LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Cha.p._o_H Copyright No. Shelf.„'.Q_S.. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. VEGETABLE GARDENING. A MANUAL ON THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES FOR HOME USE AND MARKETING. PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR THE CLASSES OF THE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, BY SAMUEL B. GREEN, PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. WITH 115 ILLUSTRATIONS. a: '■■■'■■\ Published by the Author." WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PA PUBLISHER'S AGENTS. 1896. THE EAGLE PRINTING COMPANY, DELANO, MINN. \ COPYRIGHT 1896. BY SAMUEL B. GREEN. PREFACE. Three years ago I published "Amateur Fruit Growing" as a help in my class room work in the School of Agriculture. It has been very useful for this purpose, and has also been very favorably received by the horticulturists of this section of the countr3^ Such encouragement has led me to publish this book, which is prepared primarily for the School of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota, but which I hope, will prove a practical Manual for the vegetable growers of the Northern Mississippi Valley. This large section has, as yet, very few agricultural books adapted to its peculiar con- ditions, and too often the methods and varieties recommended in books written in the Eastern States are not fitted for the existing conditions of this section. In preparing this book I have had the kind assistance of many of my friends and my thanks are especially due to Dr. Otto Lugger for his assist- ance in revising the chapter on Entomology; to Professor Harry Snyder for help in revising the chapter on Manures, and to Major A. G. Wilcox for many useful suggestions. Mr. R. S. Mackintosh, my assistant in the Division of Horti- culture of the Experiment Station, has given me much help in preparing the photographs for the half-tone illustrations. To all these parties I wish to extend my hearty thanks. This book is written for the latitude of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota, and the dates here given are such as experience has shown best in that section. Most of the illustrations used are original. D. Landreth & Sons, the well-known seedsmen of Philadelphia, have kindly given me the three half-tone illustrations numbered 57, GO and 93. The other figures are from various sources. VEGETABLE GARDENING. CHAPTER I. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. Location and Soil. — The land for veg-etable g-ardening should be free from stones and stumps, and easily culti- vated. Wet land should be avoided unless it can be drained at a reasonable outlay; if it cannot be drained it is of little worth, as scarcely anything of value can be raised on it, xA.ll land for vegetable gardening should be well drained, naturally or artificially, since crops on well drained land suffer less from excess of water as well as from drought. Drained land also g-ives best and most uni- form returns from the manure applied to it. When drain- age is lacking- in the land, the raising of plants on it is so very much a matter of chance that in the long run it will generally prove unprofitable. Much of the land in culti- vation is sufficiently drained naturally, while some land that needs no drainage when used for grass or grain would be greatly improved by being under-drained when it is to be used for some garden crops. Land which has a gently roll- ing or undulating surface and a southern exposure is the most desirable for general gardening operations, as it is easily worked and allows the most perfect control of the water that falls upon it. When irrigation is to be practiced, such sloping surface aids very much in the distribution of the water. For a few crops, such as celery, cabbage, etc., the slope makes very little difference, as flat and even very moist ( not wet ) land is best. There is a very great difference in the value of northern and southern slopes for various crops. This difference will frequently amount to one crop a year where 6 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the soil is closely tilled. The soil on a southern slope can be worked much earlier in the spring- than that having- a northern exposure, and often by proper manag-ement two crops may be grown in one year in such places, while on a northern slope perhaps only one crop could be raised. Then ag-ain, such crops as melons and tomatoes that require a long- season and a warm location to mature could do so on a southern slope, while on a northern slope they might not ripen. Location and Soil for Early Crops. — When the object in veg-etable gardening- is to grow very early crops, it is im- portant to have quick-acting land. Such a soil contains a large amount of sand in its composition. Soils of this class warm up very quickly, and decomposition goes on very rap- idly in them. They give the quickest returns from manures. If such land has a southern slope and, in addition, is pro- tected from the north and west winds, the situation will be an ideal one for the early vegetable garden and for tropical plants, such as tomatoes, beans, corn, etc. However, land and locations of this character suffer most from drought, therefore every pi'ecaution should be taken to protect them from it. Sandy soils, when irrigated, become most pro- ductive. Location and Soil for Late Crops. — When the intention is to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, etc., for mar- keting in the autumn and for crops that require but a short time to mature or that prefer a cool location, a good clayey loam is generally best, and if it has a northern exposure so much the better. If obliged to use a stiff' clay soil, it will be found to give best results if subsoiled and drained. Such land should be fall-plowed and left in ridges. It will also be improved if coarse manure is worked into, it since this has a tendency to make the land open and more easily worked. A retentive clayey loam will be more difficult to work than a sandy soil but will generally withstand drought much better, although a somewhat sandy loam with a retentive porous clay sub-soil is often considered more desirable on account of the greater ease with which it is worked, and it resists drought nearly as well as a clayey loam if proper precautions are used in its management. CHAPTER II. IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. Irrig-atioQ is generally considered unnecessary in this sec- tion, since we raise fair and even abundant crops neaily every year without its aid, but in almost any season there are peri- ods when if water could be applied to growing- crops it would improve them. It will seldom, if ever, pay to irrigate ordinary farm crops if it is necessary to pump the water used. In order to have irrigation practical for farm crops, the water should be carried and distributed on the land by the force of gravity. It may pay to pump water to irrigate some garden crops if the conditions are favorable and the work is done intelligently. In this section irrigation should be used to supplement the rainfall, which should ordinarily be kept from running off the surface of the land by every possible precaution. Mulching the surface of the soil is practicable only around trees and in the case of a very few garden crops, such as strawberries and raspberries. The intelligent use of mulch on land in well known cases has caused the soil under it to hold an amount of water equal to thirty-three per cent more than was retained in soil near by not mulched, the amount in one case being equal to an increase of over two quarts of water to every cubic foot of soil, or to an increase of over 680 barrels in the upper one foot of soil of one acre. If this amount of water had been applied at the critical stage in the growth of some crops suffering for moisture, it might have made a success of what would otherwise have been a failure. Where practicable, it is always desirable to have a good mulch on land that is watered, since it retards evaporation and iDrevents the surface soil from baking. Cultivation of the land prevents evaporation and so saves the moisture in it. In one instance the amount of increase of 8 VEGETABLE GARDENING. water in a good soil due to cultivation was equal to thirty- three per cent of what it contained when not cultivated. This increase, however, is somewhat more than was found in other trials, but in every instance there has been a marked increase in the drought resisting qualities of the soil due to continued cultivation. In some experiments made by Professor Levi Stockbridge in 1878, it was clearly shown that on one occa- sion in eight days of very dry summer weather thorough cul- tivation of the land resulted in saving 256 barrels of water in an acre of heavy loam by preventing- evaporation from its surface. These facts show the great value of cultivation as an aid in irrigating operations. Cultivation of the land or mulching should always go with irrigation. Humus is the rotten organic matter in the soil which in- creases its retaining power. On this account new land which contains much organic matter does not suffer as seriously from drought as that which has been cultivated for some time without manure. Likewise, land heavily manured with rotten manure, which becomes humus, has its drought resisting qualities increased, while the application of undecayed. man- ure to the land has a directly opposite result until it has been in the soil long enough to become thoroughly rotted. Amount of Water Required for Irrigating Different Crops. — Sometimes a very small amount of water applied at the right time will make the difference between a good crop and a total failure, as, for instance, when dry weather comes on just as the strawberry crop is almost ripe, when it has hap- pened that so small a quantity as 600 barrels of water per acre has been sufficient to ripen the crop. In western Kansas it is estimated that a storage capacity of 5,000 barrels per acre in addition to the ordinary rain supply is needed to mature a crop in dry seasons. In this section a storage ca- pacity of 1,500 barrels per acre would probably be enough to insure against serious injury from drought in any but very exceptionally dry years. Enough water to cover an acre one inch deep is termed an acre inch. About 900 barrels equals one acre inch. Pumping Water for Irrigation.— Where valuable crops are grown, it will sometimes pay to pump water for them. There are many localities in this section where a large amount IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 9 of water may be controlled by lifting it less than thirty feet. In such places windmills may be successfully used for pump- ing the water, providing reservoirs of large capacity can be cheaply made into which water may be pumped the year around, to be used as needed. Thresher engines, which are seldom used except in the late summer and fall, may some- times be used to advantage for pumping water for crops and often at very low cost. Gasoline engines are occasionally used in some irrigation works. They are very desirable, but at present the price is too high to warrant their general use. In putting in a pumping plant, the pump should be put as near the water supply as possible. Reservoirs should be on some elevated point. They are easily made by digging out the earth and puddling the bottom and sides with thick clay, which should be at least one foot in thickness and well packed when wet. A good way to pack it is to drive horses over it. When clay cannot be obtained the bottom may be made tight with a thin coat- ing of coal tar and sand, but clay is preferable, and what is known as blue clay is generally best. Cement is liable to crack badly from frost and is not adapted to this purpose. Made in this way, reservoirs are very cheap and easily re- paired. It is important to have them very large where the supply of water is limited; where the supply is large,,-, the, reservior may be much smaller. Application of Water. — Sloping land is necessary for most successful irrigation, as it is very difficult to apply water to the surface of level land. The slope should be sufficient to permit the water to flow quickly along its surface and yet not enough to cause it to wash. For irrigation purposes the rows should not be over 300 feet long. The best results are genei*- ally obtained from irrigating soils having considerable sand in their composition. Drifting sands may often be made to produce good crops by irrigation and manuring, and lands having some sand in their composition are much better adapted to irrigation than clay soils, since the latter often bake badly or become sticky so that they cannot be cultivated immediately after applying water to them. Rules for Applying Water to Land. — Water should not be ap- plied unless the crop is suffering for it, but cultivate the soil 10 VEGETABLE GARDENING. thoroughly and frequently, and thus watering- may be avoided. Cultivate at once after irrigating, if the land will per- mit of it, so that the soil will not bake: evaporation will thus be prevented, and water will be saved in the soil. Do not apply more than enough water to nicely moisten the land and avoid getting it water-soaked. Do not think that irrigation will take the place of culti- vation, for it will not, since without cultivation irrigation is seldom successful. Water for irrigating purposes should be somewhat warm when applied. Cold springs do not afford a satisfactoi-y supply for some crops unless first pumped into a reservoir. A temperature of 60 degrees is desirable, though not always necessary for the best results. Aim to wet the roots of the plants and avoid getting water on the leaves. Wooden troughs afford the cheapest conduits for water and should be used whenever practicable. Iron pipe is expen- sive and much more difficult to manage than wooden troughs. Figure 1.— Method of irrigatinfdr crop planted in rows. Sub-irrigation is a new term that refers to the application of water to the roots of plants by means of underground chan- IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OP CROPS. 11 nels, such as tile or other drains. It works best in sandy soils. In clayey soil the water runs too slowly throug-h the sides of the tiles. Land tiles make as good channels as any for this purpose. They should be buried a few inches below the plants to be watered, being laid level with open joints. Some experiments seem to show that it is a very wasteful way of using- water, while others have shown this system to be economical. As practiced for watering- plants in greenhouse benches it has given excellent results. ROTATION OF CROPS. By rotation is meant the special succession of crops growing upon the land for a series of years. This is very desirable even on land in the highest state of cultivation, but it is very difficult to lay down exact rules to be followed. Reasons for Rotating Crops. — We rotate crops: (1 ) to avoid insect enemies, as in the case of onions and turnips, which are often liable to serious insect injuries when grown more than one year on the same land, turnips being es- pecially liable to injury from insects when grown in the same place successively; (2) to avoid injuries from fungous dis- eases, i. e., in case of potato and beet scab, onion and melon rust, corn smut, etc.; (3) to increase the amount of humus in the soil, as when land is seeded down to grass or clover; (4) to deepen the soil and add nitrogen to it as well as humus, as when clover is grown on the land; (5) to get rid of weed seeds in the soil: (6) to use the plant food in the land to best advantage, since crops vary very much in the amount of the different elements which enter into their composition. Legu- minous crops, like clover, peas, beans, etc., improve the land on which they grow, while most other crops exhaust the soil. Some plants excel others in their power to search for plant food, or to take plant food from the soil. Some plants feed near the surface largely, while others take their food mostly from a lower level. Root crops should not follow root crops, nor should vines follow vines for many years in succession on the same land. CHAPTER III. MANURES. While there are twelve or more elements that enter into the composition of our cultivated plants, yet only nitrog-en, ' phosphorus and potash, and in a few cases lime, are lacking- from our ag-ricultural soils. These three elements enter large- ly into all our cultivated crops and are necessary for their growth. The other elements are usually present in abundance. Humus. — Humus, while not in itself a plant food, is of g-reat importance in the soil. It is formed by the decay of organic matter and is composed principally of carbon. It promotes chemical action, by which plant food is set free in the soil, and it increases the power of the soil for holding the water and gases which it yields up slowly to the roots of the plants. Rotten stable manure contains a large amount of humus-forming materials, which undoubtedly add very much to its value, and it is probably on this account that it often gives better returns than commercial fertilizers con- taining the same quantities of what are termed the essential elements. The action of manures in the soil can be and generally is both direct and indirect. They act directly when they con- tain actual available plant food or when by their decay they yield it to the plant; they act indirectly when they start chemical action in the soil and thus set free soluble plant food in the soil itself. Almost all manures act in this in- direct way to some extent. A moderate application of stable manure by its decomposition (which is chemical action) in the soil has been known to increase the temperature of the soil by three degrees. Lime in itself is a plant food and is large- ly used by some crops. Most soils, however, contain it in great abundance, yet if quick lime be added to a soil al- ready rich in common limestone it generally serves to in- crease growth. This is not due to the plant taking up more lime, but rather to the fact that the quick lime starts chemical action in the soil by which some of the locked-up stores of MANURES. 13 plant food are made available. The same may be said of unleached ashes, though it contains much more valuable fertil- izing- material than lime. Common salt-also acts to some extent indirectly as a fertilizer, while it is of very little value as a plant food. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. In the following tables is shown the amount of fertiliz- ing elements required by vegetables and the amount of these materials which is contained in the various farm manures and commercial fertilizers. These figures are from eastern United States and European sources. The climatic con- ditions in these places are quite different from those in many sections of the western states where the actual amount of ash ingredients in plants, especially in dry years, may greatly ex- ceed the amounts here given. The relation of these tables to one another is worthy of special study, since they show what the plants need and what fertilizing materials supply. TABLE L— Composition of Vegetables.^ Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric acid. Pota.sh Artichokes Fer ct. 81.50 93.96 68.46 87.23 88,47 90.52 88.59 90.82 78.90 78.33 95.99 92.93 76.68 91.08 86.28 88.46 93.68 92.61 76.44 90.53 91.15 84.19 87.41 87.55 80.34 12.48 12.62 79.93 Per ct. 0.99 0.67 1.69 0.76 1.04 1.40 1.02 0.81 1.09 1.02 0.46 0.50 1.87 1.27 1.71 1.18 1.61 1.01 1.49 0.56 0.68 2.25 0.74 0.57 1.03 2.36 3.11 0.78 Perct. 0.36 0.29 Per ct. 0.17 0.08 Perct. 48 Asparagus stems 0.29 Beans, Lima Beans, string Beets, red 0.24 0.38 0.16 0.13 1.92 *0.09 *0.11 0.09 0.16 0.19 *0 44 Cabbages Carrots *0.43 51 Cauliflower 0.36 Chorogi, tubers 64 Chorogi, wholq plant Cucumbers 0.16 "0.36 0.48 0.12 ' 0.0(7 0.27 24 Eggplant Horse-radish, root 1 16 Kohl-rabi 43 Lettuce, leaves Lettuce, stems ■ ■ 6.'23 ■ '*6.07" Lettuce, whole plant *0 37 Muskmelons, interior j nice Muskmelons, pulp Muskmelons, pulp juice Muskmelons, rind Mustard, white Okra Onions 0.14 0.22 "3.58 ' 0.04 0.19 "'6.84' 10 Parsnips 6"' Peas, Canada field Peas, garden 1 01 Peas, green 14 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Composition of yegetables.!;.— {C'o/ttiiiNed.) Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash Peas, small (Lathyrus sativus), whole plant . . Per ct. 5.80 93.39 86.23 76.86 92.27 74.35 92.67 91.67 88.61 92.42 88.09 82.00 74.03 94.88 80.10 86.19 82.14 80.86 71.26 41.55 93.64 73.31 83.61 90.46 93.05 91.87 89.97 48.37 Per ct. 5.94 0.67 1.36 1.51 0.63 2.28 0.94 1.72 1.15 1.94 1.72 1.21 1.39 0.41 0.59 0.,56 0.56 1.25 1.00 5.79 0.47 11.72 3.00 0.80 0.20 0.33 1.24 1.34 Per ct. 2.50 Per ct, 0.59 Per ct. 1 99 Pumpkins, fl esh Pumpkins, rind Pumpkins, seeds and stringy matter =1^11 0.55 *0.16 0.06 *0 09 Rhubarb, roots 53 Rhubarb, stems Rhubarb, stems and leaves 0.13 0.19 0.49 0.02 0.12 0.16 0.36 Rutabagas 49 27 Squashes, flesh Squashes. seeds and stringy matter Squa.shes, whole fruit Sweet corn, cobs 0.21 0.18 0.46 0.28 *0.24 '"o.Ve 0.24 0.32 0.18 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.14 *0.08 *"C).'05' 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.22 22 Sweet corn, kernels 0.24 Sweet corn, stalks 0.41 Sweet potatoes, tubers *0 37 Sweet potatoes, vines Tomatoes, fruitf 27 Tomatoes, roots 0.29 Tomatoes, vines 0.50 Turnips 39 Watermelons, pulp Watermelons, rind Watermelons, seeds *Wolff. tSugar in fruit. 3.05 per cent; acid (malic), 0.46 per cent. ^Compiled by office of Experiment Station. TABLE II.— Composition of Farm Manures. Mois- ture. Nitro- gen. Pot- ash. Phos- phoric acid. Lime. Cattle excrement (solid, fresh) Cattle urine (fresh) . Perct. Perct. 0.29 0.58 1.10 0.44 1.55 1.00 0.60 3.20 0.80 Per ct. 0.10 0.49 0.56 0.35 1.50 0.25 0.20 1.00 0.30 Perct, 0.17 Perct. a 60.00 0.85 0.17 Horse excrement (solid) Horse urine (fresh) Human excrement (solid) 77.20 95.90 10.00 50.00 1.09 0.17 1.90 1.40 Pigeon manure (dry) Poudrette (night soil) 2.10 0.80 MANURES. 15 Composition of Farm Manures.— (C ontinned) Mois- ture. Nitro- gen. Pot- a.sh. Phosphoric acid. Solu- ble. Re- verted. Total. Lime. Sheep excrement (solid fresh) Per ct. Per ct. 0..% 1.9.5 0.50 0.60 0.43 0.49 Per ct. 0.15 2.26 0.60 0.13 0.83 0.43 Perct. Per ct. Perct. 0.31 0.01 0.30 0.41 0.07 0.32 Per ct- Sheep urine (fresh) Stable manure 73.27 Swine excrement (solid fresh) Swine urine (fresh) Barnyard manure 68.87 TABLE IIL~Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials. Apatite , 36.08 0.10 0.40 1.14 1.51 1.70 3.80 35.89 28.28 17.00 23.25 17.60 20.10 29.90 26.77 1.75 8.85 3.10 3.10 13.35 1.91 8.25 Ashes (anthraicte coal) ... 0.10 0.40 1.20 1.27 5.25 1.31 Ashes (bituminous coal) .. Ashes (lime kiln)... Ashes (wood leached) 15.45 30.22 12.50 40.09 r.oo 4.60 48.50 28.08 Ashes (wood, un- leached) 34.00 Bat guano.. 8.20 2.37 1.24 Bone ash 44.89 Bone black Bone black (dis- 15.40 0.40 1.30 7.60 Bonemeal 7.50 4.05 2.60 6.20 1.70 Bone meal (dis- solved) 13 53 Bone meal (free from fat) Bone meal (from glue factory) Carribean guano... 7.31 9.. 50 7.80 7.75 ' 24.27" 12..50 12.75 22.28 10.17 3.20 4.82 39.'95 5.50 1.10 22.75 1.80 1..50 Cotton-hull ashes... 1.25 6.50 9.60 Cotton-seed meal (decort) 7.10 4 30 1.67 10.52 7.25 Cotton-seed meal (undecort) Cubaguano Dried blood Dried fish 0.55 2.60 Gas lime 43.66 Horn and hoof waste 13.25 1.83 Kainit 13.54 8.42 ' 1.15 Krugite 12.45 16 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Composition of Commercial Fertilizing r\ater\als.— (Continued.) Mois- ture Nitro- ■gen. Pot- ash. Phosphoric acid. Solu- ble. Re- verted. Total. Lime. Meat scrap Per ct. 12.09 13.32 50.00 60.00 2.00 7.60 1.93 1.40 8.54 61.50 14.81 2.25 Per ct. 10.44 0.76 1.10 0.40 Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 2.07 21.88 0.10 0.10 Per ct. Mono IslandGuano. 7.55 37.49 Muck 0.15 0.35 51.48 Mud (salt) 90 Muriate of potash.. Navassa phosphate 34.27 37 45 13.09 15.70 12.12 0.85 7.35 45.19 Nitrate of soda Oleomargarine re- 0.88 0.08 15.30 24.50 Peat.. 0.18 2.65 3.20 4.10 Phosphates from Florida 28.50 20.93 Sewage sludge (precipitated) . . 88.49 5.54 3.61 63.06 1.00 4.75 2.. 54 10.00 6.18 10.00 0.05 0.05 1.83 2.04 3,25 0.10 1.58 Soot Spent tanbark ashes 20.50 1.61 33.46 Sumac waste 1.14 Sulphate of am- monia Sulphate of potash and magnesia... Sulphate of potash (high grade).... Tankage 25.50 33.40 2.57 6.70 3.71 2.35 0.30 5.10 11.80 0.65 0.70 5.02 8.20 3.92 *1.20 2.22 Tobacco stems. .. 4.20 Wool waste 15.80 6.50 0.3.5 0.11 ^Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. tNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent carbonate of Ume: Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 18-28 per cent of carbonate of lime. Animal Manures. — Manure from the same animals may vary greatly in quality according to the kind of food and the condition and age of the animals from which it comes. Fat animals fed on food rich in nitrogen (grains) produce the best manures. Young growing animals that are fed on poor food, such as straw, swale hay, etc., produce very in- ferior manure. The manure from young growing animals or from milking cows is much inferior to that from fat steers, since, in the case of the young animal, a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid is required to build up the MANURES. 17 animal body. In the case of the milking- cow a large amount of nitrogen is required for the production of the casein of the miik, while very little- of the nitrogen in the food is retained in the body of the fattening animal. The fats, oils and starchy materials which animals use larg-ely are of no value as manures. The nitrogen, potash and phosphorus are thrown off by the fat animal in the waste products. Manures rich in nitrogen ferment most rapidly. The urine is g-enerally rich in nitrogen, and since all it contains is soluble it is of more value than the solid excrements of animals, and special eft'ort should be made to save it. Horse Manure has the characteristic of being- loose and light, and of fermenting very quickly. On this account it is especially valuable for early spring- crops, as it makes the soil loose, thus permitting the air to easily penetrate it, while by its rapid fermentation it warms the land. It is valuable to mix with cow and swine manure on account of its hasten- ing fermentation. On account of these qualities it is used to warm hotbeds. Hen Manure is one of the richest manures foi-med by any of our domestic animals. It heats quite readily and violently and should be used very sparingly and with caution, since if put in contact with the roots or stems of plants it is very liable to burn them. It should be handled with great care and be kept dry. If wet, it ferments and parts with its nitrogen in the form of ammonia gas, which is readily perceptible to the nose. It acts very quickly and on this account is valuable for early crops or to apply during the growth of a crop when the avail- able manure in the land appears to have been exhausted. It may be composted with dry peat or muck, when it is more safely applied than if clear and there is less danger of loss from heating. It should not be mixed with lime or wood ashes, unless used at once. Twenty to thirty bushels of hen manure is generally considered sufficient for one acre. Cow and Swine Manures are rather slow in action, conse- quently they are not as desirable for early crops as horse manure, while they are excellent for late crops. For this latter purpose they ai*e often better than horse manure. If they are mixed with horse manure, they ferment very rapidly. 18 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Sheep Manure is a very concentrated manure which heats quite rapidly. It is one of the best farm manures. Mixing Manures.— It may often be a good plan to mix the different kinds of animal manures for general application, as in this way all seem to be improved. Hen manure is an ex- ception and, as a rule, should be applied separately. Lime, wood ashes or other material of an alkaline nature should never be mixed with stable manure of any kind unless a con- siderable amount of loam, peat or other material is added to absorb the ammonia, which is always liberated when nitrogen- ous and alkaline substances are thus mixed. It is a good plan to mix ground bone, tankage and other slow acting fer- tilizers with heating stable manure, as by so doing the plant food they contain is made more available and the stable ma- nure is greatly improved in quality. The Manure Pile — If early garden crops are to be grown, it is necessary to have fine, well rotted manure, and this makes the manure pile necessary. It should be placed so that as lit- tle waste as possible will occur from leaching rains. When a manure pile is to remain in one place for a considerable time, it should always be made upon a bed of leaves, peat, loam, rotted sods or other absorbent, about one foot in thickness, which will catch and retain any fertilizing material that may leach through the pile. If practicable, the pile should be made where it will be protected from the sun and drying winds. The height of the pile should depend somewhat on the kind of manure and the season of the year when it is made. Manure that will heat readily should be piled about six feet deep. When the pile is quite warm, the manure should be turned over. This operation should be performed, very thoroughly, as often as the pile gets very hot. All the lumps should be broken up, and the whole pile turned to the bottom of the bed on which it is placed. The absorbents of the bed should be mixed evenly throughout the pile and the cold manure from the outside be put on the inside of the pile so that it may heat the more rapidly. If the pile appears dry on the inside, water or what is better, the urine from the stable, should be added to assist fermentation, as this cannot take place satisfactorily in dry manure and the lack of water may result in serious loss. The number of times a manure pile should be turned over will MANURES. 19 depend on the crop to which it is to be applied and the kind and condition of the manure. This is a matter which must be left to the g-ood judgment of the individual manager, but some of the factors bearing on this will be found discussed farther on. The Compost Heap can be made a prolific source of home made manure. Every farm and garden should have one of sufficiently large proportion to take care of all refuse organic material about the place. It should be made about as follows: Select a place handy to get at but where there is no standing water and put down first a bed one foot deep of old sods or muck and on this pile all the refuse material as it collects in various places. It may consist of old straw, leaves, an oc- casional load of heating manure, rotten vegetables, etc. This should be turned over occasionally by hand if necessary, but the best plan is to have the compost heap in a hog j ard and to it haul manure as it collects near the stables. If manure is piled upon a good bed of rotten sod, it will not lose much by leaching, nor will it lose anything by heating if a suf- ficient number of hogs have the run of it to keep it well worked up. Commercial Manures. — By commercial manures is meant those manures which are commonly sold by the trade. When of a high price they are generally of a guaranteed compo- sition, and they should be bought at a valuation based on the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid w^hich they contain in condition available to the roots of plants. The more available the form in which these materials exist in the fertilizer, the more valuable it is generally considered. Most of the older states require a guaranteed analysis to ac- company the packages in which the fertilizers are sold and exercise some supervision over the business. Among the most common of this class of fertilizers are the following: Tankage. — This is the refuse product from slaughtering- establishments, which after being relieved of its fat is brought to dryness and ground. It is very rich in nitrogen and phos- phoric acid but contains very little potash. Most of the nitro- gen and phosphoric acid which it contains is available to the roots of plants. It is probably the cheapest source of nitro- gen and phosphoric acid to be found in the western states. 20 VEGETABLE GARDENING. It varies considerably in composition, and this may some- times be accounted for by the fact that in some establishments the blood is separated from the other offal, thus reducing- the percentage of nitrogen in the tankage. It is a rather slow- acting fertilizer. Tankage may be safely used in quantities of less than 1000 pounds per acre if applied broadcast and worked into the soil. Four hundred pounds per acre is gener- ally considered a good application. It may be safely used in these quantities around growing- plants of cabbage, corn, let- tuce, etc., provided it is evenly spread out and does not come in contact with the roots of the plants. Ground Blood is very rich in nitrogen and quite difficult to dry thoroughly. If at all moist, it is likely to heat badly. It is a quick acting fertilizer and is seldom used without being mixed with other materials. Ground Bones are always rich in phosphoric acid, but ground fresh bones are better than dry bones since in ad- dition to phosphoric acid they have quite a large percentage of nitrogen, that is very small in bones that are old and dry. It is always best to break or grind the bones that are to be used on the land and in many cases to then mix them with fermenting stable manure. Ground bone is said to be a last- ing fertilizer because its effect can be seen for several years. If bones are burned, the nitrogen is wasted. Ground bone is greatly improved as a fertilizer by mixing it with stable or other fermenting manure. If fresh bones are mixea with un- leached wood ashes they will be made soft. Ground bone is generally applied in much the same way and for the same purposes as tankage. Nitrate of Soda, called also Chili saltpetre, is imported from Chili. It looks like common salt and contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen, perfectly soluble and in the form most available for the plant. On this account, only very small quantities should be applied at one time, because if not taken up by the plant it may be washed deep into the soil out of reach of the roots. It is especially desirable for early leaf crops, such as early spinach, cabbage and lettuce, and to ap- ply when a crop comes to a standstill. It acts with wonder- ful quickness— almost like magic. It may be applied several times to the growing crop at intervals of two weeks, using MANURES. 21 from 75 to 100 pounds per acre at each application. It may be sown near the hills if applied to cabbage, but for spinach or similar crops it should be sown broadcast when the plants are perfectly dry or during- a hard rain. If the leaves are only moist, it is liable to burn them. If sown during a hard rain, it is quickly dissolved and washed to the roots of the plants without injuj-y to the leaves. It is expensive and should never be used when a cheaper supply of nitrogenous manure will do just as well. It may occasionally be used to good advantage in water at the rate of one-half an ounce of nitrate of soda to one gallon of water. Such a solution will not -injure the foliage and is of sufficient strength. Figure 2. —Spinach plants grown on land rich in rotten stable manure. The larger plant received in addition to the stable manure nitrate of soda at the rate of one hundred and fifty pounds per acre. The use of very large quantities of nitrate of soda on the land has been found to make it necessary to continue using it in large quantities, while if used at the rate given it is not followed by such consequences. The supposed reason for this is that so much nitric acid in the soil destroys the ni- tric acid-forming ferments, and these must be slowly re- plenished before the soil is able to continue yielding its ordin- ary supply of nitrogen. 22 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product from gas works and contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. It does not act as quickly as nitrate of soda, but for late crops, to be applied during warm weather, it is one of the best sources of nitrogen. Superphosphate is made by treating ground bone or nodu- lar phosphate with sulphuric acid to render the phosphates soluble. It is rich in phosphoric acid, and some kinds con- tain a considerable quantity of nitrogen. They vary much in quality. The better kinds are generally used at the rate of about 400 pounds per acre. Wood Ashes is rich in potash and a valuable fertilizer in many cases, provided it has not been leached; if it has been leached, it is practically worthless as a fertilizer. Ashes from hard wood is much more valuable than that from soft wood on account of its containing much more potash. Ashes is one of the best fertilizers for fruit trees and plants. About twenty bushels of unleached hard wood ashes is generally sufficient for one acre, but much more may be safely used. Kainite. — Potash is also applied to the land in the form of German potash salts, a grade of which, known as Kainite, is very commonly used as a fertilizer. These salts are more or less mixed with common table salt and other impurities and form a cheap and very useful supply of potash. They are generally sold on a valuation based on the percentage of actual potash they contain. Kainite contains 13 per cent of potash, which is more than twice as much as there is in ordin- ary unleached wood ashes. From 200 to 600 pounds of kainite is generally applied per acre. Lime is found in abundance in most western soils, but burned limestone, whether as fresh slacked or as quick lime, may often be used to advantage in small quantities when large amounts of stable manurehave been used upon the land for a number of years. It should not be used alone, because it exhausts the soil. Land Plaster is a sulphate of lime. It is not a direct fertilizer, and its method of action is not exactly known. It may occasionally be used to advantage for leguminous crops, such as clover, beans, peas, etc., in applications of from 200 to 600 pounds per acre spread broadcast. There is little use for commercial fertilizers at present in most of the western states and they should never be used until MANURES. 23 the home sources of manure have been exha.usted, and then they should be used to supplement rather than replace farm manures. They are generally expensive, and results from their use here have not been as satisfactory as in the eastern states. Only the more common kinds to be met with here, have been mentioned. Those who use commercial fertilizers of the better kinds for the first time are very likely to use too much and seriously injure the crop to which it is applied. It is much better to use too little than too much and to experiment along this line in a small and inexpensive way to begin with. Applications of Manures. — The proportion of the various plant foods used by different crops varies considerably, some using a larger amount of one element and some of another. Their visible effects when in excess are also quite different. Garden plants that are grown especially for their foliage use large quantities of nitrogen and require it in order to be per- fectly healthy, and seed producing plants use large quantities of phosphoric acid and potash. Where nitrogen in a soluble form is very abundant so as to be in excess in the soil, it will be found that the plants growing on it are noted for their dark green color and rank leaf and stem growth and for late maturity of fruit and seed. In the case of small grain, it may result in such a weak, soft, succulent growth that the stems can- not support themselves, and they become "lodged," and such growth may be gained without an increase in the yield of grain. In the case of lawns, a soft thick sod is made: in the case of spinach, cabbage and other leaf crops, vigorous, large plants result; while tree and bush fruits under such conditions make a soft late-maturing growth that easily winter kills. On the contrary when soluble potash and phosphoric acid are in excess in the soil, the plants will have a tendency to produce a large amount of seed and fruit in proportion to straw or wood and to mature early. This is a desirable condi- tion for heaviest grain and seed crops. In the case of bush and tree fruits, it conduces to fruitfulness, early maturity of wood, and hardiness. These qualities will be most evident if the nitrogen is under a normal quantity in the soil. It must not be understood from this that any of these elements are hurtful, for they are all absolutely necessary in 24 VEGETABLE GARDENING. proper proportions to secure best results; but these effects fol- low when they are greatly in excess. Except in few instances, fresh manure in the soil is not beneficial, and its presence prevents close cultivation and causes the land to dry out very quickly. Such manure does not afford plant food for some time, since it must first be thoroughly decayed before it is of any value to plants. Rotten manure has much of its plant food in an available condition. Manure for Early and Late Crops. — Much more manure and more thoroughly rotted manure is required for early than for late crops. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that early in the season fermentation goes on very slowly in the soil and consequently plant food is liberated very slowly, and unless plant food is supplied in a quickly available form it is of no immediate use to the plant. On account of the rapid fermen- tation which goes on in the soil later in the season, crops that mature later than the middle of the summer may be able to use the plant food that was locked up in fresh manure in the spring. For instance, the results from fresh cow manure may be almost nothing if applied in the spring to a crop of early cabbage or spinach, while for a late crop of cabbage or for corn it may answer very well. Where an abundance of well-rotted ma- nure cannot be obtained in the spring and it becomes neces- sary to use partially rotted manure for an early crop, it is a good plan to use nitrate of soda or some other quick acting fertilizer to afford plant food until the manure has rotted. Manures for Leguminous Crops. — Leguminous crops, such as peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc., do not need as much nitro- genous manure as most other crops that are so rich in nitro- gen, since their presence encourages the growth of nitric acid ferments in the soil. Such crops improve the land on which they grow by increasing the amount of nitrogen in it, and in this respect they are different from all other garden crops. Animal Manure should generally be spread evenly on the land and then be thinly covered with the soil; yet for some crops it may sometimes be most desirable to apply the man- ure in the hill or furrow. The amount that should be ap- plied per acre varies with the crop, soil, and manure, so no exact rule can be given. For a midsummer or late matur- ing crop, probably eight cords of well rotted stable manure MANURES. 25 per acre would be sufficient in almost any case, and much less will sometimes be enough, while for an early crop twice as much rotted manure might be used to advantage. The effect of the application of animal manures to the land will remain apparent for several years. It is generally considered safe to estimate that not more than one-third the full value of these manures is taken up by the crop growing on the land the year it is applied. Manuring the Growing Crop. — Sometimes a crop comes to a standstill on account of having exhausted the available fertilizing material in the soil. In such cases it may be a good plan to fertilize the growing crop with hen manure, nitrate of soda or other quick acting fetilizer and cultivate the land at once. This may be done in many cases by apply- ing such materials to the crop during a hard rain or in a dry time by plowing a furrow near the crop and placing the fertilizer in the furrow. But in any case it should be culti- vated into the soil so as to become well mixed through it, and much care must be taken to prevent the dry fertilizer from coming in contact with the roots of the plants. It is a good plan to occasionally change the manures ap- plied to land, i. e. when stable manure has been largely used for some years apply some commercial fertilizer, lime or land plaster, and when commercial fertilizers have been used for some time recourse should be had to stable manure. Liquid Manure. — Liquid manure is sometimes used for en- couraging the growth of plants. It should never be made from fresh manure but fi'om that which is thoroughly rotted. Urine may be used as a liquid manure if well decomposed, but it should always be used with great caution and never applied to plants if fresh or undiluted. Cow and horse manure are generally preferred for making liquid manure. The vessel in which it is to be made should be one-third full of manure and filled up with water. The whole should then be stirred and allowed to settle. The clear water is then used for watering plants. Li'juid fertilizer is also made by dissolving nitrate of soda in water as mentioned under that head. Ammonia is sometimes used in very small quantities in water applied to plants, especially to house plants, with good results. CHAPTER IV. GARDEN TILLAGE. By the proper cultivation of the g-arden we accomplish three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants whiih we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into best condition to resist drought that is, into the best condition to avail itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil a.nd to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. ( 3 ) The inert plant food in the soil is made soluble by chemical action, which is increased by the cultivation of the soil. Prevention and Killing of Weeds. — The methods best adapted for keeping weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow, upon the kind of crop and the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the pre- vention of weeds in the garden is the harrowing or other thorough cultivation of the land, just before the planting of the seed to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly, the weeds do not have any better chance than the crop. If this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started ever so little when the crop is planted the result generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. When garden seeds that require a long time to germinate are sown, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake even before the crop ap- pears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. This is an easy matter in case of the larger garden seeds, while it would be impossible with the finer seeds, as they are invariably planted shallow. When the seed is sown with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it VEGETABLE GARDENING. 27 easy to commence cultivating- in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as carrots, onions, beets and parsnips, whicli are quite delicate when young-, cultivation should begin with some hand g-arden cultixator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate it with a ,horse implement and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since if the weeds are removed when they are young the work of weeding is small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or to plow under the whole crop ; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early culti- vation is of the greatest value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants and which seriously interferes with their growth. Like all surface pultivation it is also an aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil. Importance of not Allowing Weeds to go to Seed. — A common source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing sea- son in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gathered. To some persons it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economical in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are going to seed. If the preventives for weeds here suggest- ed are closely followed, hand weeding will be reduced to a min- imum and will often be unnecessary with any crop. Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden.— While the discus- sion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the special object of this chapter, yet some reference to the sub- ject is quite necessary in considering the subject of weed eradication. The people of this section have not yet learned the great value of barnyard manure and its proper prepar- 28 GARDEN TILLAGE. ation for best results in the soil. This is a subject of vast importance, and one that in the future will receive far more thought than at present. The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds and is a fruitful source of weed infection. If the manure intended for the gar- den contains the seeds of weeds, it should be piled up and al- lowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted, which process will kill the weed seeds in it. It is seldom ad- visable to use fresh manure in the garden, and it should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds and then only for some late maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. Plowing. — In the western states, where the summers are often very dry, vegetable land should generally be plowed in the autumn so that the subsoil may become sufficiently com- pacted by spring to readily transmit the subsoil moisture to the surface. Such treatment, by forming a dust blanket, re- tards evaporation from the land during dry autumns and dry winters when there is no snow on the ground. Fall plowing also puts the land in the best shape for the action of the. elements and the development of plant food and may be a means of killing very many cut worms, white grubs and other insects that winter over in the soil. If plowing is left until spring in this climate, it should be done as early as practic- able and not so deep as when done in the fall. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of the upper soil loose and not suf- ficiently compact to enable the subsoil water to easily reach the surface roots — but where irrigation is practiced there is not much difference in this respect. The soil for the garden should ordinarily be plowed to a depth of about eight inches, yet in the case of some light soils half this depth may be preferable. Subsoil Plowing, or Subsoiling, is a term applied to the loosening of the land just below where the plow ordinarily goes. In doing this, the subsoil is not brought to the surface, but a special plow is used which follows an ordinary plow. This has no mold board, but has a good point and shoe, and these loosen the subsoil without raising it. This process maybe hurtful or of no value to subsoils so loose as to per- mit the roots of plants to readily push into them and should VEGETABLE GARDENING. 29 not be applied to them, but for some of the very stiff sub- soils of this section it is a great improvement, since it deepens the tillable land so that the roots of the plants can push more readily into it. This loosening of the stiff subsoil also puts it into just the right condition for receiving and holding water. It is thus sometimes a great help in carrying plants over droughty periods. Subsoiling gives best results when per- formed in the autumn. If done in the spring and the oper- ation is followed by dry weather, the land is apt to be left too loose to hold moisture well that year and consequently will suffer Figure 3.— Root of onion plant with earth washed off. The roots went to the depth of eighteen inches in the earth. from drought. It is seldom, even on stiff land, that subsoil- ing is needed more than once in four or five years, for after being once loosened the roots of plants penetrate it and keep it open. The roots of our garden crops push deeper into the land than is generally understood ; even the onion, which is perhaps as shallow rooted as any garden crop grown, often pushes its roots to a depth of eighteen inches in good soil. 30 GARDEN TILLAGE. while corn roots have been followed to a depth of four feet. It is probable that in g-ood land almost any of our garden crops will send their roots eighteen or more inches deep. Ridging the Land. — If the land is liable to be too wet for planting- in early spring, it is sometimes a good practice in plowing it to turn several furrows back to back, and thus leave the land in ridges over winter. If these ridges, or * 'lands," are made fifteen or twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is often best to open the furrows again in Figure 4.— Cross section of ridged land. the spring and thus leave the land level. This method of treatment permits of working the land much earlier in the spring than it otherwise could be worked if plowed flat. It also leaves the soil in very good shape for the action of frost on its particles during the winter. For early crops on flat or heavy soils, it is a most desirable treatment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation; if the land is thus turned back in the spring, it may be left too loose. But admitting these ob- jections, even then there are often cases where this treatment would be very desirable. It should be borne in mind, too, in cultivating the garden that, while the soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich or too deep, nor can the subsoil if not of too impervious a nature be too compact, and yet it must be loose enough to permit of the roots entering it and the water percolating through it. General Cultivation of Garden Crops.— The methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops vary somewhat according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most im- portant part in this section is to so fit the soil that it may best withstand drought. This is accomplished by frequent VEGETABLE GARDENING. 31 shallow cultivation during the period of drought. The first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth 6t two or three inches can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are in- jured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drought results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the Figure 5. — Iron Age horse hoe. atmosphere, and a rather shallow dust blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this purpose, A compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by the blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop. Loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop the surface soil should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or artificial watering. Cultivation to Develop Plant Food. — Nearly all land in this section contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor 32 GARDEN TILLAGE. Snyder has shown that our averag-e wheat-producing- soils contain enough nitrogen to raise one hundred and twenty-five successive crops of wheat. But only a very little of this material is ever at one time in a condition in which the plant can take it up; nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and fermentation in the soil plant, food is set free. This is increased and made more complete by admitting air into the soil. Hence the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air and water to enter and thus develop plant food. This, also, is an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where the soil can be kept moist through the summer, deep spring plowing is an advantage, as it opens the soil to the air ; but on account of the liability to drought the practice is a poor one for this section. : 4 m Figure 6.— Planet Jr. fine toot'a cultivator. GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. Implements, such as plows, harrows, etc, used for prepar- ing the land for ordinary farm crops are also used in fitting the land for garden crops. In addition, however, there are a number of tools and implements which are not commonly used in growing the farm crops. These may be roughly classed as follows : VEGETABLE GARDENING. 33 Horse Hoes and Horse Cultivators are much alike in general construction, but each is adapted to special purposes, and both are very desirable. The horse hoes are for use when the land is very hard and weedy ; they may also be used for ridg-ing the land and for drawing the earth from or throwing it towards the plants. For this purpose they have various at- tachments. The cultivators are especially for the purpose of stirring the surface soil and keeping a dust blanket; they do not re- move weeds that are well established. They throw very little soil sideways and on this account may be used for cultivating very close to small plants. Among the best of these are those known under the names of Planet .Jr. and Iron Age. Figure 7.— Opening and closing furrows with hand garden cultivators. Hand Cultivators. — There are many good forms of hand cultivators on the market, and they are a necessity in every garden containing over a quarter of an acre. They are made so as to be adjusted to various widths between the rows, and a kind, called straddle cultivators, is made so as to cut on two sides of a row of plants at one time, which is often quite an advantage. They also have various attachments for special purposes. Among the best of these are Jewel wheel hoe. New Universal wheel hoe. Gem garden (jultivator and the several kinds manufactured by the Planet Jr. Co. Seed Drills. — These are necessary in every garden. There 34 GARDEN TILLAGE. are many good kinds offered by dealers. Among the best are the New Model drill, Planet Jr. Hill-Dropping drill and Matthews drill. 1 ■.i^^«*5r> Figure 8.— Garden drills. (1) A. H. Mathews. (2) Planet Jr. combined drill. (3) Mathews combined drill. (4) New Model drill. (5) Planet Jr. Hill IDroppint^ drill. Combined Seed Drills and Cultivators.— These are very useful im- plements for a small garden; for a large garden, it is im- portant to have the seed drill and cultivator separate, but in a small garden these combined machines can be used to good advantage, and thereby make a saving in first cost. Among the best of these is the combination drill and cultivator made by the Ames Plow Co., of Boston, Mass., and the Planet Jr. combined drill and cultivator. Marker. — The illustration shows a good form of a marker for the garden. It is easily made by any one who is handy with tools and is used for marking out rows. Figure 9.— A simple garden marker. Dibbers are generally made from a crooked stick shod with VEGETABLE GARDENING. iron and are very useful in transplanting ( Fi^ ter form made of steel is shown in figure 10a. 10). 35 A bet- Figure 10.— Common wooden dibber. Figure 10a.— Improved flat steel dibber. ScuflBe Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators.— Fig. 11 shows two sets of implements, designed to be attached to the ordinary wheel cultivators, which, will work close up to young plants so as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of the soil, and will be found very useful in many places. They should be made out of tool steel, and any good blacksmith can make them. The length of blades may be made to suit the work. i I D £ Figure 11.— Home made attach- ments for garden cultivators. Figure 12.— Scuffle hoe. The Scuffle Hoe, shown in Fig. 12, is an excellent old-fash- ioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in early spring in the garden. Besides, it is very cheap and 36 GARDEN TILLAGE. simple and can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recommended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large gardens, but in a small garden it may be used for the work of shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation. Plank Drag, or Smoothing Board. — The form of this is clearly shown in figure 13. It is used for crushing lumpy soil and smoothing off and levelling the land preparatory to seed sow- will be found very useful. It can be Figure 13.— Plank drag for smoothing the surface of land. made by any one. The planks are two by ten inches on the ends and eight feet long, lapped two inches and nailed. These are strengthened by two six-inch cleats securely bolted on. It is drawn by a chain fastened at the front cor- ners. The Zephaniah Breed's Weeder is an excellent implement for cultivating young corn, potatoes, etc., for which purpose a fine toothed harrow is often used. Potato Diggers. — Of the cheaper forms of potato diggers, probably the Hallock Improved is the most perfect. It does very good work and where not over five acres of potatoes are to be dug, it is probably all that is needed. Where the potato is raised on a large scale, however, it is generally desirable to use an elevating digger. Of these the Hoover and the Dowden are probably the best to be had. They both work on the same principle. Spray Pumps. — Almost every farmer and gardener needs a good spray pump for applyingParis green to potatoes and vines and for spraying trees, vines, etc., with fungicides or insecti- cides. For this purpose some form of the knapsack spray pump is most desirable, where the work to be done is not very exten- sive. For applying these substances on a large scale, some VEGETABLE GARDENING. 37 special apparatus is needed, and there are many kinds offered by manufacturers. In figure 14 is shown the barrel spray pump, which has been found most convenient at the Minnesota Experiment Station for general work about the grounds, such as spraying trees of different kinds where the knapsack sprayer is insufficient. The barrel is fastened to a wooden Figux-e 14.— Barrel spray pump, showing cone shaped strainer to the left. frame and may be placed in a wagon or on a stone boat when it is to be used. The essential parts are a good hardwood barrel, such as a linseed oil barrel, mounted on and securely fastened to a light framework of oak. On the barrel and at one end is mounted a powerful force pump, with attachments, capable of throwing two or three fine, strong sprays at one time. The liquid in the barrel is kept agitated by a small stream of water passing througha one-fourth inch pipe, having a one-six- teenth inch wide opening near the feed pipe of the pump, in the 38 GARDEN TILLAGE. bottom of the barrel. On one end of the barrel is shown a cone shaped strainer, which is the best form to use. There are many styles of spray nozzles on the market. For general use the McGowen, Vermorel or Bordeaux are best. The lower end of the feed pipe is covered with a fine brass screen. In the center of the side of the barrel is an open- ing-, eight inches in diameter, with a tight fitting cover. This is so large that the barrel may be easily cleaned. The whole expense of making this machine was as follows: One linseed oil barrel, $1; pump, $6.50; 50 feet of i inch hose, $3; strainer, $1.50; 2 nozzles, $1.25; bolts, etc., 50 cents. Total cost, not in- cluding labor of above, $13.75. In buying machinery, it is well to regard with suspicion those that are very complicated, as the simplest is generally the most durable in the end. CHAPTER V. SEED SOWING. The condition for the successful germination of seed in the land is that it should be placed so as to have a reason- able amount of heat, moisture and air. To secure these con- ditions in practice, the seed should be imbedded in mellow soil, and this packed around it just fii-m enough to bring- it in" to actual contact and make sure of capillary action in the soil. If the soil is left loose over and around the seed, capillary action cannot continue, and the seed is liable to dry out unless the season is very wet; on the other hand, the soil must not be allowed to become too compact over the seed, or the young seedling will not be able to push throught it. No matter how carefully the sowing may have been done, the suc- cessful germination of the seed is largely dependent upon the condition of the ground. Unless the seed is carefully and properly placed and covered, the crop cannot get a good start, no matter how well the land has been prepared or how good the seed is. Seeds will not sprout in the absence of air, and on this account when deeply buried some weed seeds may retain their germinating power for many years. Cases are on record of yellowmustard seeds germinating after remaining in the land for eighteen years. Very frequently, on plow- ing land that has not been stirred for a long time, the weeds of certain kinds are very abundant, showing that they must have been in the soil a long time but could not germinate away from the air. Depth to Plant. Most of the common, smaller garden seeds are planted one inch deep, except celery and some others. Peas and corn, are generally planted from two to three inches deep. Peas, however, are sometimes planted as deep as six inches. These matters will be found referred to under their respective heads. Always sow in freshly stirred ground, as the seed is far 40 VEGETABLE GARDENING. more liable to get a good start in it. than in soil that has lain untilled long enoughto become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the seeds are planted immediately after cultivation has been given and while the soil is still moist, the weeds will hardly get the start of the crop planted, if reasonable care is used. In fact, following this rule will generally insure success as long as there is life in the seed and moisture in the soil. Again, it is preferable to sow seeds immediately after a rain rather than just before it comes, since in the case of the finer seeds the crust which forms immediately after a rain may be so com- pact that the young seedlings cannot push through. When a crust thus forms over seeds, it is sometimes a good plan to go over the land before the crust is very compact and break it up with rakes, but this should be done in a most careful manner, so as not to disturb the seeds. If a crust forms over fine seeds, such as celery, tobacco and others, it is a good plan to keep the crust moist, at least, until the seeds have pushed through it. Soil that is much dried out in mid-sum- mer is often quite an obstacle to the ready germination of seed sown at that time, but if the seed is sown shortly after the ground is plowed and somewhat deeper than it is generally sown in the early spring, and care is taken to firm the earth very carefully immediately after sowing, the seed will generally come up very quickly at this season. But the land should not be worked for seed sowing or for any other pur- pose when very wet and sticky, as seeds cannot be properly planted in such a soil. The Time for Sowing the various seeds varies greatly and will be found referred to separately under the several heads. Some seeds such as spinach, onion, lettuce and radish may be sown as soon as the ground can be worked, while the seed of such tropical plants as corn, cucumber and squash should not be sown until the ground is well warmed. The early sown hardier seeds are often frozen up in the ground and, perhaps, covered with snow without injury; in fact, a covering of snow seems to help seeds of the hardy kinds to grow. Sowing in Stiff Clay Soils. It is comparatively easy to make seeds germinate in sand, sandy loam, muck or soil rich in humus, provided they contain a reasonable amount of mois- ture, but in stiff clay soils this is often quite a different SEED SOWING. 41 matter, as the land becomes crusted over so completely as to prevent the smaller seedlings from pushing through. For such land, it is desirable to use rather more seed than would be needed in more porous soils, for the reason that while a few plants could not push up the crusted surface, yet the many can do so; and while thick seeding increases the total cost of seed, yet the certainty of thus securing a full stand is so great an advantage as to well repay this additional outlay, and the expense for thinning, if it has to be done at all, is about the same for thick as for thin seeding. Sowing Seed with Machine. When the soil is prepared for best work with a garden drill, it is generally in the best condition for the germination of the seeds. The whole surface should be fine, mellow and even. There are only one or two garden seeds that cannot readily be sown with any of the half dozen good garden drills that are offered in the market. Garden drills, when properly used, will sow and cover seed much more uniformly than it can possibly be sown and covered, by hand, and they are a necessity in anyw^ell managed, modern garden. It is of the utmost importance to have straight rows in the garden, for they are more economical of space than crooked rows and are more perfectly cultivated with the wheel hoes and cultivator, besides, crooked rows are unsightly and sloven- ly. It is generally desirable in using a garden drill to mark off the first row with a line to get it straight. If this is done to begin with, the subsequent rows may be kept parallel by using the marker always found on such machines, providing constant care is used. Some growers prefer to mark out all the rows with a marker and then run the seed sower in themarks, but for a careful workman this is useless labor. Seed drills are made with a point to open furrows, a coverer for filling in af- ter the drill, awheel for compacting the soil on the seed and a marker for the next row. To use a garden seed sower most successfully requires good judgment, but a little careful experimenting will soon enable any one accustomed to tools to handle these most useful implements, to good ad- vantage. Sometimes it is desirable to sow seed when the ground is so wet that it is not safe to firm the soil over it When such is the case, the rear wheel is removed in sowing. In other cases, \vhen it is desirable to firm the 42 VEGETABLE GARDENING. soil more compactly, the press wheel may be used for this purpose, by going over the rows a second time. It is a good plan in doing this, to remove the drill point or else tip the machine up until the point is off the ground. In the case of a few seeds that are rather delicate about germinating, it is a good plan to sow the rows a second time with the seed sower and thus mix the seed up with the soil. This method puts in a large amount of seed, leaves the seed at various depths, and some of it is sure to grow. Sowing Seed by Hand. When only a very small quantity of seed is to be sown, it is often best to sow by hand. When this is the plan, the rows are made by the garden marker and the seed distributed in them evenly by hand. The rows are then covered by the soil being drawn into them with a rake and are firmed by passing over the seed with the feet. If the soil is dry, it cannot be made too firm; if moist, care must be used to prevent packing it too hard. In the case of very fine seed, sown in dry weather, many devices are used to bring about germination, such as watering, shading the soil with boards, covering the earth with cloths and the like. Using the Feet for Firming the Soil Around Seeds. Many seeds are lost from the failure to properly firm the soil over those sown during dry weather. Many devices have been suggested and used for securing this desirable condition, but for general garden purposes no method or implement ever used can vie with the proper use of the feet for this purpose. Wliile this matter is referred to elsewhere, it is put under this special head to call attention to this useful fact. Peter Henderson was the first to call attention to the importance of this method, and describes it as follows: "After plowing, harrowing and levelling the land smoothly, lines are drawn by the 'markers', which make furrows about two inches deep and a foot apart. After the man who sows the seed follows another who with the ball of the right foot presses down his full weight on every inch of soil where the seed has been sown ; the rows are then slightly levelled longitudinally with the rake, a light roller is passed over them and the operation is done." Those who have practiced this method, know it gives most excellent re- sults. In my own practice, in sowing seed in dry weather, even with a seed sower, which has a wheel for firming the soil, I SEED SOWING. 4-3 have frequently, and to advantage, walked the rows with the heel of one foot close to and in front of the toe of the other, pressing down on the row. Thinning. It is generally *best to sow the seed of most gar- den vegetables much more thickly than the plants should stand when mature. This is done to make sure of having enough plants to stock the land, and it is a good jjractice. It is important also, to let every young plant in the garden have room enough for perfect development, and this can only be secured, where thick seeding is practiced, by thinning out. It is a very general fault of beginners in gardening, that they try to grow too many plants on their land. This is a grave mistake and is no better in results than permitting weeds to grow. Every plant in excess of what can properly mature on the land is in its effect a weed and should be treated as such. In the home garden, where the thin- nings are valuable, as in the case of beets, lettuce, etc., the work of thinning need not be done all at once, but as the plants need room. In the market garden, it is best to thin out to the full distance at one time. Do not allow the seedlings to get drawn and spindling before thinning, but do it, while they are young and before they crowd one another. The proper distances between plants seem very large when the plants are small, but it must be remembered that later on anything less than the proper distance injures the crop. One must have determination enough to throw away many nice plants in order to make room for those that are to mature. It is better to give too much than too little roomto plants. CHAPTER VI. TRANSPLANTING. Avoid transplanting- as much as possible. Whatever may be said of its merits elsewhere does not apply in this section, since the dry weather so common here in the season when transplanting- is done often makes the operation unsuccessful. Undoubtedly one of the reasons why transplanted plants sometimes give better results than seedlings, allowed to grow where the seed is sown, is that they are allowed more room to develop in, but if seedling-s that are not moved are given the proper room to develop they are just as good and generally far superior to those that are transplanted. Transplanting, as a rule, is an injury to plants, and yet it is a necessary operation in the growing of some of our most valuable vegetables. "Ifc^' " &•¥ '.Tbilf I'liaM^iii i -iM r-ititff -i^-»» .^-«: '^^■^■^■3:^'r'& m£Mm Figure 15.— A box of youn^ lettuce plants after being transplanted from the seed box. These plants may be moved to the open ground or to hotbeds or cold frames as soon as they crowd one another. This is a convenient way to grow plants in dwelhng houses and in front of windows. This style of box is often referred to as a "flat." Success in transplanting is dependent on a variety of conditions. In moist weather the setting of plants in the open ground is a very simple operation, and any one can succeed with TRANSPLANTING. 45 it without much effort, but during- dry weather the gardener's skill is taxed to the utmost to move plants successfully. One of the most important elements for success in transplanting- is a supply of first-class stocky plants that have not been crowded in the seed bed. Such plants make success reason- ably certain. A most important requirement in any case is that the soil be moist, and not wet and sticky. If it is very dry, it must be watered, or failure will be a sure result. Shortening the Tops of Plants. It is a good plan to shorten the tops of cabbage, celery, cauliflower and similar plants when they are to be moved. This may be done by twisting or cutting off a third or even one-half of the tops. If the plants Figure 16.— 1.— Cabbage plant with long stem set deep. 2.— Cabbage plant with top twisted off before planting. 3.— Cabbage plant wrapped in manilla paper to protect from cut worms. have excessively long roots, it is a good plan to shorten them enough to permit of their being handled easily. The work of digging the plants should be done carefully 46 VEGETABLE GARDENING. and every precaution taken to get good roots. If the seed bed is very dry, the soil should be thoroughly wet before digging, so that the small roots will not be broken in separating the plants. The best time of day for transplanting is generally after 4 p.m., as after that time the moisture in the air increases rapidly, and the plants have the cool night in which to recover before being subjected to the intense rays of the sun. Of course, if the weather is cloudy, the plants may be set out at any time of the day. If a little shade can be provided for the newly set plants, so much the better. This may consist of -boxes, boards slightly raised from the ground, shingles, in- verted flower pots, paper bags, a handful of green grass, strawberry boxes or similar material that will protect the plants from the fierce rays of the sun. ^ / ,^1*.^*^*^ I Figure IT.— Tomato plants grown in a compartment box to facilitate trans- planting. Such boxes can be bought for a very low price and are very convenient aids for transplanting many kinds of plants. They are especially desirable when plants are to be sold at retail. Firming the soil about the roots is fully as important as firming the soil over the seeds and for the same reasons. It should be so firmly and closely packed that the plants can- not be pulled up without considerable effort. The drier the TRANSPLANTING. 47 soil, the greater the necessity for packing it firmly about the roots. If the soil is wet and inclined to pack hard, it should receive only moderate pressure until somewhat dried out. The firming- is generally done by pressing with a dibber or the ball of the foot against the soil on one side of the roots of the plant. When the transplanting is finished, it is a good plan to give the plants a good hoeing at once, drawing a little loose, dry soil around them to act as a mulch and prevent evaporation. The holes for the plants are gener- ally made with a dibber (Fig. 10 or 10a). A spade is often used for this purpose, such plants as small onions, are most con- veniently set in small furrows made with a wheel hoe. In ev- ery case, however, the plants should be set a little deeper than they grew in the seed bed, and in the case of spind- ling toma- to. cab- bage and some oth- er plants, itisagood plan to bend the stems and bury quite Figure 18.— TransplantiriR aided by the Balbridge transplanter: which takes up a ball of earth with each plant. The illustration shows a box of strawberry plants just taken up and ready for planting out. In planting out the holes are made with the same implement. There are several other similar implements for the same purpose. a large part of them in the soil, as shown in figure 16. A U P Tomato cans are very convenient substitutes for flower pots when plants are grown for transplanting. The cover on the end opened may be melted off and a half inch hole made in the bottom for drainage. Another way to use them is to melt all the joints and use the body of the can by tying it together 48 VEGETABLE GARDENING. with a piece of wire. Thus prepared the tins may be set in the hotbed or cold frame and filled with earth, into which the seed or the plants may be placed. When the time comes for Figure 19.— Use of tomato cans as an aid in transplanting. A box of plants in the cans, ready for removal to the field and one can opened, showmg the ball of roots. The cans are held together by a piece of wire twisted around them. for planting- into the open g-round, the tins with the plants in them may be lifted with a trowel and placed in boxes to be carried to the field where the plants are easily placed in the ground. The tins may be set around the plants on top of the g-round to protect them from the sun and wind. CHAPTER VII. FARMER'S KITCHEN GARDEN. When properly conducted, the kitchen garden should be the most profitable part of the farm. Too often its confined area and the laborious methods employed in its management make the labor of cultivating it out of all proportion to the returns. Instead of confining the garden to a small area, it is better to enclose one or two acres of good rich land with a good windbreak of some kind, so that it will make a garden plot twice as long as wide. Leave a headland in g)*ass about fifteen feet wide a^ll around, as good crops cannot be grown next to a windbreak. The rows should run the long way of the land, somewhat as shown in figure 20. If the garden is surrounded by a fence, it will be found a good plan to have the part at the ends of the rows made of movable panels, so they may be removed when cultivating. The arrangement of a vegetable garden in the manner shown in figure 20 makes it large enough for practicing something of a rotation of crops in it and permits of hand labor being re- duced to a minimum by the use of horse implements. The land should be cultivated flat, except for a few special crops such as celery. There is no advantage to be gained from hilling uparoundplants,and it isalaborious process that can be dispensed with as well as not. When irrigation can- not be i)racticed, it is important to have such crops as celery and late cabbage on moist soil, but for general gardening pur- poses a porous clay soil, overlaid with a sandy loam, is best, although a good clay loam will do very well when properly cultivated. Light sandy soils, especially those that are under- laid with sand or gravel, are too liable to injury from drought to be reliable for general garden operations. The garden should be near the house, so as to be easily accessible. In planning the garden it is important to put all the per- ennial crops together, and so arrange the other crops that 50 VEGETABLE GARDENING. . CO UJ < to \- z: < Of . <^ -> S: CD to ■; ■ a :U > oa ; Q i ;C uj o i CO u ; UJ i ct: 1- LU i 1 ^ S < ?: H u^ \ ;q u ■ CQ :^,> LlJ z ; :! : i ; : CO lO o >- _) K < ,£' 5 iJ O b .-h +1 .h .^r me CO UJ to lO CO z 'O ' -J - u - to- - D 2- .§. u LlJ I- I" ■ lu or 3. . .9 .1 ./. Q rr rlr (O < cr: uJ r > 21 UJCO £.|SXf)W^/ Figure 20.— Plan for farmers' kitchen garden. FARMERS' KITCHEN GARDEN. 51 those that grow best in rows of the same width will come to- g-ether. The accompanying- fig-ure shows one plan, by which this may be done; it also provides for a part of the garden to be kept in clover, to be broken up about once in three or four years and used for vegetables in alternation with that shown laid out in rows, which part should then be seeded down for a while. This is a very desirable feature of this plan. CHAPTER VIII. SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. DEVELOPMENT OF VARIETIES. It is of the utmost importance to have seed of good pedigree in order to grow good crops. No single factor that enters into production of a crop is more important. Where many- kinds of plants are grown, it is better and cheaper, as a rule, to depend on some careful seed grower for seeds than to go to the expense of raising them, although it may bo best to raise a few of the more important kinds of seeds, for which our conditions are best adapted. When one makes a specialty of crops like onions, cabbage and some other vegetables, it is often advantageous to raise the seed oneself, since one then knows their purity and pedigree and takes no risk about it. Some seeds can be grown to better advantage in one section than in another. For instance, cauliflower seed can- not be raised profitably over most of the United States, but near Puget Sound and in a few other places in this country and in southern Europe it can be raised to good advantage. Most of the cauliflower seed used in this country is still im- ported from southern Europe. As a general rule, how^ever, the seeds raised in one's own vicinity, or in a similar climate elsewhere, are best to plant if they are properly selected. Ex- perience seems to show that seed grown in cold climates generally produces an earlier maturing crop than seed grown in warm sections. Testing Seeds. — No matter how carefully our seeds may have been raised or who the person is from whom we receive them, it may save much trouble and loss to test them before sowing. This may be done by sowing them in a box of fine loam, kept at a temperature of from 60 to TO degrees. The temperature of an ordinary living room is about right. For this purpose use a box about four inches deep and the size of a soap box, sow the seed in shallow drills and cover the box SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. 53 with glass, to prevent rapid evaporation. One hundred seed should be counted out just as they come, and be sown. By count- ing the seedlings, the per cent of germination of the seed is easily obtained. A Simple Germinating Apparatus. — A simple method of testing seeds is as follows: — Tai^e two plates, and in one of them place a folded cloth, vvoolen flannel is preferable since it must remain moist for a long time, but any cloth will do. The cloth should be free from dye stuflFs since they may con- tain injui'ious chemicals. Wet the cloth, pressing out the sur- plus water leaving it very damp, but not soaked. Place the Figure 21.— Simple device foi' seed testing (open). counted seeds between its folds and mark plainly with a pencil on a piece of paper the number of seeds put in and the date. Then cover with the second plate, as shown in figure 22. Plenty of air will get in between the plates, and the upper one will prevent evaporation. The temperature should average as recommended. Common newspaper or wrapping paper may take the place of the cloth, but requires much more attention. Figure 23.— Simple device for seed testing (closed). Sometimes seeds that barely germinate under the ex- 54 VEGETABLE GARDENING. ceptionally good conditions that exist in a sitting" room or g-reenhouse will 'not grovv readily when planted outdoors, so that in testing- seeds it is very important to note the vig-or of the sprouts. Seeds that start strongly in the house may be safely planted at their proper season outdoors, while those that start only weak sprouts in-doors may be worthless for outdoor planting-. An instance bearing- on this occurred a few years ag-o at Chester, N. Y., where an onion g-rower planted seed three years old which g-erminated fairly well in his conservatory but failed to g-row outdoors, while fresher onion seed sown at the same time g-rew perfectly. The Curing and Storing of Seeds are matters of much import- ance and g-reatly influence their g-erminating- qualities. Seeds should be thoroug-hly ventilated while being cured, or they mould or sprout, either of which seriously injures their value. Seeds of some kinds will sprout several times before entirely losing their germinating qualities, but they lose much of their vitality by so doing. Moulded seeds may sometimes retain their vitality unimpaired, but if to be offered for sale their dark color is objectionable, for it must always be regarded as an evidence of neglect in curing. It is important also to pre- vent seeds, especially tropical seeds, as those of melons, squashes, corn, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., from being frozen until fully dry. The freezing of green or half cured seeds in- jures their vitality and often destroys it. This is well known in the case of corn where the seed taken from an ordinary crib in the spring often fails to grow, while seed corn from the same crop properly cured in a dry warm room grows perfectly. Seeds are much influenced by the temperature and humidity of the place in which they are kept. A dry place is absolutely necessary for successfully keeping garden seeds, and if warm so much the better for tropical seeds. The tem- perature and conditions of a good living room are almost ideal for storing all kinds of garden seeds. Most if not all our garden seeds are unimpaired by even severe freezing while perfectly dry. In a moist place garden seeds lose their germinating qualities much quicker than when they are kept dry. Changing Seed. — There are locations so well adapted to cer- tain particular crops, that some varieties seem to lose nothing SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. 55 of their pristine vig-or and productiveness when grown there for years, or they may be g-reatly improved in such locations; but, as a rule, it is a good plan to change seed occasionally, and it often results in increased productiveness. This seems to be a fact, while the reason of it is not always so plain. Stock Seed. — When seed raising is a large business, it is out of the question to have all the specimens planted perfect in every respect, but nothing should be planted except it is near the desiredtype. Each year enough perfect specimens, or those close- ly approximating perfection, should be selected to raise the seed for the grower's use the following season. In this way the quality of the grower's seed stock is kept up, and without such care the stock of seed is liable to seriously deteriorate. Seed so selected and improved from year to year is termed stock seed. Seedsmen's Specialties. — Most seed growers and dealers have some few lines of seed in which they are especially interested. These they select with more than ordinary care. It is always desirable to order seed of our specialties from those making a specialty of our favorite kinds, unless we raise them our- selves. To secure the best, it is well to order early in the season. Seedsmen's Humbugs. — Almost without exception every dealer in seeds sells humbugs, that is, worthless or very inferior varieties. If he is honest, he offers them simply because his customers want them. If he is dishonest, he is very apt to misrepresent and praise them in order to make customers pay a big profit. Novelties. — It is desirable to test novelties in seeds and plants, but this should be done cautiously and, as a rule, it is best not to be in too great haste to try new things. It is the general experience of growers, that not more than one in ten of the novelties in seeds, fruits and plants are any better than those generally cultivated. In the history of the Minnesota Experiment Station, the average of desirable" seed novelties has been even less than this. THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIETIES. There are laws that govern heredity and descent in 2)lants as well as in animals, and by intelligent selection and breeding 56 VEGETABLE GARDENING. one may greatly improve or even originate new varieties of veget- ables as well as of other plants. The seed stock of desir- able new or improved varieties may often be sold at pro- fitable prices, or by retaining the sole ownership of such new or improved kinds one may perhaps raise crops that have highly esteemed qualities as to size, shape, color, flavor, hardiness, season of maturity or other features, and so command an advanced price. Thus a grower may sometimes be well rewarded for his care and attention in improving his specialties, but careful study and persistence is necessary to success, and few persons are keen enough in their powers of observation, to succeed in this line of work. 2'here is a constant tendency for cultivated plants to vary ivide- ly from the original form, though this feature may not manifest it- self for many generations after cultivation has commenced. The higher the state of cultivation to which a plant is subjected, the greater are the chances of its producing new features. When a plant once commences to vary from the original type, the changes ofttimes come very rapidly, and the possibilities are endless. Thus from a wild plant two or more feet high with only a few leaves has been developed (1) the modern cab- bage of (a) the wrinkled, (b) the smooth, (c) the red-leaved, and (d) the many ornamental kinds; (2) Brussels sprouts, with numerous small cabbage heads on a stem two or more feet high; (3) cauliflowers, in which the inflorescence becomes thick and fleshy; (4) the various kinds of Kale: and (5) cow cabbage, which in the Jersey Islands has been known to grow to the height of sixteen feet and strong enough for rafters of cow sheds. The many varieties of garden and field plants are conclusive evidence of the variation of plants under culti- vation. All of our valuable garden vegetables are the result of almost endless care in selection and in a few cases of artificial as well as chance crossing. They 7nust be regarded as artificial productions having a constant tendency to revert to the ivild state, which we must constantly try to overcome if their desirable qualities are to be maintained. It ts necessary for the successful breeding of plants to have in view a well defined purpose and in selecting seed not to vary the ideal standard of excellence sought, for such variation increases the diffi- culty of Uxing desired characteristics. SEEDS AND vSEED SOWING. 57 It is found to be quite a general law obtaining among plants, that the qualities of the parent are much more potent and thus more liable to be transmitted than .some especially desirable qualities of a few individual fruits, lohich may occur on a plant otherwise defective. For instance, Livingstone, who has done much to improve the tomato, selected seed for fifteen years from the best tomatoes that approached most nearly in size and other qualities the best modern tomatoes without noting much improvement. He says, "I was then no nearer the goal than when I started. Such stock seed would reproduce every trace of their ancestry, viz.: thin fleshed, rough, undesirable fruits." It finally occurred to him to select from the special meri's of the plants as a whole, instead of from the best fruits without regard to the plants on which they grew. Improve- ment then came easily and rapidly, and in afew years he obtained the Paragon, Acme and Perfection varieties, which were vastly superior to and have entirely supplanted the old varieties of tomatoes. Again, in selecting seed corn it is more important to save seed from plants having ears approaching the desired size of cob, kernel, etc., rather than to select the largest ker- nels alone or to select from ears after they have been pulled. Where it is desired to hasten the ripening period of a variety, only the seed from the earliest maturing specimens from a plant having the largest number of early specimens should be p>lanted. In order to fix late maturing qualities, seed should be saved from late maturing fruits on pjlants possessing these features to the greatest extent. The continued selection of any seed from inferior spjecimens results in the fixing of the poorer qualities even more surely than the selection of seed from the better plants results in improvement. By injudicious selection the cabbage has sometimes been changed from a biennial to an annual producing no head at all but going to seed the first year. When cabbage has been grown for several generations from stem sprouts and not from head sprouts, the efl:'ect has some- times been- to lengthen the stem at the expense of the head, until the seed stock becomes run out entirely and is in effect no longer true modern cabbage seed, since it has partly revert- ed to the original type. An instance of this occurred in a neighborhood in Nova Scotia where, for the sake of economy 58 VEGETABLE GARDENING. for* a number of years cabbage seed was grown by cutting off the heads and planting out the stumps only, until the stems became nearly two feet long and the heads not much bigger than twice the size of a man's fist. The practice of sowing the seed from plants remaining in the garden after the best specimens have been gathered for home use, as often happens, is a vei'y poor one. Under such treatment there is a very general tendency for the stock to degenerate. Where seed is to be saved in a mixed garden, a few hills of plants should be allowed to go to seed for this special purpose, with- out being picked at all. It is very important to save seed from well ripened fruits. Very immature seeds will often grow, but they give a weak though, perhaps, very early maturing plant and are very liable to disease. According to Prof. Arthur, it is not the slightly unripe seeds that give a noticeable increase inearliness, but very unripe seeds ga.Jiered from fruit (tomatoes ) scarcely of full size and still very green. Such seeds weigh scarcely more than two-thirds as much as those fully ripe; they grow readily but lack constitutional vigor. Professor E. S. Goft' has made a great number of experi- ments along this line and remarks that the increase in earli- ness in tomatoes following the use of very immature seeds/ "is accompanied by a marked decrease in the vigor of the plant and in the size, firmness and keeping quality of the fruit.'' A few years of careful observation and experience in fol- lowing out these principles in the breeding of plants, with a special object in view, will convince the most skeptical of the wonderful power which man possesses to adapt plants to his needs. Crossing and Self-pollination of Plants.— The flowers of plants are said to be either self-poUenized or crossed. By self-pol- lination is meant the fertilization of the female organ (pistil) by the male element ( pollen ) of the same flower or, in some cases of the same plant but ditt'erent flowers as in corn and squashes, which have two kinds of flowers. By crossing, or cross-pollination, is meant the union of difterent plants in the seed. The crossing of different varieties g-enerally gives in- creased vigor in the progeny, but its effect is variable and may result in the loss as well as the increase of other desir- able qualities. Most of our cultivated plants are crossed by SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. 59 natural processes. The crossing of different seed stocks of the same varieties of plants is generally a great advantage, since it generally results in increased vigor without loss of desirable qualities. Seeds from self-pollenized flowers are not as productive as crossed flowers. Darwin found that cab- bage plants from seed that had been crossed produced nearly three times the weight produced by self-pollenized seeds. In the case of Indian corn, experiments made at the Illinois Ex- periment Station show that while cross-fertilization is not necessary, it is very desirable. Corn grown from crossed seed in nearly all cases was clearly increased in size as the result of crossing. "Plants grown from self-fertilized seed corn were in most cases notably inferior in size and vigor to the plants grown from hand crossed seed or from seed simply selected which was probably naturally crossed." "One plot from self-fertilized seed had nearly half the stalks deformed in such a manner that instead of standing up straight they turned off at a right angle at or near the point where the ear was produced, thus showing the tassel on a level with the ear. Many of the tassels were very deficient in pollen." In an- other plot from self-fertilized seed, nearly all the tassels were abortive. All the plots from self-fertilized seed produced a greater proportion of barren stalks or poorly filled ears than plants of the same varieties from crossed seed or from seed naturally fertilized. On the other hand the flowers of barley and wheat are so constructed that their flowers seldom open and, hence, are naturally self-fertilized, but even here arti- ficial crossing results in increased productiveness. The effect of cross-pollination is not always apparent in the progeny of the first generation, but is frequently plainly to be seen in the crossed fruit or seed the first year. However, differences may appear as the result of the cross the second or later generation, which were not suspected. When corn is crossed, it is generally believed that the effect of the cross is apparent the first year in the grain, but careful experiments plainly show that fiint corn grains which do not show a trace of the admixture of sweet corn the first generation, may pro- duce ears the second generation showing some of the charac- teristics of the sweet corn. The same truth undoubtedly holds as good in the case of other plants. 60 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Mixing Varieties. — Practically, varieties of plants can be mixed only in the blossom; and in order to mix, the different varieties must both be in blossom at the same time. On this account potatoes do not mix in the hill. The varieties of some species of plants are much inclined to mix. Any two varieties of corn, melons, squashes and cucumbers are especial- ly liable to be crossed if growing- in the same field and in flower at the same time. However, two kinds of corn, of beans and of other plants may be grown on adjoining pieces of land without danger of mixing, providing that they are not in flower at the same time: e. g. , Cory and Evergreen sweet corn if planted at the same time may be grown for seed close to- gether and will not mix. since the Cory would be entirely out of flower when the Evergreen came into flower. Distance between Varieties. — The distance which should inter- vene between varieties liable to mix is variously estimated by different growers, and is influenced by various conditions. The pollen of corn, grasses and many other plants is moved by the wind; and when different varieties of corn flowering at the same time are planted for seed there will be more liability of their mixing when the pieces of land on which they grow are in line of the prevailing winds than when east and west of each other. If a grove or hill intervene between varieties, it is a good barrier to crossing. When varieties of each plant are not on a line of prevailing winds, they are reasonably free from mixing if 500 feet apart; otherwise, at least 1000 feet should intervene. Such plants as melons, cucumbers, squashes and onions^ and most other plants with conspicuous flowers, are pollenized by insects to whose bodies the pollen becomes attached and is ca.rried from one flower to another. This pollen is not light and powdery as in corn and many other plants but is rather heavy. It is obvious then that the direction of the wind has little ef- fect in crossing such plants. It is generally agreed that dif- ferent varieties of plants pollenized by insects should have at least 1000 feet between them to prevent mixing, which will often occur to some extent even with these precautions. The greatest care should be taken to keep stock seed from being mixed. CHAPTER IX. GLASS STRUCTURES. Glass structures are becoming- more numerous each sea- son for the purpose of raising- veg-etables and flowers, and are destined to continue to increase in use as the wealth of the country increases. They are referred to here under the head of cold frames, hotbeds and g-reenhouses. Cold Frames. — The term cold frame is applied to frames covered with g-lass and used to protect plants in winter, or for forwarding them without any heat other than that derived from the sun. It is the simplest form of glass structure. '^^^^^^^"^^^^^5^5^*^^ Figure 23.— Movable frame which may be stored out of the way in the summer. It is generally made of one inch boards and is very convenient for those using only a few sashes. They are generally made 4i or 6 feet wide and of an ylength or depth which con\enience may suggest. The sashes for covering them are generally 4x41 feet or 3x6 feet in size. For location, select a place near to water and the house, prefer- ably sloping to the south and well protected on Ihe north and west by buildings, trees, etc. If there is no protection on the north and west, a tight board fence six feet high will answer the purpose and is very desirable. In making the bed the following are requisites: enough 2x12 in. plank to go the length of the north side and the same length of 2x6 in. plank for the south side of the bed and 2x4 in. stakes, two or more feet long, for each corner and to support the sides firmly in 62 VEGETABLE GARDENING. place, and sash and shutters to cover the frame made. The planks should be made into a box with its width equal to the length of the sash and extending east and west. See figure 24. Those forming the north side should be six inches above ground, and the top edge of the plank forming the southerly side should be five inches lower. Thus when the sash is put on. it will slope five inches to the south, as shown in figure. The planks should be nailed to the stakes, and end pieces put in. The earth inside the frame should be thrown out to the bottom of the planks and used to bank up the outside of the frame. If plants are to be grown in the soil of the frame, care should be taken to see that it is of the best quality. The frame is now ready for the sash and plants. More durable and expensive frames are sometimes made of brick or stone for the sides, and sometimes four-inch strips are put on wherever two of the sashes come together, to serve as a sup- port. Frames are also, frequently, made several feet deep, but the same general rules apply in the building of them as are described. Cold frames are used in the middle states to winter over cabbage and lettuce plants, which are started in September and planted in them when grown to a good transplanting size, but in severe climates this is not a safe method. Cold frames are used here in the spring for forwarding lettuce and other early crops, and still later for melons, cu- cumbers and other tropical plants. They are also used to ex- tend the season of growth during the autumn months and to protect some of the half-hardy plants, such as spinach, during- the winter. They require ventilation in mild weather during the day, and on cold nights should be covered with mats and shutters or shutters alone. They are very in- expensive and very useful in the garden, but where the materials for making them can be had at low cost hotbeds are much more satisfactory for forcing vegetables. Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are made very much like cold frames, only they are warmed by fermenting horse manure or other material placed under the soil, and hence they must be dug out deep enough to make room for it. The amount of manure necessary to properly warm a hotbed will depend very much on the season of the year at which the bed is made up and the GLASS STRUCTURES. 63 crop to be grown. In the colder northern states, when the. hotbeds are made up at the beginning- of March, from 24 to 30 inches of manure should be used, and covered with six or ^o.sVv Figure 24.— Cross section of hotbed, eight inches of rich soil. Later in the season 18 inches or- even one foot of manure may be sufficient. In favorable loca- tions, hotbeds may be run all winter for growing lettuce, radishes, etc. This is not often practicable in the northern states, and cheap greenhouses are generally used during- winter and hotbeds only during the spring. The hotbed frames for early spring use, should be prepared for the manure in the autumn. The soil for spring use should generally be put into them, covered with leaves, and the shutters and mats put on to keep out the frost. If this has not been done, the sash may be put on in the early spring, which will partially thaw out the soil in the bed: or, by an- other method, more manure may be used, putting it on the sur- face of the frozen land, and the frame may be set on top of it. In the latter case the manure should extend at least one foot be- yond the sides of the frame and be one-half again as deep as when placed in a pit, and the frame should be banked up with manure. It is quite a common practice to make movable frames of one inch boards large enough for three or four sash, as shown in figure 23. These are kept from year to year, being set on top of the manure and the earth put into them. Hotbed Manure. — The material generally used for heating hotbeds is fresh horse manure, but sheep manure and even spent hops may serve the purpose. Of animal manures,. -64 VEGETABLE GARDENING. that from horses fed on hig-hly nitrogenous foods, i. e., on grain foods, will heat best. The preparation of the manure is very simple. It should be gathered together in a pile, as fresh as may be, when if moist it will generally heat, no matter how cold the weather. If it does not start to heat readily, a few buckets of hot water poured into the •center of the pile will start it, if of the right material. When it gets nicely started, the pile should be turned over, throwing the outside manure into the center of the pile and breaking up all the lumps. In a few days it will heat again and will then be ready to go into the frames, but do not put it into the frames until it is heating thoroughly. •Clear horse manure heats too violently and should be mixed with about its bulk of leaves or fine straw. The leaves used to keep frost out of the frames during winter now come in to advantage for mixing with the manure. Of course, if the manure gathered has considerable straw in it this admixture of leaves is not necessary. The way of putting manure in the frames calls for some little care. It should be broken up very fine, mixed with leaves or other material and spread as evenly as possible over the whole bed, taking special pains to have the frame well filled in the center, as it settles there much quicker than at the ^ides. As the manure is put in, it should be packed down quite firmly by the feet, taking great care to have it •evenly packed throughout. Now put on the sash and cover until it heats well all through the bed. If it does not start to heating quickly enough, a few buckets of hot water should be added. When well warmed through, level off the top of the manure and cover with soil six inches deep. This soil should have been prepared in the autumn and protected from frost by mulching or put under the leaves in the bed ; but if this provision has not been made the soil may be searched for in cellars, under strawstacks, in the woods under leaves or elsewhere, or the soil may be thawed out by the use of sash and manure. As this latter process is tedious all ex- perienced growers prepare their soil in autumn. After the soil is put on, it should be left until it is warmed through and the weed seeds near the surface have germinated. Then remove the sashes and make the surface fine with a rake and GLASS STRUCTURES. 65 the bed is ready to receive the seed. A hotbed made up in this way in March will continue to g-ive out heat five or six weeks, after which it will be practically a cold frame. but since after the middle of April the sun is pretty high and the bed well warmed, the plants will continue to flourish. Hotbeds require more water than cold frames and more care in the matter of ventilation. They should not be started until a short time before one is ready to use them. If seed- lings are to be raised in them to be later on transplanted, start only enough sashes to grow the seedlings and do not start other hotbeds until the seedlings are big enough to be removed into them. For the ordinary farm garden four or five hotbed sashes is a great plenty, and no more should be started than can be Fif^ure ;25.— Firo liol-bed. properly attended to. These should be started about the first of March. This number will be found sufficient for all the early radishes, onions, lettuce, cress and other greens for the table in early spring, and for raising tomatoes, cabbage and other vegetable plants to be set out later on in the open ground. Shutters and mats are used for covering the sash of hot- beds and cold frames at night to prevent too rapid radiation of the heat. Figure 26.— Cross section of fire hotbed. 66 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Fire Hotbeds.— Horse manure will undoubtedly continue to be used for warmino- hotbeds, no matter how much greenhouse construction or means for artificial heating may be cheapened, but there are some situations where it may be more economi- cal and convenient to use a forcing bed, or what is sometimes called a fire hotbed. This closely resembles a hotbed in out- ward appearance, but instead of being heated with manure a ,-'"'•-•., flue is used to take its place, and it is warmed by the smoke of wood, coal or other fuel. In this case a pit should be excavated, fur- nished with permanent walls and a good strong floor to support the soil in which the crops grow. Ten inch terra cotta or glazed drain tile is a cheap material for the flue, or brick may be used for this purpose. The furnace and the first eight or ten feet of the flue should be made of common hard brick and have a lining of fire brick set in fire clay. If the pit is not over thirty feet long the fire box should be at one end and the chimney at the other ; but if much longer it is better to have the chimney over the fire- box and to run the tile to the end of the house and return back to the chimney. This chimney should have dampers so arranged that when kindling the fire a direct draft may be had into it, and after starting the fire the heat and smoke can then be forced to go through the whole length of the pipe. This arrangement is desirable on account of the difficulty in getting a di^aft through a long, flat, cold flue. In laying such a flue, it should rise slightly throughout its whole length from firebox to chimney. The furnace should vary in size according to whether coal or wood is to be used for fuel. For wood the furnace should be 18 inches wide and arched over the required length, generally 4i feet, with cast iron grate bars set in the walls. There should be an ash pit of suitable size, and both it and the firebox should have suitable iron doors set in brick. The illustrations herewith show the general arrange- ment of such a house. It is a good plan to build a low shed for fuel on the end where the furnace is located. GLASS STRUCTURES. 67 The heat from a flue is very dry, and much more water is required when hotbeds are heated in this way than when manure is used as the source of heat. A Greenhouse Hotbed. A greenhouse may be heated by manure or a combination of manure and some other way of heating. In the following- lines and illustrations is given the plan of what may be called a greenhouse hotbed which has been in very successful operation at the Minnesota Agricultural School. The description is from an article on the subject by R. S. Mackintosh, of the Division of Horticulture. •'There are disadvantages in hotbeds, as, for instance, the transplanting, ventilating, watering, etc., must be done from the outside even in severe weather, while in a house like the one ^ IBB awK. 'L>-^ CWl/M LmE. y:. ELEY/^TIOn. Ill BED. P/IT«. BED. n/in Figure 27.— Plan and elevation of hotbed greenhouse. shown in the figure these operations can be carried on easily. The house is simply a hotbed built so as to allow a person to go inside to do all the work of caring for the plants. Figure 27 shows the general plan of the house. The size is 68 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 12x24 feet. The roof consists of sixteen sashes, each .3x6 feet. Any number of saslies may be used according- to the size of the house. To receive the most sunlig-ht,the house should ex- tend north and south; the light will then strike both sides QjiOUm un£. <----- W SOIL. S in. nmuRz 30 in. secTioHKL view V- 3 k. i Figure 28.— Sectional view of hotbed greenhouse. of the plants. The south end of the house is g-lazed from the surface of the bed up to the rafters. It is not necessary to excavate the full depth of four feet, because the earth that is thrown out can be used to bank up with on either side, making a terrace as steep or as sloping as desired. The heat is furnished by two to three feet of well pre]3ared manure in each bed, over which is placed five inches of soil. The sashes are fastened to the rafters by means of screws which prevents their being lifted by heavy winds and at the same time allows them to be removed very easily, when desired, to replace soil or manure. Ventilation is provided for by fastening one or more sashes with hinges at the bottom, so they ma7 be raised as high as necessary at the top. Many kinds of building material may be used in the con- struction of the wall, beds, etc. Lumber is used in the build- ing shown in the figure but brick or stone would be more dur- able in the end. though it would add considerably to the first cost. The posts are three feet apart, extend about two feet GLASS STRUCTURES. 69 below the planks and are braced. The inside rows of posts need not be quite so strong as the outside ones and need not be braced. When a house is not more than twenty-four feet long it will not be necessary to support the roof in more than one place. This is done by extending two of the middle posts up to the rafters. In figure 28 is shown a cross section of this greenhouse and the way the sashes and rafters are joined at top and bottom. The sashes are cut so as to fit tightly at the top and the plate is bevelled a little, so as to allow water to run off quickly. There are sixteen wooden shutters for covering the sashes on cold nights. These are made the same width as the sashes but six inches longer. One cleat is put on the up- per side at the end, and the other on the lower side at the end. When put on. the up- per cleat is against the ridge pole which leaves the shutters clear for the water to run off. They are made of second fencing matched and dressed. In this house there is glass over the path, which is not necessary 5 j^ -, — ^ — o in the lean-to plan, Figure 29 —Cross section of lean-to greenhouse shown in figure -9, iioi^bed. where the s ash is all on the south side of the path. It is important to have crops grown as close to the glass as may be, and this fact should be carefully borne in mind. This style of house is suscepti- ble of many modifications. It may be used as a lean-to on the south side of the dwelling, w^here it may receive a little heat from the house. Its limitations are about the same as those of hotbeds. When such a house is intended for use in 70 VEGETABLE GARDENING. winter, it might be an advantage to so plan it that the manure from one-half could be renewed every five or six weeks. GREENHOUSES. Greenhouse is a term applied rather loosely to glass structures of the larger sort having some special heating ap- paratus, and used for growing plants. The more expensive structures are not referred to here but only the simpler affairs, such as are most economical for use in the market and home garden. A very cheap and yet withal, serviceable gi-eenhouse, is de- scribed in '"How to Make the GardenPay" and the publishers ^^- of it have kindly con- sented to the use of it here. It is called the ""^ ' 'Model Forcing Pit. ' * , ' Fig. 30 shows a cross section of this house ^ which is made with' a valley in the center, so that in point of fact it Figure 30.— Market gardners greenhouse?. • j. ^ mi IS two houses. The total width of both houses is twenty-six feet. The alleys are dug into the ground in each house eighteen inches wide and eighteen inches deep and boarded up on each side. The beds on each side are four feet wide and the at- tendant can cultivate them when standing in thealley. The peak of thegreenhouse is only four and a, half feet above the ground level or six feet from the bottom of the alleys. The sides are only one foot above the ground and are made of plank nailed to cedar posts and banked upon the outside with horse manure in winter. The roof is covered with movable sashes 7 or "i feet long and of any convenient width. Common hotbed sash (3x6 feet) might be made to answer but sash having larger glass than is generally put in them, is best. Large sized glass is preferable, 12x16 inches being a good size. A light frame- work for the sash to rest on, similar in construction to that shown in figure of a greenhouse hotbed is necessary, and the sashes should be screwed down and ventilation secured in the same way as there explained. In the center at B, where the two roof sections meet, the sashes rest on a plank twelve inches GLASS STRUCTURES. 71 wide cut out f by 8 inches, to form a gutter to carry off water as shown in figure 31 rows of 2x3inch posts, two and a half feet long and twelve inch- -^^ es above t]:e beds: these posts are four feet apart in each row. The total length of the houses here described may vary according to circumstances. The house from which this plan is taken was 100 feet long. It was heat- ed with a secondhand tubular steam boiler The center planks rest on two Figure 31.— Valley in market gardeners green- house showing the way the sashbars are at- tached to the plate. and at an outside temperature of zero, has to carry about five pounds pressure to maintain a temperature of 65 or 70 degrees. Two inch pipes conduct the heat from the boiler, one line of pipe running up each side of the house and both returning through the center at B, back to the boiler. The furnace room is an excavation 10x12 feet and six feet deep, at the northerly end of the house, built with a good wall and roof. The length of pipe required is 450 feet. In the extreme northern states more pipe radiating surface would perhaps be required for best results. The entire cost of material for a structure of these dimensions, boiler and pipes included, amounts to about $150. The cost of steam fitting will have to be added to this, but the rest of the work can be done by any man of ordinary intelligence; Mr. Greiner. whose description has been largely followed in the above, says that he likes the pipes all above ground as here recommended for forcing vegetables, but if v^^anted for starting seedlings and for gener- al propagating purposes the pipe had better be placed ten to twelve inches under the surface, and encased in an ordinary three inch drain tile as shown at D figure 30. In sections where fuel is high priced the beds might be partially heated with manure. Figure 32 shows a cross section of a lean-to house that is easily adapted to most locations, but especially suited to side- hills. It is twentv feet wide and mav be made of anv length 72 VEGETABLE GARDENING. desired. It should have a boiler room on one end or at the back side, as is most convenient. It should, of course, extend east and west so that the slope will be entirely to the south or southeast. The walls are made of cedar posts tightly boarded up on both sides. The alleys are two feet wide and planked on each side. The roof is shown made of permanent sash bars but these mig-ht be made of movable sash as recommended for the model forcing- pit. One ventilator is at the top of the roof and another is in the side wall. Two purlins extending-the length of the house are supported by small gas pipe posts. The northerly bench is four feet wide, raised three feet above the c. Z' ' s — .SOIL "D r f- o J-'C -SOIL —^qK _ . ' ' n/inuRE- ScA.\e iM"*-- ^i i ;-r» Figure 32.— Cross section of lean-to greenhouse, alley and is filled with six inches of soil or it may be used for seed boxes. The center bench is eight feet wide and may be solid or raised. The southerly bench is shown filled with stable manure and is practically a hotbed. The same treat- ment may also be given the center bench. But where the plan is followed of making up a part of the benches with manure, it is well to have some or all of the roof glazed with movable sash, to facilitate the work of putting in and taking out the manure. The use of stable manure to supplement the heating- apparatus, is a practice that may be economically followed in lo cations where coal is high priced and stable manure abund- ant . The heating arrangement could be either steam or hot water with the flow pipes high up near the roof, as shown at A and B and the returns at C and D. GLASS STRUCTURES. 73 Methods of Heating. — There are practically three methods of heating greenhouses, viz. : by smoke flue, by hot water and by steam. Heating by smoke flue is described under the head of fire hotbeds. It has the merit of being easily and cheaply constructed by any one having some little ingenuity. Even when made on the best principles it is probably more wasteful of fuel than a good steam or hot water apparatus, but where inferior fuel can be cheaply obtained a smoke flue may often be used to advantage. As for the relative merits of hot water and steam apparatus for heating, it is probably enough to say that each system has its earnest advocates and that very often there is little advantage in favor of either. Where a very large heating plant must be used, making a nightwatchman necessary, it is best to plan for steam heating at low pressure. For small greenhouses, perhaps a hot water plant is best. It costs more to put in the hot water apparatus because it re- quires more radiating surface, since the pipes are not heated as hot as when steam is used. Some exclusive merits are yjerhaps justly claimed for a combination of hot water and steam, in which system hotwater is used for heating in mild weather, while in severe weather the water is lowered in the boiler, a regulator is put on and the pipes are filled with steam. It is probable that an ordinary tubular steam boiler is the most practical kind to use, either for a hot water or steam heating apparatus. The amount of radiating surface necessary for heating a greenhouse, will depend on the temperature to be maintained and the location of the house. In a general way, one should figure that glass houses will require at least four times as much radiating surface, as an ordinary dwelling house similar- ly situated and enclosing the same number of cubic feet of space. In estimating the amount of radiating surface neces- sary it is always advisable to consult some practical person acquainted with such problems. CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE BUILDING AND CARE OF HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES. The sash for hotbeds or cold frames should be about 3x6 ieet or 4x4i feet in size; the glass free from blisters, of double streng-th and lapped not more than one-fourth of an inch. If lapped more than this, water is liable to freeze in it and crack it. It should be bedded in putty and nailed in. not puttied in. Common window sash mig'ht be used for this purpose in a small way, and temporarily, but it is not strong enough to last well, and besides, as the sash bars run both ways and project beyond the glass, the rain water cannot run off but soaks the wood and leaks through into the hotbed, making it too wet in places. Also, the cross bars in common window sash make a needless extra shadow that is objectionable. Kegular hotbed sash is made with sash bars running only one way so that the water falling on it runs off easily and quickly. Hotbed sash can be bought of sash manufacturers or may be made at home by any person having a fair amount of mechan- ical ingenuity. Shutters are desirable for covering the glass of hotbeds and cold frames. They are generally made of second fencing, matched and dressed, and in size of the same width as the sash but about six inches longer, with a six-inch cleat on each end. The Mats are often made of straw, but cloth or burlap mats are sometimes used. Straw mats are probably as good as any kind and are very easily made as follows: Make a frame of 2x4 inch lumber the size of the mats desired, four ieet wide and one foot longer than the sash is a convenient size. Stand this frame up against a wall and tightly stretch four or five tarred strings eight to ten inches apart from top to bottom, so as to evenly divide the four feet of width. Have as many balls of lighter tarred strings as there are strings fastened to the frame, and fasten one to each upright string HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES 75 at the bottom. Commence at the lower end by laying a wisp of strawy cut ends out, on tha string at the bottom and fasten it there by twisting each of the smaller strings once around the straw and the upright strings. Next put on another wisp of straw and so continue until the frame is covered. Mats thus made are an admirable protection against frost, and far better than shutters alone. The advantage of having shutters in addition to the mats is that they keep the mats from getting wet, which makes them so lieavy that they break easily in handling or they freeze solid and do not lie close or are clumsy to handle. Rye straw is best for mats and it is most tough and durable when cut partially green. It is often threshed by hana so that the straw can be kept straight, but it may be cleaned by a threshing machine by holding the bundle and only putting the heads into the machine. Ventilation and Temperature are subjects of greatest import- ance in growing plants under glass. The various classes of plants require different degrees of heat to reach their best de- velopment. For instance: lettuce, radish, cress and similar plants grow best at a low temperature, say about 75 degrees in the day and 40 to 50 degrees at night, while tomatoes, egg plants, cucumbers and melons, grow best at a higher tempera- ture, of 85 to 90 degrees in the day and 60 degrees at night. If the formei' plants are kept at a higher temperature than that given they are liable to become diseased and infested with insects. This is especially true of lettuce. On the other hand if the high temperature plants are kept much cooler they become sickly and w^eak, although tomato plants will grow in quite cool temperature. In admitting air to glass structures care should be taken that the wind does not blow in on the plants. This is generally best accomplished in hotbeds and frames by blocking up the sash at the ends or sides with notched pieces of wood. The temperature of any place, unless otherw^ise specified, is the temperature there . of a thermometer in the shade. A thermometer with the full sunlight shining on it, will record about fifteen degrees higher than in the shade, which is a IDoint always to be borne in mind in ventilating. In the weather of early spring w^hen the sun is getting high, the middle of the days wdll be very warm and the nights 76 VEGETABLE GARDENING. still quite cold and fi-osty. It is then that the beginner often makes the mistake of leaving the sashes of his hotbeds open late in the afternoon, and the beds cool off more than is de- sirable. At this season of the year but little ventilation is necessary and frames and g-reenhouses should be shut up quite early in the afternoon, and the covering- put on to retain the heat as soon as the sun is low. In the warm weather of later spring-, the sash of the hotbeds and frames may be re- moved in the day and kept on only at night. No exact rules can be laid down for ventilating, but it is quite a simple matter to learn, if one is observing and uses constant vigi- lance. Many persons just beginning to use greenhouses and hotbeds fail to get best results from them, because they neglect the matter of ventilation. On cloudy mornings it may not be needed, but if the sun comes through the clouds it may warm the house, or the beds in a very short time, so that when they are examined the whole crop has been injured by the heat. This is a most common cause of failure by amateurs in charge of greenhouses and hotbeds. In nature, the night temperature in which plants grow averages from fifteen to twenty degrees below that of the day, and it has been found in practice that when this condition is reversed the plants do not do well. This, of course, can be easily avoided by a little forethought. It is a bad plan, gener- ally speaking, to ventilate much in cold weather when the leaves are wet. On this account it is best to water early in the day, so that the leaves may dry off before much ventilation is required. Watering. Plants that are growing- slowly do not need much water, while those that are growing vigorously need a great deal of it. Growing plants need water whenever they are dry. In bright warm weather a rapid growing crop in hotbed or cold frame will need watering every day, while in cloudy, moist weather perhaps no water will be needed for a week. In fact, watering in cloudy weather seems to encourage disease. When applying water see that the soil is wet as far down as the roots extend. It is only the beginner who just wets the surface soil and thinks the plants sufficiently watered. If plants are wilting for want of water in the soil, give it to them no matter what the time of day, but it is always a great HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES. 77 advantage in such cases to shade as well as water them, if the sun is shining. If a long continued spell of cloudy weather is followed by a period of bright hot sunshine, it is not uncom- mon to see plants wilting that have plenty of water in the soil surrounding them. In such a case it may be desirable to shade them somewhat in the middle of the day until they get used to the sunlight. In cold weather it is a poor plan to water most of our plants at night, since the water will cool off the air and the plants may be checked in growth, but in hot weather the reverse is true and plants seem to get more bene- fit from a good soaking in the evening, when they can have all night to take the water in, than if it is applied in the morning and followed by a hot sun. In watering hotbeds in very cold weather use a fine rose sprinkler, and if practicable tepid water. At other seasons good lake or cistern water is per- fectly safe, and is generally used by commercial growers at all times of the year. Avoid getting the soil water-soaked. The leaves of lettuce and some other plants are liable to burn if watered when the sun shines brightly on them in warm weather. The soil should vary somewhat in texture for different plants but all garden vegetables will fiourish in much the same kind of soils. For use in glass structures a light, friable, rich, sandy loam is best. This is easily obtained when one has been using hotbeds, by mixing some of the old rotted manure which has been used for heating them the pre- ceding year, with any good sandy loam. If sandy loam can- not be had, clay loam may be used and sand added to the mix- ture. The manure from old hotbeds is especially good for this purpose and should form about one-third of the bulk of the soil. Boxes. In the case of many plants having small seeds, it is a good plan to start them in boxes instead of growing them in beds, on account of the better care that may thus be given them. When plants are to be marketed, it is often best to grow them in the boxes in which they are sold. Frequently, too, where plants are started in the greenhouse and then moved to the open ground, it is most convenient to have them in boxes. For this purpose boxes should be about four inches deep and the size of a soap or cracker box. which may be cut down for 78 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the purpose and thus make very cheap boxes. Of course where the market demands a certain number of plants in boxes, they will have to be made for the purpose. The lumber for these can be obtained at any box factory and what would be otherwise idle moments, may be used in putting- it together at trifling expense. Substitutes for Glass. Frames of the same size as hotbed sash, are sometimes covered with prepared cloth or paper sub- stitutes for glass. Such covering, however, will not allow the sun's rays to penetrate it easily, nor is it nearly so effective in preventing radiation of the heat as glass, but under some circumstances it may be very desirable. Sash thus covered may often be used to advantage in the latter part of spring by alternating it on the frames, thus doubling the amount of sash at small expense. Or, they may be used in the warm weather of spring, when the sash needs to be removed entirely in the mid- dle of the day. They are excellent for covering beds filled with recently transplanted crops, since the light is less intense and evaporation less under them than under glass. A convenient way of forming these sashes, is to make frames without sash bars, but with one or two wires stretched across them to sup- port the cloth or paper covering. Unbleached heavy cotton cloth may be used for this purpose, and the material for dress- ing it should be made of three pints pale linseed oil, one ounce acetate of lead and four ounces white resin. Grind the acetate in a little oil, then add the resin and the rest of the oil. Melt in an iron kettle over a gentle fire until well mixed and apply warm to the cloth. When paper is used, it should be what is known as manilla wrapping paper. Paste this firmly and tightly on the frame with fresh flour paste. Dry in a warm place. Then wipe the whole of the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. Dry it again, and apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of it and dry in a warm place. Use linseed oil that is free from cotton seed oil. Shading the Glass. In the hot weather of late spring or sum- mer, the sunlight is too warm for many plants in the green- house and it is customary to shade them. The amount of shade necessary will depend somewhat on circumstances. This shade may consist of lath screens laid on the roof, but more commonly it is given by sprinkling the glass, on the out- HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES. 79 side, with a wash made of white lead and gasoline, put on with a spray pump or syringe. This is easily and cheaply done. It will generally come off by autumn or may be rubbed off with a coarse rag or brush. Whitewash is sometimes used for this purpose but it is too easily washed off by heavy rains to be desirable. SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER, IN CONNECTION WITH BUILD- ING GLASS HOUSES FOR PLANTS. (1) That all joints should be made tight and so far as possible, so placed that water will not lodge in them. (2) There should be just as much room in the beds and as little in the paths as possible. (3) The glass should be as close to the beds as it can be and allow room to manage the crops grown in them. It should be of larger size for greenhouses than for hotbeds and in size not smaller than 10x12 inches, laid on sash bars 11 inches apart. The larger the glass the better. There is not so much breakage in large as in small glass. (4) A permanent water supply is very desirable. (5) The glass should be of good quality, free from blis- ters, waves, or other imperfections and what is known as double strength glass. ( 6 ) The heating arrangements should be sufficient to heat the house easily in coldest weather; in other words, it should be more than sufficient to maintain the proper temperature if crowded. ( 7 ) Having the heating plant insufficient and then crowd- ing it in severe weather, injures the heating plant and wastes fuel, besides being a trial of patience. (8) The ventilators should be large and carefully fitted so they will close tightly. When in the roof they should open at the top. If they open at the bottom the moisture that con- denses on the glass, forms an ice ridge on them in cold weather and prevents their shutting tight. (9) The smaller the sash bars and framing material in the roof the more sunlight can reach the crop. (10) The greenhouse roof may be covered with movable sash, but it is generally found most desirable to use permanent sash bars. Where severe hailstorms are frequent it might be so VEGETABLE GARDENING. well to use movable sash and take them off in the summer, but such places are rare exceptions. It requires a very severe hailstorm to break double strength glass, when at an angle, as in a roof, and practically there is little risk from this source, (11) In the framing of greenhouses, for instance, for pur- lines and posts, gas pipe can be used to good advantage. It is cheap and durable. (12) All joints should be painted before being put to- gether; all wood and iron work should be kept well painted. (13) In setting the glass it should be bedded in putty and nailed in, in this way: paint the sash bars, then run a thin coat of putty along them; bed the glass in it commencing at the bottom of the sash and lapping the glass one-fourth of an inch, on the same plan that shingles are laid on a roof. Fas- ten the glass with round three-quarter-inch brads, using four to each glass; put more liquid putty along the glass next to the sash bars and smooth it off with a knife even with the glass. (14) Liquid putty is made by mixing one-third boiled linseed oil, one-third white lead and one-third common putty. If too thick, as may be the case in cold weather, add a little turDentine or benzine. It may be applied with a brush but the best way is to put it on with a bulb bought for the purpose; or a bulb may be made of leather, having a large quillthrough which to squeeze the putty. In the latter case there must be a hole in the side or end by which the bulb is filled, that may be drawn together by a string. CHAPTER XI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES. In this chapter only the more common insects infesting- garden veg-etables are referred to. There are many others that almost yearly cause some damage to our crops and which in occasional years cause serious loss. But to enumerate them would require more space than can be afforded here. In dealing with them it is well to remember that biting insects, such as potato beetles and blister beetles, are generally most surely destroyed bj arsenical poisons such as Paris green and London purple: while sucking insects, such as plant lice and chinch bugs, are not affected by them, but aremost readily destroyed by external applications, as of tobacco water and kerosene emulsion. We should also rememberthat in our war upon iajurious insects we have thesupport of most of thebirds, and of the moles and shrews, and these should be protected as the friends of man rather than be destroyed, as is too often the case among thoughtless or ignorant people. Moles and shrews are especially useful since they work under ground, and feed largely on various insects thatare difficult to destroy on account of their living in the soil. It is perhaps no exag- geration to say that the shrew (often called mole) will eat its weight of insects each day. Insects are also liable to attacks of parasites, or of fungous and other diseases, which destroy them in large numbers and often in a very short time. When insects appear in small numbers, hand picking is often a very efficient remedy, but when they become very abundant some other method of destroying them must be de- vised. METHODS OF DESTROYING INSECTS. Pyrethrum is the insect powder of the stores. It is made by grinding the flowers of the pyretherum plant, which closely resembles the common oxeye daisy. It is not poisonous to higher organized animals, although very destructive to many 82 VEGETABLE GARDENING. kinds of insects. It is otten adulterated and can seldom be obtained of g-ood quality. It also deteriorates very quickly when exposed to the air. On these accounts it is often very difficult to get satisfactory results from that which can be obtained at the stores. When used it should be diluted with about five times its bulk of flour, with which it should be kept in a tight vessel for at least twenty-four hours before using, in order to get best results. It should always be kept in an air-tight receptacle. Paris green is a refuse product composed of arsenious acid and copper and is probably as safe to use as any arsenic compound. It is only very slightly soluble in water, and is used with water at the rate of one pound to one hundred or more gallons of water; it is also used when mixed with dry substances, at the rate of one pound to fifty pounds of flour or one hundred pounds of land plaster, road dust or sifted coal ashes. In using it with water, the addition of an equal amount of milk of lime often prevents injury to leaves. London purple is composed of arsenious acid and lime. It is often much cheaper than Paris green but varies more in its composition. On account of its being lighter than Paris green it does not settle so quickly when put in water. It is used in the same manner as that substance. When used in water an equal amount of milk of lime should always be added to neutralize the free acid which it sometimes contains in in- jurious quantities, and which may burn the foliage of tender plants. London purple adheres to the foliage of plants longer than Paris green. Tobacco is very useful for destroying some kinds of insects in the garden and greenhouse. It is especially effective against plant lice and soft-skinned hairless caterpillars. Where smoke from it can be confined around the plants, as in greenhouses and hotbeds, it is common to use it in a smudge, but when thus used it should be kept from blazing. It is also used in powdered form to keep off some insects. A more common and effective way of using it, is as a decoction in water at the rate of one pound of tobacco stems, leaves or dust to two gallons of water. The tobacco should be boiled in the water for twenty minutes. When cold the de- coction should be used undiluted with a syringe, spray or INJURIOUS INSECTS. 83 otherwise. The decoction will not keep more than a few days without spoiling. Tobacco is an excellent fertilizer as well as insecticide. Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide. It kills by con- tact and is of greatest importance for destroying sucking in- sects such as lice, scale insects and soft caterpillars, but also kills many biting insects. It is made as follows: Kerosene oil, 2 gallons, 67 percent. Common soap, or whale oil soap, i pound, 33 per cent. Two pounds of soft soap may be used in place of the soap recommended. Dissolve the soap over a brisk fire and add the kerosene while the water is hot. Churn the mixture or stir rapidly un- til a creamlike emulsion is secured. If well made the kero- sene will not separate but on cooling the emulsion will thicken into a jelly-like paste that adheres without oiliness to the surface of glass. Soft water will give far better results than hard water for making kerosene emulsion, and soap that is made with potash or soda lye, such as home made soap, is far better than most of the soap of the stores, as they do not emulsify easily. For plant lice, dilute the emulsion recom- mended with from twenty to twenty-five parts of cold water. The strength of the application will necessarily depend on the insects to which it is to be applied. For such insects as soft-skinned caterpillars, the emulsion should be diluted with not more than ten parts of water. Kerosene and milk emulsion may be made as follows: Kerosene 2 gallons. Sour milk 1 gallon. These should be thoroughly churned together until they form an emulsion, which they do readily. It should be used the same as the soap and, kerosene emulsion mentioned. Sweet milk does not emulsify readily but if a little sour or even if very sour, it unites easily with the kerosene. This is the best emulsion where the water is very hard. Carbon bisulphide is a very inflammable material with a dis- agreeable odor and readily vaporizes. It should be handled with the same precautions as gasoline, which resembles it in appearance. The fumes which it gives off are very heavy and 84 VEGETABLE GARDENING. are poisonous to animal life when confined with it. On ac- count of these properties it is used for killing- weevils in grain or peas, beans and other seeds, and for killing- gophers, mice or other creatures in their holes. The method of using- it for grain weevils, is to fill a barrel or other tight receptacle near- ly full of seed, then sprinkle an ounce of the liquid for each one hundred pounds of seed and cover the vessel tightly for several hours. It does not hurt the grain which is just as good and looks as nice as ever after being treated. The germinating qualities of the seed are not injured by this treat- ment. When used for killing moles, gophers and mice, the material is put on cotton or other absorbent and placed in their holes, which should be closed with earth over the cotton. Catching Insects by Suspended Light.— By suspending a lantern at night over a tub of water having its surface coated with kerosene, many night flying insects can be destroyed. Among those that can be caught in this way are cut worm moths, the clicking beetle (which is the mature form of the wire worm), and the May beetle (which is the mature form of the white grub. ) When these insects become especially abundant this method of catching them is worthy of trial. The objections to it are: (1) that it is the larvae and not the flying form of these insects that do serious injury; (2) few persons are so far sighted that they can be persuaded to attack insect enemies until they are sufl:'ering from their ravages, and the benefits of this method will not be felt until perhaps the following year. (3) The observations of Dr. Otto Lugger show that insects have generally laid their eggs before they fly much, and only the male insects of some species fly, and the females are nearly or quite wingless. It is obvious that in some cases catching the flying insects will do little if any good. Applications of Insecticides.— In applying insecticides it is generally important to begin their use as soon as the insects appear and not wait until the plants have been weakened and set back by their attacks. There are many and various machines for distributing insecticides. The machine best adapted to this purpose will depend much on the insecticide used and the extent of the operations contemplated. For ap- plying liquid compounds some of the many forms of spray pumps will be found best. For the small garden where there INJURIOUS INSECTS. 85 is a variety of crops grown, perhaps what is known as knap- sack spray pump is as con- venient as any general pur- pose machine. Where pota- toes are grown on a large scale, some special spray pump that can be geared to the wheels of a wagon is probably the best to use. Where insecticides are used in powder form it is a good plan to scatter them on the plants through a coarse linen bag or jB.ne wire cloth. When such material needs to be ejected with force, a fan or bellows may be used. It is always best to use poisons in a liquid form when practi- cable since it is the most economical and effective me- thod of applying them. No insecticide should ever be used in a large way, until it has been tried on a small scale Figure 33.— Colorado potato beetle in iq qqq what its effect will be all stages. i. x, i. .. j on the crop to be treated, since plants may be much more susceptible at one time than at another to applications of this nature. COMMON GARDEN INSECTS AND METHODS OF DESTROY- ING THEM. The Colorado Potato Beetle (Bonjphora decemlineata.)— The Colorado potato beetle is so common and so well known by every farmer and gardener in this country that it needs no de- scription here. It came originally from the Rocky Mountain region where it fed on the native sandbur {Solanum rostratum) which is close allied to the potato, but when this insect came to know the cultivated potato it preferred it to its original food and has since become a very dangerous pest to this 86 VEGETABLE GARDENING. veg-etable. The orange colored egg-s. varying in number from a dozen to fifty, are generally laid on the under side of the potato leaf. They hatch in about a week into sluggish larvae which feed upon the leaves, never leaving a plant until all the leaves are gone. They also feed to some extent upon tomato and egg plants. When fully developed the larva? descend to the ground where they pupate and emerge as perfect beetles. There are three broods each season. The beetles winter over in potato fields. Remedies. The number of these pests varies greatly from year to year. The chief remedies are arsenical poisons ap- plied to the foliage. For this purpose Paris green and Lon- don purple are commonly used. The method of applying them varies much. It is a common practice to use one pound of Paris green to 150 gallons of water. This must be constantly agitated while in use or the poison will settle to the bottom of the vessel. London purple may also be applied in water, but as it varies somewhat in composition and is liable to contain a dangerous amount of free acid, it is safest to use with it an equal amount of milk of lime. It is also a good plan to use milk of lime with Paris green. Some experiments show that about one pound of lime, one pound London purple and sev- enty gallons of water, is a safe and satisfactory formula to use for this crop. When thus applied the work may be done with a spraying machine, a watering pot or a brush broom. On a large scale, some kind of a spraying apparatus is necessary. These poisons may also be safely applied when mixed with one hundred times their bulk of flour, sifted ashes or road dust or mixed with one hundred pounds of land plaster. When thus used they are easily applied by means of a coarse linen bag. There are a number of proprietory insecticides for the potato beetle but they generally depend for their success on the arsen- ic they contain. But no matter what insecticide is applied, in order to do the most good it should be used as soon as the young larva^ can be seen on the leaves. The Imported and Native Cabbage Worm {Pieris sp.). The im- ported cabbage worm resembles our native species and both of them are very destructive to cabbage, turnip, cauliflower and similar vegetables and to such flowering plants as mig- nonette, stocks and nasturtiums. They feed on the leaves INJURIOUS INSECTS. 87 and will often destroy the cabbage crop unless preventive measures are taken. The worms of the imported species are g-reen in color, while our native species are bluish with yellow Fig. 34. Imported Cabbage Worm, (a) Larvag. (b) Chrysalis, (c) Male butterfly. stripes. The butterflies of both species are much alike. They are generally white with indefinite black marks above and yellow or green markings on the underside, and are commonly seen flitting over fields of cabbage or of other of its food plants during the day time. The full grown caterpillar is about an inch and a half long. The winter is passed in the chrysalis stage hidden away in sheltered places and from these the adult butterfly emerges in the spring and lays her eggs on the under side of of the leaves where they hatch in about one week. There are several broods in a season. Remedies. Pyrethrum powder, mixed with five times its bulk of flour and dusted into the cabbage just at nightfall, is a good remedy. The flour should be mixed with the pyrethrum over night. In a small way hand picking may be successfully re- sorted to. If the worms are troublesome where cabbage is grown on a large scale it is customary to use arsenical poisons as recommended for the potato bug. These, it is evident to any Fig. 35. Female. 88 VEGETABLE GARDENING. one, can be safely applied before the plants commence to head, and recent careful trials and analyses of cabbage thus treated with Paris green, show there is very little danger in using- it at any stage on the plants. It is the simplest of remedies and effectiye, yet not dangerous. There are parasites that attack and kill the worms and chrysalides, and Dr. Lugger has shown clearly that they sometimes may be destroyed very rapidly by disease, as well as insect parasites. "It is not un- common to have nearly all these worms die in the latter part of any season from one or both of these causes. Cabbage Plusia {Pluda hrassicce.) — The cabbage plusia eats irregular holes in the leaves, and burrows into the heads of Figure 36.— Snapping-beetle or wire worm with larvae, the cabbage. The parent insect is a moth of a dark-gray color distinguished by a silver mark on each wing. The eggs are laid on the upper surface of the leaves singly or in clus- ters. They soon hatch into pale green translucent worms, marked with paler longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. When full grown these are about two inches long. They re- semble span worms in their mode of locomotion, hence are easily distinguished from the cabbage worm. The full grown caterpillar spins a cocoon, generally on the under side of the cabbage leaf, in which it undergoes its changes. The insect winters over in the pupal state. The remedies for this pest are the same as for those recommended for cabbage worms and it is also subject to diseases and parasites. INJURIOUS INSECTS. 8^ "Wire Worms or Drill "Worms (Elator) — Wire worms cause dam- age by boring into potatoes and some seeds in the ground. They are the larvae of a snapping or clicking beetles, so-called from the ease with which, if laid on their backs, they spring into the air with a clicking noise. The larvae are slender wirelike worms, having a glassy tough skin of a yellowish or brownish color. The larval stage lasts for two and possibly five years ; it is therefore no small job to clear a piece of land badly infested with this pest. Naturally, wire worms live in grass land where the harm they do is not apparent, but when such land is planted to corn or potatoes and the worms are thus deprived of their natural food, they may become very troublesome. Remedies. — Late fall plowing is desirable for land infested with wire worms since it exposes and thus kills all that are. ready to pupate. By clean summer fallowing the land one season the worms are starved out. if no plants whatever are permitted to grow on it. Cut "Worms {Agrotis Sp.) — Cut worms often cause serious injury by eating vegetable plants. They are generally most Fig. 37. Cut Worm and moth, injurious while the plants are small, when they often bite off young cabbage, bean, corn or other plants close to or just under the ground and thus destroy them. Their work is most perceptible in the spring, on account of the small amount of growing vegetation at that time, yet they also work in the autumn. True cut worms are the larvae of several night flying moths which appear late in summer. The female de- posits her eggs late in the summer. These soon hatch into cut worms which enter the ground and live near the surface on the tender roots of grass and other plants until the ap- proach of cold weather. They then descend deeper into the ground and remain torpid until spring, when they come to 90 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the surface and again commence their depredations. Cut worms when full grown, are from one and a quarter to one and three-quarter inches long- and rather large in diameter as compared with the length. Their skin is of some dull color, smooth, with often dull stripes and bands. Remedies. Cut worms are most injurious in sod land or land on which weeds have been permitted to grow in autumn, or in land adjacent thereto. They are not liable to win- ter over on any land that is kept free from weeds and grass in autumn, since there is no food for them in such places. The worms feed almost entirely by night, and hide during the day time under clods or just under the surface of the ground near where they have been working. In a small way they may be dug out and destroyed, but in fields and on a large scale a good remedy is to scatter baits of poisoned clover through the fields This is easily prepared by dipping clover into Paris green or London purple and water. Where cut worms are abundant a larger amount than usual of seed should be planted, that a good stand may be secured even if the worms do get some of it. When plants such as cabbage, caulifiower and tomatoes are planted out, it is a good plan to wrap the plants with pieces of stout paper extending abount an inch below and three inches above ground. When boxes or to- mato cans are set around plants for shade, if all the worms inside of them are destroyed, they afford good protection from this pest. Spraying the plants with London purple or Paris green is a good remedy. The moths of cut worms, as well as such insects as adult wire worms and grub worms, may be killed at night by means of a lantern suspended over a tub of water having a little kerosene on its surface. This should be done late in summer, when the moths are abundant. The Striped Cucumber Beetle. [Diahrotica vittata.) — This little beetle attacks squash, cucumbers and melons when they are young. By eating the foliage and tender stems they may cause the death of the young plants. When abundant it is a very difficult pest to combat. It appears in Fig. 38. — Striped , '^ . . , , . cucumber beetle, the spring at just about the time the young squash plants are out of the ground, having wintered over in brush piles or other places affording protection. The beetle INJURIOUS INSECTS. 91 lays its eggs on the roots of corn where the young do con- siderable damage. These worms are full grown about one month from hatching. They then leave the roots, make a little cavity in the earth near by, and undergo their changes. The insects spend the winter in the beetle stage. The beetle is about a quarter of an inch long and is striped with yellow and black. It is very quick in its movements but does not fly much, except in the middle of the day. Remedies — An extra amount of seed should be sown, soas to secure a good stand and still allow some for the beetles. Dusting the vines, stems and leaves when they are moist, with air slaked lime, road dust or similar material containing a little Paris green or other poison is quite a protection, and if per- sistently followed up af- ter every rain will gen- erally prevent serious loss. But care should be taken to put the dust on the stems as well as the leaves. Paris green ^. ,^ ^^ , ^ ^ . and water is also a good Figure39.— Cheesecloth screen for protecting _ cucumber, squashes and melon vines from remedy and is api3lied the striped beetle when young. the same as for the pota- tato beetle. Tobacco dust is also an excellent preventative used in this way. Some gardeners having quite extensive plantings and many who are working in a small way prefer to cover each hill with a box or frame covered with cheese cloth. In this case, the edges of the box or frame should be sunk an inch or so in the ground to keep out the bugs. Frames for this purpose are readily made of barrel hoops cut in halves and fastened to- gether or of three slender sticks forming a sort of tent. This method allows the light and air to circulate freely around the 92 VEGETABLE GARDENING. plants, while at the same tected and at slight cost. time they are perfectly pro- White Grub or May Beetles (Lachuogteyna fiisca). — The insect known as the white grub is the larval stage of the May beetle. It lives in the land where it feeds on the roots of plants. The mature insect is a dark brown beetle, often nearly black with breast covered with yellowish hairs. The body is three-fourths of an inch long and about, a half inch in diameter. They fly at night and are well-known insects of the spring of the year. As beetles they feed on the leaves of various plants. The fe- males lay their eggs^ among the grass roots in a ball of earth. These hatch in about a month and the grubs be- gin to feed on the roots near by. It requires two or three years for- the grubs to get their full growth and they then underg o their changes and emerge in the spring of the third or fourth year as the beetle described. Fif:;are 40.— May beetles at ni^lit. REMEDIES. — The grubs are eatan by birds, moles and skunks. They are not apt to be abundant in any but grass land recently broken up. They are exceedingly hard to destroy on account of their remaining so long in the soil. When young plants are seen to be wilting from the effects of the grub they may sometimes be taken up, the grub removed and the plant reset. When lawns or other grass lands are badly affected INJURIOUS INSECTS. 93 they should be broken up and grown in some cultivated crop for two years. The beetles should be ti*apped as recommended for cut worm moths, when they become very abundant. Such animals as moles and shrews should always be permitted or even encouraged in our lawns and gardens and the little dam- age they generally do suffered patiently, since they are among our best friends and destroy immense numbers of white grubs and other insects that live in the ground, and are difficult for xis to reach. Maggots {Antliomyia s]). ) They are often destructive to the seed or roots of a variety of plants including onions, cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants; they also attack the • seed of corn, peas, beans \. ■^ seasons. Life History. The maggot here referred to is the larv£e of a fly some- what resembling the house r^l fly. but brown in color. '^. W The eggs are laid in or umj^iii' j'/i near the surface of the 4f ground, generally on the ' food plants and hatch out in about two weeks into maggots, that commence to -^. ,, xj ^ . feed at once and finally be- Figure 41.— Bean and onion maggot. *^ come one-half inch long; these change in two weeks more to flies. This insect winters over in the pupa state in the ground. Remedies. When this insect attacks onions the infested plants turn yellow and look sickly and they should be pulled and destroyed. The same treatment should be given to any onions that may be found infested at harvest time. When on- ion land becomes badly infested with this pest, crop rotation should be practiced and no onions should be raised near it for a year or two. When beans, corn and peas are affected, the seed should be treated with a very thin coating of coal tar and afterwards rolled in plaster or other dust. The coal tar may 94 VEGEPABLE GARDENING. be applied as follows: Spread the grain out in a warm room, on the floor about one foot deep and wet it with warm water: sprinkle on a very little tar ( which should be warm ) and then stir the whole mass thoroughly until each grain is coated: then roll it in plaster to dry it off. If this is carefully done the grains will not stick tog-ether and may be planted by seed planter. This treatment also prevents crows, g-ophers and squirrels from pulling newly planted corn. When it attacks cabbag-e, cauliflower and similar plants it may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, since the magg-ots work on the stem and roots of the plants, near the surface of the ground and such an application would be practicable in this case, while in the case of many other crops such as on- ions, beans, etc., it might be quite out of the question on ac- count of the large number of plants that would have to be treated to make it effectual. In the case of cabbage, however, it may be prevented from entering by inserting the plant through a small piece of tarred paper, that is allowed to remain flat on the surface of the ground. Cabbage Flea Beetle [Haltkus sj).). There are several in- sects closely resembling each other and known as cabbage flea Fig. 43. Different species of flea beetles with their larvse. beetles that feed on the surface of the leaves of cabbage, tur- nips, radish, cauliflower, etc., and various wild plants. They INJURIOUS INSECTS. 95 are very injurious to the very young plants if allowed to have their way, but when the plants are nicely started they do not seem to be seriously incommoded by this pest. These beetles are very small and move very quickly. The adult insect is black, or nearly so; some of them lay their eggs near the roots of the food plants, where the larvse do some damage; in other cases the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves and the larvae mine into them and live between the upper and lower surfaces. But their chief damage is as beetles, in which form they pass the winter. A species of flea beetles is sometimes destructive to potato vines. Remedies. Since these are biting insects, they are readily killed by Paris green or London purple in the usual propor- tions. If the plants are kept dusted with air slaked lime or plaster, they are measurably protected from this insect. But latter applications are greatly improved by adding a little poison to them. Leaf Lice or Aphides (Aphis sjj.) The leaf lice, otherwise called aphides, that live on plants have very much the same general habits. They are all sucking insects and increase with great rapidity when their food plants are abundant. They generally winter over in the egg stage. The summer broods are often brought forth alive without the intervention of the egg state. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water are the usual remedies but hot water and pyrethrum will also de- stroy them. Leaf lice are eaten by the larvse of lady bugs and they are also subject to attacks of parasites. When the lice are coated with a meal-like covering that sheds water and prevents their being wet by insecticides, they should first be sprayed with strong soap suds to remove the mealy covering, and then the insecticide may be applied successfully. Cabbage Lice or Aphides {Ajyhis hrasskce.) These are light brown insects covered with a floury substance. They attack turnips, cauliflowers, rutabagas and similar plants, as well as the cabbage. They work generally on the lower side of the leaves where they collect most abundantly. They are most numerous in dry seasons. The remedies for them are given under the general head of leaf lice, but in addition to those it is a good plan to burn or compost all the old cabbage leaves and stumps, since the eggs winter over attached to them. 96 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm {Heliopliila unipucta.) This is the boll-worm of the south It eats into the green grain of the corn, but is seldom very troublesome at the north. Dr. Lugger thinks that it does not winter over in the extreme northern states, but that the moths come from the south each year. The only remedy is hand picking. It is doubtful if they will ever become very injurious in the northern states since they do not begin their work there until late in the season. The Parsley "Worm or Celery Caterpillar {Papilio aster ias.) This worm eats the foliage of celery, .carrot, parsley and allied plants but is not often very injurious. The mature insect is a beautiful large black butterfly having yellow and blue spots on its wings. The eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch into small caterpillars less than one-tenth of an inch long, which when full grown are one and a half inches long. It has bright jellow markings. The remedy is to hand pick the worms, which are seldom abundant. Chinch Bugs {Blissus leucopteris.) The chinch bug does not trouble any of our garden products except corn, but is some- times very injurious to this vegetable and may kill it in a very few days if .neglected. This is a sucking insect that winters over in the adult state under leaves and in dry pro- tected places generally. When full grown it is about one-seventh of an inch long with ff i^iy^lV ^^"^ white upper wings, which have two well de- "^ / ^'^^ \ 'fined black spots on them. When crushed i IKoJ' \ ^^®y have an offensive bed-bug-like odor. M \jjS^ ^i. This insect is not aft'ected by cold weather but succumbs quickly to moisture. The fe- L male deposits her eggs near the ground upon T'lg. 42,— Chinch bug. ^j^^ stems or roots of wheat, oats, grasses, etc. Remedies. The burning of rubbish accumulations along Jieadlands, fences, etc., in the winter or early spring in in- fested localities will destroy many. They always infest the small grains before they do corn. While these insects have wings they use them but little in their migrations in summer. They travel on foot and often in great numbers. Taking advantage of these peculiarities, they may be kept from corn fields by plowing deep furrows in INJURIOUS INSECTS. 97 their way, which should be turned back as soon as filled with bugs and new furrows made. Fences of boards six inches high with the upper edge kept covered with tar will keep them out, but holes in the ground should be made at intervals along the line of the boards, which when full of bugs should be filled in with earth, and new holes made. A dusty headland or road is very difficult for them to get through. If they finally reach the corn, they will readily succumb to kerosene emulsion. Much is being done to rid grain fields of this pest by infecting the bugs with disease. This works most rapidly in moist weather, but other remedies should not be put aside for this one. Bean and Pea Weevil {Bruchus sjj.) The insects known as weevils are quite common in some sections. They work in the seed of beans and peas. The adult insects are small beetles which lay their eggs in the flowers, where they soon hatch, and the young larvae eat their way into the immature seeds. The hole by which the larva enters the seed grows com^Dletely over, so that the seed appears unimpaired externally. In the seed the larva does not touch the germ, though it may eat up a large part of the starch. The larva undergoes its changes in the seed, and when these have been completed the beetles emerge through quite large holes in the shell of the seed. While seed that is infested may germinate, it forms only weak plants that are very sure to fail to mature a full crop. Similar insects also attack corn. There is another species that breeds in stored grain, peas and beans, etc. , but it is not common as yet. Remedies. These insects are generally somewhat local in range. Whenever any locality is infested the date of planting should be delayed two weeks, by which the beetles fail to find the crop ready when they are ready to lay their eggs. This trouble generally comes from sowing infested seeds. These may be separated from the good seed by throwing them into water, when the good will sink, but those infested will float. Another method is to treat the seed with carbon bisulphide, as recommended under that head. If the seed is kept over two years the beetles will have come out. The species that breeds in the grain is mosteasily destroyed and keptout of theseed by using bisulphide of carbon, as recommended. Squash Vine Borer {Aegeria cucurUtce.)— The squash vine 98 VEGETABLE GARDENING. borer is the larva of a moth. The egg's are laid on the stems of the young- plants near the roots of cucumber, squash and melon vines. The larvae on hatching burrow into the stem and follow along the center, which causes the plants to wilt and finally to die. The full grown borer measures about one inch in length and has a whitish body with a brown head. The borers leave the stems the latter part of the summer, and win- ter over near the surface of the ground in cocoons composed partly of earth. The moth emerges the following spring. Remedies. This insect is not yet found in this section but is common in the eastera sta'es, and where it is found all withered or dead vines should be destroyed. When vines have only commenced to wilt the borer may often be cut out, and the vine recover. It is also a good plan to cover several of the lower joints of squash vines with earth to encourage the formation of extra sets of roots at these places. The Squash Bug {Anasa trist is.}— This insect makes its ap- pearance the latter part of June or thefirst of July. The females deposit their brownish-yellow eggs in small patches on the un- der side of the leaves. These hatch into nymphs, that suck the sap of the leaves, often seriously injuring them.- The full grown bug is a little over one-half inch long, a rusty black color above and yellowish beneath. They emit a disagree- able odor when touched. They winter over in rubbish, under boards or anywhere they can find protection. Remedies. Hand picking in the morning and evening, when the bugs are somewhat torpid, is the most practical remedy. Boards laid among the plants at night will be found to have many bugs under them in the morning, and these may be crushed or otherwise destroyed. Large numbers may be killed in this way. CHAPTER XIII. ASPARAGUS {Asparagus officinalis.) Native of Europe. — ^Perennial. — The asparag-us is an herbaceous plant, g-rowing to the height of about four feet. The flowers are small and generally yellow. They are perfect, but in many plants the pistils are abort- ive, so that only about half of the plants produce seed. The seed is produced in spherical berries, that are vermillion in color when they ripen in the autumn; they are black and triangular, number- ing about 1400 to the ounce. Asparagus is one of the most valu- able garden vegeta- bles. It is perfectly hardv and never Wr 1 mmmm- i Figure 43.— Asparagus plant full grown. fails to produce a crop. It is one of the first vegetables to be obtained in the spring and may be used until the middle of June. Perhaps, no other vegetable is more highly esteemed by those who are accustomed to its use. It may be grown with success in any good corn land, but is worthy of the best of care, as it responds readily to rich manure and high culti- vation. On sandy loam the crop is much earlier than on clay soils; wet land is not suited to it. Propagation. — It grows readily from seed, and one ounce of seed is sufficient for about fifty feet of drill and should pro- duce with good care about four hundred plants, though no 100 VEETABLE GARDENING. particular care is necessary for success. The seed should be sown in g'ood soil, early in the spring, in drills which may be as close as sixteen inches apart, and should be covered about one inch deep. As asparagus seed starts slowly, it is a good plan to sow radishes or other early maturing crops with it, so that the rows may be seen and weeding commenced •early. This practice does not interfere with the growth of the Figure 44.— Asparagus root with edible shoots. asparagus, as the radishes will be ready for use and out of the way before it needs much room. The seedling asparagus will be large enough for transplanting to the permanent plantation when one year old, and it is the best plan to do this, but they may be allowed to stand two years in the seed bed. The young seedling plants which often come up in or near asparagus beds may be transplanted in July of the first year directly to the permanent bed, and do very well if handled carefully. At whatever age they are transplanted, the plants should be dug and set out in the spring or early summer, as ASPARAGUS. 101 they are likely to fail when removed in the autumn. Aspar- agus may be increased by dividing- the crowns, but this is an expensive process, and plants so grown have no peculiar merit over those from seed. By buying- the plants, instead of sow- ing the seed, to start with, one or two years' time may be saved, and frequently it is cheaper to buy the plants than to raise them in a small way. It is said that plants that do not bear seed produce more sprouts than those that do. Planting. — While asparagus should always be moved in the spring, it is not necessary to move it very early, though it is better to do so : it may be successfully transplanted as late as the first of June. Any long sprouts that may have started should be broken ol¥ when the plants are set out. The land for planting should be heavily manured, deeply plowed and finely pulverized, and it is important to do this work well, as asparagus beds well made should last at least twenty years. The opinions of different growers as to dis- tance between plants vary much. It has been advocated to set tlie plants four feet apart each way, and if the soil is re- markably fertile this distance will not be too great: if the land is not very rich, it is customary to put the plants at in- tervals of three feet in rows four feet apart. Where a bed for a family garden is desired, it is probably best to set the plants three by three feet apart. About 100 plants will pro- duce all the sprouts needed in an ordinary garden. Depth to Plant. — For ordinary purjDOses asparagus roots should be planted about six inches deep; the deeper they are 13lanted, the later they will be about starting in the spring; if planted less than six inches deep, the roots push up to the surface and interfere with cultivation. The plants should not be covered to the full depth of six inches at once, or the shoots may never be able to push up to the surface. The furrows should be made with a plow to the proper depth, the plants placed in the bottom of the furrow and covered about three inches to begin with, and the furrows filled in by after cultivation as the tops grow. By the middle of the summer the furrows should be level full. Cultivation during the first year can be done almost entire- ly with a horse, though some hand hoeing will be necessary between the plants. By autumn of the first year, the tops 102 VEGETABLE GARDENING. should be three feet high. As soon as they are dead, they should be cut off close to the ground with a heavy, sharp hoe or similar tool, and then the land should have a light plow- ing or be worked up with a harrow to a depth of four inches. No care need to be taken about the plants when cultivating at this season of the year, but the whole surface may be culti- vated or plowed three inches deep as though no crop was in the land. In the spring the land should be cultivated as soon as it will work well in order that it may warm up quickly. There will be no crop to cut until the spring of the third year; a very little, however, may be safely cut the second year after planting. The cultivation in subsequent years should be very much the same as that given above, but, in addition, when the crop has been all harvested and cutting is to cease, which will be about the middle or last of June in the northern states, the whole bei4 should have a thorough cultivation to the depth of three inches without regard to the rows, and if manure is to be used, it should be put on at this time. Under this method of treatment, it is unnecessary to do much hand weeding, and it is very easy to keep the soil in the best condition by horse power. After the thorough cultivation in June, all the sprouts that come up from the roots should be permitted to grow un- til autumn, by which time they should be about five feet high if in good soil and will have ripe seed. It is necessary to allow the top to grow to this extent in order that plant food may be stored up in the roots. Very late cutting weakens the growth of the plants. Cutting. — When the crop is grown for marketing, it is not desirable to cut the shoots until the third season after plant- ing the roots; however, in the case of small beds in the gar- den where the planter is very anxious to test the fruit of his labor, it may be well to note that no harm is liable to come from a very slight cutting the second season. The sprouts should be cut as they appeal* in the spring, and all of them should be cut when of the proper size, although they may not be needed at that time. If permitted to grow, they interfere with subsequent cutting and prevent the growth of new sprouts. They will also be in the way of cultivation later in the season. The sprouts are generally cut off when about six inches high about two inches below the surface of the g-round. and in this ASPARAGUS. 103 case all but two inches of the asparagus is gTcen, which is rig-ht for most markets. Some people prefer to have sprouts bleached, and in such cases they should be cut four or five inches deep in the ground. In case white sprouts are wanted, it is a good plan to hill up around the hills or to cover them with fine manure to keep the sunlight away from the shoots. The time between the cuttings is largely dependent Figure 45.— Method of bunching asparagus, showing loose sprouts, boxes for tying up in and completed bunches. on the weather. In early spring, if the weather is rather cold, plants may not give more than one cutting per week, but later in the season a good cutting will perhaps be secured once in two days. A severe frost will kill all the shoots above ground but will not injure subsequent cuttings. Asparagus is marketed by tying the sprouts in bunches, the size of the bunches depending much upon the market and, in some places, on the season and whether the supply is plentiful or not. It is very desirable, however, to have all the bunches of one size when marketed. It is preferable to tie the sprouts when they are just a little wilted and then set them in water to swell and make the bands tight. The shoots will easily keep for a week if kept cold and moist. It is customary to stand the bunches on end in water in keeping them. Manuring. — If manure is applied to the asparagus bed in autumn or before the frost is out of the ground in the spring, it prevents the frost from coming out of the ground and so keeps back the growth, unless the manure applied is very fine and is at once cultivated into the soil. Sometimes such treat- 104 VEGETABLE GARDENING. ment will keep the sprouts from starting- for a week or more at a season when it is most relished and the market price is the highest. On this account it is an excellent plan to manure asparagus in June at the close of the cutting season, as it can then be thoroughly cultivated into the soil and does not inter- fere in any way with the growth of the plants in the spring. Asparagus is a rank feeder and needs lots of manure for the best results. Salt may be applied to asparagus to such an extent as to kill all the weeds without injuring the plants, and yet careful experiments seem to show that salt is of no special value as a manure for this crop. Asparagus seed is readily taken from the fruits in which it grows by macerating the fruit in water and then drying it. Forcing Asparagus for early use is being done to some ex- tent near large cities, where it is often a profitable undertak- ing. For this purpose the roots must be dug in the fall and carefully stored in earth in a cellar. In March make a good, slow hotbed and put the roots in it in good soil. It is im- portant to start the roots slowly, or the shoots will be spind- ing and weak. The- roots stored as recommended may also be forced into growth in a warm cellar, shed, greenhouse, or in a part of a permanent bed enclosed in glass or cotton sheeting. Varieties.— There are a number of varieties, and they are all of them desirable when given good cultivation. Among the best kinds are Conover's Colossal, Moore's and Palmetto. BEANS [Phaseolus.) Annual. — The common beans of this country are natives of the warmer parts of South America. They are sometimes referred to as kidney or French beans (P. vuJgaris.) Besides these, the Lima beans (P. lunatus) are cultivated to a limited extent. The comfnon broad bean of Europe is an entirely different vegetable from the kinds generally grown here and is not sufficiently prolific in this section to make it worthy of cultivation. There are many varieties of beans, and the varieties of each species readily cross together, the flowers being especially adapted to crossing. They vary from one aDother in many particulars; some are low, bushy and erect, while others are twining and have stems that grow ten or more BEANS. 105 feet in a season. There are g-radations between these extremes, as well as in size, color and shape of seed and plant. The twining- stem kinds always twine from right to left around any support they can lay hold of. In a horticultural way, beans are divided into the bush and pole varieties. Under the first class are included all the field varieties that are grown to be used as shelled beans and some snap and string beans. They have stout, erect or slightly running stems. Under pole beans are classed all the kinds that have twining stems and which are benefited by having support of some kind. There are, however, dwarf bush beans having the same general features as the pole kinds except the tall stem. While this division is by no means distinct, yet the methods of cultivation adapted to each group are different. All beans are quite tender and should not be planted until the soil is warm and all danger of frost is over. They are sown for early use about the time for general corn planting. For the main crop, they should be planted about the first of June. Bush Beans.— These are very easily grown and adapted to a great variety of purposes. For a field crop on a large scale, the seed is generally sown with a horse di'ill or with a gar- den drill, in rows three feet apart. It is sometimes best to mark out the land first and then follow with the drill in the marks. Seed should be sown two or three inches deep. On a snpialler scale, the land may be furrowed out with a one-horse plow o^ with a wheel hoe, and the seed sowed Fig. 46. Bush bean. by hand. The after cultureconsists in keeping the land well cultivated with ahorse hoe and free from weeds. Varieties of dwarf beans for use in 106 VEGETABLE GARDENING. a green state, such as string- or snap beans, may be sown any- time from the middle of May to the first of August, and with good prospects of a good crop of green pods. Some kinds have edible pods in less than six weeks from the time the seed is sown. Harvesting Beans. — For use in a green state, the pods of some kinds are picked as soon as large enough to use and when they are tender and fresh; in other cases, the beans are used when still fresh and as soon as they are large enough to shell from the pods. Field beans are harvested by being pulled by hand or gathered with a bean gatherer when they are ripe, laid in rows until dry enough for threshing, then threshed at once or stored for threshing later on. Great care should be taken in storing the pods to prevent molding of the beans, and in threshing not to break the beans. In a small way, beans may be threshed out by hand, but on a large scale any common threshing machine may be used, providing suit- able changes are made in it so it will not break the beans. Varieties of Bush Beans. — There are many varieties of bush beans having desirable qualities, but only a few of the most valuable are mentioned here: Field Beans.— White Mar- row, Burlingame Medium. Navy, and Snowflake. Waxen Podded Beans. — Dwarf Golden Wax and Dwarf Black Wax. Shell and String Beans. — Yellow Six Weeks, EarlyMo- hawk. Cranberry and Dwarf Horticultural. Japanese, Soy or Soja Beans. — These are easily grown, but on account of their inferior quality are not much used here. -These are highly esteemed by although smaller in size than the pole Limas, are supplanting them in this section and com- ing into general use, on account of their being more cer- Fig, 47.— Dwarf Lima bean. Dwarf Lima Beans those who know them, and BEANS. 107 tain to mature well and requiring- less labor in cultivation. They require the same methods of cultivation as other dwarf beans but should not be planted until the land is thoroughly warmed. The best varieties are known as Henderson's Dwarf, Burpee's Dwarf, Jackson \Yonder (black spotted) and Kumerle Dwarf Lima. The common dwarf beans are early, productive and good, but not so rich in quality as these. Pole Beans. — The twining varieties of beans are little grown in this section, as the improved dwarf kinds take their place to a great extent. However, tall Lima beans are highly esteemed by many, and the dwarf varieties of them are not so desirable as the pole kinds. Thereis also a demand for sucli shell beans as the pole Horticultural, Cranberry and Case- knife varieties. Pole beans require stronger land than do the dwarf kinds. The ordinary way of growing pole beans is to set poles six feet long in hills four feet apart each way. It i& customary to put a shovelful of good compost or rotted manure in each hill if the land is poor. Seed should not be planted till the ground is quite warm — the pole varieties are more particular in this respect than the dwarf kinds. About six seeds should be planted two or three inches deep around each pole. In the case of the Lima bean, the general belief is that the beans should be planted edgeways with the eye down- wards, but good results are often obtained by sowing the seeds without regard to this matter. This latter method is customary in sowing the dwarf Lima, and some who sow the large Lima beans in furrows and train them to trellises pay no regard to the position of the seed in the soil, but sow abundance of seed so as to have a good stand. Lima beans «,re generally shelled by hand when fresh but full grown and are" sold by the quart. In warm climates they are sold in large quantities after being dried. The Cranberry and Horti- cultural kinds are generally sold in the pod. As soon as the seedlings commence to '"run," it is customary to assist them in getting started, and some seasons it is necessary to tie the Lima beans to the poles. Lima beans require an extra warm location and soil. Beans may be transplanted if removed with care when the soil is moist. Some very successful gardeners find that it pays them to start their pole Lima beans on pieces of sod or- 108 VEGETABLE GARDENING. in pots or in boxes in hotbeds and in this way advance the period of ripening two weeks or more. This is a very desir- able practice with pole Lima beans in this climate, since the short season often fails to mature much of the crop when the •seed is planted in the open ground. The varieties of pole lima beans best adapted to this section are probably the Large Lima and Dreer's Lima; both of these are of fine quality and productive. The small Lima or Sieva bean is earlier than those mentioned but of inferior quality. Preserving Beans in Salt. — String beans are easily preserved for winter use in salt, using about seven pounds to the bushel of pods. In doing this the fresh tender pods are put at once into the brine as they come from the field. When wanted for use, they should be freshened out and cooked in the ordinary way. They are very good; in fact, they are nearly as good as the best canned beans. ^Jj^ k . Diseases and Insects. — Beans are /-r™*-^H| ' r^j ^ quite free from the attacks of any I^P ^J. ' injurious insects or diseases. An- M^ m thracnose of the bean {Gloeosporium wMk fj Lindennthianum) shows itself by W ij black spots on the stems or pods or both. It is sometimes very in- jurious in moist weather, but only in occasional years have we any- thing to fear from it. It is not gen- erally considered profitable to use any of the fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture, which would readily prevent it. Fig. 48.— Anthracnose of bean pods. BEETS. {Beta vulgaris.) • Native of Europe.— Biennial. — This plant in the first year •of its growth forms a fleshy root, and goes to seed the second year. The seed stalk is about four feet high. What is usual- ly sold and planted as beet seed is in reality a fruit and is made up of several seeds imbedded in the cork-like calyx ; the seed itself is very small and kidney shaped, with a thin brown BEETS. 10» skill. The roots vary greatly in form, size and in color from a reddish white to a deep dark red. Some varieties have special qualities for table use, while others are valuable for feeding stock or for sugar only. The garden beet is easily grown and is a very reliable crop. It prefers a very rich, sandy, well-worked soil but will grow in any good corn land. For early use, some early maturing kind should be selected, and the seeds should be sown in rows sixteen inches apart in the open ground as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring. Ten seeds should be sown to each foot of row and covered one inch deep. The young plants will stand quite a severe frost without injury. As soon as the seed- lings appear they should be cultivated with a wheel hoe, and the cultivation repeated at frequent intervals. When they are eight or ten inches high, thinning should be com- menced and continued until the plants are six inches apart in the rows. These thinnings make excellent greens. If sown as recommended, they will be large enough for table use in June and will be good Fig. 49.— Bunch of EcUpse beets. for use the rest of the summer. For winter use, the seed should not be sown until the last of May or first of June. For late planting, some growers prefer to put the rows two feet or more apart, so that when the plants are nicely started they can be cultivated by horse power. Stock and sugar beets should be sown in rows about thirty inches apart, to allow of easy cultivation. These should be sown from the middle to the last of May and covered some- what deeper than is recommended for early table beets, per- haps one and one-half inches deep. The importance of very early and constant cultivation cannot be too strongly insisted 110 VEGETABLE GARDENING. on. Beet seed may be sown by a machine seed sower, but most of the sowers in use will need a little more careful watch- ing when sowing- this than with other seeds, as the roug-h seeds (fruits) are liable to clog" the feed hole. There are a few beet seed sowing machines adapted for horse power that it will prob- ably pay one to use where a large amount of land is to be ■cultivated in beets. About six pounds of seed are required per acre, and it is always a good plan to sow an abundance of seed, as it does not start very uniformly. Forcing Beets. — Beets are easily forced by sowing the early maturing kinds in February or March in hotbeds, where they may be left to mature or may be transplanted when of proper size. It is, however, best to allow them to grow to table size without transplanting, as this always puts the plants back, and they recover from it slowly. Harvesting and Keeping Beets. — On the approach of severe weather — in this section about the middle of October — beets should be pulled and the tops cut or twisted off, but the top of the root should not be cut off. Light frosts do not hurt them much, especially when they are protected with a heavy growth of foliage, but when the surface of the ground freezes hard there is danger of joermanent injury to the roots. Beets are easily kept in a cold cellar. It is generally best to pit them outdoors when dug, to remain there until severe weather sets in. If the air of the cellar is very dry, the beets should be covered with earth after being put in bins, or they will wilt and become corky. Beet seed is grown by planting out the roots about the middle of May, two feet apart in rows three feet apart. The seed ripens in the summer and is generally threshed off as soon as ripe. Varieties. — There are many cultivated varieties of beets, which vary considerably in size, form, color, time of maturing and other characteristics. Among the most valuable are the following: Eclipse. — A very early, dark red, turnip-shaped beet of good quality. Valuable for early or late sowing. A favorite with market gardeners. Egyptian, — Valuable for early sowing. Bastian's Early Turnip Beet.— A valuable early sort, BEETS. Ill tender, sweet and good in every way; valuable for early or late planting-. Dewing' s Improved Blood Turnip Beet.— A first-class beet in every respect; valuable for winter or summer use. Diseases of Beets. — The beet is subject to several diseases, and it is most healthy when grown on new land. Beet Scab is a disease which ruptures the skin of the beet in a manner similar to potato scab on potatoes. Recent investigations show that the form of this disease is the same as the potato scab. On this account, beets should not follow IDotatoes on land that has grown a scabby crop unless there is an interval of several years between them. Beets are some- times subject to a rust that injures the foliage, but seldom very seriously. Stock Beets. Stock beets are gross feeders and prefer rich soil. They require the same care as table beets, but the rows should be thirty inches apart, so as to allow of cultiva- ting them with a horse implement. The seed may be sown with any common garden seed drill after first laying off the rows with a marker, or it may be sown with a common grain drill by stopping the flow of seed through a part of the holes. It is a very good plan to sow radish or rutabaga seed with the beet seed, as it starts quickly and the line of the row is thus easily seen, so that cultivation may be started early. This is very important in land that is somewhat weedy. About six pounds of seed to the aci'e will give about twelve seeds (fruits) to a foot. There are many good varie- ties of stock beets. Among the best are the Long Red, Yellow, or Golden Tankard, Yellow Globe and American Sugar. The latter is not a true sugar beet but is much richer in sugar than the or- dinary varieties of stock beets and, possibly, of better feeding value. Sugar Beets, from which is Fig. 50. Sugar Beet. made a large amount of the sugar of comimerce, are grown in a similar way to stock beets 112 VEGETABLE GARDENING. but on a large scale require a rather different and special treatment. There is no trouble about raising them with a large percentage of sugar in an^ of the northern states, but the drawbacks to its becoming a more general industry are the very expensive machinery required to extract the sugar econ- omically on a large scale, the small margin of profit and the low price the manufacturers have been willing to pay for the beets. These beets grow entirely below ground, which makes them difficult to dig. The part of a beet above ground does not contain much sugar. LEAF BEET; OR SWISS CHARD. Native of Southern Europe. — Biennial. ^ — This appears to be exactly the same plant as the beet root, except that in its case cultivation has developed the leaves instead of the root. The botanical characteristics, es- pecially those of the fruit seed and flowers, are precisely alike in both plants. The root is branched and not very fleshy, while the leaves are large and numerous, with the stalk and midrib fleshy and very large. The plants vary in color from deep red to nearly white. The fleshy leaf stalks are cooked and served like asparagus. Culture. The plants are grown Fig. 51. Swiss chard. in the same manner as the com- mon table beets. Among the best varieties is one known as the Silvery Swiss chard. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. [Brassica olemcea). Native of Europe. — Biennial. — This is one of themany va- riations which the cabbage has taken on under cultivation. In this case, where the head of the cabbage is ordinarily found, there are loose green leaves and seldom a head. The stem is generally two feet or more high, with leaves, and at the base BRUSSELS SPROUTS AND CABBAGE. 113 of each leaf is a small cabbage, which seldom attains a diam- eter of ov^ertwo inches. These little cabbages are the parts eaten; they are much more delicate than the commoncab- bag-e and hig-hly esteemed by many. The plant requires the same treatment as cabbage, except the plants can be grown nearet" together. While eas- ily grown, it is doubtful about its becoming a popular vegetable, since in most of our markets very little attention is paid to quality, and the common cabbage will proba- bly continue to take the place of this vegetable on most tables. The variety most esteemed is known as Dwarf Brussels Sprouts. Fig. 52. Brussels Sprouts. CABBAGE. {Brasska oleracea. ) Native of Europe and Western Asia. — Biennial. — It grows naturally to the height of three or four feet and scarcely re- sembles any of our cultivated kinds. The part eaten is termed the head and is simply a cluster of leaves enwrapping the top of the stem. It attains the height of three or four feet, w^hen it goes to seed. The flowers are generally yellow in col- or and conspicuous, though not large. There are three great groups of cabbages distinguished respectively by their (1) red leaves, (2) smooth leaves and (3) wrinkled leaves. Red cab- bages are chiefly esteemed for pickling. The varieties with smooth, light green leaves (common cabbage) are commonly cultivated, while the Savoy cabbage, which has wrinkled leaves and is of the best quality, is little grown, as it does not pro- duce so abundantly as the common kinds. The original spe- cies from which the cabbage has sprung is also the parent of the cauliflower, kale and brussels sprouts. The seed of the cabbage is dark brown in color, smooth and round. Soil. The best soil for cabbage is a rich alluvial, or prai- rie loam, moist, yet well drained and in fine condition. While 114 VEGETABLE GARDENING. some varieties will mature on poor soil, they all require the highest cultivation for the best development. This is especially true of early cabbage, which needs much richer soil than the late crop. It is a good plan to occasionally change the land used for cabbage: in some eastern sections it is necessary to do this each year on account of the prevalence of the disease called club-root. Manure. The cabbage is a gross feeder and needs lots of rich manure. Most of our best growers apply manure broad- cast, but when there is a necessity of economizing with the manure, it may be applied to better advantage in the hill.jjro- Fig. 53. Cross section of cabbage head showing arrangement of stem and leaves. viding the land is in good condition. In growing eariy cab- bage, it is an excellent plan to apply a handful or so of dry hen manure around the hills w^hen the plants are half grown. This should not be put close to the plants but scattered over a radius of a foot or more from the plants and then be cultiva'- ted into the soil. Early Cabbage. The methods of cultivation adapted to the growing of early cabbage are quite different from those fol- lowed in raising late cabbage, and the subject of cultivation naturally groups itself under these heads. The soil preferred CABBAGE. 115 for early cabbage is a lig-ht.rich sandy loam. well drained and sloping- to the south, providing it is not too liable to injury from drouth. In milder sections of the country, it is cus- tomary to sow the seed for early cabbage in September and winter the plants over in cold frames. This method is im- practicable in most Northern states, and the best plan to fol- low in such sections is that of sowing the seed in greenhouses or hotbeds from the middle to the last of February. As the plants grow, they are transplanted so as not to be crowded. If they are kept growing freely, they will be large enough to transplant to the open ground by the first of April. Hardening off the Plants. It is very important to have the plants accustomed to cold weather when they are transplanted to the open ground, or they may be killed by a frost that otherwise would do them no harm. When cabbage plants are properly hardened. they take on a dull blue color that at once indicates their condition to one acquainted with their peculiar- ities. In fact, cabbage plants that are growing rapidly and are consequently very soft, maybe killed by a frost that w^ould not injure so tender a plant as the tomato, providing the latter has been properly hardened off. This hardening off of the plants is accomplished by gradually subjecting them to a lower temperature than that in which they grow freely or by drying them a little, and, finally, thus nearly checking their growth. The result is a sort of ripening up of the tissues of the plants, and, in consequence, they will stand great hardship. Setting the Plants. Cabbage plants will grow at a low tem- perature, and it is a great advantage to plant them out early in the spring, although the weather may be darnp and cold. At this season of the year, they may not show any great increase in leaf surface, but they form roots rapidly, and these are a great help in providing a vigorous growth later in the season. As a rule, early cabbage should be set out as soon as frost is out in the spring and the ground nicely settled. It is import- ant to set the plants deep in the ground at this season, and since the stem is the part most liable to injury from hard frosts, it should be set deep enough to bring the base of the leaves be- low the ground. This is very important and frequently makes the difference between success and failure in growing the crop. If severe weather is threatened after the plants are set 116 VEGETABLE GARDENING. out, it is a g-ood plan to draw a hoe-ful of earth over each, plant, for if frozen when they are covered with earth they will not be injured, and they can remain buried in the ground several days in cold weather without serious injury. However, the earth should be removed as soon as good weather is as- sured. The distance between the plants will depend somewhat on the varieties to be cultivated; under ordinary conditions large, early kinds should be set out two feet apart in rows three feet apart. This arrangement permits of horse cultivation both ways when the plants are young and one way when they are full grown. Cultivation should commence as soon as the plants can be clearly seen and be continued after each rain, at least once a week, until the crop is grown. For this purpose, a fine-tooth horse cultivator is the most desirable implement, and if the work is carefully done there will be very little need of hand hoeing. It is a good plan to draw the earth slightly toward the plants when they are about half grown. Harvesting the Crop. — Treated in this way, under ordinary conditions, they will be nicely "headed up" by the first of July and ready for marketing. The season of marketing, however, will depend largely on the kinds grown. If the land is at once plowed when the crop is harvested, it can be used for growing some late crop, as late beans, spinach or celery. By care in sowing and the selection of varieties, early cab- bage may be continued till Late cabbage is in the market. Retarding the heading of cabbages may be accomplished by starting the roots on one side of the head or by slightly pulling the plant so as to break some of the roots. This is very important some seasons, as it is not uncommon to find the market overstocked with this vegetable just as the crop is full grown, and if the plants are allowed to remain growing when once a hard head is formed they are very sure to burst and be spoiled. By starting the roots a little, the growth is checked and heads may be kept from spoiling for a week or more. Late cabbage is a term generally given to cabbage grown from seed sown in the open ground. It may be ready for use in September or in the late autumn and be kept all winter. Soil. Any land that will produce a good crop of corn is CABBAGE. 117 in good condition for late cabbage, but the richer the land the better the chances of success. Less manure is required for late than for early cabbage. Late cabbage is generally raised by sowing the seed in the hills, or by sowing it in a seed bed and setting the plants in the field when of sufficient size. Each of these methods has its advantages and will be referred to separately further on. Sowing Cabbage Seed. Late cabbage is raised by sowing the seed in a seedbed, in rows twelve inches apart, in the spring, and when the plants are large enough transplanting to the field where they are to be grown. This is the common way of growing cabbage. Its advantages are that the plants may be set out on land that has grown some early crop, as peas, or on sod land after cutting the hay. It also ensures having the plants all together in a small space, where they can be easily cultivated and guarded when they are young and most liable to serious injury from cut worms, flea beetles and other insects and from dry weather. It has the disadvantage of requiring the plants to be moved during the dry weather of early summer, when they are very liable to fail from lack of water in the soil. Sowing the seed of cabbas'e in the field where the plants are to mature and then thinning out to one plant to a hill, has the advantage of not requiring trans- planting of the crop during dry weather, and as the plants are not set back by transplanting they mature in a shorter time than transplanted plants. This makes it practicable to sow the seed later than when the plants are to be removed and is sometimes an advantage. It has the disadvantage, however, of having the plants scattered over a large area when small and liable to serious insect enemies, and makes it more diffi- cult to cultivate them than when in a seed bed. The thinnings from the land where seed is sown in the hill may be set else- where. Raising Cabbage by Transplanting. If the plants are to be raised in a seedbed and then transplanted to the open ground, the seed of such varieties as Late Flat Dutch should be sown about the 10th of May; but if Fotler's Improved Brunswick or other second early kind is to be grown, the seed should not be sown until at least ten days later: and such large, early head- ing varieties as Early Summer may be successfully raised lis VEGETABLE GARDENING. when seed is sown as late as the first of June. The plants will be ready to set out by the last of June, when they should be carefully transplanted. The land should be thoroughly pul- verized and marked out three feet apart each way, unless it is to be manured in the hills, when it should be furrowed out one way and marked the other way. The pla,nts should be set at the intersections of the marks, but it is not a good plan to set them on top of the manure, but rather to put them on the side of it. This is especially important if the manure is not well rotted. The cultivation and after treatment are the same as for early cabbage. Cabbage from Seed Sown in the Hill. If the seed is to be sown in the hills, the land should be treated as recommended when the plants are to be transplanted. It is generally necessary for success to have the soil moist when the seed is sown. After the land is marked out, seven or eight seeds are sown at each intersections covered with about half an inch of soil and pressed down with the sole of the foot. The plants generally come up inside of a week and should be hand-hoed at once, and when large enough cultivated with a horse. When big- enough to stand .n^lone, take out all but one plant from each hill and treat as directed for those thathavebeen transplanted. Harvesting Late Cabbage may be done by selling directly from the field or by storing for marketing during the winter. If the heads are nearly ready to burst, they cannot be kept long and should be disposed of at once. There is generally a good demand in the late autumn for this vegetable for general marketing and also by the pickling factories for making sauer kraut. Cabbages will stand ten degrees or more of frost, but severe freezing is very injurious; they are seldom injured by frost unless the stump is frozen solid. If there is danger of severe freezing before the crop can be marketed or stored, it is a good plan to pull the plants and put them into piles, with the stumps inside, and cover the whole with straw litter. Piled and covered in this way, they may be left in the field until sevei'e freezing weather and will generally be safe in such a condition in this section until the first of Decem- ber. At harvesting there may be some heads quite too loose for marketing, and such cabbage will improve very much if stored as recommended for seed cabbage. CABBAGE. 119 Storing Cabbage. In order to have cabbage keep well far into the winter, they must not be headed very solid when gathei'ed but should be a trifle soft, but there is quite a differ- ence in the keeping qualities of varieties. If late varieties are sown too early, they will not keep well, and if early varieties are sown late so as to be in good keeping condition when har- vested they often keep well. In order to store cabbages suc- cessfully, they must be kept cold and moist but never allowed to get warm or wet. Providing the cabbage is in good condi- tion for storing, it will generally keep until spring if the heads Fi^. 54. Cabbage pitted for winter storing. are set together, roots up, in a ti'ench and covered with from six inches to a foot of soil and mulch enough to prevent hard freezing. If they are frozen while buried and thawed out in the ground, they are seldom seriously injured. In this sec- tion, however, a better plan is to keep them in a cold, damp cellar, stored in bins about four feet wide, so as to allow a a circulation of air through them. For commercial purposes, it is a good plan to build store houses, half in and half out of the ground; in a small way. they may be kept by burying the heads in sand in a cellar, or a small stock of cabbage for home use, may be heeled in by the roots in the cellar — but it should be borne in mind that decaying cabbage is dan- gerous material to have under a dwelling house, and it should not be permitted under any circumstances. In storing cab- bage, the loose outside leaves should be removed and the stumps always left on, except when they are to be stored in bins. Cabbage Seed is a somewhat difficult crop to raise in this section, the trouble being in keeping the plants over winter. However, it may be done if care is used. For this purpose, 120 VEGETABLE GARDENING. heads should not be permitted to get very hard; they should Fig. 55. Seed cabbages pitted for winter. be gathered before the stumps have been frozen, set to- gether heads up in a trench and covered with about a foot of soil and mulching enough to prevent severe freezing. Cabbage seed may be raised from the stumps af- ter the heads are cut off, and this is a vei^y simple matter, as the stumps can be buried like turnips or even kept in bins, provid- ing they are covered with earth and kept cold; but such seed is not desirable, as the evidence seems to show that there is a ten- dency to increase the length of the stump at the expense of the head under such treatment. It is generally agreed among our best seed gi'owers that cabbage seed should be saved from the terminal buds of the stem, which are in the cabbage head. Providing the seed cabbage are successfully Fig. 56. Part of cabbage seed stalk showing seed pods. (After Landreth. ) wintered over, they should be planted ab3ut the first of May CABBAGE. 121 in deep furrows about three feet apart, in rows four feet apart. Sometimes the seed stalkcannot burst throug-h the head leaves, and it is a good plan in such cases to cut throug-h the outside leaves on the top of the head a little to allow it to gTOw throug-h. The seed is g-athered branch by branch as the pods begin to turn yellow, and it generally takes several cuttings to har- vest the seed pods. ■ tig-ht floors and then Figure 57. Early Winningstadt cabbage. These ai-e dried in buildings havin<^ threshed out. Varieties. For very early use the Early Jersey Wakefield is perhaps the most popular variety, but the head is quite small. For second early the Early Summer is perhaps the best and is generally more profitable than other early kinds, since the head is of good size. The Early Winningstadt is a very desir- able variety, forming very solid heads. It is the most reli- able of all varieties for early or late use in unfavorable situ- ations. Fotler's Improved Brunswick is a valuable variety for second early or as a winter variety, and it is the earliest of the large heading kinds. Flat Dutch and Stone Mason are desirable winter sorts and are good keepers. The best red cabbage is perhaps the Mammoth Red Rock. The Savoys are of better quality than the or- dinary drumheads but do not produce so heavily. They are desirable for home use. The best of this class is the American Drumhead Savoy. Insects. The insects inju- rious to the cabbage are the flea beetle, cabbage worms, cut Fig. 58.-Premium Flat Dutch Cabbage, worms and lice, for treatment of which see chapter on insects. There are very few diseases that seriously injure 122 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the cabbage. The most common is club-root, also called club- foot. The life history of this disease is not known. It at- tacks the roots of cabbag-e, cauliflower, turnips and other plants of the same family, causing them to form large irregu- lar swellings. The plant is checked in growth and often dies from the effects of the disease. This is not yet a common disease in this section, but in some of the Eastern and Middle states it is very common. The best way of avoiding it is to not use the same land for cabbage or similar crop without at least three years intervening, during which time it is prefer- able to have the land in grass or clover. Sauer Kraut. The following recipe is a very excellent one: Slice cabbage fine on a slaw-cutter: line the bottom and sides of an oaken barrel or keg with cabbage leaves, put in a layer of the sliced cabbage about six inches in depth, sprinkle lightly with salt, and pound with a wooden beetle until the cabbage is a compact mass; add another layer of cabbage, etc., repeating the operation, jDounding well each layer until the barrel is full to within six inches of the top; cover with leaves, then a cloth, next a board cut to fit loosely on the in- side of barrel, kept well down with a heavy weight; If the brine has not raised within two days, add enough water with just salt enough to taste to cover the cabbage; examine every two days and add water as before, until brine rises and scum forms, then lift off the cloth carefully so the scum may adhere, wash well in several cold waters, wring dry and replace, re- peating this operation as the scum arises, at first every other day, and then once a week, until the acetous fermentation ceases, which will take three to six weeks. Up to this time keep warm in the kitchen, then remove to a dry, good cellar unless made early in 'the fall, when it may be at once set in the pantry or cellar. One pint of salt to a full barrel of cab- bage is a good proportion; some also sprinkle in whole black pepper. Or, to keep until summer: In April squeeze out of brine and pack tightly with the hands in a stone jar, with the bottom lightly sprinkled with salt; make brine enough to well cover the kraut in the proportion of a tablespoon of salt to a quart of water; boil, skim, cool and pour over; cover with cloth, then a plate, weight and another cloth tied closely down; keep in a cool place, and it will be good in June. CARROT. 12a Neither pound nor salt the cabbage too much, watch closely, and keep clear from scum for good sauer kraut. — Buckeye Cook Book. CARROT. {Daucus carota. ) Native of Europe. — Biennial. — In the wild state this I'ootis valueless, being slender and woody, and the plant is a bad weed. Under cultivation it exhibits the widest difference in. shape, size and color. Some kinds have roots that are broad- er than long and extend not over two or three inches in the ground, while others attain a length of two feet, and still oth- ers may be found havings the various intermediate forms between these ex- tremes. There are also varieties having red, white and yellow flesh. The leaves are very much divided and deeply cut. The flowei's are white and crowded together in. compound umbels on stalks two to five feet, high. The roots of the cultivated kind will stand considerable frost but not severe freezing. Two seeds are produced by each flower; they are flat on one side and con- vex on the other, and are partly covered by minute bristles. When sold, the bristles have generally been, removed. Carj-ots are used to some extent as a table vege- table, but they are especially valuable as a food for horses and other stock. Cultivation. The carrot is of the easiest culture. It re- quires a fine, yellow, rich, upland soil. On moist soils, the roots are apt to branch and somewhat liable to disease. The seedlings are quite delicata when they first come up. and every precaution should be taken to have the land clean, so that the Fig. 59. Carrot plant in flower. 124 VEGETABLE GARDENING. small seedling-s will not be overrun with weeds; the sur- face soil should be kept loose and mellow throughout the sea- son. It is a good plan to sow a few radish seeds with the car- rot seed, so that cultivation may be commenced early, as the- latter start slowlj'. The seed of the small kinds should be sown very early in the spring and will produce roots big enough for table use by early summer; but for the main crop the seed should be sown about the middle of May in rows four- teen inches apart. A fair crop may be expected, even if the seed is not sown until the middle of June, although the dry weather which generally prevails at that time of the year is liable to prevent or retard the germination of the seed or to burn u]) the seedlings just as they are pushing out of the ground. The crop is sometimes sown in rows two feet apart and cultivated with a horse implement. If the seed is good, two pounds per acre, or about ten seeds to the foot of row, is plenty to sow. Very thick seeding is not desirable, as the cost of thinning in such a case is considerable. It is best for the exjDerienced grower to have all the conditions right and then sow the seed so that little, if any, weeding will be neces- sary. The beginner will be very likely find it safest to sow a large amount of seed, perhaps three pounds per acre, and thin out so that the plants will stand three inches apart in the row. The richer the soil, the more room the roots require in the row; if small roots are wanted, they may be left an inch apart in the row. Gathering. One of the greatest outlays in raising carrots is in gathering and topping the crop. This work may be done by hand, but hand labor is very costly. Some growers go ■over the rows and cut the tops off with a sharp hand hoe, but generally they are topped by hand after being plowed out. If the tops of the roots are cut off* a little, no harm is done, as it does not increase the liability to rot as is the case with beets. The roots are, perhaps, dug most easily by plowing close to each row and then pulling the roots out by hand. For this purpose a subsoil plow is best, but any good plow will answer the purpose fairly well. If some short rooted variety is grown and the land is mellow, the plow may often be run so as to turn the roots out on top of the furrow slice, which is a most con- v^enient way of gathering them. CARROT. 125 Kie>N^ "■ " n B^^^^^^£i^%k^^^S ^1|^^; ^p^ Fig. 60.— Harvesting long carrots and par.snips by plowing the earth away on one side, and then puUing the roots by hand. Storing. Carrots are easily kept over winter in cellars, providing they are in a tamperature near the freezing point and are not too rijje when dug. If the seed has been planted too early, the roots will ripen up early in the fall and will cease to grow, and many of the leaves will turn yellow. Such roots do not keep well, but are liable to sprout badly long be- fore spring, even if kept cold. To have the roots keep best, they should be growing rapidly when dug. In dry cellars, it may be necessary to cover with loam or sand to prevent those on top of the bin or pile from wilting. If they are to be fed early in the winter, they may be piled in the barn and covered with chaff and straw sufficient to keep out^he frost. Carrot seed is raised by planting out the roots in the springy about two feet apart, in rows four feet apart. The seed heads ripen irregularly and are gathered as they ripen and threshed when dry. The seed is generally rubbed against a sieve having a fine mesh to take the bristles off, otherwise it would be a difficult matter to sow it in a machine. Forcing carrots is carried on to a limited extent, for which purpose they may be sown between rows of radishes in the hotbed or greenhouse. Varieties. For very early table use the Short Scarlet is best. For general use in summer and for winter use, perhaps there is no better variety than the Danvers. The Guerande Half 126 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Xiong-, or Oxheart, is a variety that is very thick and «hort and yields nearly as much as the Danvers. It has the advantage, moreover, of being easily pulled by hand without any digging. The White Belgian is a large cropper, but Fig. 61.— Varieties of Carrots. 1.— White Belgian. 2.— Long Orange. 3.— Orange Danvers. 4.— Ox-Heart. .5.— Pointed-Rooted. 6.— Blunt-Rooted Horn. 7.— Extra Early Forcing. {After Landreth..) only of value as food for stock. Thirty tons of carrots are sometimes raised on one acre, but in ordinary practice seldom more than half that amount are raised. CAULIFLOWER. [Brassica oleracea.) Native of Europe. — Biennial.— Cauliflower is a form of -cabbage in which the inflorescence becomes fleshy and dis- CAULIFLOWER. 127 5e^^"_ Fig. 62.— SnoAvball cauliflower. torted. It is. however, con- sidered much more delicate than cabbage and brings a higher price. It is grown in much the same manner as cab- b a g e : the plants, howev- er, are not so hardy in resist- ing cold weath- er as cabbage, are more sensi- tive to adverse conditions and should have more man- ureinthe soil. As soon as the head commences to form, the outside leaves of the plant shou Id be drawn together over the head so as to keep the sunlight away from it. Treated in this way, the heads will be nearly snow white: if not pro- tected, they become brown in color and are not as salable. The crop ripens somewhat irregularly. When dan- ger of hardfrost is appa- rent, the immature heads «5hnnlfl Ytt^ r^-n^^a^i wifVi Fig. 63.— Cauliflower plant with leaves tied to- biiuum ue puiieu wim gether to keep the sunUght off the head. roots and leaves and This should be done as soon as the head ■1 1 i. ^ u. • can be seen, and the leaves should remain oe planted out in • 3 a tied until the head is cut out. 128 VEGETABLE GARDENING. cold cellar or cold frame, where many of them will form good salable heads. The insect enemies are the same as those of the cabbage. Varieties. There are many varieties, but, perhaps, the most desirable are the Snowball and the Early Dwarf Erfurt. CELERY. ( Ainum graveolens. ) Native of Europe. — Biennial. — The plants are grown for the fleshy leaf stalks, which are very tender when blanched; one form is also grown for the large fleshy roots. The whole plant has a pleasant aromatic flavor. The seed-stalks are branching and grow from two to three feet high, and have very small yellowish or greenish flowers in umbels. The seed is small, triangular and flve-ribbed, having the characteristic aromatic flavor of the plant very pronounced. Celery is a crop that is very liable to suffer from the want of rich nitrogenous manures and from a superabundance of or a lack of moisture in the soil. On this account it should be grown on retentive, yet well drained, rich land. Well drained bog land with the water about eighteen inches from the surface is often excellent for this purpose. Early Celery. The seed for early celery is generally sown the latter part of February or early in March in boxes in a greenhouse. As soon as the plants are of sufficient size to handle, they are pricked out into other boxes or into hotbeds, where they remain until large enough for planting out, which is sometime in May. The tops of the plants should be sheared off once before they are pricked out and again before they are planted to the open ground, as this makes them stocky and helps them to recover from transplanting. If the leaves are all left on the plants when they are set out, they generally dry up and in so doing take away much moisture from the root. The plants should be hardened off before being set out. Early celery should be bleached by being covered with boards or with boards and straw, since the ordinary way of bleaching it by banking with earth is liable to bring on disease in warm weather. Late Celery. The greatest demand for celery is during the autumn and winter months, and very little is marketed during the summer. The seed for autumn and winter celery is gener- CELERY. 129 ally sown in April in the open ground, although some of our best growers sow the seed in hotbeds or cold frames early in April, before the land outdoors can be worked at all. If the Fig. 64.— Celery plants. Those on left have been transplanted and show in consequence an unproved root system for planting out. Those on right were only grown in seed bed without transplanting and have not as good roots for planting out. The plants with tops trimmed are ready for planting out. is sown outside, a piece of fine rich land is generally selected. The seed is sown in drills about nine inches apart and one-quarter inch deep, and the soil is well firmed over it after covering-. Some g-rowers do not cover celery seed at all, 130 VEGETABLE GARDENING. except by rollino- or patting it down with the back of a spade. If there is danger of the seed drying out, some growers shade the bed with cotton cloth or with a lath screen raised about one foot from the ground and so made as to keep off about one-half the sunlight. Another plan is to cover the bed with burlap after sowing the seed and water the seed through it; in this latter case, however, it is very important to watch carefully and remove the cloth covering as soon as the plants appear. The seed germinates slowly. The seedlings are quite weak and should re- ceive almost constant cultivation. The top should be sheared off once or twice, as re- commended for early celery, to make the plants stocky: they should also be thinned out so that there will rty or tifty plants to the foot of sufficiently large, they . should be tlie field where they are to grow. this way. the plants will be strong if left to crowd one another, they will be wea;k and poor. Some suc- ers prefer to transplant once to before setting in the field where the mature. This makes the final trans- White most certain by increasing the ^ fi- 65.- be not ov row. When moved to Treated in and stocky: p r o b a b 1 y cessful grow narrow rows crop is to p 1 a n t i n gpig brous roots ^X^^^ celery, ^ut is not generally necessary, ;al- though a good plan under unfavorable conditions. ' Planting. Having good plants, the next thing is to set them so as to get a good crop. It is quite a common practice in some sections to grow celery as a second crop after early peas, lettuce, cabbage or beets. In such a case the plants, perhaps, had better not be set out until the first crop has been gathered: but where only one crop is to be grown the plants may be set as soon as big enough, provided the land is ready. This will generally be the latter part of June or the first of J uly and for latest use the latter part of July. The land should be CELERY. 131 thoroughly plowed, harrowed and smoothed off. Furrows should then be made where the plants are to go, about six inches deep, in which about three inches of fine, well-rotted manure or compost should be placed. This manure should be thoroughly mixed with the soil, and the furrow nearly filled. For mixing the manure and soil, perhaps there is no better implement than a one horse cultivator with the teeth set close together. If the land is unusually rich in plant food, there is no need of going to this trouble, but the plants may be set right after the marker. In any case, the plants should be four or five feet apart for the common kinds that have to be bleached by "banking up with earth," but the self-bleach- ing kinds can be managed in rows three feet apart. Before the plants are dug from the seed bed, it should be thoroughly soaked with water. The plants should have the tops and roots partly cut off and the roots dipped in water. The place where they are to be planted should be moist, and every precaution taken to prevent the plants drying out wljen they are being moved. Special attention should be given to planting on freshly plowed land and to firming the soil around the roots. The plants should be set six inches apart, after stretching a line for marking out to get the rows straight. If the land is dry, it must be watered bsfore it is safe to set out celery plants, and if the weather is dry the plants must also be shaded from the sun. This shade may be given by cover- ing the plants with finely cut grass. The ground should be kept clean and mellow between the plants with a horse cultivator throughout the season. If, while the crop is growing, it is thought the plants re- quire more food, it maj" be supplied by plowing a shallow furrow away from them on one side and putting in fine well- rotted stable manure, hen manure or compost and covering it with soil. This treatment supplies the food directly to the roots and is very effective. Nitrate of soda or other nitro- genous fertilizer may also be used to advantage in this way. Celery and Onions Together. In some sections celery is grown as a second ci'op with onions. In this case every fourth ov~ fifth ro.w is left vacant when the onion seed is sown, and th;s space is set out to late celery plants at the proper time. If the onion seed is sown by the 20th of April, almost any of the 132 VEGETABLE GARDENING. well known commercial sorts like Yellow Danvers or Red Wethersfield will be ripe by the middle of Aug-ust, when they can be harvested; and then the celery can occupy all the land during- the cool weather of autumn, when it makes its most rapid growth. Handling. As celery grows naturally, it spreads on the surface of the ground, like the carrot. The term handling re- fers to the process by which the leaf stalks of each plant are drawn together and some earth pressed firmly around them by the hands, to hold them in an uprig-ht position. After this is done, more earth is drawn towards the plants with a hoe, until there is enough to prevent their spreading- open. All celery plants should have this upright form before being stored, and it is all the bleaching treatment necessary for the self-blanch- ing- kinds. The land should be thoroughly cultivated and a furrow turned towards the plants on each side of the row before the handling- process is begun, so that there may be plenty of loose earth to work with. Bleaching with Earth, or "Banking." If the celery is intended for marketing previous to the first of December, it should be -^Hd. In practice the "sets" should have one, two or thi'ee eyes according to whether the tubers have few or many eyes. Varieties with few eyes, such as the Rural New Yorker No. 2, should be cut to about one eye to a piece, while those POTATO. 183 having- many eyes should have two or three to each piece. Very small seed pieces will not give a full crop, and large pieces are desirable. The biggest crops are most likely to come from the planting of whole tubers, but such- sets general- ly give a larger proportion of small potatoes than cuttings made as recommended. The constant use of small tubers for sets undoubtedly causes varieties to "run out," and, although it is a practice that may be occasionally followed without serious results, it should be avoided if practicable. Varieties of potatoes seldom retain their pristine vigor and productiveness many years except in very favorable locations. On some land, even with the best of care, they are apt to "run out," and, as a rule, it is a good plan to occasionally get seed stock from locations very favorable to the best develop- ment of the potato or, at least, to change for seed potatoes grown on a different kind of land. In saving potatoes foir seed, it is desirable to select them in the field from hills having the largest number of market- able tubers, as there is then a tendency to fix this desirable quality. When selecting from the bin, take smooth, even, medium-sized potatoes ; the largest tubers will not neces- sarily give the largest yield. If planting is done on a small scale, it is probably more economical to cut them by hand. Some of the automatic feed machines leave a good many pieces without eyes, and on this account hand fed potato cutters are most desirable for general use, although where land is very cheap the automatic feed machines may some- times be the more economical. Early Planting. For early use, potatoes should be planted as soon as the ground is nicely settled. Light, sandy loam is best for this purpose. The tops are quite sensitive to frost, but, as they start slowly, they seldom get up until all danger from frost is passed. If when pushing out of the ground there is danger from frost, the tops are easily protected from it by covering them lightly with loose earth from between the rows, through which they soon push again. If frozen off when sev- eral inches high, the crop is generally seriously lessened, even though new sprouts take the place of those injured. For early crops, the ground should be plowed several times to expose it to the air and to warm it before planting. The sets should no^ 184 VEGETABLE GARDENING. be covered quite so deep as for the main crop, but in other par- ticulars the crop should be treated the same way. andthe quick- est maturing- kinds only should be planted. If the tubers for early sets are spread out in a light, warm room for three or four weeks before planting, healthy green sprouts will start from the eyes, and, if in cutting these sprouts are carefully handled so as not to break them off, the crop will be much earlier than if the sets were not thus started; they may also be started in a hotbed before or after being cut and afterwards transplanted to the open ground; but these methods are seldom practiced except in a very small way, although in some sec- tions they might be made profitable. Main Crop. For the main crop of potatoes, it is desirable to have the seed in the ground pretty early. It is customary in this section to plant from the middle of May to the first of June. When planted later, they are very liable to suffer ser- ' iously from drought, and earlier planting is more desirable. The results of many experiments show that the sets should be planted about four inches deep, at sixteen inch intervals, in rows three feet apart. This work may be done by furrowing out with the plow or horse hoe, planting by hand and cover- ing the sets with the plow, though when planted on a large scale the work is generally done by a potato planter. There are several excellent potato planters on the market. Some good growers prefer to plant the sets in check rows three feet apart each w^ay when the land is weedy, but so much space be- tween the plants is not generally desii-able, since under ordi- nary circumstances thorough harrowing when the crop is young' will destroy all weeds. If the sets are planted four inches deep, very little hilling up is required; if planted much deeper," the digging is quite difficult; if planted nearer the surface, the tubers are liable to push out of the ground and require to be hilled up, which is not desirable. The land should be har- rowed or thoroughly cultivated with a Breed's Weeder as soon as the smallest weeds can be seen or a crust forms on the land after planting. It is entirely practicable to harrow potatoes at least three times, the first time just before the plants showr the second when they are just above ground and the third when the plants are three or four inches high. Little if any harm will be done the plants by this work, provided a slanting tooth POTATO. 185 harrow is used. Such treatment will do more to remove weeds than a good hand hoeing-, and the expense of the operation is almost nothing. If the work is properly done, there is no need of hand work. Subsequent cultivation should consist in keeping the soil loose between the rows, and a little earth should be thrown against the plants. For this purpose a good horse hoe will do excellent work, but a still better implement is a two horse cultivator that works both sides of the row at one- operation. It is not a good plan to hill up potatoes, and it should not be done unless they are pushing out of the ground, when they will turn green if not covered up. Cultivation should be thorough when the plants are young but is not desirable- after the tops have made most of their growth. Digging Potatoes. Early potatoes are generally dug as soon as they are big enough for cooking if there is a market for them; for winter use, it is very desirable to have the tubers well ripened, as if not ripe the skin will peel off when handled, and they do not look well. When potatoes are high in price, it may pay to dig them by hand, for which purpose four-tined garden forks are desirable; the best potato diggers, however, do as good work as can be done by hand, and are generally used by those who raise this crop on a large scale. When, potatoes are cheap, they should be dug with a potato digger or plowed out; though when plowed out some tubers will get covered up, most of these may be brought to the surface by the use of a straight tooth harrow. If the tubers are keep- ing well in the ground, it is a good plan to delay the digging until the cool weather of autumn, when they may be carried directly from the field to the cellar. If they are rotting in the ground or are "scabby." they should be dug at once, and if the cellar is cool they may be put at once into it, but, other- wise, it is a good plan to pit them in the field. Pitting in mild weather is done by putting the tubers into heaps and covering them with straw or hay and a few inches of loam. The straw should be allowed to stick out along the top of the heap as a ventilator, so as to allow the moisture to pass off. In the colder weather of late autumn, the covering, of course, should be heavier, and when the potatoes have ceased to sweat there is no need of a ventilator. In milder sections, potatoes are stored through the winter in such pits, 186 VEGETABLE GARDENING. but it is impracticable here. However, even in Minnesota, potatoes may be safely kept over winter in trenches or pits made below the ground, although a good cellar is a far more desirable place. For this purpose, the pit should not be large; a good size is four feet wide and deep and not more than six feet long. It should be filled heaping full with the potatoes and covered with six inches of straw and eighteen of soil. Ventilation is given until cold weather sets in and the potatoes are cooled off. The whole pit should then be covered with enough litter or manure ( generally about two feet ) to keep out the frost. Such pits can only be opened in mild weather. If this work is well done, the potatoes will be in fine condition Fig. 97.— Potatoes pitted for winter. in the spring, but beginners are very apt to fail of success in this method of storing, and they should attempt it only on a small scale. It is better to make several pits close together rather than one large one, since in a large one the potatoes are likely to sweat. Potatoes should always be kept in a cool, dark place. The sunlight should not be allowed to shine on them for any length of time, since it causes them to turn green and develops a poisonous substance in them. If kept in a cellar, the bins are improved by having slatted floors and sides, so that there may be some circulation of air through them to prevent heating at the bottom. The bins should not be large nor more than five feet deep. There is a great differ- ence in the keeping qualities of varieties; as a rule, the early POTATO. 187 kinds are hard to keep from sprouting, and the late kinds keep the best. Starch. When potatoes are low in price, they can be profit- ably worked into starch, but for this purpose starch factories must be nearby. Such factories are not expensive and should be more common in this section. The demand for potatoes seems destined to increase very much. There is a growing- demand each year from the Eastern and Southern states for Northwestern grown potatoes. Under ordinary cultivation in this section, they seldom yield more Fig. 98.— Six good varieties of early potatoes. 1.— Ohio Jr. 2.— Early OMo. 3.— Burpee's Extra Early. 4.— Early Harvest. 5.— Freeman. 6.— Good News. than 150 bushels per acre of marketable tubers, and the aver- age even in favorable years is probably not over 120 bushels per acre. There are, however, recorded yields here of 800 bushels per acre, and they often yield over 400 bushels. Varieties. There is a very great difference in varieties, but many kinds closely resemble one another. There is quite a difference in the adaptability of varieties to soils. The large coarser kinds are good for starch but not desirable for table use. Most markets prefer a white or pink potato, rather long, oval in form and smooth, but the fashions change and vary considerably. Some of the varieties at present regarded with much favor are the following: 188 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Early Ohio. The most popular early kind and a good sort for the general crop, productive aad very early. BuRBANK, OR Burbank's SEEDLING, is an excellent late kind and a good keeper, but seems to be running out in some sections. It cooks a little soggy until winter, when it is of ex- cellent table quality. Form long and round. Rural New Yorker No. 2. Form flat, roundish oblong, very productive. Quality a little inferior and sometimes in- clined to be hollow. Very popular in some sections. It is undoubtedly much influenced by the soil on which it grows. Fig. 99.— Six good varieties of late potatoes. 1.— Rural New Yorker No. 2. :i.— American Wonder. 3.— Irish Cobbler, 4.~Worlds Fair. 5. — Woodbury White. 6.— Carman No. 1. Early Rose, is the progenitor of most of our good kinds. It was introduced into cultivation about 1868 and is still pro- ductive in the best potato districts of this section but is not now adapted to general use. Other varieties of special merit of theearly kinds are Early Acme and Vaughan; of medium and late kinds are American Wonder, White Prolific, Maggie Murphy and Delaware. Note on Propagation. New varieties of potatoes are gen- erally high in price, and it is desirable to increase them rapidly. This may be done as follows: Place the tubers in rich soil in a box or in pots, without cut- ting them, in a warm, light room, hotbed or greenhouse. As soon as the sprouts are nicely furnished with roots, break them off at the surface of the potato below the roots and plant POTATO. 189 in pots. New sprouts will start from the eyes again, and the process may be repeated until the tuber is exhausted. By an- other way, the tubers are cut up and planted in g-ood rich loam. As soon as the shoots are six inches or more high, about three inches is cut off the top of each. These pieces are put in moist sand, watered frequently and allowed all the sun- light they will stand without wilting and treated the same as it is common to treat cuttings of house plants. In three or four weeks, they will be rooted and maybe potted in rich soil. These shoots may again be cut when nicely started, and so on. The plants thus grown are planted out when the weather is settled in the spring. For best success with these methods of propagation, the work should begin in the late winter or very early spring. Insects. There are but few insects that do serious injury to the potato in this section, and the most important of these is the Colorado potato beetle, or "potato-bug," but it may also be injured by blister beetles, wire worms and white grubs. (For remedies for these pests, see chapter on insects.) Diseases. There are several diseases that sometimes injure the potato. The most common of these are known as the scab and the blight. Scab is a term used to refer to the rough patches with which potatoes are frequently covered. Potatoes so infected are lessened in yield, and on account of being un- sightly and rough do not sell readily. The term blight refers to a disease that kills the tops. Scab of Potatoes is caused by a fungous plant working in the surface of the potato. The germs of it are very abundant and live for many years in the soil and also over winter on •the potatoes. If these germs are fed to stock, they undoubted- ly grow in the manure, and the use of such manure may often be the cause of infection. Also, they may be spread in the soil by natural drainage, and land receiving the drainage •from infested fields may become infested with the disease with- out ever having potatoes on them. Scabby seed jDotatoes when planted on new or old potato land will generally pro- duce a scabby crop, but the amount of the disease will gener- ally be much more on the old land than on the new. Perfectly clean seed potatoes planted on land which is free from the scab fungus will always and in any season produce 190 VEGETABLE GARDENING. a crop of smooth, clean potatoes, no matter what may be the character of the soil; but apparently clean seed potatoes may have the germs of the scab fungus on their surface. This is often the case where they have been sorted out from a lot that is somewhat infected with scab. In this latter case the tubers should, at least, be thoroughly washed in runnings water to remove any germs that may be present or, what is better yet, be treated with corrosive sublimate {mercuric bichlor- ide ) as recommended below. Land infected by the germs of potato scab will produce a Treated. Fig. 100.— Potato Scab. Not treated. Both plates grown from the same lot of scabby seed. more or less scabby crop, no matter how clean and smooth the seed used. Scabby potatoes should be dug as soon as mature, since the scab fungus continues to grow on the potatoes as long as they are in the ground. Scabby potatoes may safely be used for seed, providing they are first treated with corrosive sublimate as follows: Procure from a druggist two ounces of powdered corrosive sublimate [mercuric bichloride); put this into two gallons of hot water in a wooden or earthenware vessel and allow it to stand until dissolved. Place thirteen gallons of water in a clean barrel, pour in the solution of corrosive sublimate and allow it to stand two or three hours, with frequent stirrings in order to have the solution uniform. Select potatoes as nearly free POTATO. 191 from scab as can be obtained; put the seed potatoes into bags, either before or after cutting them and then dip them in- to the corrosive sublimate solution and allow them to stay in it for an hour and a half. If seed potatoes are treated in this way and then planted on land free from scab, the re. sultant crop will seldom be seriously injured, by scab. The expense of this treatment including- labor should not exceed one dollar per acre. Blight of potatoes is a disease which attacks the leaves and stems of potatoes, and sometimes even the tubers are affected. It is most prevalent during moist, warm weather, when some- times the fungus may be seen as a delicate white mildew on the stems and leaves of the potato vines. In seasons favorable to it, the tops of an entire field may be killed in a few days from the time the disease was first noticed; at other times, the tops die so gradually it is mistaken for a natural dying of the vines. Rotting of the tubers often follows the dying of the tops. It has been quite clearly shown that this disease may be kept in check, or the trouble entirely prevented, by spraying the tops with the Bordeaux mixture occasionally. It is, however, somewhat doubtful about the benefits being sufficiently certain in this sectionto justify the expense; but should this disease be- come more abundant it may prove to be a paying operation. The cost of treating one acre with the Bordeaux mixture is about $5.00. There is little use of applying this material after the damage from the disease is apparent, as it must be used as a preventive. Bordeaux Mixture is made as follows: Dissolve five pounds of blue vitriol ( sulphate of copper ) in a wooden or earthen- ware vessel. As this substance dissolves very slowly in cold water and solutions of it are very heavy, it is well to suspend it near the top of the water. ( It dissolves more quickly in hot water.) In another vessel, slake five pounds of good fresh quicklime in ten gallons of water. When the mixture is wanted, pour the blue vitriol into a barrel containing thirty- five gallons of water and then add the lime. When thoroughly stirred, the color of the mixture should be a clear sky blue. After being mixed for a day or so the mixture loses much of its strength, so it is well to use a supply that has been mixed only a short time previously. There are many formulas 192 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Fig. lui.— inierniU brown potato. usedjWhich vary as to the amount of lime and water, but the above gives good satisfaction when used properly. Internal brown rot is the name given to a disease which has recently appeared in a few potato growing sections in this country. It is first noticed by the darkening of the starchy portion of the tubers, which may become very much discolored without any manifestation of its presence on the outside; later on the potato rots. The life history of this disease is not known, nor are any reme- dies known for it. Ordinary prudence, however, would in- dicate that seed potatoes in the least affected with this trouble should not be planted. SWEET POTATO. {Iimmrjea batatas.) Native of South America. — Perennial but cultivated as an annual.— It is a near relative of the morning glory and scarcely resembles the common potato in any particular. It probably cannot be profitably raised in the extreme Noi'thern states, but may be grown in a small way in warm, sandy soil as far north as Minne- sota and will produce even there very large tu- bers. The plant never flowers at the North and is never cultivated from seed. Culture. The sweet po- tato is raised from sprouts, which are pro- duced abundantly if the tubers are planted in a hotbed in the early spt'ing the tubers and are planted out after the soil has become warm. Fig. 102.— Sweet potatoes and piece of vine. The sprouts are carefully pulled from PUMPKINS. 193 They should be set two feet apart, in rows four feet apart. They need considerable care until started, after which they re- quire good cultivation only and are easily grown. The vines spread on the ground and have a tendency to root at the joints, which should be discouraged by moving them at every hoeing. They are very susceptible to cold weather and should be pulled as soon as the tops are frosted. There are many cultivated varieties in the south. For the northern states, Early Carolina is perhaps the best. PUMPKIN. ( Cucu rhita Pepo. ) Native of warm climates. — Annual. — Under the name of pumpkin are grouped a number of gourds, greatly varying in shape, color, size and quality. Some of them are very good for cooking purposes, but they are not generally esteemed for table use by those who have become accustomed to the better kinds of squashes; some of them are great yielders and are used for feeding cattle. They may be grown as i*ecommended for squash or. as is most Fig. 103.— Cheese pumpkin. commonly practiced, grown amongst the corn, where the seed is planted as soon as warm weather is assured. The seed varies much in size. For re- marks on its flow^ers and pollination see squash with which they are nearly identical. The Variety most generally grown is known as Connecti- cut Field, which is of large size and used mainly for feeding stock. Sugar and Cheese pumpkins are varieties much grown for cooking. RADISHES. ( Baphanus sativus. ) Probably a native of Asia. — Annual or, in the case of the winter radish, biennial. — The flower stalks are branched, about three feet high and have white or lilac-colored flowers, but never yellow. The seed is roundish or oval but somewhat flattened, much larger than cabbage or turnip seed, and much more variable in size. Some recent exiDeriments show that 194. VEGETABLE GARDENING. the large radish seeds g-erminate more quickly and with more certainty and produce marketable roots sooner and more uni- formly than small seed. Culture. The radish is a vegetable of very easy culture. The roots of some kinds reach edible size in three weeks when grown under the best conditions and are a favorite in the early spring-. It is a common practice to sow the seed of early kinds *in hotbedsbetween rows of lettuce and outdoors between, or in the rows of beets, carrots, par- snips, etc. They will g-rowin almost any soil, but new land is best. The seed may be sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring and suc- Figr. 104.— White Strasburg radishes. C e S S i v e SOW ings should then be made every two weeks. Winter radishes are grown and stored in the same manner and fully as easily, as turnips. The seed is sown in June or July, and the roots gathered in autumn and stored in the cellar or pitted outdoors. They keep very well. Winter radishes closely resemble the early kinds in quality, but are firmer in texture. The cabbage flea beetle affects the young- radish plants in the late spring- and summer. ( See chapter on insects for remedies.) The roots are sometimes infested with maggots, but these are seldom troublesome except where fresh manure is used or in land where radishes have been grown for several years. It is best not to manure the land for radishes but use rich soil that has been put in good order by some other crop. RHUBARB. 195 Varieties. There are many kinds, differino- from each other color form, size, time of maturity and taste. They are generally divided into early, or forcing varie- ties: summer and au- tumn varieties and ^ ^^^. ^ winter kinds. A few of ^"^^"^^^^^^^ vS^^%^ ' '-^ each are here mentioned. I.. '^ .^m)iJmmi,^h\ French Breakfast. One of the best very ear- ly radishes for the mar- ket. It remains in good condition for only a short time after becom- ing edible: hence, is not so desirable for the Fig. 105.— French breakfast radishes. home garden. Early White Tipped Scarlet Turnip Shaped.— A handsome, round, early, popular radish, maturing very quickly. Early Deep Scarlet. Very early, round and of deep scarlet color. Long Scarlet Short Top. A well known desirable early kind having long scarlet roots. White Strasburg. One of the finest half long kinds for summer use. Grows to good size: white and tender. Rose. The most popular of the winter sorts. Skin pink. Black Spanish. Skin very black, flesh white, firm, ten- der but very pungent. A good winter sort. RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. {Bheum Bhapontkum.) The cultivated varieties of rhubarb are generally supposed to have come from Mongolia, though it is quite possible that some varieties may have sprung from a North American species. The plant is an herbaceous perennial whose leaf stalks are used for sauce, pies, etc. It sends up a flower stalk often four feet high, and produces a large amount of seed each year. It is perfectly hardy in gardens, even in very severe situations and when once planted continues to yield a 196 VEGETABLE GARDENING. bundant crops formally years. The seeds are large and tri- ang-ular. Culture. Rhubarb is readily inci-eased from the seed, which germinates quickly. Seedlings vary considerably but not enough to prevent this method of propaga- tion from being the one most commonly practiced. They attain good trans- planting size in one year. It is customary to sow the seed in. rows three feet apart, early in the spring, and set out the plants when one year old where they are to grow; the plants may also be thinned out and a few allowed to re- main where the seeds are sown. When it is desired to propagate the specially valuable qualities of individual plants, it is done by dividing the roots, using care to take at least one good bud with each piece of root. This is the only sure way of getting the best plants. It is preferable to set the plants out in the fall where they are to grow, but spring planting is often followed. They should be set in the richest of land four feet apart each way. The stalks should not be pulled until the spring of the second year and then only to a small extent; the third year they should give a good crop. The only culture needed is to keep the ground free from weeds and loose, and to use plenty of manure. In gathering rhubarb, the stalks should be removed from the crown by a jerk downward and sideways, and care should be taken not to be so rough about it as to pull the buds from the crown at the same time. There is little danger of pulling more leaves than the plant can stand without injury, but in the case of a young plantation it would not be well to remove more than one-half of the leaves at any one time. The stalks are most in demand early in the spring, but there is Fig. 106. —Rhubarb plant in flower RHUBARB. 1 97 more or less call for them all summer. The seed stalks should be cut off as soon as they appear, so as to throw their strength into the leaves and to prevent the formation of seed, if the largest amount of stalks is needed. Forcing Rhubarb. For winter and spring use rhubarb is often forced in greenhouses and cold frames. The roots of any age are taken up in autumn, crowded together under the benches in greenhouses or placed in boxes or barrels with a . little soil between them, and put in any convenient place in the greenhouse or a w^arm light room or cellar where they start into growth by February. Still another way of forcing rhubarb in the spring is by putting a cold frame over the Fig. 107.— Pieces of rhubarb roots cut off for planting out. plants where they grow in the open ground. This method may be improved by heavily mulching the plants so as to keep out the frost in winter. The roots are sometimes lifted in autumn, planted close together in a deep cold frame and covered with leaves to keep out frost. In March the leaves are removed, and the sashes put on. This method has the advantage of using the sashes to the best advantage, but roots that are dug and then forced are worthless for further planting. In order to increase the length of the stalks, it is a common practice where but a small amount is grown to put headless barrels over each plant in the spring w^hen the leaves are starting into growth, and in striving to reach the light the leaf stalks 198 VEGETABLE GARDENINCt. naturally grow long- and tender. An old sash laid over the bai'rel is an improvement on this method. Varieties. There are several varieties but the following- kinds are the most highly esteemed: Myatt's Linneus. An early sort having deep green stalks and attaining to a large size. Myatt's Victoria. A much later kind than the preced- ing. Stalks red. very thick and large. SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. [Tragopogon por- rifolius. ) Native of Europe.— Biennial. — A plant .with long fleshy tap-root and grass-like leaves. The flower stalks grow three feet high: the seed is long, ridged, generally curved and pointed at both ends. It is rath- er difficult to plant with a seed sower because of its peculiar form, but w^hen thoroughly cleaned it is often so planted. Culture. The cultural direc- tions given for the parsnip ap- ply to this plant. It is very ea- sily grown and hardy, and generally comes through the winter in ths extreme northern states without injury; it is safer, however, to dig the roots in autumn and put in pits until spring or for use during winter. The root is highly esteemed and has the flavor of oysters: it is used for soups but may be cooked in the same manner as parsnips. The best variety is the Mam- moth Sandwich Island, which Fig. 108. -Sandwich Island salsify, is far superior to any other. SQUASH. SQUASH. [Cucurhita. 199 The term squash does not signify any botanical division, but is an American name that is applied to a large number of varieties of gourds which in common parlance have come to be classified separately. The term often includes what are sometimes called pumpkins. Pollenizing the flowers. The flowers resemble those of the cu- cumber and melon, being separate on the same vine. The pistillate flower is produced at the end of the miniature Fig. 109.— Flowers of the squash. To the left two stammate (male)flowers: to the right two pistillate (female) flowers. squash: the staminate flower is often called the "false blos- som," and its office is to produce pollen only. They are naturally pollenized by insects. ( The crop is made more certain by having bees near by to pollenize the flowers. In some places, the absence of many in- sects is the reason why cucumbers, melons and squashes, which 200 VEGETABLE GARDENING. are similar in the construction of their flowers, fail to produce much fruit, thoug-h the vines may g-row freely. This is a com- mon complaint in some new prairie sections, as there is often quite an absence of insects in such cases. Where the small cucumbers, squashes or melons fall off and fail to mature, this matter of pollenization should be closely looked into, and if insects are not present the work can be quickly and easily done by hand. For this purpose a rather large camel's hair brush is used which can be filled at one time with enough pol- len from a few male flowers to polle'nize twenty or more female flowers. The seed is oval and flat but varies greatly in size. There is a common belief among gardeners that vines from old seed do not grow so strong as those from new seed and produce more fruit. This seems to be borne out by some experiments. Cultivation. The cultivation of the squash and the pumpkin is much the same as for cucumbers. About six sseds should be put in each hill. These should be eight feet apart each way for the longer growing kinds and five feet apart for the bush sorts. The plants should be thinned out after they are estab- lished, so as to allow two plants to each hill. They are af- fected by the same insect pests as the cucumber and the same remedies are in order. In .addition, however, to these, some kinds are afl:ected in the eastern states by a borer which works in the stem and by the squash bug. ( See chapter on insects. ) The early varieties of the squash are sometimes started in hotbeds or cold frames to advance them and thus avoid serious injury from the striped beetle. Harvesting. Summer squash are not grown for storing and are not desirable except before the skin hardens, when they are used entire. Winter squash are excellent for use in a green state but are not gathered for storing until the skin is hard. They should always be gathered upon the approach of frosty weather, as a very little frost injures their keeping qualities, although the injury may not be apparent when gathered. It is a good plan to place them in piles in the field, leaving them exposed to the sun during the day and cov- ering them with the vines or other material every frosty night until they are thoroughly dried and the skins have become SQUASH. 201 hard and flinty. In g-atherino-, cut the stem off not over an inch from the sqiiasli, for if the stem is left on it is liable to be used as a handle and to be broken off and thus leave a spot that is very sure to start to rotting. Squashes should be handled with the greatest care if they are to be kept success- fully: each one should be placed in the wagon or on the shelf separately; if handled roughly, they will not keep. They should be carried in a spring wagon or on a bed of hay or straw. Storing. Winter squash keep best in a dry atmosphere and at a cool temperature. They will, however, keep well in a warm or even hot cellar or room, providing it is dry, but quickly rot in a moist atmosphere. They will shrink more in weight in a warm than in a cool place. They should be laid on shelves one tier deep, and never piled up if it is desired to keep them long. When well hardened without exposure to frost before storing and kept dry, the winter sorts are easily kept until March. The quality of squash varies somewhat according to the land on which it is grown. Sandy loam is generally be lieved to produce the best flavored dry flesh squash. Summer Varieties. iCucurbita jjcjxj.) Summer Crookneck is a summer sort, generally with a crooked neck, that is highly Fig. no.— Varieties of summer squashes. Crookneck. Boston Marrow. Scalloped. esteemed. A form of this without the crooked neck is also grown. Bush Scalloped. Yellow and white varieties of this for summer use are much grown by market gardeners, differing 202 VEGETABLE GARDENING. only in color of the skin. They are round-flat and leave a scalloped edg-e. Fall and Winter Varieties. {Cucurhita maxima.) Hubbard. This is the best known, and most largely grown of the winter varieties. It varies somewhat in form, is generally dark green in color and sometimes marked with red. When well grown it has a rough shell of flinty hardness, thick, heavy flesh and cooks dry. The quality varies much according to the land on which it is grown, sandy loam generally produc- ing the best. Marblehead. Resembles the Hubbard in quality of flesh, and by many is considered superior. It difl'ers from Fig. 111.— Hubbard squash. the Hubbard in form and color of the skin, which is ashy gray, and the flesh is much thinner. It yields less in weight but generally produces more squashes per acre. ESSFJC Hybrid. Vei'y fine grained, rich, sweet and a good keeper; excellent. Bay State. A good variety. Boston Marrow. Much grown for marketing and very highly esteemed for summer and fall use. Orange Marrow. A form of the Boston Marrow. Miscellaneous Varieties. Winter Crookneck. One of the hardiest, most reliable and best keeping squashes, but in SPINACH. 203 quality no better than some of the immpkins. Very little in demand for marketing, but popular in some sections for home use. CocoANUT, Perfect Gem and Chestnut are varieties producing- a large number of small squashes of excellent quality and very easily raised. SPINACH. ( Simiada oleracea. ) Properly a native of Western Asia. — An annual plant cul- tivated for its leaves, which form a popular spring and early summer vegetable. It has a seed stalk about two feet high. The varieties are divided according to their seeds into round and prickly-seeded sorts. The latter have sharp, hard prickles on the seeds. This division is so pronounced that some botanists have treated these classes as distinct species. The prickly-seeded sorts are considered the hardiest, while among the round- seeded kinds are per- haps the most desirable varieties for table use, but this difference is not always very clear. Culture. The seed of spinach may be sown in hotbeds or cold frames very early in the spring or outdoors as soon as the ground can be worked. It is of the easiest culture. A supply may be had during the whole growing season by mak- ing a succession of sowings at intervals of about two weeks. Under good conditions it will be ready for table use six weeks from the time of sowing the seed. In planting it outdoors the rows should be about twelve inches apart. The seed should be covered about one inch deep, and about forty seeds or more sown to the foot of row. It is w^ell to use plenty of seed, and since it often starts poorly in dry weather extra precautious are taken when sowing it at that time. The plants may be thinned out when too thick, and, no matter how small, Fig. 112. Spinach. 204 VEGETABLE GARDENING. they are a g-ood vegetable. Spinach is often sown in the spring between early peas, cabbage, potatoes or other slow growing crops. For earliest spring use, seed of the hardiest, kinds should be sown in this section the latter part of August. The plants should grow well and attain a good size during- the cool weather of autumn, and on the approach of winter they should be covered with about two inches of straw, hay or similar material. When thus treated the crop generally comes through the winter in this section without injury and after making a little growth in the spring is marketable. It. is harvested by cutting the plants off at the top of the ground. For this purpose a short push hoe is run under the plants. They are then freed from dead leaves and ^fter being washed are ready for marketing. Spinach requires a very rich soil and plenty of well rotted manure. To secure the best results from early spring sowings, it will pay those raising it for mar- ket, to use nitrate of soda on the land in small quantities, say, two applications at the rate of seventy-five pounds per acre at intervals of two weeks after the crop has started. This ma- terial has a wonderful effect on early leaf crops. Whore nitrate of soda is not used, hen manure is very desirable. The effect of nitrate of soda in this crop is very marked and often results in more than doubling its size. Spinach gener- ally is very free from insects and fungous diseases. Varieties. There are a number of varieties of spinach dif- fering in earliness, hardiness and in the time they remain in edible condition, as well as in many minor matters. Among the best are the following: Long Standing. An excellent sort for spring and sum- mer sowing, since it stands longer than any other sort before going to seed. Prickly, or Winter. A prickly seeded variety that is very popular. It will Withstand very severe weather without seri- ous injury if lightly protected by hay or straw and is, prob- ably, the best sort for autumn planting in this section. Bloomsdale. a fine, hardy sort with long, curled leaves of excellent quality. Very hardy. TOMATO. [Li/coperskum esculentum.) Native of South America. — Perennial, but generally treated TOMATOES. 205 as an annual. — The tomato is a branching plant, generally with flexible stems that require support to grow erect. Its flowers are yellowish and g-^ow in clusters on the stem, oppo- site or nearly opposite leaves, not axillary; fruit, a true berry: seed kidney-shaped, flat, with a roughened surface. In many parts of this section, the tomato can be successfully grown as a market crop, and there is no place where it cannot l3e grown in sufficient quantities for home use. The cultiva- tion of this vegetable for canning purposes is already occu- pying the attention of farmers in a few localities in this section, and it is an industry that is destined to greatly increase in the future. It is one of the easiest and surest crops to grow, pro- viding one has good plants to start with. Growing the Plants. It is especially important to sow the seed before the first of April, and the middleof March isthought about the right time by most growers. The seed grows easily Taut needs considerable heat and rich soil to do its best. The plants should be "pricked"' out after they have their second leaves and be transplanted as often as they get crowded, so they may become stout and strong. Hotbeds may be used for this purpose or the seed started in greenhouses: it is also easily grown in window-boxes. If too close together, they grow weak and poor. It is very important that the plants should be well hardened oft" before they are set in the open ground. The land jDreferred for tomatoes is a rich, retentive sandy loam, but they will do fairly well on almost any well drained soil, and even if on rather poor soil will do better than most crops. A southern slope is preferable, but they will ripen al- most anywhere if properly managed. The tomato preemi- nently needs a warm place, and if rich manure is plowed into the soil it is beneficial, since by its fermentation it raises the temperature of the land. Transplanting and After-cultivation. The plants should be moved to the open ground as soon as all danger of severe frost is past, which will generally be about the twentieth of May in southern Minnesota and not until the first of June in more northern sections. They should be set about five feet apart each way and about six inches deep. If the stems of the plants when i)lanted out are very long, they should be partly buried 206 VEGETABLE GARDENING. under ground. They need thorouo-h cultivation, which can be best given by a horse cultivator. Pruning and Training. Tomato plants undei* field cultivation are generally allowed to run over the ground in any direction and are not trained: but even under this method of manage- ment it is a good plan to cut off a foot or more of the ends of all growing shoots about the middle of August, so that all the strength of the plant may go to ripen the fruit that is well formed and still green. Some growers advise pruning off" all but one main stem and „.._..,„, two or three laterals and training to a stake and* then pinching off all flower clusters after a few have set fruit. The result of this prac- tice here is still some- what doubtful. It is a good plan in a small garden to cover the land under the vines af- ter they set fruit with a little hay, so that the fruit may be kept from getting dirty in case they are not trained. This covering should not be heavy enough to keep the ground from Fig.113.— Tomato plant growing in a barrel and g'^^^i^^ plenty of sun- trained against side of building. light. Tomatoes in very Severe Locations. When there is danger of frost in August, a sufficient supply of tomatoes for family use may be grown on the south side of a house, wall or other protection, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. Where this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way is to grow a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the buildings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large as a coal oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink the barrel about one-third its depth in the TOAIATOES. 207 ground and pack the earth around it. Fill it about half full of fresh horse manure well tramped down and pour a bucket- ful of hot water on this manure. Then put on eight inches of good soil and then a mixture of well-rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quantities, until you reach within about twelve inches of the top of the barrel; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three plants in this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these shoots from each plant to stakes or , near-by building, but allow the other three .shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the barrel. Be careful to give plenty of water daily — a gallon each day will Fig. 114.— Varieties of tomatoes. 1.— Dwarf Champion. 2.~New Imperial. 3.— Thorburn. 4.— Virginia Corlver. .5.— Landreth"s 110 days. 6. — Landreths 9.5 days. 7.— Landreth"s 100 days. 8.— Landreth's 105 days. 9.— Landreth's 11.5 days. 10.— Waldorf. 11.— Landreth's 105 days 12.— Fordhook First. 13.— Early "Wilcox. 14.— Clover Crest Giant. be none to much. Three or four old barrels treated in this way and placed in sunny exposures will produce all the toma- toes needed by a family of four or five persons. Prolonging the Tomato Season. In autumn the tomato season may be prolonged by pulling the plants with the unripened fruit on them and hanging them in a shed, where they will continue to ripen fruit for some time. The larger tomatoes will ripen very well if picked off and kept in a shady place. Saving Tomato Seed. Tomato seed should be saved from 208 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the best tomatoes from vines producing the largest amount of good fruit. The tomatoes should be thrown into a barrel as fast as they ripen and be allowed to ferment until the seed separates readily from the pulp, when they should be put into water and thoroughly stirred. The skin and pulp being- lighter, the seed is readily separated from it. The seed should be dried at once by spreading it out thinly in a dry place. Varieties. There are many varieties of tomatoes adapted to general cultivation. Among the best of these are Acme and Dwarf Champion, which are early, smooth kinds having Fig. 115.— Tomato Rot. a pink skin. Of the red-skinned sorts Perfection and Beauty are very good. The earliest varieties are not always the best to grow for a general crop, as they are uneven and in- ferior to the varieties mentioned. However, in many unfav- orable locations, it may be best to grow them, as they do very well for home use. Of these the earliest is called Earliest of All, but there are several other very early kinds. Insects. The tomato is subject to few insect pests. It is sometimes attacked by the potato beetle when potato vines are not convenient for them. The remedy is Paris green and water, as recommended for the same insect when it attacks the potato. Tomato Rot. There are several diseases that attack the to- STRAWBERRY TOMATO. 209 mato when grown in g-reenhouses, but only that known as the "rot" is often seriously injurious to plants grown in the open field. This is a fung-ous disease. The g-erms of this fungus lodge in the end of the fruit when it is very small, probably often just as the flowers fall off. By their growth, they rot the end of the tomato and often cause much havoc. Remedies. The disease lives over winter in the ground where the rotten tomatoes have fallen. The diseased fruit should therefore be gathered and burned or buried a foot or more deep, where they will not be disturbed in the spring. Some varieties are much more liable to rot than others. The Dwarf Champion is perhaps less affected than many other kinds. Experiments in spraying the young fruit with Bor- deaux mixture, or a solution of sulphide of potassium at the rate of one-half ounce per gallon, are said to have given good results in some cases, but it is generally considered imprac- ticable to do this. They are less liable to rot when gro wing- on new land than on land that has been used for several years in tomatoes. GROUND CHERRY, or STRAWBERRY TOMATO. ( Phys- alis sj). ) Native of North and South Am- erica — Perennial. — There are several species of Physalis that produce edible fruit. Among those indigen- ous to northern United States is one quite common in old timber land in northern Minnesota and elsewhere. The fruit resembles a tomato but is about the size of a cherry and is en- closed in a calyx, which forms a husk around it. The seed is dark col- ored, flat and round. The fruit is used for preserves and sauces. Culture. It is of the easiest cul- ture and when once sown generally covers the ground in following years from self sown seed. The seed should be planted about the first of May, The plants spread about thirty inches. Fig. 116. — Ground Cherry or Strawberry Tomato. 210 VEGETABLE GARDENING. TURNIP {Brassica Ncqms.) and RUTABAGA, or SWEDISH TURNIP [Brassica campestris. ) Natives of Europe or Asia.^ — Biennials. — Cultivated for their swollen, fleshy roots. The varieties of turnip and ruta- baga vary much in form, size and color of the skin, and the flesh is white or yellow, pungent or slightly acid. There is more dilTerence in the varieties of the turnip than of the ruta- baga. The flower stalks are produced the second year and bear a large num- ber of yellow flow- ers. The seeds are smooth and round like the seed of the cab- bage and cauli- flower and in similar shaped pods. Turnip. The tur- nip is essentially a cool weather plant and does best when most of its growth is made during the autumn. It is grown to some extent in the spring, but there is very little call for it until cool weather. Culture. The turnip needs to be grown very rapidly to have the best quality. The best soil for it is a friable rich sandy loam free from fresh manure: sod land that has been recently broken up is excellent for this purpose, but on old land, i. e., that which has-been cultivated for several years, or where there is fresh manure, the roots are often wormy. When grown for early use some quick maturing kind should be planted as early in the spring as the soil can be worked, in rows fifteen inches apart. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the seedlings thinned out two or three inches apart after all danger from the flea beetle has passed. (This insect is the same as that which attacks the cabbage. ) Tur- nips grown for late use generally come in as a second crop after grain, strawberries, early potatoes, cabbage or other Fig. 117.— White strap leaved turnips. RUTABAGAS. 211 crop that is off the land by the first of August, since after this time a g'ood crop of many varieties of late turnips will mature before winter, though some of the larg-e kinds need to be sown earlier in the season. The seed is sometimes sown broadcast just before a shower or else it is harrowed in. It is also grown in rows about two feet apart and cultivated by a horse cultivator, or the rows may be put nearer to- gether and a hand cultivator used. Varieties. Some of the best varieties of turnips are: Early Flat andExtra Early Milan for early use, Red Top Strap Leaf and White Egg or White Globe for autumn use. Rutabagas are grown in the same manner as the common turnips but require about four weeks longer to attain edible size and, on this account, should be planted by the middle of .June or first of July. They ai-e generally grown in rows thirty inches apart and cultivated with a horse hoe. Rutabagas are sometimes grown in beds and transplanted. This is not done with tur- nips. The seed of both tur- nips and rutabagas is so smooth and fine that it is generally sown too thick. Mixing the seed with flour is a good way to prevent its running too rapidly through the seed sower. The crop should be allowed to stay in the ground until the approach of severe cold weather. They will stand some little freezing without injury, but will not live in the land over winter. They should be stored in frost proof pit or cellars. In dry cellars they should be covered with a few inches of sand or other material to prevent wilting. ( See directions for keeping carrots. ) Varieties. Improved Purple Top Swede, and White Rock, are both excellent varieties of rutabagas. Fig. 118.— Rutabagas. MONTHLY CALENDAR. Under this head some of the principal operations of the year in the more northern states are referred to, but these can be reg-arded only as sug-g-estive, since individual conditions as well as the weather vary from year to year. The point should be borne in mind that it is of the utmost importance, and for the greatest profit, to have all garden work done at the proper time; and to do this considerable planning- and studying- will be necessary in laying- out eaeh day's work, as well as the work of the season, so as to make the most of the opportunities offered by weather and season. January. The outdoor work is g-enerally quite at a stand- still this month, except that manure may be drawn from the stable to the fields needing it, where it may be piled and forked over. Plan out the work of the season, aiming to have the ground and the time of your help occupied all the time. In doing this it is generally best to plan to raise those crops that will not require a large amount of work at the same season, but rather those that will give a succession of work. Market any celery, squash or other vegetables for which there is a demand. Send for seed catalogues of leading dealers. Decide what you are going to want. Test the quality of the seeds you have on hand and get your new stock of seed early. February. The work of this month differs but little from that of January, but, in addition, the following may be men- tioned: During the latter part of the month prepare manure for early hotbeds to be started the first of March. Inspect tools, wagons, harnesses, boxes and crates for marketing and hotbed sash, and get them into shape for the busy season. In the greenhouse, cabbage and cauliflower plants may be started: and as soon as of transplanting size they MONTHLY CALENDAR 113 should be removed to cold frames, where they should remaia until the ground is ready for planting out. March. Make up hotbeds and sow in them tomatoes, pep- pers, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, cress, onions for transplant- ing, carrots, beets, celery, etc. In the latter part of the month cold frames may be used for the hardy vegetables. If the ground is fit to work, onion sets may be planted and spinach, hardy peas, and other plants which are generally not sown until April may be sown at this time. Harden off the early cabbage and cauliflower plants. April. The hotbeds and cold frames should be in constant use. Plantations of asparagus and rhubarb may be made during this and the following month. Sow hardy ( smooth) peas, lettuce, celery, radishes, cab- bage, cauliflower, turnips, onions and spinach, and plant early potatoes as soon as the land is fit to be worked. By the end of the month, wrinkled peas, salsify and parsnips may be sown. See that tomatoes sown last month are transplanted into beds or boxes so as to have plenty of room. Transplant cabbage plants for the early crop, putting them in deep enough to completely cover the stems. In the latter part of the month, all the early planted crops may need cultivating and some of them thinning, though but little of this is generally necessary until May. Radishes, let- tuce, spinach and onions from sets sown in hotbeds in March should be fit to ea,t or to market. Haul out manure and plow land for planting next month. Transplant onion plants from the hotbeds to open ground. May is the month when the larger part of the vegetables are planted. By the middle of the month it is often safe to plant the more, tender vegetables, such as cucumbers, squash, melons and beans, in the open ground although nothing is gained by so doing if the ground is cold, when it would be better to wait until ten days later. Corn is frequently planted by the middle of the month, and in early seasons it is a good plan to ven- ture a little of some very early kind during the first week of May. Plant potatoes for general crops. 214 VEGETABLE GARDENING. All the early ])lanted erops need cultivating- fi-equently, and those in drills need to be thinned. Planting-s for sueeession may be made of all vegetable seeds and sets put in last month. Sow eabbajj-e for winter use. Lettuce, radishes, beets, spinach, aspara^-us, rhubarb and bunch onions should now be larj^-e enouj2:h for use. Harden otl" tomato ])lants and set them out the tirst })art of next month. June. Set out tomatoes, celery for early use, peppers, eo-o- plant, late cabbage and cauliflower plants and sow winter beets. Plant cucumbers for pickles and beans for main crop. Plant Lima beans the early part of the month. Market the same vegetables as last month and in addition, early peas and. pei-haps, early cabba^je. Weeding' commences in earnest this month and should begin early, since if neg-lected it may be cheaper to plow up the whole crop rather than weed it out. Keep the soil well stirred with the cultivator. Sow rutabag-a turnips. Stop cutting' asparagus by the twentieth of the month. Clean up the bed. manure and plow it. July. Plant celery for main and late crop. Sow string- beans, winter radish and rutabaga turnips. Early potatoes, string beans, cabbage, summer squashes, cucumbers, green corn, onions from sets and cauliflowers are now of edible size in addition to those veg'etables nearing maturity last month. Continued cultivation is necessary to protect from drouth and to keep plants growing. August. Sow string beans and flat early turnips, spinach for spring- use, winter radishes and early peas. The late crops are now maturing, and we have tomatoes, squashes, the better kinds of sweet corn and egg-plant, on- ions from early sown seed and those transplanted are now dry MONTHLY CALENDAR. 215 and marketable. Lima beans will be ready for use the latter part of the month. Keep weeds from g'oino- to seed. Sow lettuce for growing- in hotbeds or cold frames for Thanksgiving. September. The cool nights of this month are especially favorable to such crops as celery, cabbage and cauliflower, and they should be carefully cultivated. Melons, winter squash, and celery are now marketable. Handle celery: i. e., partially earth up around it. First frosts may now be expected by the fifteenth of the month, and the half-ripened tomatoes should be picked and allowed to ripen in some shady place. Dig potatoes. Transplant lettuce to hotbeds or cold frames. Plant out hardy perennial onions for bunching in the early spring. October. Winter celery should be banked up to protect it from severe frosts, and on severe nights it should be covered with straw or hay for protection. It should all be stored away by the end of the month unless plenty of protection is provided in the shape of straw, in which case it is safe to leave it out until the 10th of November. Such crops will not stand with immunity as much frost in the western states as in the eastern states. Pull and store cabbages, dig beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify and potatoes and store in pits or put at once into the cellar. Some parsnips and salsify may be left on high land to be dug in the spring. Plant out rhubarb roots. Attend to fall plowing and leave in ridges any very heavy land that is needed for early spring use. November. In the more northern states this month gener- ally closes up the work of the season. All the crops should be gathered in the early part of the month. Clean up the garden, frames and hotbeds and get them ready for spring work. The lettuce sown in August and transplanted to hotbeds or cold frames should be fit to market this month. Market all the vesretables on hand that will bring a fair 216 VEGETABLE GARDENING. price, unless wanted for some special purpose or at an as- sured price. Cover winter spinach and hardy onion sets with hay as soon as the ground begins to freeze hard at night, to prevent freezing and thawing. December. Clean up the garden and continue the market- ing of vegetables if it is not already attended to. Carefully study the season's work, note the profits or losses on the last crop, and what has been learned that will be useful another year. At Odd Times the following may be attended to: — Gather manure, make crates and boxes for marketing fruits, vegetables and plants, repair tools, wagons, harnesses, sashes, hotbeds and cold frames. Clean up! TABLES. 21T WEIGHT OF ONE QUART OF SEEDS AND NUMBER OF SEEDS IN ONE OUNCE. KIND OF SEED Weight of a Quart of Seed in Ounces. Number of Seeds in One Ounce. Asparagus, Balm, Basil, Bean, Beet Borecole, or Kale, Bro scoli Cabbage Caraway, Carrot, with spines " without spines, Catmint Cauliflower, , Celerv Chicory, Cress, American, " common garden, '* w^ater, Cucumber, common " prickly fruited gherkin Dandelion, Dill Egg Plant, Endive K ohlrabi , Leek Lettuce, Maize, or Indian Corn, Marjoram, sweet, winter, Martynia Muskmelon, Okra Onion, Pea, " gray or field, Parsnip, Pepper Pumpkin, Radish Rampion, Rhubarb, Sage Salsify Savory, summer " winter Spinach, prickly-seeded " round-seeded " New Zealand Squash, Hubbard Bush Scalloped Strawberry Tomato Thyme Tomato Turnip Watermelon 1,400 56,600 22,665 200 to 225 1,400 8,500 10,525 8,500 9,915 19,835 26,915 3.400 10.525 70,835 19,830 16,915 12.715 113,335 1,103 3,680 34,000 to 42,500' 25.500 6,520 18,000 8,500 11,335 22,665 113 to 140 113,355 340.000 565 1,560 425 to 510 7,080 56 to 142 142 to 225 6,605 4,205 85 700,835 3,400 1,415 7,080 2,835 42,500 70,835 2,550 3,135 280 to 340 93 280 28,335 170,000 8,500 to 11,335 12,715 113 to 150 218 VEGETABLE GARDENING. LONGEVITY OF GARDEN SEED. (WHEN PROPERLY STORED.) KIND OF SEED. Average Years. KIND OF SEED. Average Years. Balm , Basil Bean Beet Borecole Cabbage Caraway Carrot Catmint Cauliflower Celery Chicory Cress, American " Common Garden.. Water Cucumber common " Pricklj'-fruited Gherkin Dandelion Dill Egg-Plant Endive , Kohlrabi Leek Lettnce, common Maize, or Indian Corn..., Marjoram, Sweet Winter 3 6 5 5 3 4 or 5 6 5 8 8 3 5 5 10 3 6 10 5 3 5 2 3 5 Martynia Muskmelon Mustard, white or salad Okra Onion Parsnip Parsley Pea. Garden or field Pepper Pumpkin Radish Rampion Rhubarb Rosemary Rue Sage Salsify Savory, summer or wint'r Spinach, all kinds, Squash, Hubbard " Bush scalloped.. Strawbery Tomato Thyme Tomato Turnip Watermelon 1 or 2 5 4 5 2 2 3 3 4 4 or 5 5 5 3 4 2 3 2 3 5 6 6 8 3 4 5 6 TABLES. 219 AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED TO SOW AN ACRE. KIND OF SEED METHOD OF SOWING Amt. per Acre Asparagrus, 1 oz. for 50 ft. In drills of drill, or 4 to 5 lbs. IVsbus. 10 to 12 qts. 5 to 6 lbs Pole, Beet, .. 11 Cabbage In beds to tra In drills nsplant 14 lb. 2 to 4 lbs. Carrot 1 oz. for 1000 1 oz. for 2000 In hills Celery, plants Corn, 8 to 10 qts. Cucumber, Cress, water or upland, Egg-Plant In drills 2 to 3 lbs 1 oz. for 1000 In drills plants Kale, or Sprouts ... 3 to 4 lbs 1 oz. for 1000 In hills .. I^Iuskmelon, 2 to 3 lbs. Melon, Water In hills 4 to 5 lbs. Onion, In drills 5 to 6 lbs. In drills 30 lbs. " , sets 6 to 12 bus. Parsnip (< 4 to 6 lbs 8 to 10 lbs. Spinach, tt 10 to 12 qts. 4 to 6 lbs. In hills Running, Tomato, 3 to 4 lbs. To transplant In drills 14 lb. 1 to 2 lbs. Turnip, Broadcast 3 to 4 lbs AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEEDS TO GERMINATE. (UNDER GOOD CONDITIONS.) KIND OF SEED. No. Days. KIND OF SEED. No. Days. Bean, 5 to 10 7 to 10 5 to 10 12 to 18 5 to 10 10 to 20 5 to 8 6 to 10 5 to 10 Lettuce 6 to S Beet 7 to 10 Cabbage, Pea, 6 to 10 Carrot Parsnip, Pepper, 10 to 20 Cauliflow'er, 9 to 14 Celery, Radish Salsify 3 to 6 Corn, 7 to 12 Cucumber, Tomato, 6 to 12 Endive , 4 to 8 220 VEGETABLE GARDENING. VITALITY OF GOOD MERCHANTABLE SEED. THE RHODE ISLAND EXPERIMENT STATION SUGGESTS THE FOLLOWING AS LABORATORY STANDARDS FOR SEEDS, KIND OF SEED.. Per Cent of Vi- tality. Beet, (in 100 pods) Cabbage, Carrot Celery, Cucumber,. Egg-Plant Lettuce, Onion, Parsnip, Pepper, Radish, Tomato, Turnip, 133 89 59 32 86 60 77 85 77 76 95 80 94 INDEX, Page. Acre incli of water 8 Anise 148 Ash. per cent in vegetables 14 Asparagus 99 bunching 103 cultivation 101 cutting 102 forcing 104 manuring 103 planting. 101 propagation 99 varieties 104 Balm 148 Beans 104 bush 105 diseases 108 harvesting 196 insects 108 pole , 107 transplanting 107 preserving in salt 108 varieties 106 Beet 108 diseases HI forcing 110 harvesting 110 storing 110 Swiss chard 112 Borecole 151 Boxes for transplanting 77 Brussels sprouts 112 Cabbage 113 diseases 121 hardening off plants 115 harvesting. 116-118 hill sowing 118 insects 121 manure for 114 pitting 120 retarding heading of 116 sauer kraut 122 Cabbage— Page. seed raising 119 seed sowing 117 setting plants 115 soil 113-116 varieties 121 Calendar, monthly 212 Caraway 148 Carbon bisulphide 83 Carrot 123 cultivation 129 forcing 125 gathering 124 storing 125 varieties .'. 125 CauUflower 126 varie-ties '....128 Celariac ; 137 Celery 128 bleaching with boards 132 bleaching with earth 132 bleaching, time required for 155 digging 134 diseases 135 handling 132 marketing 137 onions with 131 planting 130 storing 134 varieties 139 Citron melon 159 Cold frames (see greenhouses),.. 61 Commercial fertilizers 15 Compost heap 19 Corn 137 classes of 137 cultivation 138 cutting off tassels 141 diseases 141 marketing 139 pop 140 preserving 140 222 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Corn— Page. varieties 139 Cress 14- water 142 Cucumber 142 cultivation 143 insects 145 salting 144 starting in cold frames 144 varieties 145 Cultivation, general 30 Dandelion ' 146 Dill 148 Diseases— anthracnose of bean 108 beet scab Ill blight or rust of celery 136 leaf blight of celery 186 potato blight 191 scab 189 club root of cabbage 121 smut of corn 141 lettuce mildew 156 Eggplant 146 Endive 147 Germinating apparatus 94 Greenhouse hotbed 67 Greenhouses . boxes glass glazing heating lean-to mats 70 ... 79 ... 73 .69-71 ... 74 miscellaneous notes on 79 radiating surface 73 sash 79 shading 78 shutters 65-74 soil 77 substitutes for glass 78 temperature... 75 ventilation 75 watering 76 Ground cherry 209 Herbs 148 Horseradish 150 Hot beds (see also greenhouses) 63 Implements....;. 32 Breeds wefetffer 36 Insects— Page, combined drills and cultivators. 34- dibbers 34 hand 33. horse 33 marker sq. plank drag 36- potato diggers 36' hoe 35 seed drills 33 spray pumps 36 Insecticides 81 application of 86 carbon bisulphide 83 kerosene emulsion 8S London pui^ple 82 Paris green 82 pyrethrum 81 tobacco 82 Insects ,. 81 aphis 95 cabbage aphis 95 bean weevil 97 cabbage flea beetle 94 flosia 88 worms 86 catching 84 celery caterpillar... 96 chinch bug 96 cucumber beetle 90 cut worms 89 moth or corn worm 96 leaf hce 95 maggots 93 may beetle 92 parsley worm 9S potato beetle 85 pea weevil 97 squash bug.... 98 squash vine borer 97 tassel worm 96 white grub 92 wire worms 89 Irrigation 7 acre inch of water 8 amount of water needed 7-8 application of water 9 rules for 9 cultivation as an aid to 7 humus, an aid to 8 • ■» .s INDEX. 223 Irrigation— Page. mulching 7 pumping water for 8 reservoirs 9 storage capacity for 8 sub-irrigation 10 temperature of water 10 Kale 151 Kitchen garden 49 Kohl-rabi 151 varieties 152 Leeks 152 cultivation 152 varieties '. 153 Lettuce 153 cultivation 153 diseases 156 varieties 155 Lima beans 106 London purple 82 Manure pile 18 Manures 12 action of .' 12 animal 16.24 appUcation of 24 commercial 19 —composition of 15 —ground blood 20 — ground bones 20 — kainite 22 — land plaster 22 — lime 22 —nitrate of soda 20 —salt 20 —sulphate of ammonia 22 —superphosphates 22 —tankage 19 —wood ashes 22 composition of farm 14 compost heap 19 cow 17 for early crops 24 • late •• 24 ■ leguminous crops 24 hen ir horse 17 humus 12 liquid 25 mixing 18 sheep 18 Manures— Page. swine 17 use of fresh 24 Manuring growing crops 25 Martynia 156 Melon, musk 156 culture 157 varieties 158 Melon, preserving 159 Melon water 158 culture 158 varieties 158 Mixing varieties 60 Monthly calendar 212 Mulching 7 Mushrooms 159 culture 160 native species of 160 Novelties 55 Okra 173 varieties 174 Onions 162 cultivation 165 land for 163 marketing 171 onion sets 167 perennial 172 potato 172 scaUions 166 seed 173 sowing seed 164 storing 167 transplanting 169 varieties 172 Oyster plant 198 Parsley 175 culture 176 varieties. 176 Parsnip 174 culture 174 varieties .. 175 Paris green 82 Peas 176 culture 177 insects 97 varieties 178 Peppers culture..., varieties. Peppermint :si^. .179 .180 .180 .150 »■ % 224 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Page. Pieplant 195 Plowing 28 subsoU 28 PoUenizing flowers 59 Potatoes 180 cutting seed 182 demand for 187 digging 185 diseases 189 early planting 183 insects 189 main crop 184 manuring 182 origin 181 pitting 185 propagation, notes on 188 "running out" of 183 sets or 'seeds ■ 182 soil 182 starch 187 variedes 187 Pumpkins 193 Radishes 193 culture 194 varieties 19,t Rhubarb 194 culture 194 propagation 194 JRidging land 30 Rotating crops 7 Rotation of crops 11 reasons for 11 Rutabagas 211 Sage 150 Salsify 198 culture 198 Sauer kraut 122 -Seed 52 changing '.'.'.',,[ 54 curing 54 germinating apparatus for 53 stock 55 storing ." 54 testing 52 vitality of 218 Seed sowing 39 depth ■ 39 time 40 firming by feet 42 Seedsmens humbugs 55 specialties 55 Seed tables 218-219-220 amount for acre 219 longevity 218 Seed tables— Page number of seeds in an ounce 217 time to germinate 219 weight of seeds 217 Soils 5 for early crops 6 '• late crops 6 elements necessary 7 elements lackingin 7 Spinach 203 culture 203 varieties 204 Squash 199 cultivation 200 harvesting 200 poUenizing. flowers 199 storing....*. 201 varieties 201-202 Summer savory 148 Strawberry tomato 209 culture 209 Subsoiling 28 Sweet basil 148 Sweet marjoram 149 Sweet potato 192 Swiss chard 112 Thinning plants 43 Tillage, garden 26 general 30 Tomato .....204 cultivation 205 diseases 208 improvement 55 insects 208 propagation 205 pruning 206 saving seed 206 in severe locations 206 training 206 transplanting 205 varieties 208 Transplanting 44 with tomato cans 47 Turnip 210 culture 210 rutabaga 211 varieties 211 Varieties, development of 55 Vitality of seeds ...220 Vegetables, compo.sition of 11 Weeds 26 cultivation to kill 26 kilUng of 24 seeds in manure 27 Weights of seeds 217