal with real things, and to find his answer by studying the conditions of his problem, the fiction which arithmetic now is to most pupils would become to them a reality."* * "The New Departure in the Common Schools of Quincy," by Charles F. Adams, Jr., and the "Ecport of Examination of Schools in Norfolk County, Mass.," by George A. AValton. Boston : Estes & Lauriat, 1881. 200 MANUAL TRAINING. The prime difficulty is here stated. The schools deal in "fictions." In the language of the Norfolk County coHimittee, " The memory is cultivated and the reason allowed to slumber." K'ow, if to every fact memorized the pupil were required to apply the test of reason to analyze it and find out its relation to other facts, and fix it with all its relations in his mind, he would possess cer- tain solid information of an ascertained practical value. It is very simple. It is making the pupil think for him- self by showing him how to think for himself instead of thinking for him. Of course this is object-teaching. In the reading-lesson the pupil is required to know the meaning of the words of which it is composed in or- der to read with correct expression. When required to spell a word orally he is also required to write it. In the study of arithmetic he is shown certain objects, blocks of cubical and other forms, and required to ap- ply the rules of the book to the ascertainment of their contents. In grammar the analysis of the sentence is followed by the writing of it, and the construction of other sentences involving similar principles in the art of composition, and so on. This is the kindergarten system now rapidly coming into high favor as an essential preliminary step in educa- tion. It is also the system of the manual training school. Under that system the pupil is not merely told that the saw is a thin, flat piece of steel with teeth used for cut- ting boards and timbers ; a saw is placed in his hand and he is taught to use it : and so of all the hand and ma- chine tools of the trades. He stands at the forge, bends over the moulding-form, shoves the plane in the carpen- ter-shop, presides at the turning-lathe, that ingenious in- vention of Maudslay — an automaton truer than the human AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 201 eye, more cunning and more accurate than tlie human liand ; executes plans for patterns and then makes the patterns, and finally, from the faint lines he has traced on paper, constructs a machine, breathes the breath of life (steam) into its veins, and with it moves mountains ! In further suj^port of the charge that the schools edu- cate automatically, and hence superficially, the following intelligent opinions are cited : Charles Francis Adams, Jr., remarks that the com- mon schools of Massachusetts cost $4,000,000 a year; and adds, " The imitative or memorizing faculties only are cultivated, and little or no attention is paid to the thinking or reflective powers. Indeed it may almost be said that a child of any originality or with individual characteristics is looked upon as wholly out of place in a public school. ... To skate is as difficult as to write; probably more difficult. Yet in spite of hard teaching in the one case and no teaching in the other, the boy can skate beautifully, and he cannot write his native tongue at all."* Mr. Edward Atkinson says, "We are training no American craftsmen, and unless we devise better meth- ods than the old and now obsolete apprentice system, much of the perfection of our almost automatic mech- anism will have been achieved at the cost not only of the manual but also of the mental development of our men. Our almost automatic mills and machine-shops will be- come mental stupefactories."f Prof. Barbour, of Yale College, says, " Our schools are * " Scientific Common-school Education." — Harper's New Monthh/ Magazine, November, 1880, pp. 935, 939. f "Elementary Instruction in the Mechanic Arts." — Scribncr's Monthly, April, 1881, p. 903. 203 MANUAL TRAINING. suffering from congestion of the brain : too much thought and too little putting it in practice." An English observer of our public schools says, " They teach ajjparently for information, almost regardless of de- velopment. This system develops no special individual- ity or power, forms few habits of observation, benefits little except the memory, and herein lies its great weak- ness." The late Mr. Wendell Phillips said, " Our system stops too short, and as a justice to boys and girls as well as to society it should see to it that those whose life is to be one of manual labor should be better trained for it." Mr. Wickersham, late Superintendent of Public In- struction for the State of Pennsylvania, says, "It is high time that something should be done to enable our youth to learn trades and to form industrious habits and a taste for work." Dr. Punkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, says, " Public education should touch practical life in a larger number of points ; it should better fit all for that sphere in life in wdiicli they are destined to find their highest happiness and well-being." Opinions of this character might be multiplied almost indefinitely. They reflect the general sentiment that, as an industrial agency, the public school is a failure ; but its value as an enlightening and civilizing agency is not therefore underestimated. It was not established as an industrial agency ; it was established as a bulwark of lib- erty, and nobly did it fulfil its mission. The colonial fathers had a horror of ignorance, and as a barrier against it they raised the public school. But they were without industrial interests in the higher departments of skilled labor, and without commerce in a large way. Lord Shef- AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 203 field said that tlie American colonies were founded with the sole view of securing to England a monopoly of their trade, and Lord Chatham declared that they had no right to manufacture even a nail or a horseshoe. Even after the Revolution, in 1784, the commerce of the country was so insignificant that eight bales of cotton shipped from South Carolina were seized by the customs authori- ties of England on the ground that so large a quantity could not have been produced in the United States ! These humble conditions no longer exist, and to object to the expansion of the public - school system to meet the requirements of new exigencies is to ignore the logic and march of events. The nations are running an in- dustrial race, and the nation that applies to labor the most thought, the most intelligence, will rise highest in the scale of civilization, will gain most in wealth, will most surely survive the shocks of time, will live longest in history. In the race for industrial supremacy we are not at the front. It is a fact to be pondered that we are exchanging the j^roducts of unskilled for skilled labor with the nations of Europe. In the course of a year, for example, England exports of raw material and food only about $150,000,000 in value, while her exports of manu- factures aggregate about $850,000,000 in value. On the other hand, our exports consist almost entirely of raw material and food, their annual value being about $800,000,000, while of manufactures we export only a beggarly $75,000,000 worth, and our imports of manu- factures are of the annual value of about $250,000,000. In crude, uneducated, unskilled labor capacity we have grown much more rapidly than in the departments of educated, skilled labor ; and in the exact ratio of this growth of unskilled over skilled labor we arc behind the 9- 804 MANUAL TRAINING. age. We are industrially ill-balanced. We are selling brawn and buying tbouglit — cunning, invention, genius ; exhausting our physical manhood and impoverishing a virgin soil. "We are suffering from a paucity of skilled labor, and we hesitate to apply the needed and obvious- ly adequate remedy — the training of the youth of the country in the elements of the useful arts, in the public schools. A final and conclusive evidence of the verity of the charge that prevailing methods of education are auto- matic, and hence superficial in their character, is found in an examination test recently made in one of the public schools in a large American city, in the department of mathematics. The superintendent begins to distrust his own system of abstract instruction, and resolves to test the acquirements of certain classes of pupils ranging from ten to twelve years of age. He submits a series of ques- tions in number, which are promptly solved either orally or in chalk on the black-board, showing a complete mas- tery of the subject from the abstract side, or point of view. To test the practical value of the knowledge thus exhibited the superintendent repeats his series of ques- tions, apj)lying them to things. For example : He passes six cards to a pupil, and requests that one-half of them be returned. This question having been promptly and cor- rectly answered by the return of three of them, and the six cards being again placed in the hands of the pupil, the second question is propounded, namely, "Please give me one -third of one -half of the cards in your hand." The pupil is puzzled ; he fumbles the cards nervously, blushes, and returns a wrong number or becomes entirely helpless and "gives it u]3." This question, or some other question of similar general import, is submitted to each AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 205 member of tlie class -witli a like unfavorable result in eight or nine cases in a total of ten cases. The superin- tendent is astonislied ; he is more than astonished, he is deeply chagrined ; for he knows that the kindergarten child of six or seven years of age, with the blocks, would answer his series of questions correctly eight or nine times in a total of ten. It is impossible to conceive of a more striking illustra- tion of the prime defects of automatic education than is afforded by the foregoing described experiment. It sus- tains and justifies the severe criticism of the schools by Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Jr., in his magazine article of 1880, in the course of which he says, " From one point of view children are regarded as automatons; from another, as india-rubber bags; from a third, as so much raw material. They must move in step and exactly alike. They must receive the same mental nutriment in equal quantities and at fixed times. Its assimilation is wholly immaterial, but the motions must be gone through with. Finally, as raw material, they are emptied in at the primaries, and marched out at the grammar grades — and it is well !"* The testimony of Col. Francis W. Parker, of the Cook County (Illinois) ISTormal School, is to the same effect. He says, " The most important work of to-day is to collect, rec- oncile, and apply all the principles and methods of edu- cation that have been discovered in the past, into one science and art of teaching. This would certainly radi- cally change all our school W'Ork in this country. AVhen * " Scientific Common-school Education." — Harper's New Monthly Magazine, November, 1880, p. 937. 206 MANUAL TKAINING. this is done the ground will be made ready for new ad- vances in the incomplete science of education. Because a complete science has not yet been discovered is a very poor reason for not applying what we already know. What specific changes would the application of known mental laws, in teaching about which all psychologists are in agreement, bring about ? For it is only by a sharp comparison of what is now done according to tradition and custom in our schools, with that which can be done by the application of the simplest principles of teaching, that the value of the true art of instruction may be in some degree appreciated. "To illustrate this it may be mentioned that little children have been taught to read, in the past, and a great majority of them are now taught, by a method that is utterly opposed to a mental law, about wdiich there can be no dispute among those who know anything of the science of teaching. I refer to the ABC method. Near- ly three hundred years ago Comenius discovered a rule of teaching which may be said to embrace all rules in its category — ' Things that have to be done should be learned by doing them.' This rule is so simple and plain that every one, except the teachers, has adopted and used it since man has lived upon the earth. If I am not very much mistaken, the school-master for the last fifty years has been incessantly inventing ways of doing things in the school-room by doing something else. We try to teach the English language by rules, definitions, analyses, diagrams, and parsing. Before the poor innocent child can write a single sentence correctly, we teach the painful pronunciation of words without the grasping of thought as reading. We vainly endeavor to give children a knowledge of number by teaching figures, the signs of AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 207 number. We cram our victim's mind full of empty, meaningless words, instead of inspiring and develoj)ing it bj tbe sweet and strong realities of thought. This futile struggle to do things by doing something else is to-day costing the people of this country millions and millions of hard-earned dollars; and it is much to be feared that it will one day cost their children the bless- ings of a free government. This is a serious charge. " The three hundred thousand teachers of this country are as faithful, honest, and earnest as any other class of active workers. If, then, these great truths in education be at the doors of our educators, why do they not acquire and use them ? The answer is not far to seek. ISTot one teacher in five hundred ever makes a practical, thorough study of the history of education, to say nothing of the science. " The tremendous projecting power of tradition stands stubbornly in the way of progress in education. It can only be met and overcome by the most thorough search- ing and indefatigable study of the child's nature, and of the means by which the possibilities for good in God's greatest creation may be realized."* The change from automatic to scientific education ought not to be very diflicult. It has been made in the kindergarten. It consists in substituting things in the place of signs. The boy should be taught to read in school as he will be required to read ; to write as he will be required to write ; and to cipher as he will be required to cipher, when he becomes a man. In teaching chemistry, for example, there should be * Letter to the author under date of April, 1883, and by him re- produced in a communication published in the Chicago Tribune, April 23, 1883. 208 MANUAL TRAINING. a laboratory with the necessary ilkistrative apparatus. In teaching geography, in addition to the books and the globe, the form of tlie continent should be moulded in sand, with coast lines, mountain ranges, rivers, canals, har- bors, cities, etc. In teaching number the pupil should have the things and parts of things, represented by signs, in his hands. In teaching mechanics the pupil should handle the saw, the plane, the file, the hammer, and the chisel, and stand at the bench, the forge, and the turn- ing-lathe. It is in this way only that the pupil can be taught the power of expressing, as Mr. Clark puts it, " what has been absorbed on the receptive side." Mr. MacAlister illustrates the force of Mr. Clark's di- agrams in a sentence : " We must not close our eyes to the fact that by far the larger number of men in every civilized community are workers to whom a skilled hand is quite as important as a w^ell filled head."* The prevail- ing methods of teaching fill the head but do not provide for assimilation, recreation, and expression. 'Now to as- similate, to reduce to practical value and put to use facts memorized, and to create, the power of expression is an essential prerequisite ; creating is expressing ideas in con- crete form. But under the old regime of education only two modes of expression are provided — speech and wi'it- ing. A third mode — drawing — has been very generally adopted. Drawing, however, is only the first step, an incomplete step, so to speak, of expression. It is a sign, an outline, of a thing. What we want is the thing itself. That thing can only be produced at the forge, the bench, or the lathe ; and this is manual training in the arts. * Mr. James MacAlister, Superintendent of Schools of the City of Philadelphia, Pa., at the meeting of the American Institute of In- struction, Saratoga, N. Y., .July 13, 1883. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 209 Wliat manual training will do for the j)upil is ex- pressed in tlie following terse paragraph by Col. Augus- tus Jacobson : " The boy leaving school should carry with him me- chanical, business, and scientific training, fitting him for whatever it may become necessary for him to do in the world. I would secure for society the advantage of all the brain capacity that is born and all the training it can take. It is possible and practicable to let every child of fair capacity start in life from his school a skilled worker, with the principal tools of all the mechanical employ- ments, an athlete with the maximum of health possible to him, and thoroughly at home in science and literature. The child so trained would, when grown, be to the ordi- nary man of to-day what Jay-Eye-See is to an ordinary plough-horse." 210 MANUAL TRAINING. CHAPTER XIX. AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDU- CATION— Continued. The Failure of Education in America shown by Statistics of Railway and Mercantile Disasters. — Shrinkage of Railway Values and Fail- ures of Merchants. — Only Three Per Cent, of those e'ntering Mer- cantile Life achieve Success. — Business Enterprises conducted by Guess: Cause, Unscientific Education. — Savage Training is better because Objective. — Mr. Foley, late of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on the Scientific Character of Manual Education — Prof. Goss, of Purdue University, to the same Effect — also Dr. Belfield, of the Chicago Manual Training School. — Students love the Laboratory Exercises. — Demoralizing Effect of Unscientific Training. — The Failure of Justice and Legislation as contrasted ■with the Success of Civil Engineering and Architecture. A STEiKiNG illustration of the defective character of both public and private systems of education, in the United States, is afforded by the statistics of commercial, railway, and other business failures. In 1877 a careful compilation of figures in regard to the shrinkage of rail- way values showed the following result : " In round numbers, eighteen hundred inillions of dol^ lars, or thirty-eight per cent, of the capital reported as invested in two hundred of our railway companies alone, is wholly unproductive to the investors, and the greater part is wholly lost to them. This is sufficiently appalling, but when we consider how many companies that have managed to keep up the interest on their bonds have wholly, or almost, ceased to pay any interest on their cap- ital stock, which stock, in turn, has shrunk to seventy- AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 211 five, fifty, twenty-five, ten, in some cases ^y^ per cent, of its par value, it will seem to be a reasonable conclusion that the actual shrinkage and loss to somebody on the face value of railway investments in the United States has been fully fifty per cent. !"* In view of this startling exhibit it is evident that in the projection, construction, and management of the rail- ways of the United States there has been gross incom- petency. In 1881 Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., the well-known commercial agents, showed that of the wholesale mer- chants doing business in the city of Chicago in 1870 fifty per cent, had failed, suspended, or compromised with their creditors. Forty years ago Gen. Dearborn, a prominent citizen of Chicago, declared that not more than three per cent. of the individuals who embark in trade end life with suc- cess. The success meant, doubtless, is unbroken solven- cy during the business experience of the merchant, and the final accumulation of a competence. The mercantile ranks in the United States afford many instances of in- dividual merchants and firms wdio have settled or com- promised with their creditors several times, and finally succeeded — succeeded at the expense of their creditors. But this is not the success meant by Gen. Dearborn. This statistical information, furnished by Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., tends to confirm, approximately, the verity of the common remark that in trade not one in a hun- dred succeeds. Let us suppose that three merchants in a hundred so conduct their business as never to ask their creditors for * The Chicago Railway Age. 213 MANUAL TRAINING. a favor, never to " settle " for 50 or 25 cents, but always pay " dollar for dollar," and come out in the end rich. This is strictly legitimate success. It would be very in- teresting to learn what becomes of the other ninety-seven merchants. Most of them go down after a few years, never again to emerge above the surface of commercial affairs. They live on salaries, enter tlie ranks of the speculative class, or become genteel paupers. But doubt- less seven at least of the ninety-seven " compromise " and " settle " themselves over the breakers, and finally achieve success. So that of the ten successful merchants out of a hundred those who succeed at the expense of their cred- itors are as seven to three of those who win success by the highest degree of mercantile merit. With ninety utter failures, seven successes which in- volve the misfortune or wreck of others, and only three untarnished successes in a hundred, the general ambition to enter mercantile life is simply unaccountable. Of course the small number of successful merchants have to calculate upon the failures which will inevitably occur. They must discount the losses they are sure to incur through those failures — provide for them by increasing the otherwise sufficient profit of each transaction. In this way the public pays the cost of each failure. In other words, the consumer is taxed to pay the expense of ninety complete failures, and seven partial failures, in every hundred mercantile experiments. This expense aercrreo-ates scores of millions of dollars in this country alone, every year. The sum of losses by the failure of merchants in good seasons is very large, and in seasons of commercial depression it is vast. It is evident that ninety-seven in every hundred mer- chants mistake their avocation. Only three in a hundred AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 213 are exactly fitted for the business they undertake. They are morally the "fittest" who survive by virtue of abil- ity and integrity ; the seven who survive by levying contributions on their creditors may also be regarded as the " fittest " according to the Darwinian theory. Of the ninety who go down without even a struggle to " settle " or " compromise," they answer to the received definition of dirt — " matter out of place." The investigation made by Messrs. R. G. Dun & Co., wdiich resulted in the statistical information here repro- duced and commented upon, w^as brought about by the assertion in 1881 of a life-insurance agent that fifty per cent, of the wholesale merchants doing business in the city of Chicago in 18T0 had meantime failed, suspended, or com- j^romised with their creditors. Out of this investigation the question logically springs, " Is not failing in business made too easy ?"* If " compromises," " settlements," and " failures " carry w^itli them no disgrace, it is but natural that thousands should take the risk of them in the con- test for tlie great prizes which are the reward of success. The distinction in the public mind between the three mercliants in a hundred who succeed legitimately and the seven who succeed by questionable " compromises " or " settlements " is very slight ; and too many of the * "Mercantile honor is held so high in some countries that the calamity of bankruptcy drives men mad. In France there are nu- merous instances of almost superhuman struggles on the part of ruined merchants to regain, by patient effort and pinching economy, their lost station in the business community. Cesar Birotteau, Bal- zac's hero of such a struggle, dies from excess of emotion in the hour of his triumph. ' Behold the death of the just !' the Abbe Loraux exclaims, as he regards, with lofty pride, the expiring merchant." — " Ten-minute Sketches," p. 220. By Charles II. Ham. Chicago and New York : Belford, Clark & Co., 1884. 214 MANUAL TRAINING. ninety who fail utterly retire witli large suras of money which belong honestly to their creditors. Doubtless the life-insurance agent, in depicting the perils of mercantile ventures, urged the propriety of the merchant fortifying himself against disaster by insuring his life for the bene- fit of his family. This is a legitimate argument when addressed to the merchant in solvent condition ; but the life-insurance agent's intimate acquaintance with the shaky finances of nine-tenths of the commercial commu- nity teaches him that a large share of the money he re- ceives in premiums, comes not from the merchant, but from the merchant's creditors, who will soon be called upon, in the natural course of events, to consent to a composition of his claim, while the shaky merchant will retire with a paid-up policy of insurance in favor of his family. It is quite j)lain that in nine cases out of ten the mer- chant who carries a large policy of insurance on his life actually pays for it out of his creditors' instead of his own money. To be sure, it may be said that the nine merchants hope and expect to succeed as well as the one. But is not it the duty of the merchant who owes large sums of money to think more of providing means for the payment of his immediate debts than of laying up a support for himself and family in the event of failure ? Some disgrace ought to attach to failure in business ; that is to say, disgrace enough to make the merchant cautious and economical, with a Aaew, not to his own protection in the event of failure, but to the protection of his cred- itors, and of his own reputation as a business man. These failures, on so vast a scale, of railway enterprises, and the almost total Avreck of mercantile ventures, show that the business of this country is done, as a Yankee AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION, 215 miglit say, "by guess," or as the mechanic of the old regime would say, " by the rule of thumb." The conclu- sion is hence irresistible that the youth of the United States are not so educated as to fit them for the conduct, to a successful issue, of great business enterprises. And this is an impeachment of what is regarded, on the whole, as the best system of popular education in operation in the world. A system of education wliich turns out nine- ty-three or ninety-seven men who fail, to three or seven men who succeed in business, must be very unscientific. If the savage system of education were not better adapt- ed to the savage state, the savage would perish from the earth in the process of civilization. The savage bends his ear to the ground and robs the forest of its secrets, not three times in a hundred, but ninety and nine times. Ninety-nine times in a hundred the savage traces the footsteps of his enemy in the tangled mazes of tlie path- less wood. In "Aborigines of Australia""-^ Mr, G. S. Lang states that "one day while travelling in Australia he pointed to a footstep and asked whose it was. The guide glanced at it without stopping his horse, and at once answered, ' Wliitefellow call him Tiger.' This turned out to be cor- rect ; which was the more remarkable as the two men be- longed to different tribes, and had not met for two years." Among the Arabs it is asserted that some men know every individual in the tribe by his footstep. Besides this, every Arab knows the printed footsteps of his own camels, and of those belonging to his immediate neigh- bors. He knows by the depth or sliglitness of the im- pression wliether a camel was pasturing, and therefore * "Aborigines of Australia," p. 24. 216 MANUAL TRAINING. not carrying any load, or mounted by one person only, or heavily loaded. The Australian will kill a pigeon with a spear at a distance of thirty paces. The Esqui- mau in his kayak will actually turn somersaults in the water. After giving many illustrations of the skill of various races of savages, Sir John Lubbock says, " What an amount of practice must be required to ob- tain such skill as this ! How true, also, must the weapons be ! Indeed it is very evident that each distinct type of flint implement must have been designed for some dis- tinct purpose." He adds, " The neatness with which the Hottentots, Esquimaux, North American Indians, etc., are able to sew is very remarkable, although awls and sinews would in our hands be but poor substitutes for needles and thread. As already mentioned (in page 332), some cautious archseologists hesitated to refer the reindeer caves of the Dordogne to the Stone Age, on account of the bone needles and the works of art which are found in them. Tlie eyes of the needles especially, they thought, could only be made with metallic implements. Prof. Lartet ingeniously removed these doubts by making a similar needle for himself with the help of ilint ; but he might have referred to the fact stated by Cook in his first voyage, that the 'New Zealanders succeeded in drill- ing a hole through a piece of glass which he had given them, using for this purpose, as he supposed, a piece of jasper."* The education which enables the savage to make these extremely nice adjustments of means to ends is scientific. The observation, for example, of the Arab who draws * "Prehistoric Times," pp. 544, 548. By Sir Jolm Lubbock, Bart., M.P. New Yorli: D. Appletou & Co., 1875. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 217 such accurate conclusions from the " printed footstep of the camel," if applied to the problems of civilized life, would result in success, not failure. The excellence of this savage training consists in its practical character, in its perfect adaptation to the end in view. For example, the Esquimau boy is not instructed in the theory of turning somersaults in the water, in his kayak. He sees his father perform the feat ; he is given a kayak and required to perform it also. The result is early and complete success. So of the Arab. In trav- ersing the desert it is important for him to read every sign, to translate every mark left in the sand. Upon tlie accuracy of his observation his life may often dej^end. The print of the camel's footstep may tell him whether he is, soon or late, to meet friend or foe. Hence from early childhood his faculty of observation is trained until it soon becomes as delicate and nice as the sense of touch of a blind, deaf mute. Sir John Lubbock thinks that a great amount of practice must be required to achieve so much skill ; but the results are due probably more to the nature, than to the extent, of the practice. It is the ex- cellence of the training that produces results which ex- cite wonder and admiration. The savage is indolent ; he works only that he may eat, and he works well simply because he has been taught objectively instead of sub- jectively. The difference in results between the best and the poorest methods of instruction is very great, as witness the testimony of Mr. Thomas Foley, late instructor in forging, vise-work, and machine-tool work in the scliool of mechanic arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. He says, "It is a great waste of time to spend two or three 218 MANUAL TRAINING. years in acquiring knowledge of a given business profes- sion or trade that can be acquired in the short space of twelve or thirteen days under a proper course of instruc- tion. Twelve days of systematic school-shop instruction produces as great a degree of dexterity as two or more years' apprenticeship under the adverse conditions which prevail in the trade-shop."* The manual training meth- ods are the same as those which enable the savage to perforni such feats of skill. They are the natural and hence most efficient methods of imparting instruction. The manual training school is a kindergarten for boys fourteen years of age. Miss S. E. Blow, in formulating the theory of the kindergarten, describes the methods of the savage's school, and those of the manual training school, as follows : " It is a truth now universally recognized by educators that ideas are formed in the mind of a child by abstrac- tion and generalization from the facts revealed to him through the senses ; that only what he himself has per- ceived of the visible and tangible properties of things can serve as the basis of thought; and that upon the viv- idness and completeness of the impressions made upon him by external objects, will depend the clearness of his inferences and the correctness of his judgments. It is equally true, and as generally recognized, that in young children the percejotive faculties are relatively stronger than at any later period, and that while the understand- ing and reason still sleep, the sensitive mind is receiving those sharp impressions of external tilings which, held fast by memory, transformed by the imagination, and * Report on "The Manual Element in Education," p. 30. By John D. Runkle, Ph.D., LL.D., Walker Professor of Mathematics, Insti- tute of Technology, Boston, Mass. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 219 finally classified and organized tlirough reflection, result in the determination of tliouglit and the formation of character. " These two parallel truths indicate clearly that the first duty of the educator is to aid the perceptive faculties in their work by supplying the external objects best cal- culated to serve as the basis of normal conceptions, by exhibiting these objects from many different stand-points — that variety of interest may sharpen and intensify the impressions they make upon the mind, and by presenting them in such a sequence that the transition from one object to another may be made as easy as possible." '^^ This admirable exposition of the theory of scientific education solves the mystery which has always enveloped savage skill. It also affords a philosophic explanation of the fact discovered by Mr. Foley, namely, that the stu- dent of the manual training school acquires as much knowledge in one hundred and twenty hours as the ap- prentice of the machine-shop does in two years. In a word, it shows exactly why scientific education is so in- comparably superior to automatic education. Mr. Foley asserts, in substance, that the scientific methods of the manual training school are twenty times as valuable to the student as the unscientific methods of the trade-shop are to the apprentice. In a familiar letter to the author. Prof. Gossf shows why the methods of the manual training school are so very valuable. lie says : * " The Kindergarten. An address, delivered April 3, 1875, before the Normal Teachers' Association, at St. Louis, Mo." f Prof. William F. M. Goss, a graduate of the school of mechanic arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and at present in- structor in the mechanic arts department of the Purdue University. 10 220 MANUAL TRAINING. " In sucti a school, or course, a student is taught to per- form a series of operations, involving practice with a va- riety of tools, on pieces of suitable material. It is not to be supposed that his ability to make a certain piece is directly valuable, for the experience of a lifetime may never require him to make it again. It is not expected that while making the piece he will learn a number of formulated facts relating to his work, and its application to other work, for that is not the best way to learn. IS^or can we expect him to acquire a high degree of hand skill (accuracy and rapidity of movement combined), for this his limited time will not permit. But he does this : he works out a practical mechanical problem with every piece he makes. He sees how the tool must be handled, and how the material operated on behaves. He comes to understand why the tool cuts well in some directions and not so well in others; and all the time he queries to himself where it was that he saw a joint like the one he is making. He is an investigator — as much so as a stu- dent in chemistry. His mind must always guide his hand; his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel. " A boy ten years old, who was a member of a class under my direction in Indianapolis in 1883, is reported to have said, 'Why, mother, I never looked at the doors and windows so much in all my life as I have since I be- gan at the wood-working school.' " I tell my students how to go to work when they are likely to make mistakes, and how mistakes may be avoid- ed. In operating along the line directed they thorough- ly understand what they are doing, and why they do it. They see on all sides of their work. "If I have several different tools for doing work of AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 331 tlie same character, I frequently give a student first one and then another, until he has tried them all. Then I ask him which he likes best, and why. Suppose we are to make a drawing-board. The class having already been made familiar with the principles governing the shrink- age and warping of woods, is asked in what way the cleats, to prevent warping, may best be fastened to the ends. The question is left open for a day or two, and sketches are submitted and views exchanged on the subject. " I frequently ask my students to pass to me, in writ- ing, as many facts (not in the form of a composition) as they can think of regarding certain stated features of their work — not facts to be obtained from books, but from things they have seen and with which they are fa- miliar. The replies are often remarkable for accuracy and force of statement. . . . " The manual training school that does not by its work inspire thought and encourage investigation is poor in- deed ; the school that assumes its work to be mind train- ing hj hand practice is the ideal school, and the school that will succeed. . . . " My answei* to your second and third questions is al- ready evident. I consider an hour in the shop as valuable for its intellectual training as an hour of book-study, and two hours in the shoj) as valuable as two hours of study. I do not think that a student can take two hours of shop- work in addition to a full course of outside study ; but I am convinced that two hours in the shop can be made to take the place of one hour of study without extra burden to the student. Therefore, this being done, the student will get as much again intellectual benefit from the shop as he would get if the shojD-work equivalent in time were given to book-study." 223 MANUAL TRAINING. This description of the mental operations which ac- company the shop exercises of the manual training school shows the intimacy of the relations existing be- tween the brain and the hand. It shows how they act and react upon each other, and affords an explanation of the remark of Dr. Belfield,* that the laboratory exercises are in fact a great strain upon the mental constitution of the student. This observation of Dr. Belfield, one of the most distinguished teachers of the old regime in the United States, entirely justifies the claim made in behalf of the scientific character of manual training as an edu- cational agency, for it shows that such training is in no sense automatic. If manual training is a great strain upon the mental faculties, it must be because the use of tools stimulates such faculties to great activity. And if this is true, the mental discipline derived from manual training must be proportionally great. This is a pivotal point; for if the observation of Dr. Belfield is well founded in fact and reason, it proves to a demonstration the high educational value of manual training — proves its superiority over all the methods of the old regime. Prof. Goss says, " The manual training school student is an investigator — as much so as a student in chemis- try. His mind must always guide his hand, his reason- ing opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel. He sees on all sides of his work."f And Dr. * Henry H. Belfield, A.M., Ph.D., Director of the Chicago Manual Training School. \ "No extent of acquaintance with the meanings of words can give the power of forming correct inferences respecting causes and effects. The constant habit of drawing conclusions from data, and then of verifying those conclusions by observation and experiment, can alone give the power of judging correctly." — "Education," p. 88. By Herbert Spencer. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1883. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 223 Belfield says that these varied operations of the mind cause a severe mental strain. It would be difficult to find a better exemplification of scientific education than a course of training which exercises simultaneously the powers of both body and mind, a course which with every fresh burden put upon the mind puts new vitality into the body. This is, indeed, the very opposite of auto- matic education, and we may well call it scientific educa- tion. Another leaf from the experience of Dr. Belfield is worthy of reproduction here. On the 20th of February, 1884, he took the sense of the students in his school on the question whether or not they should indulge in a vacation on Washington's birthday anniversary. Some- what to his surprise the vote was almost unanimous in the affirmative. He acceded to the wishes of the students, but no sooner was the announcement made, than he was besieged with applications from nearly all of them for permission to convert the holiday into a work-day in the laboratories ! Dr. Belfield has been compelled to post a peremptory order against the occupancy of the school laboratories by the students on Saturdays, which are reg- ular vacation days. l^atural training is scientific training. The fondness of the student for the manual training school is evi- dence of its scientific character. He is fond of it because it is natural. Miss Blow says of the child : " Only what lie himself has perceived of the visible and tangible prop- erties of things can serve as the basis of thought, and upon the vividness and completeness of the impressions made upon him by external objects will depend the clearness of his inferences and the correctness of liis judgments." This is the education both of the kinder- 33-4 MANUAL TRAINING. garten and the manual training school, and it brightens, stimulates, and develops, while automatic education stu- pefies, Mr. Foley, formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, declares, as the result of his experience, as already stated, that tlie scientific methods of the manual training school are twenty times as valuable to the stu- dent as the unscientific methods of the trade-shop are to the apprentice. But we have shown in a former chapter that the training of the trade-shops of England, during the past one hundred and fifty years, has been better than that of the English schools and universities ; in a word, that England is more indebted for her greatness to her apprentice system than to her school system. It follows tliat the school system of England must have been almost indescribably poor. That the system of popular education in the United States, which is much more comprehensive, and presum- ably better, than that of England, is very poor indeed in results, is shown by the statistics of railway and mercan- tile disasters ; and it is scarcely necessary to remark that these disasters show prevailing methods of education to be as defective morally as they are mentally. The rea- son of this is that, being automatic, they lead neither to the discovery of truth nor to the detection of error. It is easy to juggle with words, to argue in a circle, to make the worse appear the better reason, and to reach false conclusions which wear a plausible aspect. But it is not so with things. If the cylinder is not tight the steam- engine is a lifeless mass of iron of no value whatever. A flaw in the wheel of the locomotive wrecks the train. Through a defective flue in the chimney the house is set on fire. A lie in the concrete is always hideous ; like AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 225 murder, it will out. Hence it is that the mind is liable to fall into grave errors until it is fortified by the wise counsel of the practical hand. It is obvious that the reason of the demand for the manual element in education is not so much that indus- trial interests require to be promoted, as that mental op- erations may be rendered more true, and hence more sci- entific. What we need more than we need a better class of mechanics is a better class of men — men of a higher grade both morally and intellectually. The study of things so steadies and balances the mind that the atten- tion being once turned in that direction great results soon follow, as witness, the history of discovery and in- vention in England. The world moves very fast industrially, but very slow morally and intellectually. Mechanics stand the test of scrutiny far better than merchants. Civil engineers and architects are more competent than railway presidents, lawyers, judges, and legislators. The reason of this fact is that mechanics, civil engineers, and architects are edu- cated practically in the world's shops and the world's technical schools. They are trained in things, while mer- chants, railway presidents, lawyers, judges, and legislators have only the automatic word-training of the schools. It is notorious that criminals are not punished in this coun- try. Suppose there were such a failure of bridges as there is of justice. That is to say, suppose eight-tenths of the bridges constructed, whether for railway or other pur- poses, should fall within a few months of their comple- tion. What would be thought of the technical schools whence the civil engineers graduate ? Ninety-seven merchants in a hundred fail. Suj)pose ninety-seven buildings in a hundred, constructed under 226 MANUAL TRAINING, the direction of architects, should tumble down over the heads of their occupants six months after their erection. The education of the architects would no doubt be regard- ed as defective. Buckle says of English legislation, "The best laws which have been passed have been those by which some former laws were repealed."* It will be admitted that the same is true of American legislation. f In other words, the average legislator is wiser in the statutes he * "History of Civilization ia England," p. 200. By Henry Thom- as Buckle. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1864. " In a paper read to the Statistical Society in May, 1873, Mr. Jan- son, Vice-president of the Law Society, stated that from the statute of Merton (20 Henry III.) to the end of 1872 there had been passed 18,110 public acts, of which he estimated that four fifths had been wholly or partially repealed. He also stated that the number of pub- lic acts repealed wholly or in part, or amended, during the three years 1870-71-72 had been 3532, of which 2759 had been totally repealed. To see whether this rate of repeal has continued I have referred to the annually issued volumes of the ' Public General Statutes ' for the last three sessions. Saying nothing of the numerous amended acts, the result is that in the last three sessions there have been totally re- pealed, separately or in groups, 650 acts belonging to the present reign, besides many of preceding reigns. . . . "Seeing, then, that bad legislation means injury to men's lives, judge what must be the total amount of mental distress, physical pain, and raised mortality which these thousands of repealed Acts of Parliament represent." — "The Man versus the State," pp. 50, 51. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. Appleton & Co. f " So thoroughly have the conscience and intelligence of the North apprehended these facts [neglect to educate and enlighten the freed- men], that while the Nation has done nothing they have given in pri- vate charity, intended to remedy this evil, nearly a million dollars a year for nearly twenty years. This is the instinct of a people versus the stupidity of their legislators. ... Of the true character of the South he [the author] was, like all his class, profoundly ignorant, almost as ignorant as the men who made the Nation's laws." — " An Appeal to Ccesar," pp. 52, 56. By A. W. Tourgee. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 227 repeals than in the bills he enacts. What if the incom- petency of the legislator were paralleled by that of the machinist ? Suppose ninety-seven in every one hundred locomotives should break down on the "trial-trip," and be returned to the builder's shop for remanufacture. Such a result would be an impeachment of the education of the locomotive builder. Ninety -seven in every hundred boys who graduate from the public schools and embark in mercantile pur- suits fail. Suppose ninety -seven in every hundred watches made in the American watch factories should prove to be worthless. The watch companies would, no doubt, soon be in the hands of the sheriff. But, as a matter of fact, the Elgin IS'ational Watch Company, for example, makes twelve hundred watches a day, and each and every one of them is an almost perfect time- keeper. There is, then, no such failure of the arts as there is of justice ; no such failure of mechanics as of merchants ; no such failure of locomotives and watches as of legislation. It follows that the education of artisans is better, more scientific, than that of merchants, judges, lawyers, and legislators. And this is a very significant fact w^ien it is considered that the State does much for education in helles-lettres and scarcely anything for education in the arts and sciences.* * The reason why statutes fail more frequently than steam-engines and bridges is not wholly because the legislator has to deal with hu- man nature and the mechanic with inanimate matter. Steam and electricity are subtle forces, but man has quickly mastered them and successfully applied them to a variety of uses. It is not to the interest of any one that the machinist should make a defective locomotive, for example ; but it is often to the interest of 10* 228 MANUAL TRAINING. some one that the legislator should enact vicious laws. Vicious statutes are enacted with a design to injure the public in order that certain individuals may be benefited thereby. If the mind should act as honestly in legislation as the hand does in construction, statutes would not have to be repealed yearly. "We have fallen into the habit of regarding education as a polite 'accomplishment having very little to do with the real business of life ; but this is not the fact. Education begins in the cradle and continues through life ; and it makes the man what he is. If he goes to the penitentiary it is his education that sends him there. If he is sent to the General Assembly of the State or to the Congress of the Nation, and there helps to enact vicious laws, it is his education that is responsible for such laws. If the man as a citizen sells his franchise at the polls, or his vote in the legislative hall, for money, it is the education he has received that is responsible for his baseness. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 229 CHAPTER XX. AUTOMATIC CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTIFIC EDU- CATION— Continue. The Training of the Merchant, the Lawyer, the Judge, and the Leg- islator contrasted with that of the Artisan. — The Training of the Merchant makes him Selfish, and Selfishness breeds Dishonesty.—. Professional Men become Speculative Philosophers, and test their Speculations by Consciousness. — The Artisan forgets Self in the Study of Things. — The Search after Truth. — the Story of Palissy. — The Hero is the Normal Man ; those who Marvel at his Acts are abnormally Developed. — Savonarola and John Browru — The New England System of Education contrasted with that of the South. — American Statesmanship — its Failure in an Educational Point of View. — Why the State Provides for Education ; to protect Prop- erty. — The British Government and the Land Question. — The Thor- oughness of the Training given by Schools of Mechanic Art and In- stitutes of Technology as sliown in Things. — Story of the Emperor of Germany and the Needle-maker. — The Iron Bridge lasts a Cen- tury, the Act of the Legislator wears out in a Year. — The Cause of the Failures of Justice and Legislation.— The best Law is the Act that Repeals a Law; but the Act of the Inventor is never Re- pealed. — Things the Source and Issue of Ideas; hence the Neces- sity of Training in the Arts. There is a cause for the failure of the merchant, the lawyer, the judge, and the legislator, as well as for the success of the artisan. And the cause must be sought in the courses of training, respectively, of the two classes. Let us assume that the artisan and the merchant, the lawyer, the judge, and the legislator, graduate at the same time from the public high school or from Harvard or Yale. The merchant at once begins to trade, to buy and sell. He concerns himself with things only as they have 230 MANUAL TRAINING. a value, either naturally arising from the law of demand and supply, or arbitrarily imposed by circumstances. His consideration of the relations of things is confined to the single question of the percentage of profit which may accrue to him from traffic in them. These are subjective processes of thought, and the merchant becomes absorbed in them to the exclusion of all other subjects. It goes without saying that he becomes intensely selfish. The struggle is one of mercantile life or death — ninety-three to ninety-seven in a hundred die, three to seven survive. Among merchants there is, hence, very little thought of the subject of justice, and no effort to discover truth. There must, at the end of the year, be a favorable bal- ance on the right side of the ledger, or the balance on the wrong side unerringly points the way to ruin. This is the post-school training of the merchant. That neither it nor his previous education renders him skilful we know, since he fails ninety-three to ninety-seven times in a hun- dred trials. Tliat subjective training does not and never can promote rectitude has been shown in a former chap- ter of this work. That merchants who compromise with their creditors, and subsequently accumulate fortunes, very rarely repay the debt formerly forgiven is a notorious fact. A Chicago merchant who himself repaid such a composition debt early in his career, states, at the end of twenty-five years' experience, that of compromises involv- ing several hundred thousand dollars, made by him in fa- vor of debtors, not one dollar has ever been repaid. Upon leaving school or college the lawyer, the judge, and the legislator at once apply themselves to books ; their subsequent training is exclusively subjective. Their ideas receive color from and are verified only by refer- ence to consciousness. Subjective truths have no rela- AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 231 tions to things, and hence are susceptible of verification only through consciousness. They are, therefore, mere speculations after all, often ingenious but always prob- lematical. The result of such training is selfishness — selfishness of a very intense character ; and, as has been already shown, selfishness is merely another name for in- justice. On the other hand the artisan devotes himself to things. His training is exclusively objective. His ideas flow out- ward ; he studies the nature and relations of things. In this investigation he forgets self because his life becomes a grand struggle in search of truth ; and the discovery of truth in things, if not easy, is ultimately sure of attain- ment, since harmony is its sign, and its opposite, the false, is certain of exposure through its native deformity ; for however alluring a lie may be made to appear in the ab- stract, in the concrete it is an unmasked abomination. From the false the artisan intuitively shrinks. He can only succeed by finding the truth, and embodying it in some useful or beautiful thing which will contribute to the comfort or j^leasure of man. Hence his watchword is util- ity, or, beauty in utility. Of the engrossing character of this struggle the story of Bernard Palissy affords a sj)len- did illustration. Palissy was an artist, a student, and a naturalist, but poor, and compelled to follow the profes- sion of surveying to support his family. At the age of thirty he saw an enamelled cup, of Italian manufacture, which fired his ambition. Ignorant of the nature of clays, he nevertheless resolved to discover enamel, and entered upon a laborious course of investigation and ex- periment with that end in view. After many years of Herculean effort and indescribable privation, which beg- gared and estranged his family, and rendered him an ob- 232 MANUAL TRAINING. ject of ridicule among bis neighbors, be aebieved a grand success. At a critical period of bis experiments, in tbe face of tbe indignant protests of his almost starving fam- ily, having exhausted his credit to tbe last penny, be con- signed to tbe flames of bis furnace tbe chairs, tables, and floors of his humble cottage, and continued to watch bis chemicals with all-absorbing attention, while his wife in despair rushed into tbe streets and made loud proclama- tion of tbe scandal. But Palissy was more than a potter ; he was a Chris- tian, a philosopher, and an austere reformer. Notwith- standing he had been petted and patronized as an inge- nious artisan by the royal family of France, be was final- ly cast into prison under charge of heresy. It was there that tbe remarkable interview with King Henry III. oc- curred, which immortalized Palissy as a hero. " My good man," said tbe king, "you have been forty-five years in tbe service of the queen, my mother, or in mine, and we have suffered you to live in your own religion, amid all tbe executions and tbe massacres. I^ow, however, I am so pressed by tbe Guise party and my people that I have been compelled in spite of myself to imprison these two poor women and you." " Sire," answered the old man, "the count came yesterday on your part, promising life to these two sisters upon condition of tbe sacrifice of their virtue. They replied that they would now be mar- tyrs to their own honor as well as for tbe honor of God. You have said several times that you feel pity for me ; but it is I who pity you, who have said, ' I am compelled !' That is not speaking like a king. These girls and I, who have part in the kingdom of heaven — we will teach you to talk royally. Tbe Guisarts, all your people, and your- self, cannot compel a potter to bow down to images of AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 233 clay !"■" And Palissy the potter and heretic, at the age of seventy, died in the Bastile, proudly defying a king. The more absorbing the struggle for the discovery of truth becomes, the less room there is in the mind of man for selfishness ; and as selfishness recedes, justice assumes its appropriate place as the controlling element in human conduct. The hero is an honest man, that's all. ' ' Though love repine, and reason chafe, There comes a voice without reply; 'Tis man's perdition to be safe, When for the truth he ought to die." If all men were heroes — honest — there would be no oc- casion for heroism. If all education can be made scien- tific, all men can be made honest. The struggle to find truth is more natural than the struggle to succeed re- gardless of, or against, truth. The reason why what we call heroism appears so grand is this : the standards of public judgment become so perverted by long custom in the abuse of truth that normal conduct appears strange. When Palissy burned his chairs and tables in the cause of art, his family and his neighbors derided him, and de- nounced him as a madman, and in prison the king urged him as a friend to save himself from death by recanting his assertion of the right of freedom of religious opinion. Palissy was a hero neither to his family, his friends, nor his king;f but he was right, and his discovery and his * "Palissy the Potter," Vol. II., pp. 187, 188. By Henry Morley. Boston : Ticknor, Reed & Fields, 1853. •f- "I had nothing but reproaches in the house ; in place of consola- tion, they gave me maledictions. My neighbors, who had heard of this affair [the failure of an experiment], said that I was nothing but a fool, and that I might have had more than eight francs for the tilings that T had broken ; and all this talk was brought to mingle 234 MANUAL TRAINING. firmness rendered him immortal. We now know, three hundred years farther down the course of time, that Pa- lissy's struggle over the furnace in the cause of art was • mentally and morally normal, while the opposition he encountered was abnormal ; and that his defiance of the king was mentally and morally normal, while his perse- cution was abnormal and cruel. Palissy's mind was trained naturally in the direction of rectitude, while the minds of the millions of men who permitted him to die unfriended, a prisoner in the Bas- tile, were developed unnaturally. Their education was unscientific, and their characters were hence deformed. The one symmetrical character was that of Palissy, the lover of truth, who was ready to starve, if need be, for his art, and ready to die for his faith. The thin ranks of the so-called heroes of the ages of history constitute the measure of the poverty of the systems of education that have prevailed among mankind. These so-called heroes are merely normally developed men — men who search for the truth, and having found it, honor it always and everywhere. They are peculiar to no clime, to no country, to no age. They are cosmopolitan, and the fact that they are honored after death by succeeding ages is proof positive of the world's progress, or rather of the progress of moral ideas. The civilization of Italy in the middle of the fifteenth century presents the most violent possible contrast to that of America in the last half of the nineteenth cen- tury. But the one produced Savonarola, the hater of abuses in the Koman Catholic Church, and the other with ray grief." — "Palissy the Potter," Vol. I., p. 190. By Henry Morley. Boston : Ticknor, Reed & Fields, 1853. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 235 John Brown, the stern, uncompromising hater of human bondage. Four hundred years is a long period in the history of civilization, but the priest of the fifteenth cen- tury, and the farmer of the nineteenth, are as near of kin in spirit as if they had been born of the same mother, and reared in the same moral atmosphere. The true hero is always inexorable — as Savonarola in the presence of the majesty of a dying, remorse-stricken, half-repentant prince, and John Brown in the presence of his exultant but half-terrified captors. When Lorenzo di Medici lay terror-stricken, on his death-bed, Savonarola demanded of the dying prince, as the price of absolu- tion, a restoration of the liberties of the people of Flor- ence ; and this being refused, the priest departed without one word of peace. When John Brown, wounded and bleeding, lay a cap- tive at Harper's Ferry, listening to the taunts of angry Virginians, he said, calmly and firmly, " You had better — all you people of the South — prepai'e yourselves for a settlement of this question. It must come up for settle- ment sooner than you are prepared for it, and the sooner you commence that preparation the better for you. Tou may dispose of me very easily — I am nearly disposed of now — but this question is still to be settled — this negro question, I mean. The end of that is not yet."* There is nothing grander in history, whether real or mythological, than the picture of the humble priest of the fifteenth century, with no power except the justice of his cause, shaking thrones and making proud prelates, and even the Pope himself, tremble with fear ! And the * "The Public Life of Captain John Brown," p. 283. By John Redpath. Boston : Thayer & Elclridge, 1860, 236 MANUAL TRAINING. exact parallel of this picture is found, four hundred years down the stream of time, in the person of the farmer, John Brown, defying the Constitution, law, and public sentiment of his country in the interest simply of the cause of justice. It has been shown through citations from the Walton report, as well as by the opinions of many competent witnesses, that the 'New England system of education, whether correct in theory or not, is, in actual operation, very defective. But at the time of its establishment it was the best system in existence. To it this country owes the quality of its civilization. The neglect of education by the Government of the United States is the most as- tonishing fact of its history. It is incomjorehensible how, with a comparatively excellent educational system in op- eration, and in full view in the New England, Middle, and "Western States, the ISTational Government could calm- ly and inactively contemplate the almost entire neglect of popular education in the States of the South, and ig- nore, from year to year, the steadily accumulating hor- rors of ignorance and vice which were destined to lead to such deplorable political and social results. The difference between the civilization of New Eng- land and that of South Carolina, for example, is exactly measured by the diiference between their respective edu- cational systems. New England undertook, at a very early day, to educate every class of its citizens ; South Carolina made a monopoly of education, confining it to a single class. It must be admitted that the American statesmanship of the whole period of our history has been scarcely less short-sighted than that of England under the Georges, which resulted in saddling upon her people a debt that AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 337 they can never pay. If England liad provided a com- preiiensive and scientific system of popular education at the beginning of the eighteenth century, who doubts that the wars through which her debt was incurred would have been averted? If the Government of the United States had compelled the adoption of a scientific educa- tional system by the States of the South, who doubts that slavery would have peaceably passed away, and the occasion for war passed away with it ? The conspicuous failure of American statesmanship consists in a failure to appreciate the value of scientific education. It shows that good citizenship is impossible without good education — for good education and good citizenship are convertible terms. And it is easy to show, by the past, that to hesitate on the subject of education is to be lost.* Why do we provide for popular education? Is it out of pure generosity that the rich citizen consents to be taxed to joay for the education of his poor neighbor's children? Does the man who has no children willingly surrender a portion of his estate for the education of the children of others, as an act of benevolence ? Not at all. There is no security for property in a community devoid of education and consequent intelligence. Intelligence alone confers upon property a sacred character. In one * " If 3^ou examine into the history of rogues, you ^yill find that they are as truly manufactured articles as anything else, and it is just be- cause our present sj'stem of political economy gives so large a stimu- lus to that manufacture that you may know it to be a false one. We had better seek for a system which will develop honest men than for one which will deal cunningly with vagabonds. Let us reform our schools, and we shall find little reform needed in our prisons." — "Unto This Last," p. 50. By John Ruskin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1883. 238 MANUAL TRAINING. of two ways only can property be rendered secure in the owner's hands. It may be protected by a hired soldiery, through the force of arms, or through the force of a pub- lic sentiment enlightened by education. The reason why the poor but educated citizen would not lay violent hands on the rich citizen's property is the fact that he indulges the intelligent hope of himself acquiring property. Be- sides, the morals of a community are in the ratio of its intelligence. The indulgence of hope promotes self-es- teem, and self-respect, and these qualities react upon the moral nature. It should be borne in mind that while one of the main purposes of all governments is to preserve property rights, nearly all the governments of history have been shattered in pieces in the effort to fulfil this function of their existence. It may be said that there is never any- thing sacred about property unless it is honestly acquired. All the force of our own government was exerted in a vain effort to protect property in slaves. England has been compelled to disturb the property rights of the Irish landlords, and this is only the prelude to an attack upon the property rights of her own landlords. It was the ignorance of the English people hundreds of years ago that permitted the establishment of a land system which is now about to crumble in pieces, and in its fall wreck certain property rights. There is nothing sacred about property unless it is hon- estly acquired and honestly held ; and property can only be honestly acquired and honestly held, in communities intelligent enough to guard its acquisition, and continued possession, by just and adequate laws. It follows that edu- cation is the sole bulwark of the State, and so of property. The question of the first consequence is, therefore, AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 239 always, What is the best system of education ? It is ob- vious, also, that the subject of cost should not enter into the discussion ; that the best education is the cheapest, is an indisputable proposition. We have seen that the New England system of education, which has spread over the whole country, is very much better than the system which prevailed in those States of the Union where slav- ery continued to exist down to 1864. But we have seen, also, that that system is very defective ; that it is auto- matic, and hence not natural, not practical, not scientific. It does not produce great merchants, great lawyers, great judgeSy or great legislators. That it does not, is abun- dantly shown by the fact that in mercantile life there are ninety-three to ninety-seven failures in every one hun- dred experiments; by the fact that there is notoriously a general failure of justice ; and by the fact that here, as in Great Britain, the chief business of statesmen is the un- doing of vit;;ious legislation. There is a system of training which produces a much higher average of culture than that of the public schools and the universities. We allude to the training received by the students of sjDCcial mechanical and technical insti- tutions, and by the apprentices in trade-shops. The proof of this is found in the world's railways, ships, harbors, docks, canals, bridges, telegraph and telephone lines, and in a thousand and one other manifestations of skill in art. In the adaptation of means to an end, and in nicety of construction, the mechanic and the civil engineer show, in innumerable ways, with what thoroughness both their minds and their hands have been trained. If mercantile operations were governed by such excellent rules in pro- jection, and by such precision in execution, ninety-seven merchants in a hundred would not go to the wall. 340 MANUAL TRAINING. A story has lately gone the round of the public prints to the effect that, during a visit to a needle factory by the Emperor of Germany, a workman begged a hair of his head, bored an eye in it, threaded it, and handed it back to the monarch, who had expressed surprise that eyes could be bored in the smaller sizes of needles. It does not matter whether or not this story is literally true ; it illustrates the delicacy of modern mechanical operations. Hundreds of similar illustrations might be given, sliow- ing how marvellously skilful the hand has become. It is not claimed that the hand is a nicer instrument than the mind. As a matter of fact, in drilling the hole in the hair the mind and the hand work together — the mind directs the hand, we will say. The mind de- vises or invents a watch — every wheel, pinion, screw, and spring — and directs the hand how to make it, and how to set it up, and it ticks off the time. Why does the mind succeed so admirably when it employs the hand to exe- cute its will, but so ill when it devises and attempts, it- self, to execute ? How is it that the mind invents a watch which, being made by the hand, records the hour to a second, ninety-nine times in a hundred, but fails ninety- three to ninety-seven times in a hundred to devise and carry into execution a mercantile venture? How is it that the mind invents a steam-engine consisting of a hun- dred pieces, so that, each piece being made by a different hand, the machine shall, when set up, ninety-nine times in a hundred, at once perform the work of five hundred horses without strain or friction, but when it grapples with law and fact in the chair of lawyer or judge produces a most pitiable wreck of justice? How is it that the mind devises and the hand executes with such nice adap- tation of means to the end in view, a bridge, that re- AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 241 sembles a spider's web, and jet bears tlionsands of tons and endures for ages, but when it undertakes ,to legis- late evolves statutes that wear out in a year? The first iron bridge constructed spanned the Severn, in England. It was opened to traffic a hundred years ago, but it is still a stanch structure likely to stand for centuries. "Where are the English statutes of that time ? Repealed to give place to a long line of others which in turn have been repealed. When the famous iron bridge across the Severn was constructed, English legislators were passing bills to compel the American colonies to trade only with the mother country, and to tax them without their con- sent. Lord Sheffield said, with charming frankness, that the colonies were founded with the sole view of securing to England a monopoly of their trade ; and Lord Chat- ham declared that they would not be permitted to make even a nail or a horseshoe. In 1516 Sir Thomas More denounced the criminal law of England, declaring that " the loss of money should not cause the loss of man's life."* But this humane and en- lightened sentiment had so little weight that during the reign of Henry YIII. seventy-two thousand thieves were hanged — at the rate of two thousand a year. In 1785 twenty men were executed in London at one time for thefts of five shillings. The Lord Chief-justice and the Lord Chancellor agreed that it would be dangerous to repeal the law punishing pilfering by youths. In 1816 the Commons passed a bill abolishing capital punishment for shoplifting — stealing the value of five shillings — but the Lords defeated it. Lord Ellcnborough, Chief-justice, * "The History of England," Vol. II., p. 83. By Harriet Mar- tineau. Philadelphia : Porter & Coates. 243 MANUAL TRAINING. observing, peevishly, " Thej want to alter these laws which a century has proved to be necessary, and which are now to be overturned by speculation and modern philosophy."* The cause of these failures — of mercantile ventures, of justice, and of legislation — 'is this: Subjective mental processes are automatic, and hence they neither generate power nor promote rectitude ; they enfeeble rather than energize the brain. Men whose characters are formed by such educational processes never originate anything. They become selfish, they venerate the past, their eyes are turned backward ; hence, if they sometimes make a feeble effort to move forward they stumble. The law- yer, the judge, and the legislator are examples of this class. Their guide-books are musty folios in a dead lan- guage ; they look for " precedents " in an age whose civ- ilization perished with its language, and whose maxims and rules of life were long ago exploded. Such men can be compelled to move forward only by the lash of public opinion. Buckle, speaking of the reforms extorted from the legislators of England, says, "But it is a mere matter of history that our legisla- tors, even to the last moment, were so terrified by the idea of innovation that they refused every reform until the voice of the people rose high enough to awe them into submission, and forced them to grant what without such pressure they would by no means have conceded."f On the other hand, the inventor, the discoverer, and the artisan are always in the advance, and always moving * "The History of England," Vol. II., p. 85. By Harriet Mar- tineau. Pliiladelphia : Porter & Coates. f "History of Civilization," Vol. I., p. 361. By Henry Thomas Buckle. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1864. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 243 forward. They never look back except to catcli the vital principle of the invention or discovery of yesterday for utilization in the improved machine of to-day. Their acts are never repealed because they never become odi- ous. They never become odious because they contain the germs of imperishable truth. They are never false ; they are suitable to their time and the stage of development ; they constitute links in the chain of progress. While the legislator is horrified at the thought of innovation, the inventor, the discoverer, and the artisan are electrified by the discovery of a new principle in physics, and de- lighted at its application in a new invention, and its practical operation in a new and useful machine. The difference in effects upon the mental and moral nature, between purely mental training and mental and manual training combined, is susceptible of logical ex- planation. It is only in things that the truth stands clearly revealed, and only in things that the false is sure of exposure."" Hence exclusively mental training stops far short of the objective point of true education. For if it be true that the last analysis of education is art, progress can find expression only in things — in the work of men's hands. And it is true ; for ideas are mere vain speculations until they are embodied in things. ISTor is * "To know the truth it is necessary to do the truth.". . . "We rightly seek the meaning of the abstract in the concrete, be- cause we cannot act in relation to the abstract, which is only a repre- sentative sign; we must give it a concrete form in order to make it a clear and distinct idea ; until we have done so we do not know that we really believe— only believe that we believe it. A truth is best certified to be a truth when we live it and have ceased to talk about it." — "Body and Will," p. 49. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1884. 11 244 MANUAL TRAINING. this materialism unless all civilization is material ; for the prime difference between barbarism and civilization consists in the presence, in a state of civilization, of more things of use and beauty than are found in a state of bar- barism. To exalt things is not materialistic; they are both the source and issue of ideas, and the measure of civilization. Ideas and things are hence indissolubly' connected ; and it follows that any system of education which separates them is radically defective.* Exclusive- ly mental training does not produce a symmetrical char- acter, because at best it merely teaches the student how to think, and the complement of thinking is acting. Be- fore thoughts can have any influence whatever upon the world of mind and matter external to the mind origi- nating them they must be expressed. They may be ex- pressed feebly, through the voice, in words ; more dura- bly, and therefore more forcibly, with the pen, on paper ; more forcibly still in drawing — pictures of things ; and, with the superlative degree of force, in real things. The object of education is the generation of power. * "Prof. Huxley seems to hold that zoology cannot be learned with any degree of sufficiency unless the student practises dissection. In support of this position there are strong reasons. In the first place, the impression made on the mind by the actual' objects, as seen, han- dled, and operated upon, is far beyond the efiicacy of words or de- scription. And not only is it greater, but it is more faithful to the fact. While diagrams have a special value in bringing out links of connection that are disguised in the actual objects, they can never show the things exactly as they appear to our senses ; and this full and precise conception of actuality is the most desirable form of knowledge ; it is truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Moreover, it enables the student to exercise a free and independent judgment upon the dicta of the teacher." — "Education as a Science," p. 303. By Alexander Bain, LL.D. New York : D. Appleton & Co. , 1884. AUTOMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 245 But to generate and store np power, -whether mental or physical, or both, is a waste of effort, nnless tlie power is to be exerted. Why generate steam if there is no engine to be operated ? Steam may be likened to an idea which finds expression through the engine — a thing. Why store the mind with facts — historical, philosophical, or mathematical — which are useless until applied to things, if they are not to be applied to things ? And if they are to be applied to things, why not teach the art of so ap- plying them ? As a matter of fact, the system of ed- ucation which does not do this is one-sided, incom- plete, unscientific. Rousseau says, " Education itself is certainly nothing but habit." If this be true, it will be conceded that the habit of expressing ideas in things should be formed in the schools, because the chief way in which man is benefited is through the expression of ideas in things. The system of education which tends to form this habit is that of the kindergarten and that of the manual training school. These systems are one in principle. They are not new ; they at least date back to Bacon, who declared that he would " employ his utmost endeavors towards restoring or cultivating a just and le- gitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things." The kindergarten and the manual training school exactly re- alize Bacon's idea. The idea of the manual training school was in the mind of Comenius when he said, " Let things that have to be done be learned by doing them." It was in the mind of Pestalozzi when he said, " Educa- tion is the generation of power." It was in the mind of Froebel, not less than the kindergarten, wiien he said, " The end and aim of all our work should be the harmo- nious growth of the whole being." These are excellent definitions of education, and they 246 MANUAL TRAINING. are sequential. If things that have to be done are learned by doing them, there will be in the course of the process a wholesome exercise of both body and mind, and this exercise will result in the generation of power — power to think well, and to do w^ell ; and the process being continued, the result cannot fail to be the harmo- nious growth of the whole being. This is scientific, as opposed to automatic, education.* * "Intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to the abstract. But regardless of this, highly abstract subjects such as grammar, which should come quite late, are begun quite early. Po- litical geography, dead and uninteresting to a child, and which should be an appendage of sociological studies, is commenced betimes, while physical geography, comprehensible and comparatively attractive to a child, is in great part passed over. Nearly every subject dealt with is arranged in abnormal order — definitions and rules and principles being put first, instead of being disclosed, as they are in the order of nature, through the study of cases. And then, pervading the whole, is the vicious system of rote learning — a system of sacrificing the spirit to the letter. . . . "A leading fact in human progress is that every science is evolved out of its corresponding art. It results from the necessity we are under, both individually and as a race, of reaching the abstract by way of the concrete, that there must be practice and an accruing experience with its empirical generalizations before there can be science." — "Education," pp. 61, 124. By Herbert Spencer. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1883. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PKOBLEM. 347 CHAPTER XXI. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM— HISTORIC. EGYPT AND GREECE. Fundamental Propositions. — Selfishness the Source of Social Evil ; Subjective Education the Source of Selfishness and the Cause of Contempt of Labor; and Social Disintegration the Result of Con- tempt of Labor and the Useful Arts. — The First Class-distinction — the Strongest ]\Ian ruled ; his First Rival, the Ingenious Man. — Superstition. — The Castes of India and Egypt — how came they about? — Egyptian Education based on Selfishness. — Rise of Egypt — her Career; her Fall; Analysis thereof. — She Typifies all the Early Nations : Force and Rapacity above, Chains and Slavery below. — Their Education consisted of Selfish Maxims for the Gov- ernment of the Many by the Few, and Government meant the Ap- propriation of the Products of Labor. — Analysis of Greek Charac- ter — its Savapje Characteristics. — Greek Treachery and Cruelty. — Greek Venality.— Her Orators accepted Bribes. — Responsibility of Greek Education and Philosophy for the Ruin of Greek Civiliza- tion. — Rectitude wholly left out of her Scheme of Education. — Plato's Contempt of Matter : it led to Contempt of Man and all his "Works. — Greek Education consisted of Rhetoric and Logic ; all Useful Things were hence held in Contempt. It is a fundamental proposition of this work that self- ishness is the essence of depravity, and hence the source of all social evil ; and in previous chapters it has been shown, argumentatively, that exclusively subjective proc- esses of education tend, in a high degree, to promote self- ishness. Another fundamental proposition of this work is that the useful arts are the true measure of civilization, and that, as they are the product of labor, contempt of the laborer leads inevitabl}^ to social disintegration and 248 MANUAL TEAINING. the destruction of the State. If these propositions are true, the solution of all social problems is to be sought through a radical change in educational methods. If thej are true, it is of the first importance that they be proved, not only bj argument, but by the citation of such facts of history as bear upon the subject. Civilization is the product of education. If the education is good the product will be good, if evil the product will be evil. The purpose of this and the four following chapters is, there- fore, to trace the progress of civilization, to sketch in bold outline the social history of man. The aphorism, all men are created equal, is a fine phrase, but its truth is reserved for realization by the civilization of the future. A tendency to the formation of class-distinctions in human society, whether savage or civilized, is disclosed by all histor3^ The first class-distinction sprang from the physical su- periority of one savage over his fellows. He whose power- ful frame and commanding eye enabled him best to cope with the beasts of field and forest became chief of the tribe. He held the first place by virtue of his brawny arm, and the less athletic, and more timid, became his subjects. But he was not long without rivals. His first rival was the dwarf, or hunchback, who, brooding moodily over the misfortune of his deformity, in the seclusion of his mud hut, invented the stone hatchet and stone-point- ed arrow-head. His next rival was the puny, pale-faced youth who converted pantomimic signs and rude gest- ures into a language of sounds, and so armed communi- ties witli the power of combination for mutual protection. Those who soonest mastered the first alphabet took high rank in the social circle, while those who could still only make themselves understood by grimaces and gestures EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEif. 249 fell to the grade of ciphers in the hody politic, and came to be looked upon as dunces in society. Thereafter the women, who had previously been won as wives by per- sonal prowess, were more equally parcelled out. The savage who had invented the bow and the arrow was ex- empted from the toils of the chase, and from the general contention at the courting season ; a wife was assigned to him, and his tent was supplied with game in the hope that he would invent some other useful thing. Thus mind began to assert its empire over matter, the division of labor commenced, and a class-distinction was formed. Doubtless the youth who invented language cultivated superstition among the ignorant, and so, increasing his al- ready considerable influence, secured the first social rank. Hence the castes of India and Egypt, consisting, in their order, of the priesthood, the army, the mercantile class, and, at the bottom of the scale, the servile laborer. Of the long period of social progress from a state of savagery to the high civilization of historic Egypt the record is faint and fragmentary. Ages passed, during which men struggled, and died, and left no sign — nei- ther hieroglyphic character, monument, nor buried city. Through what mental alchemy was the savage chief trans- formed, in the course of hundreds of generations, into the learned, accomplished, and astute Egyptian priest, from whose courtly lips Herodotus received the chronicles of the Egyptian kings and the romantic story of the resi- dence in Egypt of Helen of Troy F How were the mem- bers of the savage tribe converted, one into an obedient soldier, another into an adroit, self-seeking merchant, and * " Herodotus, 'Euterpe,' " II., pp. 113-116. Xew York: Harper & Brothers, 1882. 250 MANUAL TRAINING. another into a cringing slave ? These are secrets of an- tiquity, destined, doubtless, to remain forever unrevealed. We do know, however, that the civilization of Egypt, like all other civilizations, was the product of training or education ; and the nature tof the education may be in- ferred from the character and fate of the civilization. Of the Egyptian system of education selfishness was the basis. Given chains and slavery for the lowest class and there were force and rapacity in the highest class.* Before the free-born savage was reduced to slavery and made to toil under the lash, whole hecatombs of lives were sacrificed. Before the mind of the savage was de- graded to the baseness of slavery, his body, hacked and hewn, bent submissively to the scourge. For the Egyp- tian boy there was, doubtless, a "Poor Richard's Alma- nack," which taught him that he must " look to the main chance ;" that " in the race of life the devil takes the hindmost ;" and that " self-preservation is the first law of nature." Thus trained he entered the ranks of the priest- hood, one of his brothers took a commission in the army, and the others embarked in mercantile life. For the servile class there was no education beyond their sever- al occupations. Each man was compelled to follow the trade of his father, to marry within his own class, to die as he was born. Ruled by the priests, and the army, Egypt grew rich. Her commerce, conducted by means of caravans, embraced the whole civilized world and included all its products. She became a great military and naval power, her armies overrunning Asia, and her fleets sweeping the Indian * "The Martyrdom of Man," p. 18. By Winwood Reade. New York : Charles P. Somerby, 1876. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLEM. 251 Ocean. Her victorious campaigns opened new markets to her commerce, and tlirougli these channels wealth poured into the empire. In the track of the wheels of the Egyptian war-chariots the Egyptian merchant quick- ly followed. At the point of the arrows of her archers she oifered her linen goods to conquered peoples, as Eng- land, at the point of the bayonet, subsequently offered her cotton goods to prostrate India. In Egypt all the learning of the time was concentrated. It was the university of Greece. Every intellectual Greek made a voyage to Egypt ; it was regarded as a part of education, as a pilgrimage to the cradle-land of their my- thology. The possession of great wealth led to habits of luxury. The house of the Egyptian gentleman was a palace adorned with the triumphs of art, and devoted to pleasure. Its walls, its floors, and its furniture reflected the skill, not to say genius, of slaves — for all the manual labor of Egypt was performed by slaves. At the end of the fashionable dinner, given in the palace by its rich master, a mummy, richly painted and gilded, was present- ed to each guest in turn by a servant, who said, " Look on this ; drink and enjoy thyself, for such as it is now so thou shalt be when thou art dead."* One day when the priests were sacrificing in the tem- ples, and the chief officers of the army were dining with a contractor for array supplies, a band of mountaineers rushed out of the recesses of Persia and swept like a wind across the plains. They were dressed in leather; they had never tasted fruit nor wine ; they had never seen a market ; they knew not how to buy or sell. They * "Herodotus, 'Euterpe,'" II., p. 78. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1882. 11* 253 MANUAL TRAINING. were taught three things — to ride on horseback, to hurl the javelin, and to speak the truth.* All Asia was cov- ered with blood and flames. The allied kingdoms fell at once, and India and Egypt were soon afterwards added to the Persian empire. ' Egypt typifies all the early nations. In its rise, prog- ress, and fall, the course of the others may be traced. First there is a band of hardy men whose prowess renders them irresistible. They are inured to toil ; they practise all the manly virtues; they are trained to labor with their" hands; they are taught to si3eak the truth. They lay the foundations of the State in industry and pru- dence ; their children develop its resources ; their chil- dren's children, througli many generations, gradually ac- cumulate wealth. The arts flourish, and luxuries are mul- tiplied. There are many great estates, and those who in- herit them cease to labor, and, ceasing to labor, they be- come a charge upon the public ; for the value of an estate created one hundred years ago, or one year ago, can be maintained in no other way than by the labor of to-day.f The idlers increase in number, and the struggle for existence, of the workers, becomes more intense. Idle- * "Herodotus, ' Clio,' " I., pp. 71, 136, 153. New York : Harper & Brothers, 1882. f "It is not equitable that what one man hath done for the public should discharge another of what it has a right to expect from him ; for one, standing indebted in himself to society, cannot substitute anything in the room of his personal service. The father cannot transmit to his sou the right of being useless to his fellow-creatures. . . . The man who earns not his subsistence, but eats the bread of idleness, is no better than a thief. ... To labor, then, is the indispen- sable duty of social or political man. Rich or poor, strong or weak, every idle citizen is a knave." — "Emilius and Sophia," Vol. H., pp. 92, 93. By J. J. Rousseau. London: 1767. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 253 ness breeds vice, and the public morals are debauched. We see this class at the feast of Belshazzar and at the dinner of the Egyptian hon vivant. On the wall of every such banqueting room there is an ominous handwriting, provided, only, that there is a Daniel to interpret it. It means that the nation that degrades labor, tolerates idle- ness, and deifies vice, is ripe for annihilation. If, now, there is on the frontier of the effete nation a virile people, it is only a question of time and opportunity, when they will make slaves of the revellers, and spoil of their inher- ited estates. The worn-out, exhausted nation disappears in blood and flames. The rich idler, the poor sycophant, the rulers and the ruled, the slave and his master, the priest, the soldier, the merchant, and the laborer, all go to destruction together. In the ancient nations there was always force and ra- pacity above, and chains and slavery below. Education was confined to a small class, and consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many, and government was only another name for the appropriation of the prod- ucts of their labor. Selfishness bred injustice, and the practice of injustice undermined the State. Whether the State survived or fell was a matter of indiiference to the slave. A slave he remained in any event — if not of the Egyptian then of the Persian. But the importance of labor is shown by those bloody revolutions. The bat- tles of antiquity were contests for the possession of the labor class. Which nationality — the Egyptian or the Persian — should drive the toilers to their daily tasks; which should reap the frnit of the sweat of tlieir brows ; which should buy and sell them ; which scourge them to their dungeons ? These were tlie questions which agitat- ed the minds of ancient rulers. They were the questions 254 MANUAL TRAINING. which agitated the mind of Xerxes when he invaded Greece, witli millions of followers, to encounter defeat at the hands of a few thousand men of a superior type. The Greek civilization sprung from mythology and ended in anarchy. In the East the Greeks were called the people of youth. Their religion was of the savage type. Their gods were immortalized men ; they loved and hated, transgressed and suffered ; they resorted to stratagems to compass their ends ; they were a kind of exalted but unscrupulous aristocracy. Greek patriotism was narrow ; each city was politically independent, and the citizen of one city was an alien and a stranger in the territory of every other. The Greeks were superstitious. If the omens were unfavorable the general refused to give battle; the plague was a visible sign of the wrath of the gods ; the priests sacrificed per- petually ; the oracle of Apollo outlived Grecian indepen- dence hundreds of years. Grecian national festivals were childish, consisting of wrestling, boxing, running, jumping, and chariot-racing. But the victor in those games conferred everlasting glory upon his family and his country, and was rewarded with distinguished honors. Like savages, the Greeks were treacherous. The des- tiny of Greece was controlled by renegades. There was disloyalty in every camp, a Greek deserter in every op- posing army, and a traitor, or a band of traitors, in every besieged Greek city. They were cruel ; of their captives they butchered the men and enslaved the women, and they stripped and robbed the bodies of the slain, on the battle-field. Like savages they assassinated ambassadors, and like savages surrendered prisoners to their personal enemies to be massacred. Their sense of honor was dull. EDUCATION" AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 255 Xenophon, after winning imperishable renown, in con- ducting the famous retreat of the " Ten Thousand," led a detachment of them on a pillaging expedition, and so amassed a fortune. "My patriotism," says Alcibiades, "I keep not at a time when I am being wronged." "For there was neither promise that could be depended on, nor oath that struck them with fear," exclaims Thu- cydides.* Venality was the predominating trait in Greek charac- ter, and venality unrestrained is savagery. In the Greek Pantheon the highest niche was reserved for the God of Gain. The early Greeks were pirates ; they plundered one another ; they sometimes actually sold themselves into slavery, so great was their lust of gold. The richest cities ruled the poor cities. Pericles boasted that he could not be bribed, but he robbed all Greece to embel- lish Athens, and was accused of peculation, tried, con- victed, and fined. The Athenians declared that the Spartans were taught to steal, and the Spartans retorted tjiat the best Athenians were invariably thieves. When Persia could no longer fight she defended her territory against Greek invasion with gold coins. The Greek orators never refused a bribe, and oratory ruled Greece. Greek oratory was very persuasive. A discriminating writer declares that, with their fine phrases and rhetorical expressions, the Greek orators swindled his- tory, obtaining a vast amount of admiration under false pretences. t For these defects in Greek character, and for the re- * "The History of the Peloponnesian War," Vol. I., p. 210. Lon- don: George Bell & Sons. f "The Martyrdom of Man," p. 88. By Winwood Reade. New York: Charles P. Somerby, 1876. 256 MANUAL TRAINING. suiting decay of Greek civilization, Greek philosophy and Greek education must be held responsible. Metaphysics and rhetoric ruined Greece. It was in the schools of rhetoric that the young Greeks received their training for the duties of public life. There they were taught the art of oratory; there they learned how to make the worse appear the better reason. There they were taught, not to expound the truth, but to indulge in the arts of sophistry. It was in those schools that the young Greek was trained to be eloquent, to win applause in the courts of law, not to convince the judgments of judge, or juror ; for judicial decisions were notoriously subjects of the most shameful traffic. The element of rectitude was wholly left out of the Greek system of education, and hence wholly wanting in Greek character. The Greeks had a profound distrust of one another. They were dishonest ; they were treach- erous ; they were cruel ; they were false ; and all these vices are peculiar to a state of savagery. In ethics they never emerged from the savage state, and hence in poli- tics their failure was complete ; for the prime condition of the most simple form of civil society is mutual confi- dence. But the mutual distrust of the Greeks, based on want of integrity, was so absolute that political unity was impossible, and t]ie failure to combine the several cities under one government led, eventually, to the destruction of Greek civilization. To this result Greek philosophy also contributed. Plato's contempt for matter was so profound that he re- garded the soul's residence in the body as an evil. He taught that the philosopher should emancipate himself from the illusions of sense, devoting his life to reflection, and surrendering his mind " to communion with its kin- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 257 dred eternal essences." Contempt of matter led logically to contempt of the physical man, and hence to contempt of things, the work of man's hands. Such a philosophy was necessarily " in the air." It afforded no aid to the sciences ; for science is the product of generalizations from matter. It scorned art ; for the arts are applications of the sciences in useful things. With the Greek school- master rhetoric was the chief part of education ; with the Greek philosopher dialectics was the science jj)ar emi- nence. Thus the Greek system of education was confined to rhetoric and logic — the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force, and the power of deducing legiti- mate conclusions from assumed premises. In the Greek schools of rhetoric there was no struggle to find the truth ; in the schools of philosophy there was no respect for the evidence of the senses. The Greek orator har- angued the jury eloquently while his client bargained with the court for the price of justice ! The Greek phi- losopher confounded his audience with the force of his unanswerable logic, and appealed to his iinier conscious- ness in support of the soundness of his premises ! The explanation of Greek duplicity is found in Greek metaphj^sics. To scorn things is to disregard facts, and disregard of facts is contempt of the truth. Greek edu- cation was confined to a consideration of the subject of the nature and relations of abstract ideas, while the sub- ject of the nature and relations of things was wholly neg- lected. Such a system of education led logically to selfishness, and out of selfishness grew inordinate am- bition and greed ; and these passions led, through treach- ery and dishonesty, to factional contests, which, eventuat- ing in bloodshed, could only end in anarchy. Distracted 258 MANUAL TRAINING. by the jealousies and rivalries of States constantly in hos- tile conflict, and enfeebled by the never-ending strife be- tween the rich and tlie poor, Greece fell a prey to the rapacity, and lust of power, of her unscrupulous Eoman neighbor. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 259 CHAPTER XXII. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM— HISTORIC. ROME. Vigor of the Early Romans — their Virtues and Vices ; their Rigorous Laws; their Defective Education; their Contempt of Labor. — Slav- ery: its Horrors and Brutalizing Influence. — Education Confined to the Arts of Politics and War ; it transformed Courage into Cruelty, and Fortitude into Stoicism. — Robbery and Bribery. — The Vices of Greece and Carthage imported into Rome. — Slaves con- struct all the great Public Works; they Revolt, and the Legions Slaughter them. — The Gothic Invasion. — Rome Falls. — False Phi- losophy and Superficial Education promoted Selfishness. — Deifica- tion of Abstractions, and Scorn of Men and Things.— Universal Moral Degradation. — Neglect of Honest Men and Promotion of Demagogues. — The Decline of Morals and Growth of Literature. — Darwin's Law of Reversion, through Selfishness, to Savagery. — Contest between the Rich and the Poor. — Logic, Rhetoric, and Ruin. In the city of the Seven Hills there was no statue to Pity, as at Athens. In the long line of Roman conquer- ors there was no one possessing the title to fame, of which, on his death -bed, Pericles boasted, namely, that " no Athenian had ever worn mourning on his account." The dominion of Rome was logical. In the legend of Romulus and Remus, suckled by the she-wolf, there is a hint of the rugged vigor which characterized the Roman people, and distinguished them from the earlier nationali- ties. In all the civilizations anterior to that of Rome there was an element of pliability or softness which belongs to the youth of man. But from the day on which Romulus, 260 MANUAL TRAINING. witli tlie brazen ploughsliare, drew a furrow around the Palatine, both the sinews and the souls of his followers hardened into maturity. The rising walls of the city, so the legend runs, were moistened Avith the life-drops of Kemus, whose derisive remark and act cost him his life, his slayer exclaiming, haughtily, "So perish all who dare to climb these ramparts." The rape of the Sabines, the conflicts which ensued with that outraged people, their incorporation with the conquerors, their subsequent joint conquests, and the shrewdness displayed in the conserva- tion of the fruits of victory — these events show that man had attained his majority. Under the shadow of the walls of the Eternal City all the great races were associ- ated and mingled — Latins, Trojans, Greeks, Sabines, and Etruscans. The Roman civilization was the product of all that had gone before, as it was destined to be the fa- ther of all that should follow it. The Roman had no peer either in courage or fortitude. Aspiring to uni- versal dominion, he toughened himself to achieve it. Dooming his enemy to death or slavery, he was not less self - exacting, his own life, through the cup of poison, the sword, or the opened vein, becoming the forfeit equally of misfortune and shame. The tragic fate of Lucretia, the resulting revolution, the banishment of the Tarquins, and the abolition of the kingly government show the swiftness of Roman retribution and the terrible force of Roman resolution. Roman persistence in the path of conquest for many centuries is typified by Cato in his invocation of destruction upon Carthage. The mas- culine character of the Roman vices finds illustration in the struggle of Appius, the Decemvir, to possess the per- son of Yirginia by wresting the law from its true pur- pose, the conservation of justice, and converting it into a EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 261 sMeld for lust ; and tlie vigor of Eoman virtue is exem- pKfied in the act of Yirginius plunging the knife into the heart of his beloved daughter to save her honor. The rigorous laws of Rome testify to the stamina of her peo- ple. The father to whom a deformed sou was born must cause the child to be put to death, and any citizen might kill the man who betrayed the design of becoming king. A scientific system of education would have conserved and developed the noble and eliminated the ignoble traits of Roman character. But neither Roman education, phi- losophy, nor ethics inculcated either respect for labor or reverence for human rights ; and hence the laborer was reduced to slavery, and the slave made the victim of ev- ery known atrocity. Slavery became the corner-stone of the Roman State, and slavery and labor were synonymous terms. The Roman suj^jjly of laborers was maintained by depopulating conquered countries. In the train of the legions, returning to Rome in triumph, there were not only statues, paintings, and other works of art, but thousands of men, women, and children destined to slav- ery. And the laws in regard to slaves were terrible, as laws touching slavery must always be — for a state of slavery is a state of war. It was a law of Rome that if a slave murdered his master the whole family of slaves should be put to death ; and Tacitus relates an instance of the execution of four hundred slaves for the murder of a citizen, their master. In the course of the servile rebellion in Sicily a million slaves were killed; and it should be borne in mind that they were valuable labor- ers — many of them skilled artisans. Yast numbers of them were exposed to wild beasts in the arena, for the popular amusement. The rebellion of the gladiators was put down only by a resort to awful atrocities, among 263 MANUAL TRAINING, wMcli was the crucifixion of prisoners. The revolt of the allies was quelled at the cost of half a million lives. But slaves were plenty, for Rome had her bloody hand at the throat of all mankind, and her hoarse cry was, " Your life or your liberty !" Every Roman freeman was a soldier, and the cultiva- tion of the land, manufactures, and all the pursuits of in- dustry, were carried on by slaves. Slave labor was cheap- er than the labor of animals ; cattle were taken from the plough and slaughtered for beef that slaves — men — might take their places. Labor fell to the lowest degree of contempt, and the laborer was a thing to be spurned — for the free citizen to labor with his hands was more disgraceful than to die of starvation. Hence there was a class of citizen paupers to whom largesses of corn were doled out by the demagogues of the Senate and the army. Ultimately these citizen-paupers became so vile and filthy that they engendered leprosy and other loathsome dis- eases, as they dragged their palsied limbs through the streets of the city, crying, " Bread and circuses I bread and circuses !" Roman education was confined almost exclusively to the training of the sons of rich citizens in the arts of politics and war; and in a State where labor was de- spised, and whose corner-stone was slavery, and whose shibboletli was conquest, the baseness of these arts may be imagined but hardly described. It promoted selfish- ness, and in the course of centuries selfislmess transform- ed Roman courage into cruelty, and Roman fortitude into brutal stoicism. The Roman sense of justice was swallowed up in Roman lust of power. Rome became the great robber nation of the world. She was on the land what Greece had once been on the sea — a pirate. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEil. 263 She made the streets of the cities she conquered run with blood. Thousands of captives she doomed to death ; other thousands graced the triumphs of her generals, and the spoil saved from the fury of the flames, and the more ungovernable furj of the licentious soldiery, was carried home to the Eternal City, there to fall into the hands of the most cunning among the demagogues, for use in the bribery of courts, senators, and the populace. Tacitus deplored the decline of public virtue. lie de- clared, mournfully, that "I^Tothing was sacred, nothing safe from the hand of rapacity." His environment blind- ed him to the true cause of the depravity he so elo- quently deplored — selfishness. Had he been familiar with the inductive method he would have found in a defective system of education the cause of Roman venality and cor- ruption. He might thus have realized the weakness of a community of men who wanted the necessary force and virtue to depose a Tiberius and elevate to his place a Germanicus ; or to dethrone a Domitian and crown in his stead an Agricola. Education in Rome deified selfishness, and hence real- ized its last analysis — total depravity. Of course noth- ing was sacred in a community where men were ruth- lessly trampled underfoot ! Of course nothing was "safe from the hand of rapacity" where the laborer was de- graded to a place in the social scale below the leprous pauper whose filthy person provoked disgust, and whose poisonous breath, as he cried for bread, spread abroad disease and death ! It was inevitable that the nation that grew rich through plunder should grow poor in public and private virtue. And such was the fact. The eagles that protected rob- bers abroad, spread their sheltering wings over defaulters, 264 MANUAL TRAINING. bribers, and thieves at home. There had been a time in Eome when bribery was punishable with death, but now candidates for oflSce sat at tables in the streets near the polling-places and openly paid the people for their votes. The change in the habits of the people was as pronounced as the change in the laws. The early triumphs of the Romans were industrial — flocks and herds ; their tro- phies, obtained in single combat, consisted of spears and helmets. When Cincinnatus was sent for to assume the dictatorship he was found in his field following the plough. Yalerius, four times consul, and by Livy char- acterized as the first man of his time, died so poor that he had to be buried at the public charge. But with the fall of Greece and Carthage, and the reduction of Asia, there was a great social change at Home. The Roman legions not only carried home the wealth of the coun- tries they conquered but the vices of the peoples they subdued. An ancient writer summarizes the situation in the following graphic sentence : " The only fashiona- ble principles were to acquire wealth by every means of avarice and injustice, and to dissipate it by every method of luxury and j)rofusion." The end is not far off. The story of Persia, of Egypt, and of Greece is the story equally of Rome. Avarice and injustice, luxury and profusion do their sure work. The Roman civilization is more than a tliousand years old. Asiatic wealtli, the luxury and false philosophy of Greece, and a vicious system of education, promoting selfishness, have united to sap its foundations. Society is divided into three classes— an aristocracy based solely upon wealth, cruel and profligate, a mob of free citizens, otherwise paupers, who live by beggary and the sale of their votes, and laborers who are slaves. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 365 On the occasion of the presentation of spectacles, among a variety of presents slaves (laborers) are thrown into the arena to be scrambled for by the free citizens ! But men are cheap. In Asia they sell for sixpence apiece, and Rome has only to send an army there to get them for nothing. To this class, to these slaves, however, the Roman people are indebted for all the arts which make life agreeable. They construct all the great public works. They build the splendid roads over which the Roman legions follow their generals in triumph home to Rome. They make the aqueducts, dig the canals, and construct the buildings, public and private, whose re- mains still attest their magnificence — the Forum, the amphitheatres, and the golden house of the Caesars. They build the villas overlooking the Bay of IS^aples, in which the nobles live in riot and wantonness ; they cook the dinners given in those villas ; they make the clothes the nobles wear, and the jewels that adorn their persons. They cultivate the fields, follow the plough, ti-ain and trim the vine, and gather in the harvest. They raise the corn that is distributed by the nobles among the soldiery, and given as a bribe to the diseased and debauched free citizens for their votes. They feel deeply the injustice of their lot, and, like men, strike for liberty. But the Roman legions are set on them like blood-hounds, and hundreds of thousands of them are slaughtered and made food for birds of prey, and other thousands are thrown into the arena to be torn by wild beasts, and still others are bestowed as gifts upon the populace at the games. The contest between the rich and the j^oor is at an end ; the rich are millionaires, the jooor are beggars. It is the story of Dives and Lazarus over again. The rich are clothed in purple and fine linen, and fare sumptuous- 366 MANUAL TRAINING. ly every day ; the poor are full of sores, and live upon the crumbs that fall from the tables of the rich. Rome topples to her fall. The Gothic invader is at her gates, and there is no army to defend them. The barbarian demands a ransom. To obtain it the statues are despoiled of their ornaments and precious stones, and the gods of gold and silver are melted in the fire. The ransom is given, and Alaric retires. He returns, and this time to pillage. The city is sacked; rich and poor, bond and free, are whelmed in one common ruin. At last the diabolic wish of the infamous Caligula is realized. The Roman people have but one neck, and the Goth puts his foot upon it. Rome falls, the victim of her own crimes, strangled by her own gluttony. Thus ends the first period of the world's manhood — ends in exhaustion, and a syncope which is destined to last a thousand years. Long before the fall of the republic Rome had become the seat of all the world's learnino;. In robbing con- quered countries she not only took their gold and silver, a share of their people for slaves, and their works of art, but their libraries, their philosophy, and their literature. But neither the Greek nor the Roman philosophy con- tributed in the least to a solution of the pressing social problems of the time. The wise men of Rome were powerless to help either themselves or their fellow-men, because their philosophy was false. It was purely spec- ulative ; it had no body of facts to rest upon. The Roman educators and philosophers were almost as ignorant of physiology as Plato was hundreds of years before, hence they were unable to study the mind in the sole way in which it is intelligently approachable, name- ly, through its bodily manifestations. In studying the mind as an independent entity there could be no general EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLEM. 267 rules of investigation. The metaphysical philosopher did not study the mind of man ; he explored his own mind merely — consulted his own inner consciousness. Hence there were, in Rome, as many systems of philosophy, more or less clearly defined and distinct, as there were philosophers. But they were merely metaphysical spec- ulations, dreams, dependent upon purely subjective proc- esses ; and those processes were in turn dependent upon the ever-changing states of mind of each philosopher. It is obvious that these systems of philosophy could exert no influence upon the community at large, for the community formed no part of the subject matter of their speculations. But they did exert an influence, and a very pernicious one, upon the philosophers themselves, and indeed upon all the cultured men of Rome ; for they were thereby made thoroughly selfish, and so rendered in- capable of forming a just judgment of public affairs. In considering the mind apart from the body, the body nat- urally fell into utter contempt. This was the great crime of speculative philosophy ; for in engendering a feeling of contemj)t for the human body it furnished an excuse for slavery. And this contempt logically included man- ual labor, for the only manual laborer was a slave ; and it also extended to the useful arts, for all those arts were the work of slaves. Hence the laborer, being a slave, was placed lower in the social scale than the pauper who sold his vote for a glass of Avine. And thus it came about that a factitious right — the right of suffrage — was more highly esteemed by the public than the cardinal virtue of industry, upon which alone the perpetuity of the social compact depends. And, again, the wretched state of public morals may be inferred from the fact that the riglit of suffrage, through 12 268 MANUAL TRAINING. wliicli the idle, leprous pauper was elevated above the industrious laborer and above the useful arts, was notori- ously the subject of open traffic in the streets of Rome on every election day. Thus Roman philosophy landed the Roman people in the last ditch, for it led to the dei- fication of abstract ideas and to scorn of things. That this utter perversion of the tratli and wreck of justice was the cause of the decline of the Roman Empire there is no doubt. It is equally plain that the noted men of Rome were utterly ignorant of the cause of the disorders which af- flicted the body politic. There is no evidence, either in their lives or their works, that they brought to the con- sideration of the great social problems of the time any practical philosophy whatever. Suetonius, with a graphic pen, portrays the cruelties of the Csesars, but hints at no cause therefor inherent in the social system. Cicero forecasts the doom of the republic, but has no remedy to propose except that of the elevation of Pompey rather than Csesar. Livy and Tacitus deplore the decay of public and private virtue, but are silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery and on the shame of degrading labor. The moral sentiments of Seneca and Aurelius are of the most elevated character, but the fact that they ignore slavery, the slave, the laborer, and the useful arts, shows either that they never thought upon those funda- mental social questions, or that their thoughts ran in the popular channel ; in a word, that their philosojihy was so shallow as to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the Roman State rested. That the subjective philosophy and the defective edu- cational system of the Romans rendered them selfish, and hence corrupt, there is abundant evidence. Cicero EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLEM. 269 professed the most lofty patriotism, but lie was without moral courage. It was he who congratulated the public men of Rome, after the usurpation of Caesar, upon the privilege of remaining " totally silent !" He regarded Pompey as " the greatest man the world had ever pro- duced," but deserted him in his extremity, which was equally the extremity of his country. He denounced Csesar as the cause of the culminating misfortunes of Rome, but went down upon his knees to him, and rose to his feet only to exhaust all the resources of his match- less eloquence in fulsome adulation of the destroyer of the Republic. Seneca's moral precepts are sublime, but his political maxims are atrocious. Witness this pretence of an all- embracing love for man — " Whenever thou seest a fel- low-creature in distress know that thou seest a human being." Contrast with this exalted sentiment of the great stoic his political maxim — ■ " Terror is the safe- guard of a kingdom" — and reflect that he lived under the reigns of Claudius and ISTero. The millions of slaves in the Roman dominions were "human beings," but Seneca had no practical regard for them as "fellow- creatures in distress." His beautiful humanitarian sen- timent Avas a barren ideality — it bore no fruit ; but his brutal political maxim caused him to thrive. Under the favor of Claudius Seneca amassed a vast fortune. His palace in the city was sumptuously furnished, his coun- try-seats were splendidly ajDpointed, and he possessed abundance of ready money. " There can be no happiness without virtue," exclaims this prosperous Roman citizen. But while Seneca pens this lofty sentiment he is accused of avarice, usury, and extortion, charged with complicity in thePiso conspiracy, and banished for the crime of adultery. 270 • MANUAL TKAINING. The debasing influence of the Greek philosophy, upon the Roman people, is shown by contrasting the charac- ters of the distinguished men who were honored by the public at widely separated periods of time. Thus, dur- ing the period 400-350 B.C., Camillus, noted above all his contemporaries for the purity of his public life, was uninterruptedly honored with the highest offices in the State, and loved and respected by all classes of the com- munity. But three hundred years later Cgesar, who in- volved the country in civil war to compass his ambition, and in which struggle liberty perished — he was pre- ferred, in all the political struggles preliminary to his as- sumption of supreme power, to Cato, whose patriotism was unquestioned, and whose rigid virtue was prover- bial throughout the Koman Empire. So also of a still later period, Agricola and Germanicus were renowned for the possession of the highest qualities of true manhood, joined to the practice in public life of the most austere and self-sacrificing virtue. Both served the State with courage, ability, and zeal; but the one, after a brilliant career in the West, was forced into retirement, and the other, after splendid services in the East, was exiled and poisoned. Previous to the introduction of the Greek philoso- phy, and the Greek education and social habits, the Ro- man people were worthy of their noblest representative — Camillus. At that early period of their history they rewarded virtue and punished vice. But during the Em- pire, after the invasion of Greek manners, they were unworthy of their best representatives — Cato, Germani- cus, and Agrieola. To those great and good men they preferred Csesar, Caligula, and ISTero : they rewarded vice and punished virtue. There is in this circumstance un- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 271 questionable evidence of a great declension in character. But the remarkable fact in regard to this period of Ro- man history is that the declension in character was ac- companied by a species of great mental growth or power. During this period a literature was created which has ever since been famous, and which still exerts a consid- erable influence upon man. Csesar's Commentaries, the Orations of Cicero, the Annals of Tacitus, Livy's History, the Odes and Satires of Horace, the Meditations of Au- relius, and the Morals of Seneca are in all the world's libraries, and, in the universities, are placed in the hands of the most favored youth of all the civilized countries of the world, as models of style and exponents of a civ- ilization whence all modern civilizations sprung. But this literature possessed no saving quality, because in so far as it was elevated in morals it did not represent the Roman people, not even the authors themselves general- ly, as has been shown. As a matter of fact, during the jDcriod of the creation of the great literature of Rome, Darwin's law of "reversion" was in active operation. There was a " black sheep " in every noble Roman fami- ly. Bad men appeared, not now and then, at long inter- vals, as in all civilizations, but every day and everywhere ; and these men were political and social leaders. They moulded the policy of the State and set the fashion in society. Under their direction the Roman people retro- graded towards a state of savagery, and savagery is but another name for selfishness. Selfishness in its worst estate is the essence of human depravity, and to that con- dition the Roman people fell, at the time when their mor- alists were inditing those sublime sentiments which still challenge the admiration of all great and good men. That the Roman people were as dead to the influence 273 MANUAL TRAINING. of high moral sentiments as the Britons were when first encountered by C^sar, shows that they had degener- ated to a similar condition of savagery, or to a condi- tion of absolute selfishness, which is its moral equivalent. Given a savage state, two savages and one dinner ; the savages will fight to tlie death for the dinner. Given a state of civilization absolutely selfish, two contestants and one prize ; each contestant will exhaust all the resources of artifice, duplicity, and falsehood to secure the prize. To this deplorable condition the Roman people were re- duced by subjective educational processes. Selfislmess causes the individual to seek his own interest in total dis- regard of the interest of others. Hence it tends directly to the disintegration of society, since the essence of the civil compact is the pledge of each member of the com- munity that he will do no injury to his fellows. Selfish- ness violates this pledge ; for to gain its end it ruthlessly crushes whatever appears in its path. In Home selfishness did its complete work. It trans- formed the government from a pure democracy into an oligarchy composed of wealthy citizens, who called them- selves nobles. By this class wealth was made the sole standard of social and political distinction, and in its presence, and through its influence, the old strife between the patricians and the plebeians gave way to a state of hostility between the rich and the poor — always the last analysis of social disorder. The contest was distinguished by assassinations, embezzlements of the public money, the quarrels of rival demagogues, and civil wars, and it culminated in Csesar and the empire. The nobles, or aristocrats, who wrought tlie work of transformation, were refined and elegant in their man- ners, and accomplished in the tricks of finance, the tech- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 273 nicalities of the law, and tlie arts of oratory. They were the product of the Koman schools of rhetoric and logic, whose subjective methods obscured the truth, promoted vanity, and deified selfishness. All the guards of honor and rectitude having been swept away by Csesar, a savage contest for supremacy ensued among the aristocrats. The prize for which they contended consisted of the spoil of tlie Eoman legions and the product of the labor of the Eoman slaves. This was the Eoman patrimony — the price of blood and of the sweat of enforced toil. For this prize the Eoman aristocrats struggled like savages fighting for the one dinner. It is the old struggle, the struggle witnessed by each, in turn, of the nations of antiquity — the struggle in which selfishness vanquishes itself. But this is a struggle of giants, is on a grander scale, and is more conspicuous, for the historian, pen in hand, records its bloody scenes. It is the last act in a great drama, a drama that has lasted a thousand years. It is the conclusion of the long strug- gle of a few large-brained, unscrupulous individuals, to grasp the fruits of the toil of all men. The conspirators are about to fail, as such consjDiracies have always failed and must always fail, and like Samson in his blind fury they will pull down upon their own devoted heads the pillars of the temple. The struggle culminates in a hand- to-hand conflict for the mastery between the baflled chiefs of the conspiracy to enslave mankind — the supreme ef- fort of selfishness — and it involves the authors and their victims in one common disaster. Once more it is proven that a false system of education, a system which exalts abstract ideas and degrades things, promotes selfishness ; that selfishness is the equivalent of savagery, and that savagery, however refined, wrecks society. 274 MANUAL TRAINING. CHAPTER XXIII. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM— HISTORIC. TEE MIDDLE AGES. The Trinity upon which Civilization Rests : Justice, the Arts, and Labor; and these Depend upon Scientific Education. — Reason of the Failure of Theodoric and Charlemagne to Reconstruct the Pagan Civilization. — Contempt of Man. — Serfdom. — The Vices of the Time : False Philosophy, an Odious Social Caste, and Ignc ranee. — The Splendid Career of the Moors in Spain, in Contrast.- Effect upon Spain of the Expulsion of the Moors. — The Repressive Force of Authority and the Atrocious Philosophy of Contempt of Man. — The Rule of Italy — a Menace and a Sneer. — The work of Regeneration. — The Crusades. — The Destruction of Feudalism.— The Invention of Printing. — The Discovery of America. — Investi- gation. — Discoveries in Science and Art. Civilization languishes in an atmosphere of injustice, and if the injustice is gross, as slavery, for example, and long continued, the State perishes in the social convul- sion which ensues. Thus perished tlie nations of an- tiquity. Civilization depends upon the useful arts ; in them it had its origin, and with them it advances. The savage, in his most primitive state, is ignorant of all the arts ; the most highly civilized man is familiar with, and under obligations to, all of them. The useful arts de- pend upon labor. If the laborer is degraded, the use- ful arts decline, as he sinks, in the social scale ; if he is honored, they advance, as he rises. The trinity upon which civilization rests is, therefore, justice, the useful arts, and labor ; and this trinity of saving forces depends in turn upon the scientific education of man. Rome EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEil. 275 held all these things in contempt, and Rome perished. Anarchy ensued, and, from a state of governmental cha- os, the feudal system was evolved. A brief analysis of the history of the mediaeval period will show that education was unscientific, and consequently that jus- tice was scorned, the useful arts neglected, and labor despised. Theodoric strove to stem the tide of demoralization which succeeded the overthrow of the pagans in Italy. He was a semi-barbarian, but a man of genius, and ten years of his youth, spent at Constantinople, taught him the value of civilization. Under his reign there was a restoration of the common industries, work on inter- nal improvements was resumed, and there was a reviv- al of polite literature and the fine arts. But there was no general prosperity because there was no general sys- tem of education. Polite literature must rest upon a basis of general culture, or it is valueless to the country in which it flourishes. So of the fine arts ; they can ex- ist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth and em- bellishment of the useful arts.* In the due order of de- velopment the useful precede the fine arts. Theodoric began the reconstruction of the exhausted Roman civili- zation from the toi?, and his work was a complete failure, * "But it is one thing to admit that aesthetic culture is in a high degree conducive to human happiness, and another thing to admit that it is a fundamental requisite to human happiness. However important it may be, it must yield precedence to those kinds of cult- ure which bear more directly upon the duties of life. As before hinted, literature and the fine arts are made possible by those activi- ties which make individual and social life possible; and manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which makes it possible." — "Education," p. 72. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. Appleton&Co.,1883. 12* 276 MANUAL TRAINING. of course, because it had no foundation. It was like the Greek and Eoman philosophy, it had no basis of things to rest upon. Hence the order evoked from chaos by the great Ostrogoth to chaos soon returned. Charlemagne also attempted to reconstruct a worn-out civilization through the revival of polite literature and the fine arts. He assembled at his court distinguished liUerateuTS from all parts of the world, with the view of reviving classical learning. He established a normal school called " The Palatine," whence classically trained teachers were sent into the provinces. He constructed gorgeous palaces, some of which were ornamented with columns and sculptural fragments, the spoil of the earlier architectural triumphs of Ital3^ But he did not found schools for the education of the common people. The common people were serfs. The theory of Plato still prevailed, namely, that the majority is always dull, and always wrong ; that wisdom and virtue reside in the minority. In pursuance of this theory, which happens, curiously enough, to inure to the exclusive benefit of its inventors and supporters, education was confined to a small class. The training of the masses was wholly neg- lected, and they were poor, ignorant, and brutal. The state of mediaeval society is graphically summarized by a modern historian : " In the castle sits the baron, with his children on his lap, and his wife leaning on his shoulder; the troubadour sings, and the page and the demoiselle exchange a glance of love. The castle is the home of music and chivalry and family affection ; the convent is the home of relig- ion and of art. But the people cower in their wooden huts, half starved, half frozen, and wolves sniff at them through the chinks in the walls. The convent prays and EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLEM. 277 the castle sings ; the cottage hungers and groans and dies."'^^ Enterprise 'wsis the shave of superstition and ignorance. Some monks in Germany desired to erect a corn -mill, but a neighboring lord objected, declaring that the wind belonged to him. The useful arts were unknown and un- studied except by the monks, and their practice of them was confined chiefly to fashioning utensils for the use of the altar. Mankind lay in a state of intellectual and moral paralysis. Feudalism emasculated human energy. One art only flourished — the art of war. The pursuit of any of the useful arts, beyond that of agriculture, by the serfs, was impracticable, since sufiicient time could not be spared ivom. feudal strife for the proper tillage of the soil. The vassal was always subject to summary call to arms. If in the spring the noble wished to fight, the fields remained unplanted ; if he wished to fight in the fall, the harvest remained ungathered. The serf, there- fore, led a precarious life. If he escaped death in battle, he was still quite likely to die of starvation. In the fer- tile plains of Lombardy, in the first half of the thirteenth century, there were five famines ! J^Tothing happens without due cause. The misfort-' unes suffered by the people of Europe during the Mid- dle Ages did not fall uj^on them from the clouds. The moral darkness wliich veiled the face of justice, and the intellectual stupor which prevented scientific and art researches, are not inexjjlicable mysteries. The vices, the cruelties, the poverty, and the jjitiable supersti- tions of that time were the product of a false phi- * "The Martyrdom of Man." By Winwood Reade. New York : Charles P. Somerby, 1876. 278 MANUAL TRAINING. losopliy, an odious social caste, and a state of general ignorance. It happens tliat for hundreds of years of this period of wretchedness and ci'ime there was in the heart of Europe an industrious, cultured, prosperous, and happy people. Their religion forbade the taking of usurious interest under terrible moral penalties ; it also forbade " all distinctions of caste," and enjoined full social equal- ity. They were the friends of education. " To every mosque was attached a public school, in which the chil- dren of the poor were taught to read and write." They established libraries in their chief cities, and were the patrons of the sciences and of the useful arts in all their forms. In a word, to the general prevalence of super- stition and ignorance in Europe the Moors in Spain con- stituted a glowing exception. Wherever the Saracen went he carried science and art. He honored labor, and genius and learning followed in his footsteps. Taught by learned Jews, he studied the works of the ancient philosophers, and preserved and ex- tended their knowledge of astronomy, chemistry, alge- bra, and geography. Cordova was the abode of wealth, learning, refinement, and the arts. Its mosques and pal- aces were models of architectural splendor, and its indus- tries employed 200,000 families. Seville contained 16,000 silk-looms, and employed 130,000 weavers. The banks of the Guadalquivir were thickly studded with those gems of free labor, manufacturing villages. The dyeing of silk and wool fabrics was carried to great perfection, and the Moorish metal-workers were the most expert of the time. The Saracen invented cotton paper, intro- duced into Spain cotton and leather manufactures, and promoted the cultivation of sugar-cane, rice, and the mul- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 279 berry, l^or did lie neglect agriculture in any of its branches ; lie created a new era in husbandry. His king- dom in SjDain was the richest and most prosperous in the Western world ; indeed, its prosperity was in striking contrast with the poverty and misery of the peoples by whom it was surrounded. Under the third caliph its revenue reached £6,000,000 sterling, a sum, as Gibbon remarks, which in the tenth century probably surpassed the united revenues of all the Christian monarchs. But these industrious, cultured people were the descendants of invaders, and the Spaniards, under the influence of a blind and unreasoning impulse of religious and patriotic zeal, drove them from the soil they had literally made to " blossom like the rose," and themselves relapsed into a state of indolence, ignorance, and poverty. From the effects of the persecution of a race of artif- icers, and the proscription of the useful arts, Spain has never recovered. She has since always been, and is to- day, a striking exemplification of the verity of the prop- osition that stagnation in the useful arts is the death of civilization. In the last half of the seventeenth century the people of Madrid were threatened with starvation. To avert the impending calamity the adjacent country was scoured by the military, and the inhabitants com- pelled to yield supplies. There was danger that the Eoyal family would go hungry to bed. The tax-gath- erer sold houses and furniture, and the inhabitants were forced to fly ; the fields were left uncultivated, and mul- titudes died from want and exposure. During the sev- enteenth century Madrid lost half its poj^ulation ; the looms of Seville were silenced ; the woollen manufact- ures of Toledo were transferred by the exiled Moriscoes to Tunis ; Castile, Segovia, and Burgos lost their manu- 280 MANUAL TKAINING. factures, and their inliabitants were reduced to poverty and despair.* Two leading causes contributed to reduce the people of Europe during the Middle Ages to a state of moral obliquity, intellectual torpor, and physical incapacity — the repressive force of authority and the atrocious phi- losophy of contempt of man formulated by Machiavelli. The one forbade scientific investigation, the other stran- gled the spirit of invention in the grip of enforced igno- rance. Authority chilled courage, and contempt withered hoj)e. Italy governed the world, and her rule consisted of a menace and a sneer. Under this regime of cruelty and cynicism man shrunk into a state of moral cowardios and intellectual lethargy. The political maxims which bear the name of Machia- velli were not invented by him. When he formulated them, in 1513, they had been in force in Italy a thousand years. These maxims explain the fact of the existence of a period of the world's history known as " the Dark Ao^es." The chief of them divides the human race into three classes, the members of the first of which under- stand things by their own natural powers ; the second when they are explained to them ; the third not at all. The third class embraces a vast majority of men ; the second only a small number ; the first a very small num- ber. The first class is to rule both the other classes, the second by craft and duplicity, the third by authority, and, that failing, by force. Other maxims assume the despicable character of all men, and justify falsehood, * "The Intellectual Development of Europe," Vol. 11., Chap. II. By John William Draper, M.D., LL.D. New York: Harper & Brothers; "History of Civilization in England," Vol. II., Chap. I. By Henry Thomas Buckle. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1864. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEiT. 281 duplicity, cruelty, and murder, in the ruling class. A single proposition sbows the infamy of the whole system, namel}^, " There are three ways of deciding any contest — by fraud, by force, or by law, and a wise man will make the most suitable choice."* These are maxims not of civilization but of barbarism. They involve a state of slavery, and where slavery exists the useful arts de- cline, and ultimately perish. And so it was in the Mid- dle Ages. Several great events led to the emancipation of the people of Europe from the joint reign of authority and contempt. The learning of the J^ws and Saracens — their knowledge of the arts and sciences — gradually spread, and occupied the minds of cloistered students, giving to them an intellectual impulse. The Crusades, pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were, shed a great light upon Europe. They brought the men of the West face to face with a practical progressive civilization — a civilization that "filled the earth with j)rodigies of hu- man skill." The Crusaders were told that they would be led against hordes of barbarians. What astonishment must have seized them when they stood under the walls of Constantinople and beheld its splendors ! ISTor was their surprise less, doubtless, in the character of the foe they encountered. They had expected to meet with treachery and cruelty ; they found chivalry, courtesy, and high culture.f These surprises and contrasts profoundly impressed the Crusaders, and they returned to Euroj)e relieved of * " The Prince," Chap. XVIII. By Niccolo Machiavelli. f "The Intellectual Development of Europe," Vol. II., pp. 135, 136. By John William Draper, M.D., LL.D. New York: Harper & Brothers. 382 MANUAL TRAINING. many illusions, and notably of the fallacy that the wealth of Eastern princes was destined to supply the waste of their own squandered estates. They returned, too, to find a new civilization in process of development. Two hundred years of comparative freedom from the repres- sive force of feudalism changed the face of the country and the character of its people. During the absence of the nobles, in the Holy Land, a middle class sprung into existence, possessing the qualities which always distin- guish that class — thrift and prudence. The mortgaged estates of the Crusaders had fallen partly into their hands, and partly into the hands of the Crown, Towns had sprung up, and a commercial class and a manufact- uring class had been formed. The artisan became a fac- tor in the social problem. He offered his wares to the lords and ladies of the castles, and they bought them- selves poor. As Emerson says, " The banker with his seven per cent, drove the earl out of his castle." In the eleventh century nobility was above price, in the thir- teenth it was for sale, and soon afterwards it was offered as a gift. The invention of printing, the art preservative of all arts, removed the seal from the lij)s of learning. The desire to conceal is no match for the desire to print. Thenceforth, through the medium of types, the voice of genius was destined to reach to the ends of the earth ; and, more important still, every discovery in science, and every invention in art, became the sure heritage of future ages. The discovery of America was the crowning act of man's emancipation. In sweeping away the last vestige of the theory on which patristic geography was based, Columbus freed mankind. In the cry of " land ho !" EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 283 witli which he greeted the new continent, he sounded the death-knell of intellectual slavery. His was the last act in a series of acts which struck off the shackles of thought, and let in upon the long night of the Middle Ages the clear light of day. Leonardo da Yinci took up the interrupted work of Archimedes, and the science of mechanics made rapid progress. At last it was correctly observed that " experiment is the only interpreter of nat- ure," and the development of natural philosophy began. Bruno was still to be burned, and Galileo imprisoned. But the persecutors of those great men were no longer moved by mere blind zeal. They believed and trembled, and in seeking to drown the truth in the blood of the votaries of science, they rendered it more conspicuous. By the light of the flames which consumed the body of the too daring philosopher a thousand scientists studied the stars, the earth, and the air. The invention of printing paralyzed authority, and the discovery of America gave wings to hope. A few manu- scripts could be locked in vaults or burned, but millions of books must inevitably, ultimately, find their way to the people. Books were, therefore, the sure promise of universal culture — the precursor of the common school. The discovery of another continent startled the people of Europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years, and sent a fresh current of blood surging through their veins. It seemed like a sort of new creation, and appealed power- fully to the imagination. And it is always the imagina- tion that " blazes " the path to glorious achievements. It is through the imagination that men are moved to "crave after the unseen," and through the imagination that the human mind becomes big with " bold and lofty concep- tions." A new world having been discovered by one man, 384 MANUAL TRAINING. it was natural that all men should be put upon inquiry. Hence the era of investigation, the resulting discoveries of science, and their innumerable applications, through the useful arts, to the fast multiplying needs of man. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLEM. 285 CHAPTER XXIV. EDUCATION" AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM— HISTORIC. EUROPE. The Standing Army a Legacy of Evil from the Middle Ages. — It is the Controlling Feature of the European Situation. — Its Collateral Evils: Wars and Debts. — The Debts of Europe Represent a Series of Colossal Crimes against the People ; with the Armies and Na- vies they Absorb the Bulk of the Annual Revenue. — The People Fleeing from them. — They Threaten Bankruptcy ; they Prevent Education. — Germany, the best-educated Nation in Europe, losing most by Emigration. — Her People will not Endure the Standing Army. — The Folly of the European International Policy of Hate. — It is Possible for Europe to Restore to Productive Employ- ments 3,000,000 of men, to place at the Disposal of her Educators $100,000,000, instead of $70,000,000 per annum, and to pay her National Debts in Fifty-four Years, simply by the Disbandment of her Armies and Navies. — The Armament of Europe Stands in the Way of Universal Education and of Universal Industrial Pros- perity. — Standing Armies the Last Analysis of Selfishness ; they are Coeval with the Revival during the Middle Ages of the Greco- Roman Subjective Methods of Education. — They must go out when the New Education comes in. The mediaeval period conferred upon man two great blessings — a new continent and the art of printing. It also left a legacy of evil. With the partition of Europe into great States the modern age began, and it began with this inheritance of evil from the Middle Ages — the standing army. The feudal lords wrecked their estates and sacrificed their lives during the Crusades, and a middle class arose and united with the kings in the government of the 286 MANUAL TRAINING. State. But tliis alliance was of short duration ; it soon gave way to an alliance whicli proved to be enduring — an alliance between the aristocracy and the kings. By the ruin of feudalism thousands of serfs were set free. Trained to arms, it was easy to make soldiers of them. They were accordingly converted into merce- nary troops — mustered into the service of the new alli- ance as guards of the modern State. Thus the standing armies of the " great powers " originated. This legacy of evil has so increased in magnitude that it is, to-day, the dominant feature of European public economy, and the portentous fact of the social problem. The standing armies of Europe number two million five hundred thousand men, and their naval auxiliaries con- sist of three thousand vessels, thirty thousand guns, and two hundred thousand men. This is the mammoth evil bequeathed to Europe by the Middle Ages, and out of it many collateral evils have sprung, as wars, debts, and exorbitant tax levies. Thirty years ago the national debts of the govern- ments of Europe had risen to $9,000,000,000. Since that time they have doubled ! The cause of this vast increase is easy to find. It consists chiefiy of four great wars, namely, the Crimean war of 1854-56, the Franco-Sar- dinian war against Austria in 1859, the German-Italian war of 1866, and the Franco-Prussian war of 18Y0-72. These wars were waged to maintain what is termed the balance of power ; they involved no principle affecting the riglits of man. Whatever their issue, no gain could hence accrue to the people of Europe. And this is the nature of most of the wars in which the standing armies of Europe have been employed since their organization. But the European budget shows that they are the over- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PEOBLElf. 287 shadowing feature of the European governmental sys- tems. The annual revenue of the States of Europe is about $1,725,000,000. Of this sum $700,000,000 is devoted to the support of the standing armies and navies, and as much more is required to meet the interest charge on the debts created in the prosecution of wars waged to maintain the balance of power! Thus, of the aggregate of European revenue, the sum of $1,400,000,000 is de- voted to the purely supposititious theory that the sub- jects of the great powers are inflamed with an intense desire to cut one another's throats, while the small sum of $325,000,000 is left for the support of the civil serv- ice, comprising all the strictly legitimate objects of gov- ernment, and including education ! The national debts of Europe represent a series of colossal crimes against the people. They were incurred in the prosecution of unnecessary wars, and for the sup- port of unnecessary standing armies. With relation to these debts the people are divided into two classes — one class owns them and the other class pays interest on them. This relationship comprehends future generations in perpetuity. Every child born in Europe inherits either an estate in these debts or an obligation to con- tribute towards the payment of the interest uj)on them. Thus the fruits of a great crime have been transmuted into a vested right in one class of peoj)le, and into a vested wrong in another class." * "For instance, I have seven thousand pounds in •what we call the Funds or Founded things; but I am not comfortable about the founding of them. All that I can see of them is a square bit of paper, with some ugly printing on it, and all that I know of them is that this bit of paper gives me the right to tax you every year, and 288 MANUAL TRAINING. If the European standing armies and navies had not been raised and kept uj), and if the revenue devoted to their sup23ort had been expended for schools, there would not now be an uneducated person in Europe, If these standing armies and navies were now disbanded, and the revenue at present expended for their support diverted to the support of schools, and so applied continuously for half a century, there would not be, at the end of that period, an illiterate person in Europe. Under existing conditions the debts of the European nations cannot be paid. But vast as the sum of them is, their payment is not only possible, but practicable in a very short time. Disband the standing armies and navies, and continue the present rate of taxation, and there would be an annual surplus revenue of $700,000,000. Apply this sum, together with the surplus of the interest appro- priation, accruing through the resulting yearly decrease of the interest charge, to the liquidation of these debts, and they would be extinguished in about twenty years. But if the period during which provision is made for the extinguishment of these debts be extended to fifty- four years, and, meantime, the present rate of taxation be maintained, there would be released and rendered avail- make you pay me two hundred pounds out of your wages; whicli is very pleasant for me ; but how long will you be pleased to do so ? Suppose it should occur to you, any summer's day, that you had bet- ter not ? Where would my seven thousand pounds be ? In fact, where are they now ? We call ourselves a rich people ; but you see this seven thousand pounds of mine has no real existence — it only means that you, the workers, are poorer by two hundred pounds a year than you would be if I hadn't got it. And this is surely a very odd kind of money for a country to boast of." — " Fors Clavigera," Part I., p. 67. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John AViley & Sons, 1880. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 289 able for educational purposes, annually, the sum of $600,000,000. What is the purpose, it may be inquired, of these cal- culations? Their purpose is to show what the armies and navies of Europe cost, and what they stand in the way of. They cost so much that not a dollar of the national debts of Europe can be paid while they con- tinue to exist. They cost so much that the people who are taxed to support them are fleeing from them as from a scourge. They cost so much that the decline of the nations which support them has already begun, and this decline can be arrested only by their disbandment. That the nations of Europe are declining is shown by the statistics of emigration. The foundation of national prosperity is manual labor. There must be a solid basis of industrial growth for tlie superstructure of elegance, refinement, luxury, and culture. Manual labor is as es- sential to triumphs in literature, music, and the fine arts as the foundations of the Brooklyn Bridge, buried in the earth, are to the beautiful arch which spans the great river. And in the strife for supremacy between the nations of the world the maintenance of these trium]3hs depends, also, upon manual labor.* The real flower of a "" " Now, therefore, see briefly what it all comes to. First, you spend eighty millions of money in fireworks [war], doing no end of damage in letting them off. " Then you borrow money to pay the firework-maker's bill, from any gain-loviog persons who have got it. "And then, dressing your bailiff's men in new red coats and cocked hats, you send them drumming and trumpeting into the fields, to take the peasants by the throat, and make them pay the interest on what you have borrowed, and the expense of the cocked hats besides. "That is 'financiering,' my friends, as the mob of the monej''- makers understand it. And they understand it well. For that is 390 MANUAL TKAINING. population is, therefore, its labor class. All other classes depend upon it, and all national triumphs spring from it. Hence a drain upon the labor class of a nation is a drain upon its most vital resource. The nation that suffers such a drain continuously is in its decadence. It loses some of its vigor, some of its productive power, and the loss is not supplied. True, the poor emigrant takes with him no part of the splendors of the country he leaves, but his brawny arm and skilled hand have contributed to the support of national pomp and social elegance, and as he steps aboard the steamer he withdraws that support forever. Napoleon the Infamous plundered the conquered cap- itals of Europe to beautify and enrich tlie art treasuries of Paris. The art treasures of Europe are destined to cross the ocean, in the track of the column of emigration, if the flower of her labor class continues to flee from her standing armies and navies, as the statues of Home fol- lowed t]ie army of the modern Caesar. For where the flower of the world's labor class gathers, there wealth most abounds. Labor, not gold and silver, not land, is the source of wealth, hence it is to the laborer that art triumphs are due, and this is the order of their devel- opment. The laborer provides for immediate, pressing wants; he is prudent, and accumulates a surplus; he hungers for education ; he develops a love of the beauti- what it always comes to, finally — taking the peasant by the throat. He must pay — for he only can. Food can. only be got out of the ground, and all these devices of soldiership, and law, and arithmetic, are but ways of getting at last down to him, the furrow-driver, and snatching the roots from him as he digs." — " Fors Clavigera," Part II., p. 27. By John Ruskin, LL.D. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1883. EDUCATIOISr AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 291 ful ; he seeks to dignify liis life and adorn his home ; he patronizes art ; he draws to himself the art treasures of the world. The standing armies and navies of Europe have cost the European laborer the sacrilice of all these pleasing and noble aspirations. Beyond the point of providing for " immediate pressing wants " he has not been able to pass. His surplus goes to the tax-gatherer, to feed and clothe the army and the navy. His desire for edu- cation, his love of the beautiful, his hope of a digni- fied life, and of a home adorned by art — these all are dreams, illusions, which vanish into thin air in the pres- ence of the substantial fact of the annual European bud- get — for the support of the standing armies and navies $700,000,000 ! In the way of the payment of the national debts of Europe her standing armies and navies rear themselves like an impassable wall. Against any general education- al system they have hitherto constituted an insurmounta- ble barrier ; and in the future, as in the past, their main- tenance dooms the masses to illiteracy. They stand in the way especially of the incorporation, in the curricu- lum of the public schools, of the manual element in edu- cation, because it is the most expensive, as it is the most important part of instruction. Germany affords an admirable example of the power of education, even though defective in character, and of the disgust with which standing armies inspire an intel- ligent people. The Germans are the best-educated peo- ple in Europe. The educational system of Germany was established by Prussia as a politico - economic measure after the humiliation of the German States by Bona- parte. Said Frederick William, " Though territory, pow- 13 292 MANUAL TRAINING. er, and prestige be lost, they can be regained by ac- quiring intellectual and moral power." The outcome of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 verified the truth of this prediction. Her freedom from debt enabled Prussia to inaugurate and carry forward a comprehen- sive educational system, which in turn enabled her not only to vanquish her ancient enemy, but to make Prance pay the cost of her own humiliation. Thus at a single stroke Prussia avenged the defeats suffered at the hands of the first ^Napoleon, and permanently weakened France by compelling her vastly to increase her national debt. The alacrity with which the French people subscribed for the new bonds was much remarked upon, at the time, as evincing both financial soundness and patriotism. But the really grave feature of the situation — the vast aug- mentation of the public burdens of France — was scarcely mentioned, and was, perhaps, philosophically considered only by that astute statesman. Prince Bismarck. The war with Germany cost France $2,000,000,000, and com- pelled an enormous increase of taxation. The debt state- ment for 1877 was $4,635,000,000 — the expenditures $533,000,000 ; and of this latter sum $373,000,000 were absorbed by the army, the navy, and the national debt ! The significant feature of the European situation is the freedom from debt of Germany. It is by virtue of this fact that she holds the first place in Europe. Her rate of taxation is as low as that of little Switzerland. All the other Great Powers are hampered by great debts. Spain is bankrupt ; she does not pay the interest on her debt. Austria increases her debt every year ; she is prac- tically bankrupt. It is only a question of time, if stand- ing armies and navies continue to be maintained and wars to occur, when all the debtor nations will be re- EDUCATION" AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 293 duced to bankruptcy.* The nation sinks as the column of debt rises. France cannot double her debt again and make her people pay interest on it. England draws from her people a larger jper capita revenue than any other nation of Europe, and she has nearly touched the limit of their capacity to pay taxes. A sudden and con- siderable increase of her debt would strain the Govern- ment, and might shatter it. Thus, the more searching the analysis of the Euro- pean situation, the more clear does the excej^tional strength of Germany appear. But out of her abundant strength a weakness has been evolved. The system of education that rendered the Germans so powerful against France as soldiers, has made them thoughtful citizens. It has revolutionized the public sentiment of Germany on the subject of government. In the place of passion it has substituted reason. The Prussian "subject" for whom the king thought, has become a German citizen who thinks for himself, and one of his earliest reflec- tions is that, in modern civilization, a standing army is a solecism. The ignorant Prussian hated the French be- cause hatred of them was enjoined upon him as the cor- relative of the duty of blind devotion to his king. But the educated German knows that the sole motive of the continuance of the standing army is the maintenance of the balance of power, which is merely a tacit agree- ment between the European rulers, by divine right, to perpetuate their own lease of power. Hence the "in- * "The progress of the enormous debts -which at present oppress, and will in the long run probably ruin, all the great Nations of Eu- rope, has been pretty uniform." — " Wealth of Nations," Vol. III., p. 393. By Adam Smith, LL.D., F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1819. 294 MANUAL TEAINING. tellectual and moral power" conferred upon the German people, by education, reacts upon Germany in the form of a drain of the flower of her population by emigra- tion. The citizenship of Germany is more valuable, in an economic sense, than that of any other country of Eu- rope — more valuable because Germany is the most pow- erful nation of the European family of States; more valuable because of them all she alone is free from debt ; more valuable by reason of her more moderate scale of taxation. But she still furnishes the heaviest contingent to the columns of emigration steadily moving towards the United States. In a word, the most valuable citi- zenship in Euro]3e — that of Germany — is least regarded and most freely surrendered. Why ? Because the Ger- mans are the best- educated people in Europe. Poor as the German primary school system is, it is universal, and it has destroyed what it was founded chiefly to promote and perpetuate, namely, reverence for, and loyalty to, government by Divine right. German intelligence re- volts from taxation for the support of a standing army. It revolts from the theory and policy of hate upon which standing armies are based. It comprehends perfectly that the standing army is a menace to the freedom of the citizen, at home, rather than a defence against pretended danger from abroad. It scorns, as absurd, the threadbare assumption that Englishmen, Frenchmen, Italians, Russians, and Germans desire to fly at one an- other's throats, and that they can be restrained only by a cordon of bayonets. It realizes that the perpetuation of the era of hate, through the standing army, retards the mental and physical progress of the human race, which would be greatly promoted by the free intermin- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 395 gling of tlie various nationalities of Eiirope.^^ That it is from the standing army that the emigrant flees is shown by the records of the military department of the Ger- man government. In the year 1883 twenty-nine thousand men were ar- rested for attempting to emigrate from Germany to avoid the required military service, and more than a hundred thousand others, from whom service was due, refused, both to report for duty, and to furnish the required ex- cuses for the failure to enroll themselves. The law of Germany requires every male citizen, capa- ble of bearing arms, to serve three years in the standing army — to devote three of the best years of his life to the preservation of the balance of power in Europe ! In ad- dition, he must serve four years in the reserve, and five years in the landwehr. And this service is regarded as a debt due the government. Every male child born in Germany contracts this debt, in contemplation of law, in the act of drawing his first breath, and nothing but death releases him from the obligation. Having been taught in the emperor's schools to love the emperor, when he reaches the military age, a musket is placed in his hands, * The multiplicity of languages is due to the policy of interna- tional hate, inaugurated by the nations of Europe to promote the selfish purposes of rulers. Barbarism is diversity; civilization is unity. The human race is one, provided it is civilized, aud it should have but one language. Language is a tool, and time consumed in acquiring skill in the use of more than one tool designed for the same end, is wasted. The standing armies of Europe obstruct the way to unity of language. The time will come when all civilized peoples will speak one tongue. Then language will cease to be a mere vain accomplishment, and become what it ought always to have been, the simple means of familiarizing the mind with things, and of the communication of knowledge. 296 MANUAL TRAINING. and he is taught to shoot the emperor's enemies. If he refuses to enter the army he is fined ; if he refuses to pay the fine he is imprisoned. The German emperor attributes the decline in the military organization to the negligence of his military staff, but its true cause is the German educational sys- tem. The steady augmentation of the rolls of military delinquents is the measure of the growth of German in- telligence. The ease with which Germany conquered France flattered the vanity of the educated German, but it did not prevent him from emigrating to America. To the cultured mind the army that wins the contest in which no principle is involved is as odious as the army that loses. To the cultured mind all standing armies are odious, because they are an embodied assumption of the barbarism of man, and a denial of the efficacy of reason. The great stream of German emigration attests the su- periority of German culture. The educated German de- clines to learn the art of shooting the emperor's enemies, but he knows that Germany is, in fact, governed by its standing army — by muskets — and he quits the countiy. Thus the chief power of Germany becomes her chief weakness. A system of education which has made her the first nation in Europe produces wide-spread discon- tent among her people, because she is governed by obso- lete ideas. Nor can the loss in virile force suffered by Germany, through emigration, be made good by a counter movement of immigrants from the less favored countries of Europe. The economic condition of Germany — her freedom from debt and her comparatively low rate of taxation — invite such a movement. But the European policy of international hate, created and perpetuated by standing armies, forbids Germany to recoup her losses of EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 297 men to America, through corresponding gains of men from the overtaxed populations of neighboring coun- tries. The grinning skeletons of a hundred battles in which the rival nationalities of Europe have been pitted against one another, rise to challenge the social inter- mingling of peoples separated for centuries by the arts of diplomacy, traditions of blood and flames, and the ser- ried ranks of standing armies. The disposition of Germans to emigrate irritates the emperor and his prime-minister. The loss of numbers might be borne, for notwithstanding the steady outward flow of emigrants there is a slight increase of popula- tion in Germany. But it is the quality of the exodus that annoys the emperor and his chancellor. The Ger- man emigrants are strong men and women — strong men- tally and physically. All the weaklings, all the paupers, all the imbeciles, the aged, and the infirm remain, only the young and vigorous go. Those who go have been taught at the expense of the State to love the emperor and hate his enemies, but they do neither. The German system of education, from the point of view of rulers by divine right, is, hence, a conspicuous failure. It makes better men but poorer subjects. The more thoroughly the man is educated the more valuable he is to himself and to the community, but the less valuable to his king. His growth in intelligence is the measure of his decline in reverence for rulers by divine right, and the standing armies by which they are alone supported. This is the cause of German emigration, and its effect is to weaken the German Empire. Germany is not so strong as she was when her armies swept over France ; she declines in power each year, through the loss of men — the sole sup- port of a State. They flee from her standing army to 298 MANUAL TEAINING. the United States, a republic with only a handful of sol- diers. The system of education established to increase the power of Prussia in Europe has accomplished its pur- pose. But it has done much more — something never thought of by its founders. It has produced a wide- spread feeling of intelligent discontent ; and discontent is an inarticulate cry for reform. The cultured German scorns the standing army, refuses to serve in it, protests against its longer existence, and demands more and bet- ter education for his children. His protest is unheeded, and he quits the country. But the demand for higher education is not, cannot be, disregarded. Intelligence is contagious; it infects with a thirst for knowledge all with whom it comes in contact. Education is the arch- revolutionist whose onward march is irresistible. Soon a riper culture will make the German Protestants more courageous and more imperative in their demands, and they will remain in the country to enforce them. Edu- cation made Germany the first military power in Europe ; but education conld not have been put to a more ignoble service. The desire of intelligent Germans is that Ger- many shall become the first industrial power in Europe, and this desire can be realized by the disbandment of her standing army. This review of the situation in Europe shows that it is practicable for her to restore, at once, to productive em- ployments three millions of men — the flower of her population — now not only idle, but a public charge. It shows, also, that it is practicable for Europe to place, at once, at the disposal of her educators $700,000,000 per annum instead of $70,000,000 per annum, as at present. The corollary of these two propositions is a third, name- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 299 ly, that it is practicable for Europe to extinguish her national debts in fifty-four years. It follows that the regular armies of Europe alone stand in the way of universal education, and of universal industrial pros- perity. Standing armies everywhere within the lines of ad- vanced civilization must soon disappear before the march of education.* Social questions cannot much longer be settled by emigration. The world's virgin soil is being rapidly appropriated. When the surface of the whole earth shall have become occupied, barbarisms of every nature will be intolerable. Man must then be highly civilized, and the only highly civilizing influence is edu- cation. The age of force is passing away ; the age of science and art — the^ge of industrial development — has begun, and standing armies are as abnormal in Europe * "This nation to-day is in profouDd peace with the world; but in my judgment it has before it a great dutj^ which will not only make that profound peace permanent, but shall set such an example as will absolutely abolish war on this continent, and by a great ex- ample and a lofty moral precedent shall ultimately abolish it in other continents. I am justified in saying that every one of the seventeen independent Powers of North and South America is not only willing but ready — is not only ready but eager — to enter into a solemn com- pact in a congress that may be called in the name of peace, to agree that if, unhappily, differences shall arise — as differences will arise between men and nations — they shall be settled upon the peaceful and Christian basis of arbitration. "And, as I have often said before, I am glad to repeat, in this great centre of civilization and power, that in my judgment no national spectacle, no international spectacle, no continental spectacle, could be more grand than that the republics of the Western world should meet together and solemnly agree that neither the soil of North nor that of South America shall be hereafter stained bj^ brothers' blood." — Extract from the Speech of Hon. James G. Blaine at the Delmonico Dinner, October 29, 1884. 13* 300 MANUAL TRAINING. now as slavery was in the United States twenty-five years ago.* Standing armies are the instrnments of tyranny ; they are the last analysis of selfishness, the incarnation of de- pravity; for they do not reason — they strike. It is worthy of note that the standing armies of Europe are coeval with the revival of learning, and the revival of learning was a revival of the Greco-Roman subjective educational methods. The logical effect of those meth- ods was the promotion of selfishness, and the standing armies conserved the selfish designs of the rulers of the newly-formed States. It is hence not a mere coincidence that standing armies and the revival of learning through subjective processes of thought are of common origin. The Machiavellian philosophy of cruelty, duplicity, and contempt of man sprung logically from egoism, and as logically led to the formation of standing armies — bodies of armed men, trained, under compulsion, to kill, burn, and destroy. The synonyms of the standing army are selfishness and its vile issue, feudalism, serfdom, slavery, ignorance, and contempt of man. These conditions are passing away, and the standing army, the worst, as it is the most costly relic of savagery, nmst pass away with them. It cannot withstand the advance of the new education, whose mission is peace, whose quest is the truth, whose premise is a fact, whose conclusion is a thing of use and beauty, and whose goal is justice. * "It is only slowly, and after having been long in contact with society, that man becomes more indulgent towards others and more severe towards himself." — " Suicide: an Essay on Comparative Moral Statistics," p. 226. By Henry Morselli, M.D. New York: D. Ap- pleton& Co., 1882. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 301 CHAPTER XXV. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM— HISTORIC. AMERICA. An Old Civilization in a New Country.— Old Methods in a New Sys- tem of Schools. — Sordid Views of Education. — The highest Aim Money-getting. — Herbert Spencer on the English Schools. — Same Defects in the American Schools. — Maxims of Selfishness. — The Cultivation of Avarice. — Political Incongruities. — Negroes escap- ing from Slavery called Fugitives from Justice. — The Results of Subjective Educational Processes. — Climatic Influences alone saved America from becoming a Slave Empire. — Illiteracy. — Abnormal Growth of Cities.— Failure of Justice. — Defects of Education shown in Reckless and Corrupt Legislation. — Waste of an Empire of Pub- lic Land.— Henry D. Lloyd's History of Congressional Land Grants. — The Growth and Power of Corporations. — The Origin of large Fortunes, Speculations. — Old Social Forces producing old Social Evils. — Still America is the Hope of the World. — The Right of Suffrage in the United States justifies the Sentiment of Patriotism. — Let Suffrage be made Intelligent and Virtuous, and all Social Evils will yield to it; and all the Wealth of the Country is subject to the Draft of the Ballot for Education. — The Hope of Social Re- form depends upon a complete Educational Revolution. The discovery of America startled Europe. It was a great blow to prevailing dogmatisms. It upset many learned (?) tlieories. It swept away patristic geography. It completed the figure of the earth, rendering it sus- ceptible of intelligent study. The advantages of such investigation accrued to man, to a degree, before the so- cial and civil life of America began. In the century and a quarter which elapsed between the landing of Colum- bus and that of the Pilgrims, on these shores, considera- 302 MANUAL TRAINING. ble social and political progress was made in Europe, and especially in England. From the turbulent scenes of the reigns of James I. and Charles I., which eventuated in the Cromwellian rebellion and victory of the Com- mons, the Pilgrims escaped. They not only bore with them, to the new continent, the impress of the long struggle for liberty waged by the English people, but they were, in a certain sense, the product of the progress of all the ages. But they constituted only a small part of the column of immigrants. Detacliments of the Cav- , aliers came also, and Germans, Frenchmen, and Irishmen came with them. The discovery of America was a sort of new creation,* but its almost virgin soil was destined to become the home of an old civilization. From all the nationalities of the Old "World the 'New "World was to be peopled. The ambitious, the restless, the adventurous, the enterprising, and the hardy of every tongue, were gradually to assem- ble in the new field of action. The manner in which they treated the natives of the new country, both north and south, showed their origin and their training. Their determination to conquer and hold the new territory was but thinly disguised. Their descent upon the Atlantic coast was not the exact counterpart of that of Cffisar upon the coast of Britain, but it was the same in spirit ; and the active trade in slaves which soon sprang up, and which was thereafter vigorously prosecuted for two hun- dred years, showed the taint of savagery — the impress of Roman cruelty, rapacity, and injustice. * " The discovery of America is the greatest event whicli bas ever taken place in this world of ours, one half of which had hitherto been unknown to the other. All that until now appeared extraordi- nary seems to disappear before this sort of new creation." — Voltaire. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 303 It is evident that in its most important feature — tlie formation of character — education had made little if any progress at the time of the organization of civil society in America. The democratic idea was not new. It found expression in every form during the struggles of Greece and Rome, and the revival of learning had led to the discussion of governmental questions in the light of his- tory. Besides, the reformation of Luther had opened the way to the last analysis of dissent in the person of Eoger Williams, who asserted the right of absolute free- dom of thought and speech. Of the religious right of private judgment the political right of an equal voice in public affairs is the corollary. Hence, that the Puritans should establish the town organizations so justly lauded by M. Tocqueville was quite logical.* Nor was the public-school system less logical ; all citizens being mem- bers of the government, all children must be prepared for the duties of citizenship. But unfortunately the old system of education was put into the new schools, as the old civilizations had been transferred to the new country. The system of education under which the kings and rul- ing classes of England and of the continent of Europe were trained to selfishness, cruelty, and injustice, was heedlessly adopted in the schools of l^ew England, which became the models of schools throughout the country. * "Town meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to science; they bring it within the people's reach, thej' teach men how to nse and how to enjoy it. . . . The township institutions of New England form a complete and regular whole; they are old; they have the support of the laws, and the still stronger support of the manners of the community, over which they exercise a prodigious influence." — "Democracy in America," Vol. I., p. 7G. By Alexis De Tocque- ville. Boston: John Allyn, 1876. 304 MANUAL TRAINING. The popular idea in regard to the schools was (1) that they fitted their pupils for the duties of citizenshij), or, more properly, for the art of governing, and (2) that they taught the art of getting on in the world ; and get- ting on in the world was interpreted to mean getting and keeping money. That this sordid view of education was generally held in the rural districts of ITew England is shown by the fact that any culture beyond a limited and imperfect knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic was regarded as superfluous. IN'ot even the rudiments of either the sciences or the arts were imparted, and yet it is only through a knowledge of the sciences and the arts that progress in civilization is made. The early settlers of New England devised a new system of schools, but they imported into them an old system of education, the Greco-Roman subjective system, introduced into Eng- land with the revival of learning. Of this system Mr. Herbert Spencer says, " Had there been no teaching but such as is given in our public schools, England would now be what it was in feudal times." And he adds : " The vital knowledge, that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge that has got itself taught in nooks and corners, while the ordained agencies for teach- ing: have been mumblinei: little else but dead formulas."^" But these are merely negative effects of subjective methods of education. The positive evil effect of them * ' ' That "which our school courses leave almost entirely out, vre thus find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. All our industries would cease were it not for that information which men begin to acquire as they best may after their education is said to be finished." — "Education," p. 54. By Herbert Spencer. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 305 is selfishness, the sum of all villanies. Under the new system of schools — schools for all — the old philosophy of life flourished. Under the name of prudence, selfishness was deified. The maxim of Herbert—" Help thyself and God will help thee" — was reproduced by Franklin in a hundred forms. The child was taught, not that " The half is more than the whole," but that " In the race of life the devil takes the hindmost." Thus greed and avarice were cultivated to the sacri- fice of honesty. Calling selfishness prudence led to con- founding right and wrong — freedom and slavery. Hence we have the Declaration of Independence containing the lofty sentiment, "All men are created equal," and the Constitution throwing the shield of its protection over human bondage. A false system of education led to political incongruities of the grossest character, as, in the preamble to the Constitution, the declaration of its high purpose — to establish justice and secure the blessings of liberty — and in the body of the instrument a guaranty of the slave-trade for twenty-five years, and a compact that it should be the duty of the national army to shoot rebellious slaves, and the duty of free citizens, of the free States, to hunt down escaping slaves and surrender them to their owners in the slave States. The failure of the prevailing system of education to promote rectitude and right thinking was so complete that negroes escaping from slavery were called " fugitives from justice !" Its failure was so complete that the very streets of Boston in which patriots had struggled to the death in the cause of liberty now echoed the groans of the slave, and resounded with the clank of his chains. Its failure was so complete that in Faneuil Hall, the cradle of liberty, slavery was justified. Its failure was 306 MANUAL TRAINING. SO complete that a senator, for daring to characterize slavery as barbaric, was stricken down and beaten with a chib, until lie lay helpless in a pool of blood on the floor of the legislative hall of the great, free republic. These are characteristics of the early civilizations, the civilizations of Greece and Rome. They are the product of selfishness, and they show that subjective educational processes — processes which proceed from the abstract to the concrete, thus violating the natural law of investiga- tion — produce the same effects in the nineteenth century as they did in the first century. Ethically, slavery was tried only by the test of self- interest. In the North, as in Europe, it was not profit- able, and it faded away ; in the South, in the cotton and rice fields, it was thought to be profitable, and it spread and flourished. That the opposition to slavery, at the IJ^orth, did not grow out of education in the schools, is evident, because the sons of tha Southern ruling class were educated in the high schools and colleges of the l^orth ; but they became, notwithstanding such training, almost to a man, slavery propagandists. The heinous- ness of slavery was perceptible only to those who had no personal interest in its perpetuation. It is plain that the effect of the education of the schools upon the youth of the country was to make them callous to the common impressions of right and wrong ; in a word, to render them thoroughly selfish. It is difficult to resist the conclusion that, if slavery had been as profitable at the ISTorth as it was at the South, it would have been j)erpetuated, and would have poisoned the infant civilization of America as that of Home was vitiated and destroyed. Assuming the truth of this hypothesis, climate conditions, not education, saved this EDUCATIOISr AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 307 continent from the scourge of slavery. To the fact that a hirge part of the territory of the United States is situ- ated in the temperate zone we owe tlie elimination of slavery from the social problem. Existing social conditions in the United States do not differ materially from those of the chief countries of Europe. We have only a small standing army; but the sole great question which divided the people during the first hundred years of our political existence — sla- very — had to be settled as such questions have been set- tled from the beginning of history, as savages settle all questions — by violence, by an appeal to the logic of brute force. Our government differs from the governments of Eu- rope both in principle and form, but the governmental influence is only one of many influences which unite to mould social habits. The democratic principle, adopted as the foundation of our political institutions, has not served to counteract the tendency to the formation of social class distinctions. The peoj^le lack the wisdom, or the virtue, or both, to insist upon the first prerequisite to even an approximation to social equality, namely, univer- sal education. Of our population of fifty millions, five millions of persons, ten years old and over, are unable to read, and six millions are unable to write. In the last census decade we made the paltry gain of three per cent, in intelligence, but in 1880 we had six hundred thousand more illiterates than in 1870, JSTearly two millions of the legal voters in the United States are illiterates. Ev- ery sixth man who offers his ballot at the polls is unable to write his name. Under such circumstances class dis- tinctions of the most pronounced type are inevitable. The tendency to the concentration of populations in 308 MANUAL TRAINING. cities in the United States is not less decided than it is in the countries of Europe. In 1820 the population of our cities constituted less than one - twentieth of the whole population of the country, but in 1880 it consti- tuted more than one-fifth of the whole. Cities have always been the chief source of societary disturbances. In the worst days of the Roman Empire tranquillity and prosperity reigned in many of the dis- tant provinces. While at the city of Home " every kind of vice paraded itself with revolting cynicism," in the provinces "there was a middle class in which good-nat- ure, conjugal fidelity, probity, and the domestic virtues were generally practised." Of one of the youngest large cities in the United States the superintendent of a Training School for Waifs says, " ISTever in the history of this city has infant wretch- edness stalked forth in such multiplied and such humili- ating forms. It is hard to suppress the conviction that even Pagan Eome, in the corrupt age of Augustus, did not witness a more i*apid and frightful declension in morals than that which can to-day be found in the city of Chicago." The most graphic description ever given of a waif came from the lips of John Morrissey.* He said of himself, " I was, at the age of seven years, thrown a waif upon the streets of Dublin. I slept in &\leja and under side- walks. I disputed with other waifs the possession of a crust. We fought like young savages for the garbage that fell from the basket of the scullion. The strongest * A noted pugilist, proprietor of gambling-houses in New York City and at Saratoga Springs, and a politician wlio represented a New York City district in Congress. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 309 won and satisfied the cravings of hunger; the weakest starved. I had no idea that anything was to be gained by other means than brute force. Hence my code of moral and political ethics — the strongest man is the best man. I became a pugilist." The substantial citizen who passes the street waif with contempt should reflect that ten or a dozen years later he will meet him, a full-grown man, at the polls, still clothed in rags, perhajDS, but his peer in all the rights of citizenship. It was the unfortunates of the dark alleys and noxious streets of IS'ew York — the waifs, the savages of the John Morrissey type — that made Tweedism* pos- sible, that made robbery in the name of law possible, that made taxation the equivalent of confiscation in that city. Mr. Charles Dickens, in " Bleak House," in the course of a pen-picture of a wretched quarter of London, under the name of " Tom - all - alones," shows how ignorance, poverty, and vice react upon society. He says, " There is not an atom of Tom's slime, not a cubic inch of any pestilential gas in which he lives, not one obscenity or degradation about him, not an ignorance, not a wicked- ness, not a brutality of his committing but shall work its retribution through every order of society, up to the proudest of the proud, and to the highest of the high." The presence of the poison is already shown in the failure of justice. These waifs, grown to man's estate, but destitute of education and moral principle, wielding the power of the ballot, desecrate the jury -room with their vile presence, and tug at the skirts of sheriffs, * For an account of the career of "William Marcy Tweed, sec " The American Cyclopaedia," Vol. XVI., p. 85. New York: D. Apple- ton & Co., 1881. 310 MANUAL TEAINING. prosecuting officers, and judges, and notorious criminals escape punishment ! So grievous has the abuse become that Judge Lynch has opened his summary, awful court in almost every State of the Union. To say that this class menaces the government with destruction is to state it mildly. In every case of the failure of justice the government is in part subverted ; for when crime goes unpunished, the law, violated in that particular instance, becomes a dead letter ; and when lynching shall have become the rule, and the execution of the law the exception, government by law will have ceased to exist — it will have given way to government by force. Then the army will be invoked to shoot down the men for whose education the law failed to provide, in every city of the land, as it was invoked in Pittsburg in 1877. What are we doing to avert this danger which threat- ens our institutions ? With the exception of here and there a weak effort on the part of a few humanitarians, as in the training school referred to, we are leaving hun- dreds of thousands of waifs to develop into savages, and, what is worse, savages with the power to tax civilized people ! We have a system of public schools into which such children as choose may enter to a certain limit, re- main as long as they please, and depart when they please. But there are thousands of children in every large city who could not enter if they would, and who are not com- pelled to receive the civilizing benefits of education, and who hence join the army of waifs and study the art of savagery ; and, as has been remarked, they go to swell the ranks of a populace as depraved as that which in Eome cried for " bread and circuses !" and sacked the city while it was in flames. EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 31 1 The defective, not to say vicious character of our sys- tem of education, is shown b}'- the reckless course of our legislators on tlie subject of the disposition of the public domain. William the Conqueror, conceiving tha,t any social revolution is incomplete until it disturbs the pro- prietorship of land, confiscated the entire landed estates of England, and conferred what remained of the proprie- tary, after reservations in the Crown', upon his retainers, the l^ormans. Eight hundred years have elapsed since the issue of William's land-tenure edict, but it still re- mains the controlling feature of the British Constitution. It has compelled the deportation of millions of English- men ; it has reduced the masses of Scotland to a grind- ing poverty, and converted their country into hunting- grounds for the amusement of the landlord class ; it has depopulated Ireland, and exasperated almost to madness the remnant of her people. But we have failed to profit by the example of Eng- land. Our legislators have been blind to the lessons of history, or they have been corrupt. They have been ig- norant of political and social laws, or they have been wanting in rectitude. In the period of thirty years, ended in 1880, Congress gave to railway corporations over 240,000 square miles, or 154,067,553 acres, of the best public lands in the States and Territories of the Union — an area double that of the whole kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, including the adjacent isles. On the 17th of March, 1883, the Chicago Daily Trib- %ine published a history of these land grants, compiled by Mr. Henry D. Lloyd, under the following summary : " The story of the dissipation of our great national inheritance — thrown aioay hy Congress, wasted hy the Land Office, stolen hy thieves. A land monopoly worse 313 MANUAL TRAINING. than that of England^ tegotten in America. English monopoly is in fannilies ', American monopoly is in corporations ', and corporations are the only aristocrats that have no soids, and never die.''^ The following passages from the opening paragraphs of Mr. Lloyd's history are reproduced here by permission of the anthor : " The public are profoundly ignorant of the facts about the public land. They know, in a dim way, that it is passing out of their hands, and that huge monopolies are being created out of the lands which they meant should be the inheritance of the settler. The land set apart for homes for families has been made into empires for cor- porations. In the story recited below, every element of human fault and fraud will be seen to have been at work in the spoliation of the land of the people. Congress has been extravagant and has failed to act when part of the results of its extravagance might have been saved. The Land Office has been inadequately equipped by Con- gress, and has on its own account been careless, dishonest, and traitorous to the interests of the people. It has been wax in the hands of the great railroad corporations, but double-edged steel in the side of the poor settler. It has overruled decisions of the Supreme Court and nullified acts of Congress to betray its trust and enrich the rail- roads, but has refused even to exercise its discretion when the home of a settler, held by a righteous title, was to be confiscated at the demand of corporate greed. The nig- gardliness of Congress makes clerks, on salaries of twelve hundred to eighteen hundred dollars a year, untrained in the law, knowing nothing of the rules of evidence, judges of the law and facts in cases involving millions of dollars and thousands of homes. There is no worse chapter in EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM, 313 the history of government than the facts we have to give showing the deliberate and heartless evictions of the Eu- ropean immigrant and the American settler in order to give their farms to covetous corporations. The land- grant roads have had millions of acres granted them by the Land Office in excess of the grants by Congress. The whole story is summed up in the recent remark of one who had thoroughly investigated the subject — that the history of the management of the land-grant roads by the Land Office is a history of the management of the Land Office by the railroads. " 'No chapter in this story will be found of more som- bre interest than the statements made as to the Supreme Court by the Senate Committee on Public Lands, in a re- port submitted by Senator Yan Wyck recommending a . bill to compel the railroads to pay taxes on their lands. Its decisions as to the titles of the railroads and the set- tlers to the lands, like those of a weathercock, have point- ed the way the corporation blew its breath." The summary of Mr. Lloyd's paper by the editor of the Tribune, as a preface to its publication, and the fore- going characterization of the acts of Congress, of the Land Office, and of the Supreme Court, by Mr. Lloyd, are fully justified by the alleged facts marshalled in the body of the sketch ; and these allegations, after a year and a half of public scrutiny, stand unchallenged. It would be difficult to conceive of a more reckless series of legislative acts than those through which the public domain in the United States has been squandered ; and they are rendered either ignorant or vicious by the fact that in the vast empire surrendered almost totally without consideration, each legislator, in common with the people by and for whom lie was deputed to act, had 314 MANUAL TRAINING. a personal interest. Througli this series of acts of Con- gress the public domain was rudely wrested from its rightful owners, the people; the abnormal growth of cor23orate jDower unduly promoted, and a tendency to the concentration, in a few hands, of the landed estates of the country fostered. The social and economic effects of this land legislation must be very great and far-reaching. Of the effects of the concentration of landed estates in a few hands we need not speak ; they are sufficiently plain in England, Scotland, and Ireland.* But great corporations are a cre- ation of yesterday ; they are the product of steam. The railway, the factory, the mine of iron or coal, the fur- nace, the foundery, and the forge — these vast interests, chartered and endowed with certain muniments of sov- ereignty, are, as property, almost as indestructible as landed estates protected by the law of primogeniture. Men are trained from generation to generation to the care and conduct of them, and hence they are far less liable to waste and dispersion than private estates, which. * "The more essential and important consideration is this — that whenever the few rapidly accumulate excessive wealth, the many must, necessarily, become comparatively poorer. ... In every case in which we have traced out the efficient causes of the present de- pression we have found it to originate in customs, laws, or modes of action whicli are ethically unsound, if not positively immoral. Wars and excessive war armaments, loans to despots or for war purposes, the accumulation of vast wealth by individuals, excessive specula- tion, adulteration of manufactured goods, and, lastly, our had land system, with its insecurity of tenure, excessive rents, confiscation of tenants' property, its common enclosures, evictions, and depopulation of the rural districts— all come under this category." — "Bad Times," pp. G5, 117. By Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D. Loudon : Macmillan & Co., 1885. ' EDUCATION AKD THE SOCIAL PKOBLEM. 315 in transmission, may be subjected to disastrous changes of management. Being also enterprises of a semi-public character, the public is bound, as well as their owners, to see to their preservation. It is to a small number of the greatest of these great companies that Congress has given an empire of land in the West — an area double that owned by the lords of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In the railway pro- prietor of the United States the two great elements of power are united — steam and land. It needs no argu- ment to show that only the nation can control the pro- prietor of both the land and the railway — the sole means of reaching a market for the products of the land. The appellative — kingship — to the railway proprietor is not a misnomer. He is a real potentate, both by virtue of the multitudes of men over whom he rules autocratically, and of the magnitude of the revenue he wields. Presi- dents come and go, but he remains. Legislators investi- gate him and report upon him, but they are met by a flat denial of the authority of either State or nation to in- terfere with his " vested rights." He claims the right of himself and associates to control, absolutely, the internal commerce of the country ; and this claim involves the pretence that they may confiscate merchandise seeking a market by charging, for carriage, the full value of the thing transported. The railway and the factory, the two great products of steam, are new factors in the social problem, and to prop- erly control them will require new wisdom ; and the new wisdom is not to be drawn from old educational fount- ains. State legislation has been as vicious as that of the na- tion. The people of nearly every State in the Union 14 316 MANUAL TRAINING. haffe been made the victims of great frauds and gross ig- norance at the hands of their representatives. In nearly every State syndicates have been formed with the design of securing valuable franchises without consideration ; and to effectuate such designs bribery has been freely and successfully resorted to in a vast number of cases. But rarely has the guilty agent of the guilty syndicate, or the perjured, purchased legislator been brought to jus- tice, notwithstanding the fact that exposure has often followed the iniquity. Evidence of the essentially European character of the American civilization is afforded by the prevalence of speculation. In Wall Street, ISTew York, on the Board of Trade, Chicago, and on the exchanges of all large cities speculation rages. The real transactions of those busi- ness marts are very small, indeed, as compared with the transactions of a speculative character. On the ISTew York Cotton Exchange the speculative trades in "fut- ures" are thirty times more than the cotton sales. On the Chicago Board of Trade the speculative trades in " futures " are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions, and so of the exchanges of all other large cities. To support these speculative operations fresh money is required to be constantly poured into the -pool, and it is drawn from every class in the community. Yery little of the " fresh money " is ever returned. Most of it remains in the hands of the pool managers, of those whose profession it is to manipulate the markets. Thus the fever of speculation extends from centre to circum- ference of the country, stimulating bad passions, creating distaste for labor, relieving the countryman of his surplus, and increasing the already overgrown fortune of the city operator. A writer on current topics, discussing this sub- EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 317 ject, says, "Put your finger on one of our great fortunes, and nine times out of ten you will feel underneatLi it the cold heart of some one who has mined on the San Fran- cisco Stock Exchange, or packed pork on the Chicago Board of Trade, or built railroads in "Wall Street." * A sufficient number of the salient features of Ameri- can civilization have been brought under review to show that the new continent has not borne new social fruits. Under extremely favorable physical conditions — a coun- try of vast resources, a wide range of climates, and a soil of great fertility — we planted old social forces, and old social evils are in process of rapid development. We are transplanted EurojDcans, controlled by European mental and moral habitudes. And the virile force, evoked by the splendid physical opportunities of a vast new coun- try, so intensifies the struggle for wealth and power, that European social abuses are not only reproduced, but sometimes exaggerated in this land of boasted equal political rights. But notwithstanding the fact that social tendencies in America seem to be similar to those of Europe, it is upon America alone that the eyes of mankind rest with an ex- pression of ardent hopefulness. Nor is this hope desti- tute of a basis of rationality. It is in the United States, for the first time in all the ages, that a good reason can be given for indulging the sentiment of patriotism. Love of country here is a due appreciation of the value of the right of suffrage. The private soldier who goes forth to * "America does not now suffer from this cause [standing armies], but nowhere in the world have colossal fortunes, rabid speculation, and great monopolies reached so portentous a magnitude, or exerted so pernicious an influence." — "Bad Times," p. 80. By Alfred Rus- sel Wallace, LL.D. London : Macmillan & Co., 1885. 318 MANUAL TKAINING. fight the battles of the United States is a man and citi- zen, and upon his return from the field he may, with the ballot, devote to the education of his children a share of the estate of the army contractor who amassed a fortune while he defended the country. All the property in the United States, whether honestly or dishonestly acquired, is subject to the order of the ballot of the citizen. It may be taken for war purposes, and it may be taken for educational purposes. In the universality of the right of suifrage lies the power of correcting all social evils. It is through the right of suffrage that the wrongs inflict- ed upon a too patient people by corrupt and ignorant legislation may be ultimately righted. By the suffrages of the peo2>le the tax bill is voted ; and it is through the tax bill that the vast estates of corporations and individ- uals, whether obtained by dishonest practices or not, may be made to contribute to the thorough education of all the children of the country. And it is through the sentiment of patriotism thus inspired that the right of universal suffrage in the United States is destined to preservation forever. The late proposition to limit suffrage in the city of New York is explainable only on the theory put forth in this chapter, that our civilization is the product of European ideas — that we are Europeans in disguise. On any other hypothesis it would be amazing. It is even now sufficiently startling that the proposition to restrict suffrage should precede the- proposition to make educa- tion universal by making it compulsory, and to purge it of its glaring defects. Every attempt to restrict the right of suffrage in the United States will, however, fail. The right of self-government can be taken from the American people only by force. The American citizen EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 319 will not vote away his right to vote, as the careless Greek sold his freedom, and as the Chinaman sells his Kfe. That American social abuses do not spring from free suffrage is evident, because similar abuses exist in coun- tries where the masses have little or no share in the government. Social evils are the product of defective education. So long as European educational methods prevail in this country, so long European social abuses will characterize our civilization. Our education is scant in quantity and poor in quality; hence the standard of the suffrage is lowered by the presence of ignorance and depravity. But when the suffrage shall be better in- formed, it will be more honest ; and when it shall have become more honest and more intelligent, it will have gained the power to grapple with social abuses. Such examination of history as we have been able to make fails to disclose any radical change in educational methods for three thousand years. The charge of Mr. Herbert Spencer against tlie schools of England, to wit, " That which our school courses leave almost entirely out we thus find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life" — this charge applies with almost as much force to the schools of the United States as to the Greek and Eoman schools of rhetoric and logic. Ba- con's aphorism — "Education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things " — is two hundred and fifty years old, but it has as yet exerted scarcely an appreciable influence upon the meth- ods of our public schools. "We still reverse the natural order of investigation proceeding from the abstract to the concrete, thus lumbering the mind of the student with trash which must be removed as a jDreliminary to the first step in the real work of education. We still impart 320 MANUAL TRAINING. a knowledge of words instead of a knowledge of things ; we still ignore art, notwithstanding the fact that it is through art alone that education touches human life. "We still inculcate contempt of labor, and teach the stu- dent how to " make his way in the world " by his wits, rather than by giving an equivalent for what he shall receive ; and, worst of all, we continue, through subjec- tive j)rocesses of thought, to charge the mind with self- ishness, the essence of depravity. Meantime, social problems press for a solution, a solu- tion here and now. Our social j)roblems cannot be set- tled as those of Europe have been, for two hundred years, by emigration. We have no Columbus, and if we had such an explorer, there is no new hemisphere for him to discover. The lesson of all history is, that selfish people cannot dwell together in unity. The struggle to secure more than a fair share of the products of the labor of all is sure to end in a quarrel ; the quarrel ends in a revolution, and the revolution, under the glare of flames, drowns in blood the records of civilization. But in Amer- ica the man must live with his fellows. As Mr, Henry D. Lloyd well says, in " Lords of Industry," " Our young men can no longer go West ; they must go up or down. I*^ot new land, but new virtue must be the outlet for the future. Our halt at the shores of the Pacific is a much more serious affair than that which brought our ancestors to a pause before the barriers of the Atlantic, and com- pelled them to practise living together for a few hundred years. We cannot hereafter, as in the past, recover free- dom by going to the prairies ; we must find it in the society of the good." "^■■ * North American Review, June, 1884, p. 553. EDUCATION" AND THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. 831 If we are to find freedom only in the society of the good, we must create such a society — a society free from selfishness ; for to the stability of society public spirit is essential, and with a pure public spirit selfishness is at war. Hence, in a system of education like the prevail- ing one, which promotes selfishness, the germs of social disintegration are present, and, from the beginning, the end may with absolute certainty be predicted. It fol- lows that any hope of social reform is wholly irrational that does not spring from the postulate of a complete educational revolution. 323 MANUAL TRAINING. CHAPTER XXVI. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. The Kindergarten and the Manual Training School one in Principle. —Russia solved the Problem of Tool Instruction by Laboratory Processes. — The Initiatory Step by M. Victor Delia- Vos, Director of the Imperial Technical School of Moscow in 1868.— Statement of Director Delia- Vos as to the Origin, Progress, and Results of the New System of Training. — Its Introduction into all the Technical Schools of Russia. — Dr. John D. Runkle, President of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, recommends the Russian System in 1876, and it is adopted. — Statement of Dr. Runkle as to how he was led to the adoption of the Russian System. — Dr. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., establishes the second School in this Country. — His Historical Note in the Prospectus of 1882-83.— First Class graduated 1883. — Manual Training in the Agricultural Colleges— In Boston, in New Haven, in Baltimore, in San Francisco, and other places. — Manual Training at the Meeting of the National Educational Association, 1884. — Kindergarten and Manual Training Exhibits. — Prof. Felix Adler's School in New York City — the most Comprehensive School in the World. — The Chicago Manual Training School the first Independent Institution of the Kind — its Inception; its Incorporation; its Opening. Its Director, Dr. Belfield. — His Inaugural Address. — Manual Training in the Public Schools of Philadelphia. — Manual Training in twen- ty-four States.— Revolutionizing a Texas College. — Local Option Law in Massachusetts. — Department of Domestic Economy in the Iowa Agricultural College. — Manual Training in Tennessee, in the University of Michigan, in the National Educational Association, in Ohio. — The Toledo School for both Sexes. — The Importance of the Education of Woman. — The Slcijd Schools of Europe. The principle of the manual training scliool exists in tlie kindergarten, and for that principle we are indebted directly to Froebel, and indirectly to Pestalozzi, Come- M. VICTOK DELLA-VOS, THE FOUNDER OF MAJSIUAl, TRAINING IN RUSSIA. HISTORY OF THP: MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 325 nius, Rousseau, and Bacon. But it was reserved for Russia to solve the problem of tool instruction by the laboratory process, and make it the foundation of a great reform in education. The initiatory step was taken in 1868 by M. Yictor Delia- Yos, Director of the Imperial Technical. School of Moscow. The following statement is extracted from the account given by Director Della- Vos of the exhibit of the Moscow school at Philadelphia (Centennial of 1876), and at the Paris Exposition in 1878, as best showing the inception of the new education : "In 1868 tlie school council considered it indispensa- ble, in order to secure the systematical teaching of ele- mentary practical work, as well as for the more conven- ient supervision of the pupils while practically employed, to separate entirely the school workshops from the me- chanical works in which the orders from private indi- viduals are executed, admitting pupils to the latter only when they have perfectly acquired the principles of prac- tical labor. " By the separation alone of the school workshops from the mechanical works, the principal aim was, however, far from being attained. It was found necessary to work out such a method of teaching the elementary principles of mechanical art as, firstly, should demand the least possible length of time for their acquirement ; secondly, should increase the facility of the supervis- ion of the graded employment of the pupils ; thirdly, should impart to the study of practical work the charac- ter of a sound systematical acquirement of knowledge ; and fourthly and lastly, should facilitate the demon- stration of the progress of every pupil at every stated time. Everybody is well aware that tlie successful study of any art whatsoever, free-hand or linear drawing, mu- 14-x- 326 MANUAL TRAINING. sic, singing, painting, etc., is only attainable when the first attempts at any of them are strictly subject to the laws of gradation and successiveness, when every student adheres to a definite method or school, surmounting little by little, and by certain degrees, the difficulties encoun- tered. "All those arts which we have just named possess a method of study which has been well worked out and defined, because, since they have long constituted a part of the education of the well-instructed classes of people, they could not but become subject to scientific analysis, could not but become the objects of investigation, with a view of defining those conditions which might render the study of them as easy and well regulated as possible. "If we except the attempts made in France in the year 1867 by the celebrated and learned mechanical engineer, A. Cler, to form a collection of models for the practical study of the principal methods of forging and welding iron and steel, as well as the chief parts of joiners' work, and this with a purely demonstrative aim, no one, as far as we are aware, has hitherto been actively engaged in the working out of this question in its application to the study of hand labor in workshops. To the Imperial Technical School belongs the initiative in the introduc- tion of a systematical method of teaching the arts of turning, carpentering, fitting, and forging. " To the knowledge and experience in these specialties, of the gentlemen intrusted with the management of the school workshops, and to their warm sympathy in the matter of practical education, we are indebted for the drawing up of the programme of systematical instruction in the mechanical arts, its introduction in the year 1868 into the workshops, and also for the preparation of the HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 337 necessary auxiliaries to study. In the year 1870, at the exhibition of manufactures at St. Petersburg, the school exhibited its methods of teaching mechanical arts, and from that time they have been common to all the tech- nical schools of Russia. "And now (1878) we present our system of instnic- tion, not as a project, but as an accomplished fact, con- firmed by the long experience of ten years of success in its results." For the introduction of the manual element in educa- tion to the United States we are indebted to the intel- lectual acumen of Dr. John D. Eunkle, Ph.D., LL.D., "Walker Professor of Mathematics, Institute of Technol- ogy, Boston, Mass. In 1876 Doctor Runkle was Presi- dent of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In his official report for that year he gave an exhaustive ex- position of the Russian system, in the course of which he said, " W&went to Philadelphia, therefore, earnestly seeking for light in this as well as in all other directions, and this special report is now made to ask your attention to a fun- damental, and, as I think, complete solution of this most important problem of practical mechanism for engineers. The question is simply this. Can a system of shop-work instruction be devised of sufiicient range and quality which will not consume more time than ought to he spared from the indispensable studies ? "This question has been answered triumphantly in the affirmative, and the answer comes from Russia. It gives me the greatest pleasure to call your attention to the ex- hibit made by the Imperial Technical Schools of St. Petersburg and Moscow, consisting entirely of collections of tools and samples of shop-work by students, illustrat- 828 MANUAL TRAINING. ing the system wliicli has made these magnificent results possible." In conclusion Doctor Runkle made the following ear- nest recommendation : " In the light of the experience which Eussia brings us, not only in the form of a proposed system, but proved by several years of experience in more than a single school, it seems to me that the duty of the Institute is plain. We should, without delay, complete our course in Mechanical Engineering by adding a series of instruction shops, which I earnestly recommend." In accordance wdth this recommendation the "new school of Mechanic Arts " was created, and made part of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In his report for 187T Doctor Eunkle said, " The plan announced in my last report, of building a series of shops [laboratories] in which to teach the students in the department of Mechanical Engineering and others the use of tools, and the fundamentaLsteps in the art of construction, in accordance with the Russian system, as exhibited at Philadelphia in 18T6, has been carried steadily forward, and I have now the pleasure of announcing its near completion." Reference is also made in the same report to the action of the trustees of the Institute in acknowledging the re- ception of certain models illustrating the system of Me- chanic Art education, presented by the government of Russia, as follows : "At a meeting of the Corporation of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology, held ^November 20, 1877, a communication from his Excellency, Hon. George H. Boker, American Minister at St, Petersburg, was read, announcing the gift to this Institute of eight cases of DR. JOHN D. RUNKI.E, THE FOUNDER OF JtANUAL TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 331 models, illustrating the system of Mechanic Art educa- tion, as devised and so successfully applied at the Impe- rial Technical School of Moscow. The undersigned have been charged with the agreeable duty of transmitting to his Imperial Highness the following resolutions : ^'Besolved, That the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology takes this opportunity to cor- dially congratulate his Imperial Highness, Prince Pierre d'Oldenbourg, that, at the Imperial Technical School of Moscow, education in the Mechanic Arts has been for the first time based upon philosophical and purely edu- cational grounds, fully justifying for it the title of the ' Russian system.' ''''Resolved^ That this Corporation hereby tenders its grateful thanks to his Inij)erial Highness for his most valuable gift, with the tissurance that these models will be of the greatest aid in promoting Mechanic Art educa- tion not only in the School of this Institute, but in all similar schools throughout the United States." Appreciating the value of the services rendered to the cause of the new education by Dr. Runkle, in introduc- ing to the schools of the United States tool practice by laboratory methods, and desiring to inform the public of the course of thought which led to results so important, the author addressed him on the subject. His rejDly, under date of May 22, 1884, is in substance as follows : " From the first the course in Mechanical Engineering has been an important one in the Institute of Technology. A few students came with a knowledge of shop-work, and had a clear field oj)en to them on graduation, but the larger number found it difiicult to enter upon their pro- fessional work without first taking one or two years of apprenticeship. This always seemed to me a fault in the 832 MANUAL TRAINING. education, and yet I did not see the way to remedy it without building ujd manufacturing works in connection witli the school — a step which I knew to be an inversion of a true educational method. "At Philadelphia, in 18Y6, almost the first thing I saw was a small case containing three series of models — one of chipping and filing, one of forging, and one of ma- chine-tool work. I saw at once that they were not parts of machines, but simply graded models for teaching the manipulations in those arts. In an instant the problem I had been seeking to solve was clear to my mind ; a plain distinction between a Mechanic Art and its appli- cation in some special trade became apparent. " My first work was to build up at the Institute a series of Mechanic Art shops, or laboratories, to teach these arts, just as we teach chemistry and physics by the same means. At the same time I believed that this discipline could be made a part of general education, just as we make the sciences available for the same end through laboratory instruction. " All teaching has in an important sense a double pur- pose : first, the cultivation of the powers of the individ- ual, and second, the pursuit of similar subjects, by sub- stantially the same means, as a professional end. ISTow we use our shops [laboratories] both for educational and professional ends. ... In brief, we teach the mechanic arts by laboratory methods, and the student applies the special skill and knowledge acquired, or not, as circum- stances or his inclinations dictate." The second manual training school in this country was founded as a department of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., by Dr. C. M. Woodward. In a paper read before the St. Louis Social Science Association, May 16, HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 333 1878, Dr. Woodward discussed the subject of education both, pliilosopliically and practically. In tlie course of his address he gave a full account' of the Russian system of manual training as expounded by Dr. Runkle, en- dorsed it, and recommended it to the people of St. Louis as the true method of education in the following preg- nant sentence : " The manual education which begins in the kindergarten, before the children are able to read a word, should never cease." '"' In the same paper Dr. Woodward thus modestly de- scribes the beginning of the school wdiich is now one of the most highly-esteemed educational institutions of St. Louis : "With the aid of our stanch friend, Mr. Gottlieb Conzelman, we fitted up during last summer a wood- working shop, with work-benches and vises for eighteen students ; a second shop for vise-w^ork upon metals and for machine -work; and a third watli a single outfit of blacksmith's tools. During the last few months system- atic instruction has been given to different classes in all these shops. Special attention has been paid to the use of wood - working hand - tools, to wood - turning, and to filing." These tentative steps promoted a healthy public senti- ment, and attracted the attention of several wealthy men, who in 1879 contributed the funds for the permanent foundation of the school. The prospectus for the year * The pressing problem of the time in methods of practical educa- tion is to devise suitable manual exercises for the school period em- braced in the interim between the end of the kindergarten series of lessons and the beginning of the series of laboratory exercises de- scribed in this work — the grammar-school period — for children of both sexes from six to fourteen years of age. 334 MANUAL TRAINIlTG. 1882-83 contains the following " historical note," which shows great progress : "The ordinance establishing the Mannal Training School was adopted by the Board of Directors of the University, June 6, 1879. " The lot was purchased and the building begun in August of the same year. In the November following a prospectus of the school was published. In June, 1880, the building being partially equipped, was opened for public inspection, and a class of boys was examined for admission. On September 6, 1880, the school began with a single class of about fifty pupils. The whole number enrolled during the year was sixty -seven. A public exhibition of drawing and shop-work was given June 16, 1881. " The second year of the school opened September 12, 1881, and closed June 14,1882. There were two classes, sixty-one pupils belonging to the first year, and forty-six to the second year, making one hundred and seven in all. Of the second -year class, forty -two had attended the school the previous year. " The third year of the school will open on September 11th, w^lien three classes will be present. " The large addition now in progress (June, 1882) is to be completed and furnished by the day set for the exam- ination of candidates for admission, September 8th. The number of pupils in the new first-year class is to be lim- ited to one hundred. Nearly one-half of that nuinber have already heen received.''^ The capacity of the school since the completion of the "addition" alluded to in the "historical note" is two hundred and forty students. The first class was gradu- ated in June, 1883 ; the second class in June, 1884. The HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 335 establishment of this excellent school is due first to the energy and educational foresight of Dr. Woodward, and second, to the munificent money donations of three citi- zens of St. Louis — Mr. Edwin Harrison, Mr. Samuel Cup- pies, and Mr. Gottlieb Conzelman. Other citizens em- ulated their noble example, and the result was a sufiicient fund for the support of the school, whose purpose is to demonstrate the practicability of uniting manual and mental instruction in the public schools of St. Louis and of the country. With a single further quotation from the prospectus of the second great manual training school in the United States, on the subject of labor, we close this too brief notice : "One great object of the school is to foster a higher appreciation of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the worth and respectability of laboring men. A boy who sees nothing in manual labor but mere brute force despises both labor and the laborer. With the acquisi- tion of skill in himself comes the ability and willingness to recognize skill in his fellows. When once he appre- ciates skill in handicraft, he regards the workman with sympathy and respect." Considerable progress in manual training has been made in the State agricultural colleges of the country. In twelve of these colleges drawing and tool practice have been introduced. Generally the tool practice covers pattern-making, blacksmithing, moulding and founding, forging and bench-work, and machine-tool work in iron. The most pronounced success has been achieved at Pur- due University, Lafayette, Ind., under the directorship of Prof. Wm. F. M. Goss, who graduated from the school of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology in 18Y9. 336 MANUAL TRAINING. Manual training in connection with the public-school system of education has been inaugurated in Boston and Milford, Mass. ; New Haven, and the State ISTormal School, Kew Britain, Conn. ; Omaha, ~Neb. ; * Eau Claire, Wis. ; t Moline, Peru, and the Cook County I*^ormal School, Normal Park, 111. ; Montclair, K. J. ; Cleveland and Barnesville, Ohio ; San Francisco, Cal. ; and Balti- more, Md. On the occasion of the annual meeting of 1884 of the National Educational Association of the United States, at Madison, Wis., manual training received a very large share of the attention of educators. Yery creditable ex- hibits of various manipulations in wood, iron, and steel were made by the following institutions, namely, the Massacliusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue Univer- sity, the St. Louis Manual Training School, the Illinois Industrial University, the University of Wisconsin, and the Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia. There were also about thirty kindergarten exhibits, and a large number of exhibits of specimens of drawing from publie schools in various parts of the country. Prof. Felix Adler's educational enterprise in the city of New York — The Workingman's School and Free Kin- dergarten — is unique in this that, while it is entirely a work of charity, it is the most com^jrehensive education- al institution in existence, as appears from the following description of its course of instruction : "The Workingman's School and Free Kindergarten form one institution. The children are admitted at the * In charge of Albert M. Bumann, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis Manual Training School, class of 1885. f In charge of William F. Barnes, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis Manual Training School, class of 1885. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 337 age of three to tlie kindergarten. They are graduated from it at six, and enter the workingman's schooL They remain in the school till they are thirteen or fourteen years of age. Thereafter those who show decided ability receive higher technical instruction. For the others who leave the school proper and are sent to work, a series of evening classes will be opened, in which their industrial and general education will be continued in various direc- tions. Tliis graduate course of the workingman's school is intended to extend up to the eighteenth or twenty-first year. " From the third year up to manhood and womanhood — such," says Prof. Adler, " is the scope embraced by the jDurposes of our institxition !" The following extracts from a late report of the prin- cipal of the school, Mr. G. Bamberger, on its " purposes," show that they are identical with those of the so-called manual training school, and also that its methods are sim- ilar : " We, therefore, have undertaken to institute a reform in education in the following two ways : We begin industrial instruction at the very earliest age possible. Already in our kindergarten we lay the foundation for the system of work instruction that is to follow. In the school proper, then, we see^: to bridge over the interval lying between the preparatory kindergarten training and the specialized instruction of the technical school, util- izing the school age itself for the development of indus- trial ability. This, however, is only one characteristic feature of our institution. The other, and the capital one, is, that Ave seek to combine industrial instruction organically with the ordinary branches of instruction, thus using it not only for the material purpose of creat- 338 MANUAL TRAINING. ing skill, but also ideally as a factor of mind-education. To our knowledge, such an application of work instruc- tion has nowhere as yet been attempted, either abroad or in this country. . . . "In the teaching of history to these young children we hold it essential that the teacher should be entirely independent of any text-book, and able to freely handle the vast material at his disposal, and to draw from it, as from an endless storehouse, with fixed and definite pur- pose. We attach even greater importance to the moral than to the intellectual significance of history. The ben- efits which the understanding, the memory, and the im- agination derive from the study of history are not small. But history, considered as a realm of actions, can be made especially fruitful of sound influence upon the active, moral side of human nature. The moral judgment is strengthened by a knowledge of the evolution of m.an- kind in good and evil. The moral feelings are purified by abhorrence of the vices of the past, and by admira- tion of examples of greatness and virtue. Text -books are not to be discarded, but their choice is a matter of great difiiculty. Thus, all books in which historical instruction is given in the shape of printed questions and answers are highly objectionable. They are convenient bridges which lead to nothing." The following extract from a late report of Prof. Ad- ler shows the purpose of the establishment of what he calls the " model school " to be identical with that of the projectors of the St. Louis and Chicago manual training- schools, namely, the ultimate adoption by the public schools of the country of a far more rational system of instruction than that which at present prevails. He says, " It seemed to us, therefore, far more necessary, far HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 339 more calculated to really advance the public good, that one model school should be erected in which the entire system of rational and liberal education for the children of the poorer class might be exhibited from beginning to end. AVe ventured to hope that such an example, hav- ing once been set, would not be without effect upon the common-school system at large, and that the extension of our work would proceed by the natural course of the ' survival of what is fittest.' It was decided, therefore, that the twenty -five graduates from the kindergarten should be invited to remain with us, that a comj)lete school should be instituted, and that a teacher should be at once appointed to take in hand the instruction of the lowest class. The munificence of Mr. Joseph Seligman, to whose name we cannot refer without gratitude and re- spect, at this stage enabled us to go on with our under- taking, when the dearth of funds would otherwise have compelled us to wait, or perhaps desist altogether. His timely gift of ten thousand dollars was the means of starting the school, and on this as well as on other ac- counts his memory deserves to be cherished by those who cherish the educational interests of the people." The Chicago Manual Training School is the only in- dependent educational institution of the kind in the world. All the schools of this character to which refer- ence has been made in this chapter are departments of colleges or institutes of technology. The Chicago school is unique in another respect : it owes its origin entirely to laymen. Professional educatoi's labored long and ear- nestly to found the schools we have described, but the Chicago school was inspired by men unknown in the field of educational enterprise, advocated by a secular daily journal, and established by an association of mcr- 340 MANUAL TEAINING. chants, manufacturers, and bankers. For many years the Chicago Tribune had very freely and severely criticised the educational methods of the public schools. Early in the year 1881 its editorial columns were opened to the author of this work, who began and continued, therein, the advocacy of the establishment of a manual training school in Chicago, as a tentative step towards the incor- poration in the curriculum of the public schools, of more practical methods of instruction. The editorial advocacy of the Tribune was continued for twelve months, articles appearing about once a week, without apparent effect beyond provoking a controversy with certain professional educators, who attacked the po- sitions assumed by the Tribune. But a public sentiment had been created on the subject, and the Commercial Club was destined soon to embody that sentiment in ac- tion. At its regular monthly meeting, March 25, 1882, the subject of reform in methods of education was dis- cussed by members of the club, and by men invited to be present for that purpose ; the establishment of a school was resolved upon, and $100,000 pledged for its support. The Chicago Manual Training School Association was incorporated April 11, 1883; the corner-stone of its building was laid September 24, 1883 ; and the sessions of the school commenced on the 4th of February, 1884, with a class of seventy-two students, " selected by exam- ination from one hundred and thirty applicants, under the directorship of Henry H. Belfield, A.M., Ph.D." The Board of Trustees consists of E. W. Blatchford, president; R. T. Crane, vice-president ; Marshall Field, treasurer ; William A. Fuller, secretary ; John Crerar, John W. Doane, N. K. Fairbank, Edson Keith, and George M. Pullman. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 341 The object of tlie school is stated in the articles of incorporation as follows : " Instruction and practice in the use of tools, with such instruction as may be deemed necessary in mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a high-school course. The tool instruction as at present contemplated shall in- clude carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-making, iron chip- ping and filing, forge- work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time, it being the intention to divide the working hours of the students, as nearly as possible, equally between manual and mental exer- cises." From the first annual catalogue, under the title " Build- ing and Equipment," we extract the following : "The school building is beautifully located on Mich- igan Avenue, and contains ample accommodations, in rooms for study and w^ork, for several hundred pupils. " The equipment in the mechanical department con- sists mainly, at present, of tw^enty-four cabinet-makers' benches ; bench and lathe tools of the best quality for seventy-two boys; twenty-four sj)eed lathes, twelve-inch swing, thirty inches between centres ; a fifty-two horse- power Corliss engine, twelve - inch cylinder, thirty - six inch stroke ; two tubular boilers, forty inches in diame- ter, fourteen feet long. The Corliss engine, boilers, and lathes were made especially for the school. " A very valuable scientific library of nearly five hun- dred volumes, the property of the American Electrical Society, has been placed in the school. To this library, which is particularly rich in works pertaining to elec- tricity and chemistry, but which contains also cy elope- 343 MANUAL TRAINING. dias, dictionaries, and other works of reference, the pupils have access. " The Blatchford Literary Society, an organization of pupils for improvement in composition, debate, etc., has lately had a handsome donation of money for the pur- chase of books ta be placed in their alcove in the school library. Several periodicals are regularly placed on the library tables through the generosity of the publishers. " By the kindness of Dr. Wm. F. Poole, librarian, pu- pils are able to obtain books from the Chicago Public Library on unusually favorable conditions." Thus the Chicago Manual Training School, a practical school, a school of instruction in things, a school after Bacon's " own heart," sprang from the brain of a number of plain, practical business men, full-armed, as Minerva from the brain of Jupiter. The Trustees were fortunate in securing Dr. Belfield for the directorship of the school. Before the introduc- tion of the new education to this country, eleven years ago, while Russia was struggling with the problem of tool practice by the laboratory method. Dr. Belfield urged the need of manual training in the public schools of Chi- cago, in which he was a teacher. He was met with de- rision ; but the president of the Board of Education of Chicago and the superintendent of schools are now advo- cates of the new system of training. In conclusion we present the following extracts from the inaugural address of Dr. Belfield, delivered before the Chicago Manual Training School Association, June 19, 1884, as embodying the results of his experience and observation as to the value of the new system of training : "The distinctive feature of the manual training school HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 343 is the education of the mind, and of the hand as the agent of tlie mind. The time of the pupil in school is about equally divided between the study of books and the study of things ; between the academic work on the one hand, and the drawing and shop-work on the other. Observe, I do not say between schooL-wovTi, and shop-worJc, for the shop is as much a school as is any other part of the es- tablishment. ISTor do I mean that the shop gives an edu- cation of the hand alone, and the class-room an education of the brain ; but I mean that the shop educates hand and hrain. That tlie hand is educated I need not stop to prove ; but the shop educates the mind also. "Had you been in the wood- working room of this school a few hours ago, what would you have seen? Twenty-four boys at work at lathes driven by a power- ful engine. Are any idle? '^o. Are any inattentive to their work ? No ; you notice the closest and most earnest attention, frequently approaching abstraction. Here, then, is the cultivation of a most important facul- ty of the mind, attention, the power of concentration ; and it is worthy of remark that this attention is not an enforced attention, but is cheerful, voluntary, and unre- mitting, "The young workman is engaged on a problem in wood, just as, a few hours earlier, he was engaged on a problem in algebra. He has before him a drawing made to a scale. The problem is this : He must gain a clear conception of the object represented by the drawing; he must imagine it ; he must select or cut a block of wood of the proper dimensions and of the right quality. It must not be too large, for he must guard against waste of material and waste of time. It nnist be large enouglj, for there must be no incompleteness about the finished 15 344 MANUAL TRAINING. product of his labor. Observe him as the work grows under his hand ; observe the selecting of the proper tools for the different parts of the process ; observe the careful measuring, the watchful eye upon the position of the chisel, the speed of the lathe, the gradual approach of the once rectangular block to the model which exists in his brain — and you must admit that this work demands and develops, not manual dexterity alone, but attention, observation, imagination, judgment, reasoning. . . . "My own opinion is that an hour in the shop of a well-conducted manual training school develops as much mental strength as an hour devoted to Yirgil or Legen- dre. . . . "But of this I am confident, that three years of a manual training school will give at least as much purely intellectual growth as three years of the ordinary higli school, because, as has been said, every school hour, wheth- er spent in the class-room, the drawing-room, or in the shop, is an hour devoted to intellectual training. And I am also convinced that the manual training school boy's comprehension of some essential branches of knowledge will be as far superior to that of the other boy's, as the realization of the grandeur and beauty of the Alps to the man who has seen their glories is superior to the concep- tion of him who has merely read of them. . . . " And here is the mistake of those who would degrade a manual training school into a manufacturing establish- ment. The fact should never be lost sight of for an instant that the product of the school should be, not tlie polished article of furniture, not the perfect piece of ma- chinery, but the polished, perfect loy. The acquisition of industrial skill should be the means of promoting tlie general education of the pupil; the education of the hand HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 345 should be the means of more completely and more effica- ciously educating the brain. ... "Take two boys, one witli little or no education, the other a high -school graduate; let them enter the ma- chine-shop of a large manufactory, beginning, as boys ignorant of the technique of the trade must begin, at the lowest round of the ladder. It cannot be doubted that in three or four years the high-school graduate, if he had been willing to do the drudgery incident to the place, would have reached a higher position than the other boy, and would be in a fair way to succeed to some responsi- ble post in the establishment. Eut the graduate of the manual training school, by reason of his superior knowl- edge of machinery and materials, his skill in the use of tools, added to his general mental training, would begin at the point reached by the high - school boy after his years of apprenticeship. From the day of his entrance into the factory he would be conspicuous. "While the other boys would stand in the presence of the huge Titan of the shop lost in the wonder of ignorance, the manual training boy would gaze with delight on the marvel of mechanism, wra23j)ed in the admiration begotten of a thorough understanding of its construction, and strong in the consciousness of his mastery of it." Manual training was introduced in the Pennsylvania State College, experimentally, about three years ago. In 1883 the course was "greatly extended," and in Sep- tember, 1884, it went into full operation. The course is substantially the same as that of the Chicago school ; and that it was the outgrowth of the Russian system, and inspired by Dr. Kunkle, is shown by the following extract from a circular lately issued by Prof. Louis E. Reber: 346 MANUAL TRAINING. " Some may think that the variety of operations in the mechanic arts is so great as to make it impossible to give the student any real knowledge in the time at his dis- posal. It should be borne in mind, however, that this multiplicity of processes may be reduced to a small num- ber of manual operations, and the numerous tools em- ployed are only modifications of, or convenient substi- tutes for, a few tools which are in general use." A course in tool practice by the laboratory method has been made part of the curriculum of the College of the City of New York.* I am permitted to make an extract from a letter written in August last by Alfred G. Comp- ton. Professor of Applied Mathematics of the College of the City of ]^ew York, to Dr. Runkle. I print this ex- tract to show the exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new education. It is as follows : " We are anxious to find, by the opening of our term in September, a competent instructor in wood-working for our course in mechanic arts, now in its second year. He should be a good and ready draughtsman, skilful in perspective and projections, and ready in black-board sketching, besides being acquainted with the use of tools, and apt at class-teaching. He will have at first $1000 a year." The lack of competent instructors is the most serious difficulty which the new education is destined to encoun- ter. The desire to adopt tool practice is so widespread among the people that educators, whether willing or oth- * "The first report of the Industrial Educational Association of New York gives a list of thirty-one schools in that city in which in- dustrial education is furnished." — Address of Prof. S. R. Thompson, Industrial Department of the National Educational Association, Sara- toga Springs, N. Y., July, 1885. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 347 erwise, are compelled to attempt to gratify the demand. At the same time the force of competent instructors is very small, and the danger is that the new system of ed- ucation will be brought into disrepute through the failure of its proper administration. In 1882 Mr. Paul Tulane, of Princeton, 'N. J., made a large donation, consisting of his realty in the city of !New Orleans, in aid of education in the State of Louisi- ana. In 1884 the University bearing its donor's name — Tulane — came into existence. In the deed of dona- tion Mr. Tulane declared that by the term education he meant to "foster such a course of intellectual develop- ment as shall be useful and of solid worth, and not be merely ornamental or superficial." Hence manual train- ing has been made a prominent feature of the insti- tution.* There is in operation at Crozet, Va., a manual training school called, after its founder, Mr. Samuel Miller, " The Miller Manual Labor School ;" but of the methods of training pursued at this school the author is not accu- rately informed. Girard College, dedicated nearly forty years ago, has adopted manual training. In response to a letter by the author, asking for information, Mr. W. Heyward Dray- ton, of Philadelphia, gives the following historical sketch of the introduction and progress of tool practice by the laboratory method in that noble institution : ■•• John M. Orchvay, A.M., late Professor of Metallurgy and Indus- trial Chemistry of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has been called to New Orleans to organize and direct the manual training department of the institution ; and he is assisted by Charles A. Heath, B.S., and Everett E. Hapgood, graduates of the School of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 348 ilANUAL TRAINING. " From time to time some of the directors recognized the importance of mechanical instruction, but after one or two attempts further efforts in this direction were abandoned, as those proved utter faihires. It was not until Dr. Eunkle, of tlie Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, at the instance of the late Mr. William Welsh, then president of the Board of Directors of City Trusts, delivered a short address on the subject in the lecture- room of the Franklin Institute in this city, that any prac- tical mode of introducing this branch of study into the college was presented, "... Following as nearly as possible the scheme suggest- ed by Dr. Eunkle, and aided by many suggestions from him, in April, 1882, we began to instruct the larger boys to use tools in several kinds of metals. We were so fort- unate as to secure the services of a very competent and enthusiastic instructor, who confined his instruction mere- ly to teaching the use of tools, but without any pretence of teaching any trade. The result of two years' experi- ence has been so satisfactory that our boys leave the col- lege to go to workshops, where they secure sufficient wages to support them at once ; and they have, in many cases, been found so expert that in a few months their wage's have been increased. We have been so encour- aged by this as a substitute for apprenticing lads, which is fast becoming impossible, that we have just erected commodious workshops [Laboratories], in which, on the same system, but to many more boys, we propose to teach the use of tools in wood-work also, as we have hereto- fore tauffht in metals. To this time we have been com- pelled, from want of facilities, to confine our instruction to about one hundred and seventy-five boys. We expect next month (October, 1884) to increase the number to HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 349 three hundred — only b.eing limited by the youth of the pupils, many of whom are too young to permit of their handling tools." Manual training has been made part of the curriculum of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Auburn, Ala., and the department is under the direction of a grad- uate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* Manual training has been adopted as a branch of edu- cation in. the Denver (Col.) University, and the director of the department is a graduate of the manual training department of the Washington University of St. Louis, Mo.f The present year (1885) witnesses a very important addition to the list of manual training schools — that of Philadelphia. It is not too much to say that Mr. James MacAlister has revolutionized the public schools of Philadelphia in the short period of two years during which he has held the office of suj)erintendent ; and the last wave of the revolution reveals a fully-equipped manual training school as part of the public-school system of the conservative, grand old Quaker city. And this practical element in education is to be free to all public-school boys fourteen years of age, who can show themselves qualified to en- ter, as witness the following "rules" of the Philadelphia public schools : "Promotions to the Manual Training School shall be made at the close of the June term, from the Twelfth "' George H. Bryant, B.S., graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, class of 1883. f C. II. Wriglit, B.S., graduate of the St. Louis Manual Training School, class of 1885. 350 MANUAL TRAINING. Grade, or any higher grade, of the Boys' Grammar, Con- solidated and Combined Schools ; but no boy shall be promoted who is under fourteen years of age. " It shall be the duty of the Principals of the several Boys' Grammar, Consolidated and Combined Schools, to certify to the superintendent of schools the names of all boys of the proper age who have finished the course of . study in the Twelfth Grade, or any higher grade, and are desirous of promotion to the Manual Training School." In calling the attention of the public to the establish- ment of a manual training school as part of the educa- tional system of Philadelphia, a committee of the City Board of Education say, under date of June 10, 1885, " The undersigned desire to call attention to the new manual training school to be opened in this city next September. It is intended for boys who have finished the Twelfth Grade, or any higher grade, of the Gram- mar-school course. The instruction will embrace a thor- ough course, so far as it goes, in English, mathematics, free-hand and mechanical drawing, and the fundamental sciences ; but in addition to these branches a carefully graded course of manual training will form a leading feature of the school. This manual training is intended to give the boys such a knowledge of the tools and ma- terials employed in the chief industrial pursuits of our time as shall place them in more direct and sympathetic relations with the great activities of the business world. The school will make our public education not only more complete and symmetrical in character than it has been heretofore, but it will be at the same time better adapted to enable the pupils to win their way in life. 'No matter what future a parent may have marked out for his boy — whether he be intended for an industrial, a mercantile, or HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 851 a professional occupation, it is believed that sucli an edu- cation will be of immense advantage to him. Upon the industries of the world, to a much larger extent than ever before in its history, depend the progress, the prosperity, the happiness of society. To prepare boys for this con- dition of things will be tlie aim of this school. The en- tire course of instruction and training will be practical in the largest and best sense of that term. The culture it gives will include the hand as well as the head, and its graduates will be trained to work as well as to think. The course will extend over a period of three years, but it is so arranged that boys whose intended pursuits in life will not warrant spending so much time may partici- pate in its advantages for a shorter period before enter- ing upon other studies or a permanent occupation. " The Manual Training School has been organized in response to a growing sentiment respecting the character of public education which has been strongly manifested in Philadelphia, and the Board of Public Education be- lieve that the movement, when fully understood, will meet with the cordial approval of our people. Your careful consideration of the nature and objects which the school seeks to accomplish is respectfully solicited." This act of the school authorities of the city of Phila- delphia is the strongest popular endorsement the theory of manual training as an element of education has re- ceived. It commits a great city to a fair trial of the new education under the most favorable auspices — under the conduct of Mr. James MacAlister, one of the most ac- complished, as well as most sternly practical educators in the United States. But this is only part of a general system of manual training introduced throughout the whole course of in- ^15- 353 MANUAL TRAINING. struction given in the public schools of Philadelphia. There are kindergartens (sub - primaries) for children from three to six years of age, and an industrial art department for all the students (of both sexes) of the grammar schools. In this latter department the course of training comprises "drawing and design," "model- ling," " wood - carving," " carpentry and joinery," and " metal work." These courses, including manual train- ing proper, "at the top," form a comprehensive system of head and hand training known as the new education. Mr. MacAlister says, " The conviction is gradually ob- taining among the members of the Board of Education [of Philadelphia], and in the public mind, that every child should receive manual training ; that a complete education implies the training of the hand in connection with the training of the mind ; and that this feature must ultimately be incorporated into the public educa- tion. What is this but the realization of the principles which every great thinker and reformer in education has insisted upon, from Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau, to Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Spencer !" ^' * In a recent letter to the author, Mr. MacAlister re-enforces the observations quoted in the text. He says, " I wish you to iinderstaud that all my own convictions and action in connection with this movement are based upon what in my judg- ment should constitute an education fitted to prepare a human being for the social conditions of to-day, and not merely upon the industrial demands of our time. ... I believe there is a great future for the manual training movement in Philadelphia. I feel encouraged to go forward with the work. The great principles which underlie the system arew^ith me intense convictions; they mean nothing less than a revoliLtion in education. The great ideas of the reformers of school training must be realized in the public schools, or they will fail in accomplishiug the ends for which they were instituted and have been maintained." HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 353 The rapid progress of tlie revolution in education is sliown by the fact that manual training in some form has been adopted in certain of the schools of at least twenty-four of the States of the American Union. In some of the higher educational institutions the new education is warmly welcomed, while in others public sentiment alone compels its adoption. The State Agri- cultural and Mechanical College of Texas has been rev- olutionized in this way. A member of the Faculty* writes as follows : " This institution was opened on the 4th of October, 1876. In spite of its name, the conditions of its endow- ment, and its avowed object, it was founded on the plan of the old classical and mathematical college, and had no industrial features whatever till the beginning of the year 1880. At that time the public sentiment of the State had condemned so decidedly and repeatedly the misappropriation of the funds, and perversion of the en- ergies of the college under its administration as a literary school, that the directors found it necessary to reorgan- ize it by accepting the resignation of the members of the faculty without exception, and calling in a new corps of instructors. In 1880-81 a large dormitory building was converted into a shop [laboratory]. This was fitted with tools for elementary instruction in wood-working for the accommodation of about fifty students. A small metal - working plant was also erected, the wdiole being furnished with power from a twelve-horse-power engine. Since that time a brick shop [laboratory] has been pro- vided for the accommodation of the metal-working ma- chinery, which now includes the principal machines used * H. H. Dinwiddle, Professor of Chemistry, Cbairmau of the Faculty. 354 MANUAL TRAINING. in ordinary iron- working, all driven by a twenty-horse- power engine," Massachusetts, the cradle of the American common- school system, is the first State to legalize by statute the new education, placing manual training on an equal foot- ing with mental training, by the following act : " Section I. of Chapter XLIY. of the Public Statutes, relating to the branches of instruction to be taught in public schools, is amended by striking out in the eighth line the words 'and hygiene,' and inserting instead the words ' hygiene and the elementary use of hand-tools ;' and in any city or town where such tools shall be intro- duced they shall be purchased by the school committee at the expense of such city or town, and loaned to such pupils as may be allowed to use them free of charge, subject to such rules and regulations, as to care and cus- tody, as the school committee may prescribe." * The Legislature of Connecticut adopted a similar stat- ute last year (1884). The Iowa Agricultural College is the first educational institution in the country to recognize the importance of instruction in the arts of home life. In this college domestic economy has been elevated to the dignity of a department called the " School of Domestic Economy," with the following " special faculty :" The President, Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, Dean. Bomesitc Economy. J. L. Budd ■ Horticulture and Gardening. A. A. Bennett CJiemistry. B. D. Halsted Botany. D. S. Fairchild Hygiene and Physiology. Laura M. Saunderson Elocution. * " Scliool Laws of Massachusetts. Supplement to the Edition of 1883, containing the Additional Legislation to the Close of the Legis- lative Session of 1885; issued by the State Board of Education." HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 355 The course of study is as follows : First Term. Domestic Economy. Botany. Physical Training. Household Accounts. FIRST YEAR. Second Term. Domestic Economy. Physiology and Hj^giene. Dress-fitting and Millinery. Essavs. SECOND YEAR. First Term. Domestic Economy. Chemistry. Duties of the Nurse. Designing and Free-hand Draw- ing. Landscape and Floral Gardening. Second Term. Domestic Economy. Home Architecture. Home Sanitation. Home Esthetics and Decorative Art. Essays and Graduating Thesis. Mrs. Ewing, dean of the school, thus states, clearly and powerfully, the reasons for its establishment and its purposes : " This school is based upon the assumption that no industry is more important to human happiness than that which makes the home ; and that a pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of morality and virtue. It was organized to meet the wants of pupils who desire a knowledge of the principles that underlie domestic economy, and the course of study is especially arranged to furnish women instruc- tion in applied house-keeping and the arts and sciences relating thereto — to incite them to a faithful performance of the every-day duties of life, and to inspire them with a belief in the nobleness and dignity of a true woman- hood. " No calling requires for its perfect masteiy a greater 356 MANUAL TRAINING, amount of practice and theory combined than that of domestic economy, and students, in addition to recita- tions and lectures on the various topics of the course, receive practical training in all branche-s of house-work, in the purchase and care of family supplies, and in gen- eral household management. They are not, however, required to perform a greater amount of labor than is necessary for the desired instruction. " The course of study is for graduates of colleges and universities. It extends through two years, and leads to the degree of Master of Domestic Economy." " The Le Moyne IS'ormal Institute of Memphis, Tenn., is a private school, "sustained chiefly by benevolently disposed people at the North, for colored youth." In a letter to the author the principal of this school thus de- scribes the manual features of its curriculum : "Besides our Normal work proper, we give girls of the school two years' training in needle-work of different kinds, one year's instruction in choice and preparation of foods, with practice in an experimental kitchen, and six months' training in nursing or care of the sick. One hour a day is given to each of the foregoing subjects for the time indicated. " I am about to erect workshops for training for our boys in the use of wood-working tools, and in iron-work- ing and moulding — the course to comprise two years' time, two hours per day at the benches. "We shall also have type-setting and printing as specialties for individ- ual students. This work will be in operation in Janu- ary, 1886." t * Annual Catalogue of the Iowa Agricultural College, f A. J. Steele. HISTORY OP THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 357 The professor in charge of the Mechanical Engineer- ing Department of the University of Michigan writes to the author as follows : "There can be no doubt in the mind of a sane man that this practical instruction [laboratory work] is exact- ly what is needed by our engineering students. We are assured of that fact by the expression of gratification on the part of our engineering alumni to find here the very instruction which they Avere obliged to spend two or three years to secure after graduating. We give our students work of an elementary character for a few weeks, or until they become accustomed to tools, when we put them to work on some part of a machine. If they spoil it, well and good — it goes into the scrap-heap ; if they succeed, they have the pleasure of seeing a per- fect machine grow up under their eyes and hand. Stu- dents having matured minds, as most of ours have, work better with a definite plan in view. We always require them to work from drawings. Our course in forging is very popular ; and it is especially useful, as it gives our young men that knowledge of the different kinds of iron and steel wliich will be of the greatest benefit to them as engineers." * The jSTational Educational Association of the United States, at its last meeting, at Saratoga Springs, 1^. Y. (1885), took a great step forward in the adoption of a resolution f endorsing the kindergarten. The association was, however, singularly illogical in its subsequent ac- "■ Mortimer E. Cooley, Assistant Eugiueer, U. S. Navj'. f "Resolved, Tliat we trust the time is near at band -when the true principles of tlie kindergarten will guide all elementary training, and when public sentiment and legislative enactment will incorporate the kindergarten into our public-school system." 358 MANUAL TRAINING. tion, in voting to lay upon the table a resolution* recom- mending tlie introduction of manual training to the pub- lic schools. The kindergarten and manual training are one in principle, and should be one in practice. All educators will soon see this, and the National Education- al Association will no doubt soon place itself as heartily on record in support of manual training as it has already done in support of the kindergarten. Ohio ranks as the third State in the Union industrially, and she is making great strides in the direction of a more practical system of education. This is shown by the prominent place given to instruction in the mechanic arts in the State University at Columbus, by the pros- perity of the Case School of Applied Science, and the in- troduction of manual training to the public-school sys- tem at Cleveland, and by the establishment of the Scott Manual Training School at Toledo. The city of Toledo owes the inception of the movement in support of the new education to the munificence of the late Jesup W. Scott, who during his life conveyed to trustees for pur- poses of industrial education, in connection with the public-school system, certain valuable real estate. After the death of Mr. Scott, his three sons,t still residents of Toledo, supplemented their father's donation with a suf- ficient sum of money to secure the erection and com- plete equipment of a manual training school for three hundred and fifty pupils. The school is modelled after the schools of St. Louis and Chicago ; but it gives only the manual side of the "■ "Resolved, That we recognize the educational value of training the hand to skill in the use of tools, and recommend tliat provision be made, as far as practicable, for such training in public schools." f William F., Frank J., and Maurice Scott. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 359 curriculum, because it is conducted in connection witli the public High School, receiving its pupils therefrom. It opened in the autumn of 1884 with sixty pupils, ten of whom were girls. Its register now numbers two hun- dred, fifty of whom are girls. Its course for boys is sub- stantially the same as that of the Chicago school. The course for girls includes free-hand and mechanical draw- ing, designing, modelling, wood-carving, cutting, fitting, and making garments, and domestic science, including food preparation and household decoration. A distin- guished lawyer and citizen of Toledo,* who has been prominent in the work of establishing the school, says, " The brightest and most faithful pupils of the High School have eagerly availed themselves of the opportunity for manual instruction, and the zeal with which this new work is pursued has added a new charm to school life." Tlie school is in charge of Mr. Ralph Miller, B.S., who is assisted by Mr. Geo. S. Mills, B.S.f It is especially interesting, both as the newest educational enterprise and because it places the sexes on a footing of absolute equal- ity. Reform in education must begin with woman, for it is from her that man inherits his notable traits, and from her that he receives the earliest and most enduring impressions. In the arms of the mother the infant mind rapidly unfolds. It is in the cradle, in the nursery, and at the fireside that the child becomes father of the man. The regeneration of the race through education must, then, begin with the child, and be directed by the moth- er ; and this being the fact, the education of woman be- comes far more imperative than that of man. * Hon. A. E. Macomber. f Graduates of the St. Louis Manual Training School, class of 1884. 360 MANUAL TRAINING. That the ancients made so little progress in morals is due to the fact of their neglect of the education of wom- an. ITeither in Egypt nor Persia was provision made for her mental or moral training. There were schools for boys in Greece, but none for girls ; and not till late in the Empire was there any special culture for girls in Rome. In the Middle Ages learning was confined to the relig- ious orders. The narrow bounds of the convent con- tained all there was of science and art. In the castle and at the tournament woman ministered to man's pride and vanity ; and in the peasant's hut, which was the abode equally of poverty and ignorance, she endured both mental and moral starvation. Sir "Walter Raleigh, Lord Bacon, Swift, Addison, Lord Chesterfield, Dr. John- son, and Southey treated woman with mingled contempt and pity, and yet they were familiar with the story of Lucretia, of Virginia, and of the Maid of Orleans ! But Shakespeare, with a sublimer genius, portrayed a Cor- delia, a Desdemona, an Imogen, and a Queen Catharine, and with rare prevision of a future better than the age he knew, wrote these glowing lines : " Falseliood and cowardice Are things that women highly hold in hate. " This is the rational age, though not less truly chival- rous than that of Arthur and his knights ; for, as Ruskin well says, "The buckling on of the knight's armor by his lady's hand is the type of an eternal truth — that the soul's armor is never well set to the heart unless a wom- an's hand has braced it." * * "Sesame and Lilies," p. 97. By John Ruskin, LL.D, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1884. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 361 The distinguisliing features of this time are its homes and its schools, and the purity of the one and the effi- ciency of the other depends upon woman. It was re- served for Froebel to rescue woman from the scorn of preceding ages by declaring her superior fitness for the office of teacher — the most exalted of civil functions. The growth of the kindergarten has not been com- mensurate with its importance. Indifference and preju- dice have united to discourage progress. Ancient con- tempt of childhood — that contempt which in Persia excluded the boy from the presence of his father imtil the fifth year of his age '" — projects its sombre shadow down the ages. But manual training, which is the kin- dergarten in another form, is leading captive the imagi- nation of the American people, and where the imagina- tion leads, woman is in the van. Woman is to man what the poet is to the scientist, what Shakespeare was to l^ewton, the celestial guide. She tempts to deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice. She is less selfish than man, because a more vivid imagination inspires her with a deeper feeling of compassion for the misfortunes and follies of the race. Her intuitions are truer than those of man, her ideals higher, her sense of justice finer, and of duty stronger; and she has a better appreciation of the moral value of industry, remembering the tempta- tions of her sex to evil through habits of idleness, en- forced by the decrees of custom. And she is our teach- er, whether we will or no — our teacher from the cradlo to the grave — and it is through her jninistry that we arc destined to realize our highest mental and moral ideals. This sketch of the history of manual training in the * "Herodotus," Clio I., p. 136. 363 MANUAL TRAINING. United States is doubtless incomplete. It is, however, sufficient to show that the subject is already one of absorbing interest in all parts of the country. Manual training in the public schools of Europe can scarcely be called educational, since the pupils usually make articles for household use. The purpose is purely industrial, and hence the mental culture received in the course of the manual exercise is the mere incident of a mechanical pursuit. But the making of things in the schools of Europe is gradually extending. In Denmark an annual appropriation ($2000) is made by the Legislature for the encouragement of slojd (hand- cunning) in the schools. All pupils in Danish and Swed- ish schools make things. In Germany, Dr. Erasmus Schwab published in Vien- na, in 1873, a book, " The Work School in the Common School." Rittmeister Claussen Yon Kaas, of Denmark, travelled through Germany and delivered lectures on manual training, and now there is a considerable agita- tion of the subject. In Finland all the country schools are slojd schools. In 1881 the Legislature of ISTorway appropriated $1250 for the support of slojd in the schools. In France a law (1882) makes manual training obliga- tory, and a school for training teachers — " Secole !N"ormale Superieure de travail Manuel " — in which there are about fifty students. Prof. G. Solicis is the chief supporter of manual training in France. In Sweden, in 1876, there were eighty slojd schools. In 1877 the number had increased to one hundred ; in 1878, to one hundred and thirty ; in 1879, to two hun- dred ; in 1880, to three hundred ; in 1881, to four hun- dred ; and in 1882, to five hundred. HISTORY OF THE MANUAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 363 In ISTiias, in Sweden, there is a seminary for the train- ing of slojd teachers.* Of this seminary Otto Salomon is director. In the slojd schools small articles are made for use in the house, kitchen, on the farm, etc. The course of instruction embraces one hundred models. The mate- rials for the first series of twenty-five models co&b about 40 cents ; for the second series of twenty-five the cost is To cents ; and for the third series of fifty the cost is $3.25. The annual expense of the manual training in a Swedish country school is about ten to eleven dollars. The technical and mechanic art or trade schools of Europe, generally, whether public or private, do not come within the scope of this work, since their purpose is industrial, not educational. * "Four youDg women have graduated from the S15jd Teacher's Seminary at Nails, Sweden, and two of them are now engaged in teaching manual arts." — Letter from John M. Ordway, A.M., Chair of Applied Chemistry and Biology, and Director of Manual Training, Tulane University of Louisiana. INDEX. A. Abstract ideas regarded as of more vital importance than things, 185. Adam, legend of, and the stick, 157. Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., arraigns the schools of Massachusetts for au- tomatism, 201 ; declares that, in the public schools, children are re- garded as automatons, etc., 205. Adler, Prof. Felix, declaration of [in note], that manual training promotes rectitude, 142 ; unique educational enterprise of, in New York City, 336 ; extracts from report of, as to purposes of the " model school," 338, 339. Age of force, the, is passing away, 299. Age of science and art, the, has begun, 299. Agricola, noted for the practice of the most austere virtue, 270 ; after great services, was retired, 270. Agriculture, nearly perishes in the Middle Ages — prevalence of famines, 277. Agricultural colleges, manual training in twelve, of the State, 335. Alabama, Agricultural and Mechanical College of, adopts manual train- ing, 349. Alcibiades kept not his patriotism when he was being wronged, 255. Alison, his theory of the cause of the decline of Rome, 63. Altruism, stability of government depends upon, 135. America, discovery of, the crowning aot of man's emancipation from the gloom of the Dark Ages, 282 ; gives wings to hope, 283 ; startles the people of Europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years, 283 ; a great blow to prevailing dogmatisms, 301 ; completes the figure of tlie earth, rendering it susceptible of intelligent study, 301. America, early immigration to, consisted of Puritans and Cavaliers, Germans, Frenclimen, and Irishmen, 302 ; destined to become the home of an old civilization, 302 ; the manner in which tlic colonists of treated the natives, showed the Roman taint of savagery, 302 ; European social abuses ex- aggerated in, 317 ; the eyes of mankind rest upon, alone, with hope, 317. Americans, are transplanted Europeans controlled by Europca;i mental and moral habitudes, 317 ; will not vote away their right to vote, 318, 319. 866 INDEX. Anaxagoras, his characterization of man as the wisest of animals because he has hands, 152. Ancients, reverence due them for their art triumphs, 73 ; temples of, re- mained long as instructors of succeeding generations, 73 ; educational theory of, contrasted with that of moderns, 123 ; ignorance of, on the subject of physiology, 153 ; speculative philosophy the only resource of, 153 ; slow growth of, in morals, due to the fact of their neglect of the education of woman, 360 ; contempt of, for children, 861. Anossoff, a Russian general, experiments of, in the effort to produce Da- mascus steel, 72. Antwerp, Flemish silk- weavers of, flee to England upon the sacking of, 34. Apollo, bronze statue of, at Rhodes, 47. Apprentice system, the, gives skilled mechanics to England, 181. Apprentices better educated than the graduates of schools and colleges, 239. Architecture, limit of, attained in Greece and Rome, 73. Aristocracy, alliance of, with the kings, 286. Arithmetic, automatism in teaching it in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 197 ; Colonel Parker's declaration in re- gard to the defective methods of instruction in, 206, 207. Arnold, John, inventor of the chronometer, 86 ; his ingenious watch, of the size of twopence and weight of sixpence, 86. Art, its cosmopolitan character, 12; the product of a sequential series of steps, 73 ; the preservation of a record of each step essential to prog- ress, 73 ; printing makes every invention in, the heritage of all the ages, 282 ; triumphs due to the laborer, 290 ; ignored in educational systems, 320. Artisan, the, embodies the discoveries of science in things, 13 ; is more de- serving of veneration than the artist, 74 ; regarded with disdain by statesmen, lawyers, litterateurs, poets, and artists, 185; education of, is more scientific than that of merchants, lawyers, judges, and legisla- tors, 227; training of, is objective, relates to things, 231 ; intuitively shrinks from the false, and struggles to find the truth, 231 ; always in the advance, 242. Artists more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185. Arts, the fine, not so fine as the useful, 74 ; can exist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth of the useful arts, 275. Arts, the useful, finer than the so-called fine arts — their processes more in- tricate, 74 ; no limit to their development except the exhaustion of the forces of nature, 74 ; neglect of, by all the governments of the world is amazing, 176 ; Plato's contempt of, 176 ; no instruction in given in the public schools, 181; slavery's brand of shame still upon, 190; no INDEX. 367 such failure of the, as there is of justice, 227 ; the true measure of civili- zation, 247 ; depend upon labor, 274 ; precede the fine arts, 275 ; unknown in the Middle Ages, 277 ; stagnation in, is the death of civilization, 279. Athenians declared that the Spartans were taught to steal, and the Spar- tans retorted that the best Athenians were invariably thieves, 255. Atkinson, Edward, declares that the perfection of our almost automatic mechanism is achieved at the cost not only of the manual but of the mental development of our men, 201. Aurelius, Marcus, sublime moral teachings of, 138. Austria, Emperor of, has a suit of clothes made from the fleece in eleven hours, 87 ; increases her debt each year, 292. Authority, in the Middle Ages, chilled courage, 280. Automata, of the ancients — hint of modern automatic tools in, 8 ; of the moderns, triumphs of mechanical genius, 86. Automatism, of mind and body, 191; of mind promoted by the environ- ment of modern life, 192; promotion of, by the schools, 193; in the schools of Norfolk County, Mass., as shown by the Walton report, 196 ; as shown in the Walton report in grammar, in arithmetic, in reading, in penmanship, in spelling, and in composition, 197, 198, 199 ; a final and conclusive test of the prevalence of, in the schools, 204. B. Babylon, the hundred brazen gates of, 55 ; influence of ideas of, in full force in the United States down to the time of the emancipation proclamation of President Lincoln, 190. Bacon, Lord, the school he wished for, 2 ; his aphorism, 4 ; his apothegm on the sciences, 13; condemns the old system of education, 126; his opinion of the universities, 127 ; his proposal that a college be estab- lished for the discovery of new truth, 185 ; his proposal to bring the mind into accord with things, 245 ; foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school, 245 ; celebrated aphorism of, has bad but little influence upon the methods of our public schools, 319. Bacon, Roger, his daring prediction of mechanical wonders to be accom- plished, 98. Ballot, power of, in the United States, 318. Baltimore, Md., manual training in, 336. Bamberger, Mr. G., Principal of the Workingman's School, New York City — extracts from report of, on purposes of the school, 337, 338. Barncsvillc, 0., manual training in, 336. Belfield,Dr. Henry IL, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School, 340 ; hii5 early appreciation of the mental value of manual training, 342 ; ex- tracts from the inaugural address of, 342, 343, S44, 345. IG 368 INDEX. Bell, Sir Charles, liis great discoyery of the muscular sense, 146 ; his defi- nition of the office of the sixth sense, 146. Bells, that of Pekin, China, 4*7 ; that of Moscow, 41 ; they show an inti- mate knowledge of the founder's art, 48. Bernot, M., inventor of file-cutting machine, 91. Bessemer, Sir Henry, his birth and early training, 162; bis appearance in London, a poor young man — bis first invention, 162; as young Glad- stone enters the Treasury, be retires an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and toil, 163; bis burning sense of outrage, 163; an- nouncement of his discovery of a new process in steel-making, 164 ; his declaration that be could make steel at the cost of iron received with increduhty, 165; his process of steel -making a complete success in 1860, 165; compared with Mr. Gladstone, 165, 166 ; description of the process that revolutionized the steel manufacture, 166, \&1 • value of process of, 167 ; the government of England slow in honoring bim, 168 ; comparison between the life and services of, to man, and those of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, 168, 169 ; stands for the new education, 169. Bhick-walnut, its natural history studied in the wood-turning laboratory, 36 ; its structure, growth, and uses, 3*7 ; the poet Brj'ant's great tree, 37. Blatchford, E. W., President of the Chicago Manual Training School Asso- ciation, 340. Blatchford Literary Society, an organization of students of the Chicago Manual Training School, 342. Blow, Miss S. E., in formulating the theory of the kindergarten, describes the method equally of the savage and the manual training school, 218, 219. Board of Trade, of Chicago, the speculative trades in futures on, are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions, 316. Body, contempt of the, by the ancients, led to contempt of manual labor, 155. Book-makers, the, writing the lives of the old inventors in the temple of fame, 171. Books, the sure promise of universal culture, 283 ; the precursor of the common school, 283. Boston, the streets of, in which patriots had struggled for liberty, now echoed the groans of the slave, 305 ; manual training in, 336. Boy, the civilized, is not trained in school for the actual duties of life, 181 ; is taught many theories, but not required to put any of them in prac- tice, 181; is in danger of the penitentiary until he learns a trade or profession, 181, 182. Boys, ninety-seven in a hundred, who graduate from the public schools and embark in mercantile pursuits, fail, 227. Brain, the, its absorbing and expressing powers — dingram illustrating, 193 ; INDEX. 369 the healthy education of, consists in giving to the expressing side power equal to that of the absorbing side, 193, 194; the functions of the ab- sorbing side extended, while those of the expressing side are restrict- ed — diagram illustrating, 194; functions of the expressing side of, in- creased by adding drawing and the manual arts, 195. Eramah, Joseph, inventor of automatic tools, 84. Breighton helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. Bridge, the first iron, across the Severn, one hundred years old, but likely to last for centuries, 241. Bridgman, Laura, used the finger alphabet in her dreams, 150. Briudley, James, sketch of the life of, 172; a common laborer — a mill- wright's apprentice — a man of honor — an illiterate, but a genius and an originatorof great canal enterprises, 172-1*75 ; the engineer of tba Duke of Bridgewater, 173; his "castle in the air" and "river hung in the air," 173; his obstinacy, poverty, and poor pay for splendid services of which he was robbed by the duke, 174 ; his life and career typical of a score of biographies presented in Mr. Smiles's " Lives of the Engineers," 175. Bronze, castings of, in the ruins of Egypt and Greece, 46. Brooklyn Bridge, illustrates the necessity of practical training for the civil engineer, 97. Brown, John, Captain, in the presence of his exultant but half -terrified captors, 235 ; defying the constitution, the laws, and public sentiment in the interest of the cause of justice, 236. Bruno, his fate, condemned by the Inquisition and burned as a heretic, 178; persecution of, a link in the chain of progress, 283. Buckle, Henry Thomas, his testimony to the practical uses of imagination, 38 ; his scathing arraignment of English statesmen and legislators, 160; his declaration that the best English laws are those by which former laws are repealed, 187 ; his declaration in regard to the obsti- nacy and stupidity of English legislators, 242. Budget, the European, shows that the standing armies are the overshadow- ing feature of the situation, 286 ; the portion of, that goes to the main- tenance of the standing armies, 287. Burgos, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 279. C. Ciesar preferred to Cato, whose patriotism was above question, 270 ; com- mentaricB of, in all the world's universities, 271. Caligula, his pleasure in witnessing the countenances of dying gladiators, 138. Camillus honored in the early days of Rome, 270. 370 INDEX. Carlyle, his apostrophe to tools, 7. Carpenter's laboratory, class of students at the blackboard in, discussing the history and nature of certain woods, 21 ; working drawings of the lesson put on the black-board by the instructor in, 25 ; parts of the les- son executed by the instructor in, 25 ; new tools introduced, and their care and use explained, 25 ; the students at their benches in, mak- ing things, as busy as bees, 26 ; a call to order and a solution of the main problem of the day's lesson, 26 ; a tenon too large for its mor- tise, 29. Caste, a tendency to, disclosed in all history, 248 ; illustration of, the earli- est — the chief of the brawny arm, 248 ; illustrations of, in savage and half-civilized communities, 248, 249 ; in Egypt — in India, 249 ; in the United States, 30*7. Castile, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 279. Castle of the Middle Ages, the home of music and chivalry, 2*76. Cato a type of Roman persistence in the path of conquest, 260; patriotism and virtue of, 2*70. Centennial Exposition, exhibit of models of tool-practice in the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, Russia, at the, 325. Charcoal, the forests of England swept away to provide it for the smith's and smelter's fires, in the early time, 63. Charlemagne, attempt of, to reconstruct a worn-out civilization, 2*76 ; neg- lect of the education of the people the cause of the failure of, 276. Chatham, Lord, declaration of, that the American colonies had no right to make a nail or a horseshoe, 203. Chicago, comparison of, with ancient Rome, 138. Chicago Manual Training School, doscription of building, 1 ; its main pur- pose intellectual development, 3 ; theory of, 4 ; engine-room of, 14 ; en- gine of, doing duty as a school-master, 14 ; an epitome of, in the engine- room, 15 ; its purpose not to make mechanics, but men, 38 ; conditions of admission to, 106 ; detail of questions used in examination of candi- dates for first class in, 106-110; curriculum of, 110, 111; optional studies of. 111; blending of manual and mental instruction in, 111; missionary character of. 111 ; the only independent educational institu- tion of the kind in the world, 339 ; owes its origin entirely to laymen, 339 ; established by an association of merchants, manufacturers, and bankers, 339, 340; incorporated April 11, 1883, 340; corner-stone of, laid September 24, 1883, 340; opened February 4, 1884, 340; officers and trustees of association of, 340 ; object of, mental and manual cult- ure, 341 ; equipment of, 341 ; library of, 341 ; Dr. Henry H. Belfield di- rector of, 342. Chicago Tribune, criticism of the methods of the public schools by the, INDEX. 371 340; columns of, opened to the author, 340; effect of advocacy of man- ual training by the, 340. Child, the, becomes father of the man, in the cradle, the nursery, and at the fireside, 359 ; contempt of, by the ancients, 361. Chipping, filing, and fitting laborator_v, 88 ; course in tl:e, 88 ; the ante- room to the machine-tool laboratory, 88. Christian religion, the, its failure to save Rome, 140. Cicero, his doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man, 139 ; forecasts the doom of the Roman Republic, but has no remedy for the public ills to propose, 268 ; without moral courage, 269. Cincinnatus found at the plough, 264. Cities, rapid concentration of population in, 13V; plague-spots on the body politic, 137; dominated by selfishness, 137; statistics of increase of population in, 307, 308 ; the chief sources of societary disturbances, 308. City, the modern, the despair of the political economist, 137 ; the centre of vice, 137 ; pen-picture of its vices and crimes, 140 ; picture of vice in, 308. City of New York, College of, manual training in, 346; first report of the industrial educational association of, gives a list of thirty-one schools in, where industrial education is furnished {note), 346. Civil engineer, the modern, must be familiar with all the processes of the machine-tool shop, 97; his works may be amended, but never repealed, 187; more competent than the railway president, the lawyer, the judge, or the legislator, 225 ; trained in things, 225. Civilization, progress of, depends upon progress in invention and discovery, 65; a growth from the state of savagery, 131 ; evils of, flow from men- tal development wanting the element of rectitude, 132; contrast pre- sented by that of Italy in the fifteenth century, and that of America in the nineteenth, 234 ; difference between, and barbarism, 244 ; the use- ful arts the true measure of, 247 ; the product of education, 248 ; of Greece sprung from mytliology and ended in anarcliy, 254 ; languishes in an atmosphere of injustice, 274; the trinity upon which it rests is justice, the useful arts, and labor, 274 ; American, has not borne new social fruits, 317. Clark, John S., his elaborate exposition of the defects of existing educa- tional methods, 193, 194, 195. Claudius, under the favor of, Seneca amassed a vast fortune, 269. Clement, Joseph, great English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84 ; his two improvements in the slide - rest, and the medals he received for them, 92. Cleveland, 0., manual training in, 336. Coal, subject of production, cost, demand, and supply discussed in forging 372 INDEX. laboratory, 62 ; history of application of, to useful arts, 63 ; prejudice against use of mineral, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, 64 ; smelting with mineral, successfully introduced in England in 1*766, 66. Coalbrookdale Iron-works, mineral coal first used at, for smelting purposes, 65, 66. Columbus, in proving that the world is round, frees mankind, 282 ; sounds the death-knell of intellectual slavery, 282, 283. Comenius, the school he struggled in vain to establish, 2 ; his theory of learning by doing, 13; condemns the old system of education, 126; his definition of education, 127; foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school, 245. Commercial Club, the, founds the Chicago Manual Training School, 2 ; guar- antees $100,000 for its support, 3; meeting of, March 25, 1882, 340. Commerce, early, of America, so insignificant that in 1784 eight bales of cotton shipped from South Carolina were seized by the custom authori- ties of England on the ground that so large a quantity could not have been produced in the United States, 203. Common-school system of the United States, glaring defects of, shown by the Walton report, 197, 198, 199. Composition, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 199. Compton, Prof. Alfred G., on the exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new education, 346. Concrete, progress can find expression only in the, 151, 152; a lie always hideous in the, 224. Connecticut, manual training in State Normal School, 336 ; legislature of, adopts manual training as part of the course of public instruction, 354. Contempt, in the Middle Ages, withered hope, 280. Convent, of the Middle Ages, the home of religion and of art, 276. Cook County Normal School, 111., manual training in, 336. Cooley, Lieut. Mortimer E., letter of, to the Author on effects of manual training in the University of Michigan, 357. Cordova the abode of wealth, learning, refinement, and the arts, 278. Corporate power, unduly promoted by reckless legislation on the subject of land in the United States, 314. Corporations, a creation of yesterday, the product of steam, 314; almost as indestructible as landed estates, 314; men trained from generation to generation to the care of, 314. Cort, Henry, an English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; experi- ments of, with a view to the improvement of English iron, 115. Cotton-gin, the, trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the South, 160. Cotton Exchange of New York, speculative trades in futures on, thirty times more than the actual cotton sales, 316. INDEX. 373 Crane, R. T., Vice-President of the Chicago Manual Training School Asso- ciation, 340. Cranage, tlie Brothers, inventors of the reverberatory furnace, 66. Crerar, John, Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 340. Crusaders, their astonishment at the splendors of Constantinople, 281 ; they expected to meet with treachery and cruelty — they found chivalry and high culture, 281; they returned to Europe relieved of many illusions, 281, 282. Crusades, the, pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were, shed a great light upon Europe, 281; brought the men of the West face to face with a progressive civilization, 281. D. Daedalus, invention of turning ascribed to, by the Greeks, 33. Damascus blades, the most signal triumph of the art of the smelter and the smith, V2 ; the material of which they were made, and their temper, V2 ; first encountered by Europeans during the Crusades, V2 ; triumphs of genius not less pronounced than the Athena of Phidias, 74. Dark Ages, the shame of, caused by the neglect of the. useful arts, 64; maxims of Machiavelli explain the fact of the existence of, 280 ; gloom of, dispelled by the discovery of America, 282. Darwin, Cliarles, declares that a complex train of thought cannot be car- ried on without the aid of words, 149; law of reversion of, in operation during the decay of the Roman civilization, 271. Da Vinci, Leonardo, took up the work of Archimedes, and the science of mechanics made progress, 283. De Caus, helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15. Delia Vos, M. Victor, Director of the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, 121 ; testimony of, as to value of manual training, 121 ; author of the laboratory process of tool instruction, 325. Democratic idea, the, not new when adopted in America, 303. Democratic principle, in the United States Government, does not prevent class distinctions, 307. Denmark appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the scliools, 362. Denver (Col.) University, manual training in, 349. Dickens, Charles, his pen-picture of " Tom-all-alones " — philosophy of, 309. Dinwiddle, Prof. II. II., his account of the manner in which the Agricultu- ral and Meclianical College of Texas was revolutionized in the interest of manual training, 353. Disasters, mercantile and other, show that business is done by the " rule of thumb," 214. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), his tribute to the value of tlie imagination as 874 INDEX. a useful quality, §8 ; his alternations of political power with Mr. Glad- stone — from Liberalism to Toryism an easy transition, 164; England heaps honors upon him while it neglects Mr. Bessemer, 16S; compari- son between the life and services of, to man, and those of Sir Henry Bessemer, 169. Doane, John W., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Associa- tion, 340. Dogmatist, the, no place for, in the modern order of things, 124. Domestic economy made a department of the Iowa Agricultural College, 354 ; made part of the curriculum of the Le Moyne Normal Institute, 356. Drawing, thoroughness of training in, 16; definition of, 16; sketches of certain geometric forms, 17; working drawings, pictorial drawings, and designs applied to industrial art, 18; its aesthetic element, 18; geome- try its basis, examples of, 18; from objects in the school laboratories, 19 ; value of, as an educational agency, 19 ; language of, common to all draughtsmen — pen-picture of class in, 20 ; the first step of expression, 208. Drayton, W. Heyward, historical sketch of origin of manual training in Girard College by, 347, 348, 349. Dudley, Dud, inventor of machinery for the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes, 64 ; sketch of career of, 64, 65 ; combinations against, by the charcoal iron-masters, 64, 65 ; furnaces of, destroyed by mobs, and their owner reduced to beggary and driven to prison, 64, 65. Dun, R. G., & Co., statistics of, in relation to commercial failures, 211. E. Ear not a more important organ than the hand because situated nearer the brain, 154. Eau Claire, Wis., maimal training in, 336. Edict of Nantes, revocation of, drove artisans to England, 34. Education, the philosopher's stone in, 2 ; laying the foundation of, in labor, 3 ; the power to do some useful thing the last analysis of, 12 ; definition of, 12 ; confined to abstractions, in the past, 13 ; the new — claims made in its behalf, 105 ; universal, a modern idea, 123 ; difference in systems of, constitutes difference between ancient and modern civilizations, 123, 124 ; every child entitled to receive, 124 ; certain fundamentals of, upon which all are agreed, 125 ; Rousseau's definition of, 125 ; begins at birth and continues to the end of life, 126; Froebel's definition of, 126; old system of, condemned by Bacon, Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, 126 ; of woman more important than that of man, 128 ; develops innate mental qualities and forms character, 130; all, is both mental and moral, 133 ; any system of, that does not produce altruism is vicious, INDEX. 375 136 ; first step in, to eliniinate selfishness and put rectitude in its place, 136 ; a system of, consisting exclusively of mental exercises, promotes selfishness, 141 ; methods of, controlled by the Classicism of the Ke- naissance, 154; of the hands as well as the brain necessary, 172; the old, designed to make lawyers, doctors, priests, statesmen, litierateurK^ and poets, 1Y9 ; that is not practical, in the Age of Steel, is nothing, 179 ; not broad enough on the expressing side of the brain, 194 ; illustrations of defects of, shown by the Walton Report, 196, 197, 198, 199; in ex- isting systems of, the memory is cultivated while the reason is allowed to slumber, 200; defective methods of, result in vast mercantile and railway disasters, 215 ; defective morally, since the truth is to be found only in things, 224 ; the New England system of, very defective; but to it the country owes the quality of its civilization, 235; in South Caro- lina the monopoly of a class, 235 ; a scientific system of, would have averted the War of Rebellion in the United States, and kept down the debt of England, 237; why popular, is provided for by the State, 237; the sole bulwark of the State, 238; the best is the cheapest, 239; of New England does not produce great lawyers, great judges, or great legislators, 239 ; exclusively mental, stops far short of the objective point of true, 243 ; the last analysis of, is art, 243 ; any system of, which separates ideas and things, is radically defective, 244; the object of, is the generation of power, 244 ; the system of, which does not teach the application of facts to things, is unscientific, 245 ; among the ancients, was confined to a small class, and consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many, 253 ; of the Greeks responsible for the destruction of Greek civilization, 256; defects of the Roman, 261; Roman, deified selfishness and so realized its last analysis — total de- pravity, 263; a false system of, wrecks the Roman civilization, 273; scientific, essential to the salvation of the trinity upon which civiliza- tion rests, 274 ; how to make it universal in Europe, 288, 289; possible only in Europe through the disbandment of the standing armies, 291 ; in Germany, has taught the people to hate standing armies, 294, 295 ; is causing the emigration of Germany's best citizens, 298; is the arch-revolutionist whose march is irresistible, 298 ; the new, will come in as the standing armies go out, 300; had made little progress at the time of the organization of civil society in America, 303; the sys- tem of, under which the kings and ruling classes of Europe had been trained to selfishness, cruelty, and injustice, put into the New England common schools, 303 ; sordid view of, generally held in the rural dis- tricts of New England, 304 ; Herbert Spencer's view of the prevailing methods of, 304 ; positive ill effects of the prevailing methods of, 304, 305 ; a false system of, in the United States, led to political incongrui- ties of the grossest character, 305 ; complete failure of, to promote rccti- 376 INDEX. tude, 305 ; defects of system of, iti the United States, shown by the ig- norance and crimes of legislators, 311 ; may be made universal through the ballot, 318; all property may be taken for, by the ballot, 318; American, is scant in quantity and poor in quality, 319; no radical change in methods of, for 3000 years, 319; a complete revolution in, essential to social reform, 321 ; must begin with the child and be di- rected by the mother, 359. Edward III. of England uses the smiths as military engineers at the siege of Berwick, '72. Egypt, how the castes of, arose, 249 ; progress of the civilization of, 249 ; civilization of, the product of education, 250 ; selfishness the basis of the system of education of, 250 ; ■wealth, commerce, and military and naval power of, 250; learning of, 251 ; luxury of, 251 ; conquered by Persia, 251, 252; no provision in, for the mental or moral training of woman, 360. Electricity, must be "harnessed" at the forge and in the shop to enable it to do its work, ITO. Elizabeth, Queen of England, use of iron by, to defeat the Spanish Armada, 61. Emerson, his declaration that Napoleon was typical of the modern man, 134; his observation that during the Crusades "the banker with his seven per cent, drove the earl out of his castle," 282. Emigrant, the poor, withdraws the support of his brawny arm from the fatherland, 290. Emigration, social questions cannot much longer be settled by, 299. 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